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diff --git a/39127-8.txt b/39127-8.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..b32e76f --- /dev/null +++ b/39127-8.txt @@ -0,0 +1,17947 @@ +The Project Gutenberg EBook of Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th Edition, +Volume 13, Slice 6, by Various + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with +almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + +Title: Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th Edition, Volume 13, Slice 6 + "Home, Daniel" to "Hortensius, Quintus" + +Author: Various + +Release Date: March 13, 2012 [EBook #39127] + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1 + +*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ENCYC. BRITANNICA, VOL 13 SLICE 6 *** + + + + +Produced by Marius Masi, Don Kretz and the Online +Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net + + + + + + + +Transcriber's notes: + +(1) Numbers following letters (without space) like C2 were originally + printed in subscript. Letter subscripts are preceded by an + underscore, like C_n. + +(2) Characters following a carat (^) were printed in superscript. + +(3) Side-notes were relocated to function as titles of their respective + paragraphs. + +(4) Macrons and breves above letters and dots below letters were not + inserted. + +(5) [root] stands for the root symbol; [alpha], [beta], etc. for greek + letters. + +(6) The following typographical errors have been corrected: + + ARTICLE HOMER: "... he cannot attribute to the original poet of the + lay (Betrachtungen, p. 15, ed. 1865)." 'cannot' amended from + 'cannnot'. + + ARTICLE HONDURAS: "This instrument gives the legislative power to a + congress of deputies elected for four years by popular vote, in the + ratio of one member for every 10,000 inhabitants." 'inhabitants' + amended from 'imhabitants'. + + ARTICLE HORACE: "... and a practice originating in the wants and + convenience of friends temporarily separated from one another by + the public service was ultimately cultivated as a literary + accomplishment." 'convenience' amended from 'covenience'. + + ARTICLE HORACE: "At that time he had outlived the coarser pleasures + and risen above the harassing cares of his earlier career ..." + 'above' amended from 'bove'. + + ARTICLE HORN: "Historisch-biographisches Lexicon der Tonkünstler + (Leipzig, 1790-1792 and 1812-1814)." 'Tonkünstler' amended from + 'Tonkünslter'. + + ARTICLE HORNBY, SIR GEOFFREY THOMAS PHIPPS: "It was early in 1877 + that he went out as commander-in-chief in the Mediterranean, where + his skill in man[oe]uvring the fleet ..." 'Mediterranean' amended + from 'Mediterraean'. + + + + + ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA + + A DICTIONARY OF ARTS, SCIENCES, LITERATURE + AND GENERAL INFORMATION + + ELEVENTH EDITION + + + VOLUME XIII, SLICE VI + + Home, Daniel to Hortensius, Quintus + + + + +ARTICLES IN THIS SLICE: + + + HOME, DANIEL DUNGLAS HOPKINS, ESEK + HOME, JOHN HOPKINS, MARK + HOMEL HOPKINS, SAMUEL + HOME OFFICE HOPKINS, WILLIAM + HOMER HOPKINSON, FRANCIS + HOMER, WINSLOW HOPKINSON, JOHN + HOMESTEAD HOPKINSVILLE + HOMESTEAD AND EXEMPTION LAWS HOPPNER, JOHN + HOMEYER, KARL GUSTAV HOP-SCOTCH + HOMICIDE HOPTON, RALPH HOPTON + HOMILETICS HOR, MOUNT + HOMILY HORACE + HOMOEOPATHY HORAE + HOMONYM HORAPOLLON + HOMS HORATII and CURIATII + HO-NAN HORATIUS COCLES + HONAVAR HORDE + HONDA HOREB + HONDECOETER, MELCHIOR D' HOREHOUND + HONDURAS HORGEN + HONE, NATHANIEL HORIZON + HONE, WILLIAM HORMAYR, JOSEPH + HONE HORMISDAS + HONEY HORMIZD + HONEYCOMB HORMUZ + HONEY-EATER HORN, ARVID BERNHARD + HONEY-GUIDE HORN, PHILIP DE MONTMORENCY + HONEY LOCUST HORN (English hero) + HONEYMOON HORN (of animals) + HONEYSUCKLE HORN (wind instrument) + HONFLEUR HORNBEAM + HONG-KONG HORNBILL + HONITON HORNBLENDE + HONNEF HORN-BOOK + HONOLULU HORNBY, SIR GEOFFREY THOMAS PHIPPS + HONORIUS HORNCASTLE + HONORIUS, FLAVIUS HORN DANCE + HONOUR HORNE, GEORGE + HONOURABLE HORNE, RICHARD HENRY, or HENGIST + HONTHEIM, JOHANN NIKOLAUS VON HORNE, THOMAS HARTWELL + HONTHORST, GERARD VAN HORNELL + HOOCH, PIETER DE HORNEMANN, FREDERICK + HOOD, JOHN BELL HORNER, FRANCIS + HOOD, SAMUEL HOOD HORNER, LEONARD + HOOD, SIR SAMUEL HÖRNES, MORITZ + HOOD, THOMAS HORNFELS + HOOD, TOM HORNING, LETTERS OF + HOOD OF AVALON, ARTHUR HOOD HORNPIPE + HOOD HORNSEY + HOOFT, PIETER CORNELISSEN HOROWITZ, ISAIAH + HOOGSTRATEN, SAMUEL DIRKSZ VAN HORREUM + HOOK, JAMES CLARKE HORROCKS, JEREMIAH + HOOK, THEODORE EDWARD HORROCKS, JOHN + HOOK, WALTER FARQUHAR HORSE + HOOKAH HORSE LATITUDES + HOOKE, ROBERT HORSE-MACKEREL + HOOKER, JOSEPH HORSEMANSHIP + HOOKER, SIR JOSEPH DALTON HORSENS + HOOKER, RICHARD HORSE-POWER + HOOKER, THOMAS HORSE-RACING + HOOKER, SIR WILLIAM JACKSON HORSERADISH + HOOLE, JOHN HORSE-SHOES + HOOLIGAN HORSETAIL + HOOPER, JOHN HORSHAM + HOOPOE HORSLEY, JOHN + HOORN HORSLEY, JOHN CALLCOTT + HOOSICK FALLS HORSLEY, SAMUEL + HOP HORSLEY, WILLIAM + HOPE, ANTHONY HORSMAN, EDWARD + HOPE, THOMAS HORST + HOPEDALE HORT, FENTON JOHN ANTHONY + HOPE-SCOTT, JAMES ROBERT HORTA + HOPFEN, HANS VON HORTEN + HOPI HORTENSIUS, QUINTUS (Roman orator) + HÖPKEN, ANDERS JOHAN HORTENSIUS, QUINTUS (dictator of Rome) + HOPKINS, EDWARD WASHBURN + + + + +HOME, DANIEL DUNGLAS (1833-1886), Scottish spiritualist, was born near +Edinburgh on the 20th of March 1833, his father being said to be a +natural son of the 10th earl of Home, and his mother a member of a +family credited with second sight. He went with his mother to America, +and on her death was adopted by an aunt. In the United States he came +out as a spiritualistic medium, though, it should be noted, he never +sought to make money out of his exhibitions. In 1855 he came to England +and gave numerous séances, which were attended by many well-known +people. Robert Browning, the poet, went to one of these, but without +altering his contempt for spiritualism, and he subsequently gave his +impression of Home in the unflattering poem of "Sludge the Medium" +(1864); Home, nevertheless, had many disciples, and gave séances at +several European courts. He became a Roman Catholic, but was expelled +from Rome as a sorcerer. In 1866 Mrs Lyon, a wealthy widow, adopted him +as her son, and settled £60,000 upon him. Repenting, however, of her +action, she brought a suit for the return of her money, on the ground +that it had been obtained by "spiritual" influence. It was held that the +burden of establishing the validity of the gift lay on Home, and as he +failed to do so the case was decided against him. He continued, however, +to give séances, mostly on the Continent, and in 1871 appeared before +the tsar of Russia and two Russian scientists, who attested the +phenomena evoked. Returning to England he submitted to a series of +experiments designed to test his pretensions before Professor +(subsequently Sir William) Crookes, which the latter declared to be +thoroughly genuine; and Professor von Boutlerow, of the Russian Academy +of Science, after witnessing a similar series of experiments, expressed +the same opinion. Home published two volumes of _Incidents of my Life +and Lights and Shadows of Spiritualism_. He married successively two +well-connected Russian ladies. He died at Auteuil, France, on the 21st +of June 1886. + + + + +HOME, JOHN (1722-1808), Scottish dramatic poet, was born on the 22nd of +September 1722 at Leith, where his father, Alexander Home, who was +distantly related to the earls of Home, filled the office of town-clerk. +He was educated at the grammar school of his native town, and at the +university of Edinburgh, where he graduated M.A. in 1742. Though he +showed a fondness for the profession of arms, he studied divinity, and +was licensed by the presbytery of Edinburgh in 1745. In the same year he +joined as a volunteer against the Pretender, and was taken prisoner at +the battle of Falkirk (1746). With many others he was carried to the +castle of Doune in Perthshire, but soon effected his escape. In July +1746 Home was presented to the parish of Athelstaneford, +Haddingtonshire, vacant by the death of Robert Blair, the author of _The +Grave_. He had leisure to visit his friends and became especially +intimate with David Hume who belonged to the same family as himself. His +first play, _Agis: a tragedy_, founded on Plutarch's narrative, was +finished in 1747. He took it to London and submitted it to Garrick for +representation at Drury Lane, but it was rejected as unsuitable for the +stage. The tragedy of _Douglas_ was suggested to him by hearing a lady +sing the ballad of _Gil Morrice_ or _Child Maurice_ (F. J. Child, +_Popular Ballads_, ii. 263). The ballad supplied him with the outline of +a simple and striking plot. After five years' labour he completed his +play, which he took to London for Garrick's opinion. It also was +rejected, but on his return to Edinburgh his friends resolved that it +should be brought out in that city. It was produced on the 14th of +December 1756 with overwhelming success, in spite of the opposition of +the presbytery, who summoned Alexander Carlyle to answer for having +attended its representation. Home wisely resigned his charge in 1757, +after a visit to London, where _Douglas_ was brought out at Covent +Garden on the 14th of March. Peg Woffington played Lady Randolph, a part +which found a later exponent in Mrs Siddons. David Hume summed up his +admiration for _Douglas_ by saying that his friend possessed "the true +theatric genius of Shakespeare and Otway, refined from the unhappy +barbarism of the one and licentiousness of the other." Gray, writing to +Horace Walpole (August, 1757), said that the author "seemed to have +retrieved the true language of the stage, which has been lost for these +hundred years," but Samuel Johnson held aloof from the general +enthusiasm, and averred that there were not ten good lines in the whole +play (Boswell, _Life_, ed. Croker, 1848, p. 390). In 1758 Home became +private secretary to Lord Bute, then secretary of state, and was +appointed tutor to the prince of Wales; and in 1760 his patron's +influence procured him a pension of £300 per annum and in 1763 a +sinecure worth another £300. Garrick produced _Agis_ at Drury Lane on +the 21st of February 1758. By dint of good acting and powerful support, +according to Genest (_Short Account_ &c., iv. 513 seq.), the piece kept +the stage for eleven days, but it was lamentably inferior to _Douglas_. +In 1760 his tragedy, _The Siege of Aquileia_, was put on the stage, +Garrick taking the part of Aemilius. In 1769 his tragedy of _The Fatal +Discovery_ had a run of nine nights; _Alonzo_ also (1773) had fair +success in the representation; but his last tragedy, _Alfred_ (1778), +was so coolly received that he gave up writing for the stage. In 1778 he +joined a regiment formed by the duke of Buccleuch. He sustained severe +injuries in a fall from horseback which permanently affected his brain, +and was persuaded by his friends to retire. From 1767 he resided either +at Edinburgh or at a villa which he built at Kilduff near his former +parish. It was at this time that he wrote his _History of the Rebellion +of 1745_, which appeared in 1802. Home died at Merchiston Bank, near +Edinburgh, on the 5th of September 1808, in his eighty-sixth year. + + _The Works of John Home_ were collected and published by Henry + Mackenzie in 1822 with "An Account of the Life and Writings of Mr John + Home," which also appeared separately in the same year, but several of + his smaller poems seem to have escaped the editor's observation. These + are--"The Fate of Caesar," "Verses upon Inveraray," "Epistle to the + Earl of Eglintoun," "Prologue on the Birthday of the Prince of Wales, + 1759" and several "Epigrams," which are printed in vol. ii. of + _Original Poems by Scottish Gentlemen_ (1762). See also Sir W. Scott, + "The Life and Works of John Home" in the _Quarterly Review_ (June, + 1827). _Douglas_ is included in numerous collections of British drama. + Voltaire published his _Le Caffé, ou l'Écossaise_ (1760), _Londres_ + (really Geneva), as a translation from the work of Mr Hume, described + as _pasteur de l'église d'Édimbourg_, but Home seems to have taken no + notice of the mystification. + + + + +HOMEL, or GOMEL, a town of Russia, in the government of Mogilev, and 132 +m. by rail S.S.E. of the town of Mogilev, on the Sozh, a tributary of +the Dnieper. Pop. (1900) 45,081, nearly half of whom are Jews. It is an +important junction of the railways from Vilna to Odessa and from Orel to +Poland, and is in steamer communication with Kiev and Mogilev. In front +of Prince Paskevich's castle stands an equestrian statue of the Polish +general Joseph Poniatowski, and in the cathedral is the tomb of the +chancellor Nikolai Petrovich Rumantsev, by Canova. The town carries on a +brisk trade in hops, corn and timber; there are also paper-pulp mills +and oil factories. Homel was founded in the 12th century, and after +changing hands several times between Poles and Russians was annexed to +Russia in 1772. In 1648 it suffered at the hands of the Cossack +chieftain Bogdan Chmielnicki. + + + + +HOME OFFICE, a principal government department in the United Kingdom, +the creation of which dates from 1782, when the conduct of foreign +affairs, which had previously been divided between the northern and +southern secretaries, was handed over to the northern department (see +FOREIGN OFFICE). The home department retained control of Irish and +colonial affairs, and of war business until 1794, when an additional +secretary of state was re-appointed. In 1801 the colonial business was +transferred from the home department, which now attends only to domestic +affairs. The head of the department, the principal secretary of state +for home affairs, or home secretary, is a member of the government for +the time being, and of the cabinet, receiving a salary of £5000 a year. +He is the proper medium of communication between the sovereign and the +subject, and receives petitions addressed to the crown. He is +responsible for the maintenance of the king's peace and attends to the +administration of criminal justice, police and prisons, and through him +the sovereign exercises his prerogative of mercy. Within his department +is the supervision of lunatic asylums, reformatories and industrial +schools, and it is his duty to see after the internal well-being of the +country, to enforce the rules made for the health or safety of the +community generally, and especially of those classes employed in special +trades or dangerous occupations. He is assisted by a permanent +under-secretary, a parliamentary secretary and several assistant +under-secretaries. + + See Anson, _Law and Custom of the Constitution_. (1907). + + + + +HOMER[1] ([Greek: Homêros]), the great epic poet of Greece. Many of the +works once attributed to him are lost; those which remain are the two +great epics, the _Iliad_ and the _Odyssey_, thirty-three _Hymns_, a mock +epic (the _Battle of the Frogs and Mice_), and some pieces of a few +lines each (the so-called _Epigrams_). + +_Ancient Accounts of Homer._--Of the date of Homer probably no record, +real or pretended, ever existed. Herodotus (ii. 53) maintains that +Hesiod and Homer lived not more than 400 years before his own time, +consequently not much before 850 B.C. From the controversial tone in +which he expresses himself it is evident that others had made Homer more +ancient; and accordingly the dates given by later authorities, though +very various, generally fall within the 10th and 11th centuries B.C. But +none of these statements has any claim to the character of external +evidence. + +The extant lives of Homer (edited in Westermann's _Vitarum Scriptores +Graeci minores_) are eight in number, including the piece called the +_Contest of Hesiod and Homer_. The longest is written in the Ionic +dialect, and bears the name of Herodotus, but is certainly spurious. In +all probability it belongs to the time which was fruitful beyond all +others in literary forgeries, viz. the 2nd century of our era.[2] The +other lives are certainly not more ancient. Their chief value consists +in the curious short poems or fragments of verse which they have +preserved--the so-called _Epigrams_, which used to be printed at the end +of editions of Homer. These are easily recognized as "Popular Rhymes," a +form of folk-lore to be met with in most countries, treasured by the +people as a kind of proverbs.[3] In the Homeric _epigrams_ the interest +turns sometimes on the characteristics of particular localities--Smyrna +and Cyme (_Epigr._ iv.), Erythrae (_Epigr._ vi., vii.), Mt Ida (_Epigr._ +x.). Neon Teichos (_Epigr._ i.); others relate to certain trades or +occupations--potters (Epigr. xiv.), sailors, fishermen, goat herds, &c. +Some may be fragments of longer poems, but evidently they are not the +work of any one poet. The fact that they were all ascribed to Homer +merely means that they belong to a period in the history of the Ionian +and Aeolian colonies when "Homer" was a name which drew to itself all +ancient and popular verse. + +Again, comparing the "epigrams" with the legends and anecdotes told in +the Lives of Homer, we can hardly doubt that they were the chief source +from which these Lives were derived. Thus in Epigr. iv. we find a blind +poet, a native of Aeolian Smyrna, through which flows the water of the +sacred Meles. Here is doubtless the source of the chief incident of the +Herodotean Life--the birth of Homer "Son of the Meles." The epithet +Aeolian implies high antiquity, inasmuch as according to Herodotus +Smyrna became Ionian about 688 B.C. Naturally the Ionians had their own +version of the story--a version which made Homer come out with the first +Athenian colonists. + +The same line of argument may be extended to the _Hymns_, and even to +some of the lost works of the post-Homeric or so-called "Cyclic" poets. +Thus:-- + +1. The hymn to the Delian Apollo ends with an address of the poet to his +audience. When any stranger comes and asks who is the sweetest singer, +they are to answer with one voice, the "blind man that dwells in rocky +Chios; his songs deserve the prize for all time to come." Thucydides, +who quotes this passage to show the ancient character of the Delian +festival, seems to have no doubt of the Homeric authorship of the hymn. +Hence we may most naturally account for the belief that Homer was a +Chian. + +2. The _Margites_--a humorous poem which kept its ground as the reputed +work of Homer down to the time of Aristotle--began with the words, +"There came to Colophon an old man, a divine singer, servant of the +Muses and Apollo." Hence doubtless the claim of Colophon to be the +native city of Homer--a claim supported in the early times of Homeric +learning by the Colophonian poet and grammarian Antimachus. + +3. The poem called the _Cypria_ was said to have been given by Homer to +Stasinus of Cyprus as a daughter's dowry. The connexion with Cyprus +appears further in the predominance given in the poem to Aphrodite. + +4. The _Little Iliad_ and the _Phocaïs_, according to the Herodotean +life, were composed by Homer when he lived at Phocaea with a certain +Thestorides, who carried them off to Chios and there gained fame by +reciting them as his own. The name Thestorides occurs in _Epigr._ v. + +5. A similar story was told about the poem called the _Taking of +Oechalia_ ([Greek: Oichalias Halôsis]), the subject of which was one of +the exploits of Heracles. It passed under the name of Creophylus, a +friend or (as some said) a son-in-law of Homer; but it was generally +believed to have been in fact the work of the poet himself. + +6. Finally the _Thebaid_ always counted as the work of Homer. As to the +_Epigoni_, which carried on the Theban story, some doubt seems to have +been felt. + +These indications render it probable that the stories connecting Homer +with different cities and islands grew up after his poems had become +known and famous, especially in the new and flourishing colonies of +Aeolis and Ionia. The contention for Homer, in short, began at a time +when his real history was lost, and he had become a sort of mythical +figure, an "eponymous hero," or personification of a great school of +poetry. + +An interesting confirmation of this view from the negative side is +furnished by the city which ranked as chief among the Asiatic colonies +of Greece, viz. Miletus. No legend claims for Miletus even a visit from +Homer, or a share in the authorship of any Homeric poem. Yet Arctinus of +Miletus was said to have been a "disciple of Homer," and was certainly +one of the earliest and most considerable of the "Cyclic" poets. His +_Aethiopis_ was composed as a sequel to the _Iliad_; and the structure +and general character of his poems show that he took the _Iliad_ as his +model. Yet in his case we find no trace of the disputed authorship which +is so common with other "Cyclic" poems. How has this come about? Why +have the works of Arctinus escaped the attraction which drew to the name +of Homer such epics as the _Cypria_, the _Little Iliad_, the _Thebaid_, +the _Epigoni_, the _Taking of Oechalia_ and the _Phocais_. The most +obvious account of the matter is that Arctinus was never so far +forgotten that his poems became the subject of dispute. We seem through +him to obtain a glimpse of an early post-Homeric age in Ionia, when the +immediate disciples and successors of Homer were distinct figures in a +trustworthy tradition--when they had not yet merged their individuality +in the legendary "Homer" of the Epic Cycle. + +_Recitation of the Poems._--The recitation of epic poetry was called in +historical times "rhapsody" ([Greek: rhapsôdia]). The word [Greek: +rhapsôdos] is post-Homeric, but was known to Pindar, who gives two +different explanations of it--"singer of stitched verse" ([Greek: +rhaptôn hepeôn aoidoi]), and "singer with the wand" ([Greek: rhabdos]). +Of these the first is etymologically correct (except that it should +rather be "stitcher of verse"); the second was suggested by the fact, +for which there is early evidence, that the reciter was accustomed to +hold a wand in his hand--perhaps, like the sceptre in the Homeric +assembly, as a symbol of the right to a hearing.[4] + +The first notice of rhapsody meets us at Sicyon, in the reign of +Cleisthenes (600-560 B.C.), who "put down the rhapsodists on account of +the poems of Homer, because they are all about Argos and the Argives" +(Hdt. v. 67). This description applies very well to the _Iliad_, in +which Argos and Argives occur on almost every page. It may have suited +the _Thebaid_ still better, but there is no need to understand it only +of that poem, as Grote does. The incident shows that the poems of the +Ionic Homer had gained in the 6th century B.C., and in the Doric parts +of the Peloponnesus, the ascendancy, the national importance and the +almost canonical character which they ever afterwards retained. + +At Athens there was a law that the Homeric poems should be recited +([Greek: rhapsôdeisthai]) on every occasion of the Panathenaea. This law +is appealed to as an especial glory of Athens by the orator Lycurgus +(_Leocr._ 102). Perhaps therefore the custom of public recitation was +exceptional,[5] and unfortunately we do not know when or by whom it was +introduced. The Platonic dialogue _Hipparchus_ attributes it to +Hipparchus, son of Peisistratus. This, however, is part of the +historical romance of which the dialogue mainly consists. The author +makes (perhaps wilfully) all the mistakes about the family of +Peisistratus which Thucydides notices in a well-known passage (vi. +54-59). In one point, however, the writer's testimony is valuable. He +tells us that the law required the rhapsodists to recite "taking each +other up in order ([Greek: ex hypolêpseôs ephexês]), as they still do." +This recurs in a different form in the statement of Diogenes Laertius +(i. 2. 57) that Solon made a law that the poems should be recited "with +prompting" ([Greek: ex hypobolês]). The question as between Solon and +Hipparchus cannot be settled; but it is at least clear that a due order +of recitation was secured by the presence of a person charged to give +the rhapsodists their cue ([Greek: hypoballein]). It was necessary, of +course, to divide the poem to be recited into parts, and to compel each +contending rhapsodist to take the part assigned to him. Otherwise they +would have chosen favourite or show passages. + +The practice of poets or rhapsodists contending for the prize at the +great religious festivals is of considerable antiquity, though +apparently post-Homeric. It is brought vividly before us in the Hymn to +Apollo (see the passage mentioned above), and in two Hymns to Aphrodite +(v. and ix.). The latter of these may evidently be taken to belong to +Salamis in Cyprus and the festival of the Cyprian Aphrodite, in the same +way that the Hymn to Apollo belongs to Delos and the Delian gathering. +The earliest trace of such contests is to be found in the story of +Thamyris, the Thracian singer, who boasted that he could conquer even +the Muses in song (_Il._ ii. 594 ff.). + +Much has been made in this part of the subject of a family or clan +([Greek: genos]) of Homeridae in the island of Chios. On the one hand, +it seemed to follow from the existence of such a family that Homer was a +mere "eponymus," or mythical ancestor; on the other hand, it became easy +to imagine the Homeric poems handed down orally in a family whose +hereditary occupation it was to recite them, possibly to add new +episodes from time to time, or to combine their materials in new ways, +as their poetical gifts permitted. But, although there is no reason to +doubt the existence of a family of "Homeridae," it is far from certain +that they had anything to do with Homeric poetry. The word occurs first +in Pindar (_Nem._ 2. 2), who applies it to the rhapsodists ([Greek: +Homêridai rhaptôn epeôn aoidoi]). On this a scholiast says that the name +"Homeridae" denoted originally descendants of Homer, who sang his poems +in succession, but afterwards was applied to rhapsodists who did not +claim descent from him. He adds that there was a famous rhapsodist, +Cynaethus of Chios, who was said to be the author of the Hymn to Apollo, +and to have first recited Homer at Syracuse about the 69th Olympiad. +Nothing here connects the Homeridae with Chios. The statement of the +scholiast is evidently a mere inference from the patronymic form of the +word. If it proves anything, it proves that Cynaethus, who was a Chian +and a rhapsodist, made no claim to Homeric descent. On the other hand +our knowledge of Chian Homeridae comes chiefly from the lexicon of +Harpocration, where we are told that Acusilaus and Hellanicus said that +they were so called from the poet; whereas Seleucus pronounced this to +be an error. Strabo also says that the Chians put forward the Homeridae +as an argument in support of their claim to Homer. These Homeridae, +then, belonged to Chios, but there is no indication of their being +rhapsodists. On the contrary, Plato and other Attic writers use the word +to include interpreters and admirers--in short, the whole "spiritual +kindred"--of Homer. And although we hear of "descendants of Creophylus" +as in possession of the Homeric poems, there is no similar story about +descendants of Homer himself. Such is the evidence on which so many +inferences are based. + +The result of the notices now collected is to show that the early +history of epic recitation consists of (1) passages in the Homeric hymns +showing that poets contended for the prize at the great festivals, (2) +the passing mention in Herodotus of rhapsodists at Sicyon, and (3) a law +at Athens, of unknown date, regulating the recitation at the +Panathenaea. Let us now compare these data with the account given in the +Homeric poems. The word "rhapsode" does not yet exist; we hear only of +the "singer" ([Greek: aoidos]), who does not carry a wand or +laurel-branch, but the lyre ([Greek: phormigx]), with which he +accompanies his "song." In the _Iliad_ even the epic "singer" is not met +with. It is Achilles himself who sings the stories of heroes ([Greek: +klea andrôn]) in his tent, and Patroclus is waiting (_respondere +paratus_), to take up the song in his turn (_Il._ ix. 191). Again we do +not hear of poetical contests (except in the story of Thamyris already +mentioned) or of recitation of epic poetry at festivals. The _Odyssey_ +gives us pictures of two great houses, and each has its singer. The song +is on a subject taken from the Trojan war, at some point chosen by the +singer himself, or by his hearers. Phemius pleases the suitors by +singing of the calamitous return of the Greeks; Demodocus sings of a +quarrel between Ulysses and Achilles, and afterwards of the wooden horse +and the capture of Troy. + +It may be granted that the author of the _Odyssey_ can hardly have been +just such a singer as he himself describes. The songs of Phemius and +Demodocus are too short, and have too much the character of +improvisations. Nor is it necessary to suppose that epic poetry, at the +time to which the picture in the _Odyssey_ belongs, was confined to the +one type represented. Yet in several respects the conditions under which +the singer finds himself in the house of a chieftain like Odysseus or +Alcinous are more in harmony with the character of Homeric poetry than +those of the later rhapsodic contests. The subdivision of a poem like +the _Iliad_ or _Odyssey_ among different and necessarily unequal +performers must have been injurious to the effect. The highly theatrical +manner of recitation which was fostered by the spirit of competition, +and by the example of the stage, cannot have done justice to the even +movement of the epic style. It is not certain indeed that the practice +of reciting a long poem by the agency of several competitors was +ancient, or that it prevailed elsewhere than at Athens; but as +rhapsodists were numerous, and popular favour throughout Greece became +more and more confined to one or two great works, it must have become +almost a necessity. That it was the mode of recitation contemplated by +the author of the _Iliad_ or _Odyssey_ it is impossible to believe. + +The difference made by substituting the wand or branch of laurel for the +lyre of the Homeric singer is a slighter one, though not without +significance. The recitation of the Hesiodic poems was from the first +unaccompanied by the lyre, i.e. they were confessedly _said_, not +_sung_; and it was natural that the example should be extended to Homer. +For it is difficult to believe that the Homeric poems were ever "sung" +in the strict sense of the word. We can only suppose that the lyre in +the hands of the epic poet or reciter was in reality a piece of +convention, a "survival" from the stage in which narrative poetry had a +lyrical character. Probably the poets of the Homeric school--that which +dealt with war and adventure--were the genuine descendants of minstrels +whose "lays" or "ballads" were the amusement of the feasts in an earlier +heroic age; whereas the Hesiodic compositions were non-lyrical from the +first, and were only in verse because that was the universal form of +literature. + +It seems, then, that if we imagine Homer as a singer in a royal house of +the Homeric age, but with more freedom regarding the limits of his +subject, and a more tranquil audience than is allowed him in the rapid +movement of the _Odyssey_, we shall probably not be far from the truth. + +_Time and Place of Homer._--The oldest direct references to the _Iliad_ +and _Odyssey_ are in Herodotus, who quotes from both poems (ii. 53). The +quotation from the _Iliad_ is of interest because it is made in order to +show that Homer supported the story of the travels of Paris to Egypt and +Sidon (whereas the Cyclic poem called the _Cypria_ ignored them), and +also because the part of the _Iliad_ from which it comes is cited as the +"Aristeia of Diomede." This was therefore a recognized part of the poem. + +The earliest mention of the name of Homer is found in a fragment of the +philosopher Xenophanes (of the 6th century B.C., or possibly earlier), +who complains of the false notions implanted through the teaching of +Homer. The passage shows, not merely that Homer was well known at +Colophon in the time of Xenophanes, but also that the great advance in +moral and religious ideas which forced Plato to banish Homer from his +republic had made itself felt in the days of the early Ionic +philosophers. + +Failing external testimony, the time and place of the Homeric poems can +only be determined (if at all) by internal evidence. This is of two main +kinds: (a) evidence of history, consisting in a comparison of the +political and social condition, the geography, the institutions, the +manners, arts and ideas of Homer with those of other times; (b) evidence +of language, consisting in a comparison with later dialects, in respect +of grammar and vocabulary. To these may be added, as occasionally of +value, (c) much evidence of the direct influence of Homer upon the +subsequent course of literature and art. + +(a) The political condition of Greece in the earliest times known to +history is separated from the Greece of Homer by an interval which can +hardly be overestimated. The great national names are different: instead +of Achaeans, Argives, Danai, we find Hellenes, subdivided into Dorians, +Ionians, Aeolians--names either unknown to Homer, or mentioned in terms +more significant than silence. At the dawn of Greek history Mycenae is +no longer the seat of empire; new empires, polities and civilizations +have grown up--Sparta with its military discipline, Delphi with its +religious supremacy, Miletus with its commerce and numberless colonies, +Aeolis and Ionia, Sicily and Magna Graecia. + +While the political centre of Homeric Greece is at Mycenae, the real +centre is rather to be found In Boeotia. The Catalogue of the Ships +begins with Boeotia; the list of Boeotian towns is much the longest; and +they sail, not from the bay of Argos, but from the Boeotian harbour of +Aulis. This position is not due to its chiefs, who are all of inferior +rank. The importance of Boeotia for Greek civilization is further shown +by the ancient worship of the Muses on Mount Helicon, and the fact that +the oldest poet whose birthplace was known was the Boeotian Hesiod. Next +to Boeotia and the neighbouring countries, it appears that the +Peloponnesus, Crete and Thessaly were the most important seats of Greek +population. + +In the Peloponnesus the face of things was completely altered by the +Dorian conquest, no trace of which is found in Homer. The only Dorians +known in Homer are those that the _Odyssey_ (xix. 177) places in Crete. +It is difficult to connect them with the Dorians of history. + +The eastern shores of the Aegean, which the earliest historical records +represent to us as the seat of a brilliant civilization, giving way +before the advance of the great military empires (Lydia and afterwards +Persia), are almost a blank in Homer's map. The line of settlements can +be traced in the Catalogue from Crete to Rhodes, and embraces the +neighbouring islands of Cos and Calymnos. The colonization of Rhodes by +Tlepolemus is related (_Il._ ii. 661 ff.), and seems to mark the +farthest point reached in the Homeric age. Between Rhodes and the Troad +Homer knows of but one city, Miletus--which is a Carian ally of +Troy--and the mouth of one river, the Cayster. Even the Cyclades--Naxos, +Paros, Melos--are unknown to the Homeric world. The disposition of the +Greeks to look to the west for the centres of religious feeling appears +in the mention of Dodona and the Dodonaean Zeus, put in the mouth of the +Thessalian Achilles. + +To the north we find the Thracians, known from the stories of Thamyris +the singer (_Il._ ii. 595), and Lycurgus, the enemy of the young god +Dionysus (_Il._ vi. 130). Here the Trojan empire begins. It does not +appear, however, that the Trojans are thought of as people of a +different language. As this is expressly said of the Carians, and of the +Trojan allies who were "summoned from afar," the contrary rather is +implied regarding Troy itself. + +The mixed type of government described by Homer--consisting of a king +guided by a council of elders, and bringing all important resolutions +before the assembly of the fighting men--does not seem to have been +universal in Indo-European communities, but to have grown up in many +different parts of the world under the stress of similar conditions. The +king is the commander in war, and the office probably owed its existence +to military necessities. It is not surrounded with any special +sacredness. There were ruling families, laying claim to divine descent, +from whom the king was naturally chosen, but his own fitness is the +essence of his title. The aged Laertes is set aside; the young +Telemachus does not succeed as a matter of course. Nor are any very +definite rights attached to the office. Each tribe in the army before +Troy was commanded by its own king (or kings); but Agamemnon was +supreme, and was "more a king" ([Greek: basileiteros]) than any other. +The assembly is summoned on all critical occasions, and its approval is +the ultimate sanction. A king therefore stands in almost as much need of +oratory as of warlike skill and prowess. Even the division of the spoil +is not made in the _Iliad_ by Agamemnon, but by "the Achaeans" (_Il._ i. +162, 368). The taking of Briseïs from Achilles was an arbitrary act, and +against all rule and custom. The council is more difficult to +understand. The "elders" ([Greek: gerontes]) of the _Iliad_ are the same +as the subordinate "kings"; they are summoned by Agamemnon to his tent, +and form a small council of nine or ten persons. In Troy we hear of +elders of the people ([Greek: dêmogerontes]) who are with Priam, and are +men past the military age. So in Ithaca there are elders who have not +gone to Troy with the army. It would seem therefore that the meeting in +Agamemnon's tent was only a copy or adaptation of the true +constitutional "council of elders," which indeed was essentially +unfitted for the purposes of military service. The king's palace, if we +may judge from Tiryns and Mycenae, was usually in a strong situation on +an "acropolis." In the later times of democracy the acropolis was +reserved for the temples of the principal gods. + +Priesthood in Homer is found in the case of particular temples, where an +officer is naturally wanted to take charge of the sacred inclosure and +the sacrifices offered within it. It is perhaps an accident that we do +not hear of priests in Ithaca. Agamemnon performs sacrifice himself, not +because a priestly character was attached to the kingly office, but +simply because he was "master in his own house." + +The conception of "law" is foreign to Homer. The later words for it +([Greek: nomos], [Greek: rhêtra]) are unknown, and the terms which he +uses ([Greek: dikê] and [Greek: themis]) mean merely "custom." Judicial +functions are in the hands of the elders, who "have to do with suits" +([Greek: dikaspoloi]), and "uphold judgments" ([Greek: themistas +eiryatai]). On such matters as the compensation in cases of homicide, it +is evident that there were no rules, but merely a feeling, created by +use and wont, that the relatives of the slain man should be willing to +accept payment. The sense of anger which follows a violation of custom +has the name of "Nemesis"--righteous displeasure. + +As there is no law in Homer, so there is no morality. That is to say, +there are no general principles of action, and no words which indicate +that acts have been classified as good or bad, right or wrong. Moral +_feeling_, indeed, existed and was denoted by "Aidos"; but the numerous +meanings of this word--shame, veneration, pity--show how rudimentary the +idea was. And when we look to practice we find that cruel and even +treacherous deeds are spoken of without the least sense that they +deserve censure. The heroes of Homer are hardly more moral agents than +the giants and enchanters of a fairy tale. + +The religious ideas of Homer differ in some important points from those +of later Greece. The Apollo of the _Iliad_ has the character of a local +Asiatic deity--"ruler of Chryse and goodly Cilla and Tenedos." He may be +compared with the Clarian and the Lycian god, but he is unlike the +Apollo of Dorian times, the "deliverer" and giver of oracles. Again, the +worship of Dionysus, and of Demeter and Persephone, is mainly or wholly +post-Homeric. The greatest difference, however, lies in the absence of +hero-worship from the Homeric order of things. Castor and Polydeuces, +for instance, are simply brothers of Helen who died before the +expedition to Troy (_Il._ iii. 243.) + +The military tactics of Homer belong to the age when the chariot was the +principal engine of warfare. Cavalry is unknown, and the battles are +mainly decided by the prowess of the chiefs. The use of the trumpet is +also later. It has been supposed indeed that the art of riding was known +in Homer's own time, because it occurs in comparisons. But the riding +which he describes (_Il._ xv. 679) is a mere exhibition of skill, such +as we may see in a modern circus. And though he mentions the trumpet +(_Il._ xviii. 219), there is nothing to show that it was used, as in +historical times, to give the signal for the charge. + +The chief industries of Homeric times are those of the carpenter +([Greek: tektôn]), the worker in leather ([Greek: skutotomos]), the +smith or worker in metal ([Greek: chalkeus])--whose implements are the +hammer and pincers--and the potter ([Greek: kerameus]); also spinning +and weaving, which were carried on by the women. The fine arts are +represented by sculpture in relief, carving in wood and ivory, +embroidery. Statuary is later; it appears to have come into existence in +the 7th century, about the time when casting in metal was invented by +Rhoecus of Samos. In general, as was well shown by A. S. Murray,[6] +Homeric art does not rise above the stage of _decoration_, applied to +objects in common use; while in point of style it is characterized by a +richness and variety of ornament which is in the strongest contrast to +the simplicity of the best periods. It is the work, in short, not of +artists but of skilled workmen; the ideal artist is "Daedalus," a name +which implies mechanical skill and intricate workmanship, not beauty of +design. + +One art of the highest importance remains. The question whether writing +was known in the time of Homer was raised in antiquity, and has been +debated with especial eagerness ever since the appearance of Wolf's +_Prolegomena_. In this case we have to consider not merely the +indications of the poems, but also the external evidence which we +possess regarding the use of writing in Greece. This latter kind of +evidence is much more considerable now than it was in Wolf's time. (See +WRITING elsewhere in these volumes.) + +The oldest known stage of the Greek alphabet appears to be represented +by inscriptions of the islands of Thera, Melos and Crete, which are +referred to the 40th Olympiad (620 B.C.). The oldest specimen of a +distinctively Ionian alphabet is the famous inscription of the +mercenaries of Psammetichus, in Upper Egypt, as to which the only doubt +is whether the Psammetichus in question is the first or the second, and +consequently whether the inscription is to be dated Ol. 40 or Ol. 47. +Considering that the divergence of two alphabets (like the difference of +two dialects) requires both time and familiar use, we may gather from +these facts that writing was well known in Greece early in the 7th +century B.C.[7] + +The rise of prose composition in the 6th century B.C. has been thought +to mark the time when memory was practically superseded by writing as a +means of preserving literature--the earlier use of letters being +confined to short documents, such as lists of names, treaties, laws, &c. +This conclusion, however, is by no means necessary. It may be that down +to comparatively late rimes poetry was not commonly read, but was +recited from memory. But the question is--From what time are we to +suppose that the preservation of long poems was generally secured by the +existence of written copies? Now, without counting the Homeric +poems--which doubtless had exceptional advantages in their fame and +popularity--we find a body of literature dating from the 8th century +B.C. to which the theory of oral transmission is surely inapplicable. In +the Trojan cycle alone we know of the two epics of Arctinus, the _Little +Iliad_ of Lesches, the _Cypria_, the _Nostoi_. The Theban cycle is +represented by the _Thebaid_ (which Callinus, who was of the 7th +century, ascribed to Homer) and the _Epigoni_. Other ancient +epics--ancient enough to have passed under the name of Homer--are the +_Taking of Oechalia_, and the _Phocaïs_. Again, there are the numerous +works attributed to Hesiod and other poets of the didactic, +mythological and quasi-historical schools--Eumelus of Corinth, Cinaethon +of Sparta, Agias of Troezen, and many more. The preservation of this +vast mass can only be attributed to writing, which must therefore have +been in use for two centuries or more before there was any considerable +prose literature. Nor is this in itself improbable. + +The further question, whether the _Iliad_ and _Odyssey_ were originally +written, is much more difficult. External evidence does not reach back +so far, and the internal evidence is curiously indecisive. The only +passage which can be interpreted as a reference to writing occurs in the +story of Bellerophon, told by Glaucus in the sixth book of the _Iliad_. +Proetus, king of Corinth, sent Bellerophon to his father-in-law the king +of Lycia, and gave him "baneful tokens" ([Greek: sêmata lugra], i.e. +tokens which were messages of death), "scratching on a folded tablet +many spirit-destroying things, and bade him show this to his +father-in-law, that he might perish." The king of Lycia asked duly (on +the tenth day from the guest's coming) for a token ([Greek: hêtee sêma +idesthai]), and then knew what Proetus wished to be done. In this +account there is nothing to show exactly how the message of Proetus was +expressed. The use of writing for the purpose of the token between +"guest-friends" (_tessera hospitalis_) is certainly very ancient. +Mommsen (_Röm. Forsch_. i. 338 ff.) aptly compares the use in treaties, +which are the oldest species of public documents. But we may suppose +that tokens of some kind--like the marks which the Greek chiefs make on +the lots (_Il._ vii. 175 ff.)--were in use before writing was known. In +any system of signs there were doubtless means of recommending a friend, +or giving warning of the presence of an enemy. There is no difficulty, +therefore, in understanding the message of Proetus without alphabetical +writing. But, on the other hand, there is no reason for so understanding +it. + +If the language of Homer is so ambiguous where the use of writing would +naturally be mentioned, we cannot expect to find more decisive +references elsewhere. Arguments have been founded upon the descriptions +of the blind singers in the _Odyssey_, with their songs inspired +directly by the Muse; upon the appeals of the poet to the Muses, +especially in such a place as the opening of the Catalogue; upon the +Catalogue itself, which is a kind of historical document put into verse +to help the memory; upon the shipowner in the _Odyssey_, who has "a good +memory for his cargo," &c. It may be answered, however, that much of +this is traditional, handed down from the time when all poetry was +unwritten. Moreover it is one thing to recognize that a literature is +essentially oral in its form, characteristic of an age which was one of +hearing rather than of reading, and quite another to hold that the same +literature was preserved entirely by oral transmission. + +The result of these various considerations seems to be that the age +which we may call the Homeric--the age which is brought before us in +vivid outlines in the _Iliad_ and _Odyssey_--lies beyond the earliest +point to which history enables us to penetrate. And so far as we can +draw any conclusion as to the author (or authors) of the two poems, it +is that the whole debate between the cities of Aeolis and Ionia was wide +of the mark. The author of the _Iliad_, at least, was evidently a +European Greek who lived before the colonization of Asia Minor; and the +claims of the Asiatic cities mean no more than that in the days of their +prosperity these were the chief seats of the fame of Homer. + + This is perhaps the place to consider whether the poems are to be + regarded as possessing in any degree the character; of historical + record. The question is one which in the absence of satisfactory + criteria will generally be decided by taste and predilection. A few + suggestions, however, may be made. + + 1. The events of the _Iliad_ take place in a real locality, the + general features of which are kept steadily in view. There is no doubt + about Sigeum and Rhoeteum, or the river Scamander, or the islands + Imbros, Lemnos and Tenedos. It is at least remarkable that a legend of + the national interest of the "tale of Troy" should be so definitely + localized, and that in a district, which was never famous as a seat of + Greek population. It may be urged, too, that the story of the _Iliad_ + is singularly free from the exaggerated and marvellous character which + belongs as a rule to the legends of primitive peoples. The apple of + discord, the arrows of Philoctetes, the invulnerability of Achilles, + and similar fancies, are the additions of later poets. This sobriety, + however, belongs not to the whole _Iliad_, but to the events and + characters of the war. Such figures as Bellerophon, Nïobe, the + Amazons, which are thought of as traditions from an earlier + generation, show the marvellous element at work. + + 2. Certain persons and events in the story have a distinctly mythical + stamp. Helen is a figure of this kind. There was another story + according to which she was carried off by Theseus, and recovered by + her brothers the Dioscuri. There are even traces of a third version, + in which the Messenian twins, Idas and Lynceus, appear. + + 3. The analogy of the French epic, the _Chanson de Roland_, favours + the belief that there was some nucleus of fact. The defeat of + Roncevaux was really suffered by a part of Charlemagne's army. But the + Saracen army is purely mythical, the true enemy having been the + Gascons. If similarly we leave, as historical, the plain of Troy, and + the name Agamemnon, we shall perhaps not be far wrong. + +(b) The dialect of Homer is an early or "primitive" form of the language +which we know as that of Attica in the classical age of Greek +literature. The proof of this proposition is to be obtained chiefly by +comparing the grammatical formation and the syntax of Homer with those +of Attic. The comparison of the vocabulary is in the nature of things +less conclusive on the question of date. It would be impossible to give +the evidence in full without writing a Homeric grammar, but a few +specimens may be of interest. + + 1. The first aorist in Greek being a "weak" tense, i.e. formed by a + suffix ([Greek: -sa]), whereas the second aorist is a "strong" tense, + distinguished by the form of the root-syllable, we expect to find a + constant tendency to diminish the number of second aorists in use. No + new second aorists, we may be sure, were formed any more than new + "strong" tenses, such as _came_ or _sang_, can be formed in English. + Now in Homer there are upwards of 80 second aorists (not reckoning + aorists of "Verbs in [Greek: mi]," such as [Greek: hestên], [Greek: + ebên]), whereas in all Attic prose not more than 30 are found. In this + point therefore the Homeric language is manifestly older. In Attic + poets, it is true, the number of such aorists is much larger than in + prose. But here again we find that they bear witness to Homer. Of the + poetical aorists in Attic the larger part are also Homeric. Others are + not really Attic at all, but borrowed from earlier Aeolic and Doric + poetry. It is plain, in short, that the later poetical vocabulary was + separated from that of prose mainly by the forms which the influence + of Homer had saved from being forgotten. + + 2. While the whole class of "strong" aorists diminished, certain + smaller groups in the class disappeared altogether. Thus we find in + Homer, but not in the later language:-- + + (a) The second aorist middle without the "thematic" [epsilon] or + [omicron]: as [Greek: eblê-to], _was struck_; [Greek: ephi-to], + _perished_; [Greek: al-to], _leaped_. + + (b) The aorist formed by reduplication: as [Greek: dedaev], _taught_; + [Greek: lelabesthai], _to seize_. These constitute a distinct + formation, generally with a "causative" meaning; the solitary Attic + specimen is [Greek: êgagon]. + + 3. It had long been known that the subjunctive in Homer often takes a + short vowel (e.g. in the plural, [Greek: -omen], [Greek: -ete] instead + of [Greek: -ômen], [Greek: -ête], and in the Mid. [Greek: -omai], &c. + instead of [Greek: -ômai], &c.). This was generally said to be done by + "poetic licence," or _metri gratia_. In fact, however, the Homeric + subjunctive is almost quite "regular," though the rule which it obeys + is a different one from the Attic. It may be summed up by saying that + the subjunctive takes [omega] or [eta] when the indicative has + [omicron] or [epsilon], and not otherwise. Thus Homer has [Greek: + i-men], _we go_, [Greek: i-o-men], _let us go_. The later [Greek: + i-ô-men] was at first a solecism, an attempt to conjugate a "verb in + [Greek: mi]" like the "verbs in [omega]." It will be evident that + under this rule the perfect and first aorist subjunctive should always + take a short vowel; and this accordingly is the case, with very few + exceptions. + + 4. The article ([Greek: ho, hê, to]) in Homer is chiefly used as an + independent pronoun (_he, she, it_), a use which in Attic appears only + in a few combinations (such as [Greek: ho mèn ... ho de], _the one ... + the other_). This difference is parallel to the relation between the + Latin _ille_ and the article of the Romance languages. + + 5. The prepositions offer several points of comparison. What the + grammarians called "tmesis," the separation of the preposition from + the verb with which it is compounded, is peculiar to Homer. The true + account of the matter is that in Homer the place of the preposition is + not rigidly fixed, as it was afterwards. Again, "with" is in Homer + [Greek: syn] (with the dative), in Attic prose [Greek: meta] with the + genitive. Here Attic poetry is intermediate; the use of [Greek: syn] + is retained as a piece of poetical tradition. + + 6. In addition to the particle [Greek: an], Homer has another, [Greek: + ken], hardly distinguishable in meaning. The Homeric uses of [Greek: + an] and [Greek: ken] are different in several respects from the Attic, + the general result being that the Homeric syntax is more elastic. And + yet it is perfectly definite and precise. Homer uses no constructions + loosely or without corresponding differences of meaning. His rules are + equally strict with those of the later language, but they are not the + same rules. And they differ chiefly in this, that the less common + combinations of the earlier period were disused altogether in the + later. + + 7. In the vocabulary the most striking difference is that many words + appear from the metre to have contained a sound which they afterwards + lost, viz. that which is written in some Greek alphabets by the + "digamma" [digamma] Thus the words [Greek: anax, asty, ergon, epos], + and many others must have been written at one time [Greek: Fanax, + Fasty, Fergon, Fepos]. This letter, however, died out earlier in Ionic + than in most dialects, and there is no proof that the Homeric poems + were ever written with it. + +These are not, speaking generally, the differences that are produced by +the gradual divergence of dialects in a language. They are rather to be +classed with those which we find between the earlier and the later +stages of every language which has had a long history. The Homeric +dialect has passed into New Ionic and Attic by gradual but ceaseless +development of the same kind as that which brought about the change from +Vedic to classical Sanskrit, or from old high German to the present +dialects of Germany. + +The points that have been mentioned, to which many others might be +added, make it clear that the Homeric and Attic dialects are separated +by differences which affect the whole structure of the language, and +require a considerable time for their development. At the same time +there is hardly one of these differences which cannot be accounted for +by the natural growth of the language. It has been thought indeed that +the Homeric dialect was a mixed one, mainly Ionic, but containing Aeolic +and even Doric forms; this, however, is a mistaken view of the processes +of language. There are doubtless many Homeric forms which were unknown +to the later Ionic and Attic, and which are found in Aeolic or other +dialects. In general, however, these are _older_ forms, which must have +existed in Ionic at one time, and may very well have belonged to the +Ionic of Homer's time. So too the digamma is called "Aeolic" by +grammarians, and is found on Aeolic and Doric inscriptions. But the +letter was one of the original alphabet, and was retained universally as +a numeral. It can only have fallen into disuse by degrees, as the sound +which it denoted ceased to be pronounced. The fact that there are so +many traces of it in Homer is a strong proof of the antiquity of the +poems, but no proof of admixture with Aeolic. + +There is one sense, however, in which an admixture of dialects may be +recognized. It is clear that the variety of forms in Homer is too great +for any actual spoken dialect. To take a single instance: it is +impossible that the genitives in [Greek: -oio] and in [Greek: -ou] +should both have been in everyday use together. The form in [Greek: +-oio] must have been poetical or literary, like the old English forms +that survive in the language of the Bible. The origin of such double +forms is not far to seek. The effect of dialect on style was always +recognized in Greece, and the dialect which had once been adopted by a +particular kind of poetry was ever afterwards adhered to. The Epic of +Homer was doubtless formed originally from a spoken variety of Greek, +but became literary and conventional with time. It is Homer himself who +tells us, in a striking passage (_Il._ iv. 437) that all the Greeks +spoke the same language--that is to say, that they understood one +another, in spite of the inevitable local differences. Experience shows +how some one dialect in a country gains a literary supremacy to which +the whole nation yields. So Tuscan became the type of Italian, and +Anglian of English. But as soon as the dialect is adopted, it begins to +diverge from the colloquial form. Just as modern poetical Italian uses +many older grammatical forms peculiar to itself, so the language of +poetry, even in Homeric times, had formed a deposit (so to speak) of +archaic grammar. There were doubtless poets before Homer, as well as +brave men before Agamemnon; and indeed the formation of a poetical +dialect such as the Homeric must have been the work of several +generations. The use of that dialect (instead of Aeolic) by the Boeotian +poet Hesiod, in a kind of poetry which was not of the Homeric type, +tends to the conclusion that the literary ascendancy of the epic dialect +was anterior to the _Iliad_ and _Odyssey_, and independent of the +influence exercised by these poems. + +What then was the original language of Homer? Where and when was it +spoken? [The answer given to this question by Aug. Fick (in 1883) and +still held, with modifications, by some European scholars can no longer +be maintained. Fick's original statement was that in or about the 6th +century B.C. the poems, which had originally worn an Aeolic dress, were +transposed into Ionic. To this it is easily answered that such an event +is not only unique in history, but contrary to all that we know of the +Greek genius. At the period in question an Aeolic literature, the lyrics +of Sappho and Alcaeus, were in existence. If it was found necessary to +transpose the Aeolic Homer, why did the Aeolic lyric verse escape? If, +however, as is the view of some of Fick's followers, the transposition +took place several centuries earlier, before species of literature had +appropriated particular dialects, then the linguistic facts upon which +Fick relied to distinguish the "Aeolic" and "Ionic" elements in Homer +disappear. We have no means of knowing what the Aeolic and Ionic of say +the 9th century were, or if there were such dialects at all. Certain +prominent historical differences between Aeolic and Ionic (the digamma +and alpha) are known to be unoriginal. The view that Homer underwent at +any time a passage from one dialect to another may be dismissed. The +tendency of modern dialectologists is to divide the Greek dialects into +Dorian and non-Dorian. The non-Dorian dialects, Ionic, Attic and the +various forms of Aeolic, are regarded as relatively closely akin, and go +by the common name "Achaean." They formed the common language of Greece +before the Doric invasion. As the scene which Homer depicts is +prae-Dorian Greece, it is reasonable to call his language Achaean. The +historical divergences of Achaean into Aeolian and Ionic were later than +the Migration, and were due to the well-known effects of change of soil +and air. + +To what local variety of Achaean Homeric Greek belonged it is idle to +ask. Thessaly, Boeotia and Mycenae have equal claims. It seems clearer +that when once this local variety of Achaean had been used by poets of +eminence as their vehicle for national history, it established its right +to be considered the one poetical language of Hellas. As the dialect of +the Arno in Italy, of Castille in Spain, by the virtue of the genius of +the singers who used them, became literary "Italian" and "Spanish," so +this variety of Achaean elevated itself to the position of the _volgare +illustre_ of Greece.[8]] (T. W. A.) + +(c) The influence of Homer upon the subsequent course of Greek +literature is a large subject, even if we restrict it to the centuries +which immediately followed the Homeric age. It will be enough to observe +that in the earliest elegiac poets, such as Archilochus, Tyrtaeus and +Theognis, reminiscences of Homeric language and thought meet us on every +page. If the same cannot be said of the ancient epic poems, that is +because of the extreme scantiness of the existing fragments. Much, +however, is to be gathered from the arguments of the Trojan part of the +Epic Cycle (preserved in the _Codex Venetus_ of the _Iliad_, a full +discussion of which will be found in the _Journal of Hellenic Studies_, +1884, pp. 1-40). An examination of these arguments throws light on two +chief aspects of the relation between Homer and his "cyclic" successors. + +1. The later poets sought to complete the story of the Trojan war by +supplying the parts which did not fall within the _Iliad_ and +_Odyssey_--the so-called _ante-homerica_ and _post-homerica_. They did +so largely from hints and passing references in Homer. Thus the +successive episodes of the siege related at length in the _Little +Iliad_, and ending with the story of the Wooden Horse, are nearly all +taken from passages in the _Odyssey_. Much the same may be said of the +_Nosti_. + +2. With this process of expansion and development (so to speak) of +Homeric themes is combined the addition of new characters. Such, in the +_Little Iliad_ (e.g.), are the story of the Palladium and of the +treachery of Sinon. Such, too, in the _Cypria_ are the new legendary +figures--Palamedes, Iphigenia, Telephus, Laocoon. These new elements in +the narrative are evidently due not only to the natural growth of legend +in a people highly endowed with imagination, but in a large proportion +also to the new races and countries with which the Greeks came into +contact, as well as to their own rapid advance in wealth and +civilization. It will be observed that the two poems of Arctinus are +remarkable for the proportion of new matter of the latter kind. The +_Aethiopis_ shows us the allies of Troy reinforced by two peoples that +are evidently creations of oriental fancy, the Amazons and Memnon with +his Aethiopians. The _Iliu Persis_, again, was the oldest authority for +the story of Laocoon and of the consequent escape of Aeneas--a story +which connected a surviving branch of the house of Priam with the later +inhabitants of the Troad. On the other hand the fate of Creusa (_sed me +magna deum genetrix his detinet oris_) is a link with the worship of +Cybele. The journey of Calchas to Colophon and his death there, as told +in the _Nosti_, is another instance of the kind. These facts point to a +familiarity with the Greek colonies in Asia which contrasts strongly +with the silence of the _Iliad_ and _Odyssey_. + + _Study of Homer._--_The Homeric Question._--The critical study of + Homer began in Greece almost with the beginning of prose writing. The + first name is that of Theagenes of Rhegium, contemporary of Cambyses + (525 B.C.), who is said to have founded the "new grammar" (the older + "grammar" being the art of reading and writing), and to have been the + inventor of the allegorical interpretations by which it was sought to + reconcile the Homeric mythology with the morality and speculative + ideas of the 6th century B.C. The same attitude in the "ancient + quarrel of poetry and philosophy" was soon afterwards taken by + Anaxagoras; and after him by his pupil Metrodorus of Lampsacus, who + explained away all the gods, and even the heroes, as elementary + substances and forces (Agamemnon as the upper air, &c.). + + The next writers on Homer of the "grammatical" type were Stesimbrotus + of Thasos (contemporary with Cimon) and Antimachus of Colophon, + himself an epic poet of mark. The _Thebaid_ of Antimachus, however, + was not popular, and seems to have been a great storehouse of + mythological learning rather than a poem of the Homeric school. + + Other names of the pre-Socratic and Socratic times are mentioned by + Xenophon, Plato and Aristotle. These were the "ancient Homerics" + ([Greek: hoi archaioi Homêrikoi]), who busied themselves much with the + hidden meanings of Homer; of whom Aristotle says, with his profound + insight, that they see the small likenesses and overlook the great + ones (_Metaph._ xii.). + + The text of Homer must have attracted some attention when Antimachus + came to be known as the "corrector" ([Greek: diorthôtês]) of a + distinct edition ([Greek: ekdosis]), Aristotle is said himself to have + made a recension for the use of Alexander the Great. This is unlikely. + His remarks on Homer (in the _Poetics_ and elsewhere) show that he had + made a careful study of the structure and leading ideas of the poems, + but do not throw much light on the text. + + The real work of criticism became possible only when great collections + of manuscripts began to be made by the princes of the generation after + Alexander, and when men of learning were employed to sift and arrange + these treasures. In this way the great Alexandrian school of Homeric + criticism began with Zenodotus, the first chief of the museum, and was + continued by Aristophanes and Aristarchus. In Aristarchus ancient + philology culminated, as philosophy had done in Socrates. All earlier + learning either passed into his writings, or was lost; all subsequent + research turned upon his critical and grammatical work. + + The means of forming a judgment of the Alexandrine criticism are + scanty. The literary form which preserved the works of the great + historians was unfortunately wanting, or was not sufficiently valued, + in the case of the grammarians. Abridgments and newer treatises soon + drove out the writings of Aristarchus and other founders of the + science. Moreover, a recension could not be reproduced without new + errors soon creeping in. Thus we find that Didymus, writing in the + time of Cicero, does not quote the readings of Aristarchus as we + should quote a _textus receptus_. Indeed, the object of his work seems + to have been to determine what those readings were. Enough, however, + remains to show that Aristarchus had a clear notion of the chief + problems of philology (except perhaps those concerning etymology). He + saw, for example, that it was not enough to find a meaning for the + archaic words (the [Greek: glôssai], as they were called), but that + common words (such as [Greek: ponos, phobos]) had their Homeric uses, + which were to be gathered by due induction. In the same spirit he + looked upon the ideas and beliefs of Homer as a consistent whole, + which might be determined from the evidence of the poems. He noticed + especially the difference between the stories known to Homer and those + given by later poets, and made many comparisons between Homeric and + later manners, arts and institutions. Again, he was sensible of the + paramount value of manuscript authority, and appears to have + introduced no readings from mere conjecture. The frequent mention in + the Scholia of "better" and "inferior" texts may indicate a + classification made by him or by the general opinion of critics. His + use of the "obelus" to distinguish spurious verses, which made so + large a part of his fame in antiquity, has rather told against him + with modern scholars.[9] It is chiefly interesting as a proof of the + confusion in which the text must have been before the Alexandrian + times; for it is impossible to understand the readiness of Aristarchus + to suspect the genuineness of verses unless the state of the copies + had pointed to the existence of numerous interpolations. On this + matter, however, we are left to conjecture. + + Our knowledge of Alexandrian criticism is derived almost wholly from a + single document, the famous _Iliad_ of the library of St Mark in + Venice (_Codex Venetus_ 454, or _Ven. A_), first published by the + French scholar Villoison in 1788 (_Scholia antiquissima ad Homeri + Iliadem_). This manuscript, written in the 10th century, contains (1) + the best text of the _Iliad_, (2) the critical marks of Aristarchus + and (3) Scholia, consisting mainly of extracts from four grammatical + works, viz. Didymus (contemporary of Cicero) on the recension of + Aristarchus, Aristonicus (fl. 24 B.C.) on the critical marks of + Aristarchus, Herodian (fl. A.D. 160) on the accentuation, and Nicanor + (fl. A.D. 127) on the punctuation, of the _Iliad_. + + These extracts present themselves in two distinct forms. One series of + scholia is written in the usual way, on a margin reserved for the + purpose. The other consists of brief scholia, written in very small + characters (but of the same period) on the narrow space left vacant + round the text. Occasionally a scholium of this kind gives the + substance of one of the longer extracts; but as a rule they are + distinct. It would seem, therefore, that after the manuscript was + finished the "marginal scholia" were discovered to be extremely + defective, and a new series of extracts was added in a form which + interfered as little as possible with the appearance of the book.[10] + + The mention of the Venetian Scholia leads us at once to the Homeric + controversy; for the immortal _Prolegomena_ of F. A. Wolf[11] appeared + a few years after Villoison's publication, and was founded in great + measure upon the fresh and abundant materials which it furnished. Not + that the "Wolfian theory" of the Homeric poems is directly supported + by anything in the Scholia; the immediate object of the _Prolegomena_ + was not to put forward that theory, but to elucidate the new and + remarkable conditions under which the text of Homer had to be settled, + viz. the discovery of an _apparatus criticus_ of the 2nd century B.C. + The questions regarding the original structure and early history of + the poems were raised (forced upon him, it may be said) by the + critical problem; but they were really originated by facts and ideas + of a wholly different order. + + The 18th century, in which the spirit of classical correctness had the + most absolute dominion, did not come to an end before a powerful + reaction set in, which affected not only literature but also + speculation and politics. In this movement the leading ideas were + concentrated in the word Nature. The natural condition of society, + natural law, natural religion, the poetry of nature, gained a singular + hold, first on the English philosophers from Hume onwards, and then + (through Rousseau chiefly) on the general drift of thought and action + in Europe. In literature the effect of these ideas was to set up a + false opposition between nature and art. As political writers imagined + a patriarchal innocence prior to codes of law, so men of letters + sought in popular unwritten poetry the freshness and simplicity which + were wanting in the prevailing styles. The blind minstrel was the + counterpart of the noble savage. The supposed discovery of the poems + of Ossian fell in with this train of sentiment, and created an + enthusiasm for the study of early popular poetry. Homer was soon drawn + into the circle of inquiry. Blackwell (Professor of Greek at Aberdeen) + had insisted, in a book published in 1735, on the "naturalness" of + Homer; and Wood (_Essay on the Original Genius of Homer_, London, + 1769) was the first who maintained that Homer composed without the + help of writing, and supported his thesis by ancient authority, and + also by the parallel of Ossian. Both these books were translated into + German, and their ideas passed into the popular philosophy of the day. + Everything in short was ripe for the reception of a book that brought + together, with masterly ease and vigour, the old and the new Homeric + learning, and drew from it the historical proof that Homer was no + single poet, writing according to art and rule, but a name which stood + for a golden age of the true spontaneous poetry of genius and nature. + + The part of the _Prolegomena_ which deals with the original form of + the Homeric poems occupies pp. xl.-clx. (in the first edition). Wolf + shows how the question of the date of writing meets us on the + threshold of the textual criticism of Homer and accordingly enters + into a full discussion, first of the external evidence, then of the + indications furnished by the poems. Having satisfied himself that + writing was unknown to Homer, he is led to consider the real mode of + transmission, and finds this in the Rhapsodists, of whom the Homeridae + were an hereditary school. And then comes the conclusion to which all + this has been tending: "the die is cast"--the _Iliad_ and _Odyssey_ + cannot have been composed in the form in which we know them without + the aid of writing. They must therefore have been, as Bentley had + said, "a sequel of songs and rhapsodies," "loose songs not collected + together in the form of an epic poem till about 500 years after." This + conclusion he then supports by the character attributed to the + "Cyclic" poems (whose want of unity showed that the structure of the + _Iliad_ and _Odyssey_ must be the work of a later time), by one or two + indications of imperfect connexion, and by the doubts of ancient + critics as to the genuineness of certain parts. These, however, are + matters of conjecture. "Historia loquitur." The voice of antiquity is + unanimous in declaring that "Peisistratus first committed the poems of + Homer to writing, and reduced them to the order in which we now read + them." + + The appeal of Wolf to the "voice of all antiquity" is by no means + borne out by the different statements on the subject. According to + Heraclides Ponticus (pupil of Plato), the poetry of Homer was first + brought to the Peloponnesus by Lycurgus, who obtained it from the + descendants of Creophylus (_Polit._ fr. 2). Plutarch in his _Life of + Lycurgus_ (c. 4) repeats this story, with the addition that there was + already a faint report of the poems in Greece, and that certain + detached fragments were in the possession of a few persons. Again, the + Platonic dialogue _Hipparchus_ (which though not genuine is probably + earlier than the Alexandrian times) asserts that Hipparchus, son of + Peisistratus, first brought the poems to Athens, and obliged the + rhapsodists at the Panathenaea to follow the order of the text, "as + they still do," instead of reciting portions chosen at will. The + earliest authority for attributing any work of the kind to + Peisistratus is the well-known passage of Cicero (_De Orat._ 3. 34: + "Quis doctior eisdem temporibus illis, aut cujus eloquentia litteris + instructior fuisse traditur quam Pisistrati? qui primus Homeri libros, + confusos antea, sic disposuisse dicitur ut nunc habemus"). To the same + effect Pausanias (vii. p. 594) says that the change of the name + Donoessa to Gonoessa (in _Il._ ii. 573) was thought to have been made + by "Peisistratus or one of his companions," when he collected the + poems, which were then in a fragmentary condition. Finally, Diogenes + Laertius (i. 57) says that Solon made a law that the poems should be + recited with the help of a prompter so that each rhapsodist should + begin where the last left off; and he argues from this that Solon did + more than Peisistratus to make Homer known. The argument is directed + against a certain Dieuchidas of Megara, who appears to have maintained + that the verses about Athens in the Catalogue (_Il._ ii. 546-556) were + interpolated by Peisistratus. The passage is unfortunately corrupt, + but it is at least clear that in the time of Solon, according to + Diogenes, there were complete copies of the poems, such as could be + used to control the recitations. Hence the account of Diogenes is + quite irreconcilable with the notices on which Wolf relied. + + It is needless to examine the attempts which have been made to + harmonize these accounts. Such attempts usually start with the tacit + assumption that each of the persons concerned--Lycurgus, Solon, + Peisistratus, Hipparchus--must have done _something_ for the text of + Homer, or for the regulation of the rhapsodists. But we have first to + consider whether any of the accounts come to us on such evidence that + we are bound to consider them as containing a nucleus of truth. + + In the first place, the statement that Lycurgus obtained the poems + from descendants of Creophylus must be admitted to be purely mythical. + But if we reject it, have we any better reason for believing the + parallel assertion in the Platonic _Hipparchus_? It is true that + Hipparchus is undoubtedly a real person. On the other hand it is + evident that the Peisistratidae soon became the subject of many + fables. Thucydides notices as a popular mistake the belief that + Hipparchus was the eldest son of Peisistratus, and that consequently + he was the reigning "tyrant" when he was killed by Aristogiton. The + Platonic _Hipparchus_ follows this erroneous version, and may + therefore be regarded as representing (at best) mere local tradition. + We may reasonably go further, and see in this part of the dialogue a + piece of historical romance, designed to put the "tyrant" family in a + favourable light, as patrons of literature and learning. + + Again, the account of the _Hipparchus_ is contradicted by Diogenes + Laërtius, who says that Solon provided for the due recitation of the + Homeric poems. The only good authorities as to this point are the + orators Lycurgus and Isocrates, who mention the law prescribing the + recitation, but do not say when or by whom it was enacted. The + inference seems a fair one, that the author of the law was really + unknown. + + With regard to the statements which attribute some work in connexion + with Homer to Peisistratus, it was noticed by Wolf that Cicero, + Pausanias and the others who mention the matter do so _nearly in the + same words_, and, therefore, appear to have drawn from a common + source. This source was in all probability an epigram quoted in two of + the short lives of Homer, and there said to have been inscribed on the + statue of Peisistratus at Athens. In it Peisistratus is made to say of + himself that he "collected Homer, who was formerly sung in fragments, + for the golden poet was a citizen of ours, since we Athenians founded + Smyrna." The other statements repeat these words with various minor + additions, chiefly intended to explain how the poems had been reduced + to this fragmentary condition, and how Peisistratus set to work to + restore them. Thus all the authority for the work of Peisistratus + "reduces itself to the testimony of a single anonymous inscription" + (Nutzhorn p. 40). Now, what is the value of that testimony? It is + impossible of course to believe that a statue of Peisistratus was set + up at Athens in the time of the free republic. The epigram is almost + certainly a mere literary exercise. And what exactly does it say? Only + that Homer was _recited in fragments_ by the rhapsodists, and that + these partial recitations were made into a continuous whole by + Peisistratus; which does not necessarily mean more than that + Peisistratus did what other authorities ascribe to Solon and + Hipparchus, viz. regulated the recitation. + + Against the theory which sees in Peisistratus the author of the first + complete text of Homer we have to set the absolute silence of + Herodotus, Thucydides, the orators and the Alexandrian grammarians. + And it can hardly be thought that their silence is accidental. + Herodotus and Thucydides seem to tell us all that they know of + Peisistratus. The orators Lycurgus and Isocrates make a great deal of + the recitation of Homer at the Panathenaea, but know nothing of the + poems having been collected and arranged at Athens, a fact which would + have redounded still more to the honour of the city. Finally, the + Scholia of the _Ven. A_ contain no reference or allusion to the story + of Peisistratus. As these Scholia are derived in substance from the + writings of Aristarchus, it seems impossible to believe that the story + was known to him. The circumstance that it is referred to in the + _Scholia Townleiana_ and in Eustathius, gives additional weight to + this argument. + + The result of these considerations seems to be that nothing rests on + good evidence beyond the fact that Homer was recited by law at the + Panathenaic festival. The rest of the story is probably the result of + gradual expansion and accretion. It was inevitable that later writers + should speculate about the authorship of such a law, and that it + should be attributed with more or less confidence to Solon or + Peisistratus or Hipparchus. The choice would be determined in great + measure by political feeling. It is probably not an accident that + Dieuchidas, who attributed so much to Peisistratus, was a Megarian. + The author of the _Hipparchus_ is evidently influenced by the + anti-democratical tendencies in which he only followed Plato. In the + times to which the story of Peisistratus can be traced, the 1st + century B.C., the substitution of the "tyrant" for the legislator was + extremely natural. It was equally natural that the importance of his + work as regards the text of Homer should be exaggerated. The splendid + patronage of letters by the successors of Alexander, and especially + the great institutions which had been founded at Alexandria and + Pergamum, had made an impression on the imagination of learned men + which was reflected in the current notions of the ancient despots. It + may even be suspected that anecdotes in praise of Peisistratus and + Hipparchus were a delicate form of flattery addressed to the reigning + Ptolemy. Under these influences the older stories of Lycurgus bringing + Homer to the Peloponnesus, and Solon providing for the recitation at + Athens, were thrown into the shade. + + In the later Byzantine times it was believed that Peisistratus was + aided by seventy grammarians, of whom Zenedotus and Aristarchus were + the chief. The great Alexandrian grammarians had become figures in a + new mythology. It is true that Tzetzes, one of the writers from whom + we have this story, gives a better version, according to which + Peisistratus employed four men, viz. Onomacritus, Zopyrus of Heraclea, + Orpheus of Croton, and one whose name is corrupt (written [Greek: + epikogkylos]). Many scholars (among them Ritschl) accept this account + as probable. Yet it rests upon no better evidence than the other. + + The effect of Wolf's _Prolegomena_ was so overwhelming that, although + a few protests were made at the time, the true Homeric controversy did + not begin till after Wolf's death (1824). His speculations were + thoroughly in harmony with the ideas and sentiment of the time, and + his historical arguments, especially his long array of testimonies to + the work of Peisistratus, were hardly challenged. + + The first considerable antagonist of the Wolfian school was G. W. + Nitzsch, whose writings cover the years 1828-1862, and deal with every + side of the controversy. In the earlier part of his _Meletemata_ + (1830) he took up the question of written or unwritten literature, on + which Wolf's whole argument turned, and showed that the art of writing + must be anterior to Peisistratus. In the later part of the same series + of discussions (1837), and in his chief work (_Die Sagenpoesie der + Griechen_, 1852), he investigated the structure of the Homeric poems, + and their relation to the other epics of the Trojan cycle. These epics + had meanwhile been made the subject of a work which for exhaustive + learning and delicacy of artistic perception has few rivals in the + history of philology, the _Epic Cycle_ of F. G. Welcker. The confusion + which previous scholars had made between the ancient post-Homeric + poets (Arctinus, Lesches, &c.) and the learned mythological writers + (such as the "scriptor cyclicus" of Horace) was first cleared up by + Welcker. Wolf had argued that if the cyclic writers had known the + _Iliad_ and _Odyssey_ which we possess, they would have imitated the + unity of structure which distinguishes these two poems. The result of + Welcker's labours was to show that the Homeric poems had influenced + both the form and the substance of epic poetry. + + In this way there arose a conservative school who admitted more or + less freely the absorption of pre-existing lays in the formation of + the _Iliad_ and _Odyssey_, and also the existence of considerable + interpolations, but assigned the main work of formation to prehistoric + times, and to the genius of a great poet. Whether the two epics were + by the same author remained an open question; the tendency of this + group of scholars was decidedly towards separation. Regarding the use + of writing, too, they were not unanimous. K. O. Müller, for instance, + maintained the view of Wolf on this point, while he strenuously + combated the inference which Wolf drew from it. + + The _Prolegomena_ bore on the title-page the words "Volumen I."; but + no second volume ever appeared, nor was any attempt made by Wolf + himself to carry his theory further. The first important steps in that + direction were taken by Gottfried Hermann, chiefly in two + dissertations, _De interpolationibus Homeri_ (Leipzig, 1832), and _De + iteratis Homeri_ (Leipzig, 1840), called forth by the writings of + Nitzsch. As the word "interpolation" implies, Hermann did not maintain + the hypothesis of a congeries of independent "lays." Feeling the + difficulty of supposing that all the ancient minstrels sang of the + "wrath of Achilles" or the "return of Ulysses" (leaving out even the + capture of Troy itself), he was led to assume that two poems of no + great compass dealing with these two themes became so famous at an + early period as to throw other parts of the Trojan story into the + background, and were then enlarged by successive generations of + rhapsodists. Some parts of the _Iliad_, moreover, seemed to him to be + older than the poem on the wrath of Achilles; and thus in addition to + the "Homeric" and "post-Homeric" matter he distinguished a + "pre-Homeric" element. + + The conjectures of Hermann, in which the Wolfian theory found a + modified and tentative application, were presently thrown into the + shade by the more trenchant method of Lachmann, who (in two papers + read to the Berlin Academy in 1837 and 1841) sought to show that the + _Iliad_ was made up of sixteen independent "lays," with various + enlargements and interpolations, all finally reduced to order by + Peisistratus. The first book, for instance, consists of a lay on the + anger of Achilles (1-347), and two continuations, the return of + Chryseis (430-492) and the scenes in Olympus (348-429, 493-611). The + second book forms a second lay, but several passages, among them the + speech of Ulysses (278-332), are interpolated. In the third book the + scenes in which Helen and Priam take part (including the making of the + truce) are pronounced to be interpolations; and so on. Regarding the + evidence on which these sweeping results are founded, opinions will + vary. The degree of smoothness or consistency which is to be expected + on the hypothesis of a single author will be determined by taste + rather than argument. The dissection of the first book, for instance, + turns partly on a chronological inaccuracy which might well escape the + poet as well as his hearers. In examining such points we are apt to + forget that the contradictions by which a story is shown to be untrue + are quite different from those by which a confessedly untrue story + would be shown to be the work of different authors. + +_Structure of the Iliad._--The subject of the Iliad, as the first line +proclaims, is the "anger of Achilles." The manner in which this subject +is worked out will appear from the following summary in which we +distinguish (1) the plot, i.e. the story of the quarrel, (2) the main +course of the war, which forms a sort of underplot, and (3) subordinate +episodes. + + I. Quarrel of Achilles with Agamemnon and the Greek army--Agamemnon, + having been compelled to give up his prize Chryseis, takes Briseïs + from Achilles--Thereupon Achilles appeals to his mother Thetis, who + obtains from Zeus a promise that he will give victory to the Trojans + until the Greeks pay due honour to her son--Meanwhile Achilles takes + no part in the war. + + II. Agamemnon is persuaded by a dream sent from Zeus to take the + field with all his forces. + + His attempt to test the temper of the army nearly leads to their + return. + + Catalogue of the army (probably a later addition). + + Trojan muster--Trojan catalogue. + + III. Meeting of the Armies--Paris challenges Menelaus--Truce made. + + "Teichoscopy," Helen pointing out to Priam the Greek leaders. + + The duel--Paris is saved by Aphrodite. + + IV. Truce broken by Pandarus. + + Advance of the armies--Battle. + + V. Aristeia of Diomede--his combat with Aphrodite. + + VI.--Meeting with Glaucus--Visit of Hector to the (1-311) city, and + offering of a peplus to Athena. + + (312-529) Visit of Hector to Paris--to Andromache. + + VII. Return of Hector and Paris to the field. + + Duel of Ajax and Hector. + + Truce for burial of dead. + + The Greeks build a wall round their camp. + + VIII. Battle--The Trojans encamp on the field. + + IX. Agamemnon sends an embassy by night, offering Achilles + restitution and full amends--Achilles refuses. + + X. Doloneia--Night expedition of Odysseus and Diomede (in all + probability added later). + + XI. Aristeia of Agamemnon--he is wounded--Wounding of Diomede and + Odysseus. + + Achilles sends Antilochus to inquire about Machaon. + + XII. Storming of the wall--the Trojans reach the ships. + + XIII. Zeus ceases to watch the field--Poseidon secretly comes to the + aid of the Greeks. + + XIV. Sleep of Zeus, by the contrivance of Hera. + + XV. Zeus awakened--Restores the advantage to the Trojans--Ajax alone + defends the ships. + + XVI. Achilles is persuaded to allow Patroclus to take the field. + Patroclus drives back the Trojans--kills Sarpedon--is himself killed + by Hector. + + XVII. Battle for the body of Patroclus--Aristeia of Menelaus. + + XVIII. News of the death of Patroclus is brought to Achilles--Thetis + comes with the Nereids--promises to obtain new armour for him from + Hephaestus. + + The shield of Achilles described. + + XIX. Reconciliation of Achilles--His grief and desire to avenge + Patroclus. + + XX. The gods come down to the plain--Combat of Achilles with Aeneas + and Hector, who escape. + + XXI. The Scamander is choked with slain--rises against Achilles, who + is saved by Hephaestus. + + XXII. Hector alone stands against Achilles--his flight round the + walls--he is slain. + + XXIII. Burial of Patroclus--Funeral games. + + XXIV. Priam ransoms the body of Hector--his burial. + +Such is the "action" ([Greek: praxis]) which in Aristotle's opinion +showed the superiority of Homer to all later epic poets. But the proof +that his scheme was the work of a great poet does not depend merely upon +the artistic unity which excited the wonder of Aristotle. A number of +separate "lays" might conceivably be arranged and connected by a man of +poetical taste in a manner that would satisfy all requirements. In such +a case, however, the connecting passages would be slight and weak. Now, +in the _Iliad_ these passages are the finest and most characteristic. +The element of connexion and unity is the story of the "wrath of +Achilles"; and we have only to look at the books which give the story of +the wrath to see how essential they are. Even if the ninth book is +rejected (as Grote proposed), there remain the speeches of the first, +sixteenth and nineteenth books. These speeches form the cardinal points +in the action of the _Iliad_--the framework into which everything else +is set; and they have also the best title to the name of Homer. + +The further question, however, remains,--What shorter narrative piece +fulfilling the conditions of an independent poem has Lachmann succeeded +in disengaging from the existing _Iliad_? It must be admitted that when +tried by this test his "lays" generally fail. The "quarrel of the +chiefs," the "muster of the army," the "duel of Paris and Menelaus," +&c., are excellent beginnings, but have no satisfying conclusion. And +the reason is not far to seek. The _Iliad_ is not a history, nor is it a +series of incidents in the history, of the siege. It turns entirely upon +a single incident, occupying a few days only. The several episodes of +the poem are not so many distinct stories, each with an interest of its +own. They are only parts of a single main event. Consequently the type +of epic poem which would be produced by an aggregation of shorter lays +is not the type which we have in the _Iliad_. Rather the _Iliad_ is +itself a single lay which has grown with the growth of poetical art to +the dimensions of an epic. + +But the original nucleus and parts of the incidents may be the work of a +single great poet, and yet other episodes may be of different +authorship, wrought into the structure of the poem in later times. +Various theories have been based on this supposition. Grote in +particular held that the original poem, which he called the Achilleïs, +did not include books ii.-vii., ix., x., xxiii., xxiv. Such a view may +be defended somewhat as follows. + +Of the books which relate the events during the absence of Achilles from +the Greek ranks (ii.-xv.), the last five are directly related to the +main action. They describe the successive steps by which the Greeks are +driven back, first from the plain to the rampart, then to their ships. +Moreover, three of the chief heroes, Agamemnon, Diomede and Ulysses, are +wounded, and this circumstance, as Lachmann himself admitted, is +steadily kept in mind throughout. It is otherwise with the earlier books +(especially ii.-vii.). The chief incidents in that part of the poem--the +panic rush to the ships, the duels of Paris and Menelaus, and of Hector +and Ajax, the Aristeia of Diomede--stand in no relation to the +mainspring of the poem, the promise made by Zeus to Thetis. It is true +that in the thirteenth and fourteenth books the purpose of Zeus is +thwarted for a time by other gods; but in books ii.-vii. it is not so +much thwarted as ignored. Further, the events follow without sufficient +connexion. The truce of the third book is broken by Pandarus, and +Agamemnon passes along the Greek ranks with words of encouragement, but +without a hint of the treachery just committed. The Aristeia of Diomede +ends in the middle of the sixth book; he is uppermost in all thoughts +down to ver. 311, but from this point, in the meetings of Hector with +Helen and Andromache, and again in the seventh book when Hector +challenges the Greek chiefs, his prowess is forgotten. Once more, some +of the incidents seem to belong properly to the beginning of the war. +The joy of Menelaus on seeing Paris, Priam's ignorance of the Greek +leaders, the speeches of Agamemnon in his review of the ranks (in book +iv.), the building of the wall--all these are in place after the Greek +landing, but hardly in the ninth year of the siege. + +On the other hand, it may be said, the second book opens with a direct +reference to the events of the first, and the mention of Achilles in the +speech of Thersites (ii. 239 sqq.) is sufficient to keep the main course +of events in view. The Catalogue is connected with its place in the poem +by the lines about Achilles (686-694). When Diomede is at the height of +his Aristeia Helenus says (_Il._ vi. 99), "We did not so fear even +Achilles." And when in the third book Priam asks Helen about the Greek +captains, or when in the seventh book nine champions come forward to +contend with Hector, the want of the greatest hero of all is +sufficiently felt. If these passages do not belong to the period of the +wrath of Achilles, how are we to account for his conspicuous absence? + +Further, the want of smoothness and unity which is visible in this part +of the _Iliad_ may be due to other causes than difference of date or +authorship. A national poet such as the author of the _Iliad_ cannot +always choose or arrange his matter at his own will. He is bound by the +traditions of his art, and by the feelings and expectations of his +hearers. The poet who brought the exploits of Diomede into the _Iliad_ +doubtless had his reasons for doing so, which were equally strong +whether he was the poet of the Achilleïs or a later Homerid or +rhapsodist. And if some of the incidents (those of the third book in +particular) seem to belong to the beginning of the war, it must be +considered that poetically, and to the hearers of the _Iliad_, the war +opens in the third book, and the incidents are of the kind that is +required in such a place. The truce makes a pause which heightens the +interest of the impending battle; the duel and the scene on the walls +are effective in bringing some of the leading characters on the stage, +and in making us acquainted with the previous history. The story of +Paris and Helen especially, and the general position of affairs in Troy, +is put before us in a singularly vivid manner. The book in short forms +so good a _prologue_ to the action of the war that we can hardly be +wrong in attributing it to the genius which devised the rest of the +_Iliad_. + +The case against the remaining books is of a different kind. The ninth +and tenth seem like two independent pictures of the night before the +great battle of xi.-xvii. Either is enough to fill the space in Homer's +canvas; and the suspicion arises (as when two Platonic dialogues bear +the same name) that if either had been genuine, the other would not have +come into existence. If one of the two is to be rejected it must be the +tenth, which is certainly the less Homeric. It relates a picturesque +adventure, conceived in a vein more approaching that of comedy than any +other part of the _Iliad_. Moreover, the language in several places +exhibits traces of post-Homeric date. The ninth book, on the other hand, +was rejected by Grote, chiefly on the grounds that the embassy to +Achilles ought to have put an end to the quarrel, and that it is ignored +in later passages, especially in the speeches of Achilles (xi. 609; +xvi. 72, 85). His argument, however, rests on an assumption which we are +apt to bring with us to the reading of the _Iliad_, but which is not +borne out by its language, viz. that there was some definite atonement +demanded by Achilles, or due to him according to the custom and +sentiment of the time. But in the _Iliad_ the whole stress is laid on +the anger of Achilles, which can only be satisfied by the defeat and +extreme peril of the Greeks.[12] He is influenced by his own feeling, +and by nothing else. Accordingly, in the ninth book, when they are still +protected by the rampart (see 348 sqq.), he rejects gifts and fair words +alike; in the sixteenth he is moved by the tears and entreaties of +Patroclus, and the sight of the Greek ships on fire; in the nineteenth +his anger is quenched in grief. But he makes no conditions, either in +rejecting the offers of the embassy or in returning to the Greek army. +And this conduct is the result, not only of his fierce and inexorable +character, but also (as the silence of Homer shows) of the want of any +general rules or principles, any code of morality or of honour, which +would have required him to act in a different way. + +Finally, Grote objected to the two last books that they prolong the +action of the _Iliad_ beyond the exigencies of a coherent scheme. Of the +two, the twenty-third could more easily be spared. In language, and +perhaps in style and manner, it is akin to the tenth; while the +twenty-fourth is in the pathetic vein of the ninth, and like it serves +to bring out new aspects of the character of Achilles. + + Dr E. Kammer has given some strong reasons for doubting the + genuineness of the passage in book xx. describing the duel between + Achilles and Aeneas (79-352). The incident is certainly very much out + of keeping with the vehement action of that part of the poem, and + especially with the moment when Achilles returns to the field, eager + to meet Hector and avenge the death of his friend. The interpolation + (if it is one) is probably due to local interests. It contains the + well-known prophecy that the descendants of Aeneas are to rule over + the Trojans,--pointing to the existence of an Aenead dynasty in the + Troad. So, too, the legend of Anchises in the Hymn to Aphrodite is + evidently local; and Aeneas becomes more prominent in the later epics, + especially the _Cypria_ and the [Greek: Iliou persis] of Arctinus. + +_Structure of the Odyssey._--In the _Odyssey_, as in the _Iliad_, the +events related fall within a short space of time. The difficulty of +adapting the long wanderings of Ulysses to a plan of this type is got +over by the device--first met with in the _Odyssey_--of making the hero +tell the story of his own adventures. In this way the action is made to +begin almost immediately before the actual return of Ulysses. Up to the +time when he reaches Ithaca it moves on three distinct scenes: we follow +the fortunes of Ulysses, of Telemachus on his voyage in the +Peloponnesus, and of Penelope with the suitors. The art with which these +threads are woven together was recognized by Wolf himself, who admitted +the difficulty of applying his theory to the "admirabilis summa et +compages" of the poem. Of the comparatively few attempts which have been +made to dissect the _Odyssey_, the most moderate and attractive is that +of Professor A. Kirchhoff of Berlin.[13] + + According to Kirchhoff, the _Odyssey_ as we have it is the result of + additions made to an original nucleus. There was first of all a + "Return of Odysseus," relating chiefly the adventures with the + Cyclops, Calypso and the Phaeacians; then a continuation, the scene of + which lay in Ithaca, embracing the bulk of books xiii.-xxiii. The poem + so formed was enlarged at some time between Ol. 30 and Ol. 50 by the + stories of books x.-xii. (Circe, the Sirens, Scylla, &c.), and the + adventures of Telemachus. Lastly, a few passages were interpolated in + the time of Peisistratus. + + The proof that the scenes in Ithaca are by a later hand than the + ancient "Return" is found chiefly in a contradiction discussed by + Kirchhoff in his sixth dissertation (pp. 135 sqq., ed. 1869). + Sometimes Ulysses is represented as aged and worn by toil, so that + Penelope, for instance, cannot recognize him; sometimes he is really + in the prime of heroic vigour, and his appearing as a beggarly old man + is the work of Athena's wand. The first of these representations is + evidently natural, considering the twenty eventful years that have + passed; but the second, Kirchhoff holds, is the Ulysses of Calypso's + island and the Phaeacian court. He concludes that the aged Ulysses + belongs to the "continuation" (the change wrought by Athena's wand + being a device to reconcile the two views), and hence that the + continuation is the work of a different author. + + Ingenious as this is, there is really very slender ground for + Kirchhoff's thesis. The passages in the second half of the _Odyssey_ + which describe the appearance of Ulysses do not give _two_ well-marked + representations of him. Sometimes Athena disguises him as a decrepit + beggar, sometimes she bestows on him supernatural beauty and vigour. + It must be admitted that we are not told exactly how long in each case + the effect of these changes lasted. But neither answers to his natural + appearance, or to the appearance which he is imagined to present in + the earlier books. In the palace of Alcinous, for instance, it is + noticed that he is vigorous but "marred by many ills" (_Od._ viii. + 137); and this agrees with the scenes of recognition in the latter + part of the poem. + + The arguments by which Kirchhoff seeks to prove that the stories of + books x.-xii. are much later than those of book ix. are not more + convincing. He points out some resemblances between these three books + and the Argonautic fables, among them the circumstance that a fountain + Artacia occurs in both. In the Argonautic story this fountain is + placed in the neighbourhood of Cyzicus, and answers to an actual + fountain known in historical times. Kirchhoff argues that the Artacia + of the Argonautic story must have been taken from the real Artacia, + and the Artacia of the _Odyssey_ again from that of the Argonautic + story. And as Cyzicus was settled from Miletus, he infers that both + sets of stories must be comparatively late. It is more probable, + surely, that the name Artacia occurred independently (as most + geographical names are found to occur) in more than one place. Or it + may be that the Artacia of the _Odyssey_ suggested the name to the + colonists of Cyzicus, whence it was adopted into the later versions of + the Argonautic story. The further argument that the _Nostoi_ + recognized a son of Calypso by Ulysses but no son of Circe, + consequently that Circe was unknown to the poet of the _Nostoi_, rests + (in the first place) upon a conjectural alteration of a passage in + Eustathius, and, moreover, has all the weakness of an argument from + silence, in addition to the uncertainty arising from our very slight + knowledge of the author whose silence is in question. Finally, when + Kirchhoff finds traces in books x.-xii. of their having been + originally told by the poet himself instead of being put in the mouth + of his hero, we feel that inaccuracies of this kind are apt to creep + in wherever a fictitious story is thrown into the form of an + autobiography. + + Inquiries conducted with the refinement which characterizes those of + Kirchhoff are always instructive, and his book contains very many just + observations; but it is impossible to admit his main conclusions. And + perhaps we may infer that no similar attempt can be more successful. + It does not indeed follow that the _Odyssey_ is free from + interpolations. The [Greek: Nekuia] of book xi. may be later (as Lauer + maintained), or it may contain additions, which could easily be + inserted in a description of the kind. And the last book is probably + by a different hand, as the ancient critics believed. But the unity of + the _Odyssey_ as a whole is apparently beyond the reach of the + existing weapons of criticism. + +_Chorizontes._--When we are satisfied that each of the great Homeric +poems is either wholly or mainly the work of a single poet, a question +remains which has been matter of controversy in ancient as well as +modern times--Are they the work of the same poet? Two ancient +grammarians, Xeno and Hellanicus, were known as the "separators" +([Greek: oi chôrizontes]); and Aristarchus appears to have written a +treatise against their heresy. In modern times some of the greatest +names have been on the side of the "Chorizontes." + +If, as has been maintained in the preceding pages, the external evidence +regarding Homer is of no value, the problem now before us may be stated +in this form: Given two poems of which nothing is known except that they +are of the same school of poetry, what is the probability that they are +by the same author? We may find a fair parallel by imagining two plays +drawn at hazard from the works of the great tragic writers. It is +evident that the burden of proof would rest with those who held them to +be by the same hand. + +The arguments used in this discussion have been of very various calibre. +The ancient Chorizontes observed that the messenger of Zeus is Iris in +the _Iliad_, but Hermes in the _Odyssey_; that the wife of Hephaestus is +one of the Charites in the _Iliad_, but Aphrodite in the _Odyssey_; that +the heroes in the _Iliad_ do not eat fish; that Crete has a hundred +cities according to the _Iliad_, and only ninety according to the +_Odyssey_; that [Greek: proparoithe] is used in the _Iliad_ of place, in +the _Odyssey_ of time, &c. Modern scholars have added to the list, +especially by making careful comparisons of the two poems in respect of +vocabulary and grammatical forms. Nothing is more difficult than to +assign the degree of weight to be given to such facts. The difference of +subject between the two poems is so great that it leads to the most +striking differences of detail, especially in the vocabulary. For +instance, the word [Greek: phobos], which in Homer means "flight in +battle" (not "fear"), occurs thirty-nine times in the _Iliad_, and only +once in the _Odyssey_; but then there are no battles in the _Odyssey_. +Again, the verb [Greek: rhêgnymi], "to break," occurs forty-eight times +in the _Iliad_, and once in the _Odyssey_,--the reason being that it is +constantly used of breaking the armour of an enemy, the gate of a city, +the hostile ranks, &c. Once more, the word [Greek: skotos], "darkness," +occurs fourteen times in the _Iliad_, once in the _Odyssey_. But in +every one of the fourteen places it is used of "darkness" coming over +the sight of a fallen warrior. On the other side, if words such as +[Greek: asaminthos], "a bath," [Greek: chernips], "a basin for the +hands," [Greek: leschê], "a place to meet and talk," &c., are peculiar +to the _Odyssey_, we have only to remember that the scene in the _Iliad_ +is hardly ever laid within any walls except those of a tent. These +examples will show that mere statistics of the occurrence of words prove +little, and that we must begin by looking to the subject and character +of each poem. When we do so, we at once find ourselves in the presence +of differences of the broadest kind. The _Iliad_ is much more historical +in tone and character. The scene of the poem is a real place, and the +poet sings (as Ulysses says of Demodocus) as though he had been present +himself, or had heard from one who had been. The supernatural element is +confined to an interference of the gods, which to the common eye hardly +disturbs the natural current of affairs. The _Odyssey_, on the contrary, +is full of the magical and romantic--"speciosa miracula," as Horace +called them. Moreover, these marvels--which in their original form are +doubtless as old as anything in the _Iliad_, since in fact they are part +of the vast stock of popular tales (_Märchen_) diffused all over the +world--are mixed up in the _Odyssey_ with the heroes of the Trojan war. +This has been especially noticed in the case of the story of Polyphemus, +one that is found in many countries, and in versions which cannot all be +derived from Homer. W. Grimm has pointed out that the behaviour of +Ulysses in that story is senseless and foolhardy, utterly beneath the +wise and much-enduring Ulysses of the Trojan war. The reason is simple; +he is not the Ulysses of the Trojan war, but a being of the same world +as Polyphemus himself--the world of giants and ogres. The question then +is--How long must the name of Ulysses have been familiar in the legend +(_Sage_) of Troy before it made its way into the tales of giants and +ogres (_Märchen_), where the poet of the _Odyssey_ found it? + +Again, the Trojan legend has itself received some extension between the +time of the _Iliad_ and that of the _Odyssey_. The story of the Wooden +Horse is not only unknown to the _Iliad_, but is of a kind which we can +hardly imagine the poet of the _Iliad_ admitting. The part taken by +Neoptolemus seems also to be a later addition. The tendency to amplify +and complete the story shows itself still more in the Cyclic poets. +Between the _Iliad_ and these poets the _Odyssey_ often occupies an +intermediate position. + +This great and significant change in the treatment of the heroic legends +is accompanied by numerous minor differences (such as the ancients +remarked) in belief, in manners and institutions, and in language. These +differences bear out the inference that the _Odyssey_ is of a later age. +The progress of reflection is especially shown in the higher ideas +entertained regarding the gods. The turbulent Olympian court has almost +disappeared. Zeus has acquired the character of a supreme moral ruler; +and although Athena and Poseidon are adverse influences in the poem, the +notion of a direct contest between them is scrupulously avoided. The +advance of morality is shown in the more frequent use of terms such as +"just" ([Greek: dikaios]), "piety" ([Greek: hoshiê]), "insolence" +([Greek: hubris]), "god-fearing" ([Greek: theoudês]), "pure" ([Greek: +hagnos]); and also in the plot of the story, which is distinctly a +contest between right and wrong. In matters bearing upon the arts of +life it is unsafe to press the silence of the _Iliad_. We may note, +however, the difference between the house of Priam, surrounded by +distinct dwellings for his many sons and daughters, and the houses of +Ulysses and Alcinous, with many chambers under a single roof. The +singer, too, who is so prominent a figure in the _Odyssey_ can hardly be +thought to be absent from the _Iliad_ merely because the scene is laid +in a camp. + +_Style of Homer._--A few words remain to be said on the style and +general character of the Homeric poems, and on the comparisons which may +be made between Homer and analogous poetry in other countries. + +The cardinal qualities of the style of Homer have been pointed out once +for all by Matthew Arnold. "The translator of Homer," he says, "should +above all be penetrated by a sense of four qualities of his author--that +he is eminently rapid; that he is eminently plain and direct, both in +the evolution of his thought and in the expression of it, that is, both +in his syntax and in his words; that he is eminently plain and direct in +the substance of his thought, that is, in his matter and ideas; and, +finally, that he is eminently noble" (_On Translating Homer_, p. 9). + +The peculiar rapidity of Homer is due in great measure to his use of the +hexameter verse. It is characteristic of early literature that the +evolution of the thought--that is, the grammatical form of the +sentence--is guided by the structure of the verse; and the +correspondence which consequently obtains between the rhythm and the +grammar--the thought being given out in lengths, as it were, and these +again divided by tolerably uniform pauses--produces a swift flowing +movement, such as is rarely found when the periods have been constructed +without direct reference to the metre. That Homer possesses this +rapidity without falling into the corresponding faults--that is, without +becoming either "jerky" or monotonous--is perhaps the best proof of his +unequalled poetical skill. The plainness and directness, both of thought +and of expression, which characterize Homer were doubtless qualities of +his age; but the author of the _Iliad_ (like Voltaire, to whom Arnold +happily compares him) must have possessed the national gift in a +surpassing degree. The _Odyssey_ is in this respect perceptibly below +the level of the _Iliad_. + +Rapidity or ease of movement, plainness of expression and plainness of +thought, these are not the distinguishing qualities of the great epic +poets--Virgil, Dante, Milton. On the contrary, they belong rather to the +humbler epico-lyrical school for which Homer has been so often claimed. +The proof that Homer does not belong to that school--that his poetry is +not in any true sense "ballad-poetry"--is furnished by the higher +artistic structure of his poems (already discussed), and as regards +style by the fourth of the qualities distinguished by Arnold--the +quality of _nobleness_. It is his noble and powerful style, sustained +through every change of idea and subject, that finally separates Homer +from all forms of "ballad-poetry" and "popular epic."[14] + +But while we are on our guard against a once common error, we may +recognize the historical connexion between the _Iliad_ and _Odyssey_ and +the "ballad" literature which undoubtedly preceded them in Greece. It +may even be admitted that the swift-flowing movement, and the simplicity +of thought and style, which we admire in the _Iliad_ are an inheritance +from the earlier "lays"--the [Greek: klea andrôn] such as Achilles and +Patroclus sang to the lyre in their tent. Even the metre--the hexameter +verse--may be assigned to them. But between these lays and Homer we must +place the cultivation of epic poetry as an art.[15] The pre-Homeric lays +doubtless furnished the elements of such a poetry--the alphabet, so to +speak, of the art; but they must have been refined and transmuted before +they formed poems like the _Iliad_ and _Odyssey_. + +A single example will illustrate this. In the scene on the walls of +Troy, in the third book of the _Iliad_, after Helen has pointed out +Agamemnon, Ulysses and Ajax in answer to Priam's questions, she goes on +unasked to name Idomeneus. Lachmann, whose mind is full of the ballad +manner, fastens upon this as an irregularity. "The unskilful transition +from Ajax to Idomeneus, about whom no question had been asked," he +cannot attribute to the original poet of the lay (_Betrachtungen_, p. +15, ed. 1865). But, as was pointed out by A. Römer[16], this is exactly +the variation which a _poet_ would introduce to relieve the primitive +_ballad-like_ sameness of question and answer; and moreover it forms the +transition to the lines about the Dioscuri by which the scene is so +touchingly brought to a close. + +_Analogies._--The development of epic poetry (properly so called) out of +the oral songs or ballads of a country is a process which in the nature +of things can seldom be observed. It seems clear, however, that the +hypothesis of epics such as the _Iliad_ and _Odyssey_ having been formed +by putting together or even by working up shorter poems finds no support +from analogy. + +Narrative poetry of great interest is found in several countries (such +as Spain and Servia), in which it has never attained to the epic stage. +In Scandinavia, in Lithuania, in Russia, according to Gaston Paris +(_Histoire poétique de Charlemagne_, p. 9), the national songs have been +arrested in a form which may be called intermediate between contemporary +poetry and the epic. The true epics are those of India, Persia, Greece, +Germany, Britain and France. Most of these, however, fail to afford any +useful points of comparison, either from their utter unlikeness to +Homer, or because there is no evidence of the existence of anterior +popular songs. The most instructive, perhaps the only instructive, +parallel is to be found in the French "chansons de geste," of which the +_Chanson de Roland_ is the earliest and best example. These poems are +traced back with much probability to the 10th century. They are epic in +character, and were recited by professional _jongleurs_ (who may be +compared to the [Greek: aoidoi] of Homer). But as early as the 7th +century we come upon traces of short lays (the so-called cantilènes) +which were in the mouths of all and were sung in chorus. It has been +held that the chansons de geste were formed by joining together +"bunches" of these earlier cantilènes, and this was the view taken by +Léon Gautier in the first edition of _Les Épopées françaises_ (1865). In +the second edition, of which the first volume appeared in 1878, he +abandoned this theory. He believes that the epics were generally +composed under the influence of earlier songs. "Our first epic poets," +he says, "did not actually and materially patch together pre-existent +cantilènes. They were only inspired by these popular songs; they only +borrowed from them the traditional and legendary elements. In short, +they took nothing from them but the ideas, the spirit, the life; they +'found' (ils ont trouvé) all the rest" (p. 80). But he admits that "some +of the old poems may have been borrowed from tradition, without any +intermediary" (ibid.); and when it is considered that the traces of the +"cantilènes" are slight, and that the degree in which they inspired the +later poetry must be a matter of impression rather than of proof, it +does not surprise us to find other scholars (notably Paul Meyer) +attaching less importance to them, or even doubting their existence.[17] + +When Léon Gautier shows how history passes into legend, and legend again +into romance, we are reminded of the difference noticed above between +the _Iliad_ and the _Odyssey_, and between Homer and the early Cyclic +poems. And the peculiar degradation of Homeric characters which appears +in some poets (especially Euripides) finds a parallel in the later +chansons de geste.[18] + +The comparison of Homer with the great literary epics calls for more +discursive treatment than would be in place here. Some external +differences have been already indicated. Like the French epics, Homeric +poetry is indigenous, and is distinguished by this fact, and by the ease +of movement and the simplicity which result from it, from poets such as +Virgil, Dante and Milton. It is also distinguished from them by the +comparative absence of underlying motives or sentiment. In Virgil's +poetry a sense of the greatness of Rome and Italy is the leading motive +of a passionate rhetoric, partly veiled by the "chosen delicacy" of his +language. Dante and Milton are still more faithful exponents of the +religion and politics of their time. Even the French epics are pervaded +by the sentiment of fear and hatred of the Saracens. But in Homer the +interest is purely dramatic. There is no strong antipathy of race or +religion; the war turns on no political event; the capture of Troy lies +outside the range of the _Iliad_. Even the heroes are not the chief +national heroes of Greece. The interest lies wholly (so far as we can +see) in the picture of human action and feeling. + + BIBLIOGRAPHY.--A complete bibliography of Homer would fill volumes. + The following list is intended to include those books only which are + of first-rate importance. + + The _editio princeps_ of Homer, published at Florence in 1488, by + Demetrius Chalcondylas, and the Aldine editions of 1504 and 1517, have + still some value beyond that of curiosity. The chief modern critical + editions are those of Wolf (Halle, 1794-1795; Leipzig, 1804-1807), + Spitzner (Gotha, 1832-1836), Bekker (Berlin, 1843; Bonn, 1858), La + Roche (_Odyssey_, 1867-1868; _Iliad_, 1873-1876, both at Leipzig); + Ludwich (_Odyssey_, Leipzig, 1889-1891; _Iliad_, 2 vols., 1901 and + 1907): W. Leaf (_Iliad_, London, 1886-1888; 2nd ed. 1900-1902); Merry + and Riddell (_Odyssey_ i.-xii., 2nd ed., Oxford, 1886); Monro + (_Odyssey_ xiii.-xxiv. with appendices, Oxford, 1901); Monro and Allen + (_Iliad_), and Allen (_Odyssey_, 1908, Oxford). The commentaries of + Barnes, Clarke and Ernesti are practically superseded; but Heyne's + _Iliad_ (Leipzig, 1802) and Nitzsch's commentary on the _Odyssey_ + (books i.-xii., Hanover, 1826-1840) are still useful. Nägelbach's + _Anmerkungen zur Ilias_ (A, B 1-483, [Gamma]) is of great value, + especially the third edition (by Autenrieth, Nuremberg, 1864). The + unique _Scholia Veneta_ on the _Iliad_ were first made known by + Villoison (_Homeri Ilias ad veteris codicis Veneti fidem recensita, + Scholia in eam antiquissima ex eodem codice aliisque nunc primum + edidit, cum Asteriscis, Obeliscis, aliisque signis criticis, Joh. + Baptista Caspar d'Ansse de Villoison_, Venice, 1788); reprinted, with + many additions from other MSS., by Bekker (_Scholia in Homeri + Iliadem_, Berlin, 1825-1826). A new edition has been published by the + Oxford Press (_Scholia Graeca in Homeri Iliadem_, ed. Gul. + Dindorfius); six volumes have appeared (1875-1888), the last two + edited by Professor E. Maass. The vast commentary of Eustathius was + first printed at Rome in 1542; the last edition is that of Stallbaum + (Leipzig, 1827). The Scholia on the _Odyssey_ were published by + Buttmann (Berlin, 1821), and with greater approach to completeness by + W. Dindorf (Oxford, 1855). Although Wolf at once perceived the value + of the Venetian Scholia on the _Iliad_, the first scholar who + thoroughly explored them was C. Lehrs (_De Aristarchi studiis + Homericis_, Königsberg, 1833; 2nd ed., Leipzig, 1865). Of the studies + in the same field which have appeared since, the most important are: + Aug. Nauck, _Aristophanis Byzantii fragmenta_ (Halle, 1848); L. + Friedländer, _Aristonici_ [Greek: peri sêmeiôn 'Iliados] _reliquiae_ + (Göttingen, 1853); M. Schmidt, _Didymi Chalcenteri fragmenta_ + (Leipzig, 1854); L. Friedländer, _Nicanoris_ [Greek: peri Iliakês + stigmês] _reliquiae_ (Berlin, 1857); Aug. Lentz, _Herodiani Technici + reliquiae_ (Leipzig, 1867); J. La Roche, _Die homerische Textkritik im + Alterthum_ (Leipzig, 1866) and _Homerische Untersuchungen_ (Leipzig, + 1869); Ad. Römer, _Die Werke der Aristarcheer im Cod. Venet. A._ + (Munich, 1875); A. Ludwich, _Aristarch's Homerische Textkritik_ (2 + vols. Leipzig, 1884-1885); and _Die Homervulgata als + vor-Alexandrinisch erwiesen_ (Leipzig, 1898). + + The literature of the "Homeric Question" begins practically with + Wolf's _Prolegomena_ (Halle, 1795). Of the earlier books Wood's _Essay + on the Original Genius and Writings of Homer_ is the most interesting. + Wolf's views were skilfully popularized in W. Müller's _Homerische + Vorschule_ (2nd ed., Leipzig, 1836). G. Hermann's dissertations _De + interpolationibus Homeri_ (1832) and _De iteratis apuà Homerum_ (1840) + are reprinted in his _Opuscula_. Lachmann's two papers (_Betrachtungen + über Homer's Ilias_) were edited together by M. Haupt (2nd ed., + Berlin, 1865). Besides the somewhat voluminous writings of Nitzsch, + and the discussions contained in the histories of Greek literature by + K. O. Müller, Bernhardy, Ulrici and Th. Bergk, and in Grote's _History + of Greece_, see Welcker, _Der epische Cyclus oder die homerischen + Dichter_ (Bonn, 1835-1849); on Proclus and the Cycle reference may + also be made to Wilamowitz-Möllendorf p. 328 seq.; E. Bethe, _Rhein. + Mus._ (1891), xxvi. p. 593 seq.; O. Immisch, _Festschrift Th. Gomperz + dargebracht_ (1902), p. 237 sq.; Lauer, _Geschichte der homerischen + Poesie_ (Berlin, 1851); Sengebusch, two dissertations prefixed to the + two volumes of W. Dindorf's _Homer_ in the Teubner series (1855-1856); + Friedländer, _Die homerische Kritik von Wolf bis Grote_ (Berlin, + 1853); Nutzhorn, _Die Entstehungsweise der homerischen Gedichte, mit + Vorwort von J. N. Madvig_ (Leipzig, 1869); E. Kammer, _Zur homerischen + Frage_ (Königsberg, 1870); and _Die Einheit der Odyssee_ (Leipzig, + 1873); Ä. Kirchhoff, _Die Composition der Odyssee_ (Berlin, 1869); + Volkmann, _Geschichte und Kritik der Wolf'schen Prolegomena_ (Leipzig, + 1874); K. Sittl, _Die Wiederholungen in der Odyssee_ (München, 1882); + U. v. Wilamowitz-Möllendorf, _Homerische Untersuchungen_ (Berlin, + 1884); O. Seeck, _Die Quellen der Odyssee_ (Berlin, 1887); F. Blass, + _Die Interpolationen in der Odyssee_ (Leipzig, 1905). The interest + taken in the question by English students is sufficiently shown in the + writings of W. E. Gladstone, F. A. Paley, Henry Hayman (in the + Introduction to his _Odyssey_), P. Geddes, R. C. Jebb and A. Lang (see + especially the latter's _Homer and his Age_, 1907). + + The Homeric dialect must be studied in the books (such as those of G. + Curtius) that deal with Greek on the comparative method. The best + special work is the brief _Griechische Formenlehre_ of H. L. Ahrens + (Göttingen, 1852). Other important works are those of Aug. Fick: _Die + homerische Odyssee in der ursprünglichen Sprachform wiederhergestelt_ + (Göttingen, 1883); _Die homerische Ilias_ (_ibid._, 1886); W. Schulze, + _Quaestiones epicae_ (Güterslohe, 1892). On Homeric syntax the chief + book is B. Delbrück's _Syntactische Forschungen_ (Halle, 1871-1879), + especially vols. i. and iv.; on metre, &c., Hartel's _Homerische + Studien_ (i.-iii., Vienna); Knös, _De digammo Homerico quaestiones_ + (Upsala, 1872-1873-1878); Thumb, _Zur Geschichte des griech. Digamma, + Indogermanische Forschungen_ (1898), ix. 294 seq. The papers reprinted + in Bekker's _Homerische Blätter_ (Bonn, 1863-1872) and Cobet's + _Miscellanea Crilica_ (Leiden, 1876) are of the highest value. + Hoffmann's _Quaestiones Homericae_ (Clausthal, 1842) is a useful + collection of facts. Buttmann's _Lexilogus_, as an example of method, + is still worth study. + + The antiquities of Homer--using the word in a wide sense--may be + studied in the following books: Völcker, _Über homerische Geographie + und Weltkunde_ (Hanover, 1830); Nägelsbach's _Homerische Theologie_ + (2nd ed., Nuremberg, 1861); H. Brunn, _Die Kunst bei Homer_ (Munich, + 1868); W. W. Lloyd, _On the Homeric Design of the Shield of Achilles_ + (London, 1854); Buchholz, _Die homerischen Realien_ (Leipzig, + 1871-1873); W. Helbig, _Das homerische Epos aus den Denkmälern + erläutert_ (Leipzig, 1884; 2nd ed., ibid., 1887); W. Reichel, _Über + homerische Waffen_ (Vienna, 1894); C. Robert, _Studien zur Ilias_ + (Berlin, 1901); W. Ridgeway, _The Early Age of Greece_ (Cambridge, + 1901); V. Bérard, _Les Phéniciens et l'Odyssée_ (Paris, 1902-1903); C. + Robert, "Topographische Probleme der Ilias," in _Hermes_, xlii., 1907, + pp. 78-112. + + Among other aids should be mentioned the _Index Homericus_ of Seber + (Oxford, 1780); Prendergast's _Concordance to the Iliad_ (London, + 1875); Dunbar's _id._ to the _Odyssey and Hymns_ (Oxford, 1880); + Frohwein, _Verbum Homericum_, (Leipzig, 1881); Gehring, _Index + Homericus_ (Leipzig, 1891); the _Lexicon Homericum_, edited by H. + Ebeling (Leipzig, 1880-1885) and the facsimile of the cod. Ven. A + (Sijthoff; Leiden, 1901), with an introduction by D. Comparetti. + (D. B. M.) + + +FOOTNOTES: + + [1] This article was thoroughly revised by Dr D. B. Monro before his + death in 1905; a few points have since been added by Mr. T. W. Allen. + + [2] See a paper in the _Diss. Philol. Halenses_, ii. 97-219. + + [3] Compare the _Popular Rhymes of Scotland_, published by Robert + Chambers. + + [4] Compare the branch of myrtle at an Athenian feast (Aristoph., + _Nub._, 1364). + + [5] The _Iliad_ was also recited at the festival of the Brauronia, at + Brauron in Attica (Hesych. _s.v._ [Greek: branrôniois]). + + [6] _Contemporary Review_, vol. xxiii. p. 218 ff. + + [7] The fact that the Phoenician Vau ([digamma]) was retained in the + Greek alphabets, and the vowel [upsilon] added, shows that when the + alphabet was introduced the sound denoted by [digamma] was still in + full vigour. Otherwise [digamma] would have been used for the vowel + [upsilon], just as the Phoenician consonant Yod became the vowel + [iota]. But in the Ionic dialect the sound of [digamma] died out soon + after Homer's time, if indeed it was still pronounced then. It seems + probable therefore that the introduction of the alphabet is not later + than the composition of the Homeric poems. + + [8] See D. B. Monro's _Homer's Odyssey_, books xiii.-xxiv. (Oxford, + 1901, p. 455 sqq.), and the abstract of his paper on the Homeric + Dialect read to the Congress of Historical Sciences at Rome, 1903: + _Atti del Congresso internazionale di scienze storiche_, ii. 152, + 153, 1905, "Il Dialetto omerico." + + [9] See the chapter in Cobet's _Miscellanea critica_, pp. 225-239. + + [10] The existence of two groups of the Venetian Scholia was first + noticed by Jacob La Roche, and they were first distinguished in the + edition of W. Dindorf (Oxford, 1875). There is also a group of + Scholia, chiefly exegetical, a collection of which was published by + Villoison from a MS. Ven. 453 (s. xi.) in his edition of 1788, and + has been again edited by W. Dindorf (Oxford, 1877). The most + important collection of this group is contained in the _Codex + Townleianus_ (Burney 86 s. xi.) of the British Museum, edited by E. + Maass, (Oxford, 1887-1888). The vast commentary of Eustathius (of the + 12th century) marks a third stage in the progress of ancient Homeric + learning. + + [11] _Prolegomena ad Homerum, sive de operum Homericorum prisca et + genuina forma variisque mutationibus et probabili ratione emendandi._ + scripsit Frid. Aug. Wolfius, volumen i. (1795). + + [12] On this point see a paper by Professor Packard in the _Trans. of + the American Philological Association_ (1876). + + [13] _Die Composition der Odyssee_ (Berlin, 1869). A full discussion + of this book is given by Dr E. Kammer, _Die Einheit der Odyssee_ + (Leipzig, 1873). + + [14] "As a poet Homer must be acknowledged to excel Shakespeare in + the truth, the harmony, the sustained grandeur, the satisfying + completeness of his images" (Shelley, _Essays_, &c., i. 51, ed. + 1852). + + [15] "The old English balladist may stir Sir Philip Sidney's heart + like a trumpet, and this is much; but Homer, but the few artists in + the grand style, can do more--they can refine the raw natural man, + they can transmute him" (_On Translating Homer_, p. 61). + + [16] _Die exegetischen Scholien der Ilias_, p. vii. + + [17] "On comprend que des chants populaires nés d'un événement + éclatant, victoire ou défaite, puissent contribuer à former la + tradition, à en arrêter les traits; ils peuvent aussi devenir le + centre de légendes qui se forment pour les expliquer; et de la sorte + leur substance au moins arrive au poëte épique qui l'introduit dans + sa composition. Voilà ce qui a pu se produire pour de chants + très-courts, dont il est d'ailleurs aussi difficile d'affirmer que de + nier l'existence. Mais on peut expliquer la formation des chansons de + geste par une autre hypothèse" (Meyer, _Recherches sur l'épopée + française_, p. 65). "Ce qui a fait naître la théorie des chants + 'lyrico-épiques' ou des cantilènes, c'est le système de Wolf sur les + poëmes homériques, et de Lachmann sur les _Nibelungen_. Mais, au + moins en ce qui concerne ce dernier poëme, le système est détruit.... + On tire encore argument des romances espagnoles, qui, dit-on, sont + des 'cantilènes' non encore arrivées à l'épopée.... Et c'est le + malheur de cette théorie: faute de preuves directes, elle cherche des + analogies au dehors: en Espagne, elle trouve des 'cantilènes,' mais + pas d'épopée; en Allemagne, une épopée, mais pas de cantilènes!" + (_Ibid._ p. 66). + + [18] A. Lang, _Contemporary Review_, vol. xvii., N.S., p. 588. + + + + +HOMER, WINSLOW (1836-1910), American painter, was born in Boston, +U.S.A., on the 24th of February 1836. At the age of nineteen he was +apprenticed to a lithographer. Two years later he opened a studio in +Boston, and devoted much of his time to making drawings for +wood-engravers. In 1859 he removed to New York, where he studied in the +night-school of the National Academy of Design. During the American +Civil War he was with the troops at the front, and contributed sketches +to _Harper's Weekly_. The war also furnished him with the subjects for +the first two pictures which he exhibited (1863), one of which was +"Home, Sweet Home." His "Prisoners from the Front"--perhaps his most +generally popular picture--was exhibited in New York in 1865, and also +in Paris in 1867, where he was spending the year in study. Among his +other paintings in oil are "Snap the Whip" (which was exhibited at the +Philadelphia Centennial Exhibition of 1876, and, in company with "The +Country Schoolroom," at the Paris Salon the following year), "Eating +Water-melon," "The Cotton Pickers," "Visit from the Old Mistress, Sunday +Morning," "The Life-Line" and "The Coming of the Gale." His genius, +however, has perhaps shown better in his works in water-colour, among +which are his marine studies painted at Gloucester, Mass., and his +"Inside the Bar," "The Voice from the Cliffs" (pictures of English +fisherwomen), "Tynemouth," "Wrecking of a Vessel" and "Lost on the +Grand Banks." His work, which principally consists of _genre_ pictures, +is characterized by strength, rugged directness and unmistakable +freshness and originality, rather than by technical excellence, grace of +line or beauty of colour. He was little affected by European influences. +His types and scenes, apart from his few English pictures, are +distinctly American--soldiers in blue, New England children, negroes in +the land of cotton, Gloucester fishermen and stormy Atlantic seas. +Besides being a member of the Society of Painters in Water-color, New +York, he was elected in 1864 an associate and the following year a +member of the National Academy of Design. + + + + +HOMESTEAD, a borough of Allegheny county, Pennsylvania, U.S.A., on the +Monongahela river, 8 m. S.E. of Pittsburg. Pop. (1890) 7911; (1900) +12,554, of whom 3604 were foreign-born and 640 were negroes; (U.S. +census, 1910) 18,713. It is served by the Pennsylvania and the Pittsburg +& Lake Erie railways, and by the short Union Railroad, which connects +with the Bessemer & Lake Erie and the Wabash railways. The borough has a +Carnegie library and the C.M. Schwab Manual Training School. Partly in +Homestead but chiefly in the adjoining borough of Munhall (and therefore +not reported as in Homestead by the U.S. Census) is one of the largest +plants in the United States for the manufacture of steel used in the +construction of bridges and steel-frame buildings and of steel +armour-plate, and this is its chief industry; among Homestead's other +manufactures are glass and fire-bricks. The water-works are owned and +operated by the municipality. Homestead was first settled in 1871, and +it was incorporated in 1880. In 1892 a labour strike lasting 143 days +and one of the most serious in the history of the United States was +carried on here by the National Amalgamated Association of Iron and +Steel Workers of the United States against the Carnegie Steel Company. +The arrival (on the 6th of July) of a force of about 200 Pinkerton +detectives from New York and Chicago resulted in a fight in which about +10 men were killed, and to restore order two brigades of the state +militia were called out. See STRIKES AND LOCKOUTS. + + + + +HOMESTEAD AND EXEMPTION LAWS, laws (principally in the United States) +designed primarily either to aid the head of a family to acquire title +to a place of residence or to protect the owner against loss of that +title through seizure for debt. These laws have all been enacted in +America since about the middle of the 19th century, and owe their origin +to the demand for a population of the right sort in a new country, to +the conviction that the freeholder rather than the tenant is the natural +supporter of popular government, to the effort to prevent insolvent +debtors from becoming useless members of society, and to the belief that +such laws encourage the stability of the family. + +By the cessions of several of the older states, and by various treaties +with foreign countries, public lands have been acquired for the United +States in every state and territory of the Union except the original +thirteen, and Maine, Vermont, Kentucky, Tennessee and Texas. For a time +they were regarded chiefly as a source of revenue, but about 1820, as +the need of revenue for the payment of the national debt decreased and +the inhabitants of an increasing number of new states became eager to +have the vacant lands within their bounds occupied, the demand that the +public lands should be disposed of more in the interest of the settler +became increasingly strong, and the homestead idea originated. Until the +advent of railways, however, the older states of the North were opposed +to promoting the development of the West in this manner, and soon +afterwards the Southern representatives in Congress opposed the general +homestead bills in the interests of slavery, so that except in isolated +cases where settlers were desired to protect some frontier, as in +Florida and Oregon, and to a limited extent in the case of the +Pre-emption Act of 1841 (see below), the homestead principle was not +applied by the national government until the Civil War had begun. A +general homestead bill was passed by Congress in 1860, but this was +vetoed by President James Buchanan; two years later, however, a similar +bill became a law. The act of 1862 originally provided that any citizen +of the United States, or applicant for citizenship, who was the head of +a family, or twenty-one years of age, or, if younger, had served not +less than fourteen days in the army or navy of the United States during +an actual war, might apply for 160 acres or less of unappropriated +public lands, and might acquire title to this amount of land by residing +upon and cultivating it for five years immediately following, and paying +such fees as were necessary to cover the cost of administration; a +homestead acquired in this manner was exempted from seizure for any debt +contracted prior to the date of issuing the patent. A commutation clause +of this act permitted title to be acquired after only six months of +residence by paying $1.25 per acre, as provided in the Pre-emption Act +of 1841. Act of 1872, amended in 1901, allows any soldier or seaman, who +has served at least ninety days in the army or navy of the United States +during the Civil War, the Spanish-American War or in the suppression of +the insurrection in the Philippines, and was honourably discharged, to +apply for a homestead, and permits the deduction of the time of such +service, or, if discharged on account of wounds or other disability +incurred in the line of duty, the full term of his enlistment, from the +five years otherwise required for perfecting title, except that in any +case he shall have resided upon and cultivated the land at least one +year before the passing of title. Since 1866 mineral lands have been for +the most part excluded from entry as homesteads. + +In accordance with the provisions of the homestead law, 718,930 +homesteads, containing 96,495,414 acres, were established in forty-two +years, and besides this principal act, Congress has passed several minor +ones of a like nature, that is, acts designed to benefit the actual +settler who improves the land. Thus the Pre-emption Act of 1841 gave to +any head of a family or any single person over twenty-one years of age, +who was a citizen of the United States or had declared his intention to +become one, permission to purchase not to exceed 160 acres of public +lands after he had resided upon and improved the same for six months; +the Timber-Culture Act of 1873 allowed title to 160 acres of public +prairie-land to be given to any one who should plant upon it 40 acres of +timber, and keep the same in good growing condition for ten years; and +the Desert-Land Act of 1877 gave to any citizen of the United States, or +to any person who had declared his intention to become one, the +privilege of acquiring title to 640 acres of such public land as was not +included in mineral or timber lands, and would not without irrigation +produce an agricultural crop, by paying twenty-five cents an acre and +creating for the tract an artificial water-supply. These several land +acts, however, invited fraud to such an extent that in time they +promoted the establishment of large land holdings by ranchmen and others +quite as much as they encouraged settlement and cultivation, and so +great was this evil that in 1891 the Timber-Culture and Pre-emption Acts +were repealed, the total amount of land that could be acquired by any +one person under the several land laws was limited to 320 acres, the +Desert-Land Act was so amended as to require an expenditure of at least +three dollars an acre for irrigation, and the original Homestead Act was +so amended as to disqualify any person who was already proprietor of +more than 160 acres in any state or Territory of the Union for acquiring +any more land under its provisions; and in 1896 a residence of fourteen +months was required before permitting commutation or the purchase of +title. But even these measures were inadequate to prevent fraud. In 1894 +Congress, in what is known as the Carey Act, donated to California, +Oregon, Nevada, Washington, Idaho, Montana, Utah, Wyoming, Arizona, New +Mexico and the Dakotas so much of 1,000,000 acres each of desert-lands +as each should cause to be irrigated, reclaimed and occupied within ten +years,[1] not less than 20 acres of each 160 acres to be cultivated by +actual settlers; and in several of these states and territories +irrigating companies have been formed and land offered to settlers in +amounts not exceeding 160 acres to each, on terms requiring the settler +to purchase ample and perpetual water-rights. In 1902, Congress +appropriated the proceeds of the sales of public lands in these states +and territories to form a reclamation fund to be used for the +construction and maintenance of irrigation works, and lands reclaimed by +this means are open to homestead entries, the entry-man being required +to pay for the cost of reclamation in ten equal annual instalments +without interest. When Texas was admitted to the Union the disposal of +its public lands was reserved to the state, and under its laws every +person who is the head of a family and without a homestead may acquire +title to 160 acres of land by residing upon and improving it for three +years; every unmarried man eighteen years of age or over may acquire +title to 80 acres in the same way. + +A short time before the National Homestead Act for aiding citizens to +acquire homesteads went into operation, some of the state legislatures +had passed homestead and exemption laws designed to protect homesteads +or a certain amount of property against loss to the owners in case they +should become insolvent debtors, and by the close of the century the +legislature of nearly every state in the Union had passed a law of this +nature. These laws vary greatly. In most states the exemption of a +homestead or other property from liability for debts can be claimed only +by the head of a family, but in Georgia it may be claimed by any aged or +infirm person, by any trustee of a family of minor children, or by any +person on whom any woman or girls are dependent for support; and in +California, although the head of a family may claim exemption for a +homestead valued at $5000, any other person may claim exemption for a +homestead valued at $1000. In some states exemptions may be claimed +either for a farm limited to 40, 80, 160 or 200 acres, or for a house +and one or more lots, usually limited in size, in a town, village or +city; in other states the homestead for which exemption may be claimed +is limited in value, and this value varies from $500 to $5000. With the +homestead are usually included the appurtenances thereto, and the courts +invariably interpret the law liberally; but many states also exempt a +specified amount of personal property, including wearing apparel, +furniture, provisions, tools, libraries and in some cases domestic +animals and stock in trade. A few states exempt no homestead and only a +small amount of personal property; Maryland, for example, exempts only +$100 worth of property besides money payable in the nature of insurance, +or for relief, in the event of sickness, injury or death. To some debts +the exemption does not usually apply; the most common of these are +taxes, purchase money, a debt secured by mortgage on the homestead and +debts contracted in making improvements upon it; in Maryland the only +exception is a judgment for breach of promise to marry or in case of +seduction. If the homestead belongs to a married person, the consent of +both husband and wife is usually required to mortgage it. Finally, some +states require that the homestead for which exemption is to be claimed +shall be previously entered upon record, others require only occupancy, +and still others permit the homestead to be designated whenever a claim +is presented. + +Following the example of either the United States Congress or the state +legislatures, the governments of several British colonial states and +provinces have passed homestead laws. In Quebec every settler on public +lands is allowed, after receiving a patent, an exemption of not to +exceed 200 acres from that of his widow, of his, her or their children +and descendants in the direct line. In Ontario an applicant for a +homestead may have not to exceed 200 acres of unappropriated public land +for farming purposes by building a house thereon, occupying it for five +years, and bringing at least fifteen acres under cultivation; the +exemption of such a homestead from liability to seizure for debts is, +however, limited to twenty years from the date of application for the +land, and does not extend even during that period to rates or taxes. +Manitoba, British Columbia, Queensland, New South Wales, South +Australia, West Australia and New Zealand also have liberal homestead +and exemption laws. + + See J. B. Sanborn, "Some Political Aspects of Homestead Legislation," + in _The American Historical Review_ (1900); Edward Manson, "The + Homestead Acts," in the _Journal of the Society of Comparative + Legislation_ (London, 1899); S. D. Thompson, _A Treatise on_ + _Homesteads and Exemptions_ (San Francisco, 1886); P. Bureau, _Le + Homestead ou l'Insaisissabilité de la petite propriété foncière_ + (Paris, 1894), and L. Vacher, _Le Homestead aux États-Unis_ (Paris, + 1899). (N. D. M.) + + +FOOTNOTE: + + [1] In 1901 it was provided that the ten years should date from the + segregation of the lands from the public domain. + + + + +HOMEYER, KARL GUSTAV (1795-1874), German jurist, was born on the 13th of +August 1795 at Wolgast in Pomerania. After studying law at the +universities of Berlin, Göttingen and Heidelberg (1813-1817), he settled +as a _Privatdocent_, in 1821, at the university of Berlin, where he +became ordinary professor of law in 1827. His principal works are his +edition of the _Sachsenspiegel_ (in 3 vols., 1827, 3rd ed., 1861, +containing also some other important sources of Saxon or Low German +law), which is still unsurpassed in accuracy and sagacity of research, +and his book on _Die Haus- und Hofmarken_ (1870), in which he has given +a history of the use of trade-marks among all the Teutonic nations of +Europe, and which is full of important elucidations of the history of +law and also contains valuable contributions to the history of art and +civilization. In 1850 Homeyer was elected a member of the Berlin Academy +of Sciences, in the _Transactions_ of which he published various papers +exhibiting profound learning (_Über die Heimat_, 1852; _Genealogie der +Handschriften des Sachsenspiegels_, 1859; _Die Stadtbücher des +Mittelalters_, 1860; _Der Dreissigste_, 1864, &c.). He died on the 20th +of October 1874. + + + + +HOMICIDE (Lat. _homicidium_), the general and neutral term for the +killing of one human being by another. The nature of the responsibility +of the slayer to the state and to the relatives of the slain has been +one of the chief concerns of all systems of law from the earliest times, +and it has been variously considered from the points of view of the +sanctity of human life, the interests of the sovereign, the injury to +the family of the slain and the moral guilt, i.e. the motives and +intentions, of the slayer. + +The earliest recorded laws (those of Khammurabi) do not contain any +sweeping general provision as to the punishment of homicide. The death +penalty is freely imposed but not for homicide. "If a man strike a +gentleman's daughter that she dies, his own daughter is to be put to +death, if a poor man's the slayer pays ½ mina." In the Mosaic law the +general command "Thou shalt not kill" of the Decalogue is in terms +absolute. In primitive law homicide, however innocent, subjected the +slayer to the lawful vengeance of the kindred of the slain, unless he +could make some composition with him. This _lex talionis_ (a life for a +life) resulted: (1) in a course of private justice which still survives +in the vendetta of Corsica and Albania, and the blood feuds arising out +of "difficulties" in the southern and western parts of the United +States; (2) in the recognition of sanctuaries and cities of refuge +within which the avenger of blood might not penetrate to kill an +innocent manslayer; and (3) in the system of wite, bote and wer, by +which the life of every man had its assessed price payable to his chief +and his next of kin. + +It took long to induce the relatives of the slain to appreciate anything +beyond the fact of the death of their kinsman or to discriminate between +intentional and accidental homicide. By the laws of Khammurabi (206, +208) striking a man in a quarrel without deadly intent but with fatal +effect was treated as a matter for compensation according to the rank of +the slain. The Pentateuch discriminates between the man "who lieth in +wait for" or "cometh presumptuously" on "his neighbour to slay him with +guile" (Exodus xxi. 13, 14), and the man "who killeth his neighbour +ignorantly whom he hated not in time past" (Deut. xix. 4). But even +killing by misadventure exposed the slayer to the avenger of blood. "As +a man goeth into the wood with his neighbour to hew wood, and his hand +fetcheth a stroke with the axe to cut down a tree and the head slippeth +from the helve and lighteth upon his neighbour that he die: he shall +flee into one of these cities (of refuge) and live" (Deut. xix. 5). + +Under the early laws of Teutonic and Celtic communities the +inconveniences of the blood feud were gradually mitigated (see CRIMINAL +LAW) by the system of wite and wer (or eric), but the blood feud +continued long in Friesland and Lower Saxony, and in parts of +Switzerland until the 16th century. In England under the Norman system +homicide became a plea of the crown, and the rights of the kindred to +private vengeance and to compensation were gradually superseded in +favour of the right of the king to forfeitures where the homicide +amounted to a crime (felony). + +Though homicide was thus made a public offence and not a matter for +private vengeance, it took long to discriminate between those forms of +homicide which should and those which should not be punished. + +The terms of act in English law used to describe _criminal_ homicide are +murder (_mord_, _meurtre_, _murdrum_), manslaughter and _felo de se_ (or +suicide by a person of sound mind). + +The original meaning of the word "murder" seems to have been secret +homicide,--"_Murdrum proprie dicitur mors alicujus occulta cujus +interfector ignoratur_" (_Dialogus de Scaccario_ i, x.); and Glanville +says: _Duo sunt genera homicidii, unum est quod dicitur murdrum quod +nullo vidente nullo sciente clam perpetratur, ita quod non assignatur +clamor popularis_ (hue and cry), _est et aliud homicidium quod diciter +simplex homicidium_. After the Conquest, and for the protection of the +ruling race, a fine (also called _murdrum_) was levied for the king on +the hundred or other district in which a stranger was found dead, if the +slayer was not brought to justice and the blood kin of the slain did not +present Englishry, there being a presumption (in favour of the +Exchequer) that the deceased was a Frenchman. After the assize of +Clarendon (1166) the distinction between the killing of Normans and +Englishmen gradually evaporated and the term murder came to acquire its +present meaning of deliberate as distinct from secret homicide. In 1267 +it was provided that the murder fine should not be levied in cases of +death by "misadventure" (_per infortunium_).[1] But at that date and for +long afterwards homicide in self-defence or by misadventure or even +while of unsound mind involved at the least a forfeiture of goods, and +required a pardon. These pardons, and restitution of the goods, became a +matter of course, and the judges appear at a later date to have been in +the habit of directing an acquittal in such cases. But it was not until +1828 that the innocence of excusable homicide was expressly declared. +The rule is now expressed in s. 7 of the Offences against the Person Act +1861: "No punishment or forfeiture shall be incurred by any person who +shall kill another by misfortune, or in his own defence, or in any other +manner without felony." + +The further differentiation between different degrees of criminal +homicide was marked by legislation of Henry VIII. (1531) taking away +benefit of clergy in the case of "wilful murder with malice prepensed" +(aforethought), and that phrase is still the essential element in the +definition of "wilful murder," which is committed "when a person of +sound memory and discretion unlawfully killeth any reasonable creature +or being and under the king's peace with malice aforethought either +express or implied" (3 Co. Inst. 47). The whole development of the +substantive law as to murder rests on judicial rulings as to the meaning +of malice prepense coupled with the extrajudicial commentaries of Coke, +Hale and Foster; for parliament, though often tempted by bills and +codes, has never ventured on a legislative definition. Much discussion +has ranged round the phrase "malice aforethought," and it has +undoubtedly been expanded by judicial decision so as to create what is +described as "constructive" murder. According to the view of the +criminal code commissioners of 1879 (_Parl. Pap._, 1879, c. 23, 45, p. +23) the term "malice aforethought" is now a common name for all the +following states of mind:-- + + 1. An intent, preceding the act, to kill or do grievous bodily harm to + the person or to any other person: + + 2. Knowledge that the act done is _likely_ to produce such + consequences, whether coupled with an intention to produce them or + not: + + 3. An intent to commit any felony: or + + 4. An intent to resist an officer of police in the execution of his + duty. + +The third form of malice aforethought has been much controverted. When +it was first recognized as creating a liability for wilful murder almost +all felonies were capital offences: but even at the end of the 17th +century Lord Holt expressed a view that it should be limited to felonies +involving violence or danger to life, e.g. assault with intent to rob, +or setting fire to a dwelling-house. And Sir James Stephen's opinion is +that, to justify conviction of murder by an act done with intent to +commit a felony, the act done must be one dangerous to life or known to +be likely to cause death. + +Starting with the definition above given, English law still retains so +much of its medieval character as to presume all homicide to be +"malicious, and therefore murder, unless it is either _justified_ by the +command or permission of the law, _excused_ on the ground of accident or +self-preservation, or _alleviated_ into manslaughter by being the +involuntary consequence of some act not strictly lawful or occasioned by +some sudden and sufficiently violent provocation." The truth of the +facts alleged in justification, excuse or alleviation, is for the jury +to determine: the question whether if true they support the plea for +which they are put forward is for the court. + +In the administration of the English criminal law as to homicide the +consequences of too strict an adherence to the technical definitions of +the offences are avoided (a) by the exercise of the jury of their powers +to convict of manslaughter only even in cases where they are directed +that the offence is murder or nothing; (b) by the report of the judge as +to the particular circumstances of each case in which a conviction of +murder has been followed by the statutory sentence of death; (c) by the +examination of all the evidence in the case by the Home Office in order +to enable the secretary of state to determine whether the prerogative of +mercy should be exercised. + +Homicide is justifiable and not criminal when the killing is done in the +execution of the law. The most important case of justifiable homicide is +the execution of a criminal in due course of public justice. This +condition is most stringently interpreted. "To kill the greatest of +malefactors deliberately, uncompelled, and extrajudicially is murder.... +And further, if judgment of death be given by a judge not authorized by +lawful commission, and execution is done accordingly, the judge is +guilty of murder" (Stephen's _Commentaries_, book vi. c. iv.). The +execution must be carried out by the proper officer or his deputy: any +person executing the sentence without such authority, were it the judge +himself, would be guilty of murder. And the sentence must be strictly +pursued: to execute a criminal by a kind of death other than that to +which he has been judicially condemned is murder. + +Homicide committed by an officer of justice in the course of carrying +out his duty, as such, is also justifiable; e.g. where a felon resists a +legal arrest and is killed in the effort to arrest him (see 2 Pollock +and Maitland, 476); where officers in dispersing a riotous assemblage +kill any of the mob, &c. (see RIOT). In these cases the homicide must be +shown to have been absolutely necessary. Again, homicide is justifiable +if committed in the defence of person or property against forcible and +heinous crime, such as murder, violent robbery, rape or burglary. In +this connexion there has been much discussion as to whether the person +attacked is under a duty to retreat: and in substance the justification +depends on the continuous necessity of attack or defence In order to +prevent the commission by the deceased of the crime threatened. + +Homicide is excusable and not criminal at all when committed either by +misadventure or in self-defence. In the former case the homicide is +excused; where a man in the course of doing some lawful work, +accidentally and without intention kills another, e.g. shooting at a +mark and undesignedly hitting and killing a man. The act must be +strictly lawful, and death by misadventure in unlawful sports is not a +case of excusable homicide. Homicide in self-defence is excusable when +the slayer is himself in immediate danger of death, and has done all he +could to avoid the assault. Accordingly, if he strikes and kills his +assailant after the assault is over, this is not excusable homicide. But +if the assault has been premeditated, as in the ease of a duel, the +death of either antagonist has under English law always been held to be +murder and not excusable homicide. The excuse of self-defence covers the +case in which a person in defence of others whom it is his duty to +protect--children, wife, master, &c.--kills an assailant. It has been +considered doubtful whether the plea of self-defence is available to one +who has himself provoked a fray, in the course of which he is so pressed +by his antagonist that his only resource is to kill him. + +In English law the term "manslaughter" is applied to those forms of +homicide which though neither justifiable nor excusable are attended by +alleviating circumstances which bring them short of wilful murder. The +offence is not defined by statute, but only by judicial rulings. Its +punishment is as a maximum penal servitude for life, and as a minimum a +fine or recognizances to be of good behaviour. The quantum of punishment +between the limits above stated is in the discretion of the court, and +not, as under continental codes, with fixed minima; and the offence +includes acts and omissions of very varying gravity, from acts which +only by the charitable appreciation of a jury fall short of wilful +murder, to acts or omissions which can only technically be described as +criminal, e.g. where one of two persons engaged in poaching, by pure +accident gets caught in a hedge so that his gun goes off and kills his +fellow-poacher. This may be described as an extreme instance of +"constructive crime." + +There are two main forms of "manslaughter":-- + +1. "Voluntary" homicide under grave and sudden provocation or on a +sudden quarrel in the heat of passion, without the slayer taking undue +advantage or acting in an unusual manner. The substance of the +alleviation of guilt lies in the absence of time for cool reflection or +the formation of a premeditated design to kill. Under English law the +provocation must be by acts and not by words or gestures, and must be +serious and not trivial, and the killing must be immediately after +provocation and while the slayer has lost his self-control in +consequence of the provocation. The provocation need not be by assault +or violence, and perhaps the best-recognized example is the slaying by a +husband of a man found committing adultery with the slayer's wife. In +the case of a sudden quarrel it does not matter who began or provoked +the quarrel. This used to be called "chance medley." + +2. "Involuntary" homicide as a result of great rashness or gross +negligence in respect of matters involving danger to human life, e.g. in +driving trains or vehicles, or in dealing with dangerous weapons, or in +performing surgical operations, or in taking care of the helpless. + +The innumerable modes in which criminal liability for killing others has +been adjudged under the English definitions of murder and manslaughter +cannot be here stated, and can only be studied by reference to the +judicial decisions collected and discussed in _Russell on Crimes_ and +other English text-books, and in the valuable work by Mr J. D. Mayne on +the criminal law of India, in which the English common law rulings are +stated side by side with the terms and interpretations of the Indian +penal code. Much labour has been expended by many jurists in efforts to +create a scientific and acceptable classification of the various forms +of unlawful homicide which shall properly define the cases which should +be punishable by law and the appropriate punishment. Their efforts have +resulted in the establishment in almost every state except the United +Kingdom of statutory definitions of the crime, beginning with the French +penal code and going down to the criminal code of Japan. In the case of +England, as a result of the labours of Sir James Stephen, a code bill +was submitted to parliament in 1878. In 1879 a draft code was prepared +by Blackburn, Lush and Barry, and was presented to parliament. It was +founded on and prepared with Sir J. Stephen, and is a revision of his +digest of the criminal law. + +After defining homicide and culpable homicide, the draft code (cl. 174) +declares culpable homicide to be murder in the following cases: (a) if +the offender means to cause the death of the person killed; (b) if the +offender means to cause to the person killed any bodily injury which is +known to the offender to be likely to cause death, and if the offender, +whether he does or does not mean to cause death, is reckless whether +death ensues or not; (c) if the offender means to cause death or such +bodily injury as aforesaid to one person, so that if that person be +killed the offender would be guilty of murder, and by accident or +mistake the offender kills another person though he does not mean to +hurt the person killed; (d) if the offender for any unlawful object does +an act which he knows or ought to have known to be likely to cause +death, and thereby kills any person, though he may have desired that his +object should be effected without hurting any one. + +Further (cl. 175), it is murder (whether the offender means or not death +to ensue, or knows or not that death is likely to ensue) in the +following cases:--"(a) if he means to inflict grievous bodily injury for +the purpose of facilitating the commission of any of the offences +hereinafter mentioned, or the flight of the offender upon the commission +or attempted commission thereof, and death ensues from his violence; (b) +if he administers any stupefying thing for either of the purposes +aforesaid and death ensues from the effects thereof; (c) if he by any +means wilfully stops the breath of any person for either of the purposes +aforesaid and death ensues from such stopping of the breath." The +following are the offences referred to:--"high treason and other +offences against the king's authority, piracy and offences deemed to be +piracy, escape or rescue from prison or lawful custody, resisting lawful +apprehension, murder, rape, forcible abduction, robbery, burglary, +arson." Cl. 176 reduces culpable homicide to manslaughter if the person +who causes death does so "in the heat of passion caused by sudden +provocation"; and "any _wrongful act or insult_ of such a nature as to +be sufficient to deprive any ordinary person of the power of +self-control may be provocation if the offender acts upon it on the +sudden, and before there has been time for his passion to cool. Whether +any particular wrongful act or insult amounts to provocation and whether +the offender was deprived of self-control shall be questions of fact; +but no one shall be deemed to give provocation by doing that which he +had a legal right to do, or which the offender incited him to do in +order to provide an excuse for killing him or doing grievous bodily harm +to any person." Further, "an arrest shall not necessarily reduce the +offence from murder to manslaughter because an arrest was illegal, but +if the illegality was known to the offender it may be evidence of +provocation"; (cl. 177) "culpable homicide not amounting to murder is +manslaughter." + +The definitions embodied in these clauses though not yet accepted by the +British legislature, have in substance been embodied in the criminal +codes of Canada (1892 ss. 227-230), New Zealand (1893, ss. 163-166), +Queensland (1899, ss. 300-305), and Western Australia (1901, ss. +275-280). + +From the point of view of civil as distinct from criminal responsibility +homicide does not by the common law give any cause of action against the +person causing the death of another in favour of the wife or blood +relations of the deceased. In early law this was otherwise; and the wer +or eric of the deceased came historically before the right of chief or +state. But under English law the rights of relations, except by way of +appeal for felony,[2] were swept aside in favour of the crown, on the +principle that every homicide is presumed felonious (murder) unless the +contrary is proved, and that in all cases of homicide not justifiable by +law a forfeiture was incurred. The rights of the relatives were also +defeated by application of the maxim "_actio personalis moritur cum +personâ_" ("a personal action dies with the person") to all proceedings +for injury to the person or to reputation. In Scotland the old theory +was preserved in the law as to assythement. + +In England the law was altered at the instance of Lord Campbell in 1846 +(9 & 10 V. c. 93) so as to give a right of a claim by the husband, wife, +parent or child of a person killed by a wrongful (or even criminal) act, +neglect or default by another which would have given the deceased if he +had survived a cause of action against the wrongdoer. The compensation +payable is what the surviving relative has lost by the death, and under +the Workmen's Compensation Act 1906 (in all cases to which it applies) +the employer is liable even without negligence to compensate the +dependants of an employee killed by an accident arising out of and in +the course of the employment; and in such cases even if the death was +due to serious and wilful misconduct by the employee, compensation is +payable. + +In the Indian penal code the definitions of murder are so drawn as to +limit the offences to cases where it was actually intended to cause +death or bodily injury by the acts or omissions of the slayer, and the +definition of culpable homicide short of murder is so drawn as to +exclude the forms of unintentional manslaughter due to neglect of duty, +e.g. in the conduct of trains or ships or vehicles. This last omission +was supplied in 1870. The Indian code does not treat as murder either +duelling or helping Hindu widows to commit _suttee_ (s. 301, exception +5). In most of the British possessions in Asia and in east Africa the +Indian definitions of homicide have been adopted. In the rest of the +colonies, except South Africa, the law of homicide depends on the +English common law as modified by colonial codes or statutes. In South +Africa it rests mainly on the Roman Dutch law. + +_Europe._--In European codes distinctions corresponding to those of the +English law are drawn between premeditated and other forms of criminal +homicide; but more elaborate distinctions are drawn between the degrees +of deliberation or criminality manifested in the slaying, and the +minimum or maximum penalty is varied accordingly. + +In the French penal code voluntary homicide is called murder (_meurtre_, +art. 295): but if committed with premeditation or lying in wait is +styled _assassinat_ (_guet-apens_) (296-298). Poisoning (even if the +poison is not fatal), is specially punished, as is parricide (on the +lines of the obsolete English offence of petty treason), and +infanticide, i.e. the killing of newly-born infants. Assassination, +poisoning and parricide are at present capital offences; but a bill to +abolish the death sentence has been laid before the French parliament. + +The German code distinguishes between voluntary homicide which is done +with deliberation and such homicide committed without deliberation (ss. +211, 212), and provides for mitigation of punishment where the slaying +was provoked without fault in the slayer by any wrongful act or serious +insult upon the slayer or his relatives by the slain (213). Parricide +and infanticide are specially punished (214, 215), as is killing another +person at his express and earnest request (216)--an offence which would +in England be murder--and it is a separate offence to cause the death of +another, the penalty being increased if the offender was peculiarly +bound by office, calling or trade to use a care which he did not use +(222). + +The Italian code punishes as homicide those who with intention to kill +cause the death of another (364). The death penalty is not imposed, but +scales of punishment are provided to deal with aggravated forms of the +offence. Thus _ergastolo_ (penal servitude for life) is the punishment +in the case of homicide of ascendants and descendants, or with +premeditation, or under the sole impulse of brutal ferocity or with +gross cruelty (_gravi sevizie_), or by means of arson, inundation, +drowning and certain other crimes, or to secure the gains or conceal the +commission, or to secure immunity from the consequences, of another +crime (366). Personal violence resulting in death inflicted without +intention to kill is punishable _minore poenâ_ (368), and it is criminal +to cause the death of another by imprudence, negligence or lack of skill +in an art or profession (_imperitia nella propria arte o professione_), +or by non-observance of regulations, orders or instructions. + +The Spanish code has like those of Italy and France special punishments +for parricide (417) and for assassination, in which are included killing +for reward or promise of reward or by inundation (418), and for aiding +another to commit suicide (421). Both the Italian and the Spanish codes +afford a special mitigation to infanticide committed to avoid dishonour +to the mother of the infant or her family. + +_America._--The most notable difference between England and the United +States in regard to the law on this subject is the recognition by state +legislation of degrees in murder. English law treats all unlawful +killing not reducible to manslaughter as of the same degree of guilt in +law. American statutes seek to discriminate for purposes of punishment +between the graver and the less culpable forms of murder. Thus an act of +the legislature of Pennsylvania (22nd of April 1794) declares "all +murder which shall be perpetrated by means of poison or by lying in wait +or by any other kind of wilful, deliberate and premeditated killing, or +which shall be committed in the perpetration of or attempt to perpetrate +any arson, rape, robbery or burglary shall be deemed murder of the first +degree; and all other kinds of murder shall be deemed murder of the +second degree." This legislation has been copied or adopted in many if +not most of the other states. There are also statutory degrees of +manslaughter in the legislation of some of the states. The differences +of legislation, coupled with the power of the jury in some states to +determine the sentence, and the limitations on the right of the judges +to comment on the testimony adduced, lead to very great differences +between the administration of the law as to homicide in the two +countries. + + AUTHORITIES.--Stephen, _Hist. Cr. Law, Digest Criminal Law_; _Russell + on Crimes_ (7th ed., 1909); Archbold, _Criminal Pleading_ (23rd ed., + 1905); Bishop, _American Criminal Law_ (8th ed.); Pollock and + Maitland, _Hist. English Law_; Pike, _History of Crime_. + (W. F. C.) + + +FOOTNOTES: + + [1] See Select Pleas of Crown, 1 (Selden Society Publ.); Pollock and + Maitland, _Hist. Eng. Law_, ii. 458, 476, 478. + + [2] Appeals remained in the law till 1819, but were long before this + disused. In the middle ages they were used as a means of getting + compensation. + + + + +HOMILETICS (Gr. [Greek: homilêtikos], from [Greek: homilein], to +assemble together), in theology the application of the general +principles of rhetoric to the specific department of public preaching. +It may be further defined as the science that treats of the analysis, +classification, preparation, composition and delivery of sermons. The +formation during recent years of such lectureships as the "Lyman +Beecher" course at Yale University has resulted in increased attention +being given to homiletics, and the published volumes of this series are +the best contribution to the subject. + + The older literature is cited exhaustively in W. G. Blaikie, _For the + Work of the Ministry_ (1873); and D. P. Kidder, _Treatise on + Homiletics_ (1864). + + + + +HOMILY, a simple religious address, less elaborate than a sermon, and +confining itself to the practical exposition of some ethical topic or +some passage of Scripture. The word [Greek: homilia] from [Greek: +homilein] ([Greek: homou, eilô]), meaning communion, intercourse, and +especially interchange of thought and feeling by means of words +(conversation), was early employed in classical Greek to denote the +instruction which a philosopher gave to his pupils in familiar talk +(Xenophon, _Memorabilia_, I. ii. 6. 15). This usage of the word was long +preserved (Aelian, _Varia Historia_, iii. 19); and the [Greek: +homilêsas] of Acts xx. 11 may safely be taken to assign not only a free +and informal but also a didactic character to the apostle Paul's +discourse in the upper chamber of Troas, when "he talked a long while, +even till break of day." That the "talk" on that occasion partook of the +nature of the "exposition" ([Hebrew: drasha]) of Scripture, which, +undertaken by a priest, elder or other competent person, had become a +regular part of the service of the Jewish synagogue,[1] may also with +much probability be assumed. The custom of delivering expositions or +comments more or less extemporaneous on the lessons of the day at all +events passed over soon and readily into the Christian Church, as may be +gathered from the first _Apology_ (c. 67) of Justin Martyr, where we +read that, in connexion with the practice of reading portions from the +collected writings of the prophets and from the memoirs of the apostles, +it had by that time become usual for the presiding minister to deliver a +discourse in which "he admonishes the people, stirring them up to an +imitation of the good works which have been brought before their +notice." This discourse, from its explanatory character, and from the +easy conversational manner of its delivery, was for a long time called +[Greek: homilia] rather than [Greek: logos]: it was regarded as part of +the regular duty of the bishop, but he could devolve it, if he thought +fit, on a presbyter or deacon, or even on a layman. An early and +well-known instance of such delegation is that mentioned by Eusebius +(_Hist. Eccl._ vi. 19) in the case of Origen (216 A.D.).[2] In course of +time the exposition of the lesson for the day came more frequently to +assume a more elaborate character, and to pass into the category of a +[Greek: logos] or even [Greek: philosophia] or [Greek: philosophêma]; +but when it did so the fact was as far as possible denoted by a change +of name, the word [Greek: homilia] being reserved for the expository or +exegetical lecture as distinguished from the pulpit oration or +sermon.[3] While the church of the 3rd and 4th centuries could point to +a brilliant succession of great preachers, whose discourses were wont to +be taken down in shorthand and circulated among the Christian public as +edifying reading, it does not appear that the supply of ordinary +homiletical talent kept pace with the rapidity of church extension +throughout the Roman empire. In the smaller and remoter communities it +not uncommonly happened that the minister was totally unqualified to +undertake the work of preaching; and though, as is curiously shown by +the case of Rome (Sozomen, _Hist. Eccl._ vii. 19), the regular +exposition of the appointed lessons was by no means regarded as part of +the necessary business of a church, it was generally felt to be +advisable that some provision should be made for the public instruction +of congregations. Even in Jerome's time (_De Vir. Ill._ c. 115), +accordingly, it had become usual to read, in the regular meetings of the +churches which were not so fortunate as to possess a competent preacher, +the written discourses of celebrated fathers; and at a considerably +later period we have on record the canon of at least one provincial +council (that of Vaux, probably the third, held in 529 A.D.), positively +enjoining that if the presbyter through any infirmity is unable himself +to preach, "homilies of the holy fathers" (homiliae sanctorum patrum) +are to be read by the deacons. Thus the finally fixed meaning of the +word homily as an ecclesiastical term came to be a written discourse +(generally possessing the sanction of some great name) read in church by +or for the officiating clergyman when from any cause he was unable to +deliver a sermon of his own. As the standard of clerical education sank +during the dark ages, the habit of using the sermons of others became +almost universal. Among the authors whose works were found specially +serviceable in this way may be mentioned the Venerable Bede, who is +credited with no fewer than 140 homilies in the Basel and Cologne +editions of his works, and who certainly was the author of many +_Homiliae de Tempore_ which were much in vogue during the 8th and +following centuries. Prior to Charlemagne it is probable that several +other collections of homilies had obtained considerable popularity, but +in the time of that emperor these had suffered so many mutilations and +corruptions that an authoritative revision was felt to be imperatively +necessary. The result was the well-known _Homiliarium_, prepared by Paul +Warnefrid, otherwise known as Paulus Diaconus (q.v.).[4] It consists of +176 homilies arranged in order for all the Sundays and festivals of the +ecclesiastical year; and probably was completed before the year 780. +Though written in Latin, its discourses were doubtless intended to be +delivered in the vulgar tongue; the clergy, however, were often too +indolent or too ignorant for this, although by more than one provincial +council they were enjoined to exert themselves so that they might be +able to do so.[5] Hence an important form of literary activity came to +be the translation of the homilies approved by the church into the +vernacular. Thus we find Alfred the Great translating the homilies of +Bede; and in a similar manner arose Ælfric's Anglo-Saxon _Homilies_ and +the German _Homiliarium_ of Ottfried of Weissenburg. Such _Homiliaria_ +as were in use in England down to the end of the 15th century were at +the time of the Reformation eagerly sought for and destroyed, so that +they are now extremely rare, and the few copies which have been +preserved are generally in a mutilated or imperfect form.[6] + +The _Books of Homilies_ referred to in the 35th article of the Church of +England originated at a convocation in 1542, at which it was agreed "to +make certain homilies for stay of such errors as were then by ignorant +preachers sparkled among the people." Certain homilies, accordingly, +composed by dignitaries of the lower house, were in the following year +produced by the prolocutor; and after some delay a volume was published +in 1547 entitled _Certain sermons or homilies appointed by the King's +Majesty to be declared and read by all parsons, vicars, or curates every +Sunday in their churches where they have cure_. In 1563 a second _Book +of Homilies_ was submitted along with the 39 Articles to convocation; it +was issued the same year under the title _The second Tome of Homilies of +such matters as were promised and instituted in the former part of +Homilies, set out by the authority of the Queen's Majesty, and to be +read in every Parish Church agreeably_. Of the twelve homilies contained +in the first book, four (the 1st, 2nd, 3rd and 4th) are probably to be +attributed to Cranmer, and one (the 12th) possibly to Latimer; one (the +6th) is by Bonner; another (the 5th) is by John Harpsfield, archdeacon +of London, and another (the 11th) by Thomas Becon, one of Cranmer's +chaplains. The authorship of the others is unknown. The second book +consists of twenty-one homilies, of which the 1st, 2nd, 3rd, 7th, 8th, +9th, 16th and 17th have been assigned to Jewel, the 4th to Grindal, the +5th and 6th to Pilkington and the 18th to Parker. See the critical +edition by Griffiths, Oxford, 1869. The homilies are not now read +publicly, though they are sometimes appealed to in controversies +affecting the doctrines of the Anglican Church. + + +FOOTNOTES: + + [1] See Philo, _Quod omnis probus liber_, sec. 12 (ed. Mangey ii. + 458; cf. ii. 630). + + [2] Sozomen (_Hist. Eccl._ vii. 19) mentions that in Alexandria in + his day the bishop alone was in the custom of preaching; but this, he + implies, was a very exceptional state of matters, dating only from + the time of Arius. + + [3] To the more strictly exegetical lectures the names [Greek: + exêgêseis, exêgêmata, exêgêtika, ektheseis,] were sometimes applied. + But as no popular discourse delivered from the pulpit could ever be + exclusively expository and as on the other hand every sermon + professing to be based on Scripture required to be more or less + "exegetical" and "textual," it would obviously be sometimes very hard + to draw the line of distinction between [Greek: homilia] and [Greek: + logos]. It would be difficult to define very precisely the difference + in French between a "conférence" and a "sermon"; and the same + difficulty seems to have been experienced in Greek by Photius, who + says of the eloquent pulpit orations of Chrysostom, that they were + [Greek: homiliai] rather than [Greek: logoi]. + + [4] Manuscript copies are preserved at Heidelberg, Darmstadt, + Frankfort, Giessen, Cassel and other places. It was first printed at + Spires in 1482. In the Cologne edition of 1530 the title + runs--_Homiliae seu mavis sermones sive conciones ad populum, + praestantissimorum ecclesiae doctorum Hieronymi, Augustini, Ambrosii, + Gregorii, Origenis, Chrysostomi, Bedae, &c., in hunc ordinem digestae + per Alchuinum levitam, idque injungente ei Carolo M. Rom. Imp. cui a + secretis fuit_. Though thus attributed here to Alcuin, who is known + to have revised the Lectionary or _Comes Hieronymi_, the compilation + of the _Homiliarium_ is in the emperor's own commission entrusted to + Paul, to whom it is assigned in the earlier printed editions also. A + comparison of different editions shows that the contents increased + with the ever-growing number of saints' days and festivals, new + discourses by later preachers like Bernard being constantly added. + + [5] Neander, _Church History_, v. 174 (Eng. trans. of 1851). + + [6] An ancient English metrical homiliarium is preserved in the + library of the university of Cambridge. Earlier versions of it have + existed, and a portion of perhaps the earliest copy, dating from + about the middle of the 13th century, was published in 1862 by Mr J. + Small, librarian to the university of Edinburgh. + + + + +HOMOEOPATHY (from the Greek [Greek: homoios], like, and [Greek: pathos], +feeling). The distinctive system of therapeutics which bears the name of +homoeopathy is based upon the law _similia similibus curentur_,[1] the +originator of which was S. C. F. Hahnemann, a native of Meissen in +Germany, who discovered his new principle while he was experimenting +with cinchona bark in 1790, and announced it in 1796.[2] The essential +tenets of homoeopathy--with which is contrasted the "allopathy" ([Greek: +allos], other) of the "orthodox" therapeutics--are that the cure of +disease is effected by drugs that are capable of producing in a healthy +individual symptoms similar to those of the disease to be treated, and +that to ascertain the curative virtues of any drug it must be "proved" +upon healthy persons--that is, taken by individuals of both sexes in a +state of health in gradually increasing doses. The manifestations of +drug action thus produced are carefully recorded, and this record of +"drug-diseases," after being verified by repetition on many "provers," +constitutes the distinguishing feature of the homoeopathic materia +medica, which, while it embraces the sources, preparation and uses of +drugs as known to the orthodox pharmacopoeia, contains, in addition, the +various "provings" obtained in the manner above described. + +Besides the promulgation of the doctrine of similars, Hahnemann also +enunciated a theory to account for the origin of all chronic diseases, +which he asserted were derived either directly or remotely from psora +(the itch), syphilis (venereal disease) or sycosis (fig-wart disease). +This doctrine, although at first adopted by some of the enthusiastic +followers of Hahnemann, was almost immediately discarded by very many +who had a firm belief in his law of cure. In the light of advancing +science such theories are entirely untenable, and it was unfortunate for +the system of medicine which he founded that Hahnemann should have +promulgated such an hypothesis. It served as a target for the shafts of +ridicule showered upon the system by those who were its opponents, and +even at the present time there still exists in the minds of many +misinformed persons the conviction that homoeopathy is a system of +medicine that bases the origin of all chronic disease on the itch or on +syphilis or fig-warts. + +Another peculiar feature of homoeopathy is its posology or theory of +dose. It may be asserted that homoeopathic posology has nothing more to +do with the original law of cure than the psora (itch) theory has, and +that it was one of the later creations of Hahnemann's mind. Most +homoeopathists believe more or less in the action of minute doses of +medicine, but it must not be considered as an integral part of the +system. The dose is the corollary, not the principle. Yet in the minds of +many, infinitesimal doses of medicine stand for homoeopathy itself, the +real law of cure being completely put into the background. The question +of dose has also divided the members of the homoeopathic school into +bitter factions, and is therefore a matter for careful consideration. +Many employ low potencies,[3] i.e. mother tinctures, first, second, +sixth dilutions, &c., while others use hundred-thousandths and +millionths. + +Some homoeopathists of the present day still believe with Hahnemann +that, even after the material medicinal particles of a drug have been +subdivided to the fullest extent, the continuation of the dynamization +or trituration or succussion develops a spiritual acurative agency, and +that the higher the potency, the more subtle and more powerful is the +curative action. Hahnemann says (_Organon_, 3rd American edition, p. +101), "It is only by means of the spiritual influence of a morbific +agent that our spiritual vital power can be diseased, and in like manner +only by the spiritual operation of medicine can health be restored." +This is absolutely denied by others. Thus there exist two schools among +the adherents of homoeopathy. On the one hand there are the +Hahnemannians, the "Purists" or "High Potency" men, who still profess to +regard the _Organon_ as their Bible, who believe in all the teachings of +Hahnemann, who adhere in their prescriptions to the single dose, the +single medicine, and the highest possible potency, and regard the +doctrine of the spiritual dynamization acquired by trituration and +succussion as indubitable. On the other side there are the "Rational" or +"Low Potency" men, who believe in the universality of the law of cure, +but think that it cannot always be applied, on account of an imperfect +materia medica and a lack of knowledge on the part of the physician. +They believe that in many cases of severe and acute pain palliatives are +required, and that they are free to use all the adjuvants at present +known to science for the relief of suffering humanity--massage, +balneology, electricity, hygiene, &c. The American Institute of +Homoeopathy, the national body of the United States, has adopted the +following resolution and ordered it to be published conspicuously in +each number of the _Transactions_ of the society: "A homoeopathic +physician is one who adds to his knowledge of medicine a special +knowledge of homoeopathic therapeutics. All that pertains to the great +field of medical learning is his by tradition, by inheritance, by +right." + +It is claimed that the effect produced upon both the laity and the +general profession of medicine by the introduction of homoeopathy was +salutary in many ways. It diminished the quantity of medicine that was +formerly considered necessary for the eradication of disease, and thus +revealed the fact that the _vis medicatrix naturae_ is often sufficient, +with occasional and gentle assistance, to cure many diseases, especially +those fevers that run a definite and regular course. Corroboration of +the law _similia similibus curentur_ is seen, according to +homoeopathists, in the adoption of the serum therapy, which consists in +the treatment of the most malignant diseases (diphtheria, lock-jaw, +typhoid fever, tuberculosis, bubonic plague) by introducing into the +system a modified form (similar) of those poisons that produce them in +the healthy individual. Hahnemann undoubtedly deserves the credit of +being the first to break decidedly with the old school of medical +practice, in which, forgetful of the teachings of Hippocrates, nature +was either overlooked or rudely opposed by wrong and ungentle methods. +We can scarcely now estimate the force of character and of courage which +was implied in his abandoning the common lines of medicine. More than +this, he and his followers showed results in the treatment of disease +which compared very favourably with the results of contemporary orthodox +practice. + +Homoeopathy has given prominence to the therapeutical side of medicine, +and has done much to stimulate the study of the physiological action of +drugs. It has done service in directing more special attention to +various powerful drugs, such as aconite, nux vomica, belladonna, and to +the advantage of giving them in simpler forms than were common before +the days of Hahnemann. But in the medical profession homoeopathy +nevertheless remains under the stigma of being a dissenting sect. It has +been publicly announced that if the homoeopathists would abolish the +name "homoeopathy," and remove it from their periodicals, colleges, +hospitals, dispensaries and asylums, they would be received within the +fold of the regular profession. These conditions have been accepted by a +few homoeopathists who have become members of the most prominent medical +association in the United States. + +Homoeopathy as it exists to-day can, in the opinion of its adherents, +stand by itself, and its progress for a century in face of prolonged and +determined opposition appears to its upholders to be evidence of its +truth. There are still, indeed, in both schools of medical thought, men +who stand fast by their old principles. There are homoeopathists who can +see nothing but evil in the practice of their brothers of the orthodox +school, as there are allopathists who still regard homoeopathy as a +humbug and a sham. There are, however, liberal-minded men in both +schools, who look upon the adoption of any safe and efficient method of +curing disease as the birthright of the true physician, and who allow +every man to prescribe for his patients as his conscience may dictate, +and, provided he be educated in all the collateral branches of medical +science, are ready to exchange views for the good of suffering humanity. + + _Great Britain._--Homoeopathy is not rapidly extending in Great + Britain, and its recognition has been slow. The first notice taken of + the new system of therapeutics was by the Medical Society of London in + 1826. In 1827 the physician of Prince Leopold of Saxe-Coburg, Dr F. H. + F. Quin (1799-1878), who had previously studied homoeopathy in Germany + and practised it in Italy, came to England, and it was through his + efforts that the system was introduced. Three other physicians, Dr + Belluomini, Dr Romani and Dr Tagliani, claimed priority, but careful + research established Dr Quin's title. Quin was a successful man + professionally and socially, and brought upon himself in a short time + the anathema of the Royal College of Physicians. In 1844 Dr William + Henderson, professor of pathology in the university of Edinburgh, + embraced the Hahnemannian system. A storm of opposition arose, and + Professor J. Y. Simpson (the discoverer of chloroform anaesthesia) + published a volume, with the alliterative title, _Homoeopathy, its + Tenets and Tendencies, Theoretical, Theological, and Therapeutical_. + This brochure was answered by Professor Henderson, the title of his + book being _Homoeopathy Fairly Represented_. From 1827 to 1837 there + were but a dozen practitioners of homoeopathy in London, but during + 1837 to 1847 the number increased to between seventy and eighty. In + 1857 there were upwards of two hundred practitioners in the kingdom, + with thirty-three institutions in which the law of similars was used + as a basis of practice. In 1867 the increase was not so rapid, the + number being 261. A society was formed about this period for "the + protection of homoeopathic practitioners and students," which proved + of great value in binding the sect together. In 1870 congresses were + established, and annual meetings held, which have continued to the + present time. In 1901 there were over three hundred homoeopathic + physicians in the British Isles, of whom between seventy and eighty + were in London alone. There were seventy-nine chemists, of whom + seventeen were located in London, and eighty-two towns and cities in + the country contained from one to ten homoeopathic practitioners each, + together with many established chemists for dispensing homoeopathic + medicines. The British Homoeopathic Society was founded by Quin in + 1844, and has numerous members and fellows, besides corresponding + members in all portions of the world, including Australia, India and + Tasmania. The London Homoeopathic Hospital was founded in 1850, also + largely through the efforts of Quin, and a few years afterwards moved + to Great Ormond Street. During the cholera epidemic of 1854 the + statistics of this hospital showed a mortality of 16.4%, against 51.8% + of other metropolitan charities. The London Homoeopathic Hospital has + a convalescent home under its management at Eastbourne. There are also + dispensaries in Ealing and West Middlesex, Kensington, Notting Hill + and Bayswater. Similar institutions are located in Bath, Birkenhead, + Birmingham, Bootle, Bournemouth, Brighton, Bristol, Bromley, + Cheltenham, Cheshire, Croydon, Dublin, Eastbourne, Edinburgh, + Folkestone, Hastings and St Leonards, Ipswich, Leeds, Leicester, + Liverpool, Newcastle, Northampton, Norwich, Oxford, Plymouth, Torquay, + Tunbridge Wells, Weston-super-Mare. The homoeopathic journals include + the _Homoeopathic World_, the _London Homoeopathic Hospital_ + _Reports_, the _Journal of the British Homoeopathic Society_, and the + _British Homoeopathic Review_, the last being issued by the British + Homoeopathic Association, which was founded in 1902 for the purpose of + developing and extending homoeopathy in Great Britain. The _British + Journal of Homoeopathy_ was first published in 1843, and was edited by + Drs Drysdale, Russell and Black. For many years it was the foremost + homoeopathic journal in the world. Its motto was _In certis unitas, in + dubiis libertas, in omnibus charitas_. One reason why homoeopathy has + not advanced as rapidly in the British Isles as in America is said to + be the discrimination exercised against it by the General Medical + Council, and another is want of cohesion amongst the homoeopaths + themselves. + + _United States._--Homoeopathy was introduced into the United States by + Dr Hans Birch Gram, who was born in Boston. His father being Danish, + Gram in his eighteenth year went to Copenhagen, where he graduated in + 1814. In 1823 he became acquainted with homoeopathy, and brought a + knowledge of it to America in 1825 when he settled in New York. The + first homoeopathic association was formed in 1833 in Philadelphia, the + second in New York, 1834, and homoeopathy became known in the + different states somewhat in the following order: New York, 1825; + Pennsylvania, 1828; Louisiana, 1836; Connecticut, 1837; Massachusetts, + 1837-1838; Maryland, 1837; Delaware, 1837; Kentucky, 1837; Vermont, + 1838; Rhode Island, 1839; Ohio, 1839; New Jersey, 1840; Maine, 1840; + New Hampshire, 1840; Michigan, 1841; Georgia, 1842; Wisconsin, 1842; + Alabama, 1843; Illinois, 1843; Tennessee, 1844; Missouri, 1844; Texas, + 1848; Minnesota, 1852; Nebraska, 1862; Colorado, 1863; Iowa, 1871. + After 1871 the spread of the system was rapid throughout every state + in the Union, and it is in the United States that homoeopathy + principally flourishes. There are thousands of homoeopathic + physicians, and their clients number several millions. It may be noted + that departments of homoeopathy are connected with the universities of + Boston, Michigan, Iowa, Minnesota and Kansas City. + + _Canada._--The early history of homoeopathy can be traced back nearly + to 1850 in the province of Quebec. In the Dominion of Canada the + various provinces control the licensing of physicians, excepting in + Quebec, which is the only province having a separate homoeopathic + board of examiners. This is under the control of the Montreal + homoeopathic Association, and is known as the College of Homoeopathic + Physicians and Surgeons of Montreal. Three examiners are annually + appointed by the association. Successful candidates receive the + diploma of the college, and are entitled to add to their degree the + letters M.C.H.P.S. A certificate of successful examination is + forwarded to the lieutenant-governor at Quebec, who, "if satisfied of + the loyalty, integrity and good morals of the applicant, may grant him + a license to practise surgery, physic and midwifery, or either of + them, in the province of Quebec." The word "loyalty" has been decided + by the provincial secretary to mean a British subject. This is the + only government medical license now issued in the British empire, the + others being by provincial boards or colleges of physicians and + surgeons. In 1894 there was no homoeopathic institution in the + province; at present the Montreal Homoeopathic Hospital is in active + operation. Two homoeopathic papers are published monthly--the + _Homoeopathic Record_ in Montreal, and the _Homoeopathic Messenger_ in + Toronto. In 1870, in the province of Ontario, the three schools, + allopathic, homoeopathic and eclectic, united for examining purposes + into one board called the medical council, seventeen members + representing the old school and five the other two systems. Finally + the eclectics were merged in the old school, the board appointing five + of Hahnemann's followers for examining purposes. Grace Hospital at + Toronto (erected 1892) was begun as a dispensary in 1887. + + _Germany._--In 1810 Hahnemann published his _Organon_, which was the + starting-point of homoeopathy in Germany. In 1811 an endeavour was + made to found an institution in Leipzig in which practitioners might + learn the new method of treatment theoretically and practically, but + it was not a success, as the entire tide of professional opinion was + against the system. In 1829, at the celebration of the fiftieth + anniversary of Hahnemann's doctorate, the German Central Society was + organized, holding its first meeting in 1830. In the university + hospital of Munich some experiments were made to test the efficacy of + homoeopathic medicines, but these were not successful. In 1831 the + government prohibited homoeopathists from dispensing their own + medicines; this was a severe blow to the system. In 1834 there was a + division among the homoeopathists themselves, which much retarded the + progress of the school. A homoeopathic hospital was established about + this time (January 1833) in Leipzig, but there was such constant + wrangling among the physicians connected with it that its sphere of + usefulness was curtailed, and it was finally converted into a + dispensary. The Baden Homoeopathic Society was established in 1834. + The homoeopathic hospital in Munich was established in 1836, but + suffered a similar fate to that of Leipzig, and was converted into a + dispensary. The rather equivocal success of these hospitals in Saxony + and Bavaria was in direct contrast to the fate of two newly + established hospitals in Austria, one in Vienna and the other in Linz, + which were very successful, and aroused great interest both among + physicians and laymen. During the political confusion of 1846 and 1849 + there was complete stagnation of everything medical in Germany. But + during all these years, though the public institutions were few, the + literature on homoeopathic subjects became very extensive, and + exercised a significant influence upon the system in all parts of the + world. Hahnemann died in 1843, and on the 10th of August 1851 a bronze + monument to him was unveiled at Leipzig. The Leipzig dispensary lived + thirty-three years. From 1842 to 1874 there were treated in this + institution 65,106 patients. In 1901 there were about 250 homoeopathic + physicians in Germany; they appeared to be strongest at Berlin, in the + province of Brandenburg, in Pomerania and Westphalia, Saxony, Hessen + and in Württemberg. + + _Austria-Hungary._--Homoeopathy was introduced into Austria about + 1817, and in 1819 its practice was forbidden by law. Shortly + afterwards the physician attending the archduke John became a + homoeopath. In 1825 the doctrine was introduced into Vienna. To test + the efficacy of the system Francis I. ordered that experiments be made + with homoeopathic medicines, and for this purpose a ward furnished + with twelve beds was allotted. The results were satisfactory to the + new system, and it made gigantic strides in Vienna. During the cholera + epidemic of 1836 an increased impetus was given to the new school by + the reported brilliant successes of the treatment. Societies were + founded and journals published. In 1846 a second hospital was founded. + In 1850 a third hospital was opened, and clinical lectures upon the + system were delivered. In 1873 the Society of Homoeopathic Physicians + was formed. Between the years 1873 and 1893 homoeopathy declined. In + 1901, in thirty-seven cities and towns there were to be found about + fifty physicians and two hospitals, and it was estimated that about + seventy-five more were scattered in Moravia, Bohemia, Tirol, Salzburg + and the coast provinces. There is a professorship of homoeopathy at + the University of Budapest, and homoeopathic clinics are held at the + new Rochus Hospital in Üllöi Street, and also in the homoeopathic + department of the Hospital Bethesda of the Reformed Community. The + Elizabeth Hospital, exclusively homoeopathic, has existed for many + years. + + _Russia._--The homoeopathic system was introduced into Russia in 1823. + In 1825 great impetus was given to the new doctrine by the conversion + of Dr Bigel, physician to the grand duke Constantine. In 1829 the + grand duke ordered a series of experiments to be conducted to prove + the truth or fallacy of homoeopathy, and they demonstrated the success + of the new school. In 1841 a hospital was established in Moscow, and + in 1849 similar institutions were founded in Nizhniy-Novgorod. Since + then homoeopathy has been steadily practised, and has penetrated to + the remotest parts of Russia. In 1881 the civil engineers proposed to + commemorate the virtues of the emperor Alexander II. by the erection + of a hospital; a committee for collecting funds was created, and + 58,064 roubles were handed to the Charity Society of the followers of + homoeopathy at St Petersburg for the erection and founding of a + homoeopathic hospital. The foundation stone of the edifice was laid on + 19th June 1893, the emperor Alexander III. giving 5000 roubles. The + inauguration of a new dispensary and a pharmacy took place on the 19th + of April 1898, and the hospital itself, intended originally for fifty + beds, was opened on the 1st of November 1898. There are sixteen free + beds, three of them being in the name of the emperor Nicholas, the + empress Maria Feodorovna, and the emperor Alexander III. On the 28th + of January 1899 an imperial edict was issued granting the rights of + public service to the doctors of the hospital and dispensaries of the + Charity Society, thus placing them on an equality with the doctors of + the prevailing medical school. + + _France._--Homoeopathy was first introduced into France in 1830 by + Count de Guidi, doctor of medicine, doctor of science, and inspector + of the university, who practised in Lyons. About the same year Dr + Antoine Petroz, widely known by his _Grand dictionnaire des sciences + médicales_, began practising homoeopathy in Paris, and his + establishment became the headquarters of the new system there. In 1835 + Hahnemann himself came to the capital. In 1832 the homoeopathic method + of treating disease was introduced into the Hospice de Choisy, and in + 1842 into the hospital of Carentan. Tessier practised the new doctrine + in his wards in the Hospital St Marguérite, and in the Children's + Hospital up to the year 1862, when he retired. The first homoeopathic + society was established in 1832 (the Société Gallicain), Hahnemann + becoming president in 1835; in 1845 the Société de Médecine + Homéopathique was organized; and in 1860 the two were united for the + better interests of the school. In 1901 there were at Paris three + hospitals--the Hospital St Jacques with fifty-five beds, the Hahnemann + Hospital with thirty-five beds, and the new Protestant Hospital for + Children with twenty-five-beds. At Lyons there is the Hospital St Luc. + The medical journals include _L'Art médical, La Revue homéopathique + belge, Journal belge d'homéopathie, La Thérapeutique Intégrale, La + Revue homéopathique française_. In the year 1900 the medical officers + of the republic having supervision over the medical department of the + International Exhibition officially recognized the members of the + homoeopathic school, and arranged for the proper accommodation and + reception of the International Congress of Homoeopathic Physicians + held in June. On the 30th of that month, with appropriate ceremonies, + the remains of Hahnemann were removed from the cemetery of Montmartre + and deposited in Père-la-Chaise, and a monument bearing a suitable + inscription was erected to the memory of the founder of homoeopathy. + + _Italy._--The Austrians when they entered Naples in 1821 brought + homoeopathy into Italy, the general in command of the army being a + devoted friend of Hahnemann. In 1828 Dr Count Sebastian de Guidi came + from Lyons and assisted in spreading the doctrine. During the period + from 1830 to 1860 many physicians practised homoeopathy, and the + literature on the subject became extensive. A homoeopathic clinic was + established and a ward opened in Trinity Hospital at Naples, and a + homoeopathic physician was appointed to the count of Syracuse. During + the severe cholera epidemics of 1854, 1855, 1865 the success of + homoeopathic treatment of that disease was so marked under the care of + Dr Rubini that the attention of the authorities was directed to the + system. In 1860 the homoeopathic practice was introduced into the + Spedale della Cesarea, and since that period homoeopathy has been + recognized with more or less favour in most of the cities. The Italian + Homoeopathic Institute is recognized by royal warrant as an + established institution, and its regulations are approved by the + government. In Turin the legal seat of the Homoeopathic Institute, + there is a hospital under the management of the State Association. The + homoeopathic medical press consists of the _Revista Omiopatica_, + established in 1855, and _L'Omiopatico in Italia_, the organ of the + Italian Homoeopathic Institute, which first appeared in 1884. + + _Spain._--Homoeopathy was introduced into Spain in 1829 by a physician + to the Royal Commission sent by the king of Naples to attend the + marriage of Maria Christina with Don Ferdinand VII. Shortly after + this, a merchant of Cadiz visited Hahnemann in Coethen, and was cured + of a serious disorder; he returned to Spain with a supply of + homoeopathic literature, and immediately sent a medical student to + Leipzig to study the new system. In 1843 many cases of cholera were + treated homoeopathically in Madrid. The civil war, which did not + terminate until 1840, arrested all medical investigation in Spain, but + in 1843 there still existed in Madrid five pharmacies and a number of + homoeopathic physicians. About this time Dr Tosi Nuñez returned from + an investigation of the new system with Hahnemann, and owing to his + success in the treatment of disease was created one of the physicians + of the bedchamber to the queen, who soon afterwards conferred upon him + the title of marquis, with the grand crosses of the Charles III. and + of the Civil Order of Beneficiencia. This recognition by high + authority gave an impetus to homoeopathy which has continued ever + since. + + _Denmark._--Homoeopathy was unknown in Denmark until the year 1821, + when Hans Christian Lund, a medical practitioner, adopted it. + Hahnemann, however, had been both before and after that time consulted + by Danes, and consequently homoeopathic therapeutics was recognized in + different parts of the country. Lund translated many of Hahnemann's + works into Danish, as well as those of other eminent members of the + new school. (W. T. H.) + + +FOOTNOTES: + + [1] An interesting controversy has been carried on between the + members of the homoeopathic school as to the proper construction of + the Latin motto which constitutes its acknowledged basis. For many + years the verb at the conclusion of the sentence was used in the + indicative mood, _curantur_, thus making the sentence a positive one. + After extended research it has been discovered that Hahnemann himself + never employed the word _curantur_ as descriptive of his law of cure, + but always wrote _curentur_, which greatly modifies the meaning of + the phrase. If the subjunctive mood be used, the motto reads, "Let + similars be treated by similars," or "similars should be treated by + similars." The reading _similia similibus curentur_ was officially + adopted as the correct reading of the sentence by the American + Institute of Homoeopathy at its session held in Atlantic City, N.J., + on the 20th of June 1899; and the words are so inscribed on the + monument erected to the memory of Hahnemann and unveiled in + Washington, D.C., on the 23rd of June 1900, and also are those carved + upon the tomb of Hahnemann in Père-la-Chaise, Paris. + + [2] Some points of Hahnemann's system were borrowed from previous + writers--as he himself, though imperfectly, admits. Not to mention + others, he was anticipated by Hippocrates, and especially by + Paracelsus (1495-1541). The identical words _similia similibus + curantur_ occur in the Geneva edition (1658) of the works of + Paracelsus, as a marginal heading of one of the paragraphs; and in + the "Fragmenta Medica," _Op. Omnia_, i. 168, 169, occurs the + following passage: + + _Simile similis cura; non contrarium._ + + "Quisquis enim cum laude agere Medicum volet, is has nugas longe + valere jubeat. Nec enim ullus unquam morbus calidus per frigida + sanatus fuit, nec frigidus per calida. Simile autem suum simile + frequenter curavit, scilicet Mercurius sulphur, et sulphur Mercurium; + et sal ilia, velut et illa sal. Interdum quidem cum proprietate + junctum frigidum sanavit calidum; sed id non factum est ratione + frigidi, verum ratione naturae alterius, quam a primo illo omnino + diversam facimus." + + It is very remarkable that in Hahnemann's enumeration of authors who + anticipated him in regard to the doctrine of _Similia_, he makes no + mention of the views of Paracelsus, though the very words seem to be + taken from the works of that physician. The other point in + Hahnemann's doctrine--that medicines should be tried first on healthy + persons--he admits to have been enunciated by Haller. Roughly it has + been acted on by physicians in all ages, but certainly more + systematically since Hahnemann's time. In the most characteristic + feature of Hahnemann's practice--"the potentizing," "dynamizing," of + medicinal substances--he appears to have been original. + + [3] Two methods of preparing medicines are recognized, one on the + decimal, the other on the centesimal scale. The pure tinctures are + denominated "mother tinctures," and represented by the Greek [phi]. + To make a first decimal dilution or first decimal trituration, 10 + drops of the mother tincture, or 10 grains of a crude substance, are + mixed with 90 drops of alcohol, or 90 grains of _saccharum lactis_ + (sugar of milk) respectively. The liquid is thoroughly shaken, or the + powder carefully triturated, and the bottles containing them marked 1 + X, meaning first decimal dilution or trituration. To make the 2 X + potency, 10 drops or 10 grains of this first dilution or trituration + are mixed with 90 drops of pure alcohol, or 90 grains of milk sugar, + and are succussed or triturated as above described, and marked 2 X + dilution or trituration. This subdivision of particles may be + continued to an indefinite degree. On the Hahnemannian or centesimal + scale the medicines are prepared in the same manner, the difference + being that 1 drop or grain is mixed with 99 drops or grains, to make + the first centesimal, which is marked 1 c or 1 simply, and so on for + the second and higher dilutions. + + + + +HOMONYM (Gr. [Greek: homônomos], having the same name, from [Greek: +homos], same, alike, and [Greek: onoma], name), a term in philology for +those words which differ in sense but are alike either in sound or +spelling or both. Words alike only in spelling but not in sound, e.g. +"bow," are sometimes called _homographs_; and words alike only in sound +but not in spelling, e.g. "meat," "meet," _homophones_. Skeat (_Etymol. +Dict._) gives a list of English homonyms. + + + + +HOMS, or HUMS (anc. _Emesa_ or _Emessa_, near the Hittite _Kadesh_), a +town of Syria, on the right bank of the Orontes, and capital of a sanjak +in the vilayet of Syria (Damascus). Pop. 30,000 (20,000 Moslem, 10,000 +Christian). The importance of the place arises from its command of the +great north road from Egypt, Palestine and Damascus by the Orontes +valley. Invading armies from the south have often been opposed near +Homs, from the time of Rameses II., who had to fight the battle of +Kadesh, to that of Ibrahim Pasha, who broke the first line of Ottoman +defence in 1831 by his victory there. Ancient Emesa, in the district of +Apamea, was a very old Syrian city, devoted to the worship of Baal, the +sun god, of whose great temple the emperor Heliogabalus was originally a +priest (A.D. 218). As a centre of native influences it was overawed by +the Seleucid foundation of Apamea; but it opposed the Roman advance. +There Aurelian crushed, in A.D. 272, the Syrian national movement led by +Zenobia. Caracalla made it a Roman colony, and later it became the +Capital of a small province, _Phoenicia Libanesia_ or _ad Libanum_. +About 630 it was captured by the Moslem leader, Khalid ibn Walid, who is +buried there. It now became the capital of a _jund_, or military +district, which under the Omayyad Caliphs extended from Palmyra to the +sea. Under the Arabs it was one of the largest cities in Syria, with +walls and a strong citadel, which stood on a hill, occupying perhaps the +site of the great sun temple. The ruins of this castle, blown up by +Ibrahim Pasha, are still the most conspicuous feature of Homs, and +contain many remains of ancient buildings. Its men were noted for their +courage in war, and its women for their beauty. The climate was +extolled for its excellence, and the land for its fertility. A +succession of gardens bordered the Orontes, and the vineyards were +remarkable for their abundant yield of grapes. When the place +capitulated the great church of St John was divided between the +Christians and Moslems, an arrangement which apparently lasted until the +arrival of the Turks. At the end of the 11th century it fell into +crusading hands, but was recovered by the Moslems under Saladin in 1187. +Its decay probably dates from the invasion of the Mongols (1260), who +fought two important battles with the Egyptians (1281 and 1299) in its +vicinity. The construction of a carriage road to Tripoli led to a +partial revival of prosperity and to an export of cereals and fruit, and +this growth has, in turn, been accentuated by the railway, which now +connects it with Aleppo and the Damascus-Beirut line. The district is +well planted with mulberries and produces much silk, most of which is +worked up on the spot. (D. G. H.) + + + + +HO-NAN, a central province of China, bounded N. partly by the Hwang-ho +(which it crosses to the west of Ho-nan Fu, forming an arm northwards +between the provinces of Shan-si and Chih-li), on the W. by Shen-si, on +the S. by Hu-peh, and on the E. by Ngan-hui. It occupies an area of +81,000 sq. m., with a population of about 22,100,000, and contains nine +prefectural cities. Its capital is K'ai-fêng Fu. The prefecture of +Hwai-k'ing, north of the Hwang-ho, consists of a fertile plain, +"rendered park-like by numerous plantations of trees and shrubs, among +which thick bosquets of bamboo contrast with the gloomy groves of +cypress." All kinds of cereals grow luxuriantly, and the general +productiveness of the district is indicated by the extreme denseness of +the population. The most noticeable feature in that portion of the +province which is properly called Ho-nan is the Fu-niu Shan range, which +runs east and west across this part of the province. Coal is found on +the south of the Hwang-ho in the districts of Ho-nan Fu, the ancient +capital, Lushan and Ju Chow. The chief products of the province are, +however, agricultural, especially in the valley of the Tang-ho and +Pai-ho, which is an extensive and densely populated plain running north +and south from the Fu-niu Shan. Cotton is also grown extensively and +forms the principal article of export, and a considerable quantity of +wild silk is produced from the Fu-niu Shan. Three roads from the east +and south unite at Ho-nan Fu, and one from the west. The southern road +leads to Ju Chow, where it forks, one branch going to Shi-ki-chên, +connecting the trade from Fan-cheng, Han-kow, and the Han river +generally, and the other to Chow-kia-k'ow near the city of Ch'ên-chow +Fu, at the confluence of the three rivers which unite to form the +Sha-ho; the second road runs parallel with the Hwang-ho to K'ai-fêng Fu; +the third crosses the Hwang-ho at Mêngching Hien, and passes thence in a +north-easterly direction to Hwai-k'ing Fu, Sew-wu Hien and Wei-hui Fu, +at which place it joins the high road from Peking to Fan-cheng; and the +western road follows the southern bank of the Hwang-ho for 250 m. to its +great bend at the fortified pass known as the Tung-kwan, where it joins +the great wagon road leading through Shan-si from Peking to Si-gan Fu. +Ho-nan is now traversed north to south by the Peking-Hankow railway +(completed 1905). The line crosses the Hwang-ho by Yung-tse and runs +east of the Fu-niu Shan. Branch lines serve Ho-nan Fu and K'ai-fêng Fu. + + + + +HONAVAR, or ONORE, a seaport of British India, in the North Kanara +district of Bombay. Pop. (1901) 6929. It is mentioned as a place of +trade as early as the 16th century, and is associated with two +interesting incidents in Anglo-Indian history. In 1670, the English +factors here had a bull-dog which unfortunately killed a sacred bull, in +revenge for which they were all murdered, to the number of eighteen +persons, by an enraged mob. In 1784 it was bravely defended for three +months by Captain Torriano and a detachment of sepoys against the army +of Tippoo Sultan. + + + + +HONDA, or SAN BARTOLOMEO DE HONDA, a town of the department of Tolima, +Colombia, on the W. bank of the Magdalena river, 580 m. above its mouth. +In 1906 Mr F. Loraine Petre estimated the population at 7000. It is +about 650 ft. above sea-level and stands at the entrance to a narrow +valley formed by spurs of the Central Cordillera, through which a +picturesque little stream, called the Guali, flows into the Magdalena. +The town overlooks the rapids of the Magdalena, and is shut in closely +by spurs of the Eastern and Central Cordilleras. The climate is hot and +damp and the temperature frequently rises to 102° F. in the shade. Honda +dates back to the beginning of the 17th century, and has been one of the +important centres of traffic in South America for three hundred years. +Within the city there is an iron bridge across the Guali, and there is a +suspension bridge across the Magdalena at the head of the rapids. A +railway 18 m. long connects with the landing place of La Dorada, or Las +Yeguas, where the steamers of the lower Magdalena discharge and receive +their cargoes (the old landing at Carocali nearer the rapids having been +abandoned), and with Arrancaplumas, 1½ m. above, where navigation of the +upper river begins. Up to 1908 the greater part of the traffic for +Bogotá crossed the river at this point, and was carried on mule-back +over the old _camino real_, which was at best only a rough bridlepath +over which transportation to Bogotá (67 m. distant) was laborious and +highly expensive; now the transshipment is made to smaller steamboats on +the upper river for carriage to Girardot, 93 m. distant, from which +place a railway runs to the Bogotá plateau. Honda was nearly destroyed +by an earthquake in 1808. + + + + +HONDECOETER, MELCHIOR D' (c. 1636-1695), Dutch painter, was born at +Utrecht, it is said, about 1636, and died at Amsterdam on the 3rd of +April 1695. Old historians say that, being the grandson of Gillis and +son of Gisbert d'Hondecoeter, as well as nephew of J. B. Weenix, he was +brought up by the last two to the profession of painting. Of Weenix we +know that he married one Josina d'Hondecoeter in 1638. Melchior was, +therefore, related to Weenix, who certainly influenced his style. As to +Gillis and Gisbert some points still remain obscure, and it is difficult +to accept the statement that they stood towards each other in the +relation of father and son, since both were registered as painters at +Utrecht in 1637. Both it appears had practised art before coming to +Utrecht, but where they resided or what they painted is uncertain. +Unhappily pictures scarcely help us to clear up the mystery. In the +Fürstenberg collection at Donaueschingen there is a "Concert of Birds" +dated 1620, and signed with the monogram G. D. H.; and we may presume +that G. D. H. is the man whose "Hen and Chickens in a Landscape" in the +gallery of Rotterdam is inscribed "G. D. Hondecoeter, 1652"; but is the +first letter of the monogram to stand for Gillis or Gisbert? In the +museums of Dresden and Cassel landscapes with sportsmen are catalogued +under the name of Gabriel de Heusch (?), one of them dated 1529, and +certified with the monogram G. D. H., challenging attention by +resemblance to a canvas of the same class inscribed G. D. Hond. in the +Berlin Museum. The question here is also whether G. means Gillis or +Gisbert. Obviously there are two artists to consider, one of whom paints +birds, the other landscapes and sportsmen. Perhaps the first is Gisbert, +whose son Melchior also chose birds as his peculiar subject. Weenix too +would naturally teach his nephew to study the feathered tribe. Melchior, +however, began his career with a different speciality from that by which +he is usually known. Mr de Stuers affirms that he produced sea-pieces. +One of his earliest works is a "Tub with Fish," dated 1655, in the +gallery of Brunswick. But Melchior soon abandoned fish or fowl. He +acquired celebrity as a painter of birds only, which he represented not +exclusively, like Fyt, as the gamekeeper's perquisite after a day's +shooting, or stock of a poulterer's shop, but as living beings with +passions, joys, fears and quarrels, to which naturalists will tell us +that birds are subject. Without the brilliant tone and high finish of +Fyt, his Dutch rival's birds are full of action; and, as Bürger truly +says, Hondecoeter displays the maternity of the hen with as much +tenderness and feeling as Raphael the maternity of Madonnas. But Fyt was +at home in depicting the coat of deer and dogs us well as plumage. +Hondecoeter cultivates a narrower field, and seldom goes beyond a +cock-fight or a display of mere bird life. Very few of his pictures are +dated, though more are signed. Amongst the former we should note the +"Jackdaw deprived of his Borrowed Plumes" (1671), at the Hague, of which +Earl Cadogan has a variety; or "Game and Poultry" and "A Spaniel hunting +a Partridge" (1672), in the gallery of Brussels; or "A Park with +Poultry" (1686) at the Hermitage of St Petersburg. Hondecoeter, in great +favour with the magnates of the Netherlands, became a member of the +painters' academy at the Hague in 1659. William III. employed him to +paint his menagerie at Loo, and the picture, now at the Hague museum, +shows that he could at a pinch overcome the difficulty of representing +India's cattle, elephants and gazelles. But he is better in homelier +works, with which he adorned the royal chateaux of Bensberg and +Oranienstein at different periods of his life (Hague and Amsterdam). In +1688 Hondecoeter took the freedom of the city of Amsterdam, where he +resided till his death. His earliest works are more conscientious, +lighter and more transparent than his later ones. At all times he is +bold Of touch and sure of eye, giving the motion of birds with great +spirit and accuracy. His masterpieces are at the Hague and at Amsterdam. +But there are fine examples in private collections in England, and in +the public galleries of Berlin, Caen, Carlsruhe, Cassel, Cologne, +Copenhagen, Dresden, Dublin, Florence, Glasgow, Hanover, London, Lyons, +Montpellier, Munich, Paris, Rotterdam, Rouen, St Petersburg, Stuttgart +and Vienna. + + + + +HONDURAS, a republic of Central America, bounded on the N. by the +Caribbean Sea, E. by Nicaragua, S. by Nicaragua, the Pacific Ocean and +Salvador, and W. by Guatemala. (For map see CENTRAL AMERICA.) Pop. +(1905) 500,136; area, about 46,500 sq. m. Honduras is said to owe its +name, meaning in Spanish "depths," to the difficulty experienced by its +original Spanish explorers in finding anchorage off its shores; Cape +Gracias à Dios (Cape "Thanks to God") is the name bestowed, for +analogous reasons, on its easternmost headland, which shelters a small +harbour, now included in Nicaragua. Modern navigators are not confronted +by the same difficulty; for, although the north coast is unbroken by any +remarkable inlet except the Carataska Lagoon, a land-locked lake on the +east, with a narrow entrance from the sea, there are many small bays and +estuaries, such as those of Puerto Cortes, Omoa, Ulua, La Ceiba and +Trujillo, which serve as harbours. The broad basin of the Caribbean Sea, +bounded by Honduras, Guatemala and British Honduras, is known as the bay +or gulf of Honduras. Several islets and the important group of the Bay +Islands (q.v.) belong to the republic. On the Pacific the Hondurian +littoral is short but of great commercial value; for it consists of a +frontage of some 60 m. on the Bay of Fonseca (q.v.), one of the finest +natural harbours in the world. The islands of Tigre, Sacate Grande and +Gueguensi, in the bay, belong to Honduras. + +The frontier which separates the republic from Nicaragua extends across +the continent from E.N.E to W.S.W. It is defined by the river Segovia, +Wanks or Coco, for about one-third of the distance; it then deflects +across the watershed on the east and south of the river Choluteca, +crosses the main Nicaraguan Cordillera (mountain chain) and follows the +river Negro to the Bay of Fonseca. The line of separation from Salvador +is irregularly drawn, first in a northerly and then in a westerly +direction; beginning at the mouth of the river Goascoran, in the Bay of +Fonseca, it ends 12 m. W. of San Francisco city. At this point begins +the Guatemalan frontier, the largest section of which is delimited along +the crests of the Sierra de Merendon. On the Caribbean seaboard the +estuary of the Motagua forms the boundary between Honduras and +Guatemala. + + _Physical Features._--The general aspect of the country is + mountainous; its southern half is traversed by a continuation of the + main Nicaraguan Cordillera. The chain does not, in this republic, + approach within 50 or 60 m. of the Pacific; nor does it throughout + maintain its general character of an unbroken range, but sometimes + turns back on itself, forming interior basins or valleys, within which + are collected the headwaters of the streams that traverse the country + in the direction of the Atlantic Ocean. Nevertheless, viewed from the + Pacific, it presents the appearance of a great natural wall, with + many volcanic peaks towering above it and with a lower range of + mountains intervening between it and the sea. It would almost seem + that at one time the Pacific broke at the foot of the great mountain + barrier, and that the subordinate coast range was subsequently thrust + up by volcanic forces. At one point the main range is interrupted by a + great transverse valley or plain known as the plain of Comayagua, + which has an extreme length of about 40 m., with a width of from 5 to + 15 m. From this plain the valley of the river Humuya extends north to + the Atlantic, and the valley of the Goascoran extends south to the + Pacific. These three depressions collectively constitute a great + transverse valley reaching from sea to sea, which was pointed out soon + after the conquest as an appropriate course for inter-oceanic + communication. The mountains of the northern half of Honduras are not + volcanic in character and are inferior in altitude to those of the + south, which sometimes exceed 10,000 ft. The relief of all the + highlands of the Atlantic watershed is extremely varied; its + culminating points are probably in the mountain mass about the sources + of the Choluteca, Sulaco and Roman, and in the Sierra de Pija, near + the coast. Farther eastward the different ranges are less clearly + marked and the surface of the country resembles a plateau intersected + by numerous watercourses. + + The rivers of the Atlantic slope of Honduras are numerous and some of + them of large size and navigable. The largest is the Ulua, with its + tributary the Humuya. It rises in the plain of Comayagua and flows + north to the Atlantic; it drains a wide expanse of territory, + comprehending nearly one-third of the entire state, and probably + discharges a greater amount of water into the sea than any other river + of Central America, the Segovia excepted. It may be navigated by + steamers of light draught for the greater part of its course. The Rio + Roman or Aguan is a large stream falling into the Atlantic near + Trujillo, with a total length of about 120 m. Its largest tributary is + the Rio Mangualil, celebrated for its gold washings, and it may be + ascended by boats of light draft for 80 m. Rio Tinto, Negro or Black + River, called also Poyer or Poyas, is a considerable stream, navigable + by small vessels for about 60 m. Some English settlements were made on + its banks during the 18th century. The Patuca rises near the frontier + of Nicaragua, and enters the Atlantic east of the Brus or Brewer + lagoon. The Segovia is the longest river in Central America, rising + within 50 m. of the Bay of Fonseca, and flowing into the Caribbean Sea + at Cape Gracias à Dios (see NICARAGUA). Three considerable rivers flow + into the Pacific--the Goascoran, Nacaome and Choluteca, the last named + having a length of about 150 m. The Goascoran, which almost interlocks + with the Humuya, in the plain of Comayagua, has a length of about 80 + m. The lake of Yojoa or Taulébe is the only large inland lake in + Honduras, and is about 25 m. in length, by 6 to 8 in breadth. Its + surface is 2050 ft. above the sea. It has two outlets on the south, + the rivers Jaitique and Sacapa, which unite about 15 m. from the lake; + and it is drained on the north by the Rio Blanco, a narrow, deep + stream falling into the Ulua. It has also a feeder on the north, in + the form of a subterranean stream of beautiful clear water, which here + comes to the surface. The Carataska or Caratasca lagoon is a shallow + salt-water lake connected by a narrow channel with the Atlantic, and + near the mouth of the Segovia. It contains several large sandy + islands. + + Honduras resembles the neighbouring countries in the general character + of its geological formations, fauna and flora. Here, as in other + Central American states, there are but two seasons, the wet, from May + to November, and the dry, from November to May. On the moist lowlands + of the Atlantic coast the climate is oppressive, but on the highlands + of the interior it is delightful. At Tegucigalpa, on the uplands, a + year's observations showed the maximum temperature to be 90° F. in + May, and the minimum to be 50° F. in December, the range of variation + during the whole year being within 40° F. + + See also CENTRAL AMERICA: _Geology, Fauna, Flora, Climate_. + +_Inhabitants._--The inhabitants of Honduras are in many cases of the +Indian or aboriginal type, and the European element is very small, +although it shares in the social, political and economic preponderance +of the Spanish-speaking half-castes (_Ladinos_ or _Mestizos_), who are +the most numerous section of the population. Throughout the country +there are many interesting relics of the native civilization which was +destroyed by the Spanish invaders in the 16th century. In the eastern +portion of the state, between the Rio Roman, Cape Gracias à Dios, and +the Segovia river, the country is almost exclusively occupied by native +Indian tribes, known under the general names of Xicaques and Poyas. In +many districts the Indians are known as Lencas, a generic name which +includes several tribes akin to the Mayans of Guatemala. Portions of all +of these tribes have accepted the Roman Catholic religion, and live in +peaceful neighbourhood and good understanding with the white +inhabitants. There are, however, considerable numbers, probably about +90,000 in all, who live among the mountains and still conform closely +to the aboriginal modes of life. They all cultivate the soil, and are +good and industrious labourers. A small portion of the coast, above Cape +Gracias, is occupied by the Sambos, a mixed race of Indians and negroes, +which, however, is fast disappearing. Spreading along the entire north +coast are the Caribs, a vigorous race, descendants of the Caribs of St +Vincent, one of the Windward Islands. These, to the number of 5000, were +deported in 1796 by the English and landed on the island of Roatan. They +still retain their native language, although it tends to disappear and +be replaced by Spanish and a bastard dialect of English; they are +active, industrious and provident, forming the chief reliance of the +mahogany cutters on the coast. A portion of them, who have a mixture of +negro blood, are called the Black Caribs. They profess the Roman +Catholic religion, but retain many of their native rites and +superstitions. In the departments of Gracias, Comayagua and Choluteca +are many purely Indian towns. + +The aggregate population, according to an official estimate made in +1905, is 500,136, but a complete and satisfactory census cannot be taken +throughout the country, since the ignorant masses of the people, and +especially the Indians, avoid a census as in some way connected with +military conscription or taxation. The bulk of the Spanish population +exists on the Pacific slope of the continent, while on the Atlantic +declivity the country is uninhabited or but sparsely occupied by Indian +tribes, of which the number is wholly unknown. In 1905 there were fewer +than 11 inhabitants per sq. m., but all the available data tend to show +that the population increases rapidly, owing to the continuous excess of +births over deaths. The first census, taken in 1791, gave the total +population as only 95,500. There is little emigration or immigration. + +_Chief Towns._--The capital is Tegucigalpa (pop. 1905, about 35,000); +other important towns are Jutigalpa (18,000), Comayagua (8000), and the +seaports of Amapala (4000), Trujillo (4000), and Puerto Cortes (2500). +These are described in separate articles. The towns of Nacaome, La +Esperanza, Choluteca and Santa Rosa have upwards of 10,000 inhabitants. + + _Communications._--Means of communication are very defective. In 1905 + the only railway in the country was that from Puerto Cortes to La + Pimienta, a distance of 57 m. This is a section of the proposed + inter-oceanic railway for which the external debt of the republic was + incurred. For the completion of the line concessions, one after + another, were granted, and expired or were revoked. Other railways are + projected, including one along the Atlantic coast, an extension from + La Pimienta to La Brea on the Pacific, and a line from Tegucigalpa to + the port of San Lorenzo. The capital is connected with other towns by + fairly well made roads, which, however, are not kept in good repair. + In the interior generally, all travelling and transport are by mules + and ox-carts over roads which defy description. + + Honduras joined the Postal Union in 1879, The telegraph service is + conducted by the government and is inefficient. Telephones are in use + in Tegucigalpa and a few of the more important towns. + + _Commerce and Industry._--Although grants of land for mining and + agricultural purposes are readily made by the state to companies and + individual capitalists, the economic development of Honduras has been + a very slow process, impeded as it has been by political disturbances + and in modern times by national bankruptcy, heavy import and export + duties, and the scarcity of both labour and capital. The natural + wealth of the country is great and consists especially in its + vegetable products. The mahogany and cedar of Honduras are + unsurpassed, but reckless destruction of these and of other valuable + cabinet-woods and dye-woods has much reduced the supply available for + export. Rubber-planting, a comparatively modern industry, has proved + successful, and tends to supplement the almost exhausted stock of wild + rubber. Of still greater importance are the plantations of bananas, + especially in the northern maritime province of Atlantida, where + coco-nuts are also grown. Coffee, tobacco, sugar, oranges, lemons, + maize and beans are produced in all parts, rice, cocoa, indigo and + wheat over more limited areas. Cattle and pigs are bred extensively; + cattle are exported to Cuba, and dairy-farming is carried on with + success. Sheep-farming is almost an unknown industry. Turtle and fish + are obtained in large quantities off the Atlantic seaboard. In its + mineral resources Honduras ranks first among the states of Central + America. Silver is worked by a British company, gold by an American + company. Gold-washing was practised in a primitive manner even before + the Spanish conquest, and in the 18th century immense quantities of + gold and silver were obtained by the Spaniards from mines near + Tegucigalpa. Opals, platinum, copper, lead, zinc, nickel, antimony, + iron, lignite and coal have been found but the causes already + enumerated have prevented the exploitation of any of these minerals + on a large scale, and the total value of the ores exported was only + £174,800 in 1904 and £239,426 in 1905. The total value of the exports + in a normal year ranges from about £500,000 to £600,000, and that of + the imports from £450,000 to £550,000. Apart from minerals the most + valuable commodity exported is bananas (£209,263 in 1905); coco-nuts, + timber, hides, deer-skins, feathers, coffee, sarsaparilla and rubber + are items of minor importance. Nearly 90% of the exports are shipped + to the United States, which also send to Honduras more than half of + its imports. These chiefly consist of cotton goods, hardware and + provisions. The manufacturing industries of Honduras include the + plaiting of straw hats, cigar-making, brick-making and the + distillation of spirits. + + _Finance._--Owing to the greater variety of its products and the + possession of a metallic currency, Honduras is less affected by + fluctuations of exchange than the neighbouring republics, in which + little except paper money circulates. The monetary unit is the silver + _peso_ or dollar of 100 cents, which weighs 25 grammes, .900 fine, and + is worth about 1s. 8d.; the gold dollar is worth about 4s. The + principal coins in circulation arc the 1-cent copper piece, 5, 10, 20, + 25 and 50 cents, and 1 peso silver pieces, and 1, 5, 10 and 20 dollar + gold pieces. The metric system of weights and measures, adopted + officially on the 1st of April 1897, has not supplanted the older + Spanish standards in general use. There is only one bank in the + republic, the _Banco de Honduras_, with its head office at + Tegucigalpa. Its bills are legal tender for all debts due to the + state. + + In July 1909 the foreign debt of Honduras, with arrears of interest, + amounted to £22,470,510, of which more than £17,000,000 were for + arrears of interest. The principal was borrowed between 1867 and 1870, + chiefly for railway construction; but it was mainly devoted to other + purposes and no interest has been paid since 1872. The republic is + thus practically bankrupt. The revenue, derived chiefly from customs + and from the spirit, gunpowder and tobacco monopolies reached an + average of about £265,000 during the five years 1901-1905; the + expenditure in normal years is about £250,000. The principal spending + departments are those of war, finance, public works and education. + +_Constitution and Government._--The constitution of Honduras, +promulgated in 1839 and frequently amended, was to a great extent recast +in 1880. It was again remodelled in 1894, when a new charter was +proclaimed. This instrument gives the legislative power to a congress of +deputies elected for four years by popular vote, in the ratio of one +member for every 10,000 inhabitants. Congress meets on the 1st of +January and sits for sixty consecutive days. The executive is entrusted +to the president, who is nominated and elected for four years by popular +vote, and is re-eligible for a second but not for a third consecutive +term. He is assisted by a council of ministers representing the +departments of the interior, war, finance, public works, education and +justice. For purposes of local administration the republic is divided +into sixteen departments. The highest judicial power is vested in the +Supreme Court, which consists of five popularly elected judges; there +are also four Courts of Appeal, besides subordinate departmental and +district tribunals. The active army consists of about 500 regular +soldiers and 20,000 militia, recruited by conscription from all +able-bodied males between the ages of twenty and thirty. Service in the +reserve is obligatory for a further period of ten years. + + _Religion and Education._--Roman Catholicism is the creed of a very + large majority of the population; but the constitution grants complete + liberty to all religious communities, and no Church is supported by + public funds or receives any other special privilege. Education is + free, secular and compulsory for children between the ages of seven + and fifteen. There are primary schools in every convenient centre, but + the percentage of illiterates is high, especially among the Indians. + The state maintains a central institute and a university at + Tegucigalpa, a school of jurisprudence at Comayagua, and colleges for + secondary education, with special schools for teachers, in each + department. The annual cost of primary education is about £11,000. + +_History._--It was at Cape Honduras that Columbus first landed on the +American continent in 1502, and took possession of the country on behalf +of Spain. The first settlement was made in 1524 by order of Hernando +Cortes, who had heard rumours of rich and populous empires in this +region, and sent his lieutenant Christobal de Olid to found a Spanish +colony. Olid endeavoured to establish an independent principality, and, +in order to resume control of the settlers, Cortes was compelled to +undertake the long and arduous march across the mountains of southern +Mexico and Guatemala. In the spring of 1525 he reached the colony and +founded the city which is now Puerto Cortes. He entrusted the +administration to a new governor, whose successors were to be nominated +by the king, and returned to Mexico in 1526. By 1539, when Honduras was +incorporated in the captaincy-general of Guatemala, the mines of the +province had proved to be the richest as yet discovered in the New World +and several large cities had come into existence. The system under which +Honduras was administered from 1539 to 1821, when it repudiated the +authority of the Spanish crown, the effects of that system, the part +subsequently played by Honduras in the protracted struggle for Central +American unity, and the invasion by William Walker and his +fellow-adventurers (1856-1860), are fully described under CENTRAL +AMERICA. + +War and revolution had stunted the economic growth of the country and +retarded every attempt at social or political reform; its future was +mortgaged by the assumption of an enormous burden of debt in 1869 and +1870. A renewal of war with Guatemala in 1871, and a revolution three +years later in the interests of the ex-president Medina, brought about +the intervention of the neighbouring states and the provisional +appointment to the presidency of Marco Aurelio Soto, a nominee of +Guatemala. This appointment proved successful and was confirmed by +popular vote in 1877 and 1880, when a new constitution was issued and +the seat of government fixed at Tegucigalpa. Fresh outbreaks of civil +war occurred frequently between 1883 and 1903; the republic was bankrupt +and progress again at a standstill. In 1903 Manuel Bonilla, an able, +popular and experienced general, gained the presidency and seemed likely +to repeat the success of Soto in maintaining order. As his term of +office drew to a close, and his re-election appeared certain, the +supporters of rival candidates and some of his own dissatisfied +adherents intrigued to secure the co-operation of Nicaragua for his +overthrow. Bonilla welcomed the opportunity of consolidating his own +position which a successful war would offer; José Santos Zelaya, the +president of Nicaragua, was equally ambitious; and several alleged +violations of territory had embittered popular feeling on both sides. +The United States and Mexican governments endeavoured to secure a +peaceful settlement without intervention, but failed. At the outbreak of +hostilities in February 1907 the Hondurian forces were commanded by +Bonilla in person and by General Sotero Barahona his minister of war. +One of their chief subordinates was Lee Christmas, an adventurer from +Memphis, Tennessee, who had previously been a locomotive-driver. +Honduras received active support from his ally, Salvador, and was +favoured by public opinion throughout Central America. But from the +outset the Nicaraguans proved victorious, largely owing to their +remarkable mobility. Their superior naval force enabled them to capture +Puerto Cortes and La Ceiba, and to threaten other cities on the +Caribbean coast; on land they were aided by a body of Hondurian rebels, +who also established a provisional government. Zelaya captured +Tegucigalpa after severe fighting, and besieged Bonilla in Amapala. Lee +Christmas was killed. The surrender of Amapala on the 11th of April +practically ended the war. Bonilla took refuge on board the United +States cruiser "Chicago." A noteworthy feature of the war was the +attitude of the American naval officers, who landed marines, arranged +the surrender of Amapala, and prevented Nicaragua prolonging +hostilities. Honduras was now evacuated by the Nicaraguans and her +provisional government was recognized by Zelaya. Miguel R. Davila was +president in 1908 and 1909. + + BIBLIOGRAPHY.--Official documents such as the annual presidential + message and the reports of the ministries are published in Spanish at + Tegucigalpa. Other periodical publications which throw much light on + the movement of trade and politics are the British Foreign Office + reports (London, annual), United States consular reports (Washington, + monthly), bulletins of the Bureau of American Republics (Washington), + and reports of the Council of the Corporation of Foreign Bondholders + (London, annual). For a more comprehensive account of the country and + its history, the works of K. Sapper, E. G. Squier, A. H. Keane and T. + Child, cited under CENTRAL AMERICA, are important. See also E. + Pelletier, _Honduras et ses ports: documents officiels sur le + chemin-de-fer interocéanique_ (Paris, 1869); E. G. Squier, _Honduras: + Descriptive, Historical and Statistical_ (London, 1870); C. Charles, + _Honduras_ (Chicago, 1890); _Handbook of Honduras_, published by the + Bureau of American Republics (1892); T. R. Lombard, _The New + Honduras_ (New York, 1887); H. Jalhay, _La République de Honduras_ + (Antwerp, 1898); Perry, _Directorio nacional de Honduras_ (New York, + 1899); H. G. Bourgeois, _Breve noticia sobre Honduras_ (Tegucigalpa, + 1900). + + + + +HONE, NATHANIEL (1718-1784), British painter, was the son of a merchant +at Dublin, and without any regular training acquired in his youth much +skill as a portrait-painter. Early in his career he left Dublin for +England and worked first in various provincial towns, but ultimately +settled in London, where he soon made a considerable reputation. His +oil-paintings were decidedly popular, but he gained his chief success by +his miniatures and enamels, which he executed with masterly capacity. He +became a member of the Incorporated Society of Artists and afterwards a +foundation member of the Royal Academy; but he had several disagreements +with his fellow-members of that institution, and on one occasion they +rejected two of his pictures, one of which was regarded as a satire on +Reynolds and the other on Angelica Kauffman. Most of his contributions +to the Academy exhibitions were portraits. The quality of his work +varied greatly, but the merit of his miniatures and enamels entitles him +to a place among the ablest artists of the British school. He executed +also a few mezzotint plates of reasonable importance, and some etchings. +His portrait, painted by himself two years before his death, is in the +possession of the Royal Academy. + + + + +HONE, WILLIAM (1780-1842), English writer and bookseller, was born at +Bath on the 3rd of June 1780. His father brought up his children with +the sectarian narrowness that so frequently produces reaction. Hone +received no systematic education, and was taught to read from the Bible +only. His father having removed to London in 1783, he was in 1790 placed +in an attorney's office. After two and a half years spent in the office +of a solicitor at Chatham he returned to London to become clerk to a +solicitor in Gray's Inn. But he disliked the law, and had already +acquired a taste for free-thought and political agitation. Hone married +in 1800, and started a book and print shop with a circulating Library in +Lambeth Walk. He soon removed to St Martin's Churchyard, where he +brought out his first publication, Shaw's _Gardener_ (1806). It was at +this time that he and his friend, John Bone, tried to realize a plan for +the establishment of popular savings banks, and even had an interview on +the subject with the president of the Board of Trade. This scheme, +however, failed. Bone joined him next in a bookseller's business; but +Hone's habits were not those of a tradesman, and bankruptcy was the +result. He was in 1811 chosen by the booksellers as auctioneer to the +trade, and had an office in Ivy Lane. Independent investigations carried +on by him into the condition of lunatic asylums led again to business +difficulties and failure, but he took a small lodging in the Old Bailey, +keeping himself and his now large family by contributions to magazines +and reviews. He hired a small shop, or rather box, in Fleet Street but +this was on two separate nights broken into, and valuable books lent for +show were stolen. In 1815 he started the _Traveller_ newspaper, and +endeavoured vainly to exculpate Eliza Fenning, a poor girl, apparently +quite guiltless, who was executed on a charge of poisoning. From +February 1 to October 25, 1817, he published the _Reformer's Register_, +writing in it as the serious critic of the state abuses, which he soon +after attacked in the famous political squibs and parodies, illustrated +by George Cruikshank. In April 1817 three _ex-officio_ informations were +filed against him by the attorney-genera, Sir William Garrow. Three +separate trials took place in the Guildhall before special juries on the +18th, 19th and 20th of December 1817. The first, for publishing Wilkes's +_Catechism of a Ministerial Member_ (1817), was before Mr Justice Abbot +(afterwards Lord Tenterden); the second, for parodying the litany and +libelling the prince regent, and the third, for publishing the +_Sinecurist's Creed_ (1817), a parody on the Athanasian creed, were +before Lord Ellenborough (q.v.). The prosecution took the ground that +the prints were calculated to injure public morals, and to bring the +prayer-book and even religion itself into contempt. But there can be no +doubt that the real motives of the prosecution were political; Hone had +ridiculed the habits and exposed the corruption of the prince regent and +of other persons in power. He went to the root of the matter when he +wished the jury "to understand that, had he been a publisher of +ministerial parodies, he would not then have been defending himself on +the floor of that court." In spite of illness and exhaustion Hone +displayed great courage and ability, speaking on each of the three days +for about seven hours. Although his judges were biassed against him he +was acquitted on each count, and the result was received with +enthusiastic cheers by immense crowds within and without the court. Soon +after the trials a subscription was begun which enabled Hone to get over +the difficulties caused by his prosecution. Among Hone's most successful +political satires were _The Political House that Jack built_ (1819), +_The Queen's Matrimonial Ladder_ (1820), in favour of Queen Caroline, +_The Man in the Moon_ (1820), _The Political Showman_ (1821), all +illustrated by Cruikshank. Many of his squibs are directed against a +certain "Dr Slop," a nickname given by him to Dr (afterwards Sir John) +Stoddart, of _The Times_. In researches for his defence he had come upon +some curious and at that time little trodden literary ground, and the +results were shown by his publication in 1820 of his _Apocryphal New +Testament_, and in 1823 of his _Ancient Mysteries Explained_. In 1826 he +published the _Every-day Book_, in 1827-1828 the _Table-Book_, and in +1829 the _Year-Book_; all three were collections of curious information +on manners, antiquities and various other subjects. These are the works +by which Hone is best remembered. In preparing them he had the approval +of Southey and the assistance of Charles Lamb, but pecuniarily they were +not successful, and Hone was lodged in King's Bench prison for debt. +Friends, however, again came to his assistance, and he was established +in a coffee-house in Gracechurch Street; but this, like most of his +enterprises, ended in failure. Hone's attitude of mind had gradually +changed to that of extreme devoutness, and during the latter years of +his life he frequently preached in Weigh House Chapel, Eastcheap. In +1830 he edited Strutt's _Sports and Pastimes_, and he contributed to the +first number of the _Penny Magazine_. He was also for some years +sub-editor of the _Patriot_. He died at Tottenham on the 6th of November +1842. + + + + +HONE (in O. Eng. _hán_, cognate with Swed. _hen_; the root appears in +Skt. _çána_, _ço_ to sharpen), a variety of finely siliceous stone +employed for whetting or sharpening edge tools, and for abrading steel +and other hard surfaces. Synonyms are honestone, whetstone, oilstone and +sharpening stone. Hones are generally prepared in the form of flat slabs +or small pencils or rods, but some are made with the outline of the +special instrument they are designed to sharpen. Their abrading action +is due to the quartz or silica which is always present in predominating +proportion, some kinds consisting of almost pure quartz, while in others +the siliceous element is very intimately mixed with aluminous or +calcareous matter, forming a uniform compact stone, the extremely fine +siliceous particles of which impart a remarkably keen edge to the +instruments for the sharpening of which they are applied. In some cases +the presence of minute garnets or magnetite assists in the cutting +action. Hones are used either dry, with water, or with oil, and +generally the object to be sharpened is drawn with hand pressure +backward and forward over the surface of the hone; but sometimes the +stone is moved over the cutting edge. + +The coarsest type of stone which can be included among hones is the bat +or scythe stone, a porous fine-grained sandstone used for sharpening +scythes and cutters of mowing machines, and for other like purposes. +Next come the ragstones, which consist of quartzose mica-schist, and +give a finer edge than any sandstone. Under the head of oilstones or +hones proper the most famous and best-known qualities are the German +razor hone, the Turkey oilstone, and the Arkansas stone. The German +razor hone, used, as its name implies, chiefly for razors, is obtained +from the slate mountains near Ratisbon, where it forms a yellow vein of +from 1 to 18 in. in the blue slate. It is sawn into thin slabs, and +these are cemented to slabs of slate which serve as a support. Turkey +oilstone is a close-grained bluish stone containing from 70 to 75% of +silica in a state of very fine division, intimately blended with about +20 to 25% of calcite. It is obtained only in small pieces, frequently +flawed and not tough, so that the slabs must have a backing of slate or +wood. It is one of the most valuable of all whetstones, abrading the +hardest steel, and possessing sufficient compactness to resist the +pressure required for sharpening gravers. The stone comes from the +interior of Asia Minor, whence it is carried to Smyrna. Of Arkansas +stones there are two varieties, both found in the same district, Garland +and Saline counties, Arkansas, United States. The finer kind, known as +Arkansas hone, is obtained in small pieces at the Hot Springs, and the +second quality, distinguished as Washita stone, comes from Washita or +Ouachita river. The hones yield on analysis 98% of silica, with small +proportions of alumina, potash and soda, and mere traces of iron, lime, +magnesia and fluorine. They are white in colour, extremely hard and keen +in grit, and not easily worn down or broken. Geologically the materials +are called novaculites, and are supposed to be metamorphosed sandstone +silt, chert or limestone resulting from the permeation through the mass +of heated alkaline siliceous waters. The finer kind is employed for fine +cutting instruments, and also for polishing steel pivots of watch-wheels +and similar minute work, the second and coarser quality being used for +common tools. Both varieties are largely exported from the United States +in the form of blocks, slips, pencils, rods and wheels. Other honestones +are obtained in the United States from New York, New Hampshire, Vermont, +Ohio (Deerlick stone) and Indiana (Hindostan or Orange stone). Among +hones of less importance in general use may be noted the Charley Forest +stone--or Whittle Hill honestone--a good substitute for Turkey oilstone; +Water of Ayr stone, Scotch stone, or snake stone, a pale grey +carboniferous shale hardened by igneous action, used for tools and for +polishing marble and copper-plates; Idwal or Welsh oilstone, used for +small articles; and cutlers' greenstone from Snowdon, very hard and +close in texture, used for giving the last edge to lancets. + + + + +HONEY (Chin. _me_; Sansk. _madhu_, mead, honey; cf. A.S. _medo_, _medu_, +mead; Gr. [Greek: meli], in which [theta] or [delta] is changed into +[lambda]; Lat. _mel_; Fr. _miel_; A.S. _hunig_; Ger. _Honig_),[1] a +sweet viscid liquid, obtained by bees (see BEE, _Bee-keeping_) chiefly +from the nectaries of flowers, i.e. those parts of flowers specially +constructed for the elaboration of honey, and, after transportation to +the hive in the proventriculus or crop of the insects, discharged by +them into the cells prepared for its reception. Whether the nectar +undergoes any alteration within the crop of the bee is a point on which +authors have differed. Some wasps, e.g. _Myrapetra scutellaris_[2] and +the genus _Nectarina_, collect honey. A honey-like fluid, which consists +of a nearly pure solution of uncrystallizable sugar having the formula +C6H14O7 after drying in vacuo, and which is used by the Mexicans in the +preparation of a beverage, is yielded by certain inactive individuals of +_Myrmecocystus mexicanus_, Wesmael, the honey-ants or pouched ants +(_hormigas mieleras_ or _mochileras_) of Mexico.[3] The abdomen in these +insects, owing to the distensibility of the membrane connecting its +segments, becomes converted into a globular thin-walled sac by the +accumulation within it of the nectar supplied to them by their working +comrades (Wesmael, _Bull. de l'Acad. Roy. de Brux._ v. 766, 1838). By +the Rev. H. C. M'Cook, who discovered the insect in the Garden of the +Gods, Colorado, the honey-bearers were found hanging by their feet, in +groups of about thirty, to the roofs of special chambers in their +underground nests, their large globular abdomens causing them to +resemble "bunches of small Delaware grapes" (_Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. +Philad._, 1879, p. 197). A bladder-like formation on the metathorax of +another ant, _Crematogaster inflatus_ (F. Smith, _Cat. of Hymenoptera_, +pt. vi. pp. 136 and 200, pl. ix. fig. 1), which has a small circular +orifice at each posterior lateral angle, appears to possess a function +similar to that of the abdomen in the honey-ant. + +It is a popular saying that where is the best honey there also is the +best wool; and a pastoral district, since it affords a greater profusion +of flowers, is superior for the production of honey to one under +tillage.[4] Dry warm weather is that most favourable to the secretion of +nectar by flowers. This they protect from rain by various internal +structures, such as papillae, cushions of hairs and spurs, or by virtue +of their position (in the raspberry, drooping), or the arrangement of +their constituent parts. Dr A. W. Bennett (_How Flowers are Fertilized_, +p. 31, 1873) has remarked that the perfume of flowers is generally +derived from their nectar; the blossoms of some plants, however, as ivy +and holly, though almost scentless, are highly nectariferous. The +exudation of a honey-like or saccharine fluid, as has frequently been +attested, is not a function exclusively of the flowers in all plants. A +sweet material, the manna of pharmacy, e.g. is produced by the leaves +and stems of a species of ash, _Fraxinus Ornus_; and honey-secreting +glands are to be met with on the leaves, petioles, phyllodes, stipules +(as in _Vicia sativa_), or bracteae (as in the _Maregraviaceae_) of a +considerable number of different vegetable forms. The origin of the +honey-yielding properties manifested specially by flowers among the +several parts of plants has been carefully considered by Darwin, who +regards the saccharine matter in nectar as a waste product of chemical +changes in the sap, which, when it happened to be excreted within the +envelopes of flowers, was utilized for the important object of +cross-fertilization, and subsequently was much increased in quantity, +and stored in various ways (see _Cross and Self Fertilization of +Plants_, pp. 402 sq., 1876). It has been noted with respect to the +nectar of the fuchsia that it is most abundant when the anthers are +about to dehisce, and absent in the unexpanded flower. + + Pettigrew is of opinion that few bees go more than 2 m. from home in + search of honey. The number of blossoms visited in order to meet the + requirements of a single hive of bees must be very great; for it has + been found by A. S. Wilson ("On the Nectar of Flowers," _Brit. Assoc. + Rep._, 1878, p. 567) that 125 heads of common red clover, which is a + plant comparatively abundant in nectar, yield but one gramme (15.432 + grains) of sugar; and as each head contains about 60 florets, + 7,500,000 distinct flower-tubes must on this estimate be exhausted for + each kilogramme (2.204 lb.) of sugar collected. Among the richer + sources of honey are reckoned the apple, asparagus, asters, barberry, + basswood (_Tilia americana_), and the European lime or linden (_T. + europaea_), beans, bonesets (_Eupatorium_), borage, broom, buckwheat, + catnip, or catmint (_Nepeta Cataria_), cherry, cleome, clover, cotton, + crocus, currant, dandelion, eucalyptus, figwort (_Scrophularia_), + furze, golden-rod (_Solidago_), gooseberry, hawthorn, heather, + hepatica, horehound, hyacinth, lucerne, maple, mignonette, mint, + motherwort (_Leonurus_), mustard, onion, peach, pear, poplar, quince, + rape, raspberry, sage, silver maple, snapdragon, sour-wood + (_Oxydendron arboreum_, D.C.), strawberry, sycamore, teasel, thyme, + tulip-tree (more especially rich in pollen), turnip, violet and + willows, and the "honey-dew" of the leaves of the whitethorn (Bonner), + oak, linden, beech and some other trees. + +Honey contains dextroglucose and laevoglucose (the former practically +insoluble, the latter soluble in 1/8 pt. of cold strong alcohol), +cane-sugar (according to some), mucilage, water, wax, essential oil, +colouring bodies, a minute quantity of mineral matter and pollen. By a +species of fermentation, the cane-sugar is said to be gradually +transformed into inverted sugar (laevoglucose with dextroglucose). The +pollen, as a source of nitrogen, is of importance to the bees feeding on +the honey. It may be obtained for examination as a sediment from a +mixture of honey and water. Other substances which have been discovered +in honey are mannite (Guibourt), a free acid which precipitates the +salts of silver and of lead, and is soluble in water and alcohol +(Calloux), and an uncrystallizable sugar, nearly related to inverted +sugar (Soubeiran, _Compt. Rend._ xxviii. 774-775, 1849). Brittany honey +contains couvain, a ferment which determines its active decomposition +(Wurtz, _Dict. de Chem._ ii. 430). In the honey of _Polybia +apicipennis_, a wasp of tropical America, cane-sugar occurs in crystals +of large size (Karsten, _Pogg. Ann._, C. 550). Dr J. Campbell Brown ("On +the Composition of Honey," _Analyst_ iii. 267, 1878) is doubtful as to +the presence of cane-sugar in any one of nine samples, from various +sources, examined by him. The following average percentage numbers are +afforded by his analyses: laevulose, 36.45; dextrose, 36.57; mineral +matter, .15; water expelled at 100° C., 18.5, and at a much higher +temperature, with loss, 7.81: the wax, pollen and insoluble matter vary +from a trace to 2.1%. The specific gravity of honey is about 1.41. The +rotation of a polarized ray by a solution of 16.26 grammes of crude +honey in 100 c.c. of water is generally from -3.2° to -5° at 60° F.; in +the case of Greek honey it is nearly -5.5°. Almost all pure honey, when +exposed for some time to light and cold, becomes more or less granular +in consistency. Any liquid portion can be readily separated by straining +through linen. Honey sold out of the comb is commonly clarified by +heating and skimmimg; but according to Bonner it is always best in its +natural state. The _mel depuratum_ of British pharmacy is prepared by +heating honey in a water-bath, and straining through flannel previously +moistened with warm water. + +The term "virgin-honey" (A.-S., _hunigtear_) is applied to the honey of +young bees which have never swarmed, or to that which flows +spontaneously from honeycomb with or without the application of heat. +The honey obtained from old hives, considered inferior to it in quality, +is ordinarily darker, thicker and less pleasant in taste and odour. The +yield of honey is less in proportion to weight in old than in young or +virgin combs. The far-famed honey of Narbonne is white, very granular +and highly aromatic; and still finer honey is that procured from the +Corbières Mountains, 6 to 9 m. to the south-west. The honey of Gâtinais +is usually white, and is less odorous and granulates less readily than +that of Narbonne. Honey from white clover has a greenish-white, and that +from heather a rich golden-yellow hue. What is made from honey-dew is +dark in colour, and disagreeable to the palate, and does not candy like +good honey. "We have seen aphide honey from sycamores," says F. Cheshire +(_Pract. Bee-keeping_, p. 74), "as deep in tone as walnut liquor, and +where much of it is stored the value of the whole crop is practically +nil." The honey of the stingless bees (_Meliponia_ and _Trigona_) of +Brazil varies greatly in quality according to the species of flowers +from which it is collected, some kinds being black and sour, and others +excellent (F. Smith, _Trans. Ent. Soc._, 3d ser., i. pt. vi., 1863). +That of _Apis Peronii_, of India and Timor, is yellow, and of very +agreeable flavour and is more liquid than the British sorts. _A. +unicolor_, a bee indigenous to Madagascar, and naturalized in Mauritius +and the island of Réunion, furnishes a thick and syrupy, peculiarly +scented green honey, highly esteemed in Western India. A rose-coloured +honey is stated (_Gard. Chron._, 1870, p. 1698) to have been procured by +artificial feeding. The fine aroma of Maltese honey is due to its +collection from orange blossoms. Narbonne honey being harvested chiefly +from Labiate plants, as rosemary, an imitation of it is sometimes +prepared by flavouring ordinary honey with infusion of rosemary flowers. + + Adulterations of honey are starch, detectable by the microscope, and + by its blue reaction with iodine, also wheaten flour, gelatin, chalk, + gypsum, pipe-clay, added water, cane-sugar and common syrup, and the + different varieties of manufactured glucose. Honey sophisticated with + glucose containing copperas as an impurity is turned of an inky colour + by liquids containing tannin, as tea. Elm leaves have been used in + America for the flavouring of imitation honey. Stone jars should be + employed in preference to common earthenware for the storage of honey, + which acts upon the lead glaze of the latter. + +Honey is mildly laxative in properties. Some few kinds are poisonous, as +frequently the reddish honey stored by the Brazilian wasp _Nectarina_ +(_Polistes_, Latr.[5]) _Lecheguana_, Shuck., the effects of which have +been vividly described by Aug. de Saint-Hilaire,[6] the spring honey of +the wild bees of East Nepaul, said to be rendered noxious by collection +from rhododendron flowers (Hooker, _Himalayan Journals_, i. 190, ed. +1855), and the honey of Trebizond, which from its source, the blossoms, +it is stated, of _Azalea pontica_ and _Rhododendron ponticum_ (perhaps +to be identified with Pliny's _Aegolethron_), acquires the qualities of +an irritant and intoxicant narcotic, as described by Xenophon (_Anab._ +iv. 8). Pliny (_Nat. Hist._ xxi. 45) describes as noxious a +livid-coloured honey found in Persia and Gaetulia. Honey obtained from +_Kalmia latifolia_, L., the calico bush, mountain laurel or spoon-wood +of the northern United States, and allied species, is reputed +deleterious; also that of the sour-wood is by some good authorities +considered to possess undeniable griping properties; and G. Bidie +(_Madras Quart. Journ. Med. Sci._, Oct, 1861, p. 399) mentions +urtication, headache, extreme prostration and nausea, and intense thirst +among the symptoms produced by a small quantity only of a honey from +Coorg jungle. A South African species of _Euphorbia_, as was experienced +by the missionary Moffat (_Miss. Lab._ p. 32, 1849), yields a poisonous +honey. The nectar of certain flowers is asserted to cause even in bees a +fatal kind of vertigo. As a demulcent and flavouring agent, honey is +employed in the _oxymel_, _oxymel scillae_, _mel boracis_, _confectio +piperis_, _conf. scammonii_ and _conf. terebinthinae_ of the _British +Pharmacopoeia_. To the ancients honey was of very great importance as an +article of diet, being almost their only available source of sugar. It +was valued by them also for its medicinal virtues; and in recipes of the +Saxon and later periods it is a common ingredient.[7] Of the eight kinds +of honey mentioned by the great Indian surgical writer Susruta, four are +not described by recent authors, viz. _argha_ or wild honey, collected +by a sort of yellow bee; _chhatra_, made by tawny or yellow wasps; +_audálaka_, a bitter and acrid honey-like substance found in the nest of +white ants; and _dála_ or unprepared honey occurring on flowers. +According to Hindu medical writers, honey when new is laxative, and when +more than a year old astringent (U. C. Dutt, _Mat. Med. of the Hindus_, +p. 277, 1877). Ceromel, formed by mixing at a gentle heat one part by +weight of yellow wax with four of clarified honey, and straining, is +used in India and other tropical countries as a mild stimulant for +ulcers in the place of animal fats, which there rapidly become rancid +and unfit for medicinal purposes. The _Koran_, in the chapter entitled +"The Bee," remarks with reference to bees and their honey: "There +proceedeth from their bellies a liquor of various colour, wherein is a +medicine for men" (Sale's _Koran_, chap. xvi.). Pills prepared with +honey as an excipient are said to remain unindurated, however long they +may be kept (_Med. Times_, 1857, i. 269). Mead, of yore a favourite +beverage in England (vol. iv. p. 264), is made by fermentation of the +liquor obtained by boiling in water combs from which the honey has been +drained. In the preparation of sack-mead, an ounce of hops is added to +each gallon of the liquor, and after the fermentation a small quantity +of brandy. Metheglin, or hydromel, is maufactured by fermenting with +yeast a solution of honey flavoured with boiled hops (see Cooley, +_Cyclop._). A kind of mead is largely consumed in Abyssinia (vol. i. p. +64), where it is carried on journeys in large horns (Stern, +_Wanderings_, p. 317, 1862). In Russia a drink termed _lipez_ is made +from the delicious honey of the linden. The _mulsum_ of the ancient +Romans consisted of honey, wine and water boiled together. The _clarre_, +or _piment_, of Chaucer's time was wine mixed with honey and spices, and +strained till clear; a similar drink was _bracket_, made with wort of +ale instead of wine. L. Maurial (_L'Insectologie Agricole_ for 1868, p. +206) reports unfavourably as to the use of honey for the production of +alcohol; he recommends it, however, as superior to sugar for the +thickening of liqueurs, and also as a means of sweetening imperfectly +ripened vintages. It is occasionally employed for giving strength and +flavour to ale. In ancient Egypt it was valued as an embalming material; +and in the East, for the preservation of fruit, and the making of cakes, +sweetmeats, and other articles of food, it is largely consumed. Grafts, +seeds and birds' eggs, for transmission to great distances, are +sometimes packed in honey. In India a mixture of honey and milk, or of +equal parts of curds, honey and clarified butter (Sansk., +_madhu-parka_), is a respectful offering to a guest, or to a bridegroom +on his arrival at the door of the bride's father; and one of the +purificatory ceremonies of the Hindus (Sansk., _madhu-prasana_) is the +placing of a little honey in the mouth of a newborn male infant. Honey +is frequently alluded to by the writers of antiquity as food for +children; it is not to this, however, as already mentioned, that Isa. +vii. 15 refers. Cream or fresh butter together with honey, and with or +without bread, is a favourite dish with the Arabs. + +Among the observances at the Fandròana or New Year's Festival, in +Madagascar, is the eating of mingled rice and honey by the queen and her +guests; in the same country honey is placed in the sacred water of +sprinkling used at the blessing of the children previous to circumcision +(Sibree, _The Great African Is._ pp. 219, 314, 1880). Honey was +frequently employed in the ancient religious ceremonies of the heathen, +but was forbidden as a sacrifice in the Jewish ritual (Lev. ii. 11). +With milk or water it was presented by the Greeks as a libation to the +dead (_Odyss._ xi. 27; Eurip. _Orest._ 115). A honey-cake was the +monthly food of the fabled serpent-guardian of the Acropolis (Herod, +viii. 41). By the aborigines of Peru honey was offered to the sun. + + The Hebrew word translated "honey" in the authorized version of the + English Bible is _debash_, practically synonymous with which are + _ja'ar_ or _ja'arith had-debash_ (1 Sam. xix. 25-27; cf. Cant. v. 1) + and nopheth (Ps. xix. 10, &c.), rendered "honey-comb." _Debash_ + denotes bee-honey (as in Deut. xxxii. 13 and Jud. xiv. 8); the manna + of trees, by some writers considered to have been the "wild honey" + eaten by John the Baptist (Matt. iii. 4); the syrup of dates or the + fruits themselves; and probably in some passages (as Gen. xliii. 11 + and Ez. xxvii. 17) the syrupy boiled juice of the grape, resembling + thin molasses, in use in Palestine, especially at Hebron, under the + name of _dibs_ (see Kitto, _Cyclop._, and E. Robinson, _Bibl. Res._ + ii. 81). Josephus (B.J., iv. 8, 3) speaks highly of a honey produced + at Jericho, consisting of the expressed juice of the fruit of palm + trees; and Herodotus (iv. 194) mentions a similar preparation made by + the Gyzantians in North Africa, where it is still in use. The honey + most esteemed by the ancients was that of Mount Hybla in Sicily, and + of Mount Hymettus in Attica (iii. 59). Mahaffy (_Rambles in Greece_, + p. 148, 2nd ed., 1878) describes the honey of Hymettus as by no means + so good as the produce of other parts of Greece--not to say of the + heather hills of Scotland and Ireland. That of Thebes, and more + especially that of Corinth, which is made in the thymy hills towards + Cleonae, he found much better (cf. xi. 88). Honey and wax, still + largely obtained in Corsica (vi. 440), were in olden times the chief + productions of the island. In England, in the 13th and 14th centuries, + honey sold at from about 7d. to 1s. 2d. a gallon, and occasionally was + disposed of by the swarm or hive, or _ruscha_ (Rogers, _Hist. of + Agric. and Prices in Eng._, 1. 418). At Wrexham, Denbigh, Wales, two + honey fairs are annually held, one on the Thursday next after the 1st + of September, and the other--the more recently instituted and by far + the larger--on the Thursday following the first Wednesday in October. + In Hungary the amounts of honey and of wax are in favourable years + respectively about 190,000 and 12,000 cwt., and in unfavourable years, + as, e.g. 1874, about 12,000 and 3000 cwt. The hives there in 1870 + numbered 617,407 (or 40 per 1000 of the population, against 45 in + Austria). Of these 365,711 were in Hungary Proper, and 91,348 (87 per + 1000 persons) in the Military Frontier (Keleti, _Übersicht der Bevölk. + Ungarns_, 1871; Schwicker, _Statistik d. K. Ungarn_, 1877). In Poland + the system of bee-keeping introduced by Dolinowski has been found to + afford an average of 40 lb. of honey and wax and two new swarms per + hive, the common peasant's hive yielding, with two swarms, only 3 lb. + of honey and wax. In forests and places remote from villages in + Podolia and parts of Volhynia, as many as 1000 hives may be seen in + one apiary. In the district of Ostrolenka, in the government of Plock, + and in the woody region of Polesia, in Lithuania, a method is + practised of rearing bees in excavated trunks of trees (Stanton, "On + the Treatment of Bees in Poland," _Technologist_, vi. 45, 1866). When, + in August, in the loftier valleys of Bormio, Italy, flowering ceases, + the bees in their wooden hives are by means of spring-carts + transported at night to lower regions, where they obtain from the + buckwheat crops the inferior honey which serves them for winter + consumption (Ib. p. 38). + + In Palestine, "the land flowing with milk and honey"[8] (Ex. iii. 17; + Numb. xiii. 27), wild bees are very numerous, especially in the + wilderness of Judaea, and the selling of their produce, obtained from + crevices in rocks, hollows in trees and elsewhere, is with many of the + inhabitants a means of subsistence. Commenting on 1 Sam. xiv. 26, J. + Roberts (_Oriental Illust._) remarks that in the East "the forests + literally flow with honey; large combs may be seen hanging on the + trees, as you pass along, full of honey." In Galilee, and at Bethlehem + and other places in Palestine, bee-keeping is extensively carried on. + The hives are sun-burnt tubes of mud, about 4 ft. in length and 8 in. + in diameter, and, with the exception of a small central aperture for + the passage of the bees, closed at each end with mud. These are laid + together in long rows, or piled pyramidally, and are protected from + the sun by a covering of mud and of boughs. The honey is extracted, + when the ends have been removed, by means of an iron hook. (See + Tristram, _Nat. Hist. of the Bible_, pp. 322 sqq., 2nd ed., 1868). + Apiculture in Turkey is in a very rude condition. The Bali-dagh, or + "Honey Mount," in the plain of Troy, is so called on account of the + numerous wild bees tenanting the caves in its precipitous rocks to the + south. In various regions of Africa, as on the west, near the Gambia, + bees abound. Cameron was informed by his guides that the large + quantities of honey at the cliffs by the river Makanyazi were under + the protection of an evil spirit, and not one of his men could be + persuaded to gather any (_Across Africa_, i. 266). On the precipitous + slopes of the Teesta valley, in India, the procuring of honey from the + pendulous bees'-nests, which are sometimes large enough to be + conspicuous features at a mile's distance, is the only means by which + the idle poor raise their annual rent (Hooker, _Him. Journ._ ii. 41). + + To reach the large combs of _Apis dorsata_ and _A. testacea_, the + natives of Timor, by whom both the honey and young bees are esteemed + delicacies, ascend the trunks of lofty forest trees by the use of a + loop of creeper. Protected from the myriads of angry insects by a + small torch only, they detach the combs from the under surface of the + branches, and lower them by slender cords to the ground (Wallace, + _Journ. Linn. Soc., Zool._, vol. xi.). (F. H. B.) + + +FOOTNOTES: + + [1] The term honey in its various forms is peculiar to the Teutonic + group of languages, and in the Gothic New Testament is wanting, the + Greek word being there translated _melith_. + + [2] See A. White, in _Ann. and Mag. Nat. Hist._ vii. 315, pl. 4. + + [3] Wetherill (_Chem. Gaz._ xi. 72, 1853) calculates that the average + weight of the honey is 8.2 times that of the body of the ant, or + 0.3942 grammes. + + [4] Compare Isa. vii. 15, 22, where curdled milk (A.V. "butter") and + honey as exclusive articles of diet are indicative of foreign + invasion, which turns rich agricultural districts into pasture lands + or uncultivated wastes. + + [5] _Mémoires du Muséum_, xi. 313 (1824). + + [6] _Ib._ xii. 293, pl. xii. fig. B (1825). The honey, according to + Lassaigne (_ib._ ix. 319), is almost entirely soluble in alcohol. + + [7] For a list of fifteen treatises concerning honey, dating from + 1625 to 1868, see Waring, _Bibl. Therap._ ii. 559, New Syd. Soc. + (1879). On sundry ancient uses for honey, see Beckmann, _Hist. of + Invent._ i. 287 (1846). + + [8] In Sanskrit, _madhu-kulya_, a stream of honey, is sometimes used + to express an overflowing abundance of good things (Monier Williams, + _Sansk.-Eng. Dict._, p. 736, 1872). + + + + +HONEYCOMB, a cloth, so called because of the particular arrangement of +the crossing of the warp and weft threads which form cells somewhat +similar to those of the real honeycomb. They differ from the latter in +that they are rectangular instead of hexagonal. The bottom of the cell +is formed by those threads and picks which weave "plain," while the +ascending sides of the figure are formed by the gradually increasing +length of float of the warp and weft yarns. + +[Illustration] + + The figure shows two of the commonest designs which are used for these + cloths, design A being what is often termed the "perfect honeycomb"; + in the figure it will be seen that the highest number of successive + white squares is seven, while the corresponding highest number of + successive black squares is five. Two of each of these maximum floats + form the top or highest edges of the cell, and the number of + successive like squares decreases as the bottom of the cell is reached + when the floats are one of black and one of white (see middle of + design, &c.). The weave produces a reversible cloth, and it is + extensively used for the embellishment of quilts and other fancy + goods. It is also largely used in the manufacture of cotton and linen + towels. B is, for certain purposes, a more suitable weave than A, but + both are very largely used for the latter class of goods. + + + + +HONEY-EATER, or HONEY-SUCKER, names applied by many writers in a very +loose way to a large number of birds, some of which, perhaps, have no +intimate affinity; here they are used in a more restricted sense for +what, in the opinion of a good many recent authorities,[1] should really +be deemed the family _Meliphagidae_--excluding therefrom the +_Nectariniidae_ or SUN-BIRDS (q.v.) as well as the genera _Promerops_ +and _Zosterops_ with whatever allies they may possess. Even with this +restriction, the extent of the family must be regarded as very +indefinite, owing to the absence of materials sufficient for arriving at +a satisfactory conclusion, though the existence of such a family is +probably indisputable. Making allowance, then, for the imperfect light +in which they must at present be viewed, what are here called +_Meliphagidae_ include some of the most characteristic forms of the +ornithology of the great Australian region--members of the family +inhabiting almost every part of it, and a single species only, _Ptilotis +limbata_, being said to occur outside its limits. They all possess, or +are supposed to possess, a long protrusible tongue with a brush-like +tip, differing, it is believed, in structure from that found in any +other bird--_Promerops_ perhaps excepted--and capable of being formed +into a suctorial tube, by means of which honey is absorbed from the +nectary of flowers, though it would seem that insects attracted by the +honey furnish the chief nourishment of many species, while others +undoubtedly feed to a greater or less extent on fruits. The +_Meliphagidae_, as now considered, are for the most part small birds, +never exceeding the size of a missel thrush; and they have been divided +into more than 20 genera, containing above 200 species, of which only a +few can here be particularized. Most of these species have a very +confined range, being found perhaps only on a single island or group of +islands in the region, but there are a few which are more widely +distributed--such as _Glycyphila rufifrons_, the white-throated[2] +honey-eater, found over the greater part of Australia and Tasmania. In +plumage they vary much. Most of the species of _Ptilotis_ are +characterized by a tuft of white, or in others of yellow, feathers +springing from behind the ear. In the greater number of the genus +_Myzomela_[3] the males are recognizable by a gorgeous display of +crimson or scarlet, which has caused one species, _M. sanguinolenta_, to +be known as the soldier-bird to Australian colonists; but in others no +brilliant colour appears, and those of several genera have no special +ornamentation, while some have a particularly plain appearance. One of +the most curious forms is _Prosthemadera_--the tui or parson-bird of New +Zealand, so called from the two tufts of white feathers which hang +beneath its chin in great contrast to its dark silky plumage, and +suggest a likeness to the bands worn by ministers of several religious +denominations when officiating.[4] The bell-bird of the same island, +_Anthornis melanura_--whose melody excited the admiration of Cook the +morning after he had anchored in Queen Charlotte's Sound--is another +member of this family, and unfortunately seems to be fast becoming +extinct. But it would be impossible here to enter much further into +detail, though the wattle-birds, _Anthochaera_, of Australia have at +least to be named. Mention, however, must be made of the friar-birds, +_Tropidorhynchus_, of which nearly a score of species, five of them +belonging to Australia, have been described. With their stout bills, +mostly surmounted by an excrescence, they seem to be the most abnormal +forms of the family, and most of them are besides remarkable for the +baldness of some part at least of their head. They assemble in troops, +sitting on dead trees, with a loud call, and are very pugnacious, +frequently driving away hawks and crows. A. R. Wallace (_Malay +Archipelago_, ii. 150-153) discovered the curious fact that two species +of this genus--_T. bourensis_ and _T. subcornutus_--respectively +inhabiting the islands of Bouru and Ceram, were the object of natural +"mimicry" on the part of two species of oriole of the genus _Mimeta_, +_M. bourouensis_ and _M. forsteni_, inhabiting the same islands, so as +to be on a superficial examination identical in appearance--the +honey-eater and the oriole of each island presenting exactly the same +tints--the black patch of bare skin round the eyes of the former, for +instance, being copied in the latter by a patch of black feathers, and +even the protuberance on the beak of the _Tropidorhynchus_ being +imitated by a similar enlargement of the beak of the _Mimeta_. The very +reasonable explanation which Wallace offers is that the pugnacity of the +former has led the smaller birds of prey to respect it, and it is +therefore an advantage for the latter, being weaker and less courageous, +to be mistaken for it. (A. N.) + + +FOOTNOTES: + + [1] Among them especially A. R. Wallace, _Geogr. Distr. Animals_, ii + 275. + + [2] The young of this species has the throat yellow. + + [3] W. A. Forbes published a careful monograph of this genus in the + _Proceedings of the Zoological Society_ for 1879, pp. 256-279. + + [4] This bird, according to Sir Walter Buller (_Birds of New + Zealand_, p. 88), while uttering its wild notes, indulges in much + gesticulation, which adds to the suggested resemblance. It has great + power of mimicry, and is a favourite cage-bird both with the natives + and colonists. On one occasion, says Buller, he had addressed a large + meeting of Maories on a matter of considerable political importance, + when "immediately on the conclusion of my speech, and before the old + chief to whom my arguments were chiefly addressed had time to reply, + a tui, whose netted cage hung to a rafter overhead, responded in a + clear, emphatic way, 'Tito!' (false). The circumstance naturally + caused much merriment among my audience, and quite upset the gravity + of the venerable old chief, Nepia Taratoa. 'Friend,' said he, + laughing, 'your arguments are very good; but my _mokai_ is a very + wise bird, and he is not yet convinced!'" + + + + +HONEY-GUIDE, a bird so called from its habit of pointing out to man and +to the ratel (_Mellivora capensis_) the nests of bees. Stories to this +effect have been often told, and may be found in the narratives of many +African travellers, from Bruce to Livingstone. But Layard says (_B. +South Africa_, p. 242) that the birds will not infrequently lead any one +to a leopard or a snake, and will follow a dog with vociferations, +though its noisy cry and antics unquestionably have in many cases the +effect signified by its English name. If not its first discoverer, +Sparrman, in 1777, was the first who described and figured this bird, +which he met with in the Cape Colony (_Phil. Trans._, lxvii. 42-47, pl. +i.), giving it the name of _Culculus indicator_, its zygodactylous feet +with the toes placed in pairs--two before and two behind--inducing the +belief that it must be referred to that genus. Vicillot in 1816 elevated +it to the rank of a genus, _Indicator_; but it was still considered to +belong to the family _Cuculidae_ (its asserted parasitical habits +lending force to that belief) by all systematists except Blyth and +Jerdon, until it was shown by Blanford (_Obs. Geol. and Zool. +Abyssinia_, pp. 308, 309) and Sclater (_Ibis_, 1870, pp. 176-180) that +it was more allied to the barbets, _Capitonidae_, and, in consequence, +was then made the type of a distinct family, _Indicatoridae_. In the +meanwhile other species had been discovered, some of them differing +sufficiently to warrant Sundevall's foundation of a second genus, +_Prodotiscus_, of the group. The honey-guides are small birds, the +largest hardly exceeding a lark in size, and of plain plumage, with what +appears to be a very sparrow-like bill. Bowdler Sharpe, in a revision of +the family published in 1876 (_Orn. Miscellany_, i. 192-209), recognizes +ten species of the genus _Indicator_, to which another was added by Dr +Reichenow (_Journ. für Ornithologie_, 1877, p. 110), and two of +_Prodotiscus_. Four species of the former, including _I. sparrmani_, +which was the first made known, are found in South Africa, and one of +the latter. The rest inhabit other parts of the same continent, except +_I. archipelagicus_, which seems to be peculiar to Borneo, and _I. +xanthonotus_, which occurs on the Himalayas from the borders of +Afghanistan to Bhutan. The interrupted geographical distribution of this +genus is a very curious fact, no species having been found in the Indian +or Malayan peninsula to connect the outlying forms with those of Africa, +which must be regarded as their metropolis. (A. N.) + + + + +HONEY LOCUST, the popular name of a tree, _Gleditsia triacanthos_, a +member of the natural order Leguminosae, and a native of the more +eastern United States of North America. It reaches from 75 to 140 ft. in +height with a trunk 2 or 3, or sometimes 5 or 6 ft. in diameter, and +slender spreading branches which form a broad, flattish crown. The +branchlets bear numerous simple or three-forked (whence the species-name +_triacanthos_) sharp stiff spines, 3 to 4 in. long, at first red in +colour, then chestnut brown; they are borne above the leaf-axils and +represent undeveloped branchlets; sometimes they are borne also on the +trunk and main branches. The long-stalked leaves are 7 to 8 in. long +with eight to fourteen pairs of narrowly oblong leaflets. The flowers, +which are of two kinds, are borne in racemes in the leaf-axils; the +staminate flowers in larger numbers. The brown pods are often 12 to 18 +in. long, have thin, tough walls, and contain a quantity of pulp between +the seeds; they contract spirally when drying. The tree was first +cultivated in Europe towards the end of the 17th century by Bishop +Compton in his garden at Fulham, near London, and is now extensively +planted as an ornamental tree. The name of the genus commemorates Johann +Gottlieb Gleditsch (1714-1786), a friend of Linnaeus, and the author of +one of the earliest works on scientific forestry. + + + + +HONEYMOON, the first month after marriage. Lord Avebury in his _Origin +of Civilization_ suggests that the seclusion usually associated with +this period is a survival of marriage by capture, and answers to the +period during which the husband kept his wife in retirement, to prevent +her from appealing to her relatives for release. Others suggest that as +the moon commences to wane as soon as it is at its full, so does the +mutual affection of the wedded pair, the "honeymoon" (with this +derivation) not necessarily referring to any definite period of time. + + + + +HONEYSUCKLE (Mid. Eng., _honysocle_, i.e. any plant from which honey may +be sucked,--cf. A.-S. _huni-suge_, privet; Ger. _Geissblatt_; Fr. +_chèvrefeuille_), botanical name _Lonicera_, a genus of climbing, erect +or prostrate shrubs, of the natural order _Caprifoliaceae_, so named +after the 16th-century German botanist Adam Lonicer. The British species +is _L. Periclymenum_, the woodbine; _L. Caprifolium_ and _L. Xylosteum_ +are naturalized in a few counties in the south and east of England. Some +of the garden varieties of the woodbine are very beautiful, and are held +in high esteem for their delicious fragrance, even the wild plant, with +its pale flowers, compensating for its sickly looks "with never-cloying +odours." The North American sub-evergreen _L. sempervirens_, with its +fine heads of blossoms, commonly called the trumpet honeysuckle, the +most handsome of all the cultivated honeysuckles, is a distinct and +beautiful species producing both scarlet and yellow flowered varieties, +and the Japanese _L. flexuosa_ var. _aureoreticulata_ is esteemed for +its charmingly variegated leaves netted with golden yellow. The fly +honeysuckle, _L. Xylosteum_, a hardy shrub of dwarfish, erect habit, and +_L. tatarica_, of similar habit, both European, are amongst the oldest +English garden shrubs, and bear axillary flowers of various colours, +occurring two on a peduncle. There are numerous other species, many of +them introduced to our gardens, and well worth cultivating in +shrubberies or as climbers on walls and bowers, either for their beauty +or the fragrance of their blossoms. + +[Illustration: Honeysuckle.--(a) Flowering branch; (b) Flower, nat. +size; (c) fruit, slightly reduced.] + +In the western counties of England, and generally by agriculturists, the +name honeysuckle is applied to the meadow clover, _Trifolium pratense_. +Another plant of the same family (Leguminosae) _Hedysarum coronarium_, a +very handsome hardy biennial often seen in old-fashioned collections of +garden plants, is commonly called the French honeysuckle. The name is +moreover applied with various affixes to several other totally different +plants. Thus white honeysuckle and false honeysuckle are names for the +North American _Azalea viscosa_; Australian or heath honeysuckle is the +Australian _Banksia serrata_, Jamaica honeysuckle, _Passiflora +laurifolia_, dwarf honeysuckle the widely spread _Cornus suecica_, +Virgin Mary's honeysuckle the European _Pulmonaria officinalis_, while +West Indian honeysuckle is _Tecoma capensis_, and is also a name applied +to _Desmodium_. + +The wood of the fly honeysuckle is extremely hard, and the clear +portions between the joints of the stems, when their pith has been +removed, were stated by Linnaeus to be utilized in Sweden for making +tobacco-pipes. The wood is also employed to make teeth for rakes; and, +like that of _L. tatarica_, it is a favourite material for +walking-sticks. + +Honeysuckles (_Lonicera_) flourish in any ordinary garden soil, but are +usually sadly neglected in regard to pruning. This should be done about +March, cutting out some of the old wood, and shortening back some of the +younger growths of the preceding year. (J. Ws.) + + + + +HONFLEUR, a seaport of north-western France, in the department of +Calvados, 57 m. N.E. of Caen by rail. Pop. (1906) 8735. The town is +situated at the foot of a semicircle of hills, on the south shore of the +Seine estuary, opposite Havre, with which it communicates by steamboat. +Honfleur, with its dark narrow lanes and old houses, has the typical +aspect of an old-fashioned seaport. The most noteworthy of its buildings +is the church of St Catherine, constructed entirely of timber work, with +the exception of the façade added in the 18th century, and consisting of +two parallel naves, of which the more ancient is supposed to date from +the end of the 15th century. Within the church are several antique +statues and a painting by J. Jordaens--"Jesus in the Garden of +Gethsemane." The church tower stands on the other side of a street. St +Leonard's dates from the 17th century, with the exception of its fine +ogival portal and rose-window belonging to the 16th, and its octagonal +tower erected in the 18th. The ruins of a 16th-century castle known as +the Lieutenance and several houses of the same period are also of +antiquarian interest. The hôtel de ville contains a library and a +museum. On the rising ground above the town is the chapel of +Nôtre-Dame-de-Grâce, a shrine much resorted to by pilgrim sailors, which +is said to have been founded in 1034 by Robert the Magnificent of +Normandy and rebuilt in 1606. The town has a tribunal and a chamber of +commerce and a communal college. The port, which is protected from the +west winds by the height known as the Côte de Grâce, consists of the +tidal harbour and four floating basins--The West basin, dating from the +17th century, and the Centre, East and Carnot basins. A reservoir +affords the means of sluicing the channel and supplying the basins. The +surface available for vessels is about 27 acres. Numerous fishing and +coasting vessels frequent the harbour. In 1907 there entered 375 +vessels, of 133,872 tons, more than half this tonnage being British. The +exports go mainly to England and include poultry, butter, eggs, cheese, +chocolate, vegetables, fruit, seeds and purple ore. There is regular +communication by steamer with Southampton. Timber from Scandinavia, +English coal and artificial manures form the bulk of the imports. There +are important saw-mills, as well as shipbuilding yards, manufactories of +chemical manures and iron foundries. + +Honfleur dates from the 11th century and is thus four or five hundred +years older than its rival Havre, by which it was supplanted during the +18th century. During the Hundred Years' War it was frequently taken and +re-taken, the last occupation by the English ending in 1440. In 1562 the +Protestant forces got possession of it only after a regular siege of the +suburb of St Leonard; and though Henry IV. effected its capture in 1590 +he had again to invest it in 1594 after all the rest of Normandy had +submitted to his arms. In the earlier years of the 17th century Honfleur +colonists founded Quebec, and Honfleur traders established factories in +Java and Sumatra and a fishing establishment in Newfoundland. + + + + +HONG-KONG (properly HIANG-KIANG, the place of "sweet lagoons"), an +important British island-possession, situated off the south-east coast +of China, opposite the province of Kwang-tung, on the east side of the +estuary of the Si-kiang, 38 m. E. of Macao and 75 S.E. of Canton, +between 22° 9´ and 22° 1´ N., and 114° 5´ and 114° 18´ E. It is one of a +small cluster named by the Portuguese "Ladrones" or Thieves, on account +of the notorious habits of their old inhabitants. Extremely irregular in +outline, it has an area of 29 sq. m., measuring 10½ m. in extreme length +from N.E. to S.W., and varying in breadth from 2 to 5 m. A good military +road about 22 m. long encircles the island. From the mainland it is +separated by a narrow channel, which at Hong-Kong roads, between +Victoria, the island capital), and Kowloon Point, is about 1 m. broad, +and which narrows at Ly-ee-mun Pass to little over a ¼ m. The southern +coast in particular is deeply indented; and there two bold peninsulas, +extending for several miles into the sea, form two capacious natural +harbours, namely, Deep Water Bay, with the village of Stanley to the +east, and Tytam Bay, which has a safe, well-protected entrance showing a +depth of 10 to 16 fathoms. An in-shore island on the west coast, called +Aberdeen, or Taplishan, affords protection to the Shekpywan or Aberdeen +harbour, an inlet provided with a granite graving dock, the caisson gate +of which is 60 ft. wide, and the Hope dock, opened in 1867, with a +length of 425 ft. and a depth of 24 ft. Opposite the same part of the +coast, but nearly 2 m. distant, rises the largest of the surrounding +islands, Lamma, whose conspicuous peak, Mount Stenhouse, attains a +height of 1140 ft. and is a landmark for local navigation. On the +northern shore of Hong-Kong there is a patent slip at East or Matheson +Point, which is serviceable during the north-east monsoon, when sailing +vessels frequently approach Victoria through the Ly-ee-mun Pass. The +ordinary course for such vessels is from the westward, on which side +they are sheltered by Green Island and Kellett Bank. There is good +anchorage throughout the entire channel separating the island from the +mainland, except in the Ly-ee-mun Pass, where the water is deep; the +best anchorage is in Hong-Kong roads, in front of Victoria, where, over +good holding ground, the depth is 5 to 9 fathoms. The inner anchorage of +Victoria Bay, about ½ m. off shore and out of the strength of the tide, +is 6 to 7 fathoms. Victoria, the seat of government and of trade, is the +chief centre of population, but a tract on the mainland is covered with +public buildings and villa residences. Practically an outlying suburb of +Victoria, Kowloon or (Nine Dragons) is free from the extreme heat of the +capital, being exposed to the south-west monsoon. Numerous villas have +also been erected along the beautiful western coast of the island, while +Stanley, in the south, is favoured as a watering-place. + +The island is mountainous throughout, the low granite ridges, parted by +bleak, tortuous valleys, leaving in some places a narrow strip of level +coast-land, and in others overhanging the sea in lofty precipices. From +the sea, and especially from the magnificent harbour which faces the +capital, the general aspect of Hong-Kong is one of singular beauty. +Inland the prospect is wild, dreary and monotonous. The hills have a +painfully bare appearance from the want of trees. The streams, which are +plentiful, are traced through the uplands and glens by a line of +straggling brushwood and rank herbage. Nowhere is the eye relieved by +the evidences of cultivation or fertility. The hills, which are mainly +composed of granite, serpentine and syenite, rise in irregular masses to +considerable heights, the loftiest point, Victoria Peak, reaching an +altitude of 1825 ft. The Peak lies immediately to the south-west of the +capital, in the extreme north-west corner of the island, and is used as +a station for signalling the approach of vessels. Patches of land, +chiefly around the coast, have been laid under rice, sweet potatoes and +yams, but the island is hardly able to raise a home-supply of +vegetables. The mango, lichen, pear and orange are indigenous, and +several fruits and esculents have been introduced. One of the chief +products is building-stone, which is quarried by the Chinese. The +animals are few, comprising a land tortoise, the armadillo, a species of +boa, several poisonous snakes and some woodcock. The public works suffer +from the ravages of white ants. Water everywhere abounds, and is +supplied to the shipping by means of tanks. + + + Mainland territory. + +Under the Peking Treaty of 1860 the peninsula of Kowloon (about 5 m. in +area) was added to Hong-Kong. The population is about 27,000. There are +several docks and warehouses, and manufactures are being developed. +Granite is quarried in the peninsula. An agreement was entered into in +1898 whereby China leased to Great Britain for ninety-nine years the +territory behind Kowloon peninsula up to a line drawn from Mirs Bay to +Deep Bay and the adjoining islands, including Lantao. The new district, +which extends to 376 sq. m. in area, is mountainous, with extensive +cultivated valleys of great fertility, and the coastline is deeply +indented by bays. The alluvial soil of the valleys yields two crops of +rice in the year. Sugar-cane, indigo, hemp, peanuts, potatoes of +different varieties, yam, taro, beans, sesamum, pumpkins and vegetables +of all kinds are also grown. The mineral resources are as yet unknown. +The population is estimated at about 100,000. It consists of Puntis (or +Cantonese), Hakkas ("strangers") and Tankas. The Puntis are agricultural +and inhabit the valleys, and they make excellent traders. The Hakkas are +a hardy and frugal race, belonging mainly to the hill districts. The +Tankas are the boat people or floating population. In the government of +the new territory the existing organization is as far as possible +utilized. + + + Victoria. + +Hong-Kong or Victoria harbour constantly presents an animated +appearance, as many as 240 guns having been fired as salutes in a single +day. Its approaches are strongly fortified. The steaming distance from +Singapore is 1520 m. Victoria, the capital, often spoken of as Hong-Kong +(population over 166,000, of whom about 6000 are European or American), +stretches for about 4 m. along the north coast. Its breadth varies from +½ m. in the central portions to 200 or 300 yds. in the eastern and +western portions. The town is built in three layers. The "Praya" or +esplanade, 50 ft. wide, is given up to shipping. The Praya reclamation +scheme provided for the extension of the land frontage of 250 ft. and a +depth of 20 ft. at all states of the tide. A further extension of the +naval dockyard was begun in 1902, and a new commercial pier was opened +in 1900. The main commercial street runs inland parallel with the Praya. +Beyond the commercial portion, on each side, lie the Chinese quarters, +wherein there is a closely packed population. In 1888, 1600 people were +living in the space of a single acre, and over 100,000 were believed to +be living within an area not exceeding ½ m.; and the overcrowding does +not tend to diminish, for in one district, in 1900, it was estimated +that there were at the rate of 640,000 persons on the sq. m. The +average, however, for the whole of the city is 126 per acre, or 80,640 +per sq. m. The second stratum of the town lies ten minutes' climb up the +side of the island. Government house and other public buildings are in +this quarter. There abound "beautifully laid out gardens, public and +private, and solidly constructed roads, some of them bordered with +bamboos and other delicately-fronded trees, and fringed with the +luxuriant growth of semi-tropical vegetation." Finally, the third layer, +known as "the Peak," and reached by a cable tramway, is dotted over with +private houses and bungalows, the summer health resort of those who can +afford them; here a new residence for the governor was begun in 1900. +Excellent water is supplied to the town from the Pokfolum and Tytam +reservoirs, the former containing 68 million gallons, the latter 390 +millions. + + _Climate._--The temperature has a yearly range of from 45° to 99°, but + it occasionally falls below 40°, and ice occurs on the Peak. In + January 1893 ice was found at sea-level. The wet season begins in May, + after showers in March and April, and continues until the beginning of + August. During this period rain falls almost without intermission. The + rainfall varies greatly, but the mean is about 90 in. In 1898 only + 57.025 in. fell, while in 1897 there were 100.03 in.; in 1899, 72.7 + in. and in 1900, 73.7 in. The damp is extremely penetrating. During + the dry season the climate is healthy, but dysentery and intermittent + fever are not uncommon. Bilious remittent fever occurs in the summer + months, and smallpox prevails from November to March. The annual + death-rate per 1000 for the whole population in 1902 was 21.70. + + _Population, &c._--The following table shows the increase of + population:-- + + +------+----------+--------------+------------------+ + | | | | Total (including | + | |Europe and| |Military and Naval| + | Year.| American |Chinese Civil.|Establishments and| + | | Civil. | | Indians, &c.). | + +------+----------+--------------+------------------+ + | 1881 | 3,040 | 148,850 | 160,402 | + | 1891 | 4,195 | 208,383 | 221,441 | + | 1901 | 3,860 | 274,543 | 283,978 | + | 1906 | 12,174 | 306,130 | 326,961 | + +------+----------+--------------+------------------+ + + Education is provided by a few government schools and by a large + number receiving grants-in-aid. The foundation-stone of Hong-Kong + University was laid in March 1910, the buildings being the gift of Sir + Hormusjee Mody, a colonial broker. The Queen's College provides + secondary education for boys. There are several hospitals, one of + which is a government institution. The Hong-Kong savings bank has + deposits amounting to about $1,100,000. There is a police force + composed of Europeans, Indian Sikhs and Chinese; and a strong military + garrison. + + _Industries._--Beyond the cultivation of vegetable gardens there is + practically no agricultural industry in the colony. But although only + 400 acres are cultivated on Hong-Kong island, and the same number of + acres in Kowloon, there are 90,000 acres under cultivation in the new + territory, of which over 7000 acres were in 1900 planted with + sugar-cane. Granite quarries are worked. The chief industries are + sugar-refining, the manufacture of cement, paper, bamboo and rattan + ware, carving in wood and ivory, working in copper and iron, + gold-beating and the production of gold, silver and sandal-wood ware, + furniture making, umbrella and jinricksha making, and industries + connected with kerosene oil and matches. The manufacture of cotton has + been introduced. Ship and boat building, together with subsidiary + industries, such as rope and sail making, appear less subject to + periods of depression than other industries. + + _Trade._--Hong-Kong being a free port, there are no official figures + as to the amount of trade; but the value of the exports and imports is + estimated as about £50,000,000 in the year. Among the principal goods + dealt with are tea, silk, opium, sugar, flax, salt, earthenware, oil, + amber, cotton and cotton goods, sandal-wood, ivory, betel, vegetables, + live stock and granite. There is an extensive Chinese passenger trade. + The following are the figures of ships cleared and entered:-- + + +------+------------+------------+ + | Year.| Tonnage. | British. | + +------+------------+------------+ + | 1880 | 8,359,994 | 3,758,160 | + | 1890 | 13,676,293 | 6,994,919 | + | 1898 | 17,265,780 | 8,705,648 | + | 1902 | 19,709,451 | 8,945,976 | + +------+------------+------------+ + + The Chinese ships rank next to British ships in the amount of trade. + German and Japanese ships follow next. + + _Finance._--The revenue and expenditure are given below:-- + + +------+-----------+------------+ + | Year.| Revenue. |Expenditure.| + +------+-----------+------------+ + | 1880 |$1,069,948 | $948,014 | + | 1890 | 1,995,220 | 1,915,350 | + | 1898 | 2,918,159 | 2,841,805 | + | 1902 | 4,901,073 | 4,752,444 | + +------+-----------+------------+ + + The main sources of revenue are licences, rent of government property, + the post-office and land sales. The light dues were reduced in 1898 + from 2½ cents to 1 cent per ton. There is a public debt of about + £340,000, borrowed for public works, which is being paid off by a + sinking fund. The only legal tender is the Mexican dollar, and the + British and Hong-Kong dollar, or other silver dollars of equivalent + value duly authorized by the governor. There are small silver and + copper coins, which are legal tenders for amounts not exceeding two + dollars and one dollar respectively. There is also a large paper + currency in the form of notes issued by the Chartered Bank of India, + Australia and China, the Hong-Kong and Shanghai Banking Corporation + and the National Bank of China, Limited. The foundation of new law + courts was laid in 1900. + + _Administration._--Formerly an integral part of China, the island of + Hong-Kong was first ceded to Great Britain in 1841, and the cession + was confirmed by the treaty of Nanking in 1842, the charter bearing + the date 5th of April 1843. The colony is administered by a governor, + executive council and legislative council. The executive council + consists of the holders of certain offices and of such other members + as the crown may nominate. In 1890 there were nine members. The + legislative council consists of the same officials and of six + unofficial members. Of these, three are appointed by the governor (of + whom one must be, and two at present are, members of the Chinese + community); one is elected from the chamber of commerce, and one from + the justices of the peace. + + AUTHORITIES.--Sir G. W. des Voeux, _Report on Blue-book of 1888_; _A + Handbook to Hong-Kong_ (Hong-Kong, 1893); _The China Sea Directory_ + (vol. iii., 3rd ed., 1894); Henry Norman, _The Peoples and Politics of + the Far East_ (London, 1895); Sir E. Hertslet, _Treaties between Great + Britain and China and China and Foreign Powers_ (London, 1896); A. R. + Colquhoun, _China in Transformation_ (London, 1898); _Colonial + Possessions Report_, No. 84; and other _Colonial Annual Reports_. + + + + +HONITON, a market town and municipal borough in the Honiton +parliamentary division of Devonshire, England, pleasantly situated on +rising ground on the left bank of the Otter, 16½ m. E.N.E. of Exeter by +the London & South-Western railway. Pop. (1901) 3271. The town consists +of one wide street, down which a stream of water runs, extending for +about 1 m., and crossed at right angles by a lesser street. The restored +church of St Michael, formerly a parish church, but standing on a hill +about ½ m. from the town, was built by Courtenay, bishop of Exeter, +about 1482. It retains a curiously carved screen, and the black marble +tomb of Queen Elizabeth's physician, Marwood, who attained the age of +105. Allhallows Grammar School, founded in 1614, was enlarged in 1893; +St Margaret's hospital, founded as a lazar-house in the 14th century, is +converted into almshouses. Honiton is famous for its lace industry, +established by refugees from Flanders under Queen Elizabeth. The +delicate fabric made by hand on the pillow was long in demand; its sale +was, however, greatly diminished by the competition of cheaper +machine-made goods, and a school of lace-making was opened to promote +its recovery. The town possesses breweries, tanneries, malthouses, +flour-mills, saw-mills, brick and tile works, potteries and an iron +foundry; its trade in butter is considerable. It is governed by a mayor, +6 aldermen and 18 councillors. Area, 3134 acres. + +Honiton (_Honetona_, _Huneton_) is situated on the British Icknield +Street, and was probably the site of an early settlement, but it does +not appear in history before the Domesday Survey, when it was a +considerable manor, held by Drew (Drogo) under the count of Mortain, who +had succeeded Elmer the Saxon, with a subject population of 33, a flock +of 80 sheep, a mill and 2 salt-workers. The borough was founded before +1217 by William de Vernon, earl of Devon, whose ancestor Richard de +Redvers had received the manor from Henry I. In the 14th century it +passed to the Courtenays, and in 1698 Sir William Courtenay was +confirmed in the right of holding court leet, view of frank-pledge and +the nomination of a portreeve, these privileges having been surrendered +to James II. The borough was represented by two members in parliament in +1300 and 1311, and then not again till 1640, from which date it returned +two members until disfranchised by the act of 1868, the returning +officer being the portreeve, who was also the chief magistrate of the +borough until its incorporation by charter of 1846. In 1221 Falkes de +Breauté, then custodian of the borough, rendered a palfrey for holding a +three days' fair at the feast of All Saints, transferred in 1247 to the +feast of St Margaret, and still held under that grant. A great market +for corn and other produce is still held on Saturday by prescription. +The wool manufacture flourished at Honiton in the reign of Henry VII., +and it is said to have been the first town at which serges were made, +but the industry entirely declined during the 19th century. The lace +manufacture was introduced by Flemish refugees, and was flourishing in +the reign of Charles I. + + See _Victoria County History, Devonshire_; A. Farquharson, _History of + Honiton_ (Exeter, 1868). + + + + +HONNEF, a town and climatic health resort of Germany, beautifully situated +on the right bank of the Rhine, at the foot of the Siebengebirge, 8 m. +above Bonn by the railway Cologne-Königswinter-Horchheim. Pop. (1905) +6183. It has an Evangelical and a Roman Catholic church, a sanatorium for +consumptives, and does a considerable trade in wine. The town is +surrounded by vineyards and orchards, and has annually a large number of +visitors. A mineral spring called the Drachenquelle is used both for +drinking and bathing. + + + + +HONOLULU, a city, port of entry, and the capital of Hawaii, situated in +the "city and county of Honolulu," on the S. coast of the island of +Oahu, at the mouth of Nuuanu Valley, 2100 m. S.W. of San Francisco. Pop. +(1890) 22,907; (1900) 39,306, of whom 24,746 were males, 14,560 were +females; about 10,000 were Hawaiians, 15,000 Asiatics, and 5000 +Portuguese; (1910) 52,183. Honolulu is served by the Oahu railway, by +electric lines to the principal suburbs, and by steamship lines to San +Francisco, Seattle, Vancouver, Manila, Salina Cruz (Mexico), Victoria, +Sydney, and Chinese and Japanese ports. The business section and the +older residence quarters occupy low ground, but many of the newer +residences are built on the sides of neighbouring hills and mountains, +of which there are several from 500 to 2000 ft. in height. The Punch +Bowl (behind the city), a hill rising about 500 ft. above the sea, +Diamond Head, a crater about 760 ft. in height, 4 m. to the S.E., and +the Nuuanu Pali, a lofty and picturesque precipice 6 m. up the valley, +are especially known for their commanding views. In front of the city is +the small harbour, well protected from all winds except those from the +S.; in and after 1892 the Hawaiian government deepened its entrance +from 21 ft. to 30 ft. Six miles to the W. is the much more spacious +Pearl Harbor (a U.S. Naval Station), the bar at the entrance of which +was removed (1903) by the U.S. government. Pearl Harbor and the harbour +of Honolulu are the only safe ports in the archipelago. The streets of +Honolulu are wide, and are macadamized with crushed or broken lava. The +business houses are mostly of brick or stone, and range from two to six +storeys in height. About most of the residences there are many tropical +trees, flowering shrubs and plants. Wood is the most common material of +which the residences are built; a large portion of these residences are +one-storey cottages; broad verandahs are common; and of the more +pretentious residences the lanai, a semi-outdoor drawing-room with +conservatories adjoining, is a notable feature. Throughout the city +there is a marked absence of poverty and squalor. There are good hotels +in the city and its suburbs. The government buildings are extensive and +have a pleasing appearance; that of the executive, in a beautiful park, +was formerly the royal palace and still contains many relics of royalty. +Facing the judiciary building is an heroic statue in bronze of +Kamehameha the Great. About 2 m. W. of the business centre of the city +is the Bernice Pauahi Bishop Museum, a fine stone building on a +commanding site, and containing a large collection of Hawaiian and +Polynesian relics and curios, especially Hawaiian feather-work, and +notable collections of fish and of Hawaiian land shells and birds. Four +miles S.E. of the business centre, at the foot of Diamond Head, is +Waikiki sea-beach, noted for its surf-riding, boating and bathing, and +Kapiolani Park, a pleasure resort, near which is a famous aquarium of +tropical fishes. Honolulu has other parks, a fine Botanical Garden, +created by the Bureau of Agriculture, several public squares, several +hospitals, a maternity home, the Lunalilo Home for aged Hawaiians, an +asylum for the insane, several schools of high rank both public and +private--notably Oahu College on the E. edge of the city, first founded +as a school for the children of missionaries in 1841; the Honolulu High +School, founded in 1833 as the Oahu Charity School, to teach English to +the half whites; the Royal School, which was founded in 1840 for the +sons of chiefs; and the Normal School, housed in what was in 1906 the +most expensive building on the island of Oahu--a library containing +about 14,000 volumes and the collections of the Hawaiian Historical +Society, a number of benevolent, literary, social and political +societies, and an art league, and is the see of both an Anglican and a +Roman Catholic bishop. In 1907 the Pacific Scientific Institution for +the advancement of scientific knowledge of the Pacific, its islands and +their people, was established here. Among the clubs of the city are the +Pacific Club, founded in 1853 as the British Club; the Scottish Thistle +Club (1891), of which Robert Louis Stevenson was a member; the Hawaii +Yacht Club, and the Polo, Country and University Clubs. There are +various journals and periodicals, five languages being represented. The +chief industries are the manufacture of machinery (especially machinery +for sugar-refineries) and carriages, rice-milling and ship-building. +Honolulu's total exports for the fiscal year 1908 were valued at +$42,238,455, and its imports at $19,985,724. There is a privately owned +electric street car service in the city. The water-works and +electric-lighting plant are owned and operated by the Territorial +government, and to the plentiful water-supply is partly due the +luxuriant vegetation of the city. Honolulu's safe harbour, discovered in +1794, made it a place of resort for vessels (especially whalers) and +traders from the beginning of the 19th century. Kamehameha I. (the +Great) lived here from 1803 until 1811. In 1816 was built a fort which +stood until 1857. In 1820 the city became the principal residence of the +sovereign and soon afterwards of foreign consuls, and thus practically +the seat of government. In 1907 an act was passed by which the former +county of Oahu, including the island of Oahu and the small islands +adjacent, was made a municipal corporation under the name of the "city +and county of Honolulu"; this act came into effect on the 1st of January +1909. + + + + +HONORIUS, the name of four popes and one antipope (Honorius II; i.e. 2 +below). + +1. HONORIUS I., pope from 625 to 638, was of a noble Roman family, his +father Petronius having been consul. He was very active in carrying on +the work of Gregory the Great, especially in England; Bede (_Hist. +Eccl._ ii. 17) gives a letter of his to King Edwin of Northumbria, in +which he admonishes him diligently to study Gregory's writings; and it +was at Edwin's request that Honorius conferred the pallium on the +bishops of Canterbury and York (ib. ii. 18). He also admonished the +Irish for not following the custom of the Catholic Church in the +celebration of Easter (ib. ii. 19), and commissioned Birinus to preach +Christianity in Wessex (ib. iii. 7). It is, however, in connexion with +the Monothelite heresy that Honorius is most remembered, his attitude in +this matter having acquired fresh importance during the controversy +raised by the promulgation of the dogma of papal infallibility in 1870. +In his efforts to consolidate the papal power in Italy, Honorius had +been hampered by the schism of "the three chapters" in Istria and +Venetia, a schism that was ended by the deposition in 628 of the +schismatic patriarch Fortunatus of Aquileia-Grado and the elevation of a +Roman sub-deacon to the patriarchate. It is suggested that help rendered +to him in this matter by the emperor Heraclius, or by the Greek exarch, +may have inclined the pope to take the emperor's side in the Monothelite +controversy, which broke out shortly afterwards in consequence of the +formula proposed by the emperor with a view to reconciling the +Monophysites and the Catholics. However that may be, he joined the +patriarchs of Constantinople and Alexandria in supporting the doctrine +of "one will" in Christ, and expounded this view forcibly, if somewhat +obscurely, in two letters to the patriarch Sergius (Epist. 4 and 5 in +Migne, _Patrologia. Ser. Lat._ lxxx. 470, 474). For this he was, more +than forty years after his death (October 638), anathematized by name +along with the Monothelite heretics by the council of Constantinople +(First Trullan) in 681; and this condemnation was subsequently confirmed +by more than one pope, particularly by Leo II. See Hefele, _Die Irrlehre +des Honorius u. die vaticanische Lehre der Unfehlbarkeit_ (1871), who, +however, modified his view in his _Conciliengeschichte_ (1877). Honorius +I. was succeeded by Severinus. + + See the articles by R. Zöpffel and G. Krüger in Herzog-Hauck, + _Realencyklopädie_ (ed. 1900), and by T. Grisar in Wetzer and Welte's + _Kirchenlexikon_ (Freiburg, 1889). In addition to the bibliographies + there given see also U. Chevalier, _Répertoire des sources hist._, + &c., Bio-bibliographie, s. "Honorius I." (Paris, 1905). (W. A. P.) + +2. HONORIUS II. (d. 1072), antipope, was the name taken by Peter +Cadalus, who was born at Verona and became bishop of Parma in 1046. +After the death of Pope Nicholas II. in July 1061 he was chosen pope by +some German and Lombard bishops at Basel in opposition to Alexander II., +who had been elected by the party led by Hildebrand, afterwards Pope +Gregory VII. Taking the name of Honorius II., Cadalus was thus the +representative of those who were opposed to reforms in the Church. Early +in 1062 he advanced towards Rome, and though his supporters defeated the +forces of his rival outside the city, he soon returned to Parma to await +the decision of the advisers of the young German king, Henry IV., whose +mother Agnes had supported his election. About this time, however, Agnes +was deprived of her power, and the chief authority in Germany passed to +Anno, archbishop of Cologne, who was hostile to Cadalus. Under these +circumstances the antipope again marched towards Rome in 1063 and +entered the city, but was soon forced to take refuge in the castle of St +Angelo. The ensuing war between the rival popes lasted for about a year, +and then Cadalus left Rome as a fugitive. Refusing to attend a council +held at Mantua in May 1064, he was deposed, and he died in 1072, without +having abandoned his claim to the papal chair. + + See the article on Honorius II. in Hauck's _Realencyklopädie_, Band + viii. (Leipzig, 1900). (A. W. H.*) + +3. HONORIUS II. (Lamberto Scannabecchi), pope from the 15th of December +1124 to the 13th of February 1130, a native of Fagnano near Imola, of +considerable learning and great religious zeal, successively archdeacon +at Bologna, cardinal-priest of Sta Prassede under Urban II., +cardinal-bishop of Ostia and Velletri under Paschal II., shared the +exile of Gelasius II. in France, and helped Calixtus II. to conclude +the Concordat of Worms (1122), which settled the investiture contest. He +owed his election in large measure to force employed by the Frangipani, +but was consecrated with general consent on the 21st of December 1124. +By means of a close alliance with that powerful family, he was enabled +to maintain peace at Rome, and the death of Emperor Henry V. (1125) +further strengthened the papal position. He recognized the Saxon Lothair +III. as king of the Romans and later as emperor, and excommunicated his +rival, Conrad of Hohenstaufen. He sanctioned the Praemonstratensian +order and that of the Knights Templars. He excommunicated Count William +of Normandy for marriage in prohibited degree; brought to an end, +through the influence of Bernard of Clairvaux, the struggle with Louis +VI. of France; and arranged with Henry I. for the reception of papal +legates in England. He laid claim as feudal overlord to the Norman +possessions in southern Italy (July 1127), and excommunicated the +claimant, Duke Roger of Sicily, but was unable to prevent the foundation +of the Neapolitan monarchy, for Duke Roger defeated the papal army and +forced recognition in August 1128. Honorius appealed to Lothair for +assistance, but died before it arrived. His successor was Innocent II. + + The chief sources for the life of Honorius II. are his "Epistolae et + Privilegia," in J. P. Migne, _Patrol. Lat._ vol. 166, and the _Vitae_ + of Cardinals Pandulf and Boso in J. M. Watterich, _Pontif. Roman. + vitae_, vol. 2 (Leipzig, 1862); also "Codice diplomatico e bollario di + Onorio II." in _Fr. Liverani opere_, vol. 4 (Macerata, 1859), and + Jaffé-Wattenbach, _Regesta pontif. Roman_. (1885-1888). + + See J. Langen, _Geschichte der römischen Kirche von Gregor VII. bis + Innocenz III._ (Bonn, 1893); F. Gregorovius, _Rome in the Middle + Ages_, vol. 4, trans. by Mrs G. W. Hamilton (London, 1896); H. H. + Milman, _Latin Christianity_, vol. 4 (London, 1899); Fr. Liverani, + "Lamberto da Fiagnano" in _Opere_, vol. 3 (Macerata, 1859); A. Wagner, + _Die unteritalischen Normannen und das Papsttum 1086-1150_ (Breslau, + 1885); E. Bernheim, _Zur Geschichte des Wormser Concordats_ + (Göttingen, 1878); Volkmar, "Das Verhältnis Lothars III. zur + Investiturfrage," in _Forschungen zur deutschen Geschichte_, vol. 26. + (C. H. Ha) + +4. HONORIUS III. (Cencio Savelli), pope from the 18th of July 1216 to +the 18th of March 1227, a highly-educated and pious Roman, successively +canon of Sta Maria Maggiore, cardinal-deacon of Sta Lucia in Silice, +vice-chancellor, chamberlain and cardinal-priest of Sti Giovanni e +Paolo, was the successor of Innocent III. He made peace with Frederick +II., in accordance with which the emperor was crowned with his wife +Constance in St Peter's on the 22nd of November 1220, and swore to +accord full liberty to the church and to undertake a crusade. Honorius +was eager to carry out the decrees of the Lateran Council of 1215 +against the Albigenses and to further the crusade proclaimed by his +predecessor. He crowned Peter of Courtenay emperor of Byzantium in April +1217; espoused the cause of the young Henry III. of England against the +barons; accepted the Isle of Man as a perpetual fief; arbitrated +differences between Philip II. of France and James of Aragon; and made +special ecclesiastical regulations for the Scandinavian countries. He +sanctioned the Dominican order (22nd of November 1216), making St +Dominic papal major-domo in 1218; approved the Franciscan order by bull +of the 29th of November 1223; and authorized many of the tertiary +orders. He maintained, on the whole, a tranquil rule at Rome; but +Frederick II.'s refusal to interrupt his reforms in Sicily in order to +go on the crusade gave the pope much trouble. Honorius died in 1227, +before the emperor had fulfilled his oath, and was succeeded by Gregory +IX. + + Honorius III. left many writings which have been collected and + published by Abbé Horoy in the _Medii aevi bibliotheca patristica_, + vols. i.-ii. (Paris, 1879-1883). Among them are five books of + decretals, compiled about 1226; a continuation of the _Liber + Pontificalis_; a life of Gregory VII; a coronation form; and a large + number of sermons. His most important work is the _Liber censuum + Romanae ecclesiae_, written in 1192 and containing a record of the + income of the Roman Church and of its relations with secular + authorities. The last named is admirably edited by P. Fabre in + _Bibliothèque des écoles françaises d'Athènes et de Rome_ (Paris, + 1892). The letters of Honorius are in F. Liverani, _Spicilegium + Liberianum_ (1863). There are good _Regesta_ in Latin and Italian, + edited by P. Pressutti (Rome, 1888, &c.). + + See J. Clausen, _Papst Honorius III._ (1895); P. T. Masetti, _I + Pontefici Onorio III. ed Innocenzo IV. a fronte dell' Imperatore + Federico II. net secolo XIII._ (1884); F. Gregorovius, _Rome in the + Middle Ages_, vol. 5, trans. by Mrs G. W. Hamilton (London, + 1900-1902); K. J. von Hefele, _Conciliengeschichte_, vol. 5, 2nd ed.; + H. H. Milman, _Latin Christianity_, vol. 5 (London, 1899); T. Frantz, + _Der grosse Kampf zwischen Kaisertum u. Papsttum zur Zeit des + Hohenstaufen Friedrich II._ (Berlin, 1903); W. Norden, _Das Papsttum + u. Byzanz_ (Berlin, 1903); M. Tangl, _Die päpstlichen Kanzleiordungen + von 1200-1500_ (Innsbruck, 1894); Caillemer, _Le Pape Honorius III. et + le droit civil_ (Lyons, 1881); F. Vernet, _Études sur les sermons + d'Honorius III._ (Lyons, 1888). There is an excellent article, with + exhaustive bibliography, by H. Schulz in Hauck's _Realencyklopädie_, + 3rd edition. (C. H. Ha.) + +5. HONORIUS IV. (Jacopo Savelli), pope from the 2nd of April 1285 to the +3rd of April 1287, a member of a prominent Roman family and grand-nephew +of Honorius III., had studied at the university of Paris, been made +cardinal-deacon of Sta Maria in Cosmedin, and succeeded Martin IV. +Though aged and so crippled that he could not stand alone he displayed +remarkable energy as pope. He maintained peace in the states of the +Church and friendly relations with Rudolph of Habsburg, and his policy +in the Sicilian question was more liberal than that of his predecessor. +He showed special favours to the mendicant orders and formally +sanctioned the Carmelites and Augustinian Eremites. He was the first +pope to employ the great banking houses in northern Italy for the +collection of papal dues. He died at Rome and was succeeded by Nicholas +IV. + + See M. Bouquet, _Recueil des historiens des Gaules et de la France_, + new ed., vols. 20-22 (Paris, 1894), for the chief sources; A. + Potthast, _Regesta pontif. Roman_, vol. 2 (Berlin, 1875); M. Prou, + "Les registres d'Honorius IV." in _Bibliothèque des écoles françaises + d Athènes et de Rome_ (Paris, 1888); B. Pawlicki, _Papst Honorius IV._ + (Münster, 1896); F. Gregorovius, _Rome in the Middle Ages_, vol. 5, + trans. by Mrs G. W. Hamilton (London, 1900-1902). (C. H. Ha.) + + + + +HONORIUS, FLAVIUS (384-423), son of Theodosius I., ascended the throne +as "emperor of the West" in 395. The history of the first thirteen years +of the reign of Honorius is inseparably connected with the name of +Stilicho (q.v.), his guardian and father-in-law. During this period the +revolt of the African prince Gildo was suppressed (398); Italy was +successfully defended against Alaric, who was defeated at Pollentia +(402) and Verona (403); and the barbarian hordes under the Goth +Radagaisus were destroyed (406). After the downfall and murder of +Stilicho (408), the result of palace intrigues, the emperor was under +the control of incompetent favourites. In the same year Rome was +besieged, and in 410, for the second time in its history, taken and +sacked by Alaric, who for a short time set up the city prefect Attalus +as a rival emperor, but soon deposed him as incapable. Alaric died in +the same year, and in 412 Honorius concluded peace with his +brother-in-law and successor, Ataulphus (Adolphus), who married the +emperor's sister Placidia and removed with his troops to southern Gaul. +A number of usurpers laid claim to the throne, the most important of +whom was Constantine. In 409 Britain and Armorica declared their +independence, which was confirmed by Honorius himself, and were thus +practically lost to the empire. Honorius was one of the feeblest +emperors who ever occupied the throne, and the dismemberment of the West +was only temporarily averted by the efforts of Stilicho, and, later, of +Constantius, a capable general who overthrew the usurpers and was +rewarded with a share in the government. It was only as a supporter of +the orthodox church and persecutor of the heathen that Honorius +displayed any energy. In 399 the exercise of the pagan cult was +prohibited, and the revenues of the temples, which were to be +appropriated for the use of the public or pulled down, were confiscated +to defray the expenses of the army. Honorius was equally severe on +heretics, such as the Donatists and Manichaeans. He is also to be +credited with the abolition of the gladiatorial shows in 404 (although +there is said to be evidence of their existence later), a reduction of +the taxes, improvements in criminal law, and the reorganization of the +_defensores civitatum_, municipal officers whose duty it was to defend +the rights of the people and set forth their grievances. Honorius at +first established his court at Milan, but, on the report of the +invasion of Italy, fled to Ravenna, where he resided till his death on +the 27th of August 423. + + See Gibbon, _Decline and Fall_, chs. 28-33; J. B. Bury, _Later Roman + Empire_, i. chs. 1-5, ii. chs. 4, 6; E. A. Freeman, "Tyrants of + Britain, Gaul and Spain" in _Eng. Hist. Review_ (January 1886); T. + Hodgkin, _Italy and her Invaders_ (Oxford, 1892), i. chs. 13, 15-18. + + + + +HONOUR (Lat. _honos_ or _honor_, _honoris_; in English the word was +spelled with or without the _u_ indifferently until the 17th century, +but during the 18th century it became fashionable to spell the word +"honor"; Johnson's and Webster's Dictionaries stereotyped the English +and American spellings respectively), a term which may be defined as +respect, esteem or deference paid to, or received by, a person in +consideration of his character, worth or position; also the state or +condition of the person exciting the feeling or expression of such +esteem; particularly a high personal character coupled with conduct in +accordance with or controlled by a nice sense of what is right and true +and due to the position so held. Further, the word is commonly used of +the dignities, distinctions or titles, granted as a mark of such esteem +or as a reward for services or merit, and quite generally of the credit +or renown conferred by a person or thing on the country, town or +particular society to which he or it belongs. The standard of conduct +may be laid down not only by a scrupulous sense of what is due to lofty +personal character but also by the conventional usages of society, hence +it is that debts which cannot be legally enforced, such as gambling +debts, are called "debts of honour." Similarly in the middle ages and +later, courts, known as "courts of honour," sat to decide questions such +as precedence, disputes as to coat armour &c. (see CHIVALRY); such +courts, chiefly military, are found in countries where duelling has not +fallen into desuetude (see DUEL). In the British House of Lords, when +the peers sit to try another peer on a criminal charge or at an +impeachment, on the question being put whether the accused be guilty or +not, each peer, rising in his place in turn, lays his right hand on his +breast and returns his verdict "upon my honour." As a title of address, +"his honour" or "your honour" is applied in the United States of America +to all judges, in the United Kingdom only to county court judges; in +university or other examinations, those who have won particular +distinction, or have undergone with success an examination of a standard +higher than that required for a "pass" degree, are said to have passed +"with honours," or an "honours" examination or to have taken an "honours +degree." In many games of cards the ace, king, queen and knave of trumps +are the "honours." + +Funeral or military honours are paid to a dead officer or soldier. The +usual features of such a burial are as follows: the coffin is carried on +a gun-carriage and attended by troops; it is covered by the national +flag, on which rests the soldier's head-dress, sword or bayonet; if the +deceased had been a mounted soldier, his charger follows with the boots +reversed in the stirrups; three volleys are fired over the grave after +committal, and "last post" or another call is sounded on the bugles or a +roll on the drums is given. + +A military force is said to be accorded "the honours of war" when, after +a specially honourable defence, it has surrendered its post, and is +permitted, by the terms of capitulation to march out with colours +flying, bands playing, bayonets fixed, &c. and retaining possession of +the field artillery, horses, arms and baggage. The force remains free to +act as combatants for the remainder of the war, without waiting for +exchange or being considered as prisoners. Usually some point is named +to which the surrendering troops must be conveyed before recommencing +hostilities; thus, during the Peninsular War, at the Convention of +Cintra 1808, the French army under Junot was conveyed to France by +British transports before being free to rejoin the combatant troops in +the Peninsula. By far the most usual case of the granting of the +"honours of war" is in connexion with the surrender of a fortress. Of +historic examples may be mentioned the surrender of Lille by Marshal +Boufflers to Prince Eugene in 1708, that of Huningen by General Joseph +Barbanègre (1772-1830) to the Austrians in 1815, and that of Belfort by +Colonel P. Denfert Rochereau to the Germans in 1871. + +In English law the term "honour" is used of a seigniory of several +manors held under one baron or lord paramount. The formation of such +lordships dates back to the Anglo-Saxon period, when jurisdiction of sac +and soc was frequently given in the case of a group of estates lying +close together. The system was encouraged by the Norman lords, as +tending to strengthen the principles of feudal law, but the legislation +of Henry II., which increased the power of the central administration, +undoubtedly tended to discourage the creation of new honours. +Frequently, they escheated to the crown, retaining their corporate +existence and their jurisdictions; they then either remained in the +possession of the king or were regranted, diminished in extent. Although +an honour contained several manors, one court day was held for all, but +the various manors retained their separate organizations, having their +"quasi several and distinct courts." + + + + +HONOURABLE (Fr. _honorable_, from Lat. _honorabilis_, worthy of honour), +a style or title of honour common to the United Kingdom, the British +colonies and the United States of America. The terms _honorabilis_ and +_honorabilitas_ were in use in the middle ages rather as a form of +politeness than as a stereotyped style; and though Gibbon assimilates +the late Roman title of _clarissimus_ to "honourable," as applied to the +lowest of the three grades of rank in the imperial hierarchy, the +analogy was good even in his day only in so far as both styles were +applicable to those who belonged to the less exalted ranks of the titled +classes, for the title "honourable" was not definitely confined to +certain classes until later. As a formal address it is found frequently +in the _Paston Letters_ (15th century), but used loosely and +interchangeable with other styles; thus John, Viscount Beaumont, is +addressed alternately as "my worshipful and reverent Lord" (ii. 88, ed. +1904) and as "my right honorabull Lord" (ii. 118), while John Paston, a +plain esquire, is "my right honurabyll maister." More than two centuries +later Selden, in his _Titles of Honor_ (1672), does not include +"honourable" among the courtesy titles given to the children of peers. +The style was, in fact, used extremely loosely till well on into the +18th century. Thus we find in the registers of Westminster Abbey records +of the burial (in 1710) of "The Hon. George Churchill, Esq.," who was +only a son of Sir Winston Churchill, and of "The Hon. Sir William +Godolphin," who had only been created a baronet; in 1717 was buried "The +Hon. Colonel Henry Cornwall," who was only an esquire and the son of +one; in 1743 a rear-admiral was buried as "The Hon. Sir John Jennings, +Kt."; in 1746 "The Hon. Major-General Lowther," whose father was only a +Dublin merchant; and finally, in 1747, "The Hon. Lieutenant-General +Guest," who is said to have begun life as an hostler. From this time +onwards the style of "honourable" tended to become more narrowly +applied; but the whole matter is full of obscurity and contradictions. +The baronets, for instance, allege that they were usually styled "the +honourable" until the end of the 18th century, and in 1835 they +petitioned for the style as a prefix to their names. The Heralds' +College officially reported on the petition (31st of October 1835) that +the evidence did not prove the right of baronets to the style, and that +its use "has been no more warranted by authority than when the same +style has been applied to Field Officers in the Army and others." They +added that "the style of the Honourable is given to the _Judges_ and to +the _Barons of the Exchequer_ with others because by the Decree of 10 +James I., for settling the place and precedence of the Baronets, the +Judges and Barons of the Exchequer were declared to have place and +precedence before the younger sons of Viscounts and Barons." This seems +to make the style a consequence of the precedence; yet from the examples +above given it is clear that it was applied, e.g. in the case of field +officers, where no question of precedence arose. It is not, indeed, +until 1874 that we have any evidence of an authoritative limitation of +the title. In this year the wives of lords of appeal, life peers, were +granted style and precedence as baronesses; but it was provided that +their children were not "to assume or use the prefix of Honourable, or +to be entitled to the style, rank or precedence of the children of a +Baron." In 1898, however, this was revoked, and it was ordained "that +such children shall have and enjoy on all occasions the style and title +enjoyed by the children of hereditary Barons together with the rank and +precedence, &c." By these acts of the Crown the prefix of "honourable" +would seem to have been restricted and stereotyped as a definite title +of honour; yet in legal documents the sons of peers are still styled +merely "esquire," with the addition of "commonly called, &c." This +latter fact points to the time when the prefix "honourable" was a mark +of deference paid by others rather than a style assumed by right, and +relics of this doubtless survive in the United Kingdom in the +conventions by which an "honourable" does not use the title on his +visiting card and is not announced as such. + +As to the actual use and social significance of the style, the practice +in the United Kingdom differs considerably from that in the colonies or +in the United States. In the United Kingdom marquesses are "most +honourable"; earls, viscounts and barons "right honourable," a style +also borne by all privy councillors, including the lord mayor of London +and lord provost of Edinburgh during office. The title of "honourable" +is in the United Kingdom, except by special licence of the Crown (e.g. +in the case of retired colonial or Indian officials), mainly confined to +the sons and daughters of peers, and is the common style of the younger +sons of earls and of the children of viscounts, barons and legal life +peers. The eldest sons of dukes, marquesses and earls bear "by courtesy" +their father's second title, the younger sons of dukes and marquesses +having the courtesy title Lord prefixed to their Christian name; while +the daughters of dukes, marquesses and earls are styled Lady. The title +of "honourable" is also given to all present or past maids of honour, +and to the judges of the high court being lords justices or lords of +appeal (who are "right honourable"). A county court judge is, however, +"his honour." The epithet is also applied to the House of Commons as a +body and to individual members during debate ("the honourable member for +X."). Certain other corporate bodies have, by tradition or grant, the +right to bear the style; e.g. the Honourable Irish Society, the Inns of +Court (Honourable Society of the Inner Temple, &c.) and the Honourable +Artillery Company; the East India Company also had the prefix +"honourable." The style may not be assumed by corporate bodies at will, +as was proved, in the case of the Society of Baronets, whose original +style of "Honourable" Society was dropped by command. + +In the British colonies the title "honourable" is given to members of +the executive and legislative bodies, to judges, &c., during their term +of service. It is sometimes retained by royal licence after a certain +number of years' service. + +In the United States of America the title is very widespread, being +commonly given to any one who holds or has held any office of importance +in state or nation, more particularly to members of Congress or of the +state legislatures, judges, justices, and certain other judicial and +executive officials. Popular amenity even sometimes extends the title to +holders of quite humble government appointments, and consoles with it +the defeated candidates for a post. See also the article PRECEDENCE. + + + + +HONTHEIM, JOHANN NIKOLAUS VON (1701-1790), German historian and +theologian, was born on the 27th of January 1701 at Trier. He belonged +to a noble family which had been for many generations connected with the +court and diocese of the archbishop-electors, his father, Kaspar von +Hontheim, being receiver-general of the archdiocese. At the age of +twelve young Hontheim was given by his maternal uncle, Hugo Friedrich +von Anethan, canon of the collegiate church of St Simeon (which at that +time still occupied the Roman Porta Nigra at Trier), a prebend in his +church, and on the 13th of May 1713 he received the tonsure. He was +educated by the Jesuits at Trier and at the universities of Trier, +Louvain and Leiden, taking his degree of doctor of laws at Trier in +1724. During the following years he travelled in various European +countries, spending some time at the German College in Rome; in 1728 he +was ordained priest and, formally admitted to the chapter of St Simeon +in 1732, he became a professor at the university of Trier. In 1738 he +went to Coblenz as official to the archbishop-elector. In this capacity +he had plentiful opportunity of studying the effect of the interference +of the Roman Curia in the internal affairs of the Empire, notably in the +negotiations that preceded the elections of the emperors Charles VII. +and Francis I. in which Hontheim took part as assistant to the electoral +ambassador. It appears that it was the extreme claims of the papal +nuncio on these occasions and his interference in the affairs of the +electoral college that first suggested to Hontheim that critical +examination of the basis of the papal pretensions, the results of which +he afterwards published to the world under the pseudonym of "Febronius." +In 1747, broken down by overwork, he resigned his position as official +and retired to St Simeon's, of which he was elected dean in the +following year. In May 1748 he was appointed by the archbishop-elector +Francis George (von Schönborn) as his suffragan, being consecrated at +Mainz, in February 1749, under the title of bishop of Myriophiri _in +partibus_. The archbishop of Trier was practically a great secular +prince, and upon Hontheim as suffragan and vicar-general fell the whole +spiritual administration of the diocese; this work, in addition to that +of pro-chancellor of the university, he carried on single-handed until +1778, when Jean Marie Cuohot d'Herbain was appointed his coadjutor. On +the 21st of April 1779 he resigned the deanery of St Simeon's on the +ground of old age. He died on the 2nd of September 1790 at his chateau +at Montquentin near Orval, an estate which he had purchased. He was +buried at first in St Simeon's; but the church was ruined by the French +during the revolutionary wars and never restored, and in 1803 the body +of Hontheim was transferred to that of St Gervasius. + +As a historian Hontheim's reputation rests on his contributions to the +history of Trier. He had, during the period of his activity as official +at Coblenz, found time to collect a vast mass of printed and MS. +material which he afterwards embodied in three works on the history of +Trier. Of these the _Historia Trevirensis diplomatica et pragmatica_ was +published in 3 vols. folio in 1750, the _Prodromus historiae +Trevirensis_ in 2 vols. in 1757. They give, besides a history of Trier +and its constitution, a large number of documents and references to +published authorities. A third work, the _Historiae scriptorum et +monumentarum Trevirensis amplissima collectio_, remains in MS. at the +city library of Trier. These books, the result of an enormous labour in +collation and selection in very unfavourable circumstances, entitle +Hontheim to the fame of a pioneer in modern historical methods. It is, +however, as "Febronius" that Hontheim is best remembered. The character +and effect of his book on "the state of the Church and the lawful power +of the Roman pontiff" is described elsewhere (see FEBRONIANISM). The +author of the book was known at Rome almost as soon as it was published; +but it was not till some years afterwards (1778) that he was called on +to retract. The terrors of the spiritual power were reinforced by a +threat of the archbishop-elector to deprive not only him but all his +relations of their offices, and Hontheim, after much wavering and +correspondence, signed a submission which was accepted at Rome as +satisfactory, though he still refused to admit, as demanded, _ut proinde +merito monarchicum ecclesiae regimen a catholicis doctoribus +appelletur_. The removal of the censure followed (1781) when Hontheim +published at Frankfort what purported to be a proof that his submission +had been made of his own free will (_Justini Febronii acti commentarius +in suam retractationem_, &c.). This book, however, which carefully +avoided all the most burning questions, rather tended to show--as indeed +his correspondence proves--that Hontheim had not essentially shifted his +standpoint. But Rome left him thenceforth in peace. + + See Otto Mejer, _Febronius, Weihbischof Johann Nikolaus von Hontheim + und sein Widerruf_ (Tübingen, 1880), with many original letters. Of + later date is the biography by F. X. Kraus in the _Allgemeine deutsche + Biographie_ (1881), which gives numerous references. + + + + +HONTHORST, GERARD VAN (1590-1656), Dutch painter of Utrecht, was brought +up at the school of Bloemart, who exchanged the style of the Franckens +for that of the pseudo-Italians at the beginning of the 16th century. +Infected thus early with a mania which came to be very general in +Holland, Honthorst went to Italy, where he copied the naturalism and +eccentricities of Michelangelo da Caravaggio. Home again about 1614, +after acquiring a considerable practice in Rome, he set up a school at +Utrecht which flourished exceedingly; and he soon became so fashionable +that Sir Dudley Carleton, then English envoy at the Hague, recommended +his works to the earl of Arundel and Lord Dorchester. At the same time +the queen of Bohemia, sister of Charles I. and electress palatine, being +an exile in Holland, gave him her countenance and asked him to teach her +children drawing; and Honthorst, thus approved and courted, became known +to Charles I., who invited him to England. There he painted several +portraits, and a vast allegory, now at Hampton Court, of Charles and his +queen as Diana and Apollo in the clouds receiving the duke of Buckingham +as Mercury and guardian of the king of Bohemia's children. Charles I., +whose taste was flattered alike by the energy of Rubens and the elegance +of Van Dyck, was thus first captivated by the fanciful mediocrity of +Honthorst, who though a poor executant had luckily for himself caught, +as Lord Arundel said, "much of the manner of Caravaggio's colouring, +then so much esteemed at Rome." It was his habit to transmute every +subject into a night scene, from the Nativity, for which there was +warrant in the example of Correggio, to the penitence of the Magdalen, +for which there was no warrant at all. But unhappily this caprice, +though "sublime in Allegri and Rembrandt," was but a phantasm in the +hands of Honthorst, whose prosaic pencil was not capable of more than +vulgar utterances, and art gained little from the repetition of these +quaint vagaries. Sandrart gave the measure of Honthorst's popularity at +this period when he says that he had as many as twenty apprentices at +one time, each of whom paid him a fee of 100 florins a year. In 1623 he +was president of his gild at Utrecht. After that he went to England, +returning to settle anew at Utrecht, where he married. His position +amongst artists was acknowledged to be important, and in 1626 he +received a visit from Rubens, whom he painted as the honest man sought +for and found by Diogenes Honthorst. In his home at Utrecht Honthorst +succeeded in preserving the support of the English monarch, for whom he +finished in 1631 a large picture of the king and queen of Bohemia "and +all their children." For Lord Dorchester about the same period he +completed some illustrations of the _Odyssey_; for the king of Denmark +he composed incidents of Danish history, of which one example remains in +the gallery of Copenhagen. In the course of a large practice he had +painted many likenesses--Charles I. and his queen, the duke of +Buckingham, and the king and queen of Bohemia. He now became court +painter to the princess of Orange, settled (1637) at the Hague, and +painted in succession at the Castle of Ryswick and the House in the +Wood. The time not consumed in producing pictures was devoted to +portraits. Even now his works are very numerous, and amply represented +in English and Continental galleries. His most attractive pieces are +those in which he cultivates the style of Caravaggio, those, namely, +which represent taverns, with players, singers and eaters. He shows +great skill in reproducing scenes illuminated by a single candle. But he +seems to have studied too much in dark rooms, where the subtleties of +flesh colour are lost in the dusky smoothness and uniform redness of +tints procurable from farthing dips. Of great interest still, though +rather sharp in outline and hard in modelling, are his portraits of the +Duke of Buckingham and Family (Hampton Court), the King and Queen of +Bohemia (Hanover and Combe Abbey), Mary de Medici (Amsterdam town-hall), +1628, the Stadtholders and their Wives (Amsterdam and Hague), Charles +Louis and Rupert, Charles I.'s nephews (Louvre, St Petersburg, Combe +Abbey and Willin), and Lord Craven (National Portrait Gallery). His +early form may be judged by a Lute-player (1614) at the Louvre, the +Martyrdom of St John in S. M. della Scala at Rome, or the Liberation of +Peter in the Berlin Museum; his latest style is that of the House in the +Wood (1648), where he appears to disadvantage by the side of Jordaens +and others. + +Honthorst was succeeded by his brother William, born at Utrecht in 1604, +who died, it is said, in 1666. He lived chiefly in his native place, +temporarily at Berlin. But he has left little behind except a portrait +at Amsterdam, and likenesses in the Berlin Museum of William and Mary of +England. + + + + +HOOCH, PIETER DE (1629-?1678), Dutch painter, was born in 1629, and died +in Amsterdam probably shortly after 1677. He was a native of Rotterdam, +and wandered early to Haarlem and the Hague. In 1654 we find him again +at Rotterdam, where in that year he married a girl of Delft, Jannetje +van der Burch. From 1655 to 1657 he was a member of the painter's gild +of Delft, but after that date we have no traces of his doings until +about 1668, when his presence is recorded in Amsterdam. His dated +pictures prove that he was still alive in 1677, but his death followed +probably soon after this year. De Hooch is one of the kindliest and most +charming painters of homely subjects that Holland has produced. He seems +to have been born at the same time and taught in the same school as van +der Meer and Maes. All three are disciples of the school of Rembrandt. +Houbraken mentions Nicolas Berchem as De Hooch's teacher. De Hooch only +once painted a canvas of large size, and that unfortunately perished in +a fire at Rotterdam in 1864. But his small pieces display perfect finish +and dexterity of hand, combined with great power of discrimination. +Though he sometimes paints open-air scenes, these are not his favourite +subjects. He is most at home in interiors illuminated by different +lights, with the radiance of the day, in different intensities, seen +through doors and windows. He thus brings together the most delicate +varieties of tone, and produces chords that vibrate with harmony. The +themes which he illustrates are thoroughly suited to his purpose. +Sometimes he chooses the drawing-room where dames and cavaliers dance, +or dine, or sing; sometimes--mostly indeed--he prefers cottages or +courtyards, where the housewives tend their children or superintend the +labours of the cook. Satin and gold are as familiar to him as camlet and +fur; and there is no article of furniture in a Dutch house of the middle +class that he does not paint with pleasure. What distinguishes him most +besides subtle suggestiveness is the serenity of his pictures. One of +his most charming was the canvas formerly in the Ashburton collection, +now burnt, where an old lady with a dish of apples walks with a child +along a street bounded by a high wall, above which gables and a church +steeple are seen, while the sun radiates joyfully over the whole. Fine +in another way is the "Mug of Beer" in the Amsterdam Museum, an interior +with a woman coming out of a pantry and giving a measure of beer to a +little girl. The light flows in here from a small closed window; but +through the door to the right we look into a drawing-room, and through +the open sash of that room we see the open air. The three lights are +managed with supreme cunning. Beautiful for its illumination again is +the "Music Party," with its contending indoor and outdoor lights, a gem +in the late A. Thieme collection at Leipzig. More subtly suggestive, in +the museum of Berlin, is the "Mother seated near a Cradle." "A Card +Party," dated 1658, at Buckingham Palace, is a good example of De +Hooch's drawing-room scenes, counterpart as to date and value of a +"Woman and Child" in the National Gallery, and the "Smoking Party," +formerly in Lord Enfield's collection. Another very fine example is the +"Interior" with two women, bought by Sir Julius Wernher. Other pictures +later in the master's career are--the "Lady and Child in a Courtyard," +of 1665, in the National Gallery, and the "Lady receiving a Letter," of +1670, in the Amsterdam Museum (Van der Hoop collection). + + It is possible to bring together over 250 examples of De Hooch. There + are three at St Petersburg, three in Buckingham Palace, three in the + National Gallery, two in the Wallace Collection, six in the Amsterdam + Museum, some in the Louvre and at Munich and Darmstadt; many others + are in private galleries in England. For England was the first country + to recognize the merit of De Hooch who only began to be valued in + Holland in the middle of the 18th century. A celebrated picture at + Amsterdam, sold for 450 florins in 1765, fetched 4000 in 1817, and in + 1876 the Berlin Museum gave £5400 for a De Hooch at the Schneider + sale--"A Dutch Dwelling-room" (820 B). + + See Hofstede de Groot's _Catalogue raisonné_, vol. i., London, 1907. + + + + +HOOD, JOHN BELL (1831-1879), American soldier, lieut.-general of the +Confederate army, was born at Owingsville, Kentucky, in 1831, and +graduated from West Point military academy in 1853. As an officer of the +2nd U.S. cavalry (Colonel Sidney Johnston) he saw service against +Indians, and later he was cavalry instructor at West Point. He resigned +from the U.S. service in 1861, and became a colonel in the Confederate +army. He was soon promoted brigadier-general, and at the battle of +Gaines's Mill, where he was wounded, won the brevet of major-general for +his gallant conduct. With the famous, "Texas brigade" of the Army of +Northern Virginia he served throughout the campaign of 1862. At +Gettysburg he commanded one of the divisions of Longstreet's corps, +receiving a wound which disabled his arm. With Longstreet he was +transferred in the autumn of 1863 to the Army of Tennessee. At the +battle of Chickamauga (September 19th, 20th) Hood was severely wounded +again and his leg was amputated, but after six months he returned to +duty undaunted. He remained with the Army of Tennessee as a corps +commander, and when the general dissatisfaction with the Fabian policy +of General J. E. Johnston brought about the removal of that officer, +Hood was put in his place with the temporary rank of general. He had won +a great reputation as a fighting general, and it was with the distinct +understanding that battles were to be fought that he was placed at the +head of the Army of Tennessee. But in spite of skill and courage he was +uniformly unsuccessful in the battles around Atlanta. In the end he had +to abandon the place, but he forthwith sought to attack Sherman in +another direction, and finally invaded Tennessee. His march was pushed +with the greatest energy, but he failed to draw the main body of the +enemy after him, and, while Sherman with a picked force made his "March +to the Sea," Thomas collected an army to oppose Hood. A severe battle +was fought at Franklin on the 30th of November, and finally Hood was +defeated and his army almost annihilated in the battle of Nashville. He +was then relieved at his own request (January 23rd, 1865). After the war +he was engaged in business in New Orleans, where he died of yellow fever +on the 30th of August 1879. His experiences in the Civil War are +narrated in his _Advance and Retreat_ (New Orleans, 1880). Hood's +reputation as a bold and energetic leader was well deserved, though his +reckless vigour proved but a poor substitute for Johnston's careful +husbanding of his strength at this declining stage of the Confederacy. + + + + +HOOD, SAMUEL HOOD, VISCOUNT (1724-1816), British admiral, was the son of +Samuel Hood, vicar of Butleigh in Somerset, and prebendary of Wells. He +was born on the 12th of December 1724, and entered the navy on the 6th of +May 1741. He served part of his time as midshipman with Rodney in the +"Ludlow," and became lieutenant in 1746. He was fortunate in serving +under active officers, and had opportunities of seeing service in the +North Sea. In 1753 he was made commander of the "Jamaica" sloop, and +served in her on the North American station. In 1756, while still on the +North American station, he attained to post rank. In 1757, while in +temporary command of the "Antelope" (50), he drove a French ship ashore +in Audierne Bay, and captured two privateers. His zeal attracted the +favourable notice of the Admiralty and he was appointed to a ship of his +own. In 1759, when captain of the "Vestal" (32), he captured the French +"Bellona" (32) after a sharp action. During the war his services were +wholly in the Channel, and he was engaged under Rodney in 1759 in +destroying the vessels collected by the French to serve as transports in +the proposed invasion of England. In 1778 he accepted a command which in +the ordinary course would have terminated his active career. He became +commissioner of the dockyard at Portsmouth and governor of the Naval +Academy. These posts were generally given to officers who were retiring +from the sea. In 1780, on the occasion of the king's visit to +Portsmouth, he was made a baronet. The circumstances of the time were +not ordinary. Many admirals declined to serve under Lord Sandwich, and +Rodney, who then commanded in the West Indies, had complained of want of +proper support from his subordinates, whom he accused of disaffection. +The Admiralty was naturally anxious to secure the services of trustworthy +flag officers, and having confidence in Hood promoted him rear-admiral +out of the usual course on the 26th of September 1780, and sent him to +the West Indies to act as second in command under Rodney, to whom he was +personally known. He joined Rodney in January 1781, and remained in the +West Indies or on the coast of North America till the close of the War of +American Independence. The calculation that he would work harmoniously +with Rodney was not altogether justified by the results. The +correspondence of the two shows that they were far from being on cordial +personal terms with one another, but Hood always discharged his duty +punctually, and his capacity was so great, and so signally proved, that +no question of removing him from the station ever arose. The unfortunate +turn taken by the campaign of 1781 was largely due to Rodney's neglect of +his advice. If he had been allowed to choose his own position there can +be no doubt that he could have prevented the comte de Grasse (1722-1788) +from reaching Fort Royal with the reinforcements from France in April +(see RODNEY, LORD). When the fleet went on to the coast of North America +during the hurricane months of 1781 he was sent to serve with Admiral +Graves (1725?-1802) in the unsuccessful effort to relieve the army at +Yorktown. But his subordinate rank gave him no chance to impart a greater +measure of energy to the naval operations. When, however, he returned to +the West Indies he was for a time in independent command owing to +Rodney's absence in England for the sake of his health. The French +admiral, the comte de Grasse, attacked the British islands of St Kitts +and Nevis with a much superior force to the squadron under Hood's +command. The attempt Hood made in January 1782 to save them from capture, +with 22 ships to 29, was not successful, but the series of bold movements +by which he first turned the French out of their anchorage at the Basse +Terre of St Kitts, and then beat off the attacks of the enemy, were the +most brilliant things done by any British admiral during the war. He was +made an Irish peer for his share in the defeat of the comte de Grasse on +the 9th and 12th of April near Dominica. During the peace he entered +parliament as member for Westminster in the fiercely contested election +of 1784, was promoted vice-admiral in 1787, and in July of 1788 was +appointed to the Board of Admiralty under the second earl of Chatham. On +the outbreak of the revolutionary war he was sent to the Mediterranean as +commander-in-chief. His period of command, which lasted from May 1793 to +October 1794, was very busy. In August he occupied Toulon on the +invitation of the French royalists, and in co-operation with the +Spaniards. In December of the same year the allies, who did not work +harmoniously together, were driven out, mainly by the generalship of +Napoleon. Hood now turned to the occupation of Corsica, which he had been +invited to take in the name of the king of England by Paoli. The island +was for a short time added to the dominions of George III., chiefly by +the exertions of the fleet and the co-operation of Paoli. While the +occupation of Corsica was being effected, the French at Toulon had so far +recovered that they were able to send a fleet to sea. In June Hood sailed +in the hope of bringing it to action. The plan which he laid to attack it +in the Golfe Jouan in June may possibly have served to some extent as an +inspiration, if not as a model, to Nelson for the battle of the Nile, but +the wind was unfavourable, and the attack could not be carried out. In +October he was recalled to England in consequence of some +misunderstanding with the admiralty, or the ministry, which has never +been explained. He had attained the rank of full admiral in April of +1794. He held no further command at sea, but in 1796 he was named +governor of Greenwich Hospital, a post which he held till his death on +the 27th of January 1816. A peerage of Great Britain was conferred on his +wife as Baroness Hood of Catherington in 1795, and he was himself +created Viscount Hood of Whitley in 1796. The titles descended to his +son, Henry (1753-1836), the ancestor of the present Viscount Hood. There +are several portraits of Lord Hood by Abbot in the Guildhall and in the +National Portrait Gallery. He was also painted by Reynolds and +Gainsborough. + + There is no good life of Lord Hood, but a biographical notice of him + by M'Arthur, his secretary during the Mediterranean command, is in the + _Naval Chronicle_, vol. ii. Charnock's _Biogr. Nav._ vi., Ralfe, _Nav. + Biog._ i., may also be consulted. His correspondence during his + command in America has been published by the Navy Record Society. The + history of his campaigns will be found in the historians of the wars + in which he served: for the earlier years, Beatson's _Naval and + Military Memoirs_; for the later, James's _Naval History_, vol. i., + for the English side, and for the French, Troudes, _Batailles navales + de la France_, ii. and iii., and Chevalier's _Histoire de la marine + française pendant la guerre de l'indépendance américaine and Pendant + la République_. (D. H.) + + + + +HOOD, SIR SAMUEL (1762-1814), British vice-admiral, cousin of Lord Hood +and of Lord Bridport, entered the Royal Navy in 1776. His first +engagement was the battle off Ushant in 1778, and, soon afterwards +transferred to the West Indies, he was present, under the command of his +cousin Sir Samuel Hood, at all the actions which culminated in Rodney's +victory of April 12th, 1782. After the peace, like many other British +naval officers, he spent some time in France, and on his return to +England was given the command of a sloop, from which he proceeded in +succession to various frigates. In the "Juno" his gallant rescue of some +shipwrecked seamen won him a vote of thanks and a sword of honour from +the Jamaica assembly. Early in 1793 the "Juno" went to the Mediterranean +under Lord Hood, and her captain distinguished himself by an audacious +feat of coolness and seamanship in extricating his vessel from the +harbour of Toulon, which he had entered in ignorance of Lord Hood's +withdrawal. Soon afterwards he was put in command of a frigate squadron +for the protection of Levantine commerce, and in 1797 he was given the +"Zealous" (74), in which he was present at Nelson's unsuccessful attack +on Santa Cruz. It was Captain Hood who conducted the negotiations which +relieved the squadron from the consequences of its failure. The part +played by the "Zealous" at the battle of the Nile was brilliant. Her +first opponent she put out of action in twelve minutes, and, passing on, +Hood immediately engaged other ships, the "Guerrier" being left +powerless to fire a shot. When Nelson left the coast of Egypt, Hood +commanded the blockading force off Alexandria and Rosetta. Later he +rejoined Nelson on the coast of the two Sicilies, receiving for his +services the order of St Ferdinand. + +In the "Venerable" Hood was present at the action of Algesiras and the +battle in the Straits of Gibraltar (1801). In the Straits his ship +suffered heavily, losing 130 officers and men. A year later Captain Hood +was employed in Trinidad as a commissioner, and, upon the death of the +flag officer commanding the Leeward station, he succeeded him as +Commodore. Island after island fell to him, and soon, outside +Martinique, the French had scarcely a foothold in the West Indies. +Amongst other measures taken by Hood may be mentioned the garrisoning of +Diamond Rock, which he commissioned as a sloop-of-war to blockade the +approaches of Martinique (see James, _Naval History_, iii, 245). For +these successes he received, amongst other rewards, the K.B. In command +next of the squadron blockading Rochefort, Sir Samuel Hood had a sharp +fight, on 25th September 1805, with a small French squadron which was +trying to escape. Amongst the few casualties on this occasion was the +Commodore, who lost an arm. Promoted rear-admiral a few days after this +action, Hood was in 1807 entrusted with the operations against Madeira, +which he brought to a successful conclusion, and a year later went to +the Baltic, with his flag in the "Centaur," to take part in the war +between Russia and Sweden. In one of the actions of this war the +"Centaur" and "Implacable," unsupported by the Swedish ships (which lay +to leeward), cut out the Russian 80-gun ship "Sevolod" from the enemy's +line and, after a desperate fight, forced her to strike. The king of +Sweden rewarded the admiral with the Grand Cross of the Order of the +Sword. Present in the roads of Corunna at the re-embarkation of the army +of Sir John Moore, Hood thence returned to the Mediterranean, where for +two years he commanded a division of the British fleet. In 1811 he +became vice-admiral. In his last command, that of the East Indies +station, he carried out many salutary reforms, especially in matters of +discipline and victualling. He died at Madras, 24th December 1814. A +lofty column was raised to his memory on a hill near Butleigh, +Somersetshire, and in Butleigh Church is another memorial, with an +inscription written by Southey. + + See _Naval Chronicle_, xvii. 1 (the material was furnished by Hood + himself; it does not go beyond 1806). + +His elder brother, Captain ALEXANDER HOOD (1758-1798), entered the Royal +Navy in 1767, and accompanied Captain Cook in his second voyage round +the world. Under Howe and Rodney he distinguished himself in the West +Indies, and at the victory of April 12th, 1782, he was in command of one +of Rodney's frigates. Under Sir Samuel Hood he then proceeded to the +Mona passage, where he captured the French corvette "Cérès." With the +commander of his prize, the Baron de Peroy, Hood became very intimate, +and during the peace he paid a long visit to France as his late +prisoner's guest. In the early part of the Revolutionary war, ill health +kept him at home, and it was not until 1797 that he went afloat again. +His first experience was bitter; his ship, the "Mars," was unenviably +prominent in the mutiny at Spithead. On April 21st, 1798, occurred the +famous duel of the "Mars" with the "Hercule," fought in the dusk near +the Bec du Raz. The two ships were of equal force, but the "Hercule" was +newly commissioned, and after over an hour's fighting at close quarters +she struck her flag, having lost over three hundred men. The captain of +the "Mars" was mortally wounded early in the fight, and died as the +sword of the French captain was being put in his hand. The latter, +L'Heritier, also died of his wounds. + + See _Naval Chronicle_, vi. 175; Ralfe, _Naval Biographies_, iv. 48; + James, _Naval History_, and Chevalier, _Hist. de la marine française + sous la première république_. + + + + +HOOD, THOMAS (1799-1845), British humorist and poet, the son of Thomas +Hood, bookseller, was born in London on the 23rd of May 1799. "Next to +being a citizen of the world," writes Thomas Hood in his _Literary +Reminiscences_, "it must be the best thing to be born a citizen of the +world's greatest city." On the death of her husband in 1811 Mrs Hood +removed to Islington, where Thomas Hood had a schoolmaster who +appreciated his talents, and, as he says, "made him feel it impossible +not to take an interest in learning while he seemed so interested in +teaching." Under the care of this "decayed dominie," whom he has so +affectionately recorded, he earned a few guineas--his first literary +fee--by revising for the press a new edition of _Paul and Virginia_. +Admitted soon after into the counting-house of a friend of his family, +he "turned his stool into a Pegasus on three legs, every foot, of +course, being a dactyl or a spondee"; but the uncongenial profession +affected his health, which was never strong, and he was transferred to +the care of his father's relations at Dundee. There he led a healthy +outdoor life, and also became a large and indiscriminate reader, and +before long contributed humorous and poetical articles to the provincial +newspapers and magazines. As a proof of the seriousness with which he +regarded the literary vocation, it may be mentioned that he used to +write out his poems in printed characters, believing that that process +best enabled him to understand his own peculiarities and faults, and +probably unconscious that Coleridge had recommended some such method of +criticism when he said he thought "print settles it." On his return to +London in 1818 he applied himself assiduously to the art of engraving, +in which he acquired a skill that in after years became a most valuable +assistant to his literary labours, and enabled him to illustrate his +various humours and fancies by a profusion of quaint devices, which not +only repeated to the eye the impressions of the text, but, by suggesting +amusing analogies and contrasts, added considerably to the sense and +effect of the work. + +In 1821 Mr John Scott, the editor of the _London Magazine_, was killed +in a duel, and that periodical passed into the hands of some friends of +Hood, who proposed to make him sub-editor. His installation into this +congenial post at once introduced him to the best literary society of +the time; and in becoming the associate of Charles Lamb, Cary, de +Quincey, Allan Cunningham, Proctor, Talfourd, Hartley Coleridge, the +peasant-poet Clare and other contributors to the magazine, he gradually +developed his own intellectual powers, and enjoyed that happy +intercourse with superior minds for which his cordial and genial +character was so well adapted, and which he has described in his best +manner in several chapters of _Hood's Own_. He had married in 1825, and +_Odes and Addresses_--his first work--was written in conjunction with +his brother-in-law Mr J. H. Reynolds, the friend of Keats. S. T. +Coleridge wrote to Charles Lamb averring that the book must be his work. +_The Plea of the Midsummer Fairies_ (1827) and a dramatic romance, +Lamia, published later, belong to this time. _The Plea of the Midsummer +Fairies_ was a volume of serious verse, in which Hood showed himself a +by no means despicable follower of Keats. But he was known as a +humorist, and the public, which had learned to expect jokes from him, +rejected this little book almost entirely. There was much true poetry in +the verse, and much sound sense and keen observation in the prose of +these works; but the poetical feeling and lyrical facility of the one, +and the more solid qualities of the other, seemed best employed when +they were subservient to his rapid wit, and to the ingenious +coruscations of his fancy. This impression was confirmed by the series +of the _Comic Annual_, dating from 1830, a kind of publication at that +time popular, which Hood undertook and continued, almost unassisted, for +several years. Under that somewhat frivolous title he treated all the +leading events of the day in a fine spirit of caricature, entirely free +from grossness and vulgarity, without a trait of personal malice, and +with an under-current of true sympathy and honest purpose that will +preserve these papers, like the sketches of Hogarth, long after the +events and manners they illustrate have passed from the minds of men. +But just as the agreeable jester rose into the earnest satirist, one of +the most striking peculiarities of his style became a more manifest +defect. The attention of the reader was distracted, and his good taste +annoyed, by the incessant use of puns, of which Hood had written in his +own vindication:-- + + "However critics may take offence, + A double meaning has double sense." + +Now it is true that the critic must be unconscious of some of the +subtlest charms and nicest delicacies of language who would exclude from +humorous writing all those impressions and surprises which depend on the +use of the diverse sense of words. The history, indeed, of many a word +lies hid in its equivocal uses; and it in no way derogates from the +dignity of the highest poetry to gain strength and variety from the +ingenious application of the same sounds to different senses, any more +than from the contrivances of rhythm or the accompaniment of imitative +sounds. But when this habit becomes the characteristic of any wit, it is +impossible to prevent it from degenerating into occasional buffoonery, +and from supplying a cheap and ready resource, whenever the true vein of +humour becomes thin or rare. Artists have been known to use the left +hand in the hope of checking the fatal facility which practice had +conferred on the right; and if Hood had been able to place under some +restraint the curious and complex machinery of words and syllables which +his fancy was incessantly producing, his style would have been a great +gainer, and much real earnestness of object, which now lies confused by +the brilliant kaleidoscope of language, would have remained definite and +clear. He was probably not unconscious of this danger; for, as he gained +experience as a writer, his diction became more simple, and his +ludicrous illustrations less frequent. In another annual called the +_Gem_ appeared the poem on the story of "Eugene Aram," which first +manifested the full extent of that poetical vigour which seemed to +advance just in proportion as his physical health declined. He started a +magazine in his own name, for which he secured the assistance of many +literary men of reputation and authority, but which was mainly sustained +by his own intellectual activity. From a sick-bed, from which he never +rose, he conducted this work with surprising energy, and there composed +those poems, too few in number, but immortal in the English language, +such as the "Song of the Shirt" (which appeared anonymously in the +Christmas number of _Punch_, 1843), the "Bridge of Sighs" and the "Song +of the Labourer," which seized the deep human interests of the time, and +transported them from the ground of social philosophy into the loftier +domain of the imagination. They are no clamorous expressions of anger at +the discrepancies and contrasts of humanity, but plain, solemn pictures +of conditions of life, which neither the politician nor the moralist can +deny to exist, and which they are imperatively called upon to remedy. +Woman, in her wasted life, in her hurried death, here stands appealing +to the society that degrades her, with a combination of eloquence and +poetry, of forms of art at once instantaneous and permanent, and with +great metrical energy and variety. + +Hood was associated with the _Athenaeum_, started in 1828 by J. Silk +Buckingham, and he was a regular contributor for the rest of his life. +Prolonged illness brought on straitened circumstances; and application +was made to Sir Robert Peel to place Hood's name on the pension list +with which the British state so moderately rewards the national services +of literary men. This was done without delay, and the pension was +continued to his wife and family after his death, which occurred on the +3rd of May 1845. Nine years after a monument, raised by public +subscription, in the cemetery of Kensal Green, was inaugurated by +Monckton Milnes (Lord Houghton) with a concourse of spectators that +showed how well the memory of the poet stood the test of time. Artisans +came from a great distance to view and honour the image of the popular +writer whose best efforts had been dedicated to the cause and the +sufferings of the workers of the world; and literary men of all opinions +gathered round the grave of one of their brethren whose writings were at +once the delight of every boy and the instruction of every man who read +them. Happy the humorist whose works and life are an illustration of the +great moral truth that the sense of humour is the just balance of all +the faculties of man, the best security against the pride of knowledge +and the conceits of the imagination, the strongest inducement to submit +with a wise and pious patience to the vicissitudes of human existence. +This was the lesson that Thomas Hood left behind him. (H.) + + BIBLIOGRAPHY.--The list of Hood's separately published works is as + follows: _Odes and Addresses to Great People_ (1825); _Whims and + Oddities_ (two series, 1826 and 1827); _The Plea of the Midsummer + Fairies, Hero and Leander, Lycus the Centaur and other Poems_ (1827), + his only collection of serious verse; _The Dream of Eugene Aram, the + Murderer_ (1831); _Tylney Hall_, a novel (3 vols., 1834); _The Comic + Annual_ (1830-1842); _Hood's Own; or, Laughter from Year to Year_ + (1838, second series, 1861); _Up the Rhine_ (1840); _Hood's Magazine + and Comic Miscellany_ (1844-1848); _National Tales_ (2 vols., 1837), a + collection of short novelettes; _Whimsicalities_ (1844), with + illustrations from Leech's designs; and many contributions to + contemporary periodicals. + + The chief sources of his biography are: _Memorials of Thomas Hood, + collected, arranged and edited by his daughter_ (1860); his "Literary + Reminiscences" in _Hood's Own_; Alexander Elliot, _Hood in Scotland_ + (1885). See also the memoir of Hood's friend C. W. Dilke, by his + grandson Sir Charles Dilke, prefixed to _Papers of a Critic_; and M. + H. Spielmann's _History of Punch_. There is an excellent edition of + the _Poems of Thomas Hood_ (2 vols., 1897), with a biographical + introduction of great interest by Canon Alfred Ainger. + + + + +HOOD, TOM (1835-1874), English humorist, son of the poet Thomas Hood, +was born at Lake House, Wanstead, Essex, on the 19th of January 1835. +After attending University College School and Louth Grammar School he +entered Pembroke College, Oxford, in 1853, where he passed all the +examinations for the degree of B.A., but did not graduate. At Oxford he +wrote his _Farewell to the Swallows_ (1853) and _Pen and Pencil +Pictures_ (1857). He began to write for the _Liskeard Gazette_ in 1856, +and edited that paper in 1858-1859. He then obtained a position in the +War Office, which he filled for five years, leaving in 1865 to become +editor of _Fun_, the comic paper, which became very popular under his +direction. In 1867 he first issued _Tom Hood's Comic Annual_. In 1861 +had appeared _The Daughters of King Daker, and other Poems_, after which +he published in conjunction with his sister, Frances Freeling Broderip, +a number of amusing books for children. His serious novels, of which +_Captain Masters's Children_ (1865) is the best, were not so successful. +Hood drew with considerable facility, among his illustrations being +those of several of his father's comic verses. In private life his +geniality and sincere friendliness secured him the affection and esteem +of a wide circle of acquaintance. He died on the 20th of November 1874. + + A memoir by his sister, F. F. Broderip, is prefixed to the edition of + his poems published in 1877. + + + + +HOOD OF AVALON, ARTHUR WILLIAM ACLAND HOOD, BARON (1824-1901), English +admiral, born on the 14th of July 1824, was the younger son of Sir +Alexander Hood of St Andries, Somerset, 2nd baronet, and grandson of +Captain Alexander Hood, R.N., who, when in command of the "Mars," fell +in action with the French 74-gun ship "Hercule," 21st of April 1798. At +the age of twelve Hood entered the navy, and whilst still a boy saw +active service on the north coast of Spain, and afterwards on the coast +of Syria. After passing through the established course of gunnery on +board the "Excellent" in 1844-1845, he went out to the Cape of Good Hope +as gunnery mate of the "President," the flagship of Rear-Admiral Dacres, +by whom, on the 9th of January 1846, he was promoted to be lieutenant. +As gunnery lieutenant he continued in the "President" till 1849; and in +the following year he was appointed to the "Arethusa" frigate, then +commissioned for the Mediterranean by Captain Symonds, afterwards the +well-known admiral of the fleet. The outbreak of the Russian war made +the commission a very long one; and on the 27th of November 1854 Hood +was promoted to be commander in recognition of his service with the +naval brigade before Sebastopol. In 1855 he married Fanny Henrietta, +daughter of Sir C. F. Maclean. In 1856 he commissioned the "Acorn" brig +for the China station, and arrived in time to take part in the +destruction of the junks in Fatshan creek on the 1st of June 1857, and +in the capture of Canton in the following December, for which, in +February 1858, he received a post-captain's commission. From 1862 to +1866 he commanded, the "Pylades" on the North American station, and was +then appointed to the command of the "Excellent" and the government of +the Royal Naval College at Portsmouth. This was essentially a gunnery +appointment, and on the expiration of three years Hood was made Director +of Naval Ordnance. He was thoroughly acquainted with the routine work of +the office and the established armament of the navy, but he had not the +power of adapting himself to the changes which were being called for, +and still less of initiating them; so that during his period of office +the armament of the ships remained sadly behind the general advance. In +June 1874 he was appointed to the command of the "Monarch" in the +Channel Fleet, from which he was relieved in March 1876 by his promotion +to flag rank. From 1877 to 1879 he was a junior lord of the Admiralty, +and from 1880 to 1882 he commanded the Channel Fleet, becoming +vice-admiral on 23rd July 1880. In June 1885 he was appointed first sea +lord of the Admiralty. The intense conservatism of his character, +however, and his antagonistic attitude towards every change, regardless +of whether it was necessary or not, had much to do with the alarming +state of the navy towards 1889. In that year, on attaining the age of +sixty-five, he was placed on the retired list and resigned his post at +the Admiralty. After two years of continued ill-health, he died on the +15th of November 1901, and was buried at Butleigh on the 23rd. He had +been promoted to the rank of admiral on the 18th of January 1886; was +made K.C.B, in December 1885; G.C.B. in September 1889; and in February +1892 was raised to the peerage as Lord Hood of Avalon, but on his death +the title became extinct. (J. K. L.) + + + + +HOOD, a covering for the head. The word is in O. Eng. _hod_, cognate +with Dutch _hoed_ and Ger. _Hut_, hat, both masculine; "hood" and "hat" +are distantly related; they may be connected with the feminine _hoed_ or +_Hut_, meaning charge, care, Eng. "heed." Some form of hood as a loose +covering easily drawn on or off the head has formed a natural part of +outdoor costume both for men and women at all times and in all quarters +of the globe where climatic conditions called for it. In the middle ages +and later both men and women are found wearing it, but with men it +tended to be superseded by the hat before it became merely an occasional +and additional head-covering in time of bad weather or in particularly +rigorous climates. For illustrations and examples of the hood as worn by +men and women in medieval and later times see the article COSTUME; for +the hood or cowl as part of the dress of a religious see COWL, and as +forming a distinctive mark of degree in academic costume see Robes. The +word is applied to many objects resembling a hood in function or shape, +such as a folding cover for a carriage to protect the occupants from +rain or wind, the belled covering for the head of a hawk trained for +falconry, the endmost planks in a ship's bottom at bow or stern, and, in +botany and zoology, certain parts of a flower or of the neck of an +animal which in arrangement of structure or of colour recall this +article of dress. + +In architecture a "hood-mould" is a projecting moulding carried outside +the arch of a door or window; it is weathered underneath, and when +continued horizontally is better known as a dripstone. The ends of the +hood-mould are generally stopped on a corbel, plain or carved with heads +in European churches, but in those of central Syria terminating in +scrolls. Although in its origin the object of the projecting and +weathered hood-mould was to protect the face of the wall below from +rain, it gives more importance to, and emphasizes, the arch-moulds, so +that it is often employed decoratively inside churches. + + The suffix "-hood," like the cognate "-head," was originally a + substantive meaning rank, status or quality, and was constantly used + in combination with other substantives; cf. in O. Eng. _cild-hod_, + child-hood; later it ceased to be used separately and became a mere + suffix denoting condition added to adjectives; cf. "falsehood," as + well as to substantives. + + + + +HOOFT, PIETER CORNELISSEN (1581-1647), Dutch poet and historian, was +born at Amsterdam on the 16th of March 1581. His father was one of the +leading citizens of Holland, both in politics and in the patronage of +letters, and for some time burgomaster of Amsterdam. As early as 1598 +the young man was made a member of the chamber of rhetoric _In Liefde +bloeiende_, and produced before that body his tragedy of _Achilles and +Polyxena_, not printed until 1614. In June 1598 he left Holland and +proceeded to Paris, where on the 10th of April 1599 he saw the body of +Gabrielle d'Estrées lying in state. He went a few months later to +Venice, Florence and Rome, and in 1600 to Naples. During his Italian +sojourn he made a deep and fruitful study of the best literature of +Italy. In July 1600 he sent home to the _In Liefde bloeiende_ a very +fine letter in verse, expressing his aspirations for the development of +Dutch poetry. He returned through Germany, and after an absence of three +years and a half found himself in Amsterdam again on the 8th of May +1601. In 1602 he brought out his second tragedy, _Theseus and Ariadne_, +printed at Amsterdam in 1614. In 1605 he completed his beautiful +pastoral drama _Granida_, not published until 1615. He studied law and +history at Leiden from 1606 to 1609, and in June of the latter year +received from Prince Maurice of Orange the appointment of steward of +Muiden, bailiff of Gooiland, and lord of Weesp, a joint office of great +emolument. He occupied himself with repairing and adorning the decayed +castle of Muiden, which was his residence during the remainder of his +life. There he entertained the poet Vondel, the scholar Barlaeus,[1] +Constantin Huygens, Vossius, Laurens Reael and others. Hooft had been a +suitor for the hand of Anna Roemer Visscher, and after the death of +Roemer Visscher both the sisters visited Muiden. Anna's sympathies were +in time diverted to the school of Jacob Cats, but Marie Tesselschade +maintained close ties with Hooft, who revised her translation of Tasso. +In August 1610 he married Christina van Erp, an accomplished lady who +died in 1623, and four years later he married Eleonora Hellemans. In +1612 Hooft produced his national tragedy of _Geeraerdt van Velzen_ (pr. +1613), a story of the reign of Count Floris V. In 1614 was performed at +Coster's academy Hooft's comedy of _Ware-nar_, an adaptation of the +_Aulularia_ of Plautus, first printed in 1617. In 1616 he wrote another +tragedy, _Baeto, or the Origin of the Dutch_, not printed until 1626. It +was in 1618 that he abandoned poetry for history, and in 1626 he +published the first of his great prose works, the _History of Henry the +Great_ (Henry IV. of France). His next production was his _Miseries of +the Princes of the House of Medici_ (Amsterdam, 1638). In 1642 he +published at Amsterdam a folio comprising the first twenty books of his +_Dutch History_, embracing the period from 1555 to 1585, a magnificent +performance, to the perfecting of which he had given fifteen years of +labour. The seven concluding books were published posthumously in 1654. +His idea of history was gained from Tacitus, whose works he translated. +Hooft died on a visit to the Hague, whither he had gone to attend the +funeral of Prince Frederick Henry, on the 21st of May 1647, and was +buried in the New Church at Amsterdam. + +Hooft is one of the most brilliant figures that adorn Dutch literature +at its best period. He was the first writer to introduce a modern and +European tone into belles lettres, and the first to refresh the sources +of native thought from the springs of antique and Renaissance poetry. +His lyrics and his pastoral of _Granida_ are strongly marked by the +influence of Tasso and Sannazaro; his later tragedies belong more +exactly to the familiar tone of his native country. But high as Hooft +stands among the Dutch poets, he stands higher--he holds perhaps the +highest place--among writers of Dutch prose. His historical style has +won the warmest eulogy from so temperate a critic as Motley, and his +letters are the most charming ever published in the Dutch language. +After Vondel, he may on the whole be considered the most considerable +author that Holland has produced. + + Hooft's poetical and dramatic works were collected in two volumes + (1871, 1875) by P. Leendertz. His letters were edited by B. Huydecoper + (Leiden, 1738) and by van Vloten (Leiden, 4 vols., 1855). The best + original account of Hooft is given by G. Bradt in his _Leven van P. C. + Hooft_ (1677), and his funeral address (1647), edited together by J. + C. Matthes (Groningen, 1874). There is an account of the Muiden circle + in Edmund Gosse's _Literatures of Northern Europe_. Many editions + exist of his prose works. + + +FOOTNOTE: + + [1] Kaspar van Baerle (1584-1648), professor of rhetoric at + Amsterdam, and famous as a Latin poet. + + + + +HOOGSTRATEN, SAMUEL DIRKSZ VAN, Dutch painter, was born, it is said, in +1627 at the Hague, and died at Dort on the 19th of October 1678. This +artist, who was first a pupil of his father, lived at the Hague and at +Dort till about 1640, when on the death of Dirk Hoogstraten he changed +his residence to Amsterdam and entered the school of Rembrandt. A short +time afterwards he started as a master and painter of portraits, set out +on a round of travels which took him (1651) to Vienna, Rome and London, +and finally retired to Dort, where he married in 1656, and held an +appointment as "provost of the mint." Hoogstraten's works are scarce; +but a sufficient number of them has been preserved to show that he +strove to imitate different styles at different times. In a portrait +dated 1645 in the Lichtenstein collection at Vienna he imitates +Rembrandt; and he continues in this vein as late as 1653, when he +produced that wonderful figure of a Jew looking out of a casement, which +is one of the most characteristic examples of his manner in the +Belvedere at Vienna. A view of the Vienna Hofburg, dated 1652, in the +same gallery displays his skill as a painter of architecture, whilst in +a piece at the Hague representing a Lady Reading a Letter as she crosses +a Courtyard, or a Lady Consulting a Doctor, in the Van der Hoop Museum +at Amsterdam, he imitates de Hooch. One of his latest works is a +portrait of Mathys van den Brouck, dated 1670, in the gallery of +Amsterdam. The scarcity of Hoogstraten's pictures is probably due to his +versatility. Besides directing a mint, he devoted some time to literary +labours, wrote a book on the theory of painting (1678) and composed +sonnets and a tragedy. We are indebted to him for some of the familiar +sayings of Rembrandt. He was an etcher too, and some of his plates are +still preserved. His portrait, engraved by himself at the age of fifty, +still exists. + + + + +HOOK, JAMES CLARKE (1819-1907), English painter, was born in London on +the 21st of November 1819. His father, James Hook, a Northumbrian by +descent, Judge Arbitrator of Sierra Leone, married the second daughter of +Dr Adam Clarke, the commentator on the Bible, who gave to the painter his +second name. Young Hook's first taste of the sea was on board the Berwick +smacks which took him on his way to Wooler. He drew with rare facility, +and determined to become an artist; and accordingly, without any +supervision, he set to work for more than a year in the sculpture +galleries of the British Museum. In 1836 he was admitted a student of the +Royal Academy, where he worked for three years, and elsewhere learned a +good deal of the scientific technique of painting from a nephew of Opie. +His first picture, called "The Hard Task," was exhibited in 1837, and +represented a girl helping her sister with a lesson. Unusual facility in +portraiture and a desire to earn his own living took the student into +Ireland to paint likenesses of the Waterford family and others; here he +produced landscapes of the Vale of Avoca, and much developed his taste +for pastoral art; later, he was similarly engaged in Kent and +Somersetshire. In 1842 his second exhibited work was a portrait of +"Master J. Finch Smith": in this year he gained silver medals at the +Royal Academy, and in 1843 he was one of the competitors in the +exhibition of cartoons in Westminster Hall, with a 10 by 7 ft. design of +"Satan in Paradise." In 1844 the Academy contained a picture of a kind +with which his name was long associated, an illustration of the +_Decameron_, called "Pamphilius relating his Story," a meadow scene in +bright light, with sumptuous ladies, richly clad, reclining on the grass. +The British Institution, 1844 and 1845, set forth two of Hook's idylls, +subjects taken from Shakespeare and Burns, which, with the above, showed +him to be cultivating those veins of romantic sentiment and the +picturesque which were then in vogue, but in a characteristically fresh +and vigorous manner. "The Song of Olden Times" (Royal Academy, 1845) +marked the artist's future path distinctly in most technical respects. It +was in this year Hook won the Academy gold medal for an oil picture of +"The Finding the Body of Harold." The travelling studentship in painting +was awarded to him for "Rizpah watching the Dead Sons of Saul" in 1846; +and he went for three years to Italy, having married Miss Rosalie Burton +before he left England. Hook passed through Paris, worked diligently for +some time in the Louvre, traversed Switzerland, and, though he stayed +only part of three years in Italy, gained much from studies of Titian, +Tintoret, Carpaccio, Mansueti and other Venetians. Their influence +thenceforth dominated the coloration of his pictures, and enabled him to +apply the principles to which they had attained to the representation (as +Bonington before him had done) of romantic subjects and to those English +themes of the land and sea with which the name of the artist is +inseparably associated. "A Dream of Ancient Venice" (R.A., 1848)--the +first fruit of these Italian studies--"Bayard of Brescia" (R.A., 1849), +"Venice" (B.I., 1849) and other works assured for Hook the Associateship +of the Royal Academy in 1851. Soon afterwards an incomparable series of +English subjects was begun, in many pastorals and fine brilliant idylls +of the sea and rocks. "A Rest by the Wayside" and "A Few Minutes to Wait +before Twelve o'clock" proved his title to appear, in 1854, as a new and +original painter. After these came "A Signal on the Horizon" (1857), "A +Widow's Son going to Sea," "The Ship-boy's Letter," "Children's Children +are the Crown of Old Men," "A Coast-boy gathering Eggs," a scene at +Lundy; the perfect "Luff, Boy!" (1859), about which Ruskin broke into a +dithyrambic chant, "The Brook," "Stand Clear!" "O Well for the +Fisherman's Boy!" (1860), "Leaving Cornwall for the Whitby Fishing," "Sea +Urchins," and a score more as fine as these. The artist was elected a +full Academician on the 6th of March 1860, in the place of James Ward. He +died on the 14th of April 1907. + + See A. H. Palmer, "J. C. Hook, R.A.," _Portfolio_ (1888); F. G. + Stephens, "J. C. Hook, Royal Academician: His Life and Work," _Art + Annual_ (London, 1888); P. G. Hamerton, _Etching and Etchers_ (London, + 1877). + + + + +HOOK, THEODORE EDWARD (1788-1841), English author, was born in London on +the 22nd of September 1788. He spent a year at Harrow, and subsequently +matriculated at Oxford, but he never actually resided at the university. +His father, James Hook (1746-1827), the composer of numerous popular +songs, took great delight in exhibiting the boy's extraordinary musical +and metrical gifts, and the precocious Theodore became "the little pet +lion of the green room." At the age of sixteen, in conjunction with his +father, he scored a dramatic success with _The Soldier's Return_, a +comic opera, and this he rapidly followed up with a series of over a +dozen sparkling ventures, the instant popularity of which was hardly +dependent on the inimitable acting of John Liston and Charles Mathews. +But Hook gave himself up for some ten of the best years of his life to +the pleasures of the town, winning a foremost place in the world of +fashion by his matchless powers of improvisation and mimicry, and +startling the public by the audacity of his practical jokes. His unique +gift of improvising the words and the music of songs eventually charmed +the prince Regent into a declaration that "something must be done for +Hook." The prince was as good as his word, and Hook, in spite of a total +ignorance of accounts, was appointed accountant-general and treasurer of +the Mauritius with a salary of £2000 a year. For five delightful years +he was the life and soul of the island, but in 1817, a serious +deficiency having been discovered in the treasury accounts, he was +arrested and brought to England on a criminal charge. A sum of about +£12,000 had been abstracted by a deputy official, and for this amount +Hook was held responsible. + +During the tardy scrutiny of the audit board he lived obscurely and +maintained himself by writing for magazines and newspapers. In 1820 he +launched the newspaper _John Bull_, the champion of high Toryism and the +virulent detractor of Queen Caroline. Witty, incisive criticism and +pitiless invective secured it a large circulation, and from this source +alone Hook derived, for the first year at least, an income of £2000. He +was, however, arrested for the second time on account of his debt to the +state, which he made no effort to defray. In a sponging-house, where he +was confined for two years, he wrote the nine volumes of stories +afterwards collected under the title of _Sayings and Doings_ +(1826-1829). In the remaining twenty-three years of his life he poured +forth no fewer than thirty-eight volumes, besides numberless articles, +squibs and sketches. His novels are not works of enduring interest, but +they are saved from mediocrity by frequent passages of racy narrative +and vivid portraiture. The best are _Maxwell_ (1830), _Love and Pride_ +(1833), the autobiographic _Gilbert Gurney_ (1836), _Jack Brag_ (1837), +_Gurney Married_ (1838), and _Peregrine Bunce_ (1842). Incessant work +had already begun to tell on his health, when Hook returned to his old +social habits, and a prolonged attempt to combine industry and +dissipation resulted in the confession that he was "done up in purse, in +mind and in body too at last." He died on the 24th of August 1841. His +writings in great part are of a purely ephemeral character; and the +greatest triumphs of the improvisatore may be said to have been writ in +wine. Putting aside, however, his claim to literary greatness, Hook will +be remembered as one of the most brilliant, genial and original figures +of Georgian times. + + See the Rev. R. H. D. Barham's _Life and Remains of Hook_ (3rd ed., + 1877); and an article by J. G. Lockhart in the _Quarterly Review_ (May + 1843). + + + + +HOOK, WALTER FARQUHAR (1798-1875), English divine, nephew of the witty +Theodore, was born in London on the 13th of March 1798. Educated at +Tiverton and Winchester, he graduated at Oxford (Christ Church) in 1821, +and after holding an incumbency in Coventry, 1829-1837, and in Leeds, +1837-1859, was nominated dean of Chichester by Lord Derby. He received +the degree of D.D. in 1837. His friendship towards the Tractarians +exposed him to considerable persecution, but his simple manly character +and zealous devotion to parochial work gained him the support of widely +divergent classes. His stay in Leeds was marked by vigorous and +far-reaching church extension, and his views on education were far in +advance of his time. Among his many writings are _An Ecclesiastical +Biography, containing the Lives of Ancient Fathers and Modern Divines_ +(8 vols., 1845-1852), _A Church Dictionary, The Means of Rendering more +Effectual the Education of the People, The Cross of Christ_ (1873), _The +Church and its Ordinances_ (sermons, 4 vols., 1876), and _Lives of the +Archbishops of Canterbury_ (12 vols., 1860-1876). He died on the 20th of +October 1875. + + See _Life and Letters of Dean Hook_, by his son-in-law, W. R. W. + Stephens (2 vols., 1878). + + + + +HOOKAH (the English spelling of the Persian and Hindustani _huqqu_, an +adaptation of the Arabic _huqqah_, a vase or casket, and by transference +a pipe for smoking, probably derived from the Arabie _huqq_, a hollow +place), a pipe with a long flexible tube attached to a large bowl +containing water, often scented, and resting upon a tripod or stand. The +smoke of the tobacco is made to pass through the water in the bowl, and +is thus cooled before reaching the smoker. The _narghile_ of India is in +principle the same as that of the hookah; the word is derived from +_nargil_, an Indian name for the coco-nut tree, as when the _narghile_ +was first made the water was placed in a coco-nut. This receptacle is +now often made of porcelain, glass or metal. In the _hubble-bubble_ the +pipe is so contrived that the water in the bowl makes a bubbling noise +while the pipe is being smoked. This pipe is common in India, Egypt and +the East generally. + + + + +HOOKE, ROBERT (1635-1703), English experimental philosopher, was born on +the 18th of July 1635 at Freshwater, in the Isle of Wight, where his +father, John Hooke, was minister of the parish. After working for a +short time with Sir Peter Lely, he went to Westminster school; and in +1653 he entered Christ Church, Oxford, as servitor. After 1655 he was +employed and patronized by the Hon. Robert Boyle, who turned his skill +to account in the construction of his air-pump. On the 12th of November +1662 he was appointed curator of experiments to the Royal Society, of +which he was elected a fellow in 1663, and filled the office during the +remainder of his life. In 1664 Sir John Cutler instituted for his +benefit a mechanical lectureship of £50 a year, and in the following +year he was nominated professor of geometry in Gresham College, where he +subsequently resided. After the Great Fire of 1666 he constructed a +model for the rebuilding of this city, which was highly approved, +although the design of Sir C. Wren was preferred. During the progress of +the works, however, he acted as surveyor, and accumulated in that +lucrative employment a sum of several thousand pounds, discovered after +his death in an old iron chest, which had evidently lain unopened for +above thirty years. He fulfilled the duties of secretary to the Royal +Society during five years after the death of Henry Oldenburg in 1677, +publishing in 1681-1682 the papers read before that body under the title +of _Philosophical Collections_. A protracted controversy with Johann +Hevelius, in which Hooke urged the advantages of telescopic over plain +sights, brought him little but discredit. His reasons were good; but his +offensive style of argument rendered them unpalatable and himself +unpopular. Many circumstances concurred to embitter the latter years of +his life. The death, in 1687, of his niece, Mrs Grace Hooke, who had +lived with him for many years, caused him deep affliction; a law-suit +with Sir John Cutler about his salary (decided, however, in his favour +in 1696) occasioned him prolonged anxiety; and the repeated anticipation +of his discoveries inspired him with a morbid jealousy. Marks of public +respect were not indeed wanting to him. A degree of M.D. was conferred +on him at Doctors' Commons in 1691, and the Royal Society made him, in +1696, a grant to enable him to complete his philosophical inventions. +While engaged on this task he died, worn out with disease, on the 3rd of +March 1703 in London, and was buried in St Helen's Church, Bishopsgate +Street. + +In personal appearance Hooke made but a sorry show. His figure was +crooked, his limbs shrunken; his hair hung in dishevelled locks over his +haggard countenance. His temper was irritable, his habits penurious and +solitary. He was, however, blameless in morals and reverent in religion. +His scientific achievements would probably have been more striking if +they had been less varied. He originated much, but perfected little. His +optical investigations led him to adopt in an imperfect form the +undulatory theory of light, to anticipate the doctrine of interference, +and to observe, independently of though subsequently to F. M. Grimaldi +(1618-1663), the phenomenon of diffraction. He was the first to state +clearly that the motions of the heavenly bodies must be regarded as a +mechanical problem, and he approached in a remarkable manner the +discovery of universal gravitation. He invented the wheel barometer, +discussed the application of barometrical indications to meteorological +forecasting, suggested a system of optical telegraphy, anticipated E. F. +F. Chladni's experiment of strewing a vibrating bell with flour, +investigated the nature of sound and the function of the air in +respiration and combustion, and originated the idea of using the +pendulum as a measure of gravity. He is credited with the invention of +the anchor escapement for clocks, and also with the application of +spiral springs to the balances of watches, together with the explanation +of their action by the principle _Ut tensio sic vis_ (1676). + + His principal writings are _Micrographia_ (1664); _Lectiones + Cutlerianae_ (1674-1679); and _Posthumous Works_, containing a sketch + of his "Philosophical Algebra," published by R. Waller in 1705. + + + + +HOOKER, JOSEPH (1814-1879), American general, was born in Hadley, +Massachusetts, on the 13th of November 1814. He was educated at the +military academy at West Point (1833-1837), and on graduating entered +the 1st U.S. Artillery. In the war with Mexico (1846-48) he served as a +staff officer, and rose by successive brevets for meritorious services +to the rank of lieutenant-colonel. In 1853 he left the service and +bought a large farm near Sonoma, Cal., which he managed successfully +till 1858, when he was made superintendent of military roads in Oregon. +Upon the opening of hostilities in the Civil War of 1861-65, he +sacrificed his fine estate and offered his sword to the Federal +Government. He was commissioned brigadier-general of volunteers on the +17th of May 1861 and major-general on the 5th of May 1862. The +engagement of Williamsburg (May 5th) brought him and his subordinate +Hancock into prominence, and Hooker received the soubriquet of "Fighting +Joe." He was engaged at the battle of Fair Oaks, and did splendid +service to the Union army during the "Seven Days." In the campaign of +Northern Virginia, under General Pope (August 1862), he led his division +with fiery energy at Bristoe Station, Manassas and Chantilly. In the +Maryland campaign (September) he was at the head of the I. corps, Army +of the Potomac, forced the defile of South Mountain and opened the way +for the advance of the army. The I. corps opened the great battle of the +Antietam, and sustained a sanguinary fight with the Confederates under +Stonewall Jackson. Hooker himself was severely wounded. He was +commissioned brigadier-general in the United States army on the 20th of +September 1862, and in the battle of Fredericksburg (q.v.), under +Burnside, he commanded the centre grand division (III. and V. corps). He +had protested against the useless slaughter of his men on that +disastrous field, and when Burnside resigned the command Hooker +succeeded him. The new leader effected a much-needed re-organization in +the army, which had fought many battles without success. In this task, +as in subordinate commands in battle, Hooker was excelled by few. But +his grave defects as a commander-in-chief were soon to be obvious. By a +well-planned and well-executed flanking movement, he placed himself on +the enemy's flank, but at the decisive moment he checked the advance of +his troops. Lee turned upon him, Jackson surprised and destroyed a whole +army corps, and the battle of Chancellorsville (see WILDERNESS), in +which Hooker was himself disabled, ended in a retreat to the old +position. Yet Hooker had not entirely forfeited the confidence of his +men, to whom he was still "Fighting Joe." The second advance of Lee into +Union territory, which led to the battle of Gettysburg, was strenuously +resisted by Hooker, who would have inflicted a heavy blow on Lee's +scattered forces had he not been condemned to inaction by orders from +Washington. Even then Hooker followed the Confederates a day only behind +them, until, finding himself distrusted and forbidden to control the +movements of troops within the sphere of operations, he resigned the +command on the eve of the battle (June 28, 1863). Faults of temper and +an excessive sense of responsibility made his continued occupation of +the command impossible, but when after a signal defeat Rosecrans was +besieged in Chattanooga, and Grant with all the forces of the West was +hurried to the rescue, two corps of the Army of the Potomac were sent +over by rail, and Hooker, who was at least one of the finest fighting +generals of the service, went with them in command. He fought and won +the "Battle above the Clouds" on Lookout Mountain which cleared the way +for the crowning victory of the army of the Cumberland on Missionary +Ridge (see CHATTANOOGA). And in command of the same corps (consolidated +as the XX. corps) he took part in all the battles and combats of the +Atlanta campaign of 1864. When General McPherson was killed before +Atlanta, the command of Grant's old Army of the Tennessee fell vacant. +Hooker, who, though only a corps commander, was senior to the other army +commanders, Thomas and Schofield, was normally entitled to receive it, +but General Sherman feared to commit a whole army to the guidance of a +man of Hooker's peculiar temperament, and the place was given to Howard. +Hooker thereupon left the army. He was commissioned brevet-major-general +in the United States army on the 13th of March 1865, and retired from +active service with the full rank of major-general on the 15th of +October 1868, in consequence of a paralytic seizure. The last years of +his life were passed in the neighbourhood of New York. He died at Garden +City, Long Island, on the 31st of October 1879. + + + + +HOOKER, SIR JOSEPH DALTON (1817- ), English botanist and traveller, +second son of the famous botanist Sir W. J. Hooker, was born on the 30th +of June 1817, at Halesworth, Suffolk. He was educated at Glasgow +University, and almost immediately after taking his M.D. degree there in +1839 joined Sir James Ross's Antarctic expedition, receiving a +commission as assistant-surgeon on the "Erebus." The botanical fruits of +the three years he thus spent in the Southern Seas were the _Flora +Antarctica_, _Flora Novae Zelandiae_ and _Flora Tasmanica_, which he +published on his return. His next expedition was to the northern +frontiers of India (1847-1851), and the expenses in this case also were +partially defrayed by the government. The party had its full share of +adventure. Hooker and his friend Dr Campbell were detained in prison for +some time by the raja of Sikkim, but nevertheless they were able to +bring back important results, both geographical and botanical. Their +survey of hitherto unexplored regions was published by the Calcutta +Trigonometrical Survey Office, and their botanical observations formed +the basis of elaborate works on the rhododendrons of the Sikkim Himalaya +and on the flora of India. Among other journeys undertaken by Hooker may +be mentioned those to Palestine (1860), Morocco (1871), and the United +States (1877), all yielding valuable scientific information. In the +midst of all this travelling in foreign countries he quickly built up +for himself a high scientific reputation at home. In 1855 he was +appointed assistant-director of Kew Gardens, and in 1865 he succeeded +his father as full director, holding the post for twenty years. At the +early age of thirty he was elected a fellow of the Royal Society, and in +1873 he was chosen its president; he received three of its medals--a +Royal in 1854, the Copley in 1887 and the Darwin in 1892. He acted as +president of the British Association at its Norwich meeting of 1868, +when his address was remarkable for its championship of Darwinian +theories. Of Darwin, indeed, he was an early friend and supporter: it +was he who, with Lyell, first induced Darwin to make his views public, +and the author of _The Origin of Species_ has recorded his indebtedness +to Hooker's wide knowledge and balanced judgment. Sir Joseph Hooker is +the author of numerous scientific papers and monographs, and his larger +books include, in addition to those already mentioned, a standard +_Student's Flora of the British Isles_ and a monumental work, the +_Genera plantarum_, based on the collections at Kew, in which he had the +assistance of Bentham. On the publication of the last part of his _Flora +of British India_ in 1897 he was created G.C.S.I., of which order he had +been made a knight commander twenty years before; and twenty years +later, on attaining the age of ninety, he was awarded the Order of +Merit. + + + + +HOOKER, RICHARD (1553-1600), English writer, author of the _Laws of +Ecclesiastical Polity_, son of Richard Vowell or Hooker, was born at +Heavitree, near the city of Exeter, about the end of 1553 or beginning +of 1554. Vowell was the original name of the family, but was gradually +dropped, and in the 15th century its members were known as Vowell +_alias_ Hooker. At school, not only his facility in mastering his tasks, +but his intellectual inquisitiveness and his fine moral qualities, +attracted the special notice of his teacher, who strongly recommended +his parents to educate him for the church. Though well connected, they +were, however, somewhat straitened in their worldly circumstances, and +Hooker was indebted for admission to the university to his uncle, John +Hooker _alias_ Vowell, chamberlain of Exeter, and in his day a man of +some literary repute, who induced Bishop Jewel to become his patron and +to bestow on him a clerk's place in Corpus Christi College, Oxford. To +this Hooker was admitted in 1568. Bishop Jewel died in September 1571, +but Dr William Cole, president of the college, from the strong interest +he felt in the young man, on account at once of his character and his +abilities, spontaneously offered to take the bishop's place as his +patron; and shortly afterwards Hooker, by his own labours as a tutor, +became independent of gratuitous aid. Two of his pupils, and these his +favourite ones, were Edwin Sandys, afterwards author of _Europae +speculum_, and George Cranmer, grand-nephew of the archbishop. Hooker's +reputation as a tutor soon became very high, for he had employed his +five years at the university to such good purpose as not only to have +acquired great proficiency in the learned languages, but to have joined +to this a wide and varied culture which had delivered him from the +bondage of learned pedantry; in addition to which he is said to have +possessed a remarkable talent for communicating knowledge in a clear and +interesting manner, and to have exercised a special influence over his +pupils' intellectual and moral tendencies. In December 1573 he was +elected scholar of his college; in July 1577 he proceeded to M.A., and +in September of the same year he was admitted a fellow. In 1579 he was +appointed by the chancellor of the university to read the public Hebrew +lecture, a duty which he continued to discharge till he left Oxford. Not +long after his admission into holy orders, about 1581, he was appointed +to preach at St Paul's Cross; and, according to Walton, he was so kindly +entertained by Mrs Churchman, who kept the Shunamite's house where the +preachers were boarded, that he permitted her to choose him a wife, +"promising upon a fair summons to return to London and accept of her +choice." The lady selected by her was "her daughter Joan," who, says the +same authority, "found him neither beauty nor portion; and for her +conditions they were too like that wife's which is by Solomon compared +to a dripping house." It is probable that Walton has exaggerated the +simplicity and passiveness of Hooker in the matter, but though, as Keble +observes with justice, his writings betray uncommon shrewdness and +quickness of observation, as well as a vein of keenest humour, it would +appear that either gratitude or some other impulse had on this occasion +led his judgment astray. After his marriage he was, about the end of +1584, presented to the living of Drayton Beauchamp in Buckinghamshire. +In the following year he received a visit from his two pupils, Edwin +Sandys and George Cranmer, who found him with the _Odes_ of Horace in +his hand, tending the sheep while the servant was at dinner, after +which, when they on the return of the servant accompanied him to his +house, "Richard was called to rock the cradle." Finding him so engrossed +by worldly and domestic cares, "they stayed but till the next morning," +and, greatly grieved at his narrow circumstances and unhappy domestic +condition, "left him to the company of his wife Joan." + +The visit had, however, results of the highest moment, not only in +regard to the career of Hooker, but in regard to English literature and +English philosophical thought. Sandys prevailed on his father, the +archbishop of York, to recommend Hooker for presentation to the +mastership of the Temple, and Hooker, though his "wish was rather to +gain a better country living," having agreed after some hesitation to +become a candidate, the patent conferring upon him the mastership was +granted on the 17th of March 1584/5. The rival candidate was Walter +Travers, a Presbyterian and evening lecturer in the same church. Being +continued in the lectureship after the appointment of Hooker, Travers +was in the habit of attempting a refutation in the evening of what +Hooker had spoken in the morning, Hooker again replying on the following +Sunday; so it was said "the forenoon sermon spake Canterbury, the +afternoon Geneva." On account of the keen feeling displayed by the +partisans of both, Archbishop Whitgift deemed it prudent to prohibit the +preaching of Travers, whereupon he presented a petition to the council +to have the prohibition recalled. Hooker published an _Answer to the +Petition of Mr Travers_, and also printed several sermons bearing on +special points of the controversy; but, feeling strongly the +unsatisfactory nature of such an isolated and fragmentary discussion of +separate points, he resolved to compose an elaborate and exhaustive +treatise, exhibiting the fundamental principles by which the question in +dispute must be decided. It is probable that the work was begun in the +latter half of 1586, and he had made considerable progress with it +before, with a view to its completion, he petitioned Whitgift to be +removed to a country parsonage, in order that, as he said, "I may keep +myself in peace and privacy, and behold God's blessing spring out of my +mother earth, and eat my own bread without oppositions." His desire was +granted in 1591 by a presentation to the rectory of Boscombe near +Salisbury. There he completed the volume containing the first four of +the proposed _Eight Books of the Laws of Ecclesiastical Polity_. It was +entered at Stationers' Hall on the 9th of March 1592, but was not +published till 1593 or 1594. In July 1595 he was promoted by the crown +to the rectory of Bishopsbourne near Canterbury, where he lived to see +the completion of the fifth book in 1597. In the passage from London to +Gravesend some time in 1600 he caught a severe cold from which he never +recovered; but, notwithstanding great weakness and constant suffering, +he "was solicitous in his study," his one desire being "to live to +finish the three remaining books of _Polity_." His death took place on +the 2nd of November of the same year. A volume professing to contain the +sixth and eighth books of the _Polity_ was published at London in 1648, +but the bulk of the sixth book, as has been shown by Keble, is an entire +deviation from the subject on which Hooker proposed to treat, and +doubtless the genuine copy, known to have been completed, has been lost. +The seventh book, which was published in a new edition of the work by +Gauden in 1662, and the eighth book, may be regarded as in substance the +composition of Hooker; but, as, in addition to wanting his final +revision, they have been very unskilfully edited, if they have not been +manipulated for theological purposes, their statements in regard to +doubtful matters must be received with due reserve, and no reliance can +be placed on their testimony where their meaning contradicts that of +other portions of the _Polity_. + +The conception of Hooker in his later years, which we form from the +various accessible sources, is that of a person of low stature and not +immediately impressive appearance, much bent by the influence of +sedentary and meditative habits, of quiet and retiring manners, and +discoloured in complexion and worn and marked in feature from the hard +mental toil which he had expended on his great work. There seems, +however, exaggeration in Walton's statement as to the meanness of his +dress; and Walton certainly misreads his character when he portrays him +as a kind of ascetic mystic. Though he was unworldly and simple in his +desires, and engrossed in the purpose to which he had devoted his +life--the "completion of the _Polity_"--his writings indicate that he +possessed a cheerful and healthy disposition, and that he was capable of +discovering enjoyment in everyday pleasures, and of appreciating human +life and character in a wide variety of aspects. He seems to have had a +special delight in outward nature--as he expressed it, he loved "to see +God's blessing spring out of his mother earth"; and he spent much of his +spare time in visiting his parishioners, his deference towards them, if +excessive, being yet mingled with a grave dignity which rendered +unwarrantable liberties impossible. As a preacher, though singularly +devoid of the qualities which win the applause of the multitude, he +always excited the interest of the more intelligent, the breadth and +finely balanced wisdom of his thoughts and the fascination of his +composition greatly modifying the impression produced by his weak voice +and ineffective manner. Partly, doubtless, on account of his +dim-sightedness, he never removed his eye from his manuscript, and, +according to Fuller, "he may be said to have made good music with his +fiddle and stick alone, having neither pronunciation nor gesture to +grace his matter." + + To accede without explanation to the claim put forth for the + _Ecclesiastical Polity_ of Hooker, that it marks an epoch in English + prose literature and English thought, would both be to do some + injustice to writers previous to him, and, if not to overestimate his + influence, to misinterpret its character. By no means can his + excursions in English prose be regarded as chiefly those of a pioneer; + and not only is his intellectual position inferior to that of + Shakespeare, Spenser and Bacon,[1] who alone can be properly reckoned + as the master spirits of the age, but in reality what effect he may + have had upon the thought of his contemporaries was soon disregarded + and swept out of sight in the hand-to-hand struggle with Puritanism, + and his influence, so far from being immediate and confined to one + particular era, has since the reaction against Puritanism been slowly + and imperceptibly permeating and colouring English thought. His work + is, however, the earliest in English prose with enough of the + preserving salt of excellence to adapt it to the mental palate of + modern readers. Attempts more elaborate than those of the old + chroniclers had been made two centuries previously to employ English + prose both for narrative and for discussion; and, a few years before + him, Roger Ascham, Sir Thomas More, Latimer, Sir Philip Sidney, the + compilers of the prayer book, and various translators of the Bible, + had in widely different departments of literature brought to light + many samples of the rich wealth of expression that was latent in the + language; but Hooker's is the first independent work in English prose + of notable power and genius, and the vigour and grasp of its thought + are not more remarkable than the felicity of its literary style. Its + more usual and obvious excellences are clearness of expression, + notwithstanding occasionally complicated methods; great aptness and + conciseness in the formation of individual clauses, and such a fine + sense of proportion and rhythm in their arrangement as almost conceals + the difficulties of syntax by which he was hampered; finished + simplicity, notwithstanding a stateliness too uniform and unbroken; a + nice discrimination in the choice of words and phrases, so as both to + portray the exact shade of his meaning, and to express each of his + thoughts with that degree of emphasis appropriate to its place in his + composition. In regard to qualities more relating to the matter than + the manner we may note the subtle and partly hidden humour; the strong + enthusiasm underlying that seemingly calm and passionless exposition + of principles which continually led him away from the minutiae of + temporary disputes, and has earned for him the somewhat misleading + epithet of "judicious;" the solidity of learning, not ostentatiously + displayed, but indicated in the character and variety of his + illustrations and his comprehensive mastery of all that relates to his + subject; the breadth of his conceptions, and the sweep and ease of his + movements in the highest regions of thought; the fine poetical + descriptions occasionally introduced, in which his eloquence attains a + grave, rich and massive harmony that compares not unfavourably with + the finest prose of Milton. His manner is, of course, defective in the + flexibility and variety characteristic of the best models of English + prose literature after the language had been enriched and perfected by + long use, and his sentences, constructed too much according to Latin + usages, are often tautological and too protracted into long + concatenations of clauses; but if, when regarded superficially, his + style presents in some respects a stiff and antiquated aspect, it yet + possesses an original and innate charm that has retained its freshness + after the lapse of nearly three centuries. + + The direct interest in the _Ecclesiastical Polity_ is now + philosophical and political rather than theological, for what + theological importance it possessed was rather in regard to the spirit + and method in which theology should be discussed than in regard to the + decision of strictly theological points. Hooker bases his reasoning on + principles which he discovered in Augustine and Thomas Aquinas, but + the intellectual atmosphere of his age was different from that which + surrounded them; he was acted upon by new and more various impulses + enabling him to imbibe more thoroughly the spirit of Greek thought + which was the source of their inspiration, and thus to reach a higher + and freer region than scholasticism, and in a sense to inaugurate + modern philosophy in England. It may be admitted that his principles + are only partially and in some degree capriciously wrought out--that + if he is not under the dominion of intellectual tendencies leading to + opposite results there are occasional blanks and gaps in his argument + where he seems sometimes to be groping after a meaning which he cannot + fully grasp; but he is often charged with obscurity simply because + readers of various theological schools, beholding in his principles + what seem the outline and justification of their own ideas, are + disappointed when they find that these outlines instead of acquiring + as they narrowly examine them the full and definite form of their + anticipations, widen out into a region beyond their notions and + sympathies, and therefore from their point of view enveloped in mist + and shade. It is the exposition of philosophical principles in the + first and second books of the _Polity_, and not the application of + these principles in the remaining books that gives the work its + standard place in English literature. It was intended to be an answer + to the attacks of the Presbyterians on the Episcopalian polity and + customs, but no attempt is made directly to oust Presbyterianism from + the place it then held in the Church of England. The work must rather + be regarded as a remonstrance against the narrow ground chosen by the + Presbyterians for their basis of attack, Hooker's exact position being + that "a necessity of polity and regiment may be held in all churches + without holding any form to be necessary." + + The general purpose of his reasoning is to vindicate Episcopacy from + objections that had been urged against it, but he attains a result + which has other and wider consequences than this. The fundamental + principle on which he bases his reasoning is the unity and + all-embracing character of law--law "whose seat," he beautifully says, + "is the bosom of God, whose voice the harmony of the world." Law--as + operative in nature, as regulating each man's individual character and + actions, as seen in the formations of societies and governments--is + equally a manifestation and development of the divine order according + to which God Himself acts, is the expression in various forms of the + divine reason. He makes a distinction between natural and positive + laws, the one being eternal and immutable, the other varying according + to external necessity and expediency; and he includes all the forms of + government under laws that are positive and therefore alterable + according to circumstances. Their application is to be determined by + reason, reason enlightened and strengthened by every variety of + knowledge, discipline and experience. The leading feature in his + system is the high place assigned to reason, for, though affirming + that certain truths necessary to salvation could be made known only by + special divine revelation, he yet elevates reason into the criterion + by which these truths are to be judged, and the standard to determine + what in revelation is temporal and what eternal. "It is not the word + of God itself," he says, "which doth or possibly can assure us that we + do well to think it His word." At the same time he saves himself from + the dangers of abstract and rash theorizing by a deep and absolute + regard for facts, the diligent and accurate study of which he makes of + the first importance to the proper use of reason. "The general and + perpetual voice of men is," he says, "as the sentence of God Himself. + For that which all men have at all times learned, nature herself must + needs have taught; and, God being the author of nature, her voice is + but His instrument." Applying his principles to man individually, the + foundation of morality is, according to Hooker, immutable, and rests + "on that law which God from the beginning hath set Himself to do all + things by"; this law is to be discovered by reason; and the perfection + which reason teaches us to strive after is stated, with characteristic + breadth of conception and regard to the facts of human nature, to be + "a triple perfection: first a sensual, consisting in those things + which very life itself requireth, either as necessary supplements, or + as beauties or ornaments thereof; then an intellectual, consisting in + those things which none underneath man is either capable of or + acquainted with; lastly, a spiritual or divine, consisting in those + things whereunto we tend by supernatural means here, but cannot here + attain unto them." Applying his principles to man as a member of a + community, he assigns practically the same origin and sanctions to + ecclesiastical as to civil government. His theory of government forms + the basis of the _Treatise on Civil Government_ by Locke, although + Locke developed the theory in a way that Hooker would not have + sanctioned. The force and justification of government Hooker derives + from public approbation, either given directly by the parties + immediately concerned, or indirectly through inheritance from their + ancestors. "Sith men," he says, "naturally have no full and perfect + power to command whole politic multitudes of men, therefore utterly + without our consent we could in such sort be at no man's commandment + living. And to be commanded we do consent, when that society whereof + we are part hath at any time before consented, without revoking the + same after, by the like universal agreement." His theory as he stated + it is in various of its aspects and applications liable to objection; + but taken as a whole it is the first philosophical statement of the + principles which, though disregarded in the succeeding age, have since + regulated political progress in England and gradually modified its + constitution. One of the corollaries of his principles is his theory + of the relation of church and state, according to which, with the + qualifications implied in his theory of government, he asserts the + royal supremacy in matters of religion, and identifies the church and + commonwealth as but different aspects of the same government. + + BIBLIOGRAPHY.--A life of Hooker by Dr Gauden was published in his + edition of Hooker's works (London, 1662). To correct the errors in + this life Walton wrote another, which was published in the 2nd edition + of Hooker's works in 1666. The standard modern edition of Hooker's + works is that by Keble, which first appeared in 1836, and has since + been several times reprinted (1888 edition, revised by Dean Church and + Bishop Paget). The first book of the _Laws of Ecclesiastical Polity_ + was edited for the Clarendon Press by Dean R. W. Church (1868-1876). + (T. F. H.) + + +FOOTNOTE: + + [1] If Bacon was the author of _The Christian Paradoxes_, his + philosophical standpoint in reference to religion was not only less + advanced than that of Hooker, but in a sense directly opposed to it. + + + + +HOOKER, THOMAS (1586-1647), New England theologian, was born, probably +on the 7th of July 1586, at Marfield, in the parish of Tilton, County of +Leicester, England. He graduated B.A. in 1608 and M.A. in 1611 at +Emmanuel College, Cambridge, the intellectual centre of Puritanism, +remained there as a fellow for a few years, and then preached in the +parish of Esher in Surrey. About 1626 he became lecturer to the church +of St Mary at Chelmsford, Essex, delivering on market days and Sunday +afternoons evangelical addresses which were notable for their moral +fervour. In 1629 Archbishop Laud took measures to suppress church +lectureships, which were an innovation of Puritanism. Hooker was placed +under bond and retired to Little Baddow, 4 m. from Chelmsford. In 1630 +he was cited to appear before the Court of High Commission, but he +forfeited his bond and fled to Holland, whence in 1633 he emigrated to +the Colony of Massachusetts Bay in America, and became pastor at +Newtowne (now Cambridge), Mass., of a company of Puritans who had +arrived from England in the previous year and in expectation of his +joining them were called "Mr Hooker's Company." Hooker seems to have +been a leader in the formation of that sentiment of discontent with the +Massachusetts government which resulted in the founding of Connecticut. +He publicly criticized the limitation of suffrage to church members, +and, according to a contemporary historian, William Hubbard (_General +History of New England_), "after Mr Hooker's coming over it was observed +that many of the freemen grew to be very jealous of their liberties." He +was a leader of the emigrants who in 1636 founded Hartford, Connecticut. +In a sermon before the Connecticut General Court of 1638, he declared +that "the choice of public magistrates belongs unto the people by God's +own allowance" and that "they who have the power to appoint officers and +magistrates, it is in their power, also, to set the bounds and +limitations of the power and place unto which they call them." Though +this theory was in advance of the age, Hooker had no idea of the +separation of church and state--"the privilege of election, which +belongs to the people," he said, must be exercised "according to the +blessed will and law of God." He also defended the right of magistrates +to convene synods, and in the Fundamental Orders of Connecticut (1639), +which he probably framed, the union of church and state is presupposed. +Hooker was pastor of the Hartford church until his death on the 7th of +July 1647. He was active in the negotiations which preceded the +formation of the New England Confederation in 1643. In the same year he +attended the meeting of Puritan ministers at Boston, whose object was to +defend Congregationalism, and he wrote a _Survey of the Summe of Church +Discipline_ (1648) in justification of the New England church system. +His other works deal chiefly with the experimental phases of religion, +especially the experience precedent to conversion. In _The Soule's +Humiliation_ (1637), he assigns as a test of conversion a willingness of +the convert to be damned if that be God's will, thus anticipating the +doctrine of Samuel Hopkins in the following century. + + See George L. Walker's _Thomas Hooker_ (New York, 1891); the appendix + of which contains a bibliography of Hooker's published works. + + + + +HOOKER, SIR WILLIAM JACKSON (1785-1865), English botanist, was born at +Norwich on the 6th of July 1785. His father, Joseph Hooker of Exeter, a +member of the same family as the celebrated Richard Hooker, devoted much +of his time to the study of German literature and the cultivation of +curious plants. The son was educated at the high school of Norwich, on +leaving which his independent means enabled him to travel and to take up +as a recreation the study of natural history, especially ornithology and +entomology. He subsequently confined his attention to botany, on the +recommendation of Sir James E. Smith, whom he had consulted respecting a +rare moss. His first botanical expedition was made in Iceland, in the +summer of 1809, at the suggestion of Sir Joseph Banks; but the natural +history specimens which he collected, with his notes and drawings, were +lost on the homeward voyage through the burning of the ship, and the +young botanist himself had a narrow escape with his life. A good memory, +however, aided him to publish an account of the island, and of its +inhabitants and flora (_Tour in Iceland_, 1809), privately circulated in +1811, and reprinted in 1813. In 1810-1811 he made extensive +preparations, and sacrifices which proved financially serious, with a +view to accompany Sir R. Brownrigg to Ceylon, but the disturbed state of +the island led to the abandonment of the projected expedition. In 1814 +he spent nine months in botanizing excursions in France, Switzerland and +northern Italy, and in the following year he married the eldest daughter +of Mr Dawson Turner, banker, of Yarmouth. Settling at Halesworth, +Suffolk, he devoted himself to the formation of his herbarium, which +became of world-wide renown among botanists. In 1816 appeared the +_British Jungermanniae_, his first scientific work, which was succeeded +by a new edition of William Curtis's _Flora Londinensis_, for which he +wrote the descriptions (1817-1828); by a description of the _Plantae +cryptogamicae_ of A. von Humboldt and A. Bonpland; by the _Muscologia +Britannica_, a very complete account of the mosses of Great Britain and +Ireland, prepared in conjunction with Dr T. Taylor (1818); and by his +_Musci exotici_ (2 vols., 1818-1820), devoted to new foreign mosses and +other cryptogamic plants. In 1820 he accepted the regius professorship +of botany in Glasgow University where he soon became popular as a +lecturer, his style being both clear and ready. The following year he +brought out the _Flora Scotica_, in which the natural method of +arrangement of British plants was given with the artificial. +Subsequently he prepared or edited many works, the more important being +the following:-- + + _Botanical Illustrations_ (1822); _Exotic Flora_, indicating such of + the specimens as are deserving cultivation (3 vols., 1822-1827); + _Account of Sabine's Arctic Plants_ (1824); _Catalogue of Plants in + the Glasgow Botanic Garden_ (1825); the _Botany of Parry's Third + Voyage_ (1826); _The Botanical Magazine_ (38 vols., 1827-1865); + _Icones Filicum_, in concert with Dr R. K. Greville (2 vols., + 1829-1831); _British Flora_, of which several editions appeared, + undertaken with Dr G. A. W. Arnott, &c. (1830); _British Flora + Cryptogamia_ (1833); _Characters of Genera from the British Flora_ + (1830); _Flora Boreali-Americana_ (2 vols., 1840), being the botany of + British North America collected in Sir J. Franklin's voyage; _The + Journal of Botany_ (4 vols., 1830-1842); _Companion to the Botanical + Magazine_ (2 vols., 1835-1836); _Icones plantarum_ (10 vols., + 1837-1854); the _Botany of Beechey's Voyage to the Pacific and + Behring's Straits_ (with Dr Arnott, 1841); the _Genera Filicum_ + (1842), from the original coloured drawings of F. Bauer, with + additions and descriptive letterpress; _The London Journal of Botany_ + (7 vols., 1842-1848); _Notes on the Botany of the Antarctic Voyage of + the Erebus and Terror_ (1843); _Species filicum_ (5 vols., 1846-1864), + the standard work on this subject; _A Century of Orchideae_ (1846); + _Journal of Botany and Kew Garden Miscellany_ (9 vols., 1849-1857); + _Niger Flora_ (1849); _Victoria Regia_ (1851); _Museums of Economic + Botany at Kew_ (1855); _Filices exoticae_ (1857-1859); _The British + Ferns_ (1861-1862); _A Century of Ferns_ (1854); _A Second Century of + Ferns_ (1860-1861). + +It was mainly by Hooker's exertions that botanists were appointed to the +government expeditions. While his works were in progress his herbarium +received large and valuable additions from all parts of the globe, and +his position as a botanist was thus vastly improved. He was made a +knight of Hanover in 1836 and in 1841 he was appointed director of the +Royal Botanical Gardens at Kew, on the resignation of W. T. Aiton. Under +his direction the gardens expanded from 11 to 75 acres, with an +arboretum of 270 acres, many new glass-houses were erected, and a museum +of economic botany was established. He was engaged on the _Synopsis +filicum_ with J. G. Baker when he was attacked by a throat disease then +epidemic at Kew, where he died on the 12th of August 1865. + + + + +HOOLE, JOHN (1727-1803), English translator and dramatist, son of a +watchmaker and machinist, Samuel Hoole, was born at Moorfields, London, +in December 1727. He was educated at a private school at Hoddesdon, +Hertfordshire, kept by James Bennet, who edited Ascham's English works. +At the age of seventeen he became a clerk in the accountants' department +of the East India House, and before 1767 became one of the auditors of +Indian accounts. His leisure hours he devoted to the study of Latin and +especially Italian, and began writing translations of the chief works of +the Italian poets. He published translations of the _Jerusalem +Delivered_ of Tasso in 1763, the _Orlando Furioso_ of Ariosto in +1773-1783, the _Dramas_ of Metastasio in 1767, and _Rinaldo_, an early +work of Tasso, in 1792. Among his plays are: _Cyrus_ (1768), _Timanthes_ +(1770) and _Cleonice, Princess of Bithynia_ (1775), none of which +achieved success. The verses of Hoole were praised by Johnson, with whom +he was on terms of intimacy, but, though correct, smooth and flowing, +they cannot be commended for any other merit. His translation of the +_Orlando Furioso_ was superseded by the version (1823-1831) of W. S. +Rose. Hoole was also the friend of the Quaker poet John Scott of Amwell +(1730-1783), whose life he wrote; it was prefixed to Scott's _Critical +Essays_ (1785). In 1773 he was promoted to be chief auditor of Indian +accounts, an office which he resigned in 1785. In 1786 he retired to the +parsonage of Abinger, Surrey; and afterwards lived at Tenterden, Kent, +dying at Dorking on the 2nd of April 1803. + + See _Anecdotes of the Life of the late Mr John Hoole_, by his + surviving brother, Samuel Hoole (London, 1803). Some of his plays are + reprinted in J. Bell's _British Theatre_ (1797). + + + + +HOOLIGAN, the generally accepted modern term for a young street ruffian +or rowdy. It seems to have been first applied to the young street +ruffians of the South-East of London about 1890, but though popular in +the district, did not attract general attention till later, when +authentic information of its origin was lost, but it appears that the +most probable source was a comic song which was popular in the +lower-class music-hall in the late 'eighties or early 'nineties, which +described the doings of a rowdy family named Hooligan (i.e. Irish +Houlihan). A comic character with the same name also appears to have +been the central figure in a series of adventures running through an +obscure English comic paper of about the same date, and also in a +similar New York paper, where his confrère in the adventures is a German +named Schneider (see _Notes and Queries_, 9th series, vol. ii. pp. 227 +and 316, 1898, and 10th series, vol. vii. p. 115, 1901). In other +countries the "hooligan" finds his counterpart. The Parisian _Apache_, +so self-styled after the North American Indian tribe, is a much more +dangerous character; mere rowdyism, the characteristic of the English +"hooligan," is replaced by murder, robbery and outrage. An equally +dangerous class of young street ruffian is the "hoodlum" of the United +States of America; this term arose in San Francisco in 1870, and thence +spread. Many fanciful origins of the name have been given, for some of +which see _Manchester (N.H.) Notes and Queries_, September 1883 (cited +in the _New English Dictionary_). The "plug-ugly" of Baltimore is +another name for the same class. More familiar is the Australian +"larrikin," which apparently came into use about 1870 in Melbourne. The +story that the word represents an Irish policeman's pronunciation of +"larking" is a mere invention. It is probably only an adaptation of the +Irish "Larry," short for Lawrence. Others suggest that it is a +corruption of the slang _Leary Kinchen_, i.e. knowing, wide-awake child. + + + + +HOOPER, JOHN (d. 1555), bishop of Gloucester and Worcester and martyr, +was born in Somerset about the end of the 15th century and graduated +B.A. at Oxford in 1519. He is said to have then entered the Cistercian +monastery at Gloucester; but in 1538 a John Hooper appears among the +names of the Black friars at Gloucester and also among the White friars +at Bristol who surrendered their houses to the king. A John Hooper was +likewise canon of Wormesley priory in Herefordshire; but identification +of any of these with the future bishop is doubtful. The _Greyfriars' +Chronicle_ says that Hooper was "sometime a white monk"; and in the +sentence pronounced against him by Gardiner he is described as "_olim +monachus de Cliva Ordinis Cisterciensis_," i.e. of the Cistercian house +at Cleeve in Somerset. On the other hand, at his deprivation he was not +accused, like the other married bishops who had been monks or friars, of +infidelity to the vow of chastity; and his own letters to Bullinger are +curiously reticent on this part of his history. He there speaks of +himself as being the only son and heir of his father and as fearing to +be deprived of his inheritance if he adopted the reformed religion. +Before 1546 he had secured employment in the household of Sir Thomas +Arundell, a man of influential connexions. Hooper speaks of himself at +this period as being "a courtier and living too much of a court life in +the palace of our king." But he chanced upon some of Zwingli's works and +Bullinger's commentaries on St Paul's epistles; and after some +molestation in England and some correspondence with Bullinger on the +lawfulness of complying against his conscience with the established +religion, he determined to secure what property he could and take refuge +on the continent. He had an adventurous journey, being twice imprisoned, +driven about for three months on the sea, and reaching Strassburg in the +midst of the Schmalkaldic war. There he married Anne de Tserclaes, and +later on he proceeded by way of Basle to Zürich, where his Zwinglian +convictions were confirmed by constant intercourse with Zwingli's +successor, Bullinger. + +It was not until May 1549, after he had published various works at +Zürich, that Hooper again arrived in England. He at once became the +principal champion of Swiss Protestantism against the Lutherans as well +as the Catholics, and was appointed chaplain to Protector Somerset. +Somerset's fall in the following October endangered Hooper's position, +and for a time he was in hourly dread of imprisonment and martyrdom, +more especially as he had taken a prominent part against Gardiner and +Bonner, whose restoration to their sees was now anticipated. Warwick, +afterwards duke of Northumberland, however, overcame the reactionaries +in the Council, and early in 1550 the Reformation resumed its course. +Hooper became Warwick's chaplain, and after a course of Lent lectures +before the king he was offered the bishopric of Gloucester. This led to +a prolonged controversy; Hooper had already denounced the "Aaronic +vestments" and the oath by the saints prescribed in the new Ordinal; and +he refused to be consecrated according to its rites. Cranmer, Ridley, +Bucer and others urged him to submit in vain; confinement to his house +by order of the Council proved equally ineffectual; and it was not until +he had spent some weeks in the Fleet prison that the "father of +nonconformity" consented to conform, and Hooper submitted to +consecration with the legal ceremonies (March 8, 1551). + +Once seated in his bishopric Hooper set about his episcopal duties with +exemplary vigour. His visitation of his diocese (printed in _English +Hist. Rev._ Jan. 1904, pp. 98-121) revealed a condition of almost +incredible ignorance among his clergy. Fewer than half could say the Ten +Commandments; some could not even repeat the Lord's Prayer in English. +Hooper did his best in the time at his disposal; but in less than a year +the bishopric of Gloucester was reduced to an archdeaconry and added to +Worcester, of which Hooper was made bishop in succession to Nicholas +Heath (q.v.). He was opposed to Northumberland's plot for the exclusion +of Mary from the throne; but this did not save him from speedy +imprisonment. He was sent to the Fleet on the 1st of September 1553 on a +doubtful charge of debt to the queen; but the real cause was his +stanchness to a religion which was still by law established. Edward +VI.'s legislation was, however, repealed in the following month, and in +March 1554 Hooper was deprived of his bishopric as a married man. There +was still no statute by which he could be condemned to the stake, but +Hooper was kept in prison; and the revival of the heresy acts in +December 1554 was swiftly followed by execution. On the 29th of January +1555, Hooper, Rogers, Rowland Taylor and others were condemned by +Gardiner and degraded by Bonner. Hooper was sent down to suffer at +Gloucester, where he was burnt on the 9th of February, meeting his fate +with steadfast courage and unshaken conviction. + +Hooper was the first of the bishops to suffer because his Zwinglian +views placed him further beyond the pale than Cranmer, Ridley and +Latimer. He represented the extreme reforming party in England. While he +expressed dissatisfaction with some of Calvin's earlier writings, he +approved of the _Consensus Tigurinus_ negotiated in 1549 between the +Zwinglians and Calvinists of Switzerland; and it was this form of +religion that he laboured to spread in England against the wishes of +Cranmer, Ridley, Bucer, Peter Martyr and other more conservative +theologians. He would have reduced episcopacy to narrow limits; and his +views had considerable influence on the Puritans of Elizabeth's reign, +when many editions of Hooper's various works were published. + + Two volumes of Hooper's writings are included in the Parker Society's + publications and another edition appeared at Oxford in 1855. See also + Gough's General Index to Parker Soc. Publ.; Strype's _Works_ (General + Index); Foxe's _Acts and Monuments_, ed. Townsend; _Acts of the Privy + Council; Cal. State Papers_, "Domestic" Series; Nichols's _Lit. + Remains of Edward VI._; Burner, Collier, Dixon, Froude and Gairdner's + histories; Pollard's _Cranmer; Dict. Nat. Biogr._ (A. F. P.) + + + + +HOOPOE (Fr. _Huppe_, Lat. _Upupa_, Gr. [Greek: epops]--all names +bestowed apparently from its cry), a bird long celebrated in literature, +and conspicuous by its variegated plumage and its large erectile +crest,[1] the _Upupa epops_ of naturalists, which is the type of the +very peculiar family _Upupidae_, placed by Huxley in his group +_Coccygomorphae_, but considered by Dr Murie (_Ibis_, 1873, p. 208) to +deserve separate rank as _Epopomorphae_. This species has an exceedingly +wide range in the Old World, being a regular summer-visitant to the +whole of Europe, in some parts of which it is abundant, as well as to +Siberia, mostly retiring southwards in autumn to winter in equatorial +Africa and India, though it would seem to be resident throughout the +year in north-eastern Africa and in China. Its power of wing ordinarily +seems to be feeble; but it is capable of very extended flight, as is +testified by its wandering habits (for it occasionally makes its +appearance in places very far removed from its usual haunts), and also +by the fact that when pursued by a falcon it will rapidly mount to an +extreme height and frequently effect its escape from the enemy. About +the size of a thrush, with a long, pointed and slightly arched bill, its +head and neck are of a golden-buff--the former adorned by the crest +already mentioned, which begins to rise from the forehead and consists +of broad feathers, gradually increasing in length, tipped with black and +having a subterminal bar of yellowish-white. The upper part of the back +is of a vinous-grey, and the scapulars and flight-feathers are black, +broadly barred with white tinged in the former with buff. The tail is +black with a white chevron, marking off about the distal third part of +its length. The legs and feet are as well adapted for running or walking +as for perching, and the scutellations are continued round the whole of +the tarsi. Chiefly on account of this character, which is also possessed +by the larks, Sundevall (_Tentamen_, pp. 53-55) united the _Upupidae_ +and _Alaudidae_ in the same "cohors" _Holaspideae_. Comparative anatomy, +however, forbids its being taken to signify any real affinity between +these groups, and the resemblance on this point, which is by no means so +striking as that displayed by the form of the bill and the coloration in +certain larks (of the genus _Certhilauda_, for instance), must be +ascribed to analogy merely. + +[Illustration: Hoopoe.] + +Pleasing as is the appearance of the hoopoe as it fearlessly parades its +showy plumage, some of its habits are much the reverse. All observers +agree in stating that it delights to find its food among filth of the +most abominable description, and this especially in its winter-quarters. +But where it breeds, its nest, usually in the hole of a tree or of a +wall, is not only partly composed of the foulest material, but its +condition becomes worse as incubation proceeds, for the hen scarcely +ever leaves her eggs, being assiduously fed by the cock as she sits; and +when the young are hatched, their faeces are not removed by their +parents,[2] as is the case with most birds, but are discharged in the +immediate neighbourhood of the nest, the unsanitary condition of which +can readily be imagined. Worms, grubs, and insects generally form the +hoopoes' food, and upon it they get so fat in autumn that they are +esteemed a delicate morsel in some of the countries of southern Europe, +and especially by the Christian population of Constantinople.[3] + +Not a year passes but the hoopoe makes its appearance in some part or +other of the British Islands, most often in spring, and if unmolested +would doubtless stop to breed in them, and a few instances are known in +which it has done so. But its remarkable plumage always attracts +attention, and it is generally shot down so soon as it is seen, and +before it has time to begin a nest. Eight or nine so-called species of +the genus have been described, but of them the existence of five only +has been recognized by Sharpe and Dresser (_Birds of Europe_, pt. vii.). +Besides the _Upupa epops_ above treated, these are _U. indica_, resident +in India and Ceylon; _U. longirostris_, which seems to be the form of +the Indo-Chinese countries; _U. marginata_, peculiar to Madagascar; and +_U. africana_ or _U. minor_ of some writers, which inhabits South Africa +to the Zambesi on the east and Benguela on the west coast. In habits and +appearance they all resemble the best-known and most widely-spread +species.[4] (A. N.) + + +FOOTNOTE: + + [1] Hence the secondary meaning of the French word _huppe_--a crest + or tuft (cf. Littré, _Dict. français_, i. 2067). + + [2] This indeed is denied by Naumann, but by him alone, and the + statement in the text is confirmed by many eye-witnesses. + + [3] Under the name of _Dukipath_, in the authorized version of the + Bible translated "lapwing" (Lev. xi. 19, Deut. xiv. 18), the hoopoe + was accounted unclean by the Jewish law. Arabs have a great reverence + for the bird, imparting to it marvellous medicinal and other + qualities, and making use of its head in all their charms (cf. + Tristram, _Nat. Hist. of the Bible_, pp. 208, 209). + + [4] The genera _Rhinopomastus_ and _Irrisor_ are generally placed in + the Family _Upupidae_, but Dr Murie, after an exhaustive examination + of their osteology, regards them as forming a group of equal value. + + + + +HOORN, a seaport in the province of North Holland, Holland, on a bay of +the Zuider Zee called the Hoornerhop, and a junction station 23½ m. by +rail N. by E. of Amsterdam, on the railway to Enkhuizen, with which it +is also connected by steam tramway. Pop. (1900) 10,647. Hoorn is +distinguished by its old-world air and the beauty and interest of its +numerous gabled houses of the 16th and 17th centuries. Many of these are +decorated with inscriptions and bas-reliefs, some of which commemorate +the battle on the Zuider Zee in 1573, in which the Beggars defeated the +Spaniards under Count Bossu. Walks and gardens now surround the town in +the place of the old city walls, but a few towers and gateways adorned +with various old coats of arms are still standing. The fine Gothic +bastion tower overlooking the harbour was built in 1532; the East gate +not later than 1578. Among the public buildings of special interest are +the picturesque St John's hospital (1563), now used for military +purposes; the old mint; the hospital for aged men and women (beginning +of 17th century); the weigh-house (1609); the town hall, in which the +states of West Friesland formerly met; and the old court-house, which +dates from the beginning of the 17th century, though parts of it are +older, containing a modern museum and some early portraits. There are +also various charitable and educational institutions, Protestant and +Roman Catholic churches and a synagogue. The extensive foreign commerce +which Hoorn carried on in the 16th and 17th centuries has almost +entirely vanished, but there is still a considerable trade with other +parts of the Netherlands, especially in cheese and cattle. The chief +industries include gold and silver work, and there are also tobacco +factories, saw-mills and some small boat-building yards, a considerable +number of vessels being engaged in the Zuider Zee fisheries. + +Hoorn, latinized as _Horna_ or _Hornum_, has existed at least from the +first part of the 14th century, as it is mentioned in a document of the +year 1311, five years earlier than the date usually assigned for its +foundation. In 1356 it received municipal privileges from Count William +V. of Holland, and in 1426 it was surrounded with walls. It was at Hoorn +in 1416 that the first great net was made for the herring fishery, an +industry which long proved an abundant source of wealth to the town. +During the 15th century Hoorn shared in the troubles occasioned by the +different contending factions; in 1569 the Spanish forces entered the +town; but in 1572 it cast in its lot with the states of the Netherlands. +In the 16th century it was a commercial centre, important for its trade, +fisheries and breweries. A company of commerce and navigation was formed +at Hoorn in 1720, and the admiralty offices and storehouses remained +here until their removal to Medemblik in 1795. The English under Sir +Ralph Abercromby took possession of the town in 1799, and in 1811 it +suffered severely from the French. Among the celebrities of Hoorn are +William Schouten, who discovered in 1616 the passage round Cape Horn, or +Hoorn, as he named it in honour of his birthplace; Abel Janszoon Tasman, +whose fame is associated with Tasmania; and Jan Pietersz Coen, +governor-general of the Dutch East Indies. + + + + +HOOSICK FALLS, a village of Rensselaer county, New York, U.S.A., in the +township of Hoosick, 27 m. N.E. of Troy, on the Hoosick river. Pop. of +the village (1890) 7014; (1900) 5671, of whom 1092 were foreign-born; +(1905) 5251; (1910) 5532; of the township (1900) 8631; (1910) 8315. +Hoosick Falls is served by the Boston & Maine Railroad, and is connected +by electric railway with Bennington, Vermont, about 8 m. E. The falls of +the Hoosick river furnish water-power for the manufacture of +agricultural machinery by the Walter A. Wood Mowing and Reaping Machine +Co., which dates from 1866, the business having been started in 1852 by +Walter Abbott Wood (1815-1892), who was a Republican representative in +Congress in 1879-1883. Other manufactures are knit goods, shirts and +collars and paper-making machinery. Hoosick Falls was settled about 1688 +by Dutch settlers--settlers from Connecticut and Massachusetts came +after 1763--and it was first incorporated in 1827. Three miles N.E. of +the village, at Walloomsac, in the township of Hoosick, the battle of +Bennington was fought, on the 16th of August 1777. + + + + +HOP (Ger. _Hopfen_, Fr. _houblon_), _Humulus Lupulus_, L., an herbaceous +twining plant, belonging to the natural order Cannabinaceae, which is by +some botanists included in the larger group called Urticaceae by +Endlicher. It is of common occurrence in hedges and thickets in the +southern counties of England, but is believed not to be native in +Scotland. On the European continent it is distributed from Greece to +Scandinavia, and extends through the Caucasus and Central Asia to the +Altai Mountains. It is common, but doubtfully indigenous, in the +northern and western states of North America, and has been introduced +into Brazil, Australia and the Himalayas. + +It is a perennial plant, producing annually several long twining +roughish striated stems, which twist from left to right, are often 15 to +20 ft. long and climb freely over hedges and bushes. The roughness of +stem and leaves is due to lines of strong hooked hairs, which help the +plant to cling to its support. The leaves are stalked, opposite, 3-5 +lobed, and coarsely serrate, and bear a general resemblance to those of +the vine, but are, as well as the whole plant, rough to the touch; the +upper leaves are sometimes scarcely divided, or quite entire. The +stipules are between the leaf-stalks, each consisting of two lateral +ones united, or rarely with the tips free. The male and female flowers +are produced on distinct plants. The male inflorescence (fig. 1, A) +forms a panicle; the flowers consist of a small greenish five-parted +perianth (a) enclosing five stamens, whose anthers (b) open by terminal +slits. The female inflorescence (fig. 1, B) is less conspicuous in the +young state. The catkin or strobile consists of a number of small acute +bracts, with two sessile ovaries at their base, each subtended by a +rounded bractlet (c). Both the bracts and bractlets enlarge greatly +during the development of the ovary, and form, when fully grown, the +membranous scales of the strobile (fig. 2, _a_); they are known as +"petals" by hop-growers. The bracts can then only be distinguished from +the bractlets by being rather more acute and more strongly veined. The +perianth (fig. 1, _d_) is short, cup-shaped, undivided and closely +applied to the ovary, which it ultimately encloses. In the young +strobile the two purple hairy styles (e) of each ovary project beyond +the bracts. The ovary contains a single ovule (fig. 1. _f_) which +becomes in the fruit an exalbuminous seed, containing a spirally-coiled +embryo (fig. 2, _b_). The light dusty pollen is carried by the wind from +the male to the female flowers. + +[Illustration: FIG. 1.--Male (A) and Female (B) Inflorescence of the +Hop.] + +The ovary and the base of the bracts are covered with a yellowish +powder, consisting of minute sessile grains, called lupulin or lupulinic +glands. These glands (fig. 2, _c_) are from 1/260 to 1/140 in. in +diameter, like flattened subovate little saucers in shape, and attached +to a short pedicel. The upper or hemispherical portion bears a delicate +continuous membrane, the cuticle, which becomes raised by the secretion +beneath it of the yellowish lupulin. The stalk is not perceptible in the +gland as found in commerce. When fresh the gland is seen to be filled +with a yellowish or dark brown liquid; this on drying contracts in bulk +and forms a central mass. It is to these lupulinic glands that the +medicinal properties of the hop are chiefly due. By careful sifting +about 1 oz. may be obtained from 1 lb. of hops, but the East Kent +variety is said to yield more than the Sussex hops. + +In hop gardens a few male plants, usually three or four to an acre, are +sometimes planted, that number being deemed sufficient to fertilize the +female flowers. The blossoms are produced in August, and the strobiles +are fit for gathering from the beginning of September to the middle of +October, according to the weather. + +[Illustration: FIG. 2.--Fruit of Hop.] + +The cultivation of hops for use in the manufacture of beer dates from an +early period. In the 8th and 9th centuries hop gardens, called +"humularia" or "humuleta," existed in France and Germany. Until the 16th +century, however, hops appear to have been grown in a very fitful +manner, and to a limited extent, generally only for private consumption; +but after the beginning of the 17th century the cultivation increased +rapidly. The plant was introduced into England from Flanders in 1525; +and in America its cultivation was encouraged by legislative enactments +in 1657. Formerly several plants were used as well as hops to season +ale, hence the name "alehoof" for _Nepeta Glechoma_, and "alecost" for +_Balsamita vulgaris_. The sweet gale, _Myrica Gale_, and the sage, +_Salvia officinalis_, were also similarly employed. Various hop +substitutes, in the form of powder, have been offered in commerce of +late years, most of which appear to have quassia as a chief ingredient. +The young tender tops of the hop are in Belgium cut off in spring and +eaten like asparagus, and are forced from December to February. + + _Medical Use._--The principal constituents of the strobiles are + _lupulin_, one of the few liquid alkaloids; _lupulinic acid_, a bitter + crystalline body, soluble in ether, which is without any other + pharmacological action than that common to bitter substances; + _Valerol_, a volatile oil which in old hops undergoes a change to the + malodorous body valerianic acid; resin; trimethylamine; a peculiar + modification of tannin known as _humulotannic acid_; and a + sesqui-terpene. The British pharmacopoeia contains two preparations of + the strobiles,--an infusion (dose, 1-2 oz.) and a tincture (dose, ½-1 + drachm). The glands obtained from the strobiles are known in pharmacy + as lupulin, a name which tends to confusion with that of the alkaloid. + They occur in commerce as a bright yellow-brown powder, seen under a + lens to consist of minute glandular particles. The dose of this + so-called lupulin is 2-5 grains. From it there is prepared the + Tinctura Lupulinae of the United States pharmacopoeia, which is given + in doses of 10-60 minims. Furthermore, there are prepared hop pillows, + designed to procure sleep; but these act, when at all, mainly by + suggestion. The pharmacological action of hops is determined first by + the volatile oil they contain, which has the actions of its class. + Similarly the lupulinic acid may act as a bitter tonic. The + preparations of hops, when taken internally, are frequently hypnotic, + though unfortunately different specimens vary considerably in + composition, none of the preparations being standardized. It is by no + means certain whether the hypnotic action of hops is due to the + alkaloid lupulin or possibly to the volatile oil which they contain. + Medical practice, however, is acquainted with many more trustworthy + and equally safe hypnotics. The bitter acid of hops may endow beer + containing it with a certain value in cases of impaired gastric + digestion, and to the hypnotic principle of hops may partly be + ascribed--as well as to the alcohol--the soporific action of beer in + the case of some individuals. + + +HOP PRODUCTION IN ENGLAND[1] + +The cultivation of hops in the British Isles is restricted to England, +where it is practically confined to half-a-dozen counties--four in the +south-eastern and two in the west-midland districts. In 1901 the English +crop was reported by the Board of Agriculture to occupy 51,127 acres. +The official returns as to acreage do not extend back beyond 1868, in +which year the total area was reported to be 64,488 acres. The largest +area recorded since then was 71,789 acres in 1878; the smallest was +44,938 acres in 1907. The extent to which the areas of hops in the chief +hop-growing counties vary from year to year is sufficiently indicated in +Table I., which shows the annual acreages over a period of thirteen +years, 1895 to 1907. The proportions in which the acres of hops are +distributed amongst the counties concerned vary but little year by year, +and as a rule over 60% belongs to Kent. + + TABLE I.--_Hop Areas of England 1895 to 1907. Acres._ + + +------+--------+---------+-------+----------+------+-------+ + | | Kent. |Hereford.|Sussex.|Worcester.|Hants.|Surrey.| + +------+--------+---------+-------+----------+------+-------+ + | 1895 | 35,018 | 7553 | 7489 | 4024 | 2875 | 1783 | + | 1896 | 33,300 | 6895 | 5908 | 3800 | 2494 | 1623 | + | 1897 | 31,661 | 6542 | 5174 | 3591 | 2306 | 1416 | + | 1898 | 30,941 | 6651 | 4829 | 3567 | 2263 | 1313 | + | 1899 | 31,988 | 7227 | 4949 | 3788 | 2319 | 1388 | + | 1900 | 31,514 | 7287 | 4823 | 3964 | 2231 | 1300 | + | 1901 | 31,242 | 7497 | 4800 | 4029 | 2133 | 1232 | + | 1902 | 29,649 | 6915 | 4541 | 3779 | 2003 | 969 | + | 1903 | 29,933 | 6851 | 4454 | 3697 | 1920 | 901 | + | 1904 | 29,841 | 6767 | 4474 | 3752 | 1900 | 877 | + | 1905 | 30,655 | 6851 | 4647 | 3807 | 1978 | 843 | + | 1906 | 29,296 | 6481 | 4379 | 3672 | 1939 | 777 | + | 1907 | 28,169 | 6143 | 4243 | 3622 | 1842 | 744 | + +------+--------+---------+-------+----------+------+-------+ + +Less than 200 acres in all are annually grown in the other hop-growing +counties of England, these being Shropshire, Gloucestershire and +Suffolk. + +The average yield per acre in cwt. in the six counties during the decade +1897 to 1906 was as follows:-- + + TABLE II. + + +------+---------+-------+----------+------+-------+ + | Kent.|Hereford.|Sussex.|Worcester.|Hants.|Surrey.| + +------+---------+-------+----------+------+-------+ + | 9.31 | 7.14 | 9.41 | 7.79 | 8.78 | 7.23 | + +------+---------+-------+----------+------+-------+ + +Table III. shows the average acreage, yield and total home produce of +England during the decades 1888-1897 and 1898-1907. + + TABLE III. + + +-----------+--------------+--------------+--------------+ + | |Average Annual|Average Annual|Average Annual| + | Periods. | Acreage. |Yield per acre| Home Produce | + | | | (cwt.). | (cwt.). | + +-----------+--------------+--------------+--------------+ + | 1888-1897 | 56,370 | 7.76 | 438,215 | + | 1898-1907 | 48,841 | 8.84 | 434,567 | + +-----------+--------------+--------------+--------------+ + +The wide fluctuations in the home production of hops are worthy of note, +as they exercise a powerful influence upon market prices. The largest +crop between 1885, the first year in which figures relating to +production were collected, and 1907 was that of 776,144 cwt. in 1886, +and the smallest that of 281,291 cwt. in 1888, the former being more +than 2½ times the size of the latter. The crop of 1899, estimated at +661,373 cwt., was so large that prices receded to an extent such as to +leave no margin of profit to the great body of growers, whilst some +planters were able to market the crop only at a loss. The calculated +annual average yields per acre over the years 1885 to 1907 ranged +between 12.76 cwt. in 1899 and 4.81 cwt. in 1888. No other staple crop +of British agriculture undergoes such wide fluctuations in yield as are +here indicated, the size of the crop produced bearing no relation to the +acreage under cultivation. For example, the 71,327 acres in 1885 +produced only 509,170 cwt., whereas the 51,843 acres in 1899 produced +661,373 cwt.--19,484 acres less under crop yielded 152,203 cwt. more +produce. + +Comparing the quantities of home-grown hops with those of imported hops, +of the total available for consumption about 70% on the average is home +produce and about 30% is imported produce. The imports, however, do not +vary so much as the home produce. Table IV. shows the average quantity +of imports to and exports (home-grown) from Great Britain during the +decades 1877-1886, 1887-1896 and 1897-1906. + + TABLE IV. + + +-----------+---------------+---------------+ + | Periods. |Annual Average |Annual Average | + | |Imports (cwt.).|Exports (cwt.).| + +-----------+---------------+---------------+ + | 1877-1886 | 215,219 | 10,805 | + | 1887-1896 | 194,966 | 9,437 | + | 1897-1906 | 186,362 | 14,808 | + +-----------+---------------+---------------+ + +The highest and lowest imports were 266,952 cwt. in 1885 and 145,122 +cwt. in 1887, the latter in the year following the biggest home-grown +crop on record. On a series of years the largest proportion of imports +is from the United States. + +During the twenty-five years 1881-1905 the annual values of the hops +imported into England fluctuated between the wide limits of £2,962,631 +in 1882 and £427,753 in 1887. In five other years besides 1882 the value +exceeded a million sterling. The annual average value over the whole +period was £921,000, whilst the annual average import was 194,000 cwt., +consequently the average value per cwt. was nearly £4, 15s., which is +approximately the same as that of the exported product. The quantities +and values of the imported hops that are again exported are almost +insignificant. + + +HOP PRODUCTION IN THE UNITED STATES + +The distribution of the area of hop-cultivation in the United States +showed great changes during the last decades of the 19th and the first +decade of the 20th century. During the earlier portion of that period +New York was the chief hop-growing state of the Union, but toward the +end of it a great extension of hop-growing took place on the Pacific +coast (in the states of Oregon, California and Washington), where the +richness of the soil and mildness of the climate are favourable to the +bines. + +The average annual produce of hops in the United States from 1900 to +1906 was 423,471 cwt.; of this quantity 80% was raised in the three +states of the Pacific coast, where the yield per acre is much larger +than in New York. In the latter state the yield does not appear to +exceed 5 or 6 cwt. per acre, whereas in Oregon it is 9 or 10 cwt., and +in Washington and California from 12 to 14 cwt. The average annual +export (chiefly to Great Britain) in the years from 1899 to 1905 was +108,400 cwt.; the average import (chiefly from Germany) is about 50,000 +cwt. + + +HOP CULTIVATION + +As the county of Kent has always taken the lead in hop-growing in +England, and as it includes about two-thirds of the hop acreage of the +British Isles, the recent developments in hop cultivation cannot be +better studied than in that county. They were well summarized by Mr +Charles Whitehead in his sketch of the agriculture of Kent,[2] wherein +he states that the hop grounds--or hop gardens, as they are called in +Kent--of poor character and least suitable for hop production have been +gradually grubbed since 1894, on account of large crops, the importation +of hops and low prices. At the beginning of the 19th century there were +290 parishes in Kent in which hops were cultivated. A century later, out +of the 413 parishes in the county, as many as 331 included hop +plantations. The hops grown in Kent are classified in the markets as +"East Kents," "Bastard East Kents," "Mid Kents" and "Wealds," according +to the district of the county in which they are produced. The relative +values of these four divisions follow in the same order, East Kents +making the highest and Wealds the lowest rates. These divisions agree in +the main with those defined by geological formations. Thus, "East Kents" +are grown upon the Chalk, and especially on the outcrop of the soils of +the London Tertiaries upon the Chalk. "Bastard East Kents" are produced +on alluvial soil and soils formed by admixtures of loam, clay-loams, +chalk, marl and clay from the Gault, Greensand and Chalk formations. +"Mid Kents" are derived principally from the Greensand soils and +outcrops of the London Tertiaries in the upper part of the district. +"Wealds" come from soils on the Weald Clay, Hastings Sand and Tunbridge +Wells Sand. As each "pocket" of hops must be marked with the owner's +name and the parish in which they were grown, buyers of hops can, +without much trouble, ascertain from which of the four divisions hops +come, especially if they have the map of the hop-growing parishes of +England, which gives the name of each parish. There has been a +considerable rearrangement of the hop plantations in Kent within recent +years. Common varieties as Colegate's, Jones's, Grapes and Prolifics +have been grubbed, and Goldings, Bramlings and other choice kinds +planted in their places. The variety known as Fuggle's, a heavy-cropping +though slightly coarse hop, has been much planted in the Weald of Kent, +and in parts of Mid Kent where the soil is suitable. In very old hop +gardens, where there has been no change of plant for fifty or even one +hundred years in some instances, except from the gradual process of +filling up the places of plants that have died, there has been +replanting with better varieties and varieties ripening in more +convenient succession; and, generally speaking, the plantations have +been levelled up in this respect to suit the demand for bright hops of +fine quality. A recent classification[3] of the varieties of English +hops arranges them in three groups: (1) early varieties (e.g. Prolific, +Bramling, Amos's Early Bird); (2) mid-season or main-crop varieties +(e.g. Farnham Whitebine, Fuggle's, Old Jones's, Golding); (3) late +varieties (e.g. Grapes, Colgate's). + +The cost of cultivating and preparing the produce of an acre of hop land +tends to increase, on account of the advancing rates of wages, the +intense cultivation more and more essential, and the necessity of +freeing the plants from the persistent attacks of insects and fungi. In +1893 Mr Whitehead estimated the average annual cost of an acre of hop +land to be £35, 10s., the following being the items:-- + + Manure (winter and summer) £6 10 0 + Digging 0 19 0 + Dressing (or cutting) 0 6 0 + Poling, tying, earthing, ladder-tying, stringing, + lewing 2 3 0 + Shimming, nidgeting, digging round and hoeing + hills 3 0 0 + Stacking, stripping, making; bines, &c. 0 17 0 + Annual renewal of poles 2 10 0 + Expense of picking, drying, packing, carriage, + sampling, selling, &c., on average crop of, + say, 7 cwt. per acre 10 5 0 + Rent, rates, taxes, repairs of oast and tacks, + interest on capital 6 0 0 + Sulphuring 1 0 0 + Washing (often two, three or four times) 2 0 0 + -------- + Total £35 10 0 + +Seven years later the average cost per acre in Kent had risen to quite +£37. + +The hops in Kent are usually planted in October or November, the plants +being 6 ft. apart each way, thus giving 1210 hills or plant-centres per +acre. Some planters still grow potatoes or mangels between the rows the +first year, as the plants do not bear much until the second year; but +this is considered to be a mistake, as it encourages wire-worm and +exhausts the ground. Many planters pole hop plants the first year with a +single short pole, and stretch coco-nut-fibre string from pole to pole, +and grow many hops in the first season. Much of the hop land is ploughed +between the rows, as labour is scarce, and the spaces between are dug +afterwards. It is far better to dig hop land if possible, the tool used +being the Kent spud. The cost of digging an acre ranges from 18s. to +21s. Hop land is ploughed or dug between November and March. After this +the plants are "dressed," which means that all the old bine ends are cut +off with a sharp curved hop-knife, and the plant centres kept level with +the ground. + + _Manuring._--Manure is applied in the winter, and dug or ploughed in. + London manure from stables is used to an enormous extent. It comes by + barge or rail, and is brought from the wharves and stations by + traction engines; it costs from 7s. 6d. to 9s. per load. Rags, fur + waste, sprats, wool waste and shoddy are also put on in the winter. In + the summer, rape dust, guano, nitrate of soda and various patent hop + manures are chopped in with the Canterbury hoe. Fish guano or + desiccated fish is largely used; it is very stimulating and more + lasting than some of the other forcing manures. + + The recent investigations into the subject of hop-manuring made by Dr + Bernard Dyer and Mr F. W. E. Shrivell, at Golden Green, near + Tonbridge, Kent, are of interest. In the 1901 report[4] it was stated + that the object in view was to ascertain how far nitrate of soda, in + the presence of an abundant supply of phosphates and potash, is + capable of being advantageously used as a source of nitrogenous food + for hops. An idea long persisted among hop-growers that nitrate of + soda was an unsafe manure for hops, being likely to produce rank + growth of bine at the expense of quality and even quantity of hops. + During recent years, however, owing very largely to the results of + these experiments, and of corresponding experiments based upon these, + which have been carried out abroad, hop farmers have much more freely + availed themselves of the aid of this useful manure; and there is + little doubt that the distrust of nitrate of soda as a hop manure + which has existed in the past has been largely due to the fact that + nitrate of soda, like many other nitrogenous manures, has often been + misused (1) by being applied without a sufficient quantity of + phosphates and potash, or (2) by being applied too abundantly, or (3) + by being applied too late in the season, with the result of unduly + delaying the ripening period. On most of the experimental plots + nitrate of soda (in conjunction with phosphates and potash) has been + used as the sole source of nitrogen; but it is, of course, not be to + supposed that any hop-grower would use year after year, as is the case + on some of the plots, nothing but phosphates, potash and nitrate of + soda. Miscellaneous feeding is probably good for plants as well as for + animals, and there is a large variety of nitrogenous manures at the + disposal of the hop-farmer, to say nothing of what, in its place, is + one of the most valuable of all manures, namely, home-made dung. These + experiments were begun in 1894 with a new garden of young Fuggle's + hops. A series of experimental plots was marked out, each plot being + one-sixth of an acre in area. The plots run parallel with one another, + there being four rows of hills in each. The climate of the district is + very dry. + + _Weight of Kiln-dried Fuggle's Hops per Acre._ + + +-----+-------------------------+----+----+----+----+----+-------+ + | | | | | | | |Average| + |Plot.|Annual Manuring per Acre.|1896|1897|1898|1899|1900| of 5 | + | | | | | | | | Years.| + +-----+-------------------------+----+----+----+----+----+-------+ + | | |Cwt.|Cwt.|Cwt.|Cwt.|Cwt.| Cwt. | + | A |Phosphates and potash |13½ | 7½ | 8¼ |20¼ | 8 | 11½ | + | B |Phosphates, potash and | | | | | | | + | | 2 cwt. nitrate of soda |16½ | 9¼ |10¼ |22¼ | 9¾ | 13½ | + | C |Phosphates, potash and | | | | | | | + | | 4 cwt. nitrate of soda |16½ |12 |12½ |23 |11 | 15 | + | D |Phosphates, potash and | | | | | | | + | | 6 cwt. nitrate of soda |15¼ |13 |13 |22½ |10½ | 14¾ | + | E |Phosphates, potash and | | | | | | | + | | 8 cwt. nitrate of soda |15 |13½ |15¼ |23½ |11 | 15½ | + | F |Phosphates, potash and | | | | | | | + | | 10 cwt. nitrate of soda |15 |13 |15 |24½ |10½ | 15¾ | + | X |30 loads (about 15 tons) | | | | | | | + | | London dung |13 | 8 | 9¾ |24½ |10¾ | 13¾ | + +-----+-------------------------+----+----+----+----+----+-------+ + + The table given above shows the annual yield of hops per acre on each + plot, and also the average for each plot over the five years + 1896-1900. + + The general results seem to show that the purchase of town dung for + hops is not economical, unless under specially favourable terms as to + cost of conveyance, and that it should certainly not be relied upon as + a sufficient manure. Home-made dung is in quite a different position, + as not only is it richer, but it costs nothing for railway carriage. + As a source of nitrogenous manure, purchased dung is on the whole too + expensive. There is a large variety of other nitrogenous manures in + the market besides nitrate of soda, such, for instance as Peruvian and + Damaraland guano, sulphate of ammonia, fish guano, dried blood, rape + dust, furriers' refuse, horn shavings, hoof parings, wool dust, + shoddy, &c. All of these may in turn be used for helping to maintain a + stock of nitrogen in the soil; and the degree to which manures of this + kind have been recently applied in any hop garden will influence the + grower in deciding as to the quantity of nitrate of soda he should use + in conjunction with them, and also to some extent in fixing the date + of its application. + + Dressings of 8 or 10 cwt. of nitrate of soda per acre, such as are + applied annually to plots E and F, would be larger than would be put + on where the land has been already dressed with dung or with other + nitrogenous manures; and even, in the circumstances under notice, + although these plots have on the average beaten the others in weight, + the hops in some seasons have been distinctly coarser than those more + moderately manured--though in the dry season of 1899 the most heavily + dressed plot gave actually the best quality as well as the greatest + quantity of produce. + + With regard to the application of nitrate of soda in case the season + should turn out to be wet, present experience indicates that, on a + soil otherwise liberally manured, 4 cwt. of nitrate of soda per acre + applied not too late, would be a thoroughly safe dressing. In the + case of neither dung nor any other nitrogenous fertilizers having been + recently applied, there seems no reason for supposing that, even in a + wet season, 6 cwt. of nitrate of soda per acre applied early would be + otherwise than a safe dressing, considering both quantity and quality + of produce. In conjunction with dung, or with the early use of other + nitrogenous manures, such as fish, guano, rape dust, &c. it would + probably be wise not to exceed 4 cwt. of nitrate of soda per acre. + + As to the date of application, April or May is the latest time at + which nitrate of soda should, in most circumstances, be applied, and + probably April is preferable to May. The quantity used should be + applied in separate dressings of not more than 2 cwt. per acre each, + put on at intervals of a month. Where the quantity of nitrate of soda + used is large, and constitutes the whole of the nitrogenous manure + employed, the first dressing may, on fairly deep and retentive soils, + be given as early as January; or, if the quantity used is smaller, say + in February; while February will, in most cases, probably be early + enough for the first dressing in the case of lighter soils. The + condition of the soil and the degree and distribution of rainfall + during both the previous autumn and the winter, as well as in the + spring itself, produce such varying conditions that it is almost + impossible to frame general rules. + + The commonly accepted notion that nitrate of soda is a manure which + should be reserved for use during the later period of the growth of + the bine appears to be erroneous. The summer months, when the growth + of the bine is most active, are the months in which natural + nitrification is going on in the soil, converting soil nitrogen and + the nitrogen of dung, guano, fish, rape dust, shoddy or other + fertilizers into nitrates, and placing this nitrogen at the disposal + of the plants; and it appears reasonable, therefore, to suppose that + nitrate of soda will be most useful to the hops at the earlier stages + of their growth, before the products of that nitrification become + abundant. This would especially be so in a season immediately + following a wet autumn and winter, which have the effect of washing + away into the drains the residual nitrates not utilized by the + previous crop. + + The necessity, whether dung is used or not, and whatever form of + nitrogenous manure is employed, of also supplying the hops with an + abundance of phosphates, cannot be too strongly urged. The use of + phosphates for hops was long neglected by hop-planters, and even now + there are many growers who do not realize the full importance of heavy + phosphatic manuring. On soils containing an abundance of lime no + better or cheaper phosphatic manure can be used than ordinary + superphosphate, of which as much as 10 cwt. per acre may be applied + without the slightest fear of harm. But if the soil is not decidedly + calcareous--that is to say, if it does not effervesce when it is + stirred up with some diluted hydrochloric (muriatic) acid--bone dust, + phosphatic guano or basic slag should be used as a source of + phosphates, at the rate of not less than 10 cwt. per acre. On medium + soils, which, without being distinctly calcareous, nevertheless + contain a just appreciable quantity of carbonate of lime, it is + probably a good plan to use the latter class of manures, alternately + with superphosphate, year and year about; but it is wise policy to use + phosphates _in some form or other_ every year in every hop garden. + They are inexpensive, and without them neither dung, nitrate of soda, + ammonia salts nor organic manures can be expected to produce both a + full vigorous growth of bine and at the same time a well-matured crop + of full-weighted, well-conditioned hops. + + The use of potash salts, on most soils, is probably not needed when + good dung is freely used; but where this is not the case it is safer + in most seasons and on most soils to give a dressing of potash salts. + On some soils their aid should on no account be dispensed with. + + Experiments in hop-manuring have also been conducted in connexion with + the South-Eastern Agricultural College, Wye, Kent. The main results + have been to demonstrate the necessity of a liberal supply of + phosphates, if the full benefit is to be reaped from applications of + nitrogenous manure. + +_Tying, Poling and Picking._--Tying the bines to the poles or strings is +essentially women's work. It was formerly always piecework, each woman +taking so many acres to tie, but it is found better to pay the women 1s. +8d. to 2s. per day, that they may all work together, and tie the plants +in those grounds where they want tying at once. The new modes of poling +and training hop plants have also altered the conditions of tying. + +Many improvements have been made in the methods of poling and training +hops. Formerly two or three poles were placed to each hop-hill or +plant-centre in the spring, and removed in the winter, and this was the +only mode of training. Recently systems of training on wires and strings +fastened to permanent upright poles have been introduced. One +arrangement of wires and strings much adopted consists of stout posts +set at the end of every row of hop-hills and fastened with stays to keep +them in place. At intervals in each row a thick pole is fixed. From post +to post in the rows a wire is stretched at a height of ½ ft. from the +ground, another about 6 ft. from the ground, and another along the tops +of the posts, so that there are three wires. Hooks are clipped on these +wires at regular intervals, and coco-nut-fibre strings are threaded on +them and fastened from wire to wire, and from post to post, to receive +the hop bines. The string is threaded on the hooks continuously, and is +put on those of the top wire with a machine called a stringer. There are +several methods of training hops with posts or stout poles, wire and +string, whose first cost varies from £20 to £40 per acre. The system is +cheaper in the long run than that of taking down the poles every year, +and the wind does not blow down the poles or injure the hops by banging +the poles together. In another method, extensively made use of in Kent +and Sussex, stout posts are placed at the ends of each row of plants, +and, at intervals where requisite, wires are fastened from top to top +only of these posts, whilst coco-nut-fibre strings are fixed by pegs to +the ground, close to each hop-stock, whence they radiate upwards for +attachment to the wires stretching between the tops of the posts. This +method is more simple and less expensive than the system first +described, its cost being from £24 to £28 per acre. In this case the +plants require to be well "lewed," or sheltered, as the strings being so +light are blown about by the wind. These methods are being largely +adopted, and, together with the practice of putting coco-nut-fibre +strings from pole to pole in grounds poled in the old-fashioned manner, +are important improvements in hop culture, which have tended to increase +the production of hops. Where the old system of poling with two or three +poles is still adhered to they are always creosoted, most growers having +tanks for the purpose; and, in the new methods of poling, the posts and +poles are creosoted, dipped or kyanized. + +At Wye College, Kent, different systems of planting and training have +been tried, the alleys varying in width from 10 ft. down to 5 ft., and +the distance between the hills varying quite as widely, so that the +number of hills to the acre has ranged from 1210 down to 660. The +biggest crop was secured on the plot where hills were 8 ft. apart each +way. As a rule, indeed, a wide alley and abundant space between the +plants, thus allowing the hops plenty of air and light, produced the +best results, besides effecting some saving in the cost of cultivation, +as there were only 660 or 680 hills per acre. Of the various methods of +training, the umbrella system gave the biggest crop in each of the three +years, 1899, 1900, 1901; and it seemed to be the best method, except in +seasons when washing was required early, in which case the plants were +not so readily cleared of vermin. + +Much attention is required to keep the bines in their places on the +poles, strings or wire, during the summer. This gives employment to many +women, for whose service in this and fruit-picking there is considerable +demand, and a woman has no trouble in earning from 1s. 6d. to 1s. 10d. +per day from April till September at pleasant and not very arduous +labour. The hop-picking follows, and at this women sometimes get 4s. and +even 5s. per day. This is the real Kent harvest, which formerly lasted a +month or five weeks. Now it rarely extends beyond eighteen days, as it +is important to secure the hops before the weather and the aphides, +which almost invariably swarm within the bracts of the cones, discolour +them and spoil their sale, as brewers insist upon having bright, +"coloury" hops. Picking is better done than was formerly the case. The +hops are picked more singly, and with comparatively few leaves, and the +pickers are of a somewhat better type than the rough hordes who formerly +went into Kent for "hopping." Kent planters engage their pickers +beforehand, and write to them, arranging the numbers required and the +date of picking. Many families go into Kent for pea- and fruit-picking +and remain for hop-picking. Without this great immigration of persons, +variously estimated at between 45,000 and 65,000, the crops of hops +could not be picked; and fruit-farmers also would be unable to get their +soft fruit gathered in time without the help of immigrant hands. The +fruit-growers and hop-planters of Kent have greatly improved the +accommodation for these immigrants. + +Concerning the general question as to the advisability or otherwise of +cutting the hop bine at the time of picking, A.D. Hall has ascertained +experimentally that if the bine is cut close to the ground at a time +when the whole plant is unripe there are removed in the bine and leaves +considerable quantities of nitrogen, potash and phosphoric acid which +would have returned to the roots if the bine had not been cut until +ripe. The plant, therefore, would retain a substantial store of these +constituents for the following year's growth if the bine were left. +Chemical analyses have shown that about 30 lb. of nitrogen per acre may +be saved by allowing the bines to remain uncut, this representing +practically one-third of the total amount of nitrogen in the hops, leaf +and bine together. There are also from 25 lb. to 30 lb. of potash in the +growth, of which nine-tenths would return to the roots, with about half +the phosphoric acid and a very small proportion of the lime. It has been +demonstrated that by the practice of cutting the bines when the hops are +picked the succeeding crop is lessened to the extent of about one-tenth. +As to stripping off the leaves and lower branches of the plant, it was +found that this operation once reduced the crop 10% and once 20%, but +that in the year 1899 it did not affect the crop at all. The inference +appears to be that when there is a good crop it is not reduced by +stripping, but that when there is less vigour in the plant it suffers +the more. Hence, it would seem advisable to study the plant itself in +connexion with this matter, and to strip a little later, or somewhat +less, than usual when the bine is not healthy. + +_Drying._--After being picked, the hops are taken in pokes--long sacks +holding ten bushels--to the oasts to be dried. The oasts are circular or +square kilns, or groups of kilns, wherein the green hops are laid upon +floors covered with horsehair, under which are enclosed or open stoves +or furnaces. The heat from these is evenly distributed among the hops +above by draughts below and round them. This is the usual simple +arrangement, but patent processes are adopted here and there, though +they are by no means general. The hops are from nine to ten hours +drying, after which they are taken off the kiln and allowed to cool +somewhat, and are then packed tightly into "pockets" 6 ft. long and 2 +ft. wide, weighing 1½ cwt., by means of a hop-pressing machine, which +has cogs and wheels worked by hand. Of late years more care has been +bestowed by some of the leading growers upon the drying of hops, so as +to preserve their qualities and volatile essences, and to meet the +altered requirements of brewers, who must have bright, well-managed hops +for the production of light clear beers for quick draught. The use, for +example, of exhaust fans, recently introduced, greatly facilitates +drying by drawing a large volume of air through the hops; and as the +temperature may at the same time be kept low, the risk of getting +overfired samples is considerably reduced, though not entirely obviated. +The adoption of the roller floor is another great advance in the process +of hop-drying, for this, used in conjunction with a raised platform for +the men to stand on when turning, prevents any damage from the feet of +the workmen, and reduces the loss of resin to a minimum. The best +results are obtained when exhaust fans and the roller floor are +associated together. In such cases the roller floor, which empties its +load automatically, pours the hop cones into the receiving sheets in +usually as whole and unbroken a condition as that in which they went on +to the kiln. + + _Pests of the Hop Crop._--In recent years the difficulties attendant + upon hop cultivation have been aggravated, and the expenses increased, + by regularly recurring attacks of aphis blight--due to the insect + _Aphis (Phorodon) humuli_--which render it necessary to spray or + syringe every hop plant, every branch and leaf, with insecticidal + solutions three or four times, and sometimes more often, in each + season. Quassia and soft-soap solutions are usually employed; they + contain from 4 lb. to 8 lb. of soft soap, and the extract of from 8 + lb. to 10 lb. of quassia chips to 100 gallons of water. The soft soap + serves as a vehicle to retain the bitterness of the quassia upon the + bines and leaves, making them repulsive to the aphides, which are thus + starved out. Another pest, the red spider, _Tetranychus + telarius_--really one of the "spinning mites"--is most destructive in + very hot summers. Congregating on the under surfaces of the leaves, + the red spiders exhaust the sap and cause the leaves to fall, + producing the effect known in Germany as "fire-blast." The hop-wash of + soft soap and quassia, so effective against aphis attack, is of little + avail in the case of red spider. Some success, however, has attended + the use of a solution containing 8 lb. to 10 lb. of soft soap to 100 + gallons of water, with three pints of paraffin added. It is necessary + to apply the washes with great force, in order to break through the + webs with which the spiders protect themselves. Hop-washing is done by + means of large garden engines worked by hand, but more frequently with + horse engines. Resort is sometimes had to steam engines, which force + the spraying solution along pipes laid between the rows of hops. + + Mould or mildew is frequently the source of much loss to hop-planters. + It is due to the action of the fungus _Podosphaera castagnei_, and the + mischief is more especially that done to the cones. The only + trustworthy remedy is sulphur, employed usually in the form of flowers + of sulphur, from 40 lb. to 60 lb. per acre being applied at each + sulphuring. The powder is distributed by means of a machine drawn by a + horse between the rows. The sulphur is fed from a hopper into a + blast-pipe, whence it is driven by a fan actuated by the travelling + wheels, and falls as a dense, wide-spreading cloud upon the hop-bines. + The first sulphuring takes place when the plants are fairly up the + poles, and is repeated three or four weeks later; and even again if + indications of mildew are present. It may be added that sulphur is + also successfully employed in the form of an alkaline sulphide, such + as solution of "liver of sulphur," a variety of potassium sulphide. + (W. Fr.) + + +FOOTNOTES: + + [1] See _Report from the Select Committee on the Hop Industry_ + (London, 1908). + + [2] _Jour. Roy. Agric. Soc_., 1899. + + [3] J. Percival, "The Hop and its English Varieties," _Jour. Roy. + Agric. Soc._, 1901. + + [4] _Six Years' Experiments on Hop Manuring_ (London, 1901). + + + + +HOPE, ANTHONY, the pen-name of ANTHONY HOPE HAWKINS (1863- ), British +novelist, who was born on the 9th of February 1863, the second son of +the Rev. E. C. Hawkins, Vicar of St Bride's, Fleet Street, London. He +was educated at Marlborough and Balliol College, Oxford, where he was +president of the Union Society, and graduated with first classes in +Moderations and Final Schools. He was called to the bar at the Middle +Temple in 1877. He soon began contributing stories and sketches to the +_St James's Gazette_, and in 1890 published his first novel, _A Man of +Mark_. This was followed by _Father Stafford_ (1891), _Mr Witt's Widow_ +(1892), _Change of Air_ and _Sport Royal and Other Stories_ (1893). By +this time he had attracted by his vivacious talent the attention of +editors and readers; but it was not till the following year that he +attained a great popular success with the publication (May 1894) of _The +Prisoner of Zenda_. This was followed a few weeks later by _The Dolly +Dialogues_ (previously published in separate instalments in the +_Westminster Gazette_). Both books became parents of a numerous progeny. +_The Prisoner of Zenda_, owing something to the _Prince Otto_ of R. L. +Stevenson, established a fashion for what was christened, after its +fictitious locality, "Ruritanian romance"; while the _Dolly Dialogues_, +inspired possibly by "Gyp" and other French dialogue writers, was the +forerunner of a whole school of epigrammatic drawing-room comedy. _The +Prisoner of Zenda_, with Mr Alexander as "Rupert Rassendyll," enjoyed a +further success in a dramatized form at the St James's Theatre, which +did still more to popularize the author's fame. In 1894 also appeared +_The God in the Car_, a novel suggested by the ambiguous influence on +English society of Cecil Rhodes's career; and _Half a Hero_, a +complementary study of Australian politics. The same year saw further +the publication of _The Indiscretion of the Duchess_, in the style of +the _Dolly Dialogues_, and of another collection of stories named (after +the first) _The Secret of Wardale Court_. In 1895 Mr Hawkins published +_Count Antonio_, and contributed to _Dialogues of the Day_, edited by Mr +Oswald Crawfurd. _Comedies of Courtship_ and _The Heart of the Princess +Osra_ followed in 1896; _Phroso_ in 1897; _Simon Dale_ and _Rupert of +Hentzau_ (sequel of the _Prisoner of Zenda_) 1898; and _The King's +Mirror_, a Ruritanian romance with an infusion of serious psychological +interest, 1899. The author was advancing from his light comedy and +gallant romantic inventions to the graver kind of fiction of which _The +God in the Car_ had been an earlier essay. _Quisante_, published in +1900, was a study of English society face to face with a political +genius of an alien type. _Tristram of Blent_ (1901) embodied an ethical +study of family pride. _The Intrusions of Peggy_ reflected the effects +on society of recent financial fashions. In 1904 he published _Double +Harness_, and in 1905 _A Servant of the Public_, two novels of modern +society, containing somewhat cynical pictures of the condition of +marriage. With increasing gravity the novelist sacrificed some of the +charm of his earlier irresponsible gaiety and buoyancy; but his art +retained its wit and urbanity while it gained in grip of the social +conditions of contemporary life. He wrote two plays, _The Adventure of +Lady Ursula_ (1898) and _Pilkerton's Peerage_ (1902), and his later +novels include _The Great Miss Driver_ (1908) and _Second String_ +(1909). Mr Hawkins's attractive and cultured style and command of plot +give him a high place among the modern writers of English fiction. In +1903 he married Miss Elizabeth Somerville Sheldon of New York. + + + + +HOPE, THOMAS (c. 1770-1831), English art-collector, and author of +_Anastasius_, born in London about 1770, was the eldest son of John Hope +of Amsterdam, and was descended from a branch of an old Scottish family +who for several generations were extensive merchants in London and +Amsterdam. About the age of eighteen he started on a tour through +various parts of Europe, Asia and Africa, where he interested himself +especially in architecture and sculpture, making a large collection of +the principal objects which attracted his attention. On his return to +London about 1796 he purchased a house in Duchess Street, Cavendish +Square, which he fitted up in a very elaborate style, from drawings made +by himself. In 1807 he published sketches of his furniture, accompanied +by letterpress, in a folio volume, entitled _Household Furniture and +Interior Decoration_, which had considerable influence in effecting a +change in the upholstery and interior decoration of houses, +notwithstanding that Byron had referred scornfully to him as +"House-furnisher withal, one Thomas hight." Hope's furniture designs +were in that pseudo-classical manner which is generally called "English +Empire." It was sometimes extravagant, and often heavy, but was much +more restrained than the wilder and later flights of Sheraton in this +style. At the best, however, it was a not very inspiring mixture of +Egyptian and Roman motives. In 1809 he published the _Costumes of the +Ancients_, and in 1812 _Designs of Modern Costumes_, works which display +a large amount of antiquarian research. He was also, as his father had +been--the elder Hope's country house near Haarlem was crowded with fine +pictures--a munificent patron of the highest forms of art, and both at +his London house and his country seat at Deepdene near Dorking he formed +large collections of paintings, sculpture and antiques. Deepdene in his +day became a famous resort of men of letters as well as of people of +fashion, and among the luxuries suggested by his fine taste was a +miniature library in several languages in each bedroom. Thorvaldsen, the +Danish sculptor, was indebted to him for the early recognition of his +talents, and he also gave frequent employment to Chantrey and +Flaxman--it was to his order that the latter illustrated Dante. In 1819 +he published anonymously his novel _Anastasius, or Memoirs of a Modern +Greek, written at the close of the 18th century_, a work which, chiefly +on account of the novel character of its subject, caused a great +sensation. It was at first generally attributed to Lord Byron, who told +Lady Blessington that he wept bitterly on reading it because he had not +written it and Hope had. But, though remarkable for the acquaintance it +displays with Eastern life, and distinguished by considerable +imaginative vigour and much graphic and picturesque description, its +paradoxes are not so striking as those of Lord Byron; and, +notwithstanding some eloquent and forcible passages, the only reason +which warranted its ascription to him was the general type of character +to which its hero belonged. Hope died on the 3rd of February 1831. He +was the author of two works published posthumously--the _Origin and +Prospects of Man_ (1831), in which his speculations diverged widely from +the usual orthodox opinions, and an _Historical Essay on Architecture_ +(1835), an elaborate description of the architecture of the middle ages, +illustrated by drawings made by himself in Italy and Germany. He is +commonly known in literature as "Anastasius" Hope. He married (1806) +Louisa de la Poer Beresford, daughter of Lord Decies, archbishop of +Tuam. + + + + +HOPEDALE, a township of Worcester county, Massachusetts, U.S.A.; pop. +(1905; state census) 2048; (1910) 2188. It is served by the Milford & +Uxbridge (electric) street railway, and (for freight) by the Grafton & +Upton railway. The town lies in the "dale" between Milford and Mendon, +and is cut from N.W. to S.E. by the Mill river, which furnishes good +water power at its falls. The principal manufactures are textiles, +boots and shoes, and, of most importance, cotton machinery. The great +cotton machinery factories here are owned by the Draper Company. +Hopedale has a public park on the site of the Ballou homestead, with a +bronze statue of Adin Ballou; a memorial church erected by George A. and +Eben S. Draper; the Bancroft Memorial Library, given by Joseph B. +Bancroft in memory of his wife; and a marble drinking fountain with +statuary by Waldo Story, the gift of Susan Preston Draper, General W. F. +Draper's wife. The village is remarkable for the comfortable cottages of +the workers. + +The history of Hopedale centres round the Rev. Adin Ballou (1803-1890), +a distant relative of Hosea Ballou;[1] he left, in succession, the +ministry of the Christian Connexion (1823) and that of the Universalist +Church (1831), because of his restorationist views. In 1831 he became +pastor of an independent church in Mendon. An ardent exponent of +temperance, the anti-slavery movement, woman's rights, the peace cause +and Christian non-resistance (even through the Civil War), and of +"Practical Christian Socialism," it was in the interests of the last +cause that he founded Hopedale, or "Fraternal Community No. 1," in +Milford, in April 1842, the first compact of the community having been +drawn up in January 1841. Thirty persons joined with him, and lived in a +single house on a poor farm of 258 acres, purchased in June 1841. Ballou +was for several years the president of the community, which was run on +the plan that all should have an equal voice as to the use of property, +in spite of the fact that there was individual holding of property. The +community, however, owned the instruments of production, with the single +exception of the important patent rights held by Ebenezer D. Draper. The +result was bickerings between those who were joint stockholders and +those whose only profit came from their manual labour. In a short time +the control of the community came into the hands of its richest members, +E. D. Draper and his brother, George Draper (1817-1887), who owned +three-fourths of the joint stock. In 1856 there was a total deficit of +about $12,000. The Draper brothers bought up the joint stock of the +community at par and paid its debts, and the community soon ceased to +exist save as a religious society. After George Draper's death the +control of the mills passed to his sons. These included General William +Franklin Draper (1842-1910), a Republican representative in Congress in +1892-1897 and U.S. ambassador to Italy in 1897-1900, and Eben Sumner +Draper (b. 1858), lieutenant-governor of Massachusetts in 1906-1908 and +governor in 1909-1911. In 1867 the community was merged with Hopedale +parish, a Unitarian organization. Hopedale was separated from Milford +and incorporated as a township in 1886. + + See Adin Ballou's _History of Milford_ (Boston, 1882), his _History of + the Hopedale Community_, edited by William S. Heywood (Lowell, 1897), + his _Biography_ by the same editor (Lowell, 1896) and his _Practical + and Christian Socialism_ (Hopedale, 1854); George L. Carey, "Adin + Ballou and the Hopedale Community" (in the _New World_, vol. vii., + 1898); Lewis G. Wilson, "Hopedale and Its Founder" (in _The New + England Magazine_, vol. x., 1891); and William F. Draper, + _Recollections of a Varied Career_ (Boston, 1908). + + +FOOTNOTE: + + [1] Adin Ballou wrote _An Elaborate History and Genealogy of the + Ballous in America_ (Providence, R.I., 1888). + + + + +HOPE-SCOTT, JAMES ROBERT (1812-1873), English barrister and Tractarian, +was born on the 15th of July 1812, at Great Marlow, Berkshire, the third +Son of Sir Alexander Hope, and grandson of the second earl of Hopetoun. +He was educated at Eton and Oxford, where he was a contemporary and +friend of Gladstone and J. H. Newman, and in 1838 was called to the bar. +Between 1840 and 1843 he helped to found Trinity College, Glenalmond. He +was one of the leaders of the Tractarian movement and entirely in +Newman's confidence. In 1851 he was received with Manning into the Roman +Catholic church. At this time he was making a very large income at the +Parliamentary bar. He only commenced serious practice in this branch of +his profession in 1843, but by the end of 1845 he stood at the head of +it and in 1849 was made a Queen's Counsel. In 1847 he married Miss +Lockhart, granddaughter of Sir Walter Scott, and on her coming into +possession of Abbotsford six years later, assumed the surname of +Hope-Scott. He retired from the bar in 1870 and died on the 29th of +April 1873. + + + + +HOPFEN, HANS VON (1835-1904), German poet and novelist, was born on the +3rd of January 1835, at Munich. He studied law, and in 1858, having +shown marked poetical promise, he was received into the circle of young +poets whom King Maximilian II. had gathered round him, and thereafter +devoted himself to literature. In 1862 he made his debut as an author, +with _Lieder und Balladen_, which were published in the _Münchener +Dichterbuch_, edited by E. Geibel. After travelling in Italy (1862), +France (1863) and Austria (1864), he was appointed, in 1865, general +secretary of the "Schillerstiftung," and in this capacity settled at +Vienna. The following year, however, he removed to Berlin, in a suburb +of which, Lichterfelde, he died on the 19th of November 1904. Of +Hopfen's lyric poems, _Gedichte_ (4th ed., Berlin, 1883), many are of +considerable talent and originality; but it is as a novelist that he is +best known. The novels _Peregretta_ (1864); _Verdorben zu Paris_ (1868, +new ed. 1892); _Arge Sitten_ (1869); _Der graue Freund_ (1874, 2nd ed., +1876); and _Verfehlte Liebe_ (1876, 2nd ed., 1879) are attractive, while +of his shorter stories _Tiroler Geschichten_ (1884-1885) command most +favour. + + An autobiographical sketch of Hopfen is contained in K. E. Franzos, + _Geschichte des Erstlingswerkes_ (1904). + + + + +HOPI, or MOKI (_Moquis_), a tribe of North American Indians of +Shoshonean stock. They are Pueblo or town-building Indians and occupy +seven villages on three lofty plateaus of northern Arizona. The first +accounts of them date from the expedition of Francisco Vasquez de +Coronado in 1540. With the town-building Indians of New Mexico they were +then subdued. They shared in the successful revolt of 1542, but again +suffered defeat in 1586. In 1680, however, they made a successful revolt +against the Spaniards. They weave very fine blankets, make baskets and +are expert potters and wood-carvers. Their houses are built of stone set +in mortar. Their ceremonies are of an elaborate nature, and in the +famous "snake-dance" the performers carry live rattlesnakes in their +mouths. They number some 1600. (See also PUEBLO INDIANS.) + + For Hopi festivals, see _21st Ann. Report Bureau of Amer. Ethnology_ + (1899-1900). + + + + +HÖPKEN, ANDERS JOHAN, COUNT VON (1712-1789), Swedish statesman, was the +son of Daniel Niklas Höpken, one of Arvid Horn's most determined +opponents and a founder of the Hat party. When in 1738 the Hats came +into power the younger Höpken obtained a seat in the secret committee of +the diet, and during the Finnish war of 1741-42 was one of the two +commissioners appointed to negotiate with Russia. During the diet of +1746-1747 Höpken's influence was of the greatest importance. It was +chiefly through his efforts that the estates issued a "national +declaration" protesting against the arrogant attitude of the Russian +ambassador, who attempted to dominate the crown prince Adolphus +Frederick and the government. This spirited policy restored the waning +prestige of the Hat party and firmly established their anti-Muscovite +system. In 1746 Höpken was created a senator. In 1751 he succeeded +Gustaf Tessin as prime minister, and controlled the foreign policy of +Sweden for the next nine years. On the outbreak of the Seven Years' War, +he contracted an armed neutrality treaty with Denmark (1756); but in the +following year acceded to the league against Frederick II. of Prussia. +During the crisis of 1760-1762, when the Hats were at last compelled to +give an account of their stewardship, Höpken was sacrificed to party +exigencies and retired from the senate as well as from the premiership. +On the 22nd of June 1762, however, he was created a count. After the +revolution of 1772 he re-entered the senate at the particular request of +Gustavus III., but no longer exercised any political influence. His +caustic criticism of many of the royal measures, moreover, gave great +offence, and in 1780 he retired into private life. Höpken was a +distinguished author. The noble style of his biographies and orations +has earned for him the title of the Swedish Tacitus. He helped to found +the _Vetenskaps Akademi_, and when Gustavus III. in 1786 established +the Swedish Academy, he gave Höpken the first place in it. + + See L. G. de Geer, _Minne af Grefve A. J. von Höpken_ (Stockholm, + 1882); Carl Silfverstolpe, _Grefve Höpkens Skrifter_ (Stockholm, + 1890-1893). (R. N. B.) + + + + +HOPKINS, EDWARD WASHBURN (1857- ), American Sanskrit scholar, was born +in Northampton, Massachusetts, on the 8th of September 1857. He +graduated at Columbia University in 1878, studied at Leipzig, where he +received the degree of Ph.D. in 1881, was an instructor at Columbia in +1881-1885, and professor at Bryn Mawr in 1885-1895, and became professor +of Sanskrit and comparative philology in Yale University in 1895. He +became secretary of the American Oriental Society and editor of its +_Journal_, to which he contributed many valuable papers, especially on +numerical and temporal categories in early Sanskrit literature. He wrote +_Caste in Ancient India_ (1881); _Manu's Lawbook_ (1884); _Religions of +India_ (1895); _The Great Epic of India_ (1901); and _India Old and New_ +(1901). + + + + +HOPKINS, ESEK (1718-1802), the first admiral of the United States navy, +was born at Scituate, Rhode Island, in 1718. He belonged to one of the +most prominent Puritan families of New England. At the age of twenty he +went to sea, and rapidly came to the front as a good sailor and skilful +trader. Marrying, three years later, into a prosperous family of +Newport, and thus increasing his influence in Rhode Island, he became +commodore of a fleet of seventeen merchantmen, the movements of which he +directed with skill and energy. In war as well as peace, Hopkins was +establishing his reputation as one of the leading colonial seamen, for +as captain of a privateer he made more than one brilliant and successful +venture during the Seven Years' War. In the interval between voyages, +moreover, he was engaged in Rhode Island politics, and rendered +efficient support to his brother Stephen against the Ward faction. At +the outbreak of the War of Independence, Hopkins was appointed +brigadier-general by Rhode Island, was commissioned, December 1775, by +the Continental Congress, commander-in-chief of the navy, and in January +1776 hoisted his flag as admiral of the eight converted merchantmen +which then constituted the navy of the United States. His first cruise +resulted in a great acquisition of material of war and an indecisive +fight with H.M.S. "Glasgow." At first this created great enthusiasm, but +criticism soon made itself heard. Hopkins and two of his captains were +tried for breach of orders, and, though ably defended by John Adams, +were censured by Congress. The commands, nevertheless, were not +interfered with, and a prize was soon afterwards named after the admiral +by their orders. But the difficulties and mutual distrust continually +increased, and in 1777 Congress summarily dismissed Hopkins from his +command, on the complaint of some of his officers. Before the order +arrived, the admiral had detected the conspiracy against him, and had +had the ringleaders tried and degraded by court-martial. But the +Congress followed up its order by dismissing him from the navy. For the +rest of his life he lived in Rhode Island, playing a prominent part in +state politics, and he died at Providence in 1802. + + See Edward Field, _Life of Esek Hopkins_ (Providence, 1898); also an + article by R. Grieve in the _New England Magazine_ of November 1897. + + + + +HOPKINS, MARK (1802-1887), American educationist, great-nephew of the +theologian Samuel Hopkins, was born in Stockbridge, Massachusetts, on +the 4th of February 1802. He graduated in 1824 at Williams College, +where he was a tutor in 1825-1827, and where in 1830, after having +graduated in the previous year at the Berkshire Medical College at +Pittsfield, he became professor of Moral Philosophy and Rhetoric. In +1833 he was licensed to preach in Congregational churches. He was +president of Williams College from 1836 until 1872. He was one of the +ablest and most successful of the old type of college president. His +volume of lectures on _Evidences of Christianity_ (1846) was long a +favourite text-book. Of his other writings, the chief were _Lectures on +Moral Science_ (1862), _The Law of Love and Love as a Law_ (1869), _An +Outline Study of Man_ (1873), _The Scriptural Idea of Man_ (1883), and +_Teachings and Counsels_ (1884). Dr Hopkins took a lifelong interest in +Christian missions, and from 1857 until his death was president of the +American Board of Commissioners for Foreign Missions (the American +Congregational Mission Board). He died at Williamstown, on the 17th of +June 1887. His son, HENRY HOPKINS (1837-1908), was also from 1903 till +his death president of Williams College. + + See Franklin Carter's _Mark Hopkins_ (Boston, 1892), in the "American + Religious Leaders" series, and Leverett W. Spring's _Mark Hopkins, + Teacher_ (New York, 1888), being No. 4, vol. i., of the "Monographs of + the Industrial Educational Association." + +Mark Hopkins's brother, ALBERT HOPKINS (1807-1872), was long associated +with him at Williams College, where he graduated in 1826 and was +successively a tutor (1827-1829), professor of mathematics and natural +philosophy (1829-1838), professor of natural philosophy and astronomy +(1838-1868) and professor of astronomy (1868-1872). In 1835 he organized +and conducted a Natural History Expedition to Nova Scotia, said to have +been the first expedition of the kind sent out from any American +college, and in 1837, at his suggestion and under his direction, was +built at Williams College an astronomical observatory, said to have been +the first in the United States built at a college exclusively for +purposes of instruction. He died at Williamstown on the 24th of May +1872. + + See Albert C. Sewall's _Life of Professor Albert Hopkins_ (1879). + + + + +HOPKINS, SAMUEL (1721-1803), American theologian, from whom the +Hopkinsian theology takes its name, was born at Waterbury, Connecticut, +on the 17th of September 1721. He graduated at Yale College in 1741; +studied divinity at Northampton, Massachusetts, with Jonathan Edwards; +was licensed to preach in 1742, and in December 1743 was ordained pastor +of the church in the North Parish of Sheffield, or Housatonick (now +Great Barrington), Massachusetts, at that time a small settlement of +only thirty families. There he laboured--preaching, studying and +writing--until 1769, for part of the time (1751-1758) in intimate +association with his old teacher, Edwards, whose call to Stockbridge he +had been instrumental in procuring. His theological views having met +with much opposition, however, he was finally dismissed from the +pastorate on the pretext of want of funds for his support. From April +1770 until his death on the 20th of December 1803, he was the pastor of +the First Church in Newport, Rhode Island, though during 1776-1780, +while Newport was occupied by the British, he preached at Newburyport, +Mass., and at Canterbury and Stamford, Conn. In 1799 he had an attack of +paralysis, from which he never wholly recovered. Hopkins's theological +views have had a powerful influence in America. Personally he was +remarkable for force and energy of character, and for the utter +fearlessness with which he followed premises to their conclusions. In +vigour of intellect and in strength and purity of moral tone he was +hardly inferior to Edwards himself. Though he was originally a +slave-holder, to him belongs the honour of having been the first among +the Congregational ministers of New England to denounce slavery both by +voice and pen; and to his persistent though bitterly opposed efforts are +probably chiefly to be attributed the law of 1774, which forbade the +importation of negro slaves into Rhode Island, as also that of 1784, +which declared that all children of slaves born in Rhode Island after +the following March should be free. His training school for negro +missionaries to Africa was broken up by the confusion of the American +War of Independence. Among his publications are a valuable _Life and +Character of Jonathan Edwards_ (1799), and numerous pamphlets, addresses +and sermons, including _A Dialogue concerning the Slavery of the +Africans, showing it to be the Duty and Interest of the American States +to emancipate all their African Slaves_ (1776), and _A Discourse upon +the Slave Trade and the History of the Africans_ (1793). His distinctive +theological tenets are to be found in his important work, _A System of +Doctrines Contained in Divine Revelation, Explained and Defended_ +(1793), which has had an influence hardly inferior to that exercised by +the writings of Edwards himself. They may be summed up as follows: God +so rules the universe as to produce its highest happiness, considered as +a whole. Since God's sovereignty is absolute, sin must be, by divine +permission, a means by which this happiness of the whole is secured, +though that this is its consequence, renders it no less heinous in the +sinner. Virtue consists in preference for the good of the whole to any +private advantage; hence the really virtuous man must willingly accept +any disposition of himself that God may deem wise--a doctrine often +called "willingness to be damned." All have natural power to choose the +right, and are therefore responsible for their acts; but all men lack +inclination to choose the right unless the existing "bias" of their +wills is transformed by the power of God from self-seeking into an +effective inclination towards virtue. Hence preaching should demand +instant submission to God and disinterested goodwill, and should teach +the worthlessness of all religious acts or dispositions which are less +than these, while recognizing that God can grant or withhold the +regenerative change at his pleasure. + + The best edition of Hopkins's _Works_ is that published in three + volumes at Boston in 1852, containing an excellent biographical sketch + by Professor Edwards A. Park. In 1854 was published separately + Hopkins's _Treatise on the Millennium_, which originally appeared in + his _System of Doctrines_ and in which he deduced from prophecies in + _Daniel_ and _Revelation_ that the millennium would come "not far from + the end of the twentieth century." See also Stephen West's _Sketches + of the Life of the Late Reverend Samuel Hopkins_ (Hartford, Conn., + 1805), Franklin B. Dexter's _Biographical Sketches of the Graduates of + Yale College_ and Williston Walker's _Ten New England Leaders_ (New + York, 1901). (W. Wr.) + + + + +HOPKINS, WILLIAM (1793-1866), English mathematician and geologist, was +born at Kingston-on-Soar, in Nottinghamshire, on the 2nd of February +1793. In his youth he learned practical agriculture in Norfolk and +afterwards took an extensive farm in Suffolk. In this he was +unsuccessful. At the age of thirty he entered St Peter's College, +Cambridge, taking his degree of B.A. in 1827 as seventh wrangler and +M.A. in 1830. In 1833 he published _Elements of Trigonometry_. He was +distinguished for his mathematical knowledge, and became eminently +successful as a private tutor, many of his pupils attaining high +distinction. About 1833, through meeting Sedgwick at Barmouth and +joining him in several excursions, he became intensely interested in +geology. Thereafter, in papers published by the Cambridge Philosophical +Society and the Geological Society of London, he entered largely into +mathematical inquiries connected with geology, dealing with the effects +which an elevatory force acting from below would produce on a portion of +the earth's crust, in fissures, faults, &c. In this way he discussed the +elevation and denudation of the Lake district, the Wealden area, and the +Bas Boulonnais. He wrote also on the motion of glaciers and the +transport of erratic blocks. So ably had he grappled with many difficult +problems that in 1850 the Wollaston medal was awarded to him by the +Geological Society of London; and in the following year he was elected +president. In his second address (1853) he criticized Élie de Beaumont's +theory of the elevation of mountain-chains and showed the imperfect +evidence on which it rested. He brought before the Geological Society in +1851 an important paper _On the Causes which may have produced changes +in the Earth's superficial Temperature_. He was president of the British +Association for 1853. His later researches included observations on the +conductivity of various substances for heat, and on the effect of +pressure on the temperature of fusion of different bodies. He died at +Cambridge on the 13th of October 1866. + + Obituary by W. W. Smyth, in _Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc._ (1867), p. + xxix. + + + + +HOPKINSON, FRANCIS (1737-1791), American author and statesman, one of +the signers of the Declaration of Independence, was born in +Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, on the 2nd of October 1737. He was a son of +Thomas Hopkinson (1709-1751), a prominent lawyer of Philadelphia, one of +the first trustees of the College of Philadelphia, now the University of +Pennsylvania, and first president of the American Philosophical Society. +Francis was the first student to enter the College of Philadelphia. +from which he received his bachelor's degree in 1757 and his master's +degree in 1760. He then studied law in the office in Philadelphia of +Benjamin Chew, and was admitted to the bar in 1761. Removing after 1768 +to Bordentown, New Jersey, he became a member of the council of that +colony in 1774. On the approach of the War of Independence he identified +himself with the patriot or whig element in the colony, and in 1776 and +1777 he was a delegate to the Continental Congress. He served on the +committee appointed to frame the Articles of Confederation, executed, +with John Nixon (1733-1808) and John Wharton, the "business of the navy" +under the direction of the marine committee, and acted for a time as +treasurer of the Continental loan office. From 1779 to 1789 he was judge +of the court of admiralty in Pennsylvania, and from 1790 until his death +was United States district judge for that state. He was famous for his +versatility, and besides being a distinguished lawyer, jurist and +political leader, was "a mathematician, a chemist, a physicist, a +mechanician, an inventor, a musician and a composer of music, a man of +literary knowledge and practice, a writer of airy and dainty songs, a +clever artist with pencil and brush and a humorist of unmistakeable +power" (Tyler, _Literary History of the American Revolution_). It is as +a writer, however, that he will be remembered. He ranks as one of the +three leading satirists on the patriot side during the War of +Independence. His ballad, _The Battle of the Kegs_ (1778), was long +exceedingly popular. To alarm the British force at Philadelphia the +Americans floated kegs charged with gunpowder down the Delaware river +towards that city, and the British, alarmed for the safety of their +shipping, fired with cannon and small arms at everything they saw +floating in the river. Hopkinson's ballad is an imaginative expansion of +the actual facts. To the cause of the revolution this ballad, says +Professor Tyler, "was perhaps worth as much just then as the winning of +a considerable battle." Hopkinson's principal writings are _The Pretty +Story_ (1774), _A Prophecy_ (1776) and _The Political Catechism_ (1777). +Among his songs may be mentioned _The Treaty_ and _The New Roof, a Song +for Federal Mechanics_; and the best known of his satirical pieces are +_Typographical Method of conducting a Quarrel_, _Essay on White Washing_ +and _Modern Learning_. His _Miscellaneous Essays and Occasional +Writings_ were published at Philadelphia in 3 vols., 1792. + +His son, JOSEPH HOPKINSON (1770-1842), graduated at the University of +Pennsylvania in 1786, studied law, and was a Federalist member of the +national House of Representatives in 1815-1819, Federal judge of the +Eastern District of Pennsylvania from 1828 until his death, and a member +of the state constitutional convention of 1837. He is better known, +however, as the author of the patriotic anthem "Hail Columbia" (1798). + + + + +HOPKINSON, JOHN (1849-1898), English engineer and physicist, was born in +Manchester on the 27th of July 1849. Before he was sixteen he attended +lectures at Owens College, and at eighteen he gained a mathematical +scholarship at Trinity College, Cambridge, where he graduated in 1871 as +senior wrangler and first Smith's prizeman, having previously taken the +degree of D.Sc. at London University and won a Whitworth scholarship. +Although elected a fellow and tutor of his college, he stayed up at +Cambridge only for a very short time, preferring to learn practical +engineering as a pupil in the works in which his father was a partner. +But there his stay was equally short, for in 1872 he undertook the +duties of engineering manager in the glass manufactories of Messrs +Chance Brothers and Company at Birmingham. Six years later he removed to +London, and while continuing to act as scientific adviser to Messrs +Chance, established a most successful practice as a consulting engineer. +His work was mainly, though not exclusively, electrical, and his +services were in great demand as an expert witness in patent cases. In +1890 he was appointed director of the Siemens laboratory at King's +College, London, with the title of professor of electrical engineering. +His death occurred prematurely on the 27th of August 1898, when he was +killed, together with one son and two daughters, by an accident the +nature of which was never precisely ascertained, while climbing the +Petite Dent de Veisivi, above Evolena. Dr Hopkinson presented a rare +combination of practical with theoretical ability, and his achievements +in pure scientific research are not less intrinsically notable than the +skill with which he applied their results to the solution of concrete +engineering problems. His original work is contained in more than sixty +papers, all written with a complete mastery both of style and of +subject-matter. His name is best known in connexion with electricity and +magnetism. On the one hand he worked out the general theory of the +magnetic circuit in the dynamo (in conjunction with his brother Edward), +and the theory of alternating currents, and conducted a long series of +observations on the phenomena attending magnetization in iron, nickel +and the curious alloys of the two which can exist both in a magnetic and +non-magnetic state at the same temperature. On the other hand, by the +application of the principles he thus elucidated he furthered to an +immense extent the employment of electricity for the purposes of daily +life. As regards the generation of electric energy, by pointing out +defects of design in the dynamo as it existed about 1878, and showing +how important improvements were to be effected in its construction, he +was largely instrumental in converting it from a clumsy and wasteful +appliance into one of the most efficient known to the engineer. Again, +as regards the distribution of the current, he took a leading part in +the development of the three-wire system and the closed-circuit +transformer, while electric traction had to thank him for the +series-parallel method of working motors. During his residence in +Birmingham, Messrs Chance being makers of glass for use in lighthouse +lamps, his attention was naturally turned to problems of lighthouse +illumination, and he was able to devise improvements in both the +catoptric and dioptric methods for concentrating and directing the beam. +He was a strong advocate of the group-flashing system as a means of +differentiating lights, and invented an arrangement for carrying it into +effect optically, his plan being first adopted for the catoptric light +of the _Royal Sovereign_ lightship, in the English Channel off Beachy +Head. Moreover, his association with glass manufacture led him to study +the refractive indices of different kinds of glass; he further undertook +abstruse researches on electrostatic capacity, the phenomena of the +residual charge, and other problems arising out of Clerk Maxwell's +electro-magnetic theory. + + His original papers were collected and published, with a memoir by his + son, in 1901. + + + + +HOPKINSVILLE, a city and the county-seat of Christian county, Kentucky, +U.S.A., about 150 m. S.W. of Louisville. Pop. (1890) 5833; (1900) 7280 +(3243 negroes); (1910) 9419. The city is served by the Illinois Central +and the Louisville & Nashville railways. It is the seat of Bethel Female +College (Baptist, founded 1854), of South Kentucky College (Christian; +co-educational; chartered 1849) and of the Western Kentucky Asylum for +the Insane. The city's chief interest is in the tobacco industry; it has +also considerable trade in other agricultural products and in coal; and +its manufactures include carriages and wagons, bricks, lime, flour and +dressed lumber. When Christian county was formed from Logan county in +1797, Hopkinsville, formerly called Elizabethtown, became the +county-seat, and was renamed in honour of Samuel Hopkins (c. 1750-1819), +an officer of the Continental Army in the War of Independence, a pioneer +settler in Kentucky, and a representative in Congress from Kentucky in +1813-1815. In 1798 Hopkinsville was incorporated. + + + + +HOPPNER, JOHN (1758-1810), English portrait-painter, was born, it is +said, on the 4th of April 1758 at Whitechapel. His father was of German +extraction, and his mother was one of the German attendants at the royal +palace. Hoppner was consequently brought early under the notice and +received the patronage of George III., whose regard for him gave rise to +unfounded scandal. As a boy he was a chorister at the royal chapel, but +showing strong inclination for art, he in 1775 entered as a student at +the Royal Academy. In 1778 he took a silver medal for drawing from the +life, and in 1782 the Academy's highest award, the gold medal for +historical painting, his subject being King Lear. He first exhibited at +the Royal Academy in 1780. His earliest love was for landscape, but +necessity obliged him to turn to the more lucrative business of +portrait-painting. At once successful, he had, throughout life, the most +fashionable and wealthy sitters, and was the greatest rival of the +growing attraction of Lawrence. Ideal subjects were very rarely +attempted by Hoppner, though a "Sleeping Venus," "Belisarius," "Jupiter +and Io," a "Bacchante" and "Cupid and Psyche" are mentioned among his +works. The prince of Wales especially patronized him, and many of his +finest portraits are in the state apartments at St James's Palace, the +best perhaps being those of the prince, the duke and duchess of York, of +Lord Rodney and of Lord Nelson. Among his other sitters were Sir Walter +Scott, Wellington, Frere and Sir George Beaumont. Competent judges have +deemed his most successful works to be his portraits of women and +children. A _Series of Portraits of Ladies_ was published by him in +1803, and a volume of translations of Eastern tales into English verse +in 1805. The verse is of but mediocre quality. In his later years +Hoppner suffered from a chronic disease of the liver; he died on the +23rd of January 1810. He was confessedly an imitator of Reynolds. When +first painted, his works were much admired for the brilliancy and +harmony of their colouring, but the injury due to destructive mediums +and lapse of time which many of them suffered caused a great +depreciation in his reputation. The appearance, however, of some of his +pictures in good condition has shown that his fame as a brilliant +colourist was well founded. His drawing is faulty, but his touch has +qualities of breadth and freedom that give to his paintings a faint +reflection of the charm of Reynolds. Hoppner was a man of great social +power, and had the knowledge and accomplishments of a man of the world. + + The best account of Hoppner's life and paintings is the exhaustive + work by William McKay and W. Roberts (1909). + + + + +HOP-SCOTCH ("scotch," to score), an old English children's game in which +a small object, like a flat stone, is kicked by the player, while +hopping, from one division to another of an oblong space marked upon the +ground and divided into a number of divisions, usually 10 or 12. These +divisions are numbered, and the stone must rest successively in each. +Should it rest upon a line or go out of the division aimed for, the +player loses. In order to win a player must drive the stone into each +division and back to the starting-point. + + + + +HOPTON, RALPH HOPTON, BARON (1598-1652), Royalist commander in the +English Civil War, was the son of Robert Hopton of Witham, Somerset. He +appears to have been educated at Lincoln College, Oxford, and to have +served in the army of the Elector Palatine in the early campaigns of the +Thirty Years' War, and in 1624 he was lieutenant-colonel of a regiment +raised in England to serve in Mansfeld's army. Charles I., at his +coronation, made Hopton a Knight of the Bath. In the political troubles +which preceded the outbreak of the Civil War, Hopton, as member of +parliament successively for Bath, Somerset and Wells, at first opposed +the royal policy, but after Stratford's attainder (for which he voted) +he gradually became an ardent supporter of Charles, and at the beginning +of the Great Rebellion (q.v.) he was made lieutenant-general under the +marquess of Hertford in the west. His first achievement was the rallying +of Cornwall to the royal cause, his next to carry the war from that +county into Devonshire. In May 1643 he won the brilliant victory of +Stratton, in June he overran Devonshire, and on the 5th of July he +inflicted a severe defeat on Sir William Waller at Lansdown. In the last +action he was severely wounded by the explosion of a powder-wagon and he +was soon after shut up in Devizes by Waller, where he defended himself +until relieved by the victory of Roundway Down on the 13th of July. He +was soon afterwards created Baron Hopton of Stratton. But his successes +in the west were cut short by the defeat of Cheriton or Alresford in +March 1644. After this he served in the western campaign under Charles's +own command, and towards the end of the war, after Lord Goring had left +England, he succeeded to the command of the royal army, which his +predecessor had allowed to waste away in indiscipline. It was no longer +possible to stem the tide of the parliament's victory, and Hopton, +defeated in his last stand at Torrington on the 16th of February 1646, +surrendered to Fairfax. Subsequently he accompanied the prince of Wales +in his attempts to prolong the war in the Scilly and Channel Islands. +But his downright loyalty was incompatible with the spirit of concession +and compromise which prevailed in the prince's council in 1640-1650, and +he withdrew from active participation in the cause of royalism. He died, +still in exile, at Bruges in September 1652. The peerage became extinct +at his death. The king, Prince Charles and the governing circle +appreciated the merits of their faithful lieutenant less than did his +enemies Waller and Fairfax, the former of whom wrote, "hostility itself +cannot violate my friendship to your person," while the latter spoke of +him as "one whom we honour and esteem above any other of your party." + + + + +HOR, MOUNT ([Hebrew: hor]), the scene in the Bible of Aaron's death, +situated "in the edge of the land of Edom" (Num. xxxiii. 37). Since the +time of Josephus it has been identified with the _Jebel Nebi Harun_ +("Mountain of the Prophet Aaron"), a twin-peaked mountain 4780 ft. above +the sea-level (6072 ft. above the Dead Sea) in the Edomite Mountains on +the east side of the Jordan-Arabah valley. On the summit is a shrine +said to cover the grave of Aaron. Some modern investigators dissent from +this identification: H. Clay Trumbull prefers the Jebel Madara, a peak +north-west of 'Ain Kadis. Another Mount Hor is mentioned in Num. xxxiv. +7, 8, as on the northern boundary of the prospective conquests of the +Israelites. It is perhaps to be identified with Hermon. It has been +doubtfully suggested that for _Hor_ we should here read _Hadrach_, the +name of a northern country near Damascus, mentioned only once in the +Bible (Zech. ix. 1). (R. A. S. M.) + + + + +HORACE [QUINTUS HORATIUS FLACCUS] (65-8 B.C.), the famous Roman poet, +was born on the 8th of December 65 B.C. at Venusia, on the borders of +Lucania and Apulia (_Sat._ ii. 1. 34). The town, originally a colony of +veterans, appears to have long maintained its military traditions, and +Horace was early imbued with a profound respect for the indomitable +valour and industry of the Italian soldier. It would seem, however, that +the poet was not brought up in the town itself, at least he did not +attend the town school (_Sat._ i. 6. 72) and was much in the +neighbouring country, of which, though he was but a child when he left +it, he retained always a vivid and affectionate memory. The mountains +near and far, the little villages on the hillsides, the woods, the +roaring Aufidus, the mossy spring of Bandusia, after which he named +another spring on his Sabine farm--these scenes were always dear to him +and are frequently mentioned in his poetry (e.g. _Carm._ iii. 4 and 30, +iv. 9). We may thus trace some of the germs of his poetical inspiration, +as well as of his moral sympathies, to the early years which he spent +near Venusia. But the most important moral influence of his youth was +the training and example of his father, of whose worth, affectionate +solicitude and homely wisdom Horace has given a most pleasing and +life-like picture (_Sat._ i. 6. 70, &c.). He was a freedman by position; +and it is supposed that he had been originally a slave of the town of +Venusia, and on his emancipation had received the gentile name of +Horatius from the Horatian tribe in which the inhabitants of Venusia +were enrolled. After his emancipation he acquired by the occupation of +"coactor" (a collector of the payments made at public auctions, or, +according to another interpretation, a collector of taxes) sufficient +means to enable him to buy a small farm, to make sufficient provision +for the future of his son (_Sat._ i. 4. 108), and to take him to Rome to +give him the advantage of the best education there. To his care Horace +attributes, not only the intellectual training which enabled him in +later life to take his place among the best men of Rome, but also his +immunity from the baser forms of moral evil (_Sat._ i. 6. 68. &c.). To +his practical teaching he attributes also his tendency to moralize and +to observe character (_Sat._ i. 4. 105, &c.)--the tendency which enabled +him to become the most truthful painter of social life and manners which +the ancient world produced. + +In one of his latest writings (_Epist._ ii. 2. 42, &c.) Horace gives a +further account of his education; but we hear no more of his father, nor +is there any allusion in his writings to the existence of any other +member of his family or any other relative. After the ordinary +grammatical and literary training at Rome, he went (45 B.C.) to Athens, +the most famous school of philosophy, as Rhodes was of oratory; and he +describes himself while there as "searching after truth among the groves +of Academus" as well as advancing in literary accomplishment. His +pleasant residence there was interrupted by the breaking out of the +civil war. Following the example of his young associates, he attached +himself to the cause of Brutus, whom he seems to have accompanied to +Asia, probably as a member of his staff; and he served at the battle of +Philippi in the post of military tribune. He shared in the rout which +followed the battle, and henceforth, though he was not less firm in his +conviction that some causes were worth fighting for and dying for, he +had but a poor opinion of his own soldierly qualities. + +He returned to Rome shortly after the battle, stripped of his property, +which formed part of the land confiscated for the benefit of the +soldiers of Octavianus and Antony. It may have been at this time that he +encountered the danger of shipwreck, which he mentions among the perils +from which his life had been protected by supernatural aid (_Carm._ iii. +4. 28). He procured in some way the post of a clerkship in the +quaestor's office, and about three years after the battle of Philippi, +he was introduced by Virgil and Varius to Maecenas. This was the +turning-point of his fortunes. He owed his friendship with the greatest +of literary patrons to his personal merits rather than to his poetic +fame; for he was on intimate terms with Maecenas before the first book +of the _Satires_ (his first published work) appeared. He tells us in one +of his _Satires_ (i. 10. 31) that his earliest ambition was to write +Greek verses. In giving this direction to his ambition, he was probably +influenced by his admiration of the old iambic and lyrical poets whom he +has made the models of his own _Epodes_ and _Odes_. His common sense as +well as his national feeling fortunately saved him from becoming a +second-rate Greek versifier in an age when poetic inspiration had passed +from Greece to Italy, and the living language of Rome was a more fitting +vehicle for the new feelings and interests of men than the echoes of the +old Ionian or Aeolian melodies. His earliest Latin compositions were, as +he tells us, written under the instigation of poverty; and they alone +betray any trace of the bitterness of spirit which the defeat of his +hopes and the hardships which he had to encounter on his first return to +Rome may have temporarily produced on him. Some of the _Epodes_, of the +nature of personal and licentious lampoons, and the second _Satire_ of +book i., in which there is some trace of an angry republican feeling, +belong to these early compositions. But by the time the first book of +_Satires_ was completed and published (35 B.C.) his temper had recovered +its natural serenity, and, though he had not yet attained to the height +of his fortunes, his personal position was one of comfort and security, +and his intimate relation with the leading men in literature and social +rank was firmly established. + +About a year after the publication of this first book of _Satires_ +Maecenas presented him with a farm among the Sabine hills, near the +modern Tivoli. This secured him pecuniary independence; it satisfied the +love of nature which had been implanted in him during the early years +spent on the Venusian farm; and it afforded him a welcome escape from +the distractions of city life and the dangers of a Roman autumn. Many +passages in the _Satires_, _Odes_ and _Epistles_ express the happiness +and pride with which the thought of his own valley filled him, and the +interest which he took in the simple and homely ways of his country +neighbours. The inspiration of the _Satires_ came from the heart of +Rome; the feeling of many of the _Odes_ comes direct from the Sabine +hills; and even the meditative spirit of the later _Epistles_ tells of +the leisure and peace of quiet days spent among books, or in the open +air, at a distance from "the smoke, wealth and tumult" of the great +metropolis. + +The second book of _Satires_ was published in 29 B.C.; the _Epodes_ +(spoken of by himself as _iambi_) apparently about a year earlier, +though many of them are, as regards the date of their composition, to be +ranked among the earliest extant writings of Horace. In one of his +_Epistles_ (i. 19. 25) he rests his first claim to originality on his +having introduced into Latium the metres and spirit of Archilochus of +Paros. He may have naturalized some special form of metre employed by +that poet, and it may be (as Th. Plüsz has suggested) that we should see +in the _Epodes_ a tone of mockery and parody. But his personal lampoons +are the least successful of his works; while those _Epodes_ which treat +of other subjects in a poetical spirit are inferior in metrical effect, +and in truth and freshness of feeling, both to the lighter lyrics of +Catullus and to his own later and more carefully meditated _Odes_. The +_Epodes_, if they are serious at all, are chiefly interesting as a +record of the personal feelings of Horace during the years which +immediately followed his return to Rome, and as a prelude to the higher +art and inspiration of the first three books of the _Odes_, which were +published together about the end of 24 or the beginning of 23 B.C.[1] +The composition of these _Odes_ extended over several years, but all the +most important among them belong to the years between the battle of +Actium and 24 B.C. His lyrical poetry is thus, not, like that of +Catullus, the ardent utterance of his youth, but the mature and finished +workmanship of his manhood. The state of public affairs was more +favourable than it had been since the outbreak of the civil war between +Caesar and Pompey for the appearance of lyrical poetry. Peace, order and +national unity had been secured by the triumph of Augustus, and the +enthusiasm in favour of the new government had not yet been chilled by +experience of its repressing influence. The poet's circumstances were, +at the same time, most favourable for the exercise of his lyrical gift +during these years. He lived partly at Rome, partly at his Sabine farm, +varying his residence occasionally by visits to Tibur, Praeneste or +Baiae. His intimacy with Maecenas was strengthened and he had become the +familiar friend of the great minister. He was treated with distinction +by Augustus, and by the foremost men in Roman society. He complains +occasionally that the pleasures of his youth are passing from him, but +he does so in the spirit of a temperate Epicurean, who found new +enjoyments in life as the zest for the old enjoyments decayed, and who +considered the wisdom and meditative spirit--"the philosophic mind that +years had brought"--an ample compensation for the extinct fires of his +youth. + +About four years after the publication of the three books of _Odes_, the +first book of the _Epistles_ appeared, introduced, as his _Epodes_, +_Satires_ and _Odes_ had been, by a special address to Maecenas. From +these _Epistles_, as compared with the _Satires_, we gather that he had +gradually adopted a more retired and meditative life, and had become +fonder of the country and of study, and that, while owing allegiance to +no school or sect of philosophy, he was framing for himself a scheme of +life, was endeavouring to conform to it, and was bent on inculcating it +on others. He maintained his old friendships, and continued to form new +intimacies, especially with younger men engaged in public affairs or +animated by literary ambition. After the death of Virgil he was +recognized as pre-eminently the greatest living poet, and was +accordingly called upon by Augustus to compose the sacred hymn for the +celebration of the secular games in 17 B.C. About four years later he +published the fourth book of _Odes_ (about 13 B.C.) having been called +upon to do so by the emperor, in order that the victories of his +stepsons Drusus and Tiberius over the Rhaeti and Vindelici might be +worthily celebrated. He lived about five years longer, and during these +years published the second book of _Epistles_, and the _Epistle to the +Pisos_, more generally known as the "_Ars poetica_." These later +_Epistles_ are mainly devoted to literary criticism, with the especial +object of vindicating the poetic claims of his own age over those of the +age of Ennius and the other early poets of Rome. He might have been +expected, as a great critic and lawgiver on literature, to have +exercised a beneficial influence on the future poetry of his country, +and to have applied as much wisdom to the theory of his own art as to +that of a right life. But his critical _Epistles_ are chiefly devoted to +a controversial attack on the older writers and to the exposition of the +laws of dramatic poetry, on which his own powers had never been +exercised, and for which either the genius or circumstances of the +Romans were unsuited. The same subordination of imagination and +enthusiasm to good sense and sober judgment characterizes his opinions +on poetry as on morals. + +He died somewhat suddenly on the 17th of November of the year 8 B.C. He +left Augustus to see after his affairs, and was buried on the Esquiline +Hill, near Maecenas. + +Horace is one of the few writers, ancient or modern, who have written a +great deal about themselves without laying themselves open to the charge +of weakness or egotism. His chief claim to literary originality is not +that on which he himself rested his hopes of immortality--that of being +the first to adapt certain lyrical metres to the Latin tongue--but +rather that of being the first of those whose works have reached us who +establishes a personal relation with his reader, speaks to him as a +familiar friend, gives him good advice, tells him the story of his life, +and shares with him his private tastes and pleasures--and all this +without any loss of self-respect, any want of modesty or breach of good +manners, and in a style so lively and natural that each new generation +of readers might fancy that he was addressing them personally and +speaking to them on subjects of every day modern interest. In his +self-portraiture, far from wishing to make himself out better or greater +than he was, he seems to write under the influence of an ironical +restraint which checks him in the utterance of his highest moral +teaching and of his poetical enthusiasm. He affords us some indications +of his personal appearance, as where he speaks of the "nigros angusta +fronte capillos" of his youth, and describes himself after he had +completed his forty-fourth December as of small stature, prematurely +grey and fond of basking in the sun (_Epist._ i. 20. 24). + +In his later years his health became weaker or more uncertain, and this +caused a considerable change in his habits, tastes and places of +residence. It inclined him more to a life of retirement and simplicity, +and also it stimulated his tendency to self-introspection and +self-culture. In his more vigorous years, when he lived much in Roman +society, he claims to have acted in all his relations to others in +accordance with the standard recognized among men of honour in every +age, to have been charitably indulgent to the weakness of his friends, +and to have been exempt from petty jealousies and the spirit of +detraction. If ever he deviates from his ordinary vein of irony and +quiet sense into earnest indignation, it is in denouncing conduct +involving treachery or malice in the relations of friends (_Sat._ i. 4. +81, &c.). + +He claims to be and evidently aims at being independent of fortune, +superior to luxury, exempt both from the sordid cares of avarice and the +coarser forms of profligacy. At the same time he makes a frank +confession of indolence and of occasional failure in the pursuit of his +ideal self-mastery. He admits his irascibility, his love of pleasure, +his sensitiveness to opinion, and some touch of vanity or at least of +gratified ambition arising out of the favour which through all his life +he had enjoyed from those much above him in social station (_Epist._ i. +20. 23). Yet there appears no trace of any unworthy deference in +Horace's feelings towards the great. Even towards Augustus he maintained +his attitude of independence, by declining the office of private +secretary which the emperor wished to force upon him; and he did so with +such tact as neither to give offence nor to forfeit the regard of his +superior. His feeling towards Maecenas is more like that of Pope towards +Bolingbroke than that which a client in ancient or modern times +entertains towards his patron. He felt pride in his protection and in +the intellectual sympathy which united him with one whose personal +qualities had enabled him to play so prominent and beneficent a part in +public affairs. Their friendship was slowly formed, but when once +established continued unshaken through their lives. + +There is indeed nothing more remarkable in Horace than the independence, +or rather the self-dependence, of his character. The enjoyment which he +drew from his Sabine farm consisted partly in the refreshment to his +spirit from the familiar beauty of the place, partly in the "otia +liberrima" from the claims of business and society which it afforded +him. His love poems, when compared with those of Catullus, Tibullus and +Propertius, show that he never, in his mature years at least, allowed +his peace of mind to be at the mercy of any one. They are the +expressions of a fine and subtle and often a humorous observation rather +than of ardent feeling. There is perhaps a touch of pathos in his +reference in the _Odes_ to the early death of Cinara, but the epithet he +applies to her in the _Epistles_, + + "Quem scis immunem Cinarae placuisse rapaci," + +shows that the pain of thinking of her could not have been very +heartfelt. Even when the _Odes_ addressed to real or imaginary beauties +are most genuine in feeling, they are more the artistic rekindling of +extinct fires than the utterance of recent passion. In his friendships +he had not the self-forgetful devotion which is the most attractive side +of the character of Catullus; but he studied how to gain and keep the +regard of those whose society he valued, and he repaid this regard by a +fine courtesy and by a delicate appreciation of their higher gifts and +qualities, whether proved in literature, or war, or affairs of state or +the ordinary dealings of men. He enjoyed the great world, and it treated +him well; but he resolutely maintained his personal independence and the +equipoise of his feelings and judgment. If it is thought that in +attributing a divine function to Augustus he has gone beyond the bounds +of a sincere and temperate admiration, a comparison of the _Odes_ in +which this occurs with the first _Epistle_ of the second book shows that +he certainly recognized in the emperor a great and successful +administrator and that his language is to be regarded rather as the +artistic expression of the prevailing national sentiment than as the +tribute of an insincere adulation. + +The aim of Horace's philosophy was to "be master of oneself," to retain +the "mens aequa" in all circumstances, to use the gifts of fortune while +they remained, and to be prepared to part with them with equanimity; to +make the most of life, and to contemplate its inevitable end without +anxiety. Self-reliance and resignation are the lessons which he +constantly inculcates. His philosophy is thus a mode of practical +Epicureanism combined with other elements which have more affinity with +Stoicism. In his early life he professed his adherence to the former +system, and several expressions in his first published work show the +influences of the study of Lucretius. At the time when the first book of +the _Epistles_ was published he professes to assume the position of an +eclectic rather than that of an adherent of either school (_Epist._ i. +1. 13-19). We note in the passage here referred to, as in other +passages, that he mentions Aristippus of Cyrene, rather than Epicurus +himself, as the master under whose influence he from time to time +insensibly lapsed. Yet the dominant tone of his teaching is that of a +refined Epicureanism, not so elevated or purely contemplative as that +preached by Lucretius, but yet more within the reach of a society which, +though luxurious and pleasure-loving, had not yet become thoroughly +frivolous and enervated. His advice is to subdue all violent emotion of +fear or desire; to estimate all things calmly--"nil admirari"; to choose +the mean between a high and low estate; and to find one's happiness in +plain living rather than in luxurious indulgence. Still there was in +Horace a robuster fibre, inherited from the old Italian race, which +moved him to value the dignity and nobleness of life more highly than +its ease and enjoyment. In some of the stronger utterances of his +_Odes_, where he expresses sympathy with the manlier qualities of +character, we recognize the resistent attitude of Stoicism rather than +the passive acquiescence of Epicureanism. The concluding stanzas of the +address to Lollius (_Ode_ iv. 9) exhibit the Epicurean and Stoical view +of life so combined as to be more worthy of human dignity than the +genial worldly wisdom of the former school, more in harmony with human +experience than the formal precepts of the latter. + +It is interesting to trace the growth of Horace in elevation of +sentiment and serious conviction from his first ridicule of the +paradoxes of Stoicism in the two books of the _Satires_ to the appeal +which he makes in some of the _Odes_ of the third book to the strongest +Roman instincts of fortitude and self-sacrifice. A similar modification +of his religious and political attitude may be noticed between his early +declaration of Epicurean unbelief and the sympathy which he shows with +the religious reaction fostered by Augustus; and again between the +Epicurean indifference to national affairs and the strong support which +he gives to the national policy of the emperor in the first six _Odes_ +of the third book, and in the fifth and fifteenth of the fourth book. In +his whole religious attitude he seems to stand midway between the +consistent denial of Lucretius and Virgil's pious endeavour to reconcile +ancient faith with the conclusions of philosophy. His introduction into +some of his _Odes_ of the gods of mythology must be regarded as merely +artistic or symbolical. Yet in some cases we recognize the expression of +a natural piety, thankful for the blessing bestowed on purity and +simplicity of life, and acknowledging a higher and more majestic law +governing nations through their voluntary obedience. On the other hand, +his allusions to a future life, as in the "domus exilis Plutonia," and +the "furvae regna Proserpinae," are shadowy and artificial. The image of +death is constantly obtruded in his poems to enhance the sense of +present enjoyment. In the true spirit of paganism he associates all +thoughts of love and wine, of the meeting of friends, or of the changes +of the seasons with the recollection of the transitoriness of our +pleasures-- + + "Nos, ubi decidimus + Quo pius Aeneas, quo dives Tullus et Ancus, + Pulvis et umbra sumus." + + Horace is so much of a moralist in all his writings that, in order to + enter into the spirit both of his familiar and of his lyrical poetry, + it is essential to realize what were his views of life and the + influences under which they were formed. He is, though in a different + sense from Lucretius, eminently a philosophical and reflective poet. + He is also, like all the other poets of the Augustan age, a poet in + whose composition culture and criticism were as conspicuous elements + as spontaneous inspiration. In the judgment he passes on the older + poetry of Rome and on that of his contemporaries, he seems to attach + more importance to the critical and artistic than to the creative and + inventive functions of genius. It is on the labour and judgment with + which he has cultivated his gift that he rests his hopes of fame. The + whole poetry of the Augustan age was based on the works of older + poets, Roman as well as Greek. Its aim was to perfect the more + immature workmanship of the former, and to adapt the forms, manners + and metres of the latter to subjects of immediate and national + interest. As Virgil performed for his generation the same kind of + office which Ennius performed for an older generation, so Horace in + his _Satires_, and to a more limited extent in his _Epistles_, brought + to perfection for the amusement and instruction of his contemporaries + the rude but vigorous designs of Lucilius. + + It was the example of Lucilius which induced Horace to commit all his + private thoughts, feelings and experience "to his books as to trusty + companions," and also to comment freely on the characters and lives of + other men. Many of the subjects of particular satires of Horace were + immediately suggested by those treated by Lucilius. Thus the "Journey + to Brundusium" (_Sat._ i. 5) reproduced the outlines of Lucilius's + "Journey to the Sicilian Straits." The discourse of Ofella on luxury + (_Sat._ ii. 2) was founded on a similar discourse of Laelius on + gluttony, and the "Banquet of Nasidienus" (_Sat._ ii. 8) may have been + suggested by the description by the older poet of a rustic + entertainment. There was more of moral censure and personal + aggressiveness in the satire of the older poet. The ironical temper of + Horace induced him to treat the follies of society in the spirit of a + humorist and man of the world, rather than to assail vice with the + severity of a censor; and the greater urbanity of his age or of his + disposition restrained in him the direct personality of satire. The + names introduced by him to mark types of character such as Nomentanus, + Maenius, Pantolabus, &c., are reproduced from the writings of the + older poet. Horace also followed Lucilius in the variety of forms + which his satire assumes, and especially in the frequent adoption of + the form of dialogue, derived from the "dramatic medley" which was the + original character of the Roman _Satura_. This form suited the spirit + in which Horace regarded the world, and also the dramatic quality of + his genius, just as the direct denunciation and elaborate painting of + character suited the "saeva indignatio" and the oratorical genius of + Juvenal. + + Horace's satire is accordingly to a great extent a reproduction in + form, manner, substance and tone of the satire of Lucilius; or rather + it is a casting in the mould of Lucilius of his own observation and + experience. But a comparison of the fragments of Lucilius with the + finished compositions of Horace brings out in the strongest light the + artistic originality and skill of the latter poet in his management of + metre and style. Nothing can be rougher and harsher than the + hexameters of Lucilius, or cruder than his expression. In his + management of the more natural trochaic metre, he has shown much + greater ease and simplicity. It is one great triumph of Horace's + genius that he was the first and indeed the only Latin writer who + could bend the stately hexameter to the uses of natural and easy, and + at the same time terse and happy, conversational style. Catullus, in + his hendecasyllabics, had shown the vivacity with which that light and + graceful metre could be employed in telling some short story or + describing some trivial situation dramatically. But no one before + Horace had succeeded in applying the metre of heroic verse to the uses + of common life. But he had one great native model in the mastery of a + terse, refined, ironical and natural conversational style, Terence; + and the _Satires_ show, not only in allusions to incidents and + personages, but in many happy turns of expression very frequent traces + of Horace's familiarity with the works of the Roman Menander. + + The _Epistles_ are more original in form, more philosophic in spirit, + more finished and charming in style than the _Satires_. The form of + composition may have been suggested by that of some of the satires of + Lucilius, which were composed as letters to his personal friends. But + letter-writing in prose, and occasionally also in verse, had been + common among the Romans from the time of the siege of Corinth; and a + practice originating in the wants and convenience of friends + temporarily separated from one another by the public service was + ultimately cultivated as a literary accomplishment. It was a happy + idea of Horace to adopt this form for his didactic writings on life + and literature. It suited him as an eclectic and not a systematic + thinker, and as a friendly counsellor rather than a formal teacher of + his age. It suited his circumstances in the latter years of his life, + when his tastes inclined him more to retirement and study, while he + yet wished to retain his hold on society and to extend his relations + with younger men who were rising into eminence. It suited the class + who cared for literature--a limited circle of educated men, intimate + with one another, and sharing the same tastes and pursuits. While + giving expression to lessons applicable to all men, he in this way + seems to address each reader individually, with the urbanity of a + friend rather than the solemnity of a preacher. In spirit the + _Epistles_ are more ethical and meditative than the _Satires_. Like + the _Odes_ they exhibit the twofold aspects of his philosophy, that of + temperate Epicureanism and that of more serious and elevated + conviction. In the actual maxims which he lays down, in his apparent + belief in the efficacy of addressing philosophical texts to the mind, + he exemplifies the triteness and limitation of all Roman thought. But + the spirit and sentiment of his practical philosophy is quite genuine + and original. The individuality of the great Roman moralists, such as + Lucretius and Horace, appears not in any difference in the results at + which they have arrived, but in the difference of spirit with which + they regard the spectacle of human life. In reading Lucretius we are + impressed by his earnestness, his pathos, his elevation of feeling; in + Horace we are charmed by the serenity of his temper and the flavour of + a delicate and subtle wisdom. We note also in the _Epistles_ the + presence of a more philosophic spirit, not only in the expression of + his personal convictions and aims, but also in his comments on + society. In the _Satires_ he paints the outward effects of the + passions of the age. He shows us prominent types of character--the + miser, the parasite, the legacy-hunter, the parvenu, &c., but he does + not try to trace these different manifestations of life to their + source. In the _Epistles_ he finds the secret spring of the social + vices of the age in the desire, as marked in other times as in those + of Horace, to become rich too fast, and in the tendency to value men + according to their wealth, and to sacrifice the ends of life to a + superfluous care for the means of living. The cause of all this + aimless restlessness and unreasonable desire is summed up in the words + "Strenua nos exercet inertia." + + In his _Satires_ and _Epistles_ Horace shows himself a genuine + moralist, a subtle observer and true painter of life, and an admirable + writer. But for both of these works he himself disclaims the title of + poetry. He rests his claims as a poet on his _Odes_. They reveal an + entirely different aspect of his genius, his spirit and his culture. + He is one among the few great writers of the world who have attained + high excellence in two widely separated provinces of literature. + Through all his life he was probably conscious of the "ingeni benigna + vena," which in his youth made him the sympathetic student and + imitator of the older lyrical poetry of Greece, and directed his + latest efforts to poetic criticism. But it was in the years that + intervened between the publication of his _Satires_ and _Epistles_ + that his lyrical genius asserted itself as his predominant faculty. At + that time he had outlived the coarser pleasures and risen above the + harassing cares of his earlier career; a fresh source of happiness and + inspiration had been opened up to him in his beautiful Sabine retreat; + he had become not only reconciled to the rule of Augustus, but a + thoroughly convinced and, so far as his temperament admitted to + enthusiasm, an enthusiastic believer in its beneficence. But it was + only after much labour that his original vein of genius obtained a + free and abundant outlet. He lays no claim to the "profuse strains of + unpremeditated art," with which other great lyrical poets of ancient + and modern times have charmed the world. His first efforts were + apparently imitative, and were directed to the attainment of perfect + mastery over form, metre and rhythm. The first nine _Odes_ of the + first book are experiments in different kinds of metre. They and all + the other metres employed by him are based on those employed by the + older poets of Greece--Alcaeus, Sappho, Archilochus, Alcman, &c. He + has built the structure of his lighter _Odes_ also on their model, + while in some of those in which the matter is more weighty, as in that + in which he calls on Calliope "to dictate a long continuous strain," + he has endeavoured to reproduce something of the intricate movement, + the abrupt transitions, the interpenetration of narrative and + reflection, which characterize the art of Pindar. He frequently + reproduces the language and some of the thoughts of his masters, but + he gives them new application, or stamps them with the impress of his + own experience. He brought the metres which he has employed to such + perfection that the art perished with him. A great proof of his + mastery over rhythm is the skill with which he has varied his metres + according to the sentiment which he wishes to express. Thus his great + metre, the Alcaic, has a character of stateliness and majesty in + addition to the energy and impetus originally imparted to it by + Alcaeus. The Sapphic metre he employs with a peculiar lightness and + vivacity which harmonize admirably with his gayer moods. + + Again in regard to his diction, if Horace has learned his subtlety and + moderation from his Greek masters, he has tempered those qualities + with the masculine characteristics of his race. No writer is more + Roman in the stateliness and dignity, the terseness, occasionally even + in the sobriety and bare literalness, of his diction. + + While it is mainly owing to the extreme care which Horace gave to + form, rhythm and diction that his own prophecy + + "Usque ego postera + Crescam laude recens" + + has been so amply fulfilled, yet no greater injustice could be done to + him than to rank him either as poet or critic with those who consider + form everything in literature. With Horace the mastery over the + vehicle of expression was merely an essential preliminary to making a + worthy and serious use of that vehicle. The poet, from Horace's point + of view, was intended not merely to give refined pleasure to a few, + but above all things, to be "utilis urbi." Yet he is saved, in his + practice, from the abuse of this theory by his admirable sense, his + ironical humour, his intolerance of pretension and pedantry. Opinions + will differ as to whether he or Catullus is to be regarded as the + greater lyrical poet. Those who assign the palm to Horace will do so, + certainly not because they recognize in him richer or equally rich + gifts of feeling, conception and expression, but because the subjects + to which his art has been devoted have a fuller, more varied, more + mature and permanent interest for the world. + + AUTHORITIES.--For the life of Horace the chief authorities are his own + works and a short ancient biography which is attributed to Suetonius. + The _apparatus criticus_ is most fully described in O. Keller's + preface to vol. i. of the 2nd ed. (1899) of Keller and Holder's + recension of Horace's works. This edition also gives by far the + largest collection of variants and emendations to the text and of the + _testimonia_ of ancient writers. + + What might have proved the most important manuscript of Horace, the + so-called _vetustissimus Blandinius_, is now lost, and we know it only + from the account of J. Cruquius who saw it in 1565. The relations of + the extant MSS. to each other and the presumed archetype present an + intricate problem; and Keller's solution has not proved generally + acceptable. See a _résumé_ of the controversy _Horazkritik seit 1880_ + by J. Bick (Leipzig, 1906) and F. Vollmer in _Philologus_. Supp. x. 2, + pp. 261-322. Many MSS. of Horace contain ancient scholia which are + copied or taken with abridgment from the commentaries of Porphyrio, + who lived about A.D. 200, and Helenius Aero, a still earlier + grammarian. These scholia also have been collected and edited--the + Porphyrio scholia by A. Holder (1902) and the "Acronian" (or + pseudo-Acronian) by O. Keller (1902-1904). R. Bentley's epoch-making + edition (1711) has been reprinted with an index by Zangemeister + (1869). Of the modern commentaries the most useful are those of J. C. + Orelli (4th ed., revised by O. Hirschfelder and J. Mewes, 1886-1890, + with _index verborum_), and of A. Kiessling (revised by R. Heinze, + _Odes_, 1901, 1908, _Satires_, 1906, _Epistles_, 1898). The best + complete English commentary is that of E. C. Wickham (2 vols., + 1874-1896). Other editions with English notes are those of T. E. Page + (_Odes_, 1883), A. Palmer (_Satires_, 1883), A. S. Wilkins + (_Epistles_, 1885), J. Gow (_Odes_ and _Epodes_, 1896, _Satires_, i., + 1901), P. Shorey (_Odes_ and _Epodes_, 1898, Boston, U.S.A.). L. + Müller's elaborate edition of the _Odes_ and _Epodes_ was published + posthumously (1900). Of the critical editions Keller and Holder's + still holds the field: to this Keller's _Epilegomena zu Horaz_ (1879) + is a necessary adjunct. F. Vollmer's text (1907) uses Keller's + materials on a new principle. Of illustrated editions H. H. Milman's + (1867) and C. W. King's (1869, with text revised by H. A. J. Munro) + deserve mention. The best verse translation is that of J. Conington + lately reprinted with the Latin text from the recension in Postgate's + new _Corpus poetarum_. For further information see Teuffel's + _Geschichte der römischen Litteratur_ (Eng. trans. by G. C. Warr), §§ + 234-240, and M. Schanz's excellent account in his _Geschichte der + römischen Litteratur_, vol. ii. §§ 251-266. (W. Y. S.; J. G*.) + + +FOOTNOTE: + + [1] The date is determined by the poem on the death of Quintilius + Varus (who died 24 B.C.), and by the reference in _Ode_ i. 12 to the + young Marcellus (died in autumn 23 B.C.) as still alive. Cf. + Wickham's Introduction to the _Odes_. + + + + +HORAE (Lat. _hora_, hour), the Hours, in Greek mythology [Greek: Hôrai], +originally the personification of a series of natural phenomena. In the +_Iliad_ (v. 749) they are the custodians of the gates of Olympus, which +they open or shut by scattering or condensing the clouds; that is, they +are weather goddesses, who send down or withhold the fertilizing dews +and rain. In the _Odyssey_, where they are represented as bringing round +the seasons in regular order, they are an abstraction rather than a +concrete personification. The brief notice in Hesiod (_Theog._ 901), +where they are called the children of Zeus and Themis, who superintend +the operations of agriculture, indicates by the names assigned to them +(Eunomia, Dike, Eirene, i.e. Good Order, Justice, Peace) the extension +of their functions as goddesses of order from nature to the events of +human life, and at the same time invests them with moral attributes. +Like the Moerae (Fates), they regulate the destinies of man, watch over +the newly born, secure good laws and the administration of justice. The +selection of three as their number has been supposed to refer to the +most ancient division of the year into spring, summer and winter, but it +is probably only another instance of the Greek liking for that +particular number or its multiples in such connexions (three Moerae, +Charites, Gorgons, nine Muses). Order and regularity being indispensable +conditions of beauty, it was easy to conceive of the Horae as the +goddesses of youthful bloom and grace, inseparably associated with the +idea of springtime. As such they are companions of the Nymphs and +Graces, with whom they are often confounded, and of other superior +deities connected with the spring growth of vegetation (Demeter, +Dionysus). At Athens they were two (or three) in number: Thallo and +Carpo, the goddesses of the flowers of spring and of the fruits of +summer, to whom Auxo, the goddess of the growth of plants, may be added, +although some authorities make her only one of the Graces. In honour of +the Horae a yearly festival (Horaea) was celebrated, at which protection +was sought against the scorching heat and drought, and offerings were +made of boiled meat as less insipid and more nutritious than roast. In +later mythology, under Alexandrian influence, the Horae become the four +seasons, daughters of Helios and Selene, each represented with the +conventional attributes. Subsequently, when the day was divided into +twelve equal parts, each of them took the name of Hora. Ovid (_Metam._ +ii. 26) describes them as placed at equal intervals on the throne of +Phoebus, with whom are also associated the four seasons. Nonnus (5th +century A.D.) in the _Dionysiaca_ also unites the twelve Horae as +representing the day and the four Horae as the seasons in the palace of +Helios. + + See C. Lehrs, _Populäre Aufsätze_ (1856); J. H. Krause, _Die Musen, + Grazien, Horen, und Nymphen_ (1871); and the articles in Daremberg and + Saglio's _Dictionnaire des antiquités_, J. A. Hild; and in Roscher's + _Lexikon der Mythologie_, W. Rapp. + + + + +HORAPOLLON, of Phaenebythis in the nome of Panopolis in Egypt, Greek +grammarian, flourished in the 4th century A.D. during the reign of +Theodosius I. According to Suidas, he wrote commentaries on Sophocles, +Alcaeus and Homer, and a work ([Greek: Temenika]) on places consecrated +to the gods. Photius (cod. 279), who calls him a dramatist as well as a +grammarian, ascribes to him a history of the foundation and antiquities +of Alexandria (unless this is by an Egyptian of the same name, who lived +In the reign of Zeno, 474-491). Under the name of Horapollon two books +on _Hieroglyphics_ are extant, which profess to be a translation from an +Egyptian original into Greek by a certain Philippus, of whom nothing is +known. The inferior Greek of the translation, and the character of the +additions in the second book point to its being of late date; some have +even assigned it to the 15th century. Though a very large proportion of +the statements seem absurd and cannot be accounted for by anything known +in the latest and most fanciful usage, yet there is ample evidence in +both the books, in individual cases, that the tradition of the values of +the hieroglyphic signs was not yet extinct in the days of their author. + + BIBLIOGRAPHY.--Editions by C. Leemans (1835) and A. T. Cory (1840) + with English translation and notes; see also G. Rathgeber in Ersch and + Gruber's _Allgemeine Encyclopädie_; H. Schäfer, _Zeitschrift für + ägyptische Sprache_ (1905), p. 72. + + + + +HORATII and CURIATII, in Roman legend, two sets of three brothers born +at one birth on the same day--the former Roman, the latter Alban--the +mothers being twin sisters. During the war between Rome and Alba Longa +it was agreed that the issue should depend on a combat between the two +families. Two of the Horatii were soon slain; the third brother feigned +flight, and when the Curiatii, who were all wounded, pursued him without +concert he slew them one by one. When he entered Rome in triumph, his +sister recognized a cloak which he was wearing as a trophy as one she +had herself made for her lover, one of the Curiatii. She thereupon +invoked a curse upon her brother, who slew her on the spot. Horatius was +condemned to be scourged to death, but on his appealing to the people +his life was spared (Livy i. 25, 26; Dion. Halic. iii. 13-22). Monuments +of the tragic story were shown by the Romans in the time of Livy (the +altar of Janus Curiatius near the _sororium tigillum_, the "sister's +beam," or yoke under which Horatius had to pass; and the altar of Juno +Sororia). The legend was probably invented to account for the origin of +the _provocatio_ (right of appeal to the people), while at the same time +it points to the close connexion and final struggle for supremacy +between the older city on the mountain and the younger city on the +plain. Their relationship and origin from three tribes are symbolically +represented by the twin sisters and the two sets of three brothers. + + For a critical examination of the story, see Schwegler, _Römische + Geschichte_, bk. xii. 11. 14; Sir G. Cornewall Lewis, _Credibility of + Early Roman History_, ch. xi. 15; W. Ihne, _Hist. of Rome_, i.; E. + Pais, _Storia di Roma_, i. ch. 3 (1898), and _Ancient Legends of Roman + History_ (Eng. trans., 1906), where the story is connected with the + ceremonies performed in honour of Jupiter Tigillus and Juno Sororia; + C. Pascal, _Fatti e legende di Roma antica_ (Florence, 1903); O. + Gilbert, _Geschichte und Topographie der Stadt Rom im Altertum_ + (1883-1885). + + + + +HORATIUS COCLES, a legendary hero of ancient Rome. With two companions +he defended the Sublician bridge against Lars Porsena and the whole army +of the Etruscans, while the Romans cut down the bridge behind. Then +Horatius threw himself into the Tiber and swam in safety to the shore. A +statue was erected in his honour in the temple of Vulcan, and he +received as much land as he could plough round in a single day. +According to another version, Horatius alone defended the bridge, and +was drowned in the Tiber. + +There is an obvious resemblance between the legend of Horatius Codes and +that of the Horatii and Curiatii. In both cases three Romans come +forward as the champions of Rome at a critical moment of her fortunes, +and only one successfully holds his ground. In the one case, the +locality is the land frontier, in the other, the boundary stream of +Roman territory. E. Pais finds the origin of the story in the worship of +Vulcan, and identifies Cocles (the "one-eyed") with one of the Cyclopes, +who in mythology were connected with Hephaestus, and later with Vulcan. +He concludes that the supposed statue of Cocles was really that of +Vulcan, who, as one of the most ancient Roman divinities and, in fact, +the protecting deity of the state, would naturally be confounded with +the hero who saved it by holding the bridge against the invaders. He +suggests that the legend arose from some religious ceremony, possibly +the practice of throwing the stuffed figures called Argei into the Tiber +from the Pons Sublicius on the ides of May. The conspicuous part played +in Roman history by members of the Horatian family, who were connected +with the worship of Jupiter Vulcanus, will explain the attribution of +the name Horatius to Vulcan-Cocles. + + See Livy ii. 10; Dion. Halic. v. 23-25; Polybius vi. 55; Plutarch, + _Poplicola_, 16. For a critical examination of the legend, see + Schwegler, _Römische Geschichte_, bk. xxi. 18; W. Ihne, _History of + Rome_, i.; E. Pais, _Storia di Roma_, i. ch. 4 (1898), and _Ancient + Legends of Roman History_ (Eng. trans., 1906). + + + + +HORDE, a manufacturing town of Germany, in the Prussian province of +Westphalia, is 2 m. S.E. from Dortmund on the railway to Soest. Pop. +(1905) 28,461. It has a Roman Catholic and an Evangelical church, a +synagogue and an old castle dating from about 1300. There are large +smelting-works, foundries, puddling-works, rolling-mills and +manufactures of iron and plated wares. In the neighbourhood there are +large iron and coal mines. A tramway connects the town with Dortmund. + + + + +HOREB, the ancient seat of Yahweh, the tribal god of the Kenites, +adopted by His covenant by Israel. This is the name preferred by the +Elohistic writer (E) whose work is interwoven into the Old Testament +narrative, and he is followed by the Deuteronomist school (D). The +Yahwistic writer (J), on the other hand, prefers to call the mountain +Sinai (q.v.), and so do the priestly writers (P). This latter form +became the more usual. There is no ground for distinguishing between +Horeb as the range and Sinai as the single mountain, or between Horeb +and Sinai as respectively the N. and S. parts of the range. + + + + +HOREHOUND (O. Eng. _harhune_, Ger. _Andorn_, Fr. _marrube_). Common or +white horehound, _Marrubium vulgare_, of the natural order _Labiatae_, +is a perennial herb with a short stout rootstock, and thick stems, about +1 ft. in height, which, as well as their numerous branches, are coated +with a white or hoary felt--whence the popular name of the plant. The +leaves have long petioles, and are roundish or rhombic-ovate, with a +bluntly toothed margin, much wrinkled, white and woolly below and pale +green and downy above; the flowers are sessile, in dense whorls or +clusters, small and dull-white, with a 10-toothed calyx and the upper +lobe of the corolla long and bifid. The plant occurs in Europe, North +Africa and West Asia to North-West India, and has been naturalized in +parts of America. In Britain, where it is found generally on sandy or +dry chalky ground, it is far from common. White horehound contains a +volatile oil, resin, a crystallizable bitter principle termed +_marrubiin_ and other substances, and has a not unpleasant aromatic +odour, and a persistent bitter taste. Formerly it was official in +British pharmacopoeias; and the infusion, syrup or confection of +horehound has long been in popular repute for the treatment of a host of +dissimilar affections. Black horehound, _Ballota nigra_, is a hairy +perennial herb, belonging to the same order, of foetid odour, is 2 to 3 +ft. in height, and has stalked, roundish-ovate, toothed leaves and +numerous flowers, in dense axillary clusters, with a green or purplish +calyx, and a pale red-purple corolla. It occurs in Europe, North Africa +and West Asia, and in Britain south of the Forth and Clyde, and has been +introduced into North America. + +[Illustration: Horehound.] + + + + +HORGEN, a small town in the Swiss canton of Zürich, situated on the left +or west shore of the Lake of Zürich, and by rail 10½ m. S.E. of the town +of Zürich. Pop. (1900) 6883, mostly German-speaking and Protestants. It +possesses many industrial establishments of various kinds, and is a +centre of the Zürich silk manufacture. It came in 1406 into the +possession of Zürich, with which it communicates by means of steamers on +the lake, as well as by rail. + + + + +HORIZON (Gr. [Greek: horizôn], dividing), the apparent circle around +which the sky and earth seem to meet. At sea this circle is well +defined, the line being called the sea horizon, which divides the +visible surface of the ocean from the sky. In astronomy the horizon is +that great circle of the sphere the plane of which is at right angles to +the direction of the plumb line. Sometimes a distinction is made between +the rational and the apparent horizon, the former being the horizon as +determined by a plane through the centre of the earth, parallel to that +through the station of an observer. But on the celestial sphere the +great circles of these two planes are coincident, so that this +distinction is not necessary (see ASTRONOMY: _Spherical_). The _Dip_ of +the horizon at sea is the angular depression of the apparent sea +horizon, or circle bounding the visible ocean, below the apparent +celestial horizon as above defined. It is due to the rotundity of the +earth, and the height of the observer's eye above the water. The dip of +the horizon and its distance in sea-miles when the height of the +observer's eye above the sea-level is h feet, are approximately given by +the formulae: Dip = 0´.97 [root]h; Distance = 1^m·17 [root]h. The +difference between the coefficients 0.97 and 1.17 arises from the +refraction of the ray, but for which they would be equal. + + + + +HORMAYR, JOSEPH, BARON VON (1782-1848), German statesman and historian, +was born at Innsbruck on the 20th of January 1782. After studying law in +his native town, and attaining the rank of captain in the Tirolese +Landwehr, the young man, who had the advantage of being the grandson of +Joseph von Hormayr (1705-1778), chancellor of Tirol, obtained a post in +the foreign office at Vienna (1801), from which he rose in 1803 to be +court secretary and, being a near friend of the Archduke John, director +of the secret archives of the state and court for thirteen months. In +1803 he married Therese Anderler von Hohenwald. During the insurrection +of 1809, by which the Tirolese sought to throw off the Bavarian +supremacy confirmed by the treaty of Pressburg, Hormayr was the mainstay +of the Austrian party, and assumed the administration of everything +(especially the composition of proclamations and pamphlets); but, +returning home without the prestige of success, he fell, in spite of the +help of the Archduke John, into disfavour both with the emperor Francis +I. and with Prince Metternich, and at length, when in 1813 he tried to +stir up a new insurrection in Tirol, he was arrested and imprisoned at +Munkatt. In 1816 some amends were made to him by his appointment as +imperial historiographer; but so little was he satisfied with the +general policy and conduct of the Austrian court that in 1828 he +accepted an invitation of King Louis I. to the Bavarian capital, where +he became ministerial councillor in the department of foreign affairs. +In 1832 he was appointed Bavarian minister-resident at Hanover, and from +1837 to 1846 he held the same position at Bremen. Together with Count +Johann Friedrich von der Decken (1769-1840) he founded the Historical +Society of Lower Saxony (Historischer Verein für Niedersachsen). The +last two years of his life were spent at Munich as superintendent of the +national archives. He died on the 5th of October 1848. + +Hormayr's literary activity was closely conditioned by the circumstances +of his political career and by the fact that Johannes von Müller (d. +1611) was his teacher: while his access to original documents gave value +to his treatment of the past, his record or criticism of contemporary +events received authority and interest from his personal experience. But +his history of the Tirolese rebellion is far from being impartial; for +he always liked to put himself into the first place, and the merits of +Andreas Hofer and of other leaders are not sufficiently acknowledged. In +his later writings he appears as a keen opponent of the policy of the +court of Vienna. + + The following are among Hormayr's more important works: _Geschichte + des Grafen von Andechs_ (1796); _Lexikon für Reisenden in Tirol_ + (1796); _Kritisch-diplomatische Beiträge zur Geschichte Tirols im + Mittelalter_ (2 vols., Innsbruck, 1802-1803, new ed., 1805); _Gesch. + der gefürst. Grafschaft Tirol_ (2 vols., Tübingen, 1806-1808); + _Österreichischer Plutarch_, 20 vols., collection of portraits and + biographies of the most celebrated administrators, commanders and + statesmen of Austria (Vienna, 1807); an edition of Beauchamp's + _Histoire de la guerre en Vendée_ (1809); _Geschichte Hofers_ (1817, + 2nd ed., 2 vols., 1845) and other pamphlets; _Archiv für Gesch., + Stat., Lit. und Kunst_ (20 vols., 1809-1828); _Allgemeine Geschichte + der neuesten Zeit vom Tod Friedricks des Grossen bis zum zweiten + Pariser Frieden_ (3 vols., Vienna, 1814-1819, 2nd ed., 1891); _Wien, + seine Gesch. und Denkwürdigkeiten_ (5 vols., Vienna, 1823-1824); + together with _Fragmente über Deutschland, in Sonderheit Bayerns + Welthandel; Lebensbilder aus dem Befreiungskriege_ (3 vols., Jena, + 1841-1844, 2nd ed., 1845); _Die goldene Chronik von Hohenschwangau_ + (Munich, 1842); _Anemonen aus dem Tagebuch eines alten Pilgersmanns_ + (4 vols., Jena, 1845-1847). Together with Mednyanski (1784-1844) he + founded the _Taschenbuch für die Vaterland. Gesch._ (Vienna, + 1811-1848). + + See T. H. Merdau, _Biographische Züge aus dem Leben deutscher Männer_ + (Leipzig, 1815); Gräffer, _Österreichische National-Encyclopädie_, ii. + (1835); _Taschenbuch für vaterländische Geschichte_ (1836 and 1847); + _Neuer Nekrolog der Deutschen_ (1848); _Blätter für literarische + Unterhaltung_ (1849); Wurzbach, _Österreichisches biographisches + Lexikon_, ix. (1863); K. Th. von Heigel in the _Allgemeine deutsche + Biographie_ (1881) and F. X. Wegele, _Geschichte der deutschen + Historiographie_ (Munich and Leipzig, 1885); F. v. Krones, _Aus + Österreichs stillen und bewegten Jahren 1810-1815_; _Biographie und + Briefe an Erzhz. Johann_ (Innsbruck, 1892); Hirn, _Tiroler Aufstand_ + (1909). (J. Hn.) + + + + +HORMISDAS, pope from 514 to 523 in succession to Symmachus, was a native +of Campania. He is known as having succeeded in obtaining the reunion of +the Eastern and Western Churches, which had been separated since the +excommunication of Acacius in 484. After two unsuccessful attempts under +the emperor Anastasius I., Hormisdas had no difficulty in coming to an +understanding in 518 with his successor Justin. Legates were despatched +to Constantinople; the memorial of the schismatic patriarchs was +condemned; and union was resumed with the Holy See. + + Details of this transaction have come down to us in the _Collectio + Avellana_ (_Corpus script. eccl. Vindobon._, vol. xxv., Nos. 105-203; + cf. Andreas Thiel, _Epp. Rom. Pont._ i. 741 seq.). + + + + +HORMIZD, or HORMIZDAS, the name of five kings of the Sassanid dynasty +(see PERSIA: _Ancient History_). The name is another form of Ahuramazda +or Ormuzd (Ormazd), which under the Sassanids became a common personal +name and was borne not only by many generals and officials of their time +(it therefore occurs very often on Persian seals), but even by the pope +of Rome noticed above. It is strictly an abbreviation of Hormuzd-dad, +"given by Ormuzd," which form is preserved by Agathias iv. 24-25 as name +of King Hormizd I. and II. ([Greek: Hormisdatês]). + +1. HORMIZD I. (272-273) was the son of Shapur I., under whom he was +governor of Khorasan, and appears in his wars against Rome (Trebellius +Pollio, _Trig. Tyr._ 2, where Nöldeke has corrected the name Odomastes +into Oromastes, i.e. Hormizd). In the Persian tradition of the history +of Ardashir I., preserved in a Pahlavi text (Nöldeke, _Geschichte des +Artachsir I. Papakan_), he is made the son of a daughter of Mithrak, a +Persian dynast, whose family Ardashir had extirpated because the magians +had predicted that from his blood would come the restorer of the empire +of Iran. Only this daughter is preserved by a peasant; Shapur sees her +and makes her his wife, and her son Hormizd is afterwards recognized and +acknowledged by Ardashir. In this legend, which has been partially +preserved also in Tabari, the great conquests of Shapur are transferred +to Hormizd. In reality he reigned only one year and ten days. + +2. HORMIZD II., son of Narseh, reigned for seven years five months, +302-309. Of his reign nothing is known. After his death his son +Adarnases was killed by the grandees after a very short reign, as he +showed a cruel disposition; another son, Hormizd, was kept a prisoner, +and the throne reserved for the child with which a concubine of Hormizd +II. was pregnant and which received the name Shapur II. Hormizd escaped +from prison by the help of his wife in 323, and found refuge at the +court of Constantine the Great (Zosim. ii. 27; John of Antioch, fr. 178; +Zonar. 13.5), In 363 Hormizd served in the army of Julian against +Persia; his son, with the same name, became consul in 366 (Ammian. Marc. +26. 8. 12). + +3. HORMIZD III., son of Yazdegerd I., succeeded his father in 457. He +had continually to fight with his brothers and with the Ephthalites in +Bactria, and was killed by Peroz in 459. + +4. HORMIZD IV., son of Chosroes I., reigned 578-590. He seems to have +been imperious and violent, but not without some kindness of heart. Some +very characteristic stories are told of him by Tabari (Nöldeke, +_Geschichte d. Perser und Araber unter den Sasaniden_, 264 ff.). His +father's sympathies had been with the nobles and the priests. Hormizd +protected the common people and introduced a severe discipline in his +army and court. When the priests demanded a persecution of the +Christians, he declined on the ground that the throne and the government +could only be safe if it gained the goodwill of both concurring +religions. The consequence was that he raised a strong opposition in the +ruling classes, which led to many executions and confiscations. When he +came to the throne he killed his brothers, according to the oriental +fashion. From his father he had inherited a war against the Byzantine +empire and against the Turks in the east, and negotiations of peace had +just begun with the emperor Tiberius, but Hormizd haughtily declined to +cede anything of the conquests of his father. Therefore the accounts +given of him by the Byzantine authors, Theophylact, Simocatta (iii. 16 +ff.), Menander Protector and John of Ephesus (vi. 22), who give a full +account of these negotiations, are far from favourable. In 588 his +general, Bahram Chobin, defeated the Turks, but in the next year was +beaten by the Romans; and when the king superseded him he rebelled with +his army. This was the signal for a general insurrection. The magnates +deposed and blinded Hormizd and proclaimed his son Chosroes II. king. In +the war which now followed between Bahram Chobin and Chosroes II. +Hormizd was killed by some partisans of his son (590). + +5. HORMIZD V. was one of the many pretenders who rose after the murder +of Chosroes II. (628). He maintained himself about two years (631, 632) +in the district of Nisibis. (Ed. M.) + + + + +HORMUZ (_Hurmuz_, _Ormuz_, _Ormus_), a famous city on the shores of the +Persian Gulf, which occupied more than one position in the course of +history, and has now long practically ceased to exist. The earliest +mention of the name occurs in the voyage of Nearchus (325 B.C.). When +that admiral beached his fleet at the mouth of the river Anamis on the +shore of Harmozia, a coast district of Carmania, he found the country to +be kindly, rich in every product except the olive. The Anamis appears to +be the river now known as the Minab, discharging into the Persian Gulf +near the entrance of the latter. The name Hormuz is derived by some from +that of the Persian god Hormuzd (Ormazd), but it is more likely that the +original etymology was connected with _khurma_, "a date"; for the +meaning of Moghistan the modern name of the territory Harmozia is "the +region of date-palms." The foundation of the city of Hormuz in this +territory is ascribed by one Persian writer to the Sassanian Ardashir +Babegan (c. 230 A.D.). But it must have existed at an earlier date, for +Ptolemy takes note of [Greek: Harmonza polis] (vi. 8). + +Hormuz is mentioned by Idrisi, who wrote c. 1150, under the title of +Hormuz-al-sahiliah, "Hormuz of the shore" (to distinguish it from inland +cities of the same name then existing), as a large and well-built city, +the chief mart of Kirman. Siraf and Kish (Kais), farther up the gulf, +had preceded it as ports of trade with India, but in the 13th century +Hormuz had become the chief seat of this traffic. It was at this time +the seat also of a petty dynasty of kings, of which there is a history +by one of their number (Turan Shah); an abstract of it is given by the +Jesuit Teixeira. According to this history the founder of the dynasty +was Shah Mohammed Dirhem-Kub ("the Drachma-coiner"), an Arab chief who +crossed the gulf and established himself here. The date is not given, +but it must have been before 1100 A.D., as Ruknuddin Mahmud, who +succeeded in 1246, was the twelfth of the line. These princes appear to +have been at times in dependence necessarily on the atabegs of Fars and +on the princes of Kirman. About the year 1300 Hormuz was so severely and +repeatedly harassed by raids of Tatar horsemen that the king and his +people abandoned their city on the mainland and transferred themselves +to the island of Jerun (Organa of Nearchus), about 12 m. westward and 4 +m. from the nearest shore. + +The site of the continental or ancient Hormuz was first traced in modern +times by Colonel (Sir Lewis) Pelly when resident at Bushire. It stands +in the present district of Minab, several miles from the sea, and on a +creek which communicates with the Minab river, but is partially silted +up and not now accessible for vessels. There remain traces of a long +wharf and extensive ruins. The new city occupied a triangular plain +forming the northern part of the island, the southern wall, as its +remains still show, being about 2 m. in extent from east to west. A +suburb with a wharf or pier, called Turan Bagh (garden of Turan) after +one of the kings, a name now corrupted to Trumpak, stood about 3 m. from +the town to the south-east. + +Odoric gives the earliest notice we have of the new city (c. 1320). He +calls it Ormes, a city strongly fortified and abounding in costly wares, +situated on an island 5 m. distant from the main, having no trees and no +fresh water, unhealthy and (as all evidence confirms) incredibly hot. +Some years later it was visited more than once by Ibn Batuta, who seems +to speak of the old city as likewise still standing. The new Hormuz, +called also Jerun (i.e. still retaining the original name of the +island), was a great and fine city rising out of the sea, and serving as +a mart for all the products of India, which were distributed hence over +all Persia. The hills on the island were of rock-salt, from which vases +and pedestals for lamps were carved. Near the gate of the chief mosque +stood an enormous skull, apparently that of a sperm-whale. The king at +this time was Kutbuddin Tahamtan, and the traveller gives a curious +description of him, seated on the throne, in patched and dirty raiment, +holding a rosary of enormous pearls, procured from the Bahrein +fisheries, which at one time or another belonged, with other islands in +the gulf and on the Oman shores from Ras-el-had (C. Rosalgat of the +Portuguese) on the ocean round to Julfar on the gulf, to the princes of +Hormuz. Abdurazzak, the envoy of Shah Rukh on his way to the Hindu court +of Vijayanagar, was in Hormuz in 1442, and speaks of it as a mart which +had no equal, frequented by the merchants of all the countries of Asia, +among which he enumerates China, Java, Bengal, Tenasserim, Shahr-i-nao +(i.e. Siam) and the Maldives. Nikitin, the Russian (c. 1470), gives a +similar account; he calls it "a vast emporium of all the world." + +In September 1507 the king of Hormuz, after for some time hearing of the +terrible foe who was carrying fire and sword along the shores of Arabia, +saw the squadron of Alphonso d'Albuquerque appear before his city, an +appearance speedily followed by extravagant demands, by refusal of these +from the ministers of the young king, and by deeds of matchless daring +and cruelty on the part of the Portuguese, which speedily broke down +resistance. The king acknowledged himself tributary to Portugal, and +gave leave to the Portuguese to build a castle, which was at once +commenced on the northern part of the island, commanding the city and +the anchorage on both sides. But the mutinous conduct and desertion of +several of Albuquerque's captains compelled him suddenly to abandon the +enterprise; and it was not till 1514, after the great leader had +captured Goa and Malacca, and had for five years been viceroy, that he +returned to Hormuz (or Ormuz, as the Portuguese called it), and without +encountering resistance to a name now so terrible, laid his grasp again +on the island and completed his castle. For more than a century Hormuz +remained practically in the dominions of Portugal, though the hereditary +prince, paying from his revenues a tribute to Portugal (in lieu of which +eventually the latter took the whole of the customs collections), +continued to be the instrument of government. The position of things +during the Portuguese rule may be understood from the description of +Cesare de' Federici, a Venetian merchant who was at Hormuz about 1565. +After speaking of the great trade in spices, drugs, silk and silk +stuffs, and pearls of Bahrein, and in horses for export to India, he +says the king was a Moor (i.e. Mahommedan), chosen by and subordinate to +the Portuguese. "At the election of the king I was there and saw the +ceremonies that they use.... The old king being dead, the captain of the +Portugals chooseth another of the blood-royal, and makes this election +in the castle with great ceremony. And when he is elected the captain +sweareth him to be true ... to the K. of Portugal as his lord and +governor, and then he giveth him the sceptre regal. After this ... with +great pomp ... he is brought into the royal palace in the city. The king +keeps a good train and hath sufficient revenues, ... because the captain +of the castle doth maintain and defend his right ... he is honoured as a +king, yet he cannot ride abroad with his train, without the consent of +the captain first had" (in Hakluyt).[1] + +The rise of the English trade and factories in the Indian seas in the +beginning of the 17th century led to constant jealousies and broils with +the Portuguese, and the successful efforts of the English company to +open traffic with Persia especially embittered their rivals, to whom the +possession of Hormuz had long given a monopoly of that trade. The +officers of Shah Abbas, who looked with a covetous and resentful eye on +the Portuguese occupation of such a position, were strongly desirous of +the aid of English ships in attacking Hormuz. During 1620 and 1621 the +ships of Portugal and of the English company had more than once come to +action in the Indian seas, and in November of the latter year the +council at Surat had resolved on what was practically maritime war with +the Portuguese flag. There was hardly a step between this and the +decision come to in the following month to join with "the duke of +Shiraz" (Imam Kuli Khan, the governor of Fars) in the desired expedition +against Hormuz. There was some pretext of being forced into the alliance +by a Persian threat to lay embargo on the English goods at Jashk; but +this seems to have been only brought forward by the English agents when, +at a later date, their proceedings were called in question. The English +crews were at first unwilling to take part in what they justly said was +"no merchandizing business, nor were they engaged for the like," but +they were persuaded, and five English vessels aided, first, in the +attack of Kishm, where (at the east end of the large island so called) +the Portuguese had lately built a fort,[2] and afterwards in that of +Hormuz itself. The latter siege was opened on the 18th of February 1622, +and continued to the 1st of May, when the Portuguese, after a gallant +defence of ten weeks, surrendered. It is to be recollected that Portugal +was at this time subject to the crown of Spain, with which England was +at peace; indeed, it was but a year later that the prince of Wales went +on his wooing adventure to the Spanish court. The irritation there was +naturally great, though it is surprising how little came of it. The +company were supposed (apparently without foundation) to have profited +largely by the Hormuz booty; and both the duke of Buckingham and the +king claimed to be "sweetened," as the record phrases it, from this +supposed treasure. The former certainly received a large bribe +(£10,000). The conclusion of the transaction with the king was formerly +considered doubtful; but entries in the calendar of East India papers +seem to show that James received an equal sum.[3] + +Hormuz never recovered from this blow. The Persians transferred their +establishments to Gombroon on the mainland, about 12 m. to the +north-west, which the king had lately set up as a royal port under the +name of Bander Abbasi. The English stipulations for aid had embraced an +equal division of the customs duties. This division was apparently +recognized by the Persians as applying to the new Bander, and, though +the trade with Persia was constantly decaying and precarious, the +company held to their factory at Gombroon for the sake of this claim to +revenue, which of course was most irregularly paid. In 1683-1684 the +amount of debt due to the company in Persia, including their proportion +of customs duties, was reckoned at a million sterling. As late as +1690-1691 their right seems to have been admitted, and a payment of 3495 +sequins was received by them on this account. The factory at Gombroon +lingered on till 1759, when it was seized by two French ships of war +under Comte d'Estaing. It was re-established, but at the time of +Niebuhr's visit to the gulf a few years later no European remained. +Niebuhr mentions that in his time (c. 1765) Mulla 'Ali Shah, formerly +admiral of Nadir Shah, was established on the island of Hormuz and part +of Kishm as an independent chief. + + See also Barros, _Asia_; _Commentaries of Albuquerque_, trans. by + Birch (Hak. Society); _Relaciones de Pedro Teixeira_ (Antwerp, 1610); + Narratives in Hakluyt's _Collection_ (reprint in 1809, vol. ii.) and + in Purchas's _Pilgrims_, vol. ii.; Pietro della Valle, _Persia_, lett. + xii.-xvii.; _Calendar of E. I. Papers_, by Sainsbury, vol. iii.; + Ritter, _Erdkunde_, xii.; _Jour. Roy. Geog. Soc._, Kempthorne in vol. + v., White-locke in vol. viii., Pelly in vol. xxxiv.; Fraser, + _Narrative of a Journey into Khorasan_ (1825); Constable and Stifle, + _Persian Gulf Pilot_ (1864); Bruce, _Annals of the E. I. Company_, &c. + (1810). (H. Y.) + +The island has a circumference of 16 m. and its longest axis measures 4½ +m. The village is in 27° 6´ N., 56° 29´ E. The Portuguese fort still +stands, but is sadly out of repair and much of its western wall has been +undermined and washed away by the action of the sea. It is a bastioned +fort with orillons and loopholed casemates under the ramparts and was +separated from the town by a deep moat, now silted up, cut E.-W. across +the isthmus and crossed by a bridge. It has three cisterns for +collecting rainwater; two are 17-18 ft. deep, have a capacity of about +60,000 gallons and are covered by arched roofs supported on six stone +pillars. The third cistern is smaller and has no roof. Five rusty old +iron guns are lying prone on the roof; six others on the strand before +the village are used for fastening boats, another serves as a socket for +a flagstaff before the representative of the government. The island is +under the jurisdiction of the governor of the Persian Gulf ports who +resides at Bushire. Of the old city hardly anything stands except a +minaret, 70 ft. high, with a winding staircase inside and much worn away +at the base, part of a former mosque used by the Portuguese as a +lighthouse, but the traces of buildings, massive foundations constructed +of stone quarried in the hills on the island, of many cisterns (some say +300), &c., are numerous and extensive. The modern settlement, situated +south of the fort on the eastern shore, has a population of about 1000 +during the cool season, but less in the hot season, when many people go +over to Minab on the mainland to the east. Most of the people live in +huts constructed of the branches and leaves of the date palm. They own +about sixty small sailing vessels trading to Muscat and other ports and +also do some pearl-fishing. At Turan Bagh on the east coast 4½ m. S.E. +of the fort are some considerable ruins, irrigation canals, an extensive +burial ground and some huts occupied by a few families who cultivate a +small garden on a terrace supported by old retaining walls. On a hill +near the shore 1½ m. S.E. of the fort is the ruin of a small chapel +called "Santa Lucia" on an old map in Astley's _Collection of Voyages_, +and on the summit of a salt hill 1½ m. south of the fort are the remains +of another chapel called "N.S. de la Pena" on the same map, and a +"Monastery" in a sketch of Hormuz made by David Davies, a mate on board +the East India Company's ship "Discovery" in 1627. With the exception of +the northern part, where the old city stood, and the little patch at +Turan Bagh, the island is covered with reddish brown hills with sharp +serrated ridges composed of gypsum, rock-salt and clay. These hills, +which do not exceed 300 ft. in height, are broken through in four places +by conical, whitish peaks of volcanic rocks (greenstone, trachyte); the +highest of these peaks with an altitude of 690 ft. is situated almost in +the centre of the island. + +The island has extensive beds of red ochre in which nodules of very pure +hematite are often found. The ochre, here called _gilek_, has been an +important article of export for centuries[4] and great quantities of it +are exported at the present time to England (in 1906-1907, 10,000 tons; +local price 27s. the ton). The climate of Hormuz, although hot, is, +according to medical experts, the best in the Persian Gulf. Rain falls +in January, February and March, and the annual rainfall is said to be +about the same as that of Bushire, 12 to 13 in. + + Capt. A. W. Stiffe in _Geogr. Mag._ (April 1874); William Foster in + _Geogr. Journal_ (Aug. 1894); writer's notes taken on island. + (A. H.-S.) + + +FOOTNOTES: + + [1] In Barros, _Dec. II._ book x. c. 7, there is a curious detail of + the revenue and expenditure of the kingdom of Ormuz, which would seem + to exhibit the former as not more than £100,000. + + [2] The attack on Kishm was notable in that one of the two Englishmen + killed there was the great navigator Baffin. + + [3] _Colonial Series, E. Indies_, by Sainsbury, vol. iii. _passim_, + especially see pp. 296 and 329. + + [4] "Reddle or Red Ochre from the Forest of Dean in Gloucestershire + is very little inferior to the Sort brought from the Island of Ormuz + in the Persian Gulph and so much valued and used by our Painters + under the name of Indian Red" (Sir John Hill, _Theophrastus's History + of Stones_, London, 1774). + + + + +HORN, ARVID BERNHARD, COUNT (1664-1742), Swedish statesman, was born at +Vuorentaka in Finland on the 6th of April 1664, of a noble but indigent +family. After completing his studies at Åbo, he entered the army and +served for several years in the Netherlands, in Hungary under Prince +Eugene, and in Flanders under Waldeck (1690-1695). He stood high in the +favour of the young Charles XII. and was one of his foremost generals in +the earlier part of the great Northern War. In 1704 he was entrusted +with his first diplomatic mission, the deposition of Augustus II. of +Poland and the election of Stanislaus I., a mission which he +accomplished with distinguished ability but absolute unscrupulousness. +Shortly afterwards he was besieged by Augustus in Warsaw and compelled +to surrender. In 1705 he was made a senator, in 1706 a count and in 1707 +governor of Charles XII.'s nephew, the young duke Charles Frederick of +Holstein-Gottorp. In 1710 he succeeded Nils Gyldenstolpe as prime +minister. Transferred to the central point of the administration, he had +ample opportunity of regarding with other eyes the situation of the +kingdom, and in consequence of his remonstrances he fell rapidly in the +favour of Charles XII. Both in 1710 and 1713 Horn was in favour of +summoning the estates, but when in 1714 the diet adopted an +anti-monarchical attitude, he gravely warned and ultimately dissolved +it. In Charles XII.'s later years Horn had little to do with the +administration. After the death of Charles XII. (1718) it was Horn who +persuaded the princess Ulrica Leonora to relinquish her hereditary +claims and submit to be _elected_ queen of Sweden. He protested against +the queen's autocratic behaviour, and resigned both the premiership and +his senatorship. He was elected _landtmarskalk_ at the diet of 1720, and +contributed, on the resignation of Ulrica Leonora, to the election of +Frederick of Hesse as king of Sweden, whose first act was to restore to +him the office of prime minister. For the next eighteen years he so +absolutely controlled both the foreign and the domestic affairs of +Sweden that the period between 1720 and 1738 has well been called the +Horn period. His services to his country were indeed inestimable. His +strong hand kept the inevitable strife of the parliamentary factions +within due limits, and it was entirely owing to his provident care that +Sweden so rapidly recovered from the wretched condition in which the +wars of Charles XII. had plunged her. In his foreign policy Horn was +extremely wary and cautious, yet without compromising either the +independence or the self-respect of his country. He was, however, the +promoter of a new principle of administration which in later days proved +very dangerous to Sweden under ministers less capable than he was. This +was to increase the influence of the diet and its secret committees in +the solution of purely diplomatic questions, which should have been left +entirely to the executive, thus weakening the central government and at +the same time facilitating the interference of foreign Powers in +Sweden's domestic affairs. Not till 1731 was there any appearance of +opposition in the diet to Horn's "system"; but Horn, piqued by the +growing coolness of the king, the same year offered his resignation, +which was not accepted. In 1734, however, the opposition was bold enough +to denounce his neutrality on the occasion of the war of the Polish +Succession, when Stanislaus I. again appeared upon the scene as a +candidate for the Polish throne; but Horn was still strong enough to +prevent a rupture with Russia. Henceforth he was bitterly but unjustly +accused of want of patriotism, and in 1738 was compelled at last to +retire before the impetuous onslaught of the triumphant young Hat party. +For the rest of his life he lived in retirement at his estate at +Ekebyholm, where he died on the 17th of April 1742. Horn in many +respects greatly resembled his contemporary Walpole. The peculiar +situation of Sweden, and the circumstances of his time, made his policy +necessarily opportunist, but it was an opportunism based on excellent +common sense. + + See V. E. Svedelius, _Arvid Bernard Horn_ (Stockholm, 1879); R. N. + Bain, _Gustavus III._, vol. i. (London, 1894), and _Charles XII._ + (1895); C. F. Horn, _A. B. Horn: hans lefnad_ (Stockholm, 1852). + (R. N. B.) + + + + +HORN, PHILIP DE MONTMORENCY, COUNT OF (1518-1568), a man of illustrious +descent and great possessions in the Netherlands, became in succession +under Charles V. and Philip II. stadtholder of Gelderland, admiral of +Flanders and knight of the Golden Fleece. In 1559 he commanded the +stately fleet which conveyed Philip II. from the Netherlands to Spain, +and he remained at the Spanish court till 1563. On his return he placed +himself with the prince of Orange and Count Egmont at the head of the +party which opposed the policy of Cardinal Granvella. When Granvella +retired the three great nobles continued to resist the introduction of +the Spanish Inquisition and of Spanish despotic rule into the +Netherlands. But though Philip appeared for a time to give way, he had +made up his mind to visit the opponents of his policy with ruthless +punishment. The regent, Margaret, duchess of Parma, was replaced by the +duke of Alva, who entered the Netherlands at the head of a veteran army +and at once began to crush all opposition with a merciless hand. Orange +fled from the country, but Egmont and Horn, despite his warning, decided +to remain and face the storm. They were both seized, tried and condemned +as traitors, and were executed on the 5th of June 1568 in the great +square before the town hall at Brussels. + + See biographical notices in A. J. van der Aa, _Biographisch + Woordenboek der Nederlanden_ (Haarlem, 1851-1879); J. Kok, + _Vaderlandsch Woordenboek_ (Amsterdam, 1785-1799); also bibliography + to chaps. vi. vii. and xix. in _Cambridge Modern History_, vol. iii. + pp. 798-809 (1904). + + + + +HORN, English hero of romance. _King Horn_ is a heroic poem or gest of +1546 lines dating from the 13th century. Murry (or Allof), king of +Sudenne[1] (Surrey and Sussex?) is slain by Saracen pirates who turn his +son Horn adrift with twelve other children. The boat drifts to +Westernesse[2] (Cornwall?), where the children are received by King +Aylmer (Aethelmaer). Presently Horn is denounced by one of his +companions as the lover of the king's daughter Rymenhild (Rimel) and is +banished, taking with him a ring, the gift of his bride and a talisman +against danger. In Ireland, under the name of Godmod, he serves for +seven years, and slays in battle the Saracens who had killed his father. +Learning that Rymenhild is to be married against her will to King Mody, +he returns to Westernesse disguised as a palmer, and makes himself known +to the bride by dropping the ring into the cup she offers him, with the +words "Drink to Horn of Horn." He then reconquers his father's kingdom +and marries Rymenhild. + + The other versions of the story, which are founded on a common + tradition, but are not immediately dependent on one another, are: (1) + the longer French romance of _Horn et Rimenhild_ by "mestre Thomas," + describing more complex social conditions than those of the English + poem; (2) a slightly shorter Middle English poem, _Horn Childe and + Maiden Rimnild_; (3) the Scottish ballad of "Hind Horn;" (4) a prose + romance founded on the French _Horn_, entitled _Pontus et Sidoine_ + (Lyons, 1480, Eng. trans. pr. by Wynkyn de Worde, 1511; German trans. + Augsburg, 1483). + +There is a marked resemblance between the story of Horn and the legend +of Havelok the Dane, and it is interesting to note how closely Richard +of Ely followed the Horn tradition in the 12th century _De gestis +Herewardi Saxonis_. Hereward also loves an Irish princess, flees to +Ireland, and returns in time for the bridal feast, where he is presented +with a cup by the princess. The orphaned prince who recovers his +father's kingdom and avenges his murder, and the maid or wife who waits +years for an absent lover or husband, and is rescued on the eve of a +forced marriage, are common characters in romance. The second of these +motives, with almost identical incidents, occurs in the legend of Henry +the Lion, duke of Brunswick; it is the subject of ballads in Swedish, +Danish, German, Bohemian, &c., and of a _Historia_ by Hans Sachs, though +some magic elements are added; it also occurs in the ballad of _Der edle +Moringer_ (14th century), well known in Sir Walter Scott's translation; +in the story of Torello in the _Decameron_ of Boccaccio (10th day, 9th +tale); and with some variation in the Russian tale of Dobrynya and +Nastasya. + + _King Horn_ was re-edited for the Early English Text Soc. by G. H. + McKnight in 1901; _Horn et Rimenhild_ was edited with the English + versions for the Bannatyne Club by F. Michel (Paris, 1845); _Horn + Childe and Maiden Rimnild_ in J. Ritson's _Metrical Romances_, vol. + iii.; and "Hind Horn" in F. J. Child's _English and Scottish_ + _Popular Ballads_ (vol. i., 1882), with an introductory note on + similar legends. See also H. L. Ward, _Catalogue of Romances_, vol. + i., where the relation between Havelok and Horn is discussed; _Hist. + litt. de la France_ (vol. xxii., 1852); W. Söderhjelm, _Sur l'identité + du Thomas auteur de Tristan et du Thomas auteur de Horn_ (_Romania_, + xv., 1886); T. Wissmann, "King Horn" (1876) and "Das Lied von King + Horn" (1881) in Nos. 16 and 45 of _Quellen und Forschungen zur Spr. + und Culturgesch. d. german. Völker_ (Strassburg and London); _Reinfrid + von Braunschweig_, a version of the legend of Henry the Lion, edited + by K. Bartsch (Stuttgart, 1871); and a further bibliography in O. + Hartenstein, _Studien zur Hornsage_ (Heidelberg, 1902). + + +FOOTNOTES: + + [1] There was a barrow in the Isle of Purbeck, Dorsetshire, called + Hornesbeorh; and there are other indications which point to a + possible connexion between _Horn_ and Dorset (see H. L. Ward, _Cat. + of Romances_, i. 451). + + [2] Sudenne and Westernesse are tentatively identified also with Isle + of Man and Wirral (_Cambridge Hist. of Eng Lit._, i. 304). + + + + +HORN (a common Teutonic word, cognate with Lat. _cornu_; cf. Gr. [Greek: +keras]). The weapons which project from the heads of various species of +animals, constituting what are known as horns, embrace substances which +are, in their anatomical structure and chemical composition, quite +distinct from each other; and although in commerce also they are known +indiscriminately as horn, their uses are altogether dissimilar. These +differences in structure and properties were thus indicated by Sir R. +Owen:--"The weapons to which the term horn is properly or technically +applied consist of very different substances, and belong to two organic +systems, as distinct from each other as both are from the teeth. Thus +the horns of deer consist of bone, and are processes of the frontal +bone; those of the giraffe are independent bones or 'epiphyses' covered +by hairy skin; those of oxen, sheep and antelopes are 'apophyses' of the +frontal bone, covered by the corium and by a sheath of true horny +material; those of the prong-horned antelope consist at their basis of +bony processes covered by hairy skin, and are covered by horny sheaths +in the rest of their extent. They thus combine the character of those of +the giraffe and ordinary antelope, together with the expanded and +branched form of the antlers of deer. Only the horns of the rhinoceros +are composed wholly of horny matter, and this is disposed in +longitudinal fibres, so that the horns seem rather to consist of coarse +bristles compactly matted together in the form of a more or less +elongated sub-compressed cone." True horny matter is really a modified +form of epidermic tissue, and consists of the albuminoid "keratin." It +forms, not only the horns of the ox tribe, but also the hoofs, claws or +nails of animals generally, the carapace of the tortoises and the +armadilloes, the scales of the pangolin, porcupine quills, and birds' +feathers, &c. + +Horn is employed in the manufacture of combs, buttons, the handles of +walking-sticks, umbrellas, and knives, drinking-cups, spoons of various +kinds, snuff-boxes, &c. In former times it was applied to several uses +for which it is no longer required, although such applications have left +their traces in the language. Thus the musical instruments and fog +signals known as horns indicate their descent from earlier and simpler +forms of apparatus made from horn. In the same way powder-horns were +spoken of long after they ceased to be made of that substance; to a +small extent lanterns still continue to be "glazed" with thin +transparent plates of horn. + + + + +HORN (Lat. _cornu_; corresponding terms being Fr. _cor_, _trompe_; Ger. +_Horn_; Ital. _corno_), a class of wind instruments primarily derived +from natural animal horns (see above), and having the common +characteristics of a conical bore and the absence of lateral holes. The +word "horn" when used by modern English musicians always refers to the +French horn. + +Modern horns may be divided into three classes: (1) the short horns with +wide bore, such as the bugles (q.v.) and the post-horn. (2) The saxhorns +(q.v.), a family of hybrid instruments designed by Adolphe Sax, and +resulting from the adaptation of valves and of a cup-shaped mouthpiece +to instruments of the calibre of the bugle. The Flügelhorn family is the +German equivalent of the saxhorns. The natural scale of instruments of +this class comprises the harmonics from the second to the eighth only. +(3) The French horn (Fr. _cor de chasse_ or _trompe de chasse_, _cor à +pistons_; Ger. _Waldhorn_, _Ventilhorn_; Ital. _corno_ or _corno di +caccia_), one of the most valuable and difficult wind instruments of the +orchestra, having a very slender conical tube wound round in coils upon +itself. It consists of four principal parts--the body, the crooks, the +slide and the mouthpiece. + + (a) The _body_ is the main tube, having a bore of the form known as + trunco-conical, measuring approximately 7 ft. 4 in. in length, in + which the increase in the diameter of the bore is very gradual in + proportion to the length, the cone becoming accentuated only near the + bell. In the valve horn the bore is only theoretically conical, the + extra lengths of tubing attached to the valves being practically + cylindrical. The body is coiled spirally, and has at one end a + wide-mouthed bell from 11 to 12 in. in diameter having a parabolic + curve, and at the other a conical ferrule into which fit the crooks. + + (b) The _crooks_ (Fr. _corps_ or _tons de rechange_; Ger. + _Krummbogen_, _Stimmbogen_, _Einsetzbogen_) are interchangeable, + spiral tubes, tapering to a diameter of a quarter of an inch at the + mouthpiece end and varying in length from 16 in. for the B[flat] alto + crook to 125 in. for the B[flat] basso. Each crook is named according + to the fundamental tone which it produces on being added to the body. + By lengthening the tube at will the crook lowers the pitch of the + instrument, and consequently changes the key in which it stands. + Although the harmonic series remains the same for all the crooks, the + actual sounds produced by overblowing are lower, the tube being + longer, and they now belong to the key of the crook. The principle of + the crook was known early in the 17th century; it had been applied to + the trumpet, trombone and Jägertrummet[1] before being adapted to the + horn. Crooks are merely transposing agents; they are powerless to fill + up the gaps in the scale of the horn in order to make it a chromatic + or even a diatonic instrument, for they require time for adjustment. + The principle of the crook doubtless suggested to Stölzel the system + of valves, which is but an instantaneous application of the general + principle to the individual notes of the harmonic series, each of + which is thereby lowered a semitone, a tone or a tone and a half, as + long as the valve remains in operation. The body of the horn without + crooks is of the length to produce 8 ft. C., and forms the standard, + being known as the alto horn in C, which is the highest key in which + the horn is pitched. The notes are sounded as written. + + (c) The _mouthpiece_ of the horn differs substantially from that of + the trumpet.[2] There is, strictly speaking, no cup, the inside of the + mouthpiece being, like the bore of the instrument itself, in the form + of a truncated cone or funnel. Like the other parts of this difficult + and complex instrument, the proportions of the mouthpiece must bear a + certain undefined relation to the length and diameter of the column of + air. The choice of a suitable mouthpiece is in fact a test of skill; + the shape of the lip of the performer and the more special use he may + wish to make of either the higher or the lower harmonics have to be + taken into consideration. In orchestral music the part for first horns + naturally calls for the use of the higher harmonics, which are more + easily obtained by means of a somewhat smaller and shallower + mouthpiece[3] than that used upon the second horn, which is called + upon to dwell more on the lower harmonics. + + (d) The _tuning slides_ (Fr. _coulisses_; Ger. _Stimmbogen_) consist + of a pair of sliding U-shaped tubes fitting tightly into each other, + by means of which the instrument can be brought strictly into tune, + and which also act as compensators with the crooks. On these tuning + slides, placed across the ring formed by the coils of the valve-horn, + are fixed the pistons with their extra lengths of tubing; as the + connexion of the pistons with the body of the horn is made through the + slides, the value of the latter as compensators will be readily + understood. Those accustomed to deal with instruments having fixed + notes, such as the piano and harp, hardly realize the extreme + difficulties which confront both maker and performer in intricate wind + instruments such as the horn, on which no sounds can be produced + without conscious adjustment of lips and breath, and but few without + the additional use of some such contrivance as slide, crook, piston of + of the hand in the bell, in the case of the natural or hand horn. + + + Acoustics. + +The production of sound in wind instruments has a fourfold object: (1) +pitch; (2) range or scale of available notes; (3) quality of tone or +_timbre_; (4) dynamic variation, or crescendo and diminuendo. The pitch +of the horn, as of other wind instruments, depends almost exclusively on +the length of the air-column set in vibration, and remains practically +uninfluenced by the diameter of the bore. In the case of conical tubes +in which the difference in diameter at the two extremities, mouthpiece +and bell, is very great, as in the horn, the pitch of the tube will be +slightly higher than its theoretical length would warrant.[4] When, for +instance, three tubes of the same length are sounded--No. 1, conical +diverging; No. 2, conical converging in the direction from mouthpiece +to bell; No. 3, cylindrical--No. 1 gives a fundamental tone somewhat +higher, No. 2 somewhat lower, than No. 3. Victor Mahillon[5] adds that +the rate of vibration in such conical tubes as the horn is slightly less +than the rate of vibration in ambient air; therefore, as the rate of +vibration (i.e. the number of vibrations per second) varies in the +inverse ratio with the length of the tube, it follows that the practical +length of the horn is slightly less than the theoretical, the difference +for the horn in B[flat] normal pitch amounting to 13.9 cm. +(approximately 5½ in.). + +The tube of the horn behaves as an open pipe. E. F. F. Chladni[6] states +that the mouthpiece end is to be considered as open in all wind +instruments (excepting reed instruments), even when, as in horns and +trumpets, it would seem to be closed by the lips. Victor Mahillon, +although apparently holding the opposite view, and considering as closed +the tubes of all wind instruments played by means of reeds, whether +single or double, or by the lips acting as reeds, gives a new and +practical explanation of the phenomenon.[7] The result is the same in +both cases, for the closed pipe of trunco-conical bore, whose diameter +at the bell is at least four times greater than the diameter at the +mouthpiece, behaves in the same manner, when set in vibration by a reed, +as an open pipe, and gives the consecutive scale of harmonics.[8] + + In order to produce sound from the horn, the performer, stretching his + lips across the funnel-shaped mouthpiece from rim to rim, blows into + the cavity. The lips, vibrating as the breath passes through the + aperture between them, communicate pulsations or series of + intermittent shocks to the thin stream of air, known as the exciting + current, which, issuing from them, strikes the column of air in the + tube, already in a state of stationary vibration.[9] The effect of + this series of shocks, without which there can be no sound, upon the + column of air confined within the walls of the tube is to produce + sound-waves, travelling longitudinally through the tube. Each + sound-wave consists of two half-lengths, one in which the air has been + compressed or condensed by the impulse or push, the second in which, + the push being spent, the air again dilates or becomes rarefied. In an + open pipe, the wave-length is theoretically equal to the length of the + tube. The pitch of the note depends on the frequency per second with + which each vibration or complete sound-wave reaches the drum of the + ear. The longer the wave the lower the frequency. The velocity of the + wave is independent of its length, being solely conditioned by the + rate of vibration of the particles composing the conveying medium: + while one individual particle performs one complete vibration, the + wave advances one wave-length.[10] The rate of particle vibration or + frequency is therefore inversely proportional to the corresponding + wave-length.[11] Sound-waves generated by the same exciting current + travel with the same velocity whatever their length, the difference + being the frequency number and therefore the pitch of the note. As + long as the performer blows with normal force, the same length of tube + produces the same wave-length and therefore the same frequency and + pitch. By "blowing with normal force" is understood the proper + relative proportions to be maintained between the wind-pressure and + the lip-tension--a ratio which is found instinctively by the performer + but was only suspected by the older writers.[12] If the shocks or + vibrations initiated by the lips through the medium of the exciting + current be sharper owing to the increased tension of the lips, and at + the same time succeed each other with greater velocity, the + wave-length breaks up, and two, three or more proportionally shorter + complete waves form instead of one, and traverse the pipe within the + same space of time, producing sounds proportionally higher by an + octave, a twelfth, &c., according to the character of the initiatory + disturbance. We may therefore add this proposition: the rate of + vibration of a tube varies as the number of segments into which the + vibrating column of air within it is divided. In order to obtain the + fundamental, the performer's lips must be loose and the wind-pressure + gentle but steady, so that the exciting current may issue forth in a + broad, slow stream. To set in vibration a column of air some 16 or 17 + ft. long is a feat of extreme difficulty; that is why it is quite + exceptional to find a horn-player who can sound the fundamental on the + low C or B[flat] _basso_ horns. In the organ, where even a 32 ft. tone + is obtained, the wind-pressure and the lip-opening controlling the + exciting current are mechanically regulated for each length of + pipe--only one note being required from each. In order, therefore, to + induce the column of air within the tube to break up and vibrate in + aliquot parts, the exciting current must be compressed into an ever + finer, tenser and more incisive stream. There is in fact a certain + minimum pressure for each degree of tension of the lips below which no + harmonic can be produced. + + It is often stated that the harmonics are obtained by increasing the + tension of the lips and a crescendo by increasing the pressure of the + breath.[13] Victor Mahillon[14] accounts for the harmonics by + increased wind-pressure only. It is evident that the greater the + tension of the lips, the greater the force of wind required to set + them vibrating; therefore the force and velocity of the air must vary + with the tension of the lips in order to produce a steady or musical + sound. D. J. Blaikley considers that the ratio of increase in lips and + breath follows that of the harmonic series. The tension of the lips + has the effect of reducing the width of the slit or aperture between + them and the width of the exciting current. While increasing its + density the energy of the wind must, therefore, either expend itself + in increasing the rate of vibration, or frequency of the pulses, which + influences the pitch of the note; or else in increasing the extent of + excursion or amplitude of the vibrations, which influences the dynamic + force of the sound or loudness.[15] If the aperture be narrowed + without providing a proportional increase of wind-pressure, the + harmonic overtone may be heard, but either the intonation will suffer + or the intensity of the tone will be reduced, because the force + required, to set the tenser membrane in vibration is insufficient to + give the vibrations the requisite amplitude as well as the frequency. + If the force expended be excessive, i.e. more than the maximum + required to ensure the increased frequency proportional to the + increased tension, the superfluous energy must expend itself in + increasing the amplitude of the vibrations so that a note of a greater + degree of loudness as well as of higher pitch will be produced. The + converse is equally true; the lower the pitch of the note the slower + the pulses or vibrations and therefore the looser the lip and the + gentler the force of current required to set them vibrating. To draw a + parallel from organ-pipes: as long as even wind-pressure is + maintained, the mouthpiece being fixed proportional to the length of + tube, the pipe gives out one note of unvarying dynamic intensity; + increase the pressure of the wind and harmonics are heard, but it is + impossible to obtain a crescendo unless the mouthpiece be dispensed + with and a free reed (q.v.) adapted. + + Reference has already been made above to the difficulty of obtaining + the fundamental on tubes of great length and narrow bore like the + horn. The useful compass of the horn, therefore, begins with the note + that an open pipe half its length would give; the Germans term + instruments of such small calibre _half instruments_, and those of + wide calibre, such as bugles and tubas, _whole instruments_,[16] since + in them the whole of the length of the tube is available in practice. + + The harmonic series of the horn, or the open notes obtainable without + using valves or crooks, is written as for the alto horn in C of 8 ft. + tone, which forms the standard of notation. Notes written in the bass + clef are generally, for some unexplained reason, placed an octave + lower than the real sounds. + + [Illustration] + + All the crooks, a list of the principal of which is appended, + therefore necessarily give real sounds _lower_ than the above series + according to their individual length. + + _Table of Principal Crooks now in Use._[17] + + +---------------+------------------+-------------+----------+-----------------+ + | Key of | Actual Sounds of | | Length of| | + | Crook. | Range of Useful | | Crook in | Transposes to | + | | Harmonics. | | Inches. | | + +---------------+------------------+-------------+----------+-----------------+ + | B[flat] alto | [music notes] | 2nd to 10th | 16 | major 2nd lower | + | A[natural] | [music notes] | 2nd to 10th | 22½ | minor 3rd " | + | A[flat] | [music notes] | 2nd to 10th | 29½ | major 3rd " | + | G | [music notes] | 2nd to 12th | 36¾ | perfect 4th " | + | F | [music notes] | 2nd to 16th | 52½ | perfect 5th " | + | E | [music notes] | 2nd to 16th | 61 | minor 6th " | + | E[flat] | [music notes] | 2nd to 16th | 70¼ | major 6th " | + | D | [music notes] | 2nd to 16th | 80 | minor 7th " | + | C basso | [music notes] | 3rd to 16th | 101 | 8^ve " | + | B[flat] basso | [music notes] | 3rd to 16th | 125 | major 9th " | + +---------------+------------------+-------------+----------+-----------------+ + + The practical aggregate compass of the natural horns from B[flat] + basso at the service of composers therefore ranges (actual sounds) + from [music notes] or with 3 valves from [music notes] By means of + hand-stopping, i.e. the practice of thrusting the hand into the bell + in order to lower the sound by a tone or a semitone, or by the + adaptation of valves to the horn, this compass may be rendered + chromatic almost throughout the range. + + The principle of the valve as applied to wind instruments differs + entirely from that of keys. The latter necessitate lateral holes bored + through the tube, and when the keys are raised the vibrating column of + air within the tube and the ambient air without are set in + communication, with the result that the vibrating column is shortened + and the pitch of the note raised. The valve system consists of valves + or pistons attached to additional lengths of tubing, the effect of + which is invariably to lower the pitch, except in the case of valve + systems specified as "ascending" tried by John Shaw and Adolphe Sax. + Insuperable practical difficulties led to the abandonment of these + systems, which in any case were the exception and not the rule. The + valves, placed upon the U-shaped slides in the centre of the horn, are + worked by means of pistons or levers, opening or closing the wind-ways + at will, so that when they are in operation the vibrating column of + air no longer takes its normal course along the main tube and directly + through the slides, but makes a détour through the extra length of + tubing before completing its course. Thus the valves, unlike the keys, + do not open any communication with the ambient air. Even authoritative + writers[18] have confused the two principles, believing them to be one + and the same. + + French horns are made with either two or three valves. To the first + valve is attached sufficient length of tubing to lower the pitch of + the instrument a tone, so that any note played upon the horn in F + while the first valve is depressed takes effect a tone lower, or as + though the horn were in E[flat]. The second valve opens a passage into + a shorter length of tubing sufficient to lower the pitch of the + instrument a semitone, as though the instrument were for the time + being in E. The third valve similarly lowers the pitch a tone and a + half. It will thus be seen that the principle applied in the crook and + the valve is in the main the same, but the practical value of the + valve is immeasurably superior. Thanks to the valve system the + performer is able to have the extra lengths of tubing necessary to + give the horn a chromatic compass permanently incorporated with the + instrument, and at will to connect one or a combination of these + lengths with the main tube of the instrument during any interval of + time, however short. The three devices, crooks, valves and slides, are + in fact all based upon the same principle, that of providing + additional length of tubing in order to deepen the pitch of the whole + instrument at will and to transpose it into a different key. Valves + and slides, being instantaneous in operation, give to the instrument a + chromatic compass, whereas crooks merely enable the performer to play + in many keys upon one instrument instead of requiring a different + instrument for each key. The slide is the oldest of these devices, and + probably suggested the crook as a substitute on instruments of conical + bore such as the horn. + + The invention of the valve, although a substantial improvement, was + found to fall short of perfection in its operation on the tubes of + wind instruments so soon as the possibility of using the three valves + in combination to produce six different positions or series of + harmonics was realized, and for the following reason. In order to + deepen the pitch one tone by means of valve 1, a length of tubing + exactly proportional to the length of the main tube must be thrown + into communication with the latter. If, in addition to valve 1, valve + 3 be depressed, a further drop in pitch of 1½ tone should be effected; + but as the length of tubing added by depressing valve 3 is calculated + in proportion to the main tube, and the latter has already been + lengthened by depressing valve 1, therefore the additional length + supplied by opening valve 3 is now too short to produce a drop of a + minor third strictly in tune, and all notes played while valves 1 and + 3 are depressed will be too sharp. Means of compensating slight errors + in intonation are provided in the U-shaped slides mentioned above. + + The _timbre_ of the natural horn is mellow, sonorous and rich in + harmonics; it is quite distinctive and bears but little resemblance to + that of the other members of the brass wind. In listening to its + sustained notes one receives the impression of the tone being breathed + out as by a voice, whereas the trumpet and trombone produce the effect + of a rapid series of concussions, and in the tuba and cornet the + concussions, although still striking, are softened as by padding. The + timbre of the hand-stopped notes is veiled and suggestive of mystery; + so characteristic is the timbre that passages in the _Rheingold_ heard + when the magic power of the Tarnhelm reveals itself sound meaningless + if the weird chords are played by means of the valves instead of by + hand-stopping. The timbre of the piston notes is more resonant than + that of the open notes, partaking a little of the character of the + trombone, which is probably due to the fact that the strictly conical + bore of the natural horn has been replaced by a mixed cylindrical and + conical as in trumpet and trombone. + + The form of the mouthpiece (q.v.) at the point where it joins the main + bore of the tube must also exercise a certain influence on the form of + vibration, which it helps to modify in conjunction with the + conformation of each individual horn-player's lip. In the horn the cup + of the mouthpiece is shaped like a funnel, the bore converging + insensibly into the narrow end of the main conical bore without break + or sharp edges as in the mouthpieces, more properly known as + cup-shaped, of trumpet and bombardon. + + The brilliant sonorousness and roundness of the timbre of the horn are + due to the strength and predominance of the partial tones up to the + 7th or 8th. The prevalence of the higher harmonics from the 10th to + the 16th, in which the partial tones lie very close together, + determines the harsh quality of the trumpet timbre, which may be + easily imitated on the horn by forcing the sound production and using + a trumpet mouthpiece, and by raising the bell, an effect which is + indicated by composers by the words "Raise the Bells."[19] + + + History. + +The origin of the horn must be sought in remote prehistoric times, when, +by breaking off the tip of a short animal horn, one or at best two +notes, powerful, rough, unsteady, only barely approximating to definite +musical sounds, were obtained. This was undoubtedly the archetype of the +modern families of brass wind instruments, and from it evolved the +trumpet, the bugle and the tuba no less than the horn. The common +characteristics which link together these widely different modern +families of instruments are: (1) the more or less pronounced conical +bore, and (2) the property possessed in a greater or lesser degree of +producing the natural sounds by what has been termed overblowing the +harmonic overtones. If we follow the evolution of the animal horn +throughout the centuries, the ultimate development leads us not to the +French horn but to the bugle and tuba. + + Before civilization had dawned in classic Greece, Egypt, Assyria and + the Semitic races were using wind instruments of wood and metal which + had left the primitive ram or bugle horn far behind. Even in northern + Europe, during the Bronze age (c. 1000 B.C.), prehistoric man had + evolved for himself the prototype of the Roman _cornu_, a bronze horn + of wide conical bore, bent in the shape of a G. One of these + instruments, known among the modern Scandinavian races as _luurs_ or + _lurs_, found in the peat beds of Denmark and now preserved in the + Museum of Northern Antiquities in Copenhagen, has a length of 1.91 m. + (about 6 ft. 4 in.). The U-shaped mouthpiece joint is neatly joined to + the remainder of the crescent-tube by means of a bronze ring; the + bell, which must have rested on the shoulder, consists merely of a + flat rim set round the end of the tube. There is therefore no graceful + curve in the bell as in the French horn. An exact facsimile of this + prehistoric horn has been made by Victor Mahillon of Brussels, who + finds that it was in the key of E[flat] and easily produces the first + eight harmonics of that key. It stands, therefore, an octave higher + than the modern horn in E[flat] (which measures some 13 ft.), but on + the _lur_ the fundamental E[flat] can be reached owing to the wider + calibre of the bore.[20] + + Among the Romans the wind instruments derived from the horn were well + represented, and included well-developed types which do not differ + materially from the natural instruments of modern times. The buccina + developed directly into the trumpet and trombone during the middle + ages, losing no characteristic of importance but the bent form, which + was perforce abandoned when the art of bending hollow tubes was lost + after the fall of the Roman Empire. The name clung through all the + changes in form and locality to the one type, and still remains at the + present day in the German _Posaune_ (trombone). There were four + instruments known by the name of _cornu_ among the Romans: (1) the + short animal horn used by shepherds; (2) the longer, semicircular + horn, used for signals; and (3) the still longer _cornu_, bent and + carried like the buccina, which had the wide bore of the modern tuba. + But whereas on the buccina the higher harmonics were easily obtained, + on the cornu the natural scale consisted of the first eight harmonics + only. The cornu, although shorter than the buccina, had a deeper pitch + and more sonorous tone, for, owing to the wider calibre of the bore, + the fundamental was easily reached. In the reliefs on Trajan's Column, + where the two instruments may be compared, the wider curve of the + buccina forms a ready means of identification. In addition to these + was (4) the small instrument like the medieval hunting-horn or + post-horn, with the single spiral turn similar to one which figures as + service badge in many British infantry regiments,[21] such as the + first battalion of the King's Own Light Infantry. A terra-cotta model, + slightly broken, but with the spiral intact, was excavated at Ventoux + in France and is at present preserved in the department of Greek and + Roman antiquities at the British Museum, having been acquired from the + collection of M. Morel. + + The _lituus_, or cavalry trumpet of the Romans, consisted of a + cylindrical tube, to which was attached a bent horn or conical bell, + the whole in the shape of a J. The long, straight Roman tuba was + similar to the large, bent cornu so far as bore and capabilities were + concerned, but more unwieldy. All these wind instruments seem to have + been used during the classic Greek and Roman periods merely to sound + fanfares, and therefore, in spite of the high degree of perfection to + which they attained as instruments, they scarcely possess any claim to + be considered within the domain of music. They were signalling + instruments, mainly used in war, in hunting and in state or civic + ceremonial. Vegetius (A.D. 386) describes these instruments, and gives + detailed instructions for the special traditional uses of tuba, + buccina and cornu in the military camp: "Semivocalia sunt, quae per + tubam, aut cornua, aut buccinam dantur. Tuba quae directa est + appellatur buccina, quae in semet ipsam aereo circulo flectitur. Cornu + quod ex uris agrestibus, argento nexum, temperatum arte, et spiritu, + quem canentis flatus emittit auditur."[22] It will be seen that + Vegetius demands a skilled horn-player. These service instruments may + all be identified in the celebrated bas-reliefs of Trajan's Column[23] + (fig. 1) and of the Triumphal arch of Augustus at Susa.[24] + + Interesting evidence of a collegium cornicinum (gild of horn-players) + is furnished by an altar stone in the Roman catacombs, erected to the + memory of one "M. Julius victor ex Collegio Liticinum Cornicinum," on + which are carved a lituus, a cornu and a pan's pipe, the cornu being + similar to those on Trajan's Column. + + All three Roman instruments, the tuba, the buccina and the cornu, had + well-formed mouthpieces, differing but little from the modern + cup-shaped form in use on the trumpet, the trombone, the tubas, + &c.[25] It would seem that even the short horn in the 4th century was + provided with a mouthpiece,[26] judging from a carved specimen on an + ivory _capsa_ or _pyxis_ dating from the period immediately preceding + the fall of the Roman Empire, preserved among the precious relics at + Xanten. + + [Illustration: From Conrad Cichorius, _Die Reliefs der Traiansäule_, + by permission of Georg Reimer. + + FIG. 1.--Roman Cornu and Buccina.] + + After the fall of the Roman Empire, when instrumental music had fallen + into disrepute and had been placed under a ban by the church, the art + of playing upon such highly-developed instruments gradually died out + in western Europe. With the disappearance of the civilization and + culture of the Romans, the skilled crafts also gradually vanished, and + the art of making metal pipes of delicate calibre and of bending them + was completely forgotten, and had to be reacquired step by step during + the middle ages from the more enlightened East. The names of the + instruments and representations of them survived in MSS. and monuments + of art, and as long as the West was content to turn to late Roman and + Romano-Christian art for its models, no difficulties were created for + the future archaeologist. By the time the Western races had begun to + express themselves and to develop their own characteristics, in the + 11th century, the arts of Persia, Arabia and the Byzantine Empire had + laid their mark upon the West, and confusion of models, and more + especially of names, ensued. The greatest confusion of all was created + by the numerous translations and glosses of the Bible and by the + attempts of miniaturists to illustrate the principal scenes. In + Revelation, for instance (ch. viii.), the seven angels with their + trumpets are diversely represented with long tubas, with curved horns + of various lengths, and with the buisine, busaun or posaune, the + descendant of the buccina. + + We know from the colouring used in illuminated MSS., gold and pale + blue, that horns were made of metal early in the middle ages. The + metal was not cast in moulds but hammered into shape. + Viollet-le-Duc[27] reproduces a miniature from a MS. of the end of the + 13th century (Paris, Bibliothèque du corps législatif), in which two + metal-workers are shown hammering two large horns. + + [Illustration: FIG. 2.--Medieval Hunting Horn with the + + Tablature in use in the 14th Century.] + + The early medieval horns had no mouthpieces, the narrow end being + merely finished with a rim on which the lips rested. The tone suffered + in consequence, being uncertain, rough and tremulous, wherefore it was + indicated by the neume known as _quilisma_: "Est vox tremula; sicut + est sonus flatus tubae vel cornu et designatur per neumam, quae + vocatur _quilisma_."[28] + + During the middle ages the bugle-horn or bull's horn was extensively + used as a signal instrument on land and sea (see BUGLE), by the + night-watchmen in cities, in the watch tower of the feudal castle and + by foresters and huntsmen. The hunting-horn was generally represented + as small in the hunting scenes which abound in illuminated MSS. and + early printed books; it was crescent-shaped and was worn slung by a + leather strap over one shoulder and resting on the opposite hip. When + played it was held with the wide end curving upwards in front of the + huntsman's head. A kind of tablature for the horn was in use in France + in the 14th century; an example of it is here reproduced (fig. 2) from + a 14th-century French MS. treatise on venery.[29] Only one note is + indicated, the various calls and signals being based chiefly on + rhythm, and the notes being left to the taste and skill of the + huntsman. The interpretation[30] of the _Cornure de chasse de veue_ + seen in the figure is as follows: + + First line = [music notes] + + Second line = [music notes] + + Third line = [music notes] + + In the first poem is given a list of these signs with the names by + which they were known in venery. + + In the 16th century in England the hunting-horn sometimes had a spiral + turn in the centre, half-way between mouthpiece and bell end; the + extra length was apparently added solely in order to lower the pitch, + the higher harmonics not being used for the hunting calls. In George + Turbevile's _Noble Arte of Venerie_ (1576, facsimile reprint, Oxford, + 1908) the "measures of blowing according to the order which is + observed at these dayes in this Realme of Englande" are given for the + horn in D. One of these, given in fig. 3, is the English 16th-century + hunting call, corresponding to the 14th-century French _Cornure de + chasse de veue_ given above. + + [Illustration: From Turbevile's _Noble Art of Venerie_ (1576), by + permission of the Clarendon Press. + + FIG. 3.--Hunting Call.] + + The hunting-horn, whether in its simplest form or with the one spiral, + was held with the bell upwards on a level with the huntsman's head or + just above it.[31] + + A horn of the same fine calibre as the French horn, 3 or 4 ft. in + length, slightly bent to take the curve of the body, was in use in + Italy, it would seem, in the 15th century.[32] It was held slanting + across the body with the bell already slightly parabolic, at arm's + length to the left side. + + The hunting- and post-horns were favourite emblems on medieval coats + of arms, more especially in Germany[33] and Bohemia. + + It is necessary at this point to draw attention to the fact that the + French horn is a hybrid having affinities with both trumpet and + primitive animal horn, or with _buccina_ and _cornu_, and that both + types, although frequently misnamed and confused by medieval writers + and miniaturists, subsisted side by side, evolving independently until + they merged in the so-called French horn. Both buccina and cornu after + the fall of the Roman Empire, while Western arts and crafts were in + their infancy, were made straight, being then known as the busine or + straight trumpet (busaun or posaun in Germany), and the long horn, + _Herhorn_, slightly curved.[34] + + [Illusration: FIG. 4.--Medieval Circular Horn.] + + [Illusration: FIG. 5.--Medieval Circular Horn, 1589.] + + From two medieval representations of instruments like the Roman cornu + one might be led to conclude that the instrument had been revived and + was in use from the 14th century. A wooden bas-relief on the under + part of the seats of the choir of Worcester cathedral,[35] said to + date from the 14th century, shows a musician in a robe with long + sleeves of fur playing the horn (fig. 4). The tube winds from the + mouth in a circle reaching to his waist, passes under the right arm + across the shoulders with the bell stretching out horizontally over + his left shoulder. The tube, of strictly conical bore, is made in + three pieces, the joints being strengthened by means of two rings. The + other example is German, and figures in the arms of the city of + Frankfort-on-Main.[36] Here in the two opposite corners are two + cherubs playing immense cornua. The bore of the instruments (fig. 5) + is of a calibre suggestive of the contrabass tuba; the circle formed + is of a diameter sufficiently large to accommodate the youthful + performer in a sitting posture; the bell is the forerunner of that of + the modern saxophone, shaped like a gloxinea; the mouthpiece is + cup-shaped. It is possible, of course, that these two examples are + attempts to reproduce the classic instrument, but the figures of the + musicians and the feeling of the whole scheme of ornamentation seem to + render such an explanation improbable. Moreover, Sebastian + Virdung,[37] writing on musical instruments at the beginning of the + 16th century, gives a drawing of a cornu coiled round tightly, the + tubing being probably soldered together at certain points. Virdung + calls this instrument a _Jegerhorn_, and the short hunting-horn + _Acherhorn_ (Ackerhorn--the synonym of the modern Waldhorn). The scale + of the former could have consisted only of the first eight harmonics, + including the fundamental, which would be easily obtained on an + instrument of such a large calibre. Mersenne,[38] a century and a + quarter later, gives a drawing of the same kind of horn among his + _cors de chasse_, but does not in his description display his + customary intimate knowledge of his subject; it may be that he was + dealing at second-hand with an instrument of which he had had little + practical experience. Praetorius[39] gives as Jägerhorn only the + simple forms of crescent-shaped horns with a single spiral; the + spirally-wound horn of Virdung is replaced by a new instrument--the + _Jägertrummet_ (huntsman's trumpet)--of the same form, but less + cumbersome, of cylindrical bore excepting at the bell end and having a + crook inserted between the mouthpiece and the main coils. The tube, + which could not have been less than 8 ft. long, produced the harmonic + series of the cavalry trumpet from the 3rd to the 12th. The + restrictions placed upon the use of the cavalry trumpet would have + rendered it unavailable for use in the hunting-field, but the + snake-shaped model, as Praetorius describes it, was a decided + improvement on the horn, although inferior in resonance to the cavalry + model. Here then are the materials for the fusion of the trumpet and + hunting-horn into the natural or hand-horn of the 17th and 18th + centuries. There is evidence, however, that a century earlier, i.e. at + the end of the 15th century, the art of bending a brass tube of the + delicate proportions of the French horn, which is still a test of fine + workmanship, had been successfully practised. In an illustrated + edition of Virgil's works published in Strassburg in 1502 and + emanating from Grüninger's office, Brant being responsible for the + illustrations, the lines (_Aen._ viii. 1-2) "Ut belli signum Laurenti + Turnus ab arce Extulit: et rauco strepuerunt cornua cantu" are + illustrated by two soldiers, one with the sackbut (posaune, the + descendant of the buccina), the other with a horn wound spirally round + his body in three coils, which appear to have a conical bore from the + funnel-shaped mouthpiece to the bell which extends at the back of the + head horizontally over the left shoulder (fig. 6). There is ample + room for the performer's head and shoulders to pass through the + circle: the length of the tube could not therefore have been much less + than 16 ft. long, equivalent to the horn in C or B[flat] basso. In the + same book (pl. ccci.) is another horn, smaller, differing slightly in + the disposition of the coils and held like the modern horn in front. + + [Illustration: FIG. 6.--Spirally Coiled Horn from Virgil's Works + (1502), folio cccviii. versa.] + + These horns were not used for hunting but for war in conjunction with + the draw-trumpet. Brant could not have imagined these instruments, and + must have seen the originals or at least drawings of them; the + instruments probably emanated from the famed workshops of Nuremberg, + being intended mainly for use in Italy, and had not been generally + adopted in Germany. The significance of these drawings of natural + horns in a German work of the dawn of the 16th century will not be + lost. It disposes once and for all of the oft-repeated fable that the + hunting-horn first assumed its present form in France about 1680, a + statement accepted without question by authorities of all countries, + but without reference to any _pièce justificative_ other than the + story of the Bohemian Count Spörken first quoted by Gerber,[40] and + repeated in most musical works without the context. The account which + gave rise to this statement had been published in 1782 in a book by + Faustinus Prochaska:[41] "Vix Parisiis inflandi cornua venatoria + inventa ars quum delectatus suavitate cantus duos ex hominibus sibi + obnoxiis ea instituendos curavit. Id principium apud nos artis, qua + hodie Bohemi excellere putantur." In a preceding passage after the + count's name, Franz Anton, Graf von Spörken, are the words "anno + saeculi superioris octogesimo quum iter in externas provincias + suscepisset," &c. There is no reference here to the invention of the + horn in Paris or to the folding of the tube spirally, but only to the + manner of eliciting sound from the instrument. Count Spörken, + accustomed to the medieval hunting fanfares in which the tone of the + horn approximated to the blare of the trumpet, was merely struck by + the musical quality of the true horn tone elicited in Paris, and gave + France the credit of the so-called invention, which probably more + properly belonged to Italy. The account published by Prochaska a + hundred years after, without reference to the source from which it was + obtained, finds no corroboration from French sources. Had the French + really made any substantial improvement in the hunting-horn at the end + of the 17th century, transforming it from the primitive instrument + into an orchestral instrument, it would only be reasonable to expect + to find some evidence of this, considering the importance attached to + the art of music at the court of Louis XIV., whose musical + establishments, la Chapelle Musique,[42] la Musique de la Chambre du + Roi and la Musique de la Grande Écurie, included the most brilliant + French artists. One would expect to find horns of that period by + French makers among the relics of musical instruments in the museums + of Europe. This does not seem to be the case. Moreover, in Diderot and + d'Alembert's _Encyclopédie_ (1767) the information given under the + heading _trompe ou cor de chasse grand et petit_ is very vague, and + contains no hint of any special merit due to France for any + improvement in construction. Among the plates (vol. v., pl. vii.) is + given an illustration of a horn very similar to the instruments made + in England and Germany nearly a century earlier, but with a + funnel-shaped mouthpiece. Dr Julius Rühlmann states that there are two + horns by Raoux, bearing the date 1703,[43] in the Bavarian National + Museum in Munich,[44] but although fine examples, one in silver, the + other in brass (fig. 6) by Raoux, they turn out on inquiry[45] to bear + no date whatever. Rühlmann's statement in the same article, that in + the arms of the family of Wartenberg-Kolb (now extinct), which goes + back to 1169, there is a hunting-horn coiled round in a complete + circle is also misleading. The horn (a post-horn) did not appear in + the arms of the family in question until 1699, when the first peer + Casimir Johann Friedrich was created hereditary Post-Master. The + influence of such erroneous statements in the work of noted writers is + far-reaching. Inquiries at the department of National Archives in + Paris concerning Raoux, the founder of the afterwards famous firm of + horn-makers whose model with pistons is used in the British military + bands and at Kneller Hall, proved fruitless. Fétis states that he + worked during the second half of the 18th century. Albert Chouquet[46] + states that he has seen a trumpet by Raoux, "seul ordinaire du Roy, + Place du Louvre" dated 1695. The inscriptions on the horns in question + are: For No. 105, a silver horn of the simplest form of construction + in D, "Fait à Paris par Raoux"; for No. 106, a brass horn engraved + with a crown on an ermine mantle with the initials C. A. (Carl + Albert), "Fait à Paris par Raoux, seul ordinaire du Roy, Place du + Louvre." Both horns measure across the coils 56 cm. and across the + bell 27½. They are practically the same as the _cors de chasse_ now in + use in French and Belgian military bands, the large diameter of the + coil enabling the performer to carry it over his shoulder. The + orchestral horn was given a narrower diameter in order to facilitate + its being held in front of the performer in a convenient position for + stopping the bell with the right hand. No. 107 in the same collection, + a horn of German construction, bears the inscription "Macht Jacob + Schmid in Nürnberg" and the trademark "J. S." with a bird. A horn in + E[flat]] of French make, having fleur-de-lys stamped on the rim of the + bell, and measuring only 15 in. across the coils to the exterior edge + of the bell--therefore a very small horn--is preserved in the Grand + Ducal Museum at Darmstadt.[47] A horn in F[sharp] (probably F in + modern high pitch), having the rim ornamented as above and the + inscription "Fait à Paris, Carlin, ordinaire du Roy," readily gives + the harmonics from the 3rd to the 12th.[48] The extreme width is 20 + in.[49] Carlin, who lived at rue Croix des Petits Champs, died about + 1780. The earliest dated horn extant is believed to be the one + preserved in the Hohenzollern Museum in Sigmaringen, "Machts Wilhelm + Haas, Nürnberg, 1688."[50] Another early German horn engraved "Machts + Heinr. Rich. Pfeiffer in Leipzig, 1697,"[51] formerly in Paul de Wit's + museum in Leipzig and now transferred with the rest of the collection + to Cologne, is of similar construction. + + [Illustration: From a Photo by K. Teufel. + + FIG. 7.--Early Raoux Horn (Munich).] + + The horn must have been well known at this time in England, for there + are 17th-century horns of English manufacture still extant, one, for + instance, in the collection of the Rev. F. W. Galpin by William Bull, + dated 1699.[52] In 1701 Clagget[53] invented a contrivance by means of + which two horns in different keys could be coupled and played by means + of one mouthpiece, a valve or key opening the passage into the airways + of one or the other of these horns at the will of the performer. + Another horn of English manufacture about 1700 was exhibited at the + South Kensington Museum in 1872, bearing No. 337 in the catalogue, in + which unfortunately no details are given. Enough examples have been + quoted to show that, judging from the specimens extant, Germany was + not behind France, if not actually ahead, in the manufacture of early + natural horns. Data are wanting concerning the instruments of Italy; + they would probably prove to be the earliest of all, and as brass + wind instruments are perishable are perhaps for that very reason + unrepresented at the present day. + + The horn at the present stage in its evolution was also well + represented among the illustrations of the musical literature in + Germany[54] during the first half of the 18th century, and references + to it are frequent. + + + Music. + + The earliest orchestral music for the horn occurs in the operas of + Cavalli and Cesti, leaders of the Venetian Opera in the 17th century. + Already in 1639 Cavalli in his opera _Le Nozze de Tito e Pelei_ (act + i. sc. 1) introduced a short scena, "Chiamata alla Caccia"[55] in C + major for four horns on a basso continuo. An examination of the + scoring in C clefs on the first, second, third and fourth lines shows, + by the use of the note [music notes] in the bass part and in the + second tenor of [music notes] the 5th harmonic of the series, that the + fundamental could have been no other than the 16-ft. C; the highest + note in the treble part is [music notes], the 12th harmonic of the + 8-ft. alto horn in C, now obsolete. It is clear therefore that horns + with tubing respectively 8 ft. and 16 ft. long, which must have been + disposed in coils as in the present day, were in use in Italy before + the middle of the 17th century, fifty years before the date of their + reputed invention in Paris. + + In the same opera, act i. sc. 4, "Coro di Cavalieri" is a stirring + call to arms of elemental grandeur, in which occur the words: "all' + armi, ò la guerrieri corni e tamburi e trombe, ogni campo ogni canto, + armi rimbombe." There are above the voice parts four staves with + treble and C clef signatures above the bass, and, although no + instruments are indicated, the music written thereon, which alternates + with the voices but does not accompany them, can have been intended + for no instruments but trumpets and horns, thus carrying out the + indications in the text. The horn is here once again put to the same + use as the Roman cornu, and associated in like manner with the + descendant of the buccina in a call to arms. It may be purely a + coincidence that the early illustration of a horn with the tubing + wound in coils round the body in the Strassburg Virgil mentioned above + was put to the same use and associated with the same instrument. + + Cesti's operas likewise contain many passages evidently intended for + the horn, although the instruments are not specified in the score, + which was nothing unusual at the time. Lulli composed the incidental + music for a ballet, _La Princesse d'Elide_, which formed part of + Molière's divertissement, "Les plaisirs de l'île enchantée," written + for a great festival at Versailles on the 7th of May 1664. A copy of + the music for this ballet, made about 1680, is preserved in the + library of the Fitzwilliam Museum, Cambridge. The music contains a + piece entitled "Les violons et les cors de chasse," written in the + same style as Cavalli's scena; there are but two staves, and on both + the music is characteristic of the horn, with which the violins would + play in unison. The piece finishes on B[flat][music notes] and to play + this note as the second of the harmonic series, the fundamental not + being obtainable, the tube of the horn must have been over 17 ft. + long. Among Philidor's copies of Lulli's ballets preserved in the + library of the Paris Conservatoire of Music (vol. xlvii., p. 61) is a + more complete copy of the above. The second number is an "Air des + valets de chiens et des chasseurs avec les cors de chasse," which is + substantially the same as the one in the Fitzwilliam Museum, but set + for five horns in B[flat]. Here again the use of D, the fifth note of + the harmonic series, indicates that the fundamental was [music notes] + a tone lower than the C horn scored for by Cavalli, and known as + B[flat] basso. Victor Mahillon[56] considers that the music reveals + the fact that it was written for horns in B[flat], 35 degrees + (chromatic semitones) above 32-ft. C, or [music notes] having a + wave-length of 1.475 m. To this statement it is not possible to + subscribe. The quintette required four horns in B[flat] over 8 ft. + long and one B[flat] basso about 17 ft. long. It is obvious that the + present custom of placing the bass notes of the horn on the F clef an + octave too low, as is now customary, had not yet been adopted, for in + that case the bass horn would in several bars be playing above the + tenor. + + In 1647 Cardinal Mazarin, wishing to create in France a taste for + Italian opera, had procured from Italy an orchestra, singers and + mise-en-scène. That he was not entirely successful in making Paris + appreciate Italian music is beside the mark; he developed instead a + demand for French opera, to which Lulli proved equal. The great + similarity in the style of the horn _scène_ by Cavalli and Lulli may + perhaps provide a clue to the mysterious and sudden apparition of the + natural horn in France, where nothing was known of the hybrid + instrument thirty years before, when Mersenne[57] wrote his careful + treatise on musical instruments. + + The orchestral horn had been introduced from Italy. It is not + difficult to understand how the horn came to be called the _French_ + horn in England; the term only appears after Gerber and other writers + had repeated the story of Count Spörken introducing the musical horn + into Bohemia.[58] By this time the firm of Raoux, established in Paris + a hundred years, had won for itself full recognition of its high + standard of workmanship in the making of horns. + + This use of the horn by Lulli in the one ballet seems to be an + isolated instance; no other has yet been quoted. The introduction of + the natural horn into the orchestra of the French opera did not occur + until much later in 1735 in André Campra's _Achille et Deidamie_, and + then only in a fanfare. In the meantime the horn had already won a + place in most of the rising opera houses and ducal orchestras[59] of + Germany, and had been introduced by Handel into the orchestra in + London in his _Water-music_ composed in honour of George I. + + Although the Italians were undoubtedly the first to introduce the horn + into the orchestra, it figured at first only as the characteristic + instrument of the chase, suggesting and accompanying hunting scenes or + calls to arms. For a more independent use of the horn in the orchestra + we must turn to Germany. Reinhard Keiser, the founder of German opera, + at the end of the 17th century in Hamburg, introduced two horns in C + into the opening chorus of his opera _Octavia_ in 1705, where the + horns are added to the string quartette and the oboes; they play again + in act i. sc. 3, and in act ii. sc. 6 and 9. The compass used by the + composer for the horns in C alto is the following:-- + + [Illustration: Music notes.] + + Wilhelm Kleefeld draws attention to the characterization, which + differed in the three acts. In _Henrico_ (1711), in _Diana_ (1712) and + in _L'Inganno Fedele_ (1714) F horns were used. This called forth from + Mattheson[60] his much-quoted eulogium, the earliest description of + the orchestral horn: "Die lieblich pompeusen Waldhörner sind bei + itziger Zeit sehr _en vogue_ kommen, weil sie theils nicht so rude von + Natur sind als die Trompeten, teils auch weil sie mit mehr _Facilité_ + können tractiret werden. Die brauchbarsten haben F und mit den + Trompeten aus dem C gleichen _Ambitum_. Sie klingen auch dicker und + füllen besser aus als die übertäubende und schreyende Clarinen, weil + sie um eine ganze quinte tiefer stehen." + + Lotti in his _Giove in Argo_, given in Dresden, 1717, scored for two + horns in C, writing for them soli in the aria for tenor[61] (act iii. + sc. 1). Examples of C. H. Graun's[62] scoring for horns in F and G + respectively in _Polydorus_ (1708-1729) and in _Iphigenia_ (1731) show + the complete emancipation of the instrument from its original + limitations; it serves not only as melody instrument but also to + enrich the harmony and emphasize the rhythm. A comparison of the early + scores of Cavalli and Lulli with those of Handel's + _Wasserfahrtmusik_[63] (1717) and of _Radamisto_, performed in London + in 1720, shows the rapid progress made by the horn, even at a time + when its technique was still necessarily imperfect. + + While Bach was conductor of the prince of Anhalt-Cöthen's orchestra + (1717-1723), it is probable that horns in several keys were used. In + Dresden two Bohemian horn-players, Johann Adalbert Fischer and Franz + Adam Samm, were added to the court orchestra in 1711.[64] In Vienna + the addition is stated to have taken place in 1712 at the opera.[65] + It is probable that as in Paris so in Vienna there were solitary + instances in which the horn was heard in opera without attracting the + attention of musicians long before 1712, for instance in Cesti's _Il + Pomo d'Oro_, printed in Vienna in 1667 and 1668 and performed for the + wedding ceremonies of Kaiser Leopold and Margareta, infanta of Spain. + A horn in E (former F pitch) in the museum of the Brussels + conservatoire bears the inscription "Machts Michael Leicham Schneider + in Wien, 1713."[66] Fürstenau[67] gives a further list of operas in + Vienna during the first two decades of the 18th century. + + It will be well before the next stage in the evolution is approached + to consider the compass of the natural horn. The pedal octave from the + fundamental to the 2nd harmonic was altogether wanting; the next + octave contained only the 2nd and 3rd harmonics or the octave and its + fifth; in the third octave, the 8ve, its major 3rd, 5th and minor 7th; + in the fourth octave, a diatonic scale with a few accidentals was + possible. It will be seen that the compass was very limited on any + individual horn, but by grouping horns in different keys, or by + changing the crooks, command was gained by the composer over a larger + number of open notes. + + An important period in the development of the horn has now been + reached. Anton Joseph Hampel is generally credited[68] with the + innovation of adapting the crooks to the middle of the body of the + horn instead of near the mouthpiece, which greatly improved the + quality of the notes obtained by means of the crooks. The crooks + fitted into the two branches of U-shaped tubes, thus forming slides + which acted as compensators. Hampel's _Inventionshorn_, as it is + called in Germany (Fr. _cor harmonique_), is said to date from + 1753,[69] the first instrument having been made for him by Johann + Werner, a brass instrument-maker of Dresden. The same invention is + also attributed to Haltenhof of Hanau.[70] Others again mention + Michael Wögel[71] of Carlsruhe and Rastadt, probably confusing his + adaptation of the _Invention_ or _Maschine_, as the slide contrivance + was called in Germany, to the trumpet in 1780. The Inventionshorn, + although embodying an important principle which has also found its + application in all brass wind instruments with valves as a means of + correcting defective intonation, did not add to the compass of the + horn. At some date before 1762 it would seem that Hampel[72] also + discovered the principle on which hand-stopping is founded. + + By hand-stopping (Fr. _sons bouchés_, Ger. _gestöpfte Töne_) is + understood the practice of inserting the hand with palm outstretched + and fingers drawn together, forming a long, shallow cup, into the + bell of the horn; the effect is similar to that produced in wood wind + instruments, termed _d'amore_, by the pear-shaped bell with a narrow + opening, i.e. a veiled mysterious quality, and, according to the + arrangement of the hand and fingers (which cannot be taught + theoretically, being inter-dependent on other acoustic conditions), a + drop in pitch which enables the performer merely to correct the faulty + intonation of difficult harmonics or to lower the pitch exactly a + semitone or even a full tone by inserting the hand well up the bore of + the bell. J. Fröhlich[73] gives drawings of the two principal + positions of the hand in the horn. The same phenomenon may be observed + in the flute by closing all the holes, so that the fundamental note of + the pipe speaks, and then gradually bringing the palm of the hand + nearer the open end of the flute. As a probable explanation may be + offered the following suggestion. The partial closing of the opening + of the bell removes the boundary of ambient air, which determines the + ventral segment of the half wave-length some distance beyond the + normal length; this boundary always lies _beyond_ the end of the tube, + thus accounting for the discrepancy between the theoretical length of + the air-column and the practical length actually given to the + tube.[74] Hampel is also said to have been the first to apply the + _sordini_[75] (Fr. _sourdine_) or mute, already in use in the 17th + century for the trumpet,[76] to the horn. The original mute did not + affect the pitch of the instrument, but only the tone, and when + properly constructed may be used with the valve horn to produce the + mysterious veiled quality of the hand-stopped notes. No satisfactory + scientific explanation of the modifications in the pitch effected by + the partial obstruction of the bell, whether by the hand or by means + of certain mechanical devices, has as yet been offered. D. J. Blaikley + suggests that in cases when the effect of hand-stopping appears to be + to raise the pitch of the notes of the harmonic series, the real + result of any contraction of the bell mouth (as by the insertion of + the hand) is always a flattening of pitch accompanied by the + introduction of a distorted or inharmonic scale, of such a character + that for instance, the _c_, _d_, _e_, or 8th, 9th and 10th notes of + the original harmonic scale become not the c[sharp] d[sharp] e[sharp] + of a fundamental raised a semitone, but D[flat], E[flat], and f due to + the 9th, 10th and 11th notes of a disturbed or distorted scale having + a fundamental lower than that of the normal horn. + + [Illustration: Music notes.] + + With regard to the discovery of this method of obtaining a chromatic + compass for the horn, which rendered the instrument very popular with + composers, instrumentalists and the public, and procured for it a + generally accredited position in the orchestra, the following is the + sum of evidence at present available. In the Kgl. öffentliche + Bibliothek, Dresden, is preserved, amongst the musical MSS., an + autograph volume of 152 pages, entitled _Lection pro Cornui_, bearing + the signature A. J. H[ampel], the name being filled in in pencil by a + different hand. There is no introduction, no letterpress of any + description belonging to the MS. method for the horn, nor is any book + or pamphlet explaining the Inventionshorn or the method of + hand-stopping by Hampel extant or known to have existed. He has + apparently left no record of his accomplishment. A few typical + extracts copied and selected from the original MS., courteously + communicated by the director of the Royal Library, Hofrath, P. E. + Richter (a practical musician and performer on horn and trumpet), do + not prove conclusively that they were intended to be played on + hand-stopped horns, with the exception, perhaps, of the A, 13th + harmonic from C, which could not easily be obtained except by + hand-stopping on the hand-horn. On the blank sheet preceding the + exercises is an inscription in the hand of Moritz Fürstenau, former + custodian of the Royal Private Musical Collection (incorporated with + the public library in 1896): "Anton Joseph Hampel, by whom these + exercises for the horn were written, was a celebrated horn-player, a + member of the Orchestra of the Electoral Prince of Saxony. He invented + the so-called Inventionshorn. Cf. _Neues biog.-hist. Lexicon der + Tonkünstler_ by Gerber, pt. i. col. 493; also _Zur Gesch. der Musik u. + des Theaters am Hofe zu Dresden_, by M. Fürstenau, Bd. ii." It will be + seen that Fürstenau gives Gerber as his authority for the attribution + of the invention to Hampel, although he searched the archives, to + which he had free access, for material for his book. + + The first possessor of the MS., Franz Schubert (1768-1824), musical + director of the Italian opera in Dresden, wrote the following note in + pencil on the last page of the cover: "Franz Schubert. The complete + school of horn-playing by the Kgl. Polnischen u. Kursächs. + Cammermusicus Anton Joseph Hampel, a celebrated virtuoso, invented by + himself in 1762." Judging from the standard of modern technique, there + are many passages in the "Lection" which could not be played without + artificially humouring the production of harmonics with the lips, and + it is an open question to what extent this method of correcting + intonation and of altering the pitch was practised in the 18th + century. When, therefore, Franz Schubert states that the method was + _invented_ by Hampel, we may take this as indirectly confirming + Gerber's statements. Further confirmation is obtained from the text of + a work on the horn written by Heinrich Domnich[77] (b. 1760), the son + of a celebrated horn-player of Würtzburg contemporary with Hampel. + Domnich junior settled eventually in Paris, where he was appointed + first professor of the horn at the Conservatoire. According to him the + mute (sourdine) of metal, wood or cardboard in the form of a hollow + cone, having a hole in the base, was used to soften the tone of the + horn without altering the pitch. But Hampel, substituting for this the + pad of cotton wool used for a similar purpose with the oboe, found + with surprise that its effect in the bell of the horn was to _raise_ + the pitch a semitone (see D. J. Blaikley's explanation above). By this + means, says Domnich, a diatonic and chromatic scale was obtained. + Later Hampel substituted the hand for the pad. Domnich duly ascribes + to Hampel the credit of the Inventionshorn, but erroneously states + that it was Haltenhoff of Hanau who made the first instrument. Domnich + further explains that Hampel, who had not practised the _bouché_ notes + in his youth, only made use of them in slow music, and that the credit + of making practical use of the discovery was due to his pupil Giovanni + Punto (Joh. Stich) the celebrated horn virtuoso, who was a friend of + Domnich's. + + It may be well to draw attention to the fact that hand-stopping was + not possible so long as the tube of horn was folded in a circle wide + enough to be worn round the body. The reduction of the diameter of the + orchestral horn in order to allow the performer to hold the instrument + in front of him, thus bringing the bell in front of the right arm in a + convenient position for hand-stopping, must have preceded the + discovery of hand-stopping. In the absence of contrary evidence we may + suppose that the change was effected for the more convenient + arrangement and manipulation of the slides or _Inventions_. So radical + a change in the compass of the horn could not occur and be adopted + generally without leaving its mark on the horn music of the period; + this change does not occur, as far as we know, before the last decades + of the 18th century. The rapid acceptance in other countries of + Hampel's discovery of hand-stopping is evidenced by a passage from a + little English work on music, published in London in 1772 but bearing + at the end of the preface the date June 1766:[78] "Some eminent + Proficients have been so dexterous as very nearly to perform all the + defective notes of the scale on the Horn by management of Breath and + by a little stopping the bell with their hands." + + Hampel's success gave a general impetus to the inventive faculty of + musical instrument makers in Europe. At first the result was negative. + Kölbel's attempt must, however, be mentioned, if only to correct a + misconception. Kölbel, a Bohemian horn virtuoso at the imperial + Russian court from 1754, spent many years in vain endeavours to + improve his instrument. At last, in 1760, he applied keys to the horn + or the bugle, calling it Klappenhorn (the bugle is known in Germany as + _Signal_ or _Buglehorn_). Kölbel's experiment did not become widely + known or adopted during his lifetime, but Anton Weidinger, court + trumpeter at Vienna, made a keyed trumpet[79] in 1801, which attracted + attention in musical circles and gave a fresh impetus in experimenting + with keys upon brass instruments. In 1813 Joseph Weidinger, the + twelve-year-old son of the above, gave a concert in Vienna on the + _Klappenwaldhorn_[80] (or keyed French horn), about which little seems + to be known. Victor Mahillon[81] describes such an instrument, but + ascribes the invention to Kölbel; there was but one key placed on the + bell, which on being opened had the effect of raising the pitch of the + instrument a whole tone. By alternately using the harmonic open notes + on the normal length of the tube, and then by the action of the key + shortening the air column, the following diatonic scale was obtained + in the third octave: + + [Illustration: Music notes.] + + In 1812 Dikhuth,[82] horn-player in the orchestra of the grand-duke of + Baden at Mannheim, constructed a horn in which a slide on the + principle of that of the trombone was intended to replace + hand-stopping and to lower the pitch at will a semitone. + + [Illustration: FIG. 8.--Modern Horn (Boosey & Co.)] + + The most felicitous, far-reaching and important of all improvements + was the invention of valves (q.v.), pistons or cylinders (the + principle of which has already been explained), by Heinrich + Stölzel,[83] who applied them first of all to the horn, the trumpet + and the trombone,[84] thus endowing the brass wind with a chromatic + compass obtained with perfect ease throughout the compass. The + inherent defect of valve instruments already explained, which causes + faulty intonation needing correction when the pistons are used in + combination, has now been practically overcome. The numerous attempts + to solve the difficulty, made with varying success by makers of brass + instruments, are described under VALVE, BOMBARDEN and CORNET.[85] + (K. S.) + + +FOOTNOTES: + + [1] See Michael Praetorius, _De organographia_ (Wolfenbüttel, 1618), + tab. viii., where crooks for lowering the key by one tone on trumpet + and trombone are pictured. + + [2] See Victor Mahillon, _Les Éléments d'acoustique musicale et + instrumentale_ (Brussels, 1874), pp. 96, 97, &c.; Friedrich Zamminer, + _Die Musik und die musikalischen Instrumente_ (Giessen, 1855), p. + 310, where diagrams of the mouthpieces are given. + + [3] See Joseph Fröhlich, _Vollständige theoretisch-praktische + Musikschule_ (Bonn, 1811), iii. 7, where diagrams of the two + mouthpieces for first and second horn are given. + + [4] See Gottfried Weber, "Zur Akustik der Blasinstrumente," in + _Allgemeine musikalische Zeitung_ (Leipzig, 1816), p. 38. + + [5] _Les Instruments de musique au musée du Conservatoire royal de + musique de Bruxelles_, "Instruments à vent," ii., "Le Cor, son + histoire, sa théorie, sa construction" (Brussels and London, 1907), + p. 28. + + [6] _Die Akustik_ (Leipzig, 1802), p. 86, § 72. + + [7] _Op. cit._ p. 13, § 20, and p. 15, §§ 24 and 25. This apparent + discrepancy between an early and a modern authority on the acoustics + of wind instruments is easily explained. Chladni, when speaking of + open and closed pipes, refers to the standard cylindrical and + rectangular organ-pipes. Mahillon, on the other hand, draws a + distinction in favour of the conical pipe, demonstrating in a + practical manner how, given a certain calibre, the conical pipe must + overblow the harmonics of the open pipe, whatever the method of + producing the sound. + + [8] See Gottfried Weber, _loc. cit._ + + [9] See Ernst Heinrich and Wilhelm Weber, _Wellenlehre_ (Leipzig, + 1825), p. 519, § 281, and _A Text-Book of Physics_, part. ii., + "Sound," by J. H. Poynting and J. J. Thomson (London, 1906), pp. 104 + and 105. + + [10] See Sedley Taylor, _Sound and Music_ (1896), p. 21. + + [11] _Id._ pp. 23-25. + + [12] See Gottfried Weber, _op. cit._, pp. 39-41, and Ernst H. and + Wilhelm Weber, _op. cit._ p. 522, end of § 285. + + [13] See A. Ganot, _Elementary Treatise on Physics_, translated by E. + Atkinson (16th ed., London, 1902), p. 266, § 282, "In the horn + different notes are produced by altering the distance of the lips." + Such a vague and misleading statement is worse than useless. See also + Poynting and Thomson, _op. cit._ p. 113. + + [14] "Le Cor," p. 22; p. 11, § 18; pp. 6 and 7, § 8. + + [15] The phraseology alone is here borrowed from Sedley Taylor, (_op. + cit._ p. 55), who does not enter into the practical application of + the theory he expounds so clearly. + + [16] See Dr Emil Schafhäutl's article on musical instruments, § iv. + of _Bericht der Beurtheilungs Commission bei der Allg. Deutschen + Industrie Ausstellung, 1854_ (Munich, 1855), pp. 169-170; also F. + Zamminer, _op. cit._ + + [17] The measurements are for the high philharmonic pitch a'=452.4. + V. Mahillon, "Le cor" (p. 32), gives a table of the lengths of crooks + in metres. + + [18] Robert Eitner, editor of the Monatshefte für Musikwissenschaft, + published therein an article in 1881, p. 41 seq., "Wer hat die + Ventiltrompete erfunden," in which, after referring to the + _Klappenwaldhorn_ and _Trompete_ (keyed horn and trumpet) made by + Weidinger and played in public in 1802 and 1813 respectively, he goes + on to state that Schilling in his Lexicon makes the comical mistake + of looking upon the Klappentrompete (keyed trumpet) and + _Ventiltrompete_ (valve trumpet) as different instruments. He + accordingly sets matters right, as he thinks, by according to + Weidinger the honour of the invention of valves, hitherto wrongfully + attributed to Stölzel; and in the _Quellenlexikon_ (1904) he leaves + out Stölzel's name, and names Weidinger as the inventor of the + _Klappen_ or _Ventil_, referring readers for further particulars to + his article, just quoted, in the _Monatshefte_. + + [19] See Hector Berlioz, _A Treatise on Modern Instrumentation and + Orchestration_, translated by Mary Cowden Clarke, new edition revised + by Joseph Bennett (1882), p. 141. + + [20] See Victor Mahillon, _Catal. descriptif des instruments de + musique_, &c., vol. ii. p. 388, No. 1156, where an illustration is + given. See also Dr August Hammerich (French translation by E. + Beauvais), "Über altnordische Luren" in _Vierteljährschrift für + Musik-Wissenschaft_ x. (1894). + + [21] See Major J. H. L. Archer, _The British Army Records_ (London, + 1888), pp. 402, &c. + + [22] _De re militari_, iii. 5 (Basel, 1532). The successive editions + and translations of this classic, both manuscript and printed, + throughout the middle ages afford useful evidence of the evolution of + these three wind instruments. + + [23] See Wilhelm Froehner, _La Colonne Trajane d'après le surmoulage + exécuté à Rome en 1861-1862_ (Paris, 1872-1874). On pl. 51 is a cornu + framing the head of a cornicen or horn-player. See also the fine + plates in Conrad Cichorius, _Die Reliefs der Traiansäule_ (Berlin, + 1896, &c.). + + [24] Ermanno Ferrero, _L'Arc d'Auguste à Suse_ (Segusio, 9-8 B.C.) + (Turin, 1901). + + [25] See the mouthpiece on the Pompeian buccinas preserved in the + museum at Naples, reproduced in the article Buccina. The museums of + the conservatoires of Paris and Brussels and the Collection Kraus in + Florence possess facsimiles of these instruments; see Victor + Mahillon, _Catalogue_, vol. ii. p. 30. Cf. also the pair of bronze + Etruscan cornua, No. 2734 in the department of Creek and Roman + antiquities at the British Museum, which possess well-preserved + cup-shaped mouthpieces. + + [26] See Bock, "Gebrauch der Hörner im Mittelalter," in Gustav + Heider's _Mittelalterliche Kunstdenkmäler Österreichs_ (Stuttgart, + 1858-1860). + + [27] _Dictionnaire raisonné du mobilier français_ (Paris, 1889), ii. + p. 246. + + [28] Engelbertus Admontensis in _De Musica Scriptores_, by Martin + Gerbert, Bd. ii. lib. ii. cap. 29; and Edward Buhle, _Die + Musikalischen Instrumente in den Miniaturen des frühen Mittelalters_, + pt. i., "Die Blasinstrumente" (Leipzig, 1903), p. 16. + + [29] _Le Trésor de vénerie par Hardouin, seigneur de + Fontaines-Guérin_ (edited by H. Michelant, Metz, 1856); the first + part was edited by Jérome Pichon (Paris, 1855), with an historical + introduction by Bottée de Toulmon. + + [30] As worked out by Edward Buhle, _op. cit._, p. 23. + + [31] See Turbevile, _op. cit._, also J. du Fouilloux, _La Vénerie_ + (Paris, 1628), p. 70; cf. also editions of 1650 and of 1562, where + the horn is called _trompe_, used with the verb _corner_; Juliana + Bernes, _Boke of St Albans_ (1496), the frontispiece of which is a + hunting scene showing a horn of very wide bore, without bell. Only + half the instrument is visible. + + [32] See "Reliure italienne du xv^e siècle en argent niellé. + Collection du Baron Nathaniel de Rothschild, Vienne," in _Gazette + archéologique_ (Paris, 1880), xiii. p. 295, pl. 38, where other + instruments are also represented. + + [33] See Jost Amman, _Wappen und Stammbuch_ (1589). A reprint in + facsimile has been published by Georg Hirth as vol. iii. of + _Liebhaber Bibliothek_ (Munich, 1881). See arms of Sultzberger aus + Tirol (p. 52), "Ein Jägerhörnlin," and of the Herzog von Wirtenberg; + cf. the latter with the arms of Wurthemberch in pl. xxii. vol. ii. of + Gelre's _Wappenboek ou armorial de 1334 à 1372_ (miniatures of coats + of arms in facsimile), edited by Victor Bouton (Paris, 1883). + + [34] For illustrations see autotype facsimile of Utrecht Psalter, 9th + century; British Museum, Add. MS. 10,546, Ps. 150, 9th century; Add. + MS. 24,199, 10th century; Eadwine Psalter, Trin. Coll. Camb., 11th + century, and Cotton MS., Nero, D. IV., 8th century; also Edward + Buhle, _op. cit._, pl. ii. and pp. 12-24. + + [35] See John Carter, _Specimens of Ancient Sculpture and Paintings_ + (London, 1780-1794), i. p. 53 (plates unnumbered); also reproduced in + H. Lavoix, _Histoire de la musique_ (Paris, 1884). + + [36] See Jost Amman, _op. cit._ + + [37] _Musica getutscht und ausgezogen_ (Basel, 1511), p. 30. The + names are not given under the drawings, but the above is the order in + which they occur, which is probably reversed. + + [38] _Harmonie universelle_ (Paris, 1636), p. 245. + + [39] _Syntagma Musicum_ (Wolfenbüttel, 1618), pl. vii. No. 11, p. 39. + + [40] _Historisch-biographisches Lexicon der Tonkünstler_ (Leipzig, + 1790-1792 and 1812-1814). + + [41] _De saecularibus Liberalium Artium in Bohemia et Moravia fatis + commentarius_ (Prague, 1784), p. 401. + + [42] See Ernest Thoinan, _Les Origines de la chapelle musique des + souverains de France_ (Paris, 1864); F. J. Fétis, "Recherches sur la + musique des rois de France, et de quelques princes depuis Philippe le + Bel jusqu'à la fin du règne de Louis XIV.," _Revue musicale_ (Paris, + 1832), xii. pp. 193, 217, 233, 241, 257; Castil-Blaze, _La Chapelle + musique des rois de France_ (Paris, 1882); Michel Brenet, "Deux + comptes de la chapelle musique des rois de France," _Intern. Mus. + Ges._, Smbd. vi., i. pp. 1-32; J. Ecorcheville, "Quelques documents + sur la musique de la grande écurie du roi," _Intern. Mus. Ges._, + Smbd. ii. 4 (Leipzig, 1901), pp. 608-642. + + [43] _Neue Zeitschrift f. Musik_ (Leipzig, 1870), p. 309. + + [44] See _Die Sammlung der Musikinstrumente des baierischen Nat. + Museum_ by K. A. Bierdimpfl (Munich, 1883), Nos. 105 and 106. + + [45] Communication from Dr Georg Hagen, assistant director. + + [46] See Musée du Conservatoire National de Musique. _Catalogue des + instruments de musique_ (Paris, 1884), p. 147. + + [47] See Captain C. R. Day, _Descriptive Catalogue of the Musical + Instruments exhibited at the Military Exhibition_ (London, 1890), p. + 147, No. 307. + + [48] See V. Mahillon, _Catal._ vol. i. No. 468. + + [49] See Captain C. R. Day, _Catal._ No. 309, p. 148. + + [50] For an illustration see _Catalogue of the Special Exhibition of + Ancient Musical Instruments at South Kensington Museum 1872_ (London, + 1873), p. 25, No. 332. + + [51] See _Katalog des musikhistorischen Museums von Paul de Wit_ + (Leipzig, 1904), p. 142, No. 564, where it is classified as a + Jägertrompete after Praetorius; it has a trumpet mouthpiece. + + [52] For an illustration see F. J. Crowest, _English Music_, p. 449, + No. 12. + + [53] See Ignatz and Anton Böck in _Baierisches Musik-Lexikon_ by + Felix J. Lipowski (Munich, 1811), p. 26, note. + + [54] See, for instance, frontispiece of Walther's _Musikalisches + Lexikon_ (Leipzig, 1732); J. F. B. C. Majer's _Musik-Saal_ + (Nuremberg, 1741, 2nd ed.), p. 54; Joh. Christ. Kolb, _Pinacotheca + Davidica_ (Augsburg, 1711); Ps. xci.; "Componimenti Musicali per il + cembalo Dr Theofilo Muffat, organista di sua Sacra Maesta Carlo VI. + Imp." (1690), title-page in _Denkmäler d. Tonkunst in Oesterreich_, + Bd. iii. + + [55] See Hugo Goldschmidt, "Das Orchester der italienischen Oper im + 17 Jahrhundert," _Intern. Mus. Ges._, Smbd. ii. 1, p. 73. + + [56] See "Le Cor," pp. 23 and 24, and _Dictionnaire de l'acad. des + beaux arts_, vol. iv., art. "Cor." + + [57] Mersenne's drawings of _cors de chasse_ are very crude; they + have no bell and are all of the large calibre suggestive of the + primitive animal horn. He mentions nevertheless that they were not + only used for signals and fanfares but also for little concerted + pieces in four parts for horns alone, or with oboes, at the + conclusion of the hunt. + + [58] See William Tans'ur Senior, _The Elements of Musick_ (London, + 1772); Br. V. Dictionary under "Horn." Also Scale of Horn in the hand + of Samuel Wesley; in Add. MS. 35011, fol. 166, Brit. Mus. + + [59] A horn-player, Johann Theodor Zeddelmayer, was engaged in 1706 + at the Saxon court at Weissenfels; see _Neue-Mitteilungen aus dem + Gebiete histor. antiqu. Forschungen_, Bd. xv. (2) (Halle, 1882), p. + 503; also Wilhelm Kleefeld, "Das Orchester der Hamburger Oper, + 1678-1738," _Intern. Mus. Ges._, Smbd. i. 2, p. 280, where the + appearance of the horn in the orchestras of Germany is traced. + + [60] _Das neu-eröffnete Orchester_, i. 267. + + [61] See Moritz Fürstenau, _Zur Geschichte der Musik und des Theaters + zu Dresden_ (Dresden, 1861-1862), vol. ii. p. 60. + + [62] See "Carl Heinrich Graun als Opernkomponist," by Albert + Mayer-Reinach, _Intern. Mus. Ges._, Smbd. i. 3 (Leipzig, 1900), pp. + 516-517 and 523-524, where musical examples are given. + + [63] Cf. Chrysander, _Haendel_, ii. 146. + + [64] See Moritz Fürstenau, _op. cit._ ii. 58. + + [65] See Ludwig von Köchel, _Die kaiserliche Hofkappelle in Wien_ + (Vienna, 1869), p. 80. + + [66] See Victor Mahillon, _Catalogue descriptif_, vol. ii. No. 1160, + p. 389. + + [67] _Op. cit._ ii. 60. + + [68] The Department of State Archives for Saxony in Dresden possesses + no documents which can throw any light upon this point, but, through + the courtesy of the director, the following facts have been + communicated. Two documents concerning Anton Joseph Hampel are + extant: (1) An application by his son, Johann Michael Hampel, to the + elector Friedrich August III. of Saxony, dated Dresden, April 3, + 1771, in which he prays that the post of his father as horn-player in + the court orchestra--in which he had already served as deputy for his + invalid father--may be awarded to him. (2) A petition from the widow, + Aloisia Ludevica Hampelin, to the elector, bearing the same date + (April 3, 1771), wherein she announces the death of her husband on + the 30th of March 1771, who had been in the service of the house of + Saxony thirty-four years as horn-player, and prays for the grant of a + monthly pension for herself and her three delicate daughters, as she + finds herself in the most unfortunate circumstances. There is no + allusion in either letter to any musical merit of the deceased. + + [69] There is an instrument of this early type, supposed to date from + the middle of the 18th century, in Paul de Wit's fine collection of + musical instruments formerly in Leipzig and now transferred to + Cologne; see _Katalog_, No. 645, p. 148. + + [70] See _Dictionnaire de l'acad. des beaux arts_, vol. iv. (Paris), + article "Cor." + + [71] See Dr Gustav Schilling, _Universal Lexikon der Tonkunst_ + (Stuttgart, 1840), Bd. vi., "Trompete"; also Capt. C. R. Day, pp. 139 + and 151, where the term _Invention_ is quite misunderstood and + misapplied. See Gottfried Weber in _Caecilia_ (Mainz, 1835), Bd. + xvii. + + [72] Gerber in the first edition of his _Lexikon_ does not mention + Hampel or award him a separate biographical article; we may therefore + conclude that he was not personally acquainted with him, although + Hampel was still a member of the electoral orchestra in Dresden + during Gerber's short career in Leipzig. In the edition of 1812 + Gerber renders him full justice. + + [73] _Vollständige theoretisch-praktische Musikschule_ (Bonn, 1811), + pt. iii. p. 7. + + [74] See Victor Mahillon, "Le Cor," p. 28; Chladni, _op. cit._ p. 87. + + [75] See Fröhlich, _op. cit._ 7; and Gerber, _Lexikon_ (ed. 1812), p. + 493; "Le Cor," pp. 34 and 53. + + [76] See Praetorius and Mersenne, _op. cit._; the latter gives an + illustration of the trumpet mute. + + [77] _Methode de premier et de second cor_ (Paris, c. 1807). The + passage in question was discovered and courteously communicated by + Hofrat P. E. Richter of the Royal Library, Dresden. There is no copy + of Domnich's work in the British Museum. + + [78] See William Tans'ur Senior, _op. et loc. cit._ + + [79] See _Allgemeine musikalische Zeitung_ (Leipzig), Nov. 1802, p. + 158, and Jan. 1803, p. 245; and E. Hanslick, _Geschichte des + Concertwesens in Wien_ (Vienna, 1869), p. 119. + + [80] See _Allgem. mus. Ztg._, 1815, p. 844. + + [81] "Le Cor," pp. 34-35. + + [82] See the description of the instrument and of other attempts to + obtain the same result by Gottfried Weber, "Wichtige Verbesserung des + Horns" in _Allg. musik. Ztg._ (Leipzig, 1812), pp. 758, &c.; also + 1815, pp. 637 and 638 (the regent or keyed bugle). + + [83] See _Allg. musik. Ztg._, 1815, May, p. 309, the first + announcement of the invention in a paragraph by Captain G. B. Bierey. + + [84] _Ibid._, 1817, p. 814, by F. Schneider, and Dec. p. 558; 1818, + p. 531. An announcement of the invention and of a patent granted for + the same for ten years, in which Blümel is for the first time + associated with Stölzel as co-inventor. See also _Caecilia_ (Mainz, + 1835), Bd. xvii. pp. 73 seq., with illustrations, an excellent + article by Gottfried Weber on the valve horn and valve trumpet. + + [85] For a very complete exposition of the operation of valves in the + horn, and of the mathematical proportions to be observed in + construction, see Victor Mahillon's "Le Cor," also the article by + Gottfried Weber in _Caecilia_ (1835), to which reference was made + above. A list of horn-players of note during the 18th century is + given by C. Gottlieb Murr in _Journal f. Kunstgeschichte_ (Nuremberg, + 1776), vol. ii. p. 27. See also a good description of the style of + playing of the virtuoso J. Nisle in 1767 in Schubart, _Aesthetik d. + Tonkunst_, p. 161, and _Leben u. Gesinnungen_ (1791), Bd. ii. p. 92; + or in L. Schiedermair, "Die Blütezeit d. Ottingen-Wallensteinschen + Hofkapelle," _Intern. Mus. Ges._ Smbd. ix. (1), 1907, pp. 83-130. + + + + +HORNBEAM (_Carpinus betulus_), a member of a small genus of trees of the +natural order Corylaceae. The Latin name _Carpinus_ has been thought to +be derived from the Celtic _car_, wood, and _pin_ or _pen_, head, the +wood of hornbeams having been used for yokes of cattle (see Loudon, +_Ency. of Pl._ p. 792, new ed. 1855, and Littré, Dict. ii. 556). The +common hornbeam, or yoke-elm, _Carpinus betulus_ (Ger. _Hornbaum_ and +_Hornbuche_, Fr. _charme_), is indigenous in the temperate parts of +western Asia and of Asia Minor, and in Europe, where it ranges as high +as 55° and 56° N. lat. It is common in woods and hedges in parts of +Wales and of the south of England. The trunk is usually flattened, and +twisted as though composed of several stems united; the bark is smooth +and light grey; and the leaves are in two rows, 2 to 3 in. long, +elliptic-ovate, doubly toothed, pointed, numerously ribbed, hairy below +and opaque, and not glossy as in the beech, have short stalks and when +young are plaited. The stipules of the leaves act as protecting +scale-leaves in the winter-bud and fall when the bud opens in spring. +The flowers appear with the leaves in April and May. The male catkins +are about 1½ in. long, and have pale-yellow anthers, bearing tufts of +hairs at the apex; the female attain a length in the fruiting stage of 2 +to 4 in., with bracts 1 to 1½ in. long. The green and angular fruit or +"nut" ripens in October; it is about ¼ in. in length, is in shape like a +small chestnut, and is enclosed in leafy, 3-lobed bracts. The hornbeam +thrives well on stiff, clayey, moist soils, into which its roots +penetrate deeply; on chalk or gravel it does not flourish. Raised from +seed it may become a tree 40 to as much as 70 ft. in height, greatly +resembling the beech, except in its rounder and closer head. It is, +however, rarely grown as a timber-tree, its chief employment being for +hedges. "In the single row," says Evelyn (_Sylva_, p. 29, 1664), "it +makes the noblest and the stateliest _hedges_ for long Walks in Gardens +or _Parks_, of any Tree whatsoever whose leaves are _deciduous_." As it +bears clipping well, it was formerly much used in geometric gardening. +The branches should not be lopped in spring, on account of their +tendency to bleed at that season. The wood of the hornbeam is white and +close-grained, and polishes ill, is of considerable tenacity and little +flexibility, and is extremely tough and hard to work--whence, according +to Gerard, the name of the tree. It has been found to lose about 8% of +its weight by drying. As a fuel it is excellent; and its charcoal is +much esteemed for making gunpowder. The inner part of the bark of the +hornbeam is stated by Linnaeus to afford a yellow dye. In France the +leaves serve as fodder. The tree is a favourite with hares and rabbits, +and the seedlings are apt to be destroyed by mice. Pliny (_Nat. Hist._ +xxvi. 26), who describes its wood as red and easily split, classes the +hornbeam with maples. + +The American hornbeam, blue or water beech, is _Carpinus americana_ +(also known as _C. caroliniana_); the common hop-hornbeam, a native of +the south of Europe, is a member of a closely allied genus, _Ostrya +vulgaris_, the allied American species, _O. virginiana_, is also known +as ironwood from its very hard, tight, close-grained wood. + + + + +HORNBILL, the English name long generally given to all the birds of the +family _Bucerotidae_ of modern ornithologists, from the extraordinary +horn-like excrescence (_epithema_) developed on the bill of most of the +species, though to which of them it was first applied seems doubtful. +Among classical authors Pliny had heard of such animals, and mentions +them (_Hist. Nat._ lib. x. cap. lxx.) under the name of _Tragopan_; but +he deemed their existence fabulous, comparing them with _Pegasi_ and +_Gryphones_--in the words of Holland, his translator (vol. i. p. +296)--"I thinke the same of the Tragopanades, which many men affirme to +bee greater than the Ægle; having crooked hornes like a Ram on either +side of the head, of the colour of yron, and the head onely red." Yet +this is but an exaggerated description of some of the species with which +doubtless his informants had an imperfect acquaintance. Medieval writers +found Pliny's bird to be no fable, for specimens of the beak of one +species or another seem occasionally to have been brought to Europe, +where they were preserved in the cabinets of the curious, and thus +Aldrovandus was able to describe pretty fairly and to figure +(_Ornithologia_, lib. xii. cap. xx. tab. x. fig. 7) one of them under +the name of "_Rhinoceros Avis_," though the rest of the bird was wholly +unknown to him. When the exploration of the East Indies had extended +farther, more examples reached Europe, and the "_Corvus Indicus +cornutus_" of Bontius became fully recognized by Willughby and Ray, +under the title of the "Horned Indian Raven or _Topau_ called the +Rhinocerot Bird." Since the time of those excellent ornithologists our +knowledge of the hornbills has been steadily increasing, but up to the +third quarter of the 19th century there was a great lack of precise +information, and the publication of D. G. Elliot's "_Monograph of the +Bucerotidae_," then supplied a great want. He divides the family into +two sections, the _Bucerotinae_ and the _Bucorvinae_. The former group +contains most of the species, which are divided into many genera. Of +these, the most remarkable is _Rhinoplax_, which seems properly to +contain but one species, the _Buceros vigil_, _B. scutatus_ or _B. +geleatus_ of authors, commonly known as the helmet-hornbill, a native of +Sumatra and Borneo. This is easily distinguished by having the front of +its nearly vertical and slightly convex _epithema_ composed of a solid +mass of horn[1] instead of a thin coating of the light and cellular +structure found in the others. So dense and hard is this portion of the +"helmet" that Chinese and Malay artists carve figures on its surface, or +cut it transversely into plates, which from their agreeable colouring, +bright yellow with a scarlet rim, are worn as brooches or other +ornaments. This bird, which is larger than a raven, is also remarkable +for its long graduated tail, having the middle two feathers nearly twice +the length of the rest. Nothing is known of its habits. Its head was +figured by George Edwards in the 18th century, but little else had been +seen of it until 1801, when John Latham described the plumage from a +specimen in the British Museum, and the first figure of the whole bird, +from an example in the Museum at Calcutta, was published by General +Hardwicke in 1823 (_Trans. Linn. Society_, xiv. pl. 23). Yet more than +twenty years elapsed before French naturalists became acquainted with +it. + +[Illustration: Great Indian Hornbill (_B. bicornis_). (After Tickell's +drawing in the Zoological Society's Library.)] + +In the _Bucorvinae_ we have only the genus _Bucorvus_, or _Bucorax_ as +some call it, confined to Africa, and containing at least two and +perhaps more species, distinguishable by their longer legs and shorter +toes, the ground-hornbills of English writers, in contrast to the +_Bucerotinae_ which are chiefly arboreal in their habits, and when not +flying move by short leaps or hops, while the members of this group walk +and run with facility. From the days of James Bruce at least there are +few African travellers who have not met with and in their narratives +more or less fully described one or other of these birds, whose large +size and fearless habits render them conspicuous objects. + +As a whole the hornbills, of which more than 50 species have been +described, form a very natural and in some respects an isolated group, +placed by Huxley among his _Coccygomorphae_. It has been suggested that +they have some affinity with the hoopoes (_Upupidae_), and this view is +now generally accepted. Their supposed alliance to the toucans +(_Rhamphastidae_) rests only on the apparent similarity presented by the +enormous beak, and is contradicted by important structural characters. +In many of their habits, so far as these are known, all hornbills seem +to be much alike, and though the modification in the form of the beak, +and the presence or absence of the extraordinary excrescence,[2] whence +their name is derived, causes great diversity of aspect among them, the +possession of prominent eyelashes (not a common feature in birds) +produces a uniformity of expression which makes it impossible to mistake +any member of the family. Hornbills are social birds, keeping in +companies, not to say flocks, and living chiefly on fruits and seeds; +but the bigger species also capture and devour a large number of snakes, +while the smaller are great destroyers of insects. The older writers say +that they eat carrion, but further evidence to that effect is required +before the statement can be believed. Almost every morsel of food that +is picked up is tossed into the air, and then caught in the bill before +it is swallowed. They breed in holes of trees, laying large white eggs, +and when the hen begins to sit the cock plasters up the entrance with +mud or clay, leaving only a small window through which she receives the +food he brings her during her incarceration. + +This remarkable habit, almost simultaneously noticed by Dr Mason in +Burma, S. R. Tickell in India, and Livingstone in Africa, and since +confirmed by other observers, especially A. R. Wallace[3] in the Malay +Archipelago, has been connected by A. D. Bartlett (_Proc. Zool. +Society_, 1869, p. 142) with a peculiarity as remarkable, which he was +the first to notice. This is the fact that hornbills at intervals of +time, whether periodical or irregular is not yet known, cast the +epithelial layer of their gizzard, that layer being formed by a +secretion derived from the glands of the proventriculus or some other +upper part of the alimentary canal. The epithelium is ejected in the +form of a sack or bag, the mouth of which is closely folded, and is +filled with the fruit that the bird has been eating. The announcement of +a circumstance so extraordinary naturally caused some hesitation in its +acceptance, but the essential truth of Bartlett's observations was +abundantly confirmed by Sir W. H. Flower and especially by Dr J. Murie. +These castings form the hen bird's food during her confinement. + (A. N.) + + +FOOTNOTES: + + [1] Apparently correlated with this structure is the curious + thickening of the "prosencephalic median septum" of the cranium as + also of that which divides the "prosencephalic" from the + "mesencephalic chamber," noticed by Sir R. Owen (_Cat. Osteol. Ser. + Mus. Roy. Coll. Surg. England_, i. 287); while the solid horny mass + is further strengthened by a backing of bony props, directed forwards + and meeting its base at right angles. This last singular arrangement + is not perceptible in the skull of any other species examined by the + present writer. + + [2] Buffon, as was his manner, enlarges on the cruel injustice done + to these birds by Nature in encumbering them with this deformity, + which he declares must hinder them from getting their food with ease. + The only corroboration his perverted view receives is afforded by the + observed fact that hornbills, in captivity at any rate, never have + any fat about them. + + [3] In _The Malay Archipelago_ (i. 213), Wallace describes a nestling + hornbill (_B. bicornis_) which he obtained as "a most curious object, + as large as a pigeon, but without a particle of plumage on any part + of it. It was exceedingly plump and soft, and with a semi-transparent + skin, so that it looked more like a bag of jelly, with head and feet + stuck on, than like a real bird." + + + + +HORNBLENDE, an important member of the amphibole group of rock-forming +minerals. The name is an old one of German origin, and was used for any +dark-coloured prismatic crystals from which metals could not be +extracted. It is now applied to the dark-coloured aluminous members of +the monoclinic amphiboles, occupying in this group the same position +that augite occupies in the pyroxene group. The monoclinic crystals are +prismatic in habit with a six-sided cross-section; the angle between the +prism-faces (M), parallel to which there are perfect cleavages, is 55° +49´. The colour (green, brown or black) and the specific gravity +(3.0-3.3) vary with the amount of iron present. The pleochroism is +always strong, and the angle of optical extinction on the plane of +symmetry (x in the figure) varies from 0° to 37°. The chemical +composition is expressed by mixtures in varying proportions of the +molecules Ca(Mg, Fe)3(SiO3)4, (Mg, Fe)(Al, Fe)2SiO6 and NaAl(SiO3)2. +Numerous varieties have been distinguished by special names: edenite, +from Edenville in New York, is a pale-coloured aluminous amphibole +containing little iron; pargasite, from Pargas near Abo in Finland, a +green or bluish-green variety; common hornblende includes the +greenish-black and black kinds containing more iron. The dark-coloured +porphyritic crystals of basalts are known as basaltic hornblende. + +[Illustration.] + +Hornblende occurs as an essential constituent of many kinds of igneous +rocks, such as hornblende-granite, syenite, diorite, hornblende-andesite, +basalt, &c.; and in many crystalline schists, for example, amphibolite +and hornblende-schist which are composed almost entirely of this mineral. +Well-crystallized specimens are met with at many localities, for example: +brilliant black crystals (syntagmatite) with augite and mica in the +sanidine bombs of Monte Somma, Vesuvius; large crystals at Arendal in +Norway, and at several places in the state of New York; isolated crystals +from the basalts of Bohemia. (L. J. S.) + + + + +HORN-BOOK, a name originally applied to a sheet containing the letters +of the alphabet, which formed a primer for the use of children. It was +mounted on wood and protected with transparent horn. Sometimes the leaf +was simply pasted against the slice of horn. The wooden frame had a +handle, and it was usually hung at the child's girdle. The sheet, which +in ancient times was of vellum and latterly of paper, contained first a +large cross--the criss-crosse--from which the horn-book was called the +Christ Cross Row, or criss-cross-row. The alphabet in large and small +letters followed. The vowels then formed a line, and their combinations +with the consonants were given in a tabular form. The usual +exorcism--"in the name of the Father and of the Sonne and of the Holy +Ghost, Amen"--followed, then the Lord's Prayer, the whole concluding +with the Roman numerals. The horn-book is mentioned in Shakespeare's +_Love's Labour's Lost_, v. i, where the _ba_, the _a_, _e_, _i_, _o_, +_u_, and the horn, are alluded to by Moth. It is also described by Ben +Jonson-- + + "The letters may be read, through the horn, + That make the story perfect." + + + + +HORNBY, SIR GEOFFREY THOMAS PHIPPS (1825-1895), British admiral of the +fleet, son of Admiral Sir Phipps Hornby, the first cousin and +brother-in-law of the 13th earl of Derby, by a daughter of +Lieut.-General Burgoyne, commonly distinguished as "Saratoga" Burgoyne, +was born on the 20th of February 1825. At the age of twelve he was sent +to sea in the flagship of Sir Robert Stopford, with whom he saw the +capture of Acre in November 1840. He afterwards served in the flagship +of Rear-Admiral Josceline Percy at the Cape of Good Hope, was +flag-lieutenant to his father in the Pacific, and came home as a +commander. When the Derby ministry fell in December 1852 young Hornby +was promoted to be captain. Early in 1853 he married, and as the Derby +connexion put him out of favour with the Aberdeen ministry, and +especially with Sir James Graham, the first lord of the Admiralty, he +settled down in Sussex as manager of his father's property. He had no +appointment in the navy till 1858, when he was sent out to China to take +command of the "Tribune" frigate and convey a body of marines to +Vancouver Island, where the dispute with the United States about the +island of San Juan was threatening to become very bitter. As senior +naval officer there Hornby's moderation, temper and tact did much to +smooth over matters, and a temporary arrangement for joint occupation of +the island was concluded. He afterwards commanded the "Neptune" in the +Mediterranean under Sir William Fanshawe Martin, was flag-captain to +Rear-Admiral Dacres in the Channel, was commodore of the squadron on the +west coast of Africa, and, being promoted to rear-admiral in January +1869, commanded the training squadron for a couple of years. He then +commanded the Channel Fleet, and was for two years a junior lord of the +Admiralty. It was early in 1877 that he went out as commander-in-chief +in the Mediterranean, where his skill in manoeuvring the fleet, his +power as a disciplinarian, and the tact and determination with which he +conducted the foreign relations at the time of the Russian advance on +Constantinople, won for him the K. C. B. He returned home in 1880 with +the character of being perhaps the most able commander on the active +list of the navy. His later appointments were to the Royal Naval College +as president, and afterwards to Portsmouth as commander-in-chief. On +hauling down his flag he was appointed G. C. B., and in May 1888 was +promoted to be admiral of the fleet. From 1886 he was principal naval +aide-de-camp to Queen Victoria, and in that capacity, and as an admiral +of the fleet, was appointed on the staff of the German emperor during +his visits to England in 1889 and 1890. He died, after a short illness, +on the 3rd of March 1895. By his wife, who predeceased him, he left +several children, daughters and sons, one of whom, a major in the +artillery, won the Victoria Cross in South Africa in 1900. + + His life was written by his daughter, Mrs Fred. Egerton, (1896). + + + + +HORNCASTLE, a market-town in the S. Lindsey or Horncastle parliamentary +division of Lincolnshire, England, at the foot of a line of low hills +called the Wolds, at the confluence of the Bain and Waring streams; the +terminus of a branch line of the Great Northern railway, 130 m. N. from +London. Pop. of urban district (1901) 4038. The church of St Mary is +principally Decorated and Perpendicular, with some Early English remains +and an embattled western tower. Queen Elizabeth's grammar school was +founded in 1562. Other buildings are an exchange, a court-house and a +dispensary founded in 1789. The prosperity of the town is chiefly +dependent on agriculture and its well-known horse fairs. Brewing and +malting are carried on, and there is some trade in coal and iron. + +Remains have been found here which may indicate the existence of a Roman +village. The manor of Horncastle (Hornecastre) belonged to Queen Edith +in Saxon times and was royal demesne in 1086 and the head of a large +soke. In the reign of Stephen it apparently belonged to Alice de Cundi, +a partisan of the empress Maud, and passing to the crown on her death it +was granted by Henry III. to Gerbald de Escald, from whom it descended +to Ralph de Rhodes, who sold it to Walter Mauclerc, bishop of Carlisle +in 1230. The see of Carlisle retained it till the reign of Edward VI. +when it was granted to Edward, Lord Clinton, but was recovered in the +following reign. In 1230 Henry III. directed the men of Horncastle to +render a reasonable aid to the bishop, who obtained the right to try +felons, hold a court leet and have free warren. An inquisition of 1275 +shows that the bishop had then, besides the return of writs, the assize +of bread and ale and waifs and strays in the soke. Horncastle was a +centre of the Lincolnshire rebellion of 1536. Royalist troops occupied +the town in 1643, and were pursued through its streets after the battle +fought at Winceby. It was never a municipal or parliamentary borough, +but during the middle ages it was frequently the residence of the +bishops of Carlisle. Its prosperity has always depended largely on its +fairs, the great horse fair described by George Borrow in _Romany Rye_ +being granted to the bishop in 1230 for the octave of St Lawrence, +together with the fair on the feast of St Barnabas. The three other +fairs are apparently of later date. + + See George Weir, _Historical and Descriptive Sketches of the Town and + Soke of Horncastle in the County of Lincoln and of Several Places + adjacent_ (London, 1820). + + + + +HORN DANCE, a medieval dance, still celebrated during the September +"wakes" at Abbots Bromley, a village on the borders of Needwood Forest, +Staffordshire. Six or seven men, each wearing a deer's skull with +antlers, dance through the streets, pursued by a comrade who bestrides a +mimic horse, and whips the dancers to keep them on the move. The +horn-dance usually takes place on the Monday after Wakes Sunday, which +is the Sunday next after the 4th of September. Originally the dance took +place on a Sunday. + + See _Strand Magazine_ for November 1896; also _Folk-lore_, vol. vii. + (1896), p. 381. + + + + +HORNE, GEORGE (1730-1792), English divine, was born on the 1st of +November 1730, at Otham near Maidstone, and received his education at +Maidstone school and University College, Oxford. In 1749 he became a +fellow of Magdalen, of which college he was elected president in 1768. +As a preacher he early attained great popularity, and was, albeit +unjustly, accused of Methodism. His reputation was helped by several +clever if somewhat wrong-headed publications, including a satirical +pamphlet entitled _The Theology and Philosophy of Cicero's Somnium +Scipionis_ (1751), a defence of the Hutchinsonians in _A Fair, Candid +and Impartial State of the Case between Sir Isaac Newton and Mr +Hutchinson_ (1753), and critiques upon William Law (1758) and Benjamin +Kennicott (1760). In 1771 he published his well-known _Commentary on the +Psalms_. a series of expositions based on the Messianic idea. In 1776 +he was chosen vice-chancellor of his university; in 1781 he was made +dean of Canterbury, and in 1790 was raised to the see of Norwich. He +died at Bath on the 17th of January 1792. + + His collected _Works_ were published with a Memoir by William Jones in + 1799. + + + + +HORNE, RICHARD HENRY, or HENGIST (1803-1884), English poet and critic, +was born in London on New Year's Day 1803. He was intended for the army, +and entered at Sandhurst, but receiving no commission, he left his +country and joined the Mexican navy. He served in the war against Spain, +and underwent many adventures. Returning to England, he became a +journalist, and in 1836-1837 edited _The Monthly Repository_. In 1837 he +published two tragedies, _Cosmo de Medici_ and _The Death of Marlowe_, +and in 1841 a _History of Napoleon_. The book, however, by which he +lives is his epic of _Orion_, which appeared in 1843. It was published +originally at a farthing, was widely read, and passed through many +editions. In the next year he set forth a volume of critical essays +called _A New Spirit of the Age_, in which he was assisted by Elizabeth +Barrett (Mrs Browning), with whom, from 1839 to her marriage in 1846, he +conducted a voluminous correspondence. In 1852 he went to Australia in +company with William Howitt, and did not return to England until 1869. +He received a Civil List pension in 1874, and died at Margate on the +13th of March 1884. Horne possessed extraordinary versatility, but, +except in the case of _Orion_, he never attained to a very high degree +of distinction. That poem, indeed, has much of the quality of fine +poetry; it is earnest, vivid and alive with spirit. But Horne early +drove his talent too hard, and continued to write when he had little +left to say. In criticism he had insight and quickness. He was one of +the first to appreciate Keats and Tennyson, and he gave valuable +encouragement to Mrs Browning when she was still Miss Elizabeth Barrett. + + + + +HORNE, THOMAS HARTWELL (1780-1862), English theologian and +bibliographer, was born in London on the 20th of October 1780, and was +educated at Christ's Hospital, with S. T. Coleridge as an elder +contemporary. On leaving school he became clerk to a barrister, but +showed a keen taste for authorship. As early as 1800 he published _A +Brief View of the Necessity and Truth of the Christian Revelation_, +which was followed by several minor works on very varied subjects. In +1814, having been appointed librarian of the Surrey Institution, he +issued his _Introduction to the Study of Bibliography_. This was +followed in 1818 by his long matured work, the _Introduction to the +Critical Study of the Holy Scriptures_, which rapidly attained +popularity, and secured for its author widespread fame and an honorary +M.A. degree from Aberdeen. In 1819 he received ordination from William +Howley, bishop of London, and after holding two smaller livings was +appointed rector of the united parishes of St Edmund the King and +Martyr, and St Nicolas Acons in London. On the breaking up of the Surrey +Institution in 1823, he was appointed (1824) senior assistant librarian +in the department of printed books in the British Museum. After the +project of making a classified catalogue had been abandoned, he took +part in the preparation of the alphabetical one, and his connexion with +the museum continued until within a few months of his death on the 27th +of January 1862. + + Horne's works exceed forty in number. The _Introduction_, edited by + John Ayre and S. P. Tregelles, reached a 12th edition in 1869; but, + owing to subsequent advances in biblical scholarship, it fell into + disuse. + + + + +HORNELL, a city of Steuben county, New York, U.S.A., on the Canisteo +river, 90 m. S.E. of Buffalo. Pop. (1890) 10,996; (1900) 11,918, of whom +1230 were foreign-born; (1910 census) 13,617. Hornell is served by the +Erie and the Pittsburg, Shawmut & Northern railways; the latter connects +at Wayland (20 m. distant by rail) with the Delaware, Lackawanna & +Western railroad. In the city are St Ann's Academy, the St James Mercy +Hospital, the Steuben Sanitarium, a public library, and a county +court-house--terms of the county court being held here as well as in +Bath (pop. in 1905, 3695), the county-seat, and in Corning. Hornell has +extensive car shops of the Erie railroad, and among its manufactures +are silk goods (silk gloves being a specially important product), sash, +doors and blinds, leather, furniture, shoes, white-goods, wire-fences, +foundry and machine shop products, electric motors, and brick and tile. +The value of the factory product in 1905 was $3,162,677, an increase of +30.1% since 1900. The first settlement here was made in 1790, within the +district of Erwin (then in Ontario county); after 1796 it was a part of +Canisteo township, and the settlement itself was known as Upper Canisteo +until 1820, when a new township was formed and named Hornellsville in +honour of Judge George Hornell (d. 1813). The village of Hornellsville +was incorporated in 1852, and in 1888 was chartered as a city; and by +act of the state legislature the name was changed to Hornell in 1906. + + See G. H. McMaster, _History of the Settlement of Steuben County_ + (Bath, New York, 1849). + + + + +HORNEMANN, FREDERICK (fl. 1796-1800), German traveller in Africa, was +born at Hildesheim. He was a young man when, early in 1796, he offered +his services to the African Association of London as an explorer in +Africa. By the association he was sent to Göttingen University to study +Arabic and otherwise prepare for an expedition into the unknown regions +of North Africa from the east. In September 1797 he arrived in Egypt, +where he continued his studies. On the invasion of the country by the +French he was confined in the citadel of Cairo, to preserve him from the +fanaticism of the populace. Liberated by the French, he received the +patronage of Bonaparte. On the 5th of September 1798 he joined a caravan +returning to the Maghrib from Mecca, attaching himself to a party of +Fezzan merchants who accompanied the pilgrims. As an avowed Christian +would not have been permitted to join the caravan Hornemann assumed the +character of a young mameluke trading to Fezzan. He then spoke, but +indifferently, both Arabic and Turkish, and he was accompanied as +servant and interpreter by Joseph Freudenburg, a German convert to +Islam, who had thrice made the pilgrimage to Mecca. Travelling by way of +the oases of Siwa and Aujila, a "black rocky desert" was traversed to +Temissa in Fezzan. Murzuk was reached on the 17th of November 1798. Here +Hornemann lived till June 1799, going thence to the city of Tripoli, +whence in August of the same year he despatched his journals to London. +He then returned to Murzuk. Nothing further is known with certainty +concerning him or his companion. In Murzuk Hornemann had collected a +great deal of trustworthy information concerning the peoples and +countries of the western Sahara and central Sudan, and when he left +Tripoli it was his intention to go direct to the Hausa country, which +region he was the first European definitely to locate. "If I do not +perish in my undertaking," he wrote in his journal, "I hope in five +years I shall be able to make the Society better acquainted with the +people of whom I have given this short description." The British consul +at Tripoli heard from a source believed to be trustworthy that about +June 1803 Jusef (Hornemann's Mahommedan name) was at Casna, i.e. +Katsena, in Northern Nigeria, "in good health and highly respected as a +marabout." A report reached Murzuk in 1819 that the traveller had gone +to "Noofy" (Nupe), and had died there. Hornemann was the first European +in modern times to traverse the north-eastern Sahara, and up to 1910 no +other explorer had followed his route across the Jebel-es-Suda from +Aujila to Temissa. + + The original text of Hornemann's journal, which was written in German, + was printed at Weimar in 1801; an English translation, _Travels from + Cairo to Mourzouk_, &c., with maps and dissertations by Major James + Rennell, appeared in London in 1802. A French translation of the + English work, made by order of the First Consul, and augmented with + notes and a memoir on the Egyptian oases by L. Langlès, was published + in Paris in the following year. The French version is the most + valuable of the three. Consult also the _Proceedings of the African + Association_ (1810), and the Geog. Jnl. Nov. 1906. + + + + +HORNER, FRANCIS (1778-1817), British economist, was born at Edinburgh on +the 12th of August 1778. After passing through the usual courses at the +high school and university of his native city, he devoted five years, +the first two in England, to comprehensive but desultory study, and in +1800 was called to the Scottish bar. Desirous, however, of a wider +sphere, Horner removed to London in 1802, and occupied the interval +that elapsed before his admission to the English bar in 1807 with +researches in law, philosophy and political economy. In February 1806 he +became one of the commissioners for adjusting the claims against the +nawab of Arcot, and in November entered parliament as member for St +Ives. Next year he sat. for Wendover, and in 1812 for St Mawes, in the +patronage of the marquis of Buckingham. In 1811, when Lord Grenville was +organizing a prospective ministry, Horner had the offer, which he +refused, of a treasury secretaryship. He had resolved not to accept +office till he could afford to live out of office; and his professional +income, on which he depended, was at no time proportionate to his +abilities. His labours at last began to tell upon a constitution never +robust, and in October 1816 his physicians ordered him to Italy, where, +however, he sank under his malady. He died at Pisa, on the 8th of +February 1817. He was buried at Leghorn, and a marble statue by Chantrey +was erected to his memory in Westminster Abbey. + +Without the advantages of rank, or wealth, or even of genius, Francis +Horner rose to a high position of public influence and private esteem. +His special field was political economy. Master of that subject, and +exercising a sort of moral as well as intellectual influence over the +House of Commons he, by his nervous and earnest rather than eloquent +style of speaking, could fix its attention for hours on such dry topics +as finance, and coinage, and currency. As chairman of the parliamentary +committee for investigating the depreciation of bank-notes, for which he +moved in 1810, he extended and confirmed his fame as a political +economist by his share in the famous _Bullion Report_. It was chiefly +through his efforts that the paper-issue of the English banks was +checked, and gold and silver reinstated in their true position as +circulating media; and his views on free trade and commerce have been +generally accepted at their really high value. Horner was one of the +promoters of the _Edinburgh Review_ in 1802. His articles in the early +numbers of that publication, chiefly on political economy, form his only +literary legacy. + + See _Memoirs and Correspondence of Francis Horner, M.P._, published by + his brother (see below) in 1843. Also the _Edinburgh_ and _Quarterly + Reviews_ for the same year; and _Blackwood's Magazine_, vol. i. + + + + +HORNER, LEONARD (1785-1864), Scottish geologist, brother of Francis +Horner (above), was born in Edinburgh on the 17th of January 1785. His +father, John Horner, was a linen merchant in Edinburgh, and Leonard, the +third and youngest son, entered the university of Edinburgh in 1799. +There in the course of the next four years he studied chemistry and +mineralogy, and gained a love of geology from Playfair's _Illustrations +of the Huttonian Theory_. At the age of nineteen he became a partner in +a branch of his father's business, and went to London. In 1808 he joined +the newly formed Geological Society and two years later was elected one +of the secretaries. Throughout his long life he was ardently devoted to +the welfare of the society; he was elected president in 1846 and again +in 1860. In 1811 he read his first paper "On the Mineralogy of the +Malvern Hills" (_Trans. Geol. Soc._ vol. i.) and subsequently +communicated other papers on the "Brine-springs at Droitwich," and the +"Geology of the S.W. part of Somersetshire." He was elected F.R.S. in +1813. In 1815 he returned to Edinburgh to take personal superintendence +of his business, and while there (1821) he was instrumental in founding +the Edinburgh School of Arts for the instruction of mechanics, and he +was one of the founders of the Edinburgh Academy. In 1827 he was invited +to London to become warden of the London University, an office which he +held for four years; he then resided at Bonn for two years and pursued +the study of minerals and rocks, communicating to the Geological Society +on his return a paper on the "Geology of the Environs of Bonn," and +another "On the Quantity of Solid Matter suspended in the Water of the +Rhine." In 1833 he was appointed one of the commissioners to inquire +into the employment of children in the factories of Great Britain, and +he was subsequently selected as one of the inspectors. In later years he +devoted much attention to the geological history of the alluvial lands +of Egypt; and in 1843 he published his _Life_ of his brother Francis. He +died in London on the 5th of March 1864. + + See _Memoir of Leonard Horner_, by Katherine M. Lyell (1890) + (privately printed). + + + + +HÖRNES, MORITZ (1815-1868), Austrian palaeontologist, was born in Vienna +on the 14th of July 1815. He was educated in the university and +graduated Ph.D. He then became assistant in the Vienna mineralogical +museum. He was distinguished for his researches on the Tertiary mollusca +of the Vienna Basin, and on the Triassic mollusca of Alpine regions. +Most of his memoirs were published in the _Jahrbuch der K. K. geol. +Reichsanstalt_. In 1864 he introduced the term Neogene to include +Miocene and Pliocene, as these formations are not always to be clearly +separated: the fauna of the lower division being subtropical and +gradually giving place in the upper division to Mediterranean forms. He +died in Vienna on the 4th of November 1868. His son Dr Rudolf Hörnes (b. +1850), professor of geology and palaeontology in the university of Graz, +has also carried on researches among the Tertiary mollusca, and is +author of _Elemente der Palaeontologie_ (1884). + + + + +HORNFELS (a German word meaning hornstone), the group designation for a +series of rocks which have been baked and indurated by the heat of +intrusive granitic masses and have been rendered massive, hard, +splintery, and in some cases exceedingly tough and durable. Most +hornfelses are fine-grained, and while the original rocks (such as +sandstone, shale and slate, limestone and diabase) may have been more or +less fissile owing to the presence of bedding or cleavage planes, this +structure is effaced or rendered inoperative in the hornfels. Though +they may show banding, due to bedding, &c., they break across this as +readily as along it; in fact they tend to separate into cubical +fragments rather than into thin plates. The commonest hornfelses (the +"biotite hornfelses") are dark-brown to black with a somewhat velvety +lustre owing to the abundance of small crystals of shining black mica. +The "lime hornfelses" are often white, yellow, pale-green, brown and +other colours. Green and dark-green are the prevalent tints of the +hornfelses produced by the alteration of igneous rocks. Although for the +most part the constituent grains are too small to be determined by the +unaided eye, there are often larger crystals of garnet or andalusite +scattered through the fine matrix, and these may become very prominent +on the weathered faces of the rock. + +The structure of the hornfelses is very characteristic. Very rarely do +any of the minerals show crystalline form, but the small grains fit +closely together like the fragments of a mosaic; they are usually of +nearly equal dimensions and from the resemblance to rough pavement work +this has been called _pflaster_ structure or pavement structure. Each +mineral may also enclose particles of the others; in the quartz, for +example, small crystals of graphite, biotite, iron oxides, sillimanite +or felspar may appear in great numbers. Often the whole of the grains +are rendered semi-opaque in this way. The minutest crystals may show +traces of crystalline outlines; undoubtedly they are of new formation +and have originated _in situ_. This leads us to believe that the whole +rock has been recrystallized at a high temperature and in the solid +state, so that there was little freedom for the mineral molecules to +build up well-individualized crystals. The regeneration of the rock has +been sufficient to efface most of the original structures and to replace +the former minerals more or less completely by new ones. But +crystallization has been hampered by the solid condition of the mass and +the new minerals are formless and have been unable to reject impurities, +but have grown around them. + +Slates, shales and clays yield biotite hornfelses in which the most +conspicuous mineral is black mica, in small scales which under the +microscope are transparent and have a dark reddish-brown colour and +strong dichroism. There is also quartz, and often a considerable amount +of felspar, while graphite, tourmaline and iron oxides frequently occur +in lesser quantity. In these biotite hornfelses the minerals, which +consist of aluminium silicates, are commonly found; they are usually +andalusite and sillimanite, but kyanite appears also in hornfelses, +especially in those which have a schistose character. The andalusite may +be pink and is then often pleochroic in thin sections, or it may be +white with the cross-shaped dark enclosures of the matrix which are +characteristic of chiastolite. Sillimanite usually forms exceedingly +minute needles embedded in quartz. In the rocks of this group cordierite +also occurs, not rarely, and may have the outlines of imperfect +hexagonal prisms which are divided up into six sectors when seen in +polarized light. In biotite hornfelses a faint striping may indicate the +original bedding of the unaltered rock and corresponds to small changes +in the nature of the sediment deposited. More commonly there is a +distinct spotting, visible on the surfaces of the hand specimens. The +spots are round or elliptical, and may be paler or darker than the rest +of the rock. In some cases they are rich in graphite or carbonaceous +matters; in others they are full of brown mica; some spots consist of +rather coarser grains of quartz than occur in the matrix. The frequency +with which this feature reappears in the less altered slates and +hornfelses is rather remarkable, especially as it seems certain that the +spots are not always of the same nature or origin. "Tourmaline +hornfelses" are found sometimes near the margins of tourmaline granites; +they are black with small needles of schorl which under the microscope +are dark brown and richly pleochroic. As the tourmaline contains boron +there must have been some permeation of vapours from the granite into +the sediments. Rocks of this group are often seen in the Cornish +tin-mining districts, especially near the lodes. + +A second great group of hornfelses are the calc-silicate-hornfelses +which arise from the thermal alteration of impure limestones. The purer +beds recrystallize as marbles, but where there has been originally an +admixture of sand or clay lime-bearing silicates are formed, such as +diopside, epidote, garnet, sphene, vesuvianite, scapolite; with these +phlogopite, various felspars, pyrites, quartz and actinolite often +occur. These rocks are fine-grained, and though often banded are tough +and much harder than the original limestones. They are excessively +variable in their mineralogical composition, and very often alternate in +thin seams with biotite hornfels and indurated quartzites. When perfused +with boric and fluoric vapours from the granite they may contain much +axinite, fluorite and datolite, but the aluminous silicates (andalusite, +&c.) are absent from these rocks. + +From diabases, basalts, andesites and other igneous rocks a third type +of hornfels is produced. They consist essentially of felspar with +hornblende (generally of brown colour) and pale pyroxene. Sphene, +biotite and iron oxides are the other common constituents, but these +rocks show much variety of composition and structure. Where the original +mass was decomposed and contained calcite, zeolites, chlorite and other +secondary minerals either in veins or in cavities, there are usually +rounded areas or irregular streaks containing a suite of new minerals, +which may resemble those of the calc silicate hornfelses above +described. The original porphyritic, fluidal, vesicular or fragmental +structures of the igneous rock are clearly visible in the less advanced +stages of hornfelsing, but become less evident as the alteration +progresses. + +In some districts hornfelsed rocks occur which have acquired a schistose +structure through shearing, and these form transitions to schists and +gneisses which contain the same minerals as the hornfelses, but have a +schistose instead of a hornfels structure. Among these may be mentioned +cordierite and sillimanite gneisses, andalusite and kyanite mica +schists, and those schistose calc silicate rocks which are known as +cipolins. That these are sediments which have undergone thermal +alteration is generally admitted, but the exact conditions under which +they were formed is not always clear. The essential features of +hornfelsing are ascribed to the action of heat, pressure and permeating +vapours, regenerating a rock mass without the production of fusion (at +least on a large scale). It has been argued, however, that often there +is extensive chemical change owing to the introduction of matter from +the granite into the rocks surrounding it. The formation of new felspar +in the hornfelses is pointed out as evidence of this. While this +"felspathization" may have occurred in a few localities, it seems +conspicuously absent from others. Most authorities at the present time +regard the changes as being purely of a physical and not of a chemical +nature. (J. S. F.) + + + + +HORNING, LETTERS OF, a term in Scots law. Originally in Scotland +imprisonment for debt was enforceable only in certain cases, but a +custom gradually grew up of taking the debtor's oath to pay. If the +debtor broke his oath, he became liable to the discipline of the Church. +The civil power, further, stepped in to aid the ecclesiastical, and +denounced him as a rebel, imprisoning his person and confiscating his +goods. The method declaring a person a rebel was by giving three blasts +on a horn and publicly proclaiming the fact; hence the expression, "put +to the horn." The subsequent process, the warrant directing a +messenger-at-arms to charge the debtor to pay or perform in terms of the +letters, was called "letters of horning." This system of execution was +simplified by an act of 1837 (Personal Diligence Act), and execution is +now usually by diligence (see EXECUTION). + + + + +HORNPIPE, originally the name of an instrument no longer in existence, +and now the name of an English national dance. The sailors' hornpipe, +although the most common, is by no means the only form of the dance, for +there is a pretty tune known as the "College Hornpipe," and other +specimens of a similar kind might be cited. The composition of hornpipes +flourished chiefly in the 18th century, and even Handel did not disdain +to use the characteristic rhythm. The hornpipe may be written in 3/2 or +in common time, and is always of a lively nature. + + + + +HORNSEY, a municipal borough in the Hornsey parliamentary division of +Middlesex, England, suburban to London, 6 m. N. of St Paul's Cathedral, +on the Great Northern railway. Pop. (1891) 44,523; (1901) 72,056. It is +chiefly occupied by small residences of the working classes. The manor, +called in the 13th century _Haringee_ (a name which survives as +Harringay), belonged from an early date to the see of London, the +bishops having a seat here. In 1387 the duke of Gloucester, uncle of +Richard II., assembled in Hornsey Park the forces by the display of +which he compelled the king to dismiss his minister de la Pole, earl of +Suffolk; and in 1483 the park was the scene of the ceremonious reception +of Edward V., under the charge of Richard, duke of Gloucester, by Edmund +Shaw, lord mayor of London. The parish church of St Mary, Hornsey, +retains its Perpendicular tower (c. 1500) and a number of interesting +monuments. Finsbury Park, of 120 acres, and other smaller public +grounds, are within the borough. Hornsey was incorporated in 1903 under +a mayor, 10 aldermen and 30 councillors. Area, 2875 acres. + + + + +HOROWITZ, ISAIAH (c. 1555-c. 1630), Jewish rabbi and mystic, was born at +Prague, and died at Safed, then the home of Jewish Kabbala. His largest +work is called _Shelah_ (abbreviated from the initials of the full title +_Shene luhoth ha-berit_, "Two Tables of the Covenant"). This is a +compilation of ritual, ethics and mysticism, and had a profound +influence on Jewish life. It has been often reprinted, especially in an +abbreviated form. + + For an account of the Jewish mystics at Safed see S. Schecter, + _Studies in Judaism_, series ii. (1908). + + + + +HORREUM, the Latin word for a magazine or storehouse for the storage of +grain and other produce of the earth, and occasionally for that of +agricultural implements. The storehouses of Rome were of the most +extensive character, there being no fewer than 290 public horrea at the +time of Constantine. They were used for the storage of food and +merchandize of all kinds, being part of the great Roman system of +providing food for the population, and they were supplied constantly +with corn and other provisions from Africa, Spain and elsewhere. + + + + +HORROCKS, JEREMIAH (1619-1641), English astronomer, was born in 1619 at +Toxteth Park, near Liverpool. His family was poor, and the register of +Emmanuel College, Cambridge, testifies to his entry as sizar on the 18th +of May 1632. Isolated in his scientific tastes, and painfully straitened +in means, he pursued amid innumerable difficulties his purpose of +self-education. His university career lasted three years, and on its +termination he became a tutor at Toxteth, devoting to astronomical +observations his brief intervals of leisure. In 1636 he met with a +congenial spirit in William Crabtree, a draper of Broughton, near +Manchester; and encouraged by his advice he exchanged the guidance of +Philipp von Lansberg, a pretentious but inaccurate Belgian astronomer, +for that of Kepler. He now set himself to the revision of the Rudolphine +Tables (published by Kepler in 1627), and in the progress of his task +became convinced that a transit of Venus overlooked by Kepler would +nevertheless occur on the 24th of November (O.S.) 1639. He was at this +time curate of Hoole, near Preston, having recently taken orders in the +Church of England, although, according to the received accounts, he had +not attained the canonical age. The 24th of November falling on a +Sunday, his clerical duties threatened fatally to clash with his +astronomical observations; he was, however, released just in time to +witness the punctual verification of his forecast, and carefully noted +the progress of the phenomenon during half an hour before sunset (3.15 +to 3.45). This transit of Venus is remarkable as the first ever +observed, that of 1631 predicted by Kepler having been invisible in +western Europe. Notwithstanding the rude character of the apparatus at +his disposal, Horrocks was enabled by his observation of it to introduce +some important corrections into the elements of the planet's orbit, and +to reduce to its exact value the received estimate of its apparent +diameter. + +After a year spent at Hoole, he returned to Toxteth, and there, on the +eve of a long-promised visit to his friend Crabtree, he died, on the 3rd +of January 1641, when only in his twenty-second year. To the inventive +activity of the discoverer he had already united the patient skill of +the observer and the practical sagacity of the experimentalist. Before +he was twenty he had afforded a specimen of his powers by an important +contribution to the lunar theory. He first brought the revolutions of +our satellite within the domain of Kepler's laws, pointing out that her +apparent irregularities could be completely accounted for by supposing +her to move in an ellipse with a variable eccentricity and directly +rotatory major axis, of which the earth occupied one focus. These +precise conditions were afterwards demonstrated by Newton to follow +necessarily from the law of gravitation. + +In his speculations as to the physical cause of the celestial motions, +his mind, though not wholly emancipated from the tyranny of gratuitous +assumptions, was working steadily towards the light. He clearly +perceived the significant analogy between terrestrial gravity and the +force exerted in the solar system, and by the ingenious device of a +circular pendulum illustrated the composite character of the planetary +movements. He also reduced the solar parallax to 14´´ (less than a +quarter of Kepler's estimate), corrected the sun's semi-diameter to 15´ +45´´, recommended decimal notation, and was the first to make tidal +observations. + + Only a remnant of the papers left by Horrocks was preserved by the + care of William Crabtree. After his death (which occurred soon after + that of his friend) these were purchased by Dr Worthington, of + Cambridge; and from his hands the treatise _Venus in sole visa_ passed + into those of Hevelius, and was published by him in 1662 with his own + observations on a transit of Mercury. The remaining fragments were, + under the directions of the Royal Society, reduced by Dr Wallis to a + compact form, with the heading _Astronomia Kepleriana defensa et + promota_, and published with numerous extracts from the letters of + Horrocks to Crabtree, and a sketch of the author's life, in a volume + entitled _Jeremiae Horroccii opera posthuma_ (London, 1672). A memoir + of his life by the Rev. Arundell Blount Whatton, prefixed to a + translation of the _Venus in sole visa_, appeared at London in 1859. + + For additional particulars, see J. E. Bailey's _Palatine Note-Book_, + ii. 253, iii. 17; Bailey's "Writings of Horrocks and Crabtree" (from + _Notes and Queries_, Dec. 2, 1882); _Notes and Queries_, 3rd series, + vol. v., 5th series, vols. ii., iv.; Martin's _Biographia + philosophica_, p. 271 (1764); R. Brickel, _Transits of Venus, + 1639-1874_ (Preston, 1874); _Astronomical Register_, xii. 293; + Hevelii, _Mercurius in sole visus_, pp. 116-140; S. Rigaud's + _Correspondence of Scientific Men_; Th. Birch, _History of the Royal + Society_, i. 386, 395, 470; Sir E. Sherburne's _Sphere of M. + Manilius_, p. 92 (1675); Sir J. A. Picton's _Memorials of Liverpool_, + ii. 561; M. Gregson's _Fragments relative to the Duchy of Lancaster_, + p. 166 (1817); _Liverpool Repository_, i. 570 (1826); _Phil. Trans. + Abridged_, ii. 12 (1809); C. Hutton's _Phil. and Math. Dictionary_ + (1815); _Penny Cyclopaedia_ (De Morgan); _Nature_, viii. 117, 137; J. + B. J. Delambre, _Hist. de l'astronomie moderne_, ii. 495; _Hist. de + l'astronomie au XVIII^e siècle_, pp. 28, 61, 74; W. Whewell, _Hist. of + the Inductive Sciences_, i. 331; R. Grant, _Hist. of Physical + Astronomy_, pp. 420, 545; J. Mädler, _Geschichte der Himmelskunde_, i. + 275; M. Marie, _Hist. des Sciences_, iv. 168, vi. 90; J. C. Houzeau, + _Bibl. Astr._ ii. 167. (A. M. C.) + + + + +HORROCKS, JOHN (1768-1804), British cotton manufacturer, was born at +Edgeworth, near Bolton, in 1768. His father was the owner of a small +quarry, and John Horrocks spent his early days in dressing and polishing +millstones. The Lancashire cotton industry was then in its infancy, but +Horrocks was greatly impressed with its future possibilities, and he +managed to obtain a few spinning-frames which he erected in a corner of +his father's offices. For a time he combined cotton-spinning on a very +small scale with stone-working, but finally devoted himself entirely to +cotton-spinning, working the frames with his own hands, and travelling +through the Lancashire manufacturing districts to sell the yarn. His +goods obtained a reputation for quality, and his customers increased so +rapidly that in 1791 he removed to Preston, where he began to +manufacture cotton shirtings and long-cloths in addition to spinning the +cotton yarn. By taking full advantage of the machinery invented for +manufacturing textiles, and by rigidly maintaining the quality of his +goods, Horrocks rapidly developed his business, and with the aid of the +capital of a local banker, whom he took into partnership, erected within +a year of his arrival in Preston his first large mill, securing shortly +afterwards from the East India Company a monopoly of the manufacture of +cottons and muslins for the Indian market. The demand for Horrocks's +goods continued to increase, and to cope with the additional work he +took first an elder brother and in 1801 a Mr Whitehead and a Mr Miller +into partnership, the title of the firm being altered to Horrockses, +Miller & Co. In 1802 he entered parliament as tory member for Preston. +He died in London in 1804 of brain-fever resulting from over-work. + + + + +HORSE (a word common to Teutonic languages in such forms as _hors_, +_hros_, _ros_; cf. the Ger. _ross_), a name properly restricted to the +domesticated horse (_Equus caballus_) and its wild or half-wild +representatives, but in a zoological sense used as a general term for +all the members of the family Equidae. + + +SPECIES + +The distinctive characteristics of the family, and its position in the +zoological system, are given in the articles EQUIDAE and PERISSODACTYLA. +Here attention is concentrated on the leading features of the horse as +contrasted with the other members of the same family, and subsequently +on the anatomical structure of the former animal. The evolution of the +existing representatives of the family from primitive extinct animals is +summarized in the article EQUIDAE. + +_Horse_, _Wild Horse_, _Pony_.--The horse (_Equus caballus_) is +distinguished from the others by the long hairs of the tail being more +abundant and growing quite or nearly from the base as well as the end +and sides, and also by possessing a small bare callosity on the inner +side of the hind leg, just below the "hock" or heel joint, in addition +to the one on the inner side of the fore-arm above the carpus or "knee," +common to all the genus. The mane is also longer and more flowing, and +the ears are shorter, the limbs longer, and the head smaller. + +Though existing horses are usually not marked in any definite manner, or +only irregularly dappled, or spotted with light surrounded by a darker +ring, many examples are met with showing a dark median dorsal streak +like that found in all the other members of the genus, and even with +dark stripes on the shoulders and legs. + +Two distinct types of horse, in many instances largely modified by +interbreeding, appear to exist. (1) The northern, or dun type, +represented by the dun ponies of Norway (_Equus caballus typicus_), the +closely allied Celtic pony (_E. c. celticus_) of Iceland, the Hebrides, +&c., and the wild pony of Mongolia (_E. c. przewalskii_), with which the +now extinct tarpan of the Russian steppes appears to have been +identical. The prevalent colour is yellow-dun, with dark brown or black +mane, tail and legs; in the wild forms the muzzle is often white and the +root of the tail short-haired; while the head is relatively large and +heavy. No depression exists in the skull in front of the eye. Most of +the ordinary horses of N.W. Europe are descended from the dun type, with +more or less admixture of Barb blood. (2) The southern, or Barb type, +represented by Barbs, Arabs, thoroughbreds, &c. (_E. c. asiaticus_ or +_libycus_), in which the typical colour is bay with black "points" and +often a white star on the forehead, and the mane and tail are long and +full. The skull generally shows a slight depression in front of the +socket of the eye, which, although now serving as the attachment for the +muscle running to the nostril, may represent the face-gland of the +extinct _Hipparion_. Many of the dark-coloured horses of Europe have +Barb or Arab blood in their veins, this being markedly the case with the +Old English black or Shire horse, the skull of which shows a distinct +depression in front of the eye-socket. This depression is still more +marked in the extinct Indian _E. sivalensis_, which may have been the +ancestral form. + +In Europe wild horses were abundant in the prehistoric Neolithic or +polished-stone period. Judging from the quantity of their remains found +associated with those of the men of that time, the chase of these +animals must have been among man's chief occupations, and horses must +have furnished him with one of his most important food-supplies. The +characters of the bones preserved, and certain rude but graphic +representations carved on bones or reindeers' antlers, enable us to know +that they were rather small in size and heavy in build, with large heads +and rough shaggy manes and tails, much like, in fact, the recently +extinct tarpans or wild horses of the steppes of the south of Russia, +and the still-surviving Mongolian wild pony or "Przewalski's horse." +These horses were domesticated by the inhabitants of Europe before the +dawn of history. Horses are now diffused by the agency of man throughout +almost the whole of the inhabited parts of the globe, and the great +modifications they have undergone in consequence of domestication, +crossing, and selective breeding are well exemplified by comparing such +extreme forms as the Shetland pony, dwarfed by uncongenial climate, the +thoroughbred racer, and the London dray-horse. In Australia, as in +America, horses imported by European settlers have escaped into +unreclaimed lands and multiplied to a prodigious extent, roaming in vast +herds over the wide and uncultivated plains. + +_Ass_, _Zebra_, _Quagga_.--The next group is formed by the Asiatic wild +asses, or kiangs and onagers, as they might well be called, in order to +distinguish them from the wild asses of Africa. These asses have +moderate ears, the tail rather long, and the back-stripe dark brown and +running from head to tail. On the neck and withers this stripe is formed +by the mane. There are two species of Asiatic wild ass, with several +varieties. The first and largest has two races, the chigetai (_Equus +hemionus_) of Mongolia, and the kiang (_E. h. kiang_) of Tibet, which is +a redder animal. The onager (_E. onager_), of which there are several +races, is smaller, with a broader dorsal stripe, bordered with white; +the colour varying from sandy to greyish. This species ranges from +Baluchistan and N.W. India to Persia, Syria and Arabia. These asses +inhabit desert plains or open table-land; the kiang dwelling at +elevations of about 14,000 ft. They are generally found in herds of from +twenty to forty, although occasionally in larger numbers. All are fleet, +and traverse rough ground with speed. On the lowlands they feed on dry +grasses, and in Tibet on small woody plants. In India and Persia they +are difficult to approach, although this is not the case in Tibet. Their +sandy or chestnut colouring assimilates them to the horse, and separates +them widely from the African wild asses, which are grey. The kiang has +also larger and more horse-like hoofs, and the tail is haired higher up, +thus approximating to _Equus caballus przewalskii_. + +Among the striped species, or zebras and quaggas of Africa, the large +Grévy's zebra (_Equus grevyi_) of Somaliland and Abyssinia stands apart +from the rest by the number and narrowness of its stripes, which have an +altogether peculiar arrangement on the hind-quarters, the small size of +the callosities on the fore-legs, the mane extending on to the withers +and enormous rounded ears, thickly haired internally. The large size of +the ears and the narrow stripes are in some degree at any rate +adaptations to a life on scrub-clad plains. + +Next comes the closely allied species with small pointed ears, of which +the true quagga (_E. quagga_) of South Africa is now extinct. This +animal has the dark stripes limited to the head, neck and shoulders, +upon a brown ground. In the typical form, now also extinct, of the +bonte-quagga, dauw, or Burchell's zebra (_E. burchelli_), the +ground-colour is white, and the stripes cover the body and upper part of +the limbs. This was the commonest species in the great plains of South +Africa, where it roamed in large herds, often in company with the quagga +and numerous antelopes. The species ranges from the Orange river to the +confines of Abyssinia, but its more northern representatives show a +gradual increase in the striping of the legs, culminating in the +north-east African _E. burchelli granti_, in which the stripes extend to +the hoofs. The markings, too, are alternately black and white, in place +of brown and creamy, with intermediate "shadow stripes," as in the +southern races. + +Lastly, there is the true or mountain zebra (_E. zebra_), typically from +the mountain ranges of Cape Colony, where it is now specially protected, +but represented by _E. zebra penricei_ in south-west Africa. In its +relatively long ears and general build it approaches the African wild +asses, from which it chiefly differs by the striping (which is markedly +different from that of the quagga-group) and the reversal of the +direction of the hairs along the spine. + +The African wild ass (_E. asinus_) is the parent of the domesticated +breed, and is a long-eared grey animal, with no forelock, and either a +shoulder-stripe or dark barrings on the legs. There are two races, of +which the Nubian _E. a. africanus_ is the smaller, and has a continuous +dorsal stripe and a shoulder-stripe but no bars on the legs. The Somali +race (_E. a somaliensis_), on the other hand, is a larger and greyer +animal, with an interrupted dorsal and no shoulder-stripe, but distinct +leg-barrings. + +_Hybrids._--There are thus eight modifications of the horse-type at +present existing, sufficiently distinct to be reckoned as species by +most zoologists, and easily recognizable by their external characters. +They are, however, all so closely allied that each will, at least in a +state of domestication or captivity, breed with any of the others. Cases +of fertile union are recorded between the horse and the quagga, the +horse and the bonte-quagga or Burchell's zebra, the horse and the onager +and kiang or Asiatic wild asses, the common ass and the zebra, the ass +and bonte-quagga, the ass and the onager, the onager and the zebra, and +the onager and the bonte-quagga. The two species which are farthest +removed in structure, the horse and the ass, produce, as is well known, +hybrids or mules, which in certain qualities useful to man excel both +their progenitors, and in some countries and for certain kinds of work +are in greater requisition than either. Although occasional more or less +doubtful instances have been recorded of female mules breeding with the +males of one or other of the pure species, it is more than doubtful if +any case has occurred of their breeding _inter se_, although the +opportunities of doing so must have been great, as mules have been +reared in immense numbers for at least several thousands of years. We +may therefore consider it settled that the different species of the +group are now in that degree of physiological differentiation which +enables them to produce offspring with each other, but does not permit +of the progeny continuing the race, at all events unless reinforced by +the aid of one of the pure forms. + +The several members of the group show mental differences quite as +striking as those exhibited by their external form, and more than +perhaps might be expected from the similarity of their brains. The +patience of the ass, the high spirit of the horse, the obstinacy of the +mule, have long been proverbial. It is very remarkable that, out of so +many species, two only should have shown any aptitude for +domestication, and that these should have been from time immemorial the +universal and most useful companions and servants of man, while all the +others remain in their native freedom to this day. It is, however, still +a question whether this really arises from a different mental +constitution causing a natural capacity for entering into relations with +man, or whether it may not be owing to their having been brought +gradually into this condition by long-continued and persevering efforts +when the need of their services was felt. It is possible that one reason +why most of the attempts to add new species to the list of our domestic +animals in modern times have ended in failure is that it does not answer +to do so in cases in which existing species supply all the principal +purposes to which the new ones might be put. It can hardly be expected +that zebras and bonte-quaggas fresh from their native mountains and +plains can be brought into competition as beasts of burden and draught +with horses and asses, whose useful qualities have been augmented by the +training of thousands of generations of progenitors. + +Not infrequently instances occur of domestic horses being produced with +a small additional toe with complete hoof, usually on the inside of the +principal toe, and, though far more rarely, three or more toes may be +present. These malformations are often cited as instances of reversion +to the condition of some of the earlier forms of equine animals +previously mentioned. In some instances, however, the feet of such +polydactyle horses bear little resemblance to those of the extinct +_Hipparion_ or _Anchitherium_, but look rather as if due to that +tendency to reduplication of parts which occurs so frequently as a +monstrous condition, especially among domesticated animals, and which, +whatever its origin, certainly cannot in many instances, as the cases of +entire limbs superadded, or of six digits in man, be attributed to +reversion. + + +ANATOMY + +The anatomical structure of the horse has been described in detail in +several works mentioned in the bibliography at the end of this section, +though these have generally been written from the point of view of the +veterinarian rather than of the comparative anatomist. The limits of the +present article will only admit of the most salient points being +indicated, particularly those in which the horse differs from other +Ungulata. Unless otherwise specified, it must be understood that all +that is stated here, although mostly derived from observation upon the +horse, applies equally well to the other existing members of the group. + + _Skeleton._--The skull as a whole is greatly elongated, chiefly in + consequence of the immense size of the face as compared with the + hinder or true cranial portion. The basal line of the cranium from the + lower border of the foramen magnum to the incisor border of the palate + is nearly straight. The orbit, of nearly circular form, though small + in proportion to the size of the whole skull, is distinctly marked, + being completely surrounded by a strong ring of bone with prominent + edges. Behind it, and freely communicating with it beneath the osseous + bridge (the post-orbital process of the frontal) forming the boundary + between them, is the small temporal fossa occupying the whole of the + side of the cranium proper, and in front is the great flattened + expanse of the "cheek," formed chiefly by the maxilla, giving support + to the long row of cheek-teeth, and having a prominent ridge running + forward from below the orbit for the attachment of the masseter + muscle. The lachrymal occupies a considerable space on the flat + surface of the cheek in front of the orbit, and below it the jugal + does the same. The latter sends a horizontal or slightly ascending + process backwards below the orbit to join the under surface of the + zygomatic process of the squamosal, which is remarkably large, and + instead of ending as usual behind the orbit, runs forwards to join the + greatly developed post-orbital process of the frontal, and even forms + part of the posterior and inferior boundary of the orbit, an + arrangement not met with in other mammals. The closure of the orbit + behind distinguishes the skull of the horse from that of its allies + the rhinoceros and tapir, and also from all of the perissodactyles of + the Eocene period. In front of the brain cavity, the great tubular + nasal cavities are provided with well-developed turbinal bones, and + are roofed over by large nasals, broad behind, and ending in front in + a narrow decurved point. The opening of the anterior nostrils is + prolonged backwards on each side of the face between the nasals and + the elongated slender premaxillae. The latter expand in front, and are + curved downwards to form the semicircular alveolar border which + supports the large incisor teeth. The palate is narrow in the interval + between the incisor and molar teeth, in which are situated the large + anterior palatine foramina. Between the molar teeth it is broader, and + it ends posteriorly in a rounded excavated border opposite the hinder + border of the penultimate molar tooth. It is mainly formed by the + maxillae, as the palatines are very narrow. The pterygoids are + delicate slender slips of bone attached to the hinder border of the + palatines, and supported externally by, and generally welded with, the + rough pterygoid plates of the alisphenoid, with no pterygoid fossa + between. They slope obliquely forwards, and end in curved, compressed, + hamular processes. There is a distinct alisphenoid canal for the + passage of the internal maxillary artery. The base of the cranium is + long and narrow; the alisphenoid is very obliquely perforated by the + foramen rotundum, but the foramen ovale is confluent with the large + foramen lacerum medium behind. The glenoid surface for the + articulation of the mandible is greatly extended transversely, concave + from side to side, convex from before backwards in front, and hollow + behind, and is bounded posteriorly at its inner part by a prominent + post-glenoid process. The squamosal enters considerably into the + formation of the temporal fossa, and, besides sending the zygomatic + process forwards, it sends down behind the meatus auditorius a + post-tympanic process which aids to hold in place the otherwise loose + tympano-periotic bone. Behind this the exoccipital gives off a long + paroccipital process. The periotic and tympanic are welded together, + but not with the squamosal. The former has a wide but shallow + floccular fossa on its inner side, and sends backwards a considerable + "pars mastoidea," which appears on the outer surface of the skull + between the post-tympanic process of the squamosal and the + exoccipital. The tympanic forms a tubular meatus auditorius externus + directed outwards and slightly backwards. It is not dilated into a + distinct bulla, but ends in front in a pointed rod-like process. It + completely embraces the truncated cylindrical tympanohyal, which is of + great size, corresponding with the large development of the whole + anterior arch of the hyoid. This consists mainly of a long and + compressed stylohyal, expanded at the upper end, where it sends off a + triangular posterior process. The basi-hyal is remarkable for the + long, median, pointed, compressed "glossohyal" process, which it sends + forward from its anterior border into the base of the tongue. A + similar but less developed process is found in the rhinoceros and + tapir. The lower jaw is large, especially the region of the angle, + which is expanded and flattened, giving great surface for the + attachment of the masseter muscle. The condyle is greatly elevated + above the alveolar border; its articular surface is very wide + transversely, and narrow and convex from before backwards. The + coronoid process is slender, straight, and inclined backwards. The + horizontal ramus, long, straight, and compressed, gradually narrows + towards the symphysis, where it expands laterally to form with the + ankylosed opposite ramus the wide, semicircular, shallow alveolar + border for the incisor teeth. + + [Illustration: FIG. 1.--Side view of Skull of Horse, with the bone + removed so as to expose the whole of the teeth. + + PMx, Premaxilla. + Mx, Maxilla. + Na, Nasal bone. + Ma, Jugal or malar bone. + L, Lacrymal bone. + Fr, Frontal bone. + Sq, Squamosal bone. + Pa, Parietal bone. + oc, Occipital condyle. + pp, Paroccipital process. + i¹, i², and i³, The three incisor teeth. + c, The canine tooth. + pm¹, The situation of the rudimentary first premolar, which has been + lost in the lower, but is present in the upper jaw. + pm², pm³, and pm^4, The three fully developed premolar teeth. + m¹, m², and m³, The three true molar teeth.] + + The vertebral column consists of seven cervical, eighteen dorsal, six + lumbar, five sacral, and fifteen to eighteen caudal vertebrae There + may be nineteen rib-bearing vertebrae, in which case five only will be + reckoned as belonging to the lumbar series. The odontoid process of + the axis is wide, flat, and hollowed above, as in the ruminants. The + bodies of the cervical vertebrae are elongated, strongly keeled, and + markedly opisthocoelous, or concave behind and convex in front. The + neural laminae are broad, the spines almost obsolete, except in the + seventh, and the transverse processes not largely developed. In the + trunk vertebrae the opisthocoelous character of the centrum gradually + diminishes. The spinous processes of the anterior thoracic region are + high and compressed. To these is attached the powerful elastic + ligament (_ligamentum nuchae_, or "paxwax") which, passing forwards in + the middle line of the neck above the neural arches of the cervical + vertebrae--to which it is also connected--is attached to the occiput + and supports the weight of the head. The transverse processes of the + lumbar vertebrae are long, flattened, and project horizontally + outwards or slightly forward from the arch. The metapophyses are + moderately developed, and there are no anapophyses. The caudal + vertebrae, except those quite at the base, are slender and + cylindrical, without processes and without chevron bones beneath. The + ribs are eighteen or nineteen in number on each side, flattened, and + united to the sternum by short, stout, tolerably well ossified sternal + ribs. The sternum consists of six pieces; the anterior or presternum + is compressed and projects forwards like the prow of a boat. The + segments which follow gradually widen, and the hinder part of the + sternum is broad and flat. + + As in all other ungulates, there are no clavicles. The scapula is long + and slender, the supra-scapular border being rounded, and slowly and + imperfectly ossified. The spine is very slightly developed; rather + above the middle its edge is thickened and somewhat turned backwards, + but it gradually subsides at the lower extremity without forming any + acromial process. The coracoid is a prominent rounded nodule. The + humerus is stout and rather short. The ulna is rudimentary, being + represented by little more than the olecranon. The shaft gradually + tapers below and is firmly welded to the radius. The latter bone is of + nearly equal width throughout. The three bones of the first row of the + carpus (scaphoid, lunar and cuneiform) are subequal in size. The + second row consists of a broad and flat magnum, supporting the great + third metacarpal, having to its radial side the trapezoid, and to its + ulnar side the unciform, which are both small, and articulate + inferiorally with the rudimentary second and fourth metacarpals. The + pisiform is large and prominent, flattened and curved; it articulates + partly with the cuneiform and partly with the lower end of the radius. + The large metacarpal is called in veterinary anatomy "cannon bone"; + the small lateral metacarpals, which gradually taper towards their + lower extremities, and lie in close contact with the large one, are + called "splint bones." The single digit consists of a moderate-sized + proximal (_os suffraginis_, or large pastern), a short middle (_os + coronae_, or small pastern), and a wide, semi-lunar, ungual phalanx + (_os pedis_, or coffin bone). There is a pair of large nodular + sesamoids behind the metacarpo-phalangeal articulation, and a single + large transversely-extended sesamoid behind the joint between the + second and third phalanx, called the "navicular bone." + + The carpal joint, corresponding to the wrist of man, is commonly + called the "knee" of the horse, the joint between the metacarpal and + the first phalanx the "fetlock," that between the first and second + phalanges the "pastern," and that between the second and third + phalanges the "coffin joint." + + In the hinder limb the femur is marked, as in other perissodactyles, + by the presence of a "third trochanter," a flattened process, curving + forwards and arising from the outer side of the bone, about one-third + of the distance from the upper end. The fibula is reduced to a mere + rod-like rudiment of the upper end. The lower part is absent or + completely fused with the tibia. The calcaneum has a long and + compressed calcaneal process. The astragalus has a large flat + articular surface in front for the navicular, and a small one for the + cuboid. The navicular and the external cuneiform bones are broad and + flat. The cuboid is small, and the internal and middle cuneiform bones + are small and united together. The metapodals and phalanges resemble + very closely those of the fore limb, but the principal metatarsal is + more laterally compressed at its upper end than is the corresponding + metacarpal. The joint between the femur and tibia, corresponding to + the knee of man, is called the "stifle-joint"; that between the tibia + and tarsus, corresponding to the ankle of man, the "hock." The bones + and joints of the foot have the same names as in the fore limb. The + horse is eminently "digitigrade," standing on the extremity of the + single digit of each foot, which is kept habitually in a position + approaching to vertical. + + The muscles of the limbs are modified from those of the ordinary + mammalian type in accordance with the reduced condition of the bones + and the simple requirements of flexion and extension of the joints, no + such actions as pronation and supination, or opposition of digits, + being possible or needed. The muscles therefore which perform these + functions in other quadrupeds are absent or rudimentary. + + Below the carpal and tarsal joints, the fore and hind limbs correspond + almost exactly in structure as well as function. On the anterior or + extensor surface of the limb a powerful tendon (7 in fig. 2), that of + the anterior extensor of the phalanges (corresponding to the _extensor + communis digitorum_ of the arm and _extensor longus digitorum_ of the + foot of man) passes down over the metacarpal bone and phalanges, to be + inserted mainly into the upper edge of the anterior surface of the + last phalanx or pedal bone. There is also a much smaller second + extensor on the outer side of this in each limb, the lateral extensor + of the phalanges. In the fore-leg the tendon of this muscle (which + corresponds with the _extensor minimi digiti_ of man) receives a slip + from that of the principal extensor, and is inserted into the first + phalanx. In the hind-leg (where it is the homologue apparently of the + _peroneus brevis_ of man) the tendon becomes blended with that of the + large extensor. + + [Illustration: FIG. 2.--Section of Foot of Horse. + + 1, Metacarpal bone. + 2, First phalanx (_os suffraginis_). + 3, Second phalanx (_os coronae_). + 4, Third or ungual phalanx (_os pedis_, or coffin bone). + 5, One of the upper sesamoid bones. + 6, Lower sesamoid or navicular bone. + 7, Tendon of anterior extensor of the phalanges. + 8, Tendon of superficial flexor (_fl. perforatus_). + 9, Tendon of deep flexor (_fl. perforans_). + 10, Suspensory ligament of fetlock. + 11, Inferior or short sesamoid ligament. + 12, Derma or skin of the foot, covered with hair, and continued into + 13, The coronary cushion, + 14, The podophyllous or laminar membrane, and + 15, The keratogenous membrane of the sole. + 16, Plantar cushion. + 17, Hoof. + 18, Fatty cushion of fetlock.] + + A strong ligamentous band behind the metapodium, arising from near the + upper extremity of its posterior surface, divides into two at its + lower end, and each division, being first connected with one of the + paired upper sesamoid bones, passes by the side of the first phalanx + to join the extensor tendon of the phalanges. This is called in + veterinary anatomy the "suspensory ligament of the sesamoids," or of + the "fetlock" (10 in fig. 2); but its attachments and relations, as + well as the occasional presence of muscular fibres in its substance, + show that it is the homologue of the interosseous muscles of other + mammals, modified in structure and function, to suit the requirements + of the horse's foot. Behind or superficial to this are placed the two + strong tendons of the flexor muscles, the most superficial, or _flexor + perforatus_ (8) dividing to allow the other to pass through, and then + inserted into the middle phalanx. The _flexor perforans_ (9) is as + usual inserted into the terminal phalange. In the fore-leg these + muscles correspond with those similarly named in man. In the hind-leg, + the perforated tendon is a continuation of that of the plantaris, + passing pulley-wise over the tuberosity of the calcaneum. The + perforating tendon is derived from the muscle corresponding with the + long flexor of man, and the smaller tendon of the oblique flexor + (_tibialis porticus_ of man) is united with it. + + The hoof of the horse corresponds to the nail or claw of other + mammals, but is so constructed as to form a complete and solid case to + the expanded termination of the toe, giving a firm basis of support + formed of a non-sensitive substance, which is continually renewed by + the addition of material from within, as its surface wears away by + friction. The terminal phalange of the toe is greatly enlarged and + modified in form to support this hoof, and the size of the internal + framework of the foot is increased by a pair of lateral + fibro-cartilaginous masses attached on each side to the hinder edges + of the bone, and by a fibro-cellular and fatty plantar cushion in the + median part. These structures are all enclosed in the middle + subcorneous integument, a continuation of the ordinary skin of the + limb, but extremely vascular, and having its superficial extent + greatly increased by being developed into papillae or laminae. From + this the horny material which constitutes the hoof is exuded. A + thickened ring encircling the upper part, called coronary cushion (13) + and the sole (15), are covered with numerous thickly-set papillae or + villi, and take the greatest share in the formation of the hoof; the + intermediate part constituting the front and side of the foot (14), + corresponding with the wall of the hoof, is covered with parallel, + fine longitudinal laminae, which fit into corresponding depressions in + the inner side of the horny hoof. + + The horny hoof is divided into a wall or crust consisting of the front + and sides, the flattened or concave sole, and the frog, a triangular + median prominence, notched posteriorly, with the apex turned forwards, + situated in the hinder part of the sole. It is formed of pavement + epithelial cells, mainly grouped in a concentric manner around the + vascular papillae of the subcorneous integument, so that a section + near the base of the hoof, cut transversely to the long axis of these + papillae, shows a number of small circular or oval orifices, with + cells arranged concentrically round them. The nearer the surface of + the hoof, or farther removed from the seat of growth, the more + indistinct the structure becomes. + + Small round or oval plates of horny epithelium called "chestnuts," + callosities growing like the hoof from enlarged papillae of the skin, + are found on the inner face of the fore-arm, above the carpal joint in + all species of Equidae, and in the horse (_E. caballus_) similar + structures occur near the upper extremity of the inner face of the + metatarsus. They are evidently rudimentary structures which it is + suggested may represent glands (Lydekker, _Proc. Zool. Soc. London_, + 1903, vol. i.). + + [Illustration: FIG. 3.--Longitudinal and Transverse Section of Upper + Incisor of Horse. + + p, Pulp cavity. + d, Dentine or ivory. + e, Enamel. + c, Outer layer of cementum or crusta petrosa. + c´, Inner layer of cementum, lining a, the pit + or cavity of the crown of the tooth.] + + _Dentition._--The dentition of the horse, when all the teeth are in + place, is expressed by the formula _i._ 3/3, _c._ 1/1, _p._ 4/4 _m._ + 3/3 = 44. The incisors of each jaw are placed in close contact, + forming a semicircle. The crowns are broad, somewhat awl-shaped, and + of nearly equal size. They have all the great peculiarity, not found + in the teeth of any other mammal, and only in the Equidae of + comparatively recent geological periods (see also PALAEONTOLOGY), of + an involution of the external surface of the tooth (see fig. 3), by + which what should properly be the apex is carried deeply into the + interior of the crown, forming a pit, the bottom of which becomes + partially filled with cement. As the tooth wears, the surface, besides + the external enamel layer as in an ordinary simple tooth, shows in + addition a second inner ring of the same hard substance surrounding + the pit, which adds greatly to the efficiency of the tooth as an organ + for biting tough, fibrous substances. This pit, generally filled in + the living animal with particles of food, is conspicuous from its dark + colour, and constitutes the "mark" by which the age of the horse is + judged, as in consequence of its only extending to a certain depth in + the crown it becomes obliterated as the latter wears away, and then + the tooth assumes the character of that of an ordinary incisor, + consisting only of a core of dentine, surrounded by the external + enamel layer. It is not quite so deep in the lower as in the upper + teeth. The canines are either rudimentary or absent in the female. In + the male they are compressed, pointed, and smaller than the incisors, + from which they are separated by a slight interval. The teeth of the + cheek series are all in contact with each other, but separated from + the canines by a considerable toothless space. The anterior premolars + are quite rudimentary, sometimes not developed at all, and generally + fall by the time the animal attains maturity, so that there are but + six functional cheek teeth,--three that have predecessors in the + milk-dentition, and hence are considered as premolars, and three + molars, but otherwise, except the first and last of the series, not + distinguishable in form or structure. These teeth in both upper and + lower jaws are extremely long-crowned or hypsodont, successive + portions being pushed out as the surface wears away, a process which + continues until the animal becomes advanced in age. The enamelled + surface is infolded in a complex manner (a modification of that found + in other perissodactyles), the folds extending quite to the base of + the crown, and the interstices being filled and the surface covered + with a considerable mass of cement, which binds together and + strengthens the whole tooth. As the teeth wear, the folded enamel, + being harder than the other constituents, the dentine and cement, + forms projecting ridges on the surface arranged in a definite + pattern, which give it great efficiency as a grinding instrument (see + fig. 2, in article EQUIDAE). The free surfaces of the upper teeth are + quadrate, except the first and last, which are nearly triangular. The + lower teeth are much narrower than the upper. + + The milk-dentition consists of i. 3/3, c. 0/0, m. 3/3 = 24,--the + canines and first or rudimentary premolars having apparently no + predecessors. In form and structure the milk-teeth much resemble the + permanent ones, having the same characteristic enamel-foldings. Their + eruption commences a few days after birth, and is complete before the + end of the first year, the upper teeth usually appearing somewhat + earlier than the lower. The first teeth which appear are the first and + second milk-molars (about five days), then the central incisor (from + seven to ten days); this is followed by the second incisor (at one + month), then the third molar, and finally the third incisor. Of the + permanent teeth the first molar appears a little after the end of the + first year, followed by the second molar before the end of the second + year. At about two and a half years the first premolar replaces its + predecessor. Between two and a half and three years the first incisor + appears. At three years the second and third premolars, and the third + molar have appeared, at from three and a half to four years the second + incisor, at four to four and a half years the canine, and, finally, at + five years, the third incisor, completing the permanent dentition. Up + to this period the age of the horse is clearly shown by the condition + of dentition, and for some time longer indications can be obtained + from the wear of the incisors, though this depends to a certain extent + upon the hardness of the food or other circumstances. As a general + rule, the depression caused by the infolding of the surface of the + incisor (the "mark") is obliterated in the first or central incisor at + six years, in the second at seven years, and in the third at eight + years. In the upper teeth, as the depressions are deeper, this + obliteration does not take place until about two years later. After + this period no certain indications can be obtained of the age of the + horse from the teeth. + + _Digestive Organs._--The lips are flexible and prehensile; and the + membrane that lines them and the cheeks smooth. The palate is long and + narrow; its mucous surface has seventeen pairs of not very sharply + defined oblique ridges, extending as far back as the last molar tooth, + beyond which the _velum palati_ extends for about 3 in., having a soft + corrugated surface, and ending posteriorly in an arched border without + a uvula. This embraces the base of the epiglottis, and, except while + swallowing food, shuts off all communication between the cavity of the + mouth and the pharynx, respiration being, under ordinary + circumstances, exclusively through the nostrils. Between the mucous + membrane and the bone of the hard palate is a dense vascular and + nervous plexus. The membrane lining the jaws is soft and corrugated. + An elongated raised glandular mass, 3 in. long and 1 in. from above + downwards, extending backwards from the root of the tongue along the + side of the jaws, with openings on the surface leading into crypts + with glandular walls, represents the tonsil. The tongue, corresponding + to the form of the mouth, is long and narrow. It consists of a + compressed intermolar portion with a flat upper surface, broad behind + and becoming narrower in front, and of a depressed anterior part + rather shorter than the former, which is narrow behind and widens + towards the evenly rounded apex. The dorsal surface generally is soft + and smooth. There are two large circumvallate papillae near the base, + rather irregular in form, about a quarter of an inch in diameter and + half an inch apart. The conical papillae are small and close set, + though longer and more filamentous on the intermolar portion. There + are no fungiform papillae on the dorsum, but a few inconspicuous ones + scattered along the sides of the organ. + + Of the salivary glands the parotid is by far the largest, elongated in + the vertical direction, and narrower in the middle than at either end. + Its upper extremity embraces the lower surface of the cartilaginous + ear-conch; its lower end reaches the level of the inferior margin of + the mandible, along the posterior margin of which it is placed. Its + duct leaves the inferior anterior angle, at first descends a little, + and runs forward under cover of the rounded inferior border of the + lower jaw, then curves up along the anterior margin of the masseter + muscle, becoming superficial, pierces the buccinator, and enters the + mouth by a simple aperture opposite the middle of the crown of the + third premolar tooth. It is not quite so thick as a goose-quill when + distended, and nearly a foot in length. + + The submaxillary gland is of very similar texture to the last, but + much smaller; it is placed deeper, and lies with its main axis + horizontal. It is elongated and slender, and flattened from within + outwards. Its posterior end rests against the anterior surface of the + transverse process of the atlas, from which it extends forwards and + downwards, slightly curved, to beneath the ramus of the jaw. The duct + which runs along its upper and internal border passes forwards in the + usual course, lying in the inner side of the sublingual gland, to open + on the outer surface of a distinct papilla, situated on the floor of + the mouth, half an inch from the middle line, and midway between the + lower incisor teeth and the attachment of the fraenum linguae. The + sublingual is represented by a mass of glands lying just beneath the + mucous membrane of the floor of the mouth on the side of the tongue, + causing a distinct ridge, extending from the fraenum backwards, the + numerous ducts opening separately along the summit of the ridge. The + buccal glands are arranged in two rows parallel with the molar teeth. + The upper ones are the largest, and are continuous anteriorly with the + labial glands, the ducts of which open on the mucous membrane of the + upper lip. + + The stomach of the horse is simple in its external form, with a + largely developed right _cul de sac_, and is a good deal curved on + itself, so that the cardiac and pyloric orifices are brought near + together. The _antrum pyloricum_ is small and not very distinctly + marked. The interior is divided by the character of the lining + membrane into two distinct portions, right and left. Over the latter + the dense white smooth epithelial lining of the oesophagus is + continued, terminating abruptly by a raised crenulated border. Over + the right part the mucous membrane has a greyish-red colour and a + velvety appearance, and contains numerous peptic glands, which are + wanting in the cardiac portion. The oesophageal orifice is small, and + guarded by a strong crescentic or horseshoe-like band of muscular + fibres, supposed to be the cause of the difficulty of vomiting in the + horse. The small intestine is of great length (80 to 90 ft.), its + mucous membrane being covered with numerous fine villi. The caecum is + of conical form, about 2 ft. long and nearly a foot in diameter; its + walls are sacculated, especially near the base, having four + longitudinal muscular bands; and its capacity is about twice that of + the stomach. It lies with its base near the lower part of the abdomen, + and its apex directed towards the thorax. The colon is about one-third + the length of the small intestine, and very capacious in the greater + part of its course. As usual it may be divided into an ascending, + transverse, and descending portion; but the middle or transverse + portion is folded into a great loop, which descends as low as the + pubis; so that the colon forms altogether four folds, generally + parallel to the long axis of the body. The descending colon is much + narrower than the rest, and not sacculated, and, being considerably + longer than the distance it has to traverse, is thrown into numerous + folds. + + The liver is tolerably symmetrical in general arrangement, being + divided nearly equally into segments by a well-marked umbilical + fissure. Each segment is again divided by lateral fissures, which do + not extend quite to the posterior border of the organ; of the central + lobes thus cut off, the right is rather the larger, and has two + fissures in its free border dividing it into lobules. The extent of + these varies, however, in different individuals. The two lateral lobes + are subtriangular in form. The Spigelian lobe is represented by a flat + surface between the postal fissure and the posterior border, not + distinctly marked off from the left lateral by a fissure of the ductus + venosus, as this vessel is buried deep in the hepatic substance, but + the caudate lobe is distinct and tongue-shaped, its free apex reaching + nearly to the border of the right lateral lobe. There is no + gall-bladder, and the biliary duct enters the duodenum about 6 in. + from the pylorus. The pancreas has two lobes or branches, a long one + passing to the left and reaching the spleen, and a shorter right lobe. + The principal duct enters the duedenum with the bile-duct, and there + is often a second small duct opening separately. + + _Circulatory and Respiratory Organs._--The heart has the form of a + rather elongated and pointed cone. There is one anterior vena cava, + formed by the union of the two jugular and two axillary veins. The + aorta gives off a large branch (the anterior aorta) very near its + origin, from which arise--first, the left axillary, and afterwards the + right axillary and the two carotid arteries. + + Under ordinary circumstances the horse breathes entirely by the nasal + passages, the communication between the larynx and the mouth being + closed by the velum palati. The nostrils are placed laterally, near + the termination of the muzzle, and are large and dilatable, being + bordered by cartilages upon which several muscles act. Immediately + within the opening of the nostril, the respiratory canal sends off on + its upper and outer side a blind pouch ("false nostril") of conical + form, and curved, 2 to 3 in. in depth, lying in the notch formed + between the nasal and premaxillary bones. It is lined by mucous + membrane continuous with that of the nasal passage; its use is not + apparent. It is longer in the ass than in the horse. Here may be + mentioned the guttural pouches, large air-sacs from the Eustachian + tubes, and lying behind the upper part of the pharynx, the function of + which is also not understood. The larynx has the lateral sacculi well + developed, though entirely concealed within the alae of the thyroid + cartilage. The trachea divides into two bronchi. + + _Nervous System._--The brain differs little, except in details of + arrangement of convolutions, from that of other ungulates. The + hemispheres are rather elongated and subcylindrical, the olfactory + lobes are large and project freely in front of the hemispheres, and + the greater part of the cerebellum is uncovered. The eye is provided + with a nictitating membrane or third eyelid, at the base of which open + the ducts of the Harderian gland. + + _Reproductive System._--The testes are situated in a distinct sessile + or slightly pedunculated scrotum, into which they descend from the + sixth to the tenth month after birth. The accessory generative glands + are the two vesiculae seminales, with the median third vesicle, or + _uterus masculinus_, lying between them, the single bilobed prostate, + and a pair of globular Cowper's glands. The penis is very large, + cylindrical, with a truncated, expanded, flattened termination. When + in a state of repose it is retracted, by a muscle arising from the + sacrum, within the prepuce, a cutaneous fold attached below the + symphysis pubis. + + The uterus is bicornuate. The vagina is often partially divided by a + membraneous septum or hymen. The teats are two, inguinally placed. The + surface of the chorion is covered evenly with minute villi, + constituting a diffuse non-deciduate placenta. The period of gestation + is eleven months. + + AUTHORITIES.--R. I. Pocock, "The Species and Subspecies of Zebras," + _Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist._ ser. 6, vol. xx., 1897, and "A New Arrangement + of the Existing Species of Equidae," Op. cit. ser. 7, vol. x., 1902; + R. Lydekker, "Notes on the specimens of Wild Asses in English + Collections," _Novitates Zoologicae_, vol. xi., 1904; B. Salensky, "On + Equus przewalskii," _Mém. Acad. St Pétersburg_, 1902; M. S. Arloing, + "Organisation du pied chez le cheval," _Ann. Sci. Nat._, 1867, viii. + 55-81; H. Burmeister, _Los caballos fosiles de la Pampa Argentina_ + (Buenos Aires, 1875); Chauveau and Arloing, _Traité d'anatomie + comparée des animaux domestiques_ (Paris, 1871), and English edition + by G. Fleming (1873); A. Ecker, "Das Europäische Wildpferd und dessen + Beziehungen zum domesticirten Pferd," _Globus_, Bd. xxxiv. (Brunswick, + 1878); Major Forsyth, "Beiträge zur Geschichte der fossilen Pferde + besonders Italiens," _Abh. Schw. Pal. Ges._ iv. 1-16, pt. iv.; George, + "Études zool. sur les Hémiones et quelques autres espèces chevalines," + _Ann. Sci. Nat._, 1869, xii. 5; E. F. Gurlt, _Anatomische Abbildungen + der Haussäugethiere_ (1824), and _Hand. der vergleich. Anat. der + Haussäugethiere_ (2 vols., 1822); Huet, "Croisement des diverses + espèces du genre cheval," _Nouv. Archives du Muséum_, 2nd ser., tom. + ii. p. 46, 1879; Leisering, _Atlas der Anatomie des Pferdes_ (Leipzig, + 1861); O. C. Marsh, "Notice of New Equine Mammals from the Tertiary + Formation," _Am. Journ. of Science and Arts_, vol. vii., March 1874; + _Id._, "Fossil Horses in America," _Amer. Naturalist_, vol. viii., May + 1874; _Id._, "Polydactyle Horses," _Am. Journ. Sci. and Arts_, vol. + xvii., June 1879; Franz Müller, _Lehrbuch der Anatomie des Pferdes_ + (Vienna, 1853); R. Owen, "Equine Remains in Cavern of Bruniquel," + _Phil. Trans._ vol. clix., 1870, p. 535; W. Percivall, _The Anatomy of + the Horse_ (1832); G. Stubbs, _Anatomy of the Horse_ (1766); W. H. + Flower, _The Horse_ (London, 1891); Ridgeway, _Origin of the + Thoroughbred Horse_ (1905). (W. H. F; R. L.*) + + +HISTORY + +From the evidence of philology it appears that the horse was already +known to the Aryans before the period of their dispersion.[1] + +The first mention of the British horse occurs in the well-known passages +in Caesar (_B.G._ iv. 24. 33, v. 15. 16; cf. Pomp. Mela iii. 6), in +which he mentions the native "essedarii" and the skill with which they +handled their war chariots. We are left quite in the dark as to the +character of the animal thus employed; but there would appear to be much +probability in the surmise of W. Youatt, who conjectures the horse to +have been, "then as ever, the creature of the country in which he lived. +With short fare, and exposed to the rigour of the seasons, he was +probably the little hardy thing we yet see him; but in the marshes of +the Nen and the Witham, and on the borders of the Tees and the Clyde, +there would be as much proportionate development of frame and strength +as we find at the present day." After the occupation of the country by +the Romans, it appears that the horses of their cavalry were crossed +with the native mares, and thus there was infused into the breed new +blood, consisting probably of strains from every quarter from which +Roman remounts were procured. As to the effect of this cross we are not, +however, in a position to judge. We are also quite uncertain as to the +extent to which the Jutes and Saxons may in their turn have again +introduced a new breed of horses into England; and even to the close of +the Anglo-Saxon period of English history allusions to the horse are +still very infrequent. The _horsthegn_ we know, however, was from an +early period a high court official; and from such a law as that of +Athelstan prohibiting the exportation of horses except as presents, it +may be inferred that the English breed was not only much valued at home +but also in great request abroad.[2] + +The period of the Norman Conquest marks an important stage in the +history of the British horse. William the Conqueror's own horse was of +the Spanish breed, and others of the same kind were introduced by the +barons on their estates. But the Norman horses included many varieties, +and there is no doubt that to the Conquest the inhabitants of Britain +were indebted for a decided improvement in the native horse, as well as +for the introduction of several varieties previously unknown. According +to Giraldus Cambrensis, Roger de Bellesme, a follower of William I., +afterwards created earl of Shrewsbury, imported some stallions from +Spain into England; their produce was celebrated by Drayton the poet. It +is curious to notice that agriculture seems to be the last use to which +the horse has been put. The earliest suggestion that horses were used in +agriculture is derived from a piece of the Bayeux tapestry, where a +horse is represented as drawing a harrow. This, however, must have been +an exceptional case, for we know that oxen were used until a +comparatively late time, and that in Wales a law existed forbidding +horses to be used for ploughing. + +In 1121 two Eastern horses are said to have been imported,--one of them +remaining in England, and the other being sent as a present by King +Alexander I. to the church of St Andrews, in Scotland. It has been +alleged that these horses were Barbs from Morocco, but a still more +likely theory is that they existed only in name, and never reached +either England or Scotland. The crusades were probably the means of +introducing fresh strains of blood into England, and of giving +opportunity for fresh crossings. The Spanish jennet was brought over +about 1182. King John gave great encouragement to horse-breeding: one of +his earliest efforts was to import a hundred Flemish stallions, and, +having thus paved the way for improving the breed of agricultural +horses, he set about acquiring a valuable stud for his own use. + +Edward III. was likewise an admirer of the horse; he procured fifty +Spanish horses, probably jennets. At this time there was evidently a +tendency to breed a somewhat lighter and speedier horse; but, while the +introduction of a more active animal would soon have led to the +displacement of the ponderous but powerful cavalry horse then in use, +the substituted variety would have been unable to carry the weight of +armour with which horse and rider were alike protected; and so in the +end the old breed was kept up for a time. With the object of preserving +to England whatever advantages might accrue from her care and skill in +breeding an improved stamp of horses, Edward III. forbade their +exportation; they consequently improved so rapidly in value that Richard +II. compelled dealers to limit their prices to a fixed maximum. In the +ninth year of his reign, Edward received from the king of Navarre a +present of two running horses, supposed to have been valuable. The wars +of 1346 checked the improvement of horses, and undid much of what had +been previously accomplished, for we read that the cavalry taken into +France by Edward III. were but indifferently mounted, and that in +consequence he had to purchase large numbers of foreign horses from +Hainault and elsewhere for remounts. The reign of Richard III. does not +seem to have been remarkable for the furtherance of horse-breeding; but +it was then that post-horses and stages were introduced. + +Our information on the whole subject is but scanty down to the reign of +Henry VII., who continued the enactment against the exportation of +stallions, but relaxed it in the case of mares above two years old. His +object was to retain the best horses in the country, and to keep the +price of them down by limiting the demand and encouraging the supply. In +his reign gelding is believed to have had its origin, on account of +numerous herds of horses belonging to different proprietors grazing +together, especially in time of harvest. Henry VIII. was particularly +careful that horse-breeding should be conducted on right principles, and +his enactments, if somewhat arbitrary, were singularly to the point. In +the thirty-second year of this reign, the "bill for the breed of horses" +was passed, the preamble of which runs thus:--"Forasmuch as the +generation and breed of good and strong horses within this realm +extendeth not only to a great help and defence of the same, but also is +a great commodity and profit to the inhabitants thereof, which is now +much decayed and diminished, by reason that, in forests, chases, moors +and waste grounds within this realm, little stoned horses and nags of +small stature and of little value be not only suffered to pasture +thereupon, but also to cover mares feeding there, whereof cometh in +manner no profit or commodity." Section 2 of the act provides that no +entire horse being above the age of two years, and not being of the +height of 15 "handfulls," shall be put to graze on any common or waste +land in certain counties; any one was to be at liberty to seize a horse +of unlawful height, and those whose duty it was to measure horses, but +who refused to do so, were to be fined 40s. By section 6 all forests, +chases, commons, &c., were to be "driven" within fifteen days of +Michaelmas day, and all horses, mares and colts not giving promise of +growing into serviceable animals, or of producing them, were to be +killed. The aim of the act was to prevent breeding from animals not +calculated to produce the class of horse suited to the needs of the +country. By another act (27 Henry VIII. chapter 6), after stating that +the "breed of good strong horses" was likely to diminish, it was ordered +that the owners of all parks and enclosed grounds of the extent of one +mile should keep two mares 13 hands high for breeding purposes, or, if +the extent of the ground was 4 m., four mares. The statute was not to +extend to the counties of Westmorland, Cumberland, Northumberland or the +bishopric of Durham. Henry took great pains to improve the royal stud: +according to Sir Thomas Chaloner--a writer in the reign of Elizabeth--he +imported horses from Turkey, Naples and Spain. + +Queen Elizabeth is reputed to have been an accomplished horsewoman, and +to have indulged in riding late in life. In the first year of her reign +she revived an act passed by Henry VIII. making it felony "to sell, +exchange or deliver within Scotland, or to the use of any Scottishman, +any horse"; this, however, was very naturally repealed by James I. +Carriages were soon after introduced, and the use of them speedily +became so fashionable that a bill was brought in "to restrain the +excessive and superfluous use of coaches." Prior to the introduction of +carriages horseback was the means of locomotion, and Queen Elizabeth +rode in state to St Paul's on a pillion; but even after carriages were +used, horseback was held to be more dignified, for James I. and his +judges rode on horseback to Westminster Hall. One advantage of the +introduction of carriages was that it created a demand for a lighter and +quicker sort of horse, instead of the ponderous animal which, despite +all attempts to banish him, was still the horse of England--the age of +chivalry having been the first epoch of the British horse. + +Gunpowder, too, was invented; and now that the weight of the cavalry +soldier was diminished by the substitution of lighter armour, a quicker +and better bred horse was thought desirable for military service. The +introduction of carriages and the invention of gunpowder thus opened out +a new industry in breeding; and a decided change was gradually creeping +on by the time that James I. came to the throne (1603), which commences +the second epoch. James was a thorough sportsman, and his taste for +racing, in which he freely indulged, caused him to think but little of +the speed of even the best English horses. With the laudable motive, +therefore, of effecting improvement in horses, he gave the then large +sum of 500 guineas for an Arab stallion which had been procured from +Constantinople by a Mr Markham, since known as the "Markham Arabian." +This is the first authentic account we have of the importation of Arab +blood, and the _Stud-Book_ says he was the first of that breed ever seen +in England. The people having to do with horses at that time were as +conservative in their notions as most of the grooms are now, and the +"Markham Arabian" was not at all approved of. The duke of Newcastle, in +his treatise on horsemanship, said that he had seen the above Arabian, +and described him as a small bay horse and not of very excellent shape. +In this instance, however, prejudice (and it is difficult to believe +that it was anything else) was right, for King James's first venture +does not appear to have been a success either as a race-horse or as a +sire, and thus Arabian blood was brought into disrepute. The king, +however, resolved to give Eastern blood another trial, and bought a +horse known as Place's White Turk from a Mr Place, who subsequently held +some office in connexion with the stable under Cromwell. Charles I. +followed in the footsteps of James, and lent such patronage to the +breeding of a better kind of horse that a memorial was presented to him, +asking that some measures might be taken to prevent the old stamp of +horse "fit for the defence of the country" from dying out. + +We now come to a very important period in the history of the British +horse, for Charles II. warmly espoused the introduction of Eastern blood +into England. He sent his master of the horse abroad to purchase a +number of foreign horses and mares for breeding, and the mares brought +over by him (as also many of their produce) were called "royal mares"; +they form a conspicuous feature in the annals of breeding. The +_Stud-Book_ shows of what breed the royal mares really were: one of +them, the dam of Dodsworth (who, though foaled in England, was a natural +Barb), was a Barb mare; she was sold by the stud-master, after Charles +II.'s death, for forty guineas, at twenty years old, when in foal by the +Helmsley Turk. + +James II. was a good horseman, and had circumstances been more +propitious he might have left his mark in the sporting annals of the +country. In his reign, according to the _Stud-Book_, the Stradling or +Lister Turk was brought into England by the duke of Berwick from the +siege of Buda. + +The reign of William III. is noteworthy as the era in which, among other +importations, there appeared the first of three Eastern horses to which +the modern thoroughbred race-horse traces back as the founders of his +lineage. This was the Byerly Turk, of whom nothing more is known than +that--to use the words of the first volume of the _Stud-Book_--he was +Captain Byerly's charger in Ireland in King William's wars. The second +of the three horses above alluded to was the Darley Arabian, who was a +genuine Arab, and was imported from Aleppo by a brother of Mr Darley of +Aldby Park, Yorkshire, about the end of the reign of William III. or the +beginning of that of Anne. The third horse of the famous trio, the +Godolphin Arabian or Barb, brought to England about five-and-twenty +years after the Darley Arabian, will be more particularly referred to +further on. All the horses now on the turf or at the stud trace their +ancestry in the direct male line to one or other of these three--the +Byerly Turk, the Darley Arabian, and the Godolphin Arabian or Barb. In +the female line their pedigrees can be traced to other sources, but for +all practical purposes it suffices to regard one or other of these three +animals as the _ultima Thule_ of racing pedigree. Of course there is a +large interfusion of the blood of each of the trio through the dams of +horses of the present day; indeed, it is impossible to find an English +race-horse which does not combine the blood of all three. + +_The Race-horse._--The third and last epoch of the British horse, viz. +that of the thoroughbred racer, may be taken to date from the beginning +of the 18th century. By thoroughbred is meant a horse or mare whose +pedigree is registered in the _Stud-Book_ kept by Messrs Weatherby, the +official agents of the Jockey Club--originally termed the keepers of the +match-book--as well as publishers of the _Racing Calendar_. The first +attempt to evolve order out of the chaos which had long reigned supreme +was made in 1791, for we find in the preface of the first volume of the +Stud-Book, published in 1808, that "with a view to correct the then +increasing evil of false and inaccurate pedigrees, the author was in the +year 1791 prevailed upon to publish an _Introduction to a General +Stud-Book_, consisting of a small collection of pedigrees which he had +extracted from racing calendars and sale papers and arranged on a new +plan." It will be seen that the compiler of the volume on which so much +depends had to go back fully a century, with little else to guide him +but odds and ends in the way of publications and tradition. Mistakes +under such circumstances are pardonable. The _Stud-Book_ then (vol. i.), +which is the oldest authority we have, contains the names and in most +cases the pedigrees, obscure though they may be, of a very large number +of horses and mares of note from the earliest accounts, but with two +exceptions no dates prior to the 18th century are specified in it. These +exceptions are the Byerly Turk, who was "Captain Byerly's charger in +Ireland in King William's wars (1689, &c.)," and a horse called +Counsellor, bred by Mr Egerton in 1694, by Lord D'Arcy's Counsellor by +Lord Lonsdale's Counsellor by the Shaftesbury Turk out of sister to +Spanker--all the dams in Counsellor's pedigree tracing back to Eastern +mares. There is not the least doubt that many of the animals named in +the _Stud-Book_ were foaled much earlier than the above dates, but we +have no particulars as to time; and after all it is not of much +consequence. + +The _Stud-Book_ goes on to say of the Byerly Turk that he did not cover +many bred mares, but was the sire of the duke of Devonshire's Basto, +Halloway's Jigg, and others. Jigg, or Jig, is a very important factor, +as will be seen hereafter. The _Stud-Book_, although silent as to the +date of his birth, says he was a common country stallion in Lincolnshire +until Partner was six years old--and we know from the same authority +that Partner was foaled in 1718; we may therefore conclude that Jigg was +a later foal than Basto, who, according to Whyte's _History of the +Turf_, was a brown horse foaled in 1703. + +The reign of Queen Anne, however (1702-1714), is that which will ever be +inseparably connected with the thoroughbred race-horse on account of the +fame during that period of the Darley Arabian, a bay stallion, from whom +our very best horses are descended. According to the _Stud-Book_, +"Darley's Arabian was brought over by a brother of Mr Darley of +Yorkshire, who, being an agent in merchandise abroad, became member of a +hunting club, by which means he acquired interest to procure this +horse." The _Stud-Book_ is silent, and other authorities differ, as to +the date of the importation of this celebrated Arab, some saying he came +over in the year 1700, others that he arrived somewhat later; but we +know from the _Stud-Book_ that Manica (foaled in 1707), Aleppo (1711), +Almanzor (1713), and Flying Childers (1715) were got by him, as also was +Bartlett's Childers, a younger brother of Flying Childers. It is +generally believed that he was imported in Anne's reign, but the exact +date is immaterial, for, assuming that he was brought over as early as +1700 from Aleppo, he could scarcely have had a foal living before 1701, +the first year of the 18th century. The Darley Arabian did much to +remove the prejudice against Eastern blood which had been instilled into +the public mind by the duke of Newcastle's denunciation of the Markham +Arabian. Prince George of Denmark, consort of Queen Anne, was himself a +large horse-owner; and it was in a great measure owing to his +intervention that so many valuable stallions were imported during her +reign. + +At this period we find, among a mass of horses and mares in the +_Stud-Book_ without any dates against their names, many animals of note +with the earliest chronology extant, from Grey Ramsden (1704) and Bay +Bolton (1705) down to a mare who exercised a most important influence on +the English blood-horse. This was Roxana (1718) by the Bald Galloway, +her dam sister to Chanter by the Akaster Turk, from a daughter of +Leedes's Arabian and a mare by Spanker. Roxana threw in 1732 the bay +colt Lath by the Godolphin Arabian, the sorrel colt Roundhead by +Childers in 1733, and the bay colt Cade by the Godolphin Arabian in +1734, in which year she died within a fortnight after foaling, the +produce--Cade--being reared on cow's milk. The Godolphin Barb or +Arabian, as he was commonly called, was a brown bay about 15 hands in +stature, with an unnaturally high crest, and with some white on his off +hind heel. He is said to have been imported into England from France by +Mr Coke, where, as the editor of the _Stud-Book_ was informed by a +French gentlemen, he was so little thought of that he had actually drawn +a cart in the streets of Paris. Mr Coke gave him to a Mr. Williams, who +in his turn presented him to the earl of Godolphin. Although called an +Arabian, there is little doubt he was a Barb pure and simple. In 1731, +being then the property of Mr. Coke, he was teazer to Hobgoblin, and on +the latter refusing his services to Roxana, the mare was put to the +Godolphin, and the produce was Lath (1732), the first of his get, and +the most celebrated race-horse of his day after Flying Childers. He was +also the sire of Cade, own brother to Lath, and of Regulus the maternal +grandsire of Eclipse. He died at Gogmagog in Cambridgeshire, in the +possession of Lord Godolphin, in 1753, being then, as is supposed, in +his twenty-ninth year. He is believed to have been foaled in Barbary +about 1724, and to have been imported during the reign of George II. + +In regard to the mares generally, we have a record of the royal mares +already alluded to, and likewise of three Turk mares brought over from +the siege of Vienna in 1684, as well as of other importations; but it is +unquestionable that there was a very large number of native mares in +England, improved probably from time to time by racing, however much +they may have been crossed at various periods with foreign horses, and +that from this original stock were to some extent derived the size and +stride which characterized the English race-horse, while his powers of +endurance and elegant shape were no doubt inherited from the Eastern +horses, most of which were of a low stature, 14 hands or thereabouts. It +is only necessary to trace carefully back the pedigree of most of the +famous horses of early times to discover faults on the side of the +dam--that is to say, the expression "dam's pedigree unknown," which +evidently means of original or native blood. Whatever therefore may be +owing to Eastern blood, of which from the middle of the 17th to the +beginning of the 18th century a complete wave swept over the British +Isles, some credit is unquestionably due to the native mares (which +Blaine says were mostly Cleveland bays) upon which the Arabian, Barb, or +Turk blood was grafted, and which laid the foundation of the modern +thoroughbred. Other nations may have furnished the blood, but England +has made the race-horse. + +Without prosecuting this subject further, it may be enough here to +follow out the lines of the Darley Arabian, the Byerly Turk, and the +Godolphin Arabian or Barb, the main ancestors of the British +thoroughbred of the 18th and 19th centuries, through several famous +race-horses, each and all brilliant winners,--Flying Childers, Eclipse, +Herod and Matchem,--to whom it is considered sufficient to look as the +great progenitors of the race-horse of to-day. + + 1. The Darley Arabian's line is represented in a twofold + degree--first, through his son Flying Childers, his grandsons Blaze + and Snip, and his great-grandson Snap, and, secondly, through his + other son Bartlett's Childers and his great-great-grandson Eclipse. + Flying or Devonshire Childers, so called to distinguish him from other + horses of the same name, was a bay horse of entirely Eastern blood, + with a blaze in his face and four white feet, foaled in 1715. He was + bred by Mr Leonard Childers of Carr House near Doncaster, and was + purchased when young by the duke of Devonshire. He was got by the + Darley Arabian from Betty Leedes, by Careless from sister to Leedes, + by Leedes's Arabian from a mare by Spanker out of a Barb mare, who was + Spanker's own mother. Spanker himself was by D'Arcy's Yellow Turk from + a daughter of the Morocco Barb and Old Bald Peg, by an Arab horse from + a Barb mare. Careless was by Spanker from a Barb mare, so that + Childers's dam was closely in-bred to Spanker. Flying Childers--the + wonder of his time--was never beaten, and died in the duke of + Devonshire's stud in 1741, aged twenty-six years. He was the sire of, + among other horses, Blaze (1733) and Snip (1736). Snip too had a + celebrated son called Snap (1750), and it is chiefly in the female + line through the mares by these horses, of which there are fully + thirty in the _Stud-Book_, that the blood of Flying Childers is handed + down to us. + + The other representative line of the Darley Arabian is through + Bartlett's Childers, also bred by Mr Leonard Childers, and sold to Mr + Bartlett of Masham, in Yorkshire. He was for several years called + Young Childers,--it being generally supposed that he was a younger + brother of his Flying namesake, but his date of birth is not on + record,--and subsequently Bartlett's Childers. This horse, who was + never trained, was the sire of Squirt (1732), whose son Marske (1750) + begat Eclipse and Young Marske (1762), sire of Shuttle (1793). This at + least is the generally accepted theory, although Eclipse's dam is said + to have been covered by Shakespeare as well as by Marske. Shakespeare + was the son of Hobgoblin by Aleppo, and consequently the male line of + the Darley Arabian would come through these horses instead of through + Bartlett's Childers, Squirt, and Marske; the _Stud-Book_, however, + says that Marske was the sire of Eclipse. This last-named celebrated + horse--perhaps the most celebrated in the annals of the turf--was + foaled on the 1st of April 1764, the day on which a remarkable eclipse + of the sun occurred, and he was named after it. He was bred by the + duke of Cumberland, after whose decease he was purchased by a Mr + Wildman, and subsequently sold to Mr D. O'Kelly, with whom he will + ever be identified. His dam Spiletta was by Regulus, son of the + Godolphin Barb, from Mother Western, by a son of Snake from a mare by + Old Montague out of a mare by Hautboy, from a daughter of Brimmer and + a mare whose pedigree was unknown. In Eclipse's pedigree there are + upwards of a dozen mares whose pedigrees are not known, but who are + supposed to be of native blood. Eclipse was a chestnut horse with a + white blaze down his face; his off hind leg was white from the hock + downwards, and he had black spots upon his rump--this peculiarity + coming down to the present day in direct male descent. His racing + career commenced at five years of age, viz. on the 3rd May 1769, at + Epsom, and terminated on the 4th October 1770, at Newmarket. He ran or + walked over for eighteen races, and was never beaten. It was in his + first race that Mr O'Kelly took the odds to a large amount before the + start for the second heat, that he would place the horses. When called + upon to declare, he uttered the exclamation, which the event + justified, "Eclipse first, and the rest nowhere." + + Eclipse commenced his stud career in 1771, and had an enormous number + of foals, of which four only in the direct male line have come down to + us, viz. Potoooooooo, or, as he is commonly called, Pot-8-os (1773), + his most celebrated son, King Fergus (1775), Joe Andrews (1778), and + Mercury (1778), though several others are represented in the female + line. Pot-8-os was the sire of Waxy (1790) out of Maria (1777) by + Herod out of Lisette (1772) by Snap. Waxy, who has been not inaptly + termed the ace of trumps in the _Stud-Book_, begat Whalebone (1807), + Web (1808), Woful (1809), Wire (1811), Whisker (1812), and Waxy Pope + (1806), all but the last being out of Penelope (1798) by Trumpator + (1782) from Prunella (1788) by Highflyer out of Promise by Snap, while + Waxy Pope was out of Prunella, dam of Parasol (1800) by Pot-8-os. + Trumpator was a son of Conductor, who was by Matchem out of a mare by + Snap. + + Whalebone's best sons were Camel (1822) and Sir Hercules (1826). Camel + was the sire of Defence (1824) and Touchstone (1831), while Sir + Hercules was the sire of Birdcatcher (1833) and Faugh-a-Ballagh + (1841), own brothers, and of Gemma di Vergy (1854). Touchstone was the + sire of Newminster (1848), who begat Lord Clifden, Adventurer, and the + Hermit, as well as of Orlando (1841), sire of Teddington (1848). + Whalebone's blood also descends through Waverley (1817) and his son + the Saddler (1828), while Whisker is represented by the Colonel (1825) + and by Economist (1825) and his son Harkaway (1834), sire of King Tom + (1851). Birdcatcher begat, besides Saunterer (1854), the Baron (1842), + sire of Stockwell (1849) and of Rataplan (1850). Stockwell, who was a + chestnut with black spots, was the sire of Blair Athol (1861), a + chestnut, and also of Doncaster (1870), another chestnut, but with the + characteristic black spots of his grandsire; and Doncaster was the + sire of the chestnut Bend Or (1877). + + To turn to Eclipse's other sons. King Fergus (1775) was the sire of + Beningbrough (1791), whose son was Orville (1799), whence comes some + of the stoutest blood on the turf, including Emilius (1820) and his + son Priam (1827), Plenipotentiary (1831), Muley (1810), Chesterfield + (1834), and the Hero (1843). Joe Andrews (1778) was the sire of Dick + Andrews (1797), and from him descend Tramp (1810), Lottery (1820), + Liverpool (1828), Sheet Anchor (1832), Lanercost (1835), Weatherbit + (1842), Beadsman (1855), and Blue Gown (1865). Mercury was sire of + Gohanna (1790), who was foaled in the same year as Waxy, and the two, + who were both grandsons of Eclipse and both out of Herod mares, had + several contests, Waxy generally getting the better of his cousin. + Gohanna's descendants come down through Golumpus (1802), Catton + (1809), Mulatto (1823), Royal Oak (1823), and Slane (1833). + + 2. The Byerly Turk's line is represented by Herod, the Turk being the + sire of Jigg, who was the sire of Partner (1718), whose son Tartar + (1743) begat King Herod, or Herod as he was commonly called, foaled in + 1758. Herod's dam was Cypron (1750) by Blaze (1733), son of Flying + Childers. Cypron's dam was Selima by Bethel's Arabian from a mare by + Graham's Champion from a daughter of the Darley Arabian and a mare who + claims Merlin for her sire, but whose mother's pedigree is unknown. In + Herod's pedigree there are fully a dozen dams whose pedigree is + unknown. Herod was a bay horse about 15 hands 3 inches high, possessed + both of substance and length,--those grand requisites in a + race-horse,--combined with uncommon power and stamina or lasting + qualities. He was bred by William, duke of Cumberland, uncle of King + George III. He commenced his racing career in October 1763, when he + was five years old, and ended it on the 16th of May 1767. He ran ten + times, winning six and losing four races. He died in 1780, and among + other progeny left two famous sons, Woodpecker (1773), whose dam was + Miss Ramsden (1760) by Cade, son of the Godolphin Barb, but descended + also on the dam's side from the Darley Arabian and the Byerly Turk, + and Highflyer (1774), whose dam was Rachel (1763) by Blank, son of the + Godolphin Barb from a daughter of Regulus, also son of the Godolphin. + These two horses have transmitted Herod's qualities down to the + present day in the direct male line, although in the female line he is + represented through some of his other sons and his daughters as well. + Woodpecker was the sire of Buzzard (1787), who in his turn became the + father of three celebrated sons, Castrel (1801), Selim (1802), and + Rubens (1803), all three chestnuts, and all out of an Alexander mare + (1790), who thereby became famous. This mare was by Eclipse's son + Alexander (1782) out of a mare by Highflyer (son of Herod) out of a + daughter of Alfred, by Matchem out of a daughter of Snap. Bustard + (1813), whose dam was a daughter of Shuttle, and his son Heron (1833), + Sultan (1816) and his sons Glencoe (1831) and Bay Middleton (1833) and + Middleton's sons Cowl (1842) and the Flying Dutchman (1846), Pantaloon + (1824) and his son Windhound (1847), Langar (1817) and his son Epirus + (1834) and grandson Pyrrhus the First (1843), are representatives of + Castrel and Selim. + + Highflyer is represented through his greatly esteemed son Sir Peter + Teazle, commonly called Sir Peter (1784), whose dam was Papillon by + Snap. Sir Peter had five sons at the stud, Walton (1790), Stamford + (1794), and Sir Paul (1802) being the chief. Paulowitz (1813), Cain + (1822), Ion (1835), Wild Dayrell (1852), and his son Buccaneer (1857) + bring down Sir Paul's blood; whilst Walton is represented through + Phantom (1806), Partisan (1811) and his sons Glaucus (1829) and + Venison (1833) and Gladiator (1833), Venison's sons Alarm (1842) and + Kingston (1849), Gladiator's son Sweetmeat (1842), Sweetmeat's sons + Macaroni (1860) and Parmesan (1857), and Parmesan's sons Favonius + (1868) and Cremorne (1869). It may be added that in the first volume + of the _Stud-Book_ there are nearly a hundred Herod and Highflyer + mares registered. + + 3. The Godolphin Barb is represented by Matchem, as the former was the + sire of Cade (1734), and Cade begat Matchem, who was foaled in 1748. + He was thus ten years the senior of Herod, representing the Byerly + Turk, and sixteen years before Eclipse, though long subsequent to + Flying Childers, who represent the Darley Arabian. Matchem was a brown + bay horse with some white on his off hind heel, about 15 hands high, + bred by Sir John Holme of Carlisle, and sold to Mr W. Fenwick of + Bywell, Northumberland. His dam was sister to Miss Partner (1735) by + Partner out of Brown Farewell by Makeless (son of the Oglethorpe + Arabian) from a daughter of Brimmer out of Trumpet's dam, by Place's + White Turk from a daughter of the Barb Dodsworth and a Layton Barb + mare; while Brimmer was by D'Arcy's Yellow Turk from a royal mare. + Matchem commenced his racing career on the 2nd of August 1753, and + terminated it on 1st September 1758. Out of thirteen engagements he + won eleven and lost two. He died in 1781, aged thirty-three years. His + best son was Conductor (1767) out of a mare by Snap; Conductor was the + sire of Trumpator (1782), whose two sons, Sorcerer (1790) and Paynator + (1791), transmit the blood of the Godolphin down to modern times. + Sorcerer was the sire of Soothsayer (1808), Comus (1809), and + Smolensko (1810). Comus was the sire of Humphrey Clinker (1822), whose + son was Melbourne (1834), sire of West Australian (1850) and of many + valuable mares, including Canezou (1845) and Blink Bonny (1854), dam + of Blair Athol. Paynator was the sire of Dr Syntax (1811), who had a + celebrated daughter called Beeswing (1833), dam of Newminster by + Touchstone. + + The gems of the three lines may be briefly enumerated thus: (1) of the + Darley Arab's line--Snap, Shuttle, Waxy, and Orville--the stoutest + blood on the turf; (2) of the Byerly Turk's line--Buzzard and Sir + Peter--speedy blood, the latter the stouter of the two; (3) of the + Godolphin Barb's line--Sorcerer--often producing large-sized animals, + but showing a tendency to die out, and becoming rare. + + +On the principle that as a rule like begets like, it has been the +practice to select as sires the best public performers on the turf, and +of two horses of like blood it is sound sense to choose the better as +against the inferior public performer. But there can be little doubt +that the mating of mares with horses has been often pursued on a +haphazard plan, or on no system at all; to this the _Stud-Book_ +testifies too plainly. In the article HORSE-RACING mention is made of +some of the great horses of recent years; but the following list of the +principal sires of earlier days indicates also how their progeny found a +place among the winners of the three great races, the Derby (D), Oaks +(O), and St Leger (L):-- + + _Eclipse_: Young Eclipse (D), Saltram (D), Sergeant (D), Annette (O). + + _Herod_: Bridget (O), Faith (O), Maid of the Oaks (O), Phenomenon (L). + + _Matchem_: Teetotum (O), Hollandaise (L). + + _Florizel_ (son of Herod): Diomed (D), Eager (D), Tartar (L), + Ninety-three (L). + + _Highflyer_: Noble (D), Sir Peter Teazle (D), Skyscraper (D), Violante + (O), Omphale (L), Cowslip (L), Spadille (L), Young Flora (L). + + _Pot-8-os_: Waxy (D), Champion (D, L), Tyrant (D), Nightshade (O). + + _Sir Peter_ (D): Sir Harry (D), Archduke (D), Ditto (D), Paris (D), + Hermione (O), Parasite (O), Ambrosio (L), Fyldener (L), Paulina (L), + Petronius (L). + + _Waxy_ (D): Pope (D), Whalebone (D), Blucher (D), Whisker (D), Music + (O), Minuet (O), Corinne (O). + + _Whalebone_ (D): Moses (D), Lapdog (D), Spaniel (D), Caroline (O). + + _Woful_: Augusta (O), Zinc (O), Theodore (L). + + _Whisker_ (D): Memnon (L), The Colonel (L). + + _Phantom_: Cedric (D), Middleton (D), Cobweb (O). + + _Orville_ (L): Octavius (D), Emilius (D), Ebor (L). + + _Tramp_: St Giles (D), Dangerous (D), Barefoot (L). + + _Emilius_ (D): Priam (D), Plenipotentiary (D), Oxygen (O), Mango (L). + + _Priam_ (D): Miss Seltz (O), Industry (O), Crucifix (O). + + _Sir Hercules_: Coronation (D), Faugh-a-Ballagh (L), Birdcatcher (L). + + _Touchstone_ (L): Cotherstone (D), Orlando (D), Surplice (D, L), + Mendicant (O), Blue Bonnet (L), Newminster (L). + + _Birdcatcher_ (L): Daniel O'Rourke (D), Songstress (O), Knight of St + George (L), Warlock (L), The Baron (L). + + _The Baron_ (L): Stockwell (L). + + _Melbourne_: West Australian (D, L), Blink Bonny (D, O), Sir Tatton + Sykes (L). + + _Newminster_ (L): Musjid (D), Hermit (D), Lord Clifden (L). + + _Sweetmeat_: Macaroni (D), Mincemeat (O), Mincepie (O). + + _Stockwell_ (L): Blair Athol (D, L), Lord Lyon (D, L), Doncaster (D), + Regalia (O), St Albans (L), Caller Ou (L), The Marquis (L), + Achievement (L). + + _King Tom_: Kingcraft (D), Tormentor (O), Hippia (O), Hannah (O, L). + + _Rataplan_ (son of the Baron): Kettledrum (D). + + _Monarque_: Gladiateur (D, L). + + _Parmesan_ (son of Sweetmeat): Favonius (D), Cremorne (D). + + _Buccaneer_: Kisber (D), Formosa (O, L), Brigantine (O). + + _Lord Clifden_ (L): Jannette (O, L), Hawthornden (L), Wenlock (L), + Petrarch (L). + + _Adventurer_: Pretender (D), Apology (O, L), Wheel of Fortune (O). + + _Blair Athol_ (D, L): Silvio (D, L), Craig Millar (L). + +In regard to mares it has very frequently turned out that animals which +were brilliant public performers have been far less successful as dams +than others which were comparatively valueless as runners. Beeswing, a +brilliant public performer, gave birth to a good horse in Newminster; +the same may be said of Alice Hawthorn, dam of Thormanby, of Canezou, +dam of Fazzoletto, of Crucifix, dam of Surplice, and of Blink Bonny, dam +of Blair Athol; but many of the greatest winners have dropped nothing +worth training. On the other hand, there are mares of little or no value +as racers who have become the mothers of some of the most celebrated +horses on the turf; among them we may cite Queen Mary, Pocahontas and +Paradigm. Queen Mary, who was by Gladiator out of a daughter of +Plenipotentiary and Myrrha by Whalebone, when mated with Melbourne +produced Blink Bonny (winner of the Derby and Oaks); when mated with +Mango and Lanercost she produced Haricot, dam of Caller Ou (winner of +the St Leger). Pocahontas, perhaps the most remarkable mare in the +_Stud-Book_, never won a race on the turf, but threw Stockwell and +Rataplan to the Baron, son of Birdcatcher, King Tom to Harkaway, Knight +of St Patrick to Knight of St George, and Knight of Kars to Nutwith--all +these horses being 16 hands high and upwards, while Pocahontas was a +long low mare of about 15 hands or a trifle more. She also gave birth to +Ayacanora by Birdcatcher, and to Araucaria by Ambrose, both very +valuable brood mares, Araucaria being the dam of Chamant by Mortemer, +and of Rayon d'Or by Flageolet, son of Plutus by Touchstone. Paradigm +again produced, among several winners of more or less celebrity, Lord +Lyon (winner of the Two Thousand Guineas, Derby and St Leger) and +Achievement (winner of the St Leger), both being by Stockwell. Another +famous mare was Manganese (1853) by Birdcatcher from Moonbeam by Tomboy +from Lunatic by the Prime Minister from Maniac by Shuttle. Manganese +when mated with Rataplan threw Mandragora, dam of Apology, winner of the +Oaks and St Leger, whose sire was Adventurer, son of Newminster. She +also threw Mineral, who, when mated with Lord Clifden, produced Wenlock, +winner of the St Leger, and after being sold to go to Hungary, was there +mated with Buccaneer, the produce being Kisber, winner of the Derby. + +We append the pedigree of Blair Athol, winner of the Derby and St Leger +in 1864, who, when subsequently sold by auction, fetched the then +unprecedented sum of 12,000 guineas, as it contains, not only Stockwell +(the emperor of stallions, as he has been termed), but Blink Bonny and +Eleanor--in which latter animal are combined the blood of Eclipse, +Herod, Matchem and Snap,--the mares that won the Derby in 1801 and 1857 +respectively, as well as those queens of the stud, Eleanor's +great-granddaughter Pocahontas and Blink Bonny's dam Queen Mary. Both +Eleanor and Blink Bonny won the Oaks as well as the Derby. + + /Whalebone* (1807) /Waxy* (1790) + /Sir Hercules< \Penelope (1798) + | (1826) \Peri (1823) /Wanderer (1790) + /Birdcatcher < \Thalestris (1809) + | [++] | /Bob Booty (1804) /Chanticleer (1787) + | (1833) |Guiccioli < \Ierne (1790) + | \ (1823) \Flight (1809) /Escape (1802) + /The Baron[++]< \Young Heroine + | (1842) | /Whisker* (1812) /Waxy* (1790) + | | /Economist < \Penelope (1798) + | | | (1825) \Floranthe (1818) /Octavian (1807) + | |Echidna < \Caprice (1797) + | \ (1838) | /Blacklock (1814) /Whitelock (1803) + | |Miss Pratt < \Coriander mare (1799) + | \ (1825) \Gadabout (1812) /Orville[++] (1709) + /Stockwell[++]< \Minstrel (1803) + |(1849) | /Selim (1802) /Buzzard (1787) + | | /Sultan < \Alexander mare (1790) + | | | (1816) \Bacchante (1809) /Williamson's Ditto (1800) + | | /Glencoe < \Sister to Calomel (1791) + | | | (1831) | /Tramp (1810) /Dick Andrews (1797) + | | | |Trampoline < \Gohanna mare + | | | \ (1825) \Web (1808) /Waxy* (1790) + | |Pocahontas < \Penelope (1798) + | \ (1837) | /Orville[++] (1799) /Beningbrough (1790) + | | /Muley < \Evelina (1791) + | | | (1810) \Eleanor*[++] (1798) /Whiskey (1789) + | |Marpessa < \Young Giantess (1790) + | \ (1830) | /Marmion (1806) /Whiskey (1789) + | |Clare < \Young Noisette (1789) + | \ (1824) \Harpalice (1814) /Gohanna (1790) + Blair | \Amazon (1799) + Athol*[++] < /Sorcerer (1796) /Trumpator (1782) + (1861) | /Comus < \Young Giantess (1790) + | | (1809) \Houghton Lass (1801)/Sir Peter* (1784) + | /Humphrey < \Alexina (1788) + | | Clinker | /Clinker (1805) /Sir Peter* (1784) + | | (1822) |Clinkerina < \Hyale (1797) + | | \ (1812) \Pewet (1786) /Tandem (1773) + | /Melbourne < \Termagant + | | (1834) | /Don Quixote (1784) /Eclipse (1764) + | | | /Cervantes < \Grecian Princess (1770) + | | | | (1806) \Evelina (1791) /Highflyer (1774) + | | |Daughter of < \Termagant + | | \ (1825) | /Golumpus (1802) /Gohanna (1790) + | | |Daughter of < \Catherine (1795) + | | \ (1818) \Daughter of (1810) /Paynator (1791) + |Blink Bonny*[+]< \Sister to Zodiac + \ (1854) | /Walton (1799) /Sir Peter* (1784) + | /Partisan < \Arethusa (1792) + | | (1811) \Parasol (1800) /Pot-8-os (1773) + | /Gladiator < \Prunella (1788) + | | (1833) | /Moses* (1819) /Whalebone* by Waxy* (1807) + | | |Pauline < \Gohanna mare + | | \ (1826) \Quadrille (1815) /Selim (1802) + |Queen Mary < \Canary Bird (1806) + \(1843) | /Emilius* (1820) /Orville[++] (1799) + | /Plenipote- < \Emily (1810) + | | ntiary* \Harriett (1819) /Pericles (1809) + |Daughter of < (1831) \Selim mare (1812) + \ (1840) | /Whalebone* (1807) /Waxy* (1790) + |Myrrha < \Penelope (1798) + \ (1830) \Gift (1818) /Young Gohanna (1810) + \Sister to Grazier by Sir + Peter* (1808) + + * Winner of the Derby. + + Winner of the Oaks. + ++ Winner of the St Leger. + +The shape of a race-horse is of considerable importance, although it is +said with some degree of truth that they win in all shapes. There are +the neat and elegant animals, like the descendants of Saunterer and +Sweetmeat; the large-framed, plain-looking, and heavy-headed Melbournes, +often with lop ears; the descendants of Birdcatcher, full of quality, +and of more than average stature, though sometimes disfigured with curby +hocks; and the medium-sized but withal speedy descendants of Touchstone, +though in some cases characterized by somewhat loaded shoulders. In +height it will be found that the most successful racers average from 15 +to 16½ hands, the former being considered somewhat small, while the +latter is unquestionably very large; the mean may be taken as between +15½ and 16 hands (the hand = 4 in.). The head should be light and lean, +and well set on; the ears small and pricked, but not too short; the eyes +full; the forehead broad and flat; the nostrils large and dilating; the +muzzle fine; the neck moderate in length, wide, muscular, and yet light; +the throat clean; the windpipe spacious and loosely attached to the +neck; the crest thin, not coarse and arched. The withers may be +moderately high and thin; the chest well developed, but not too wide or +deep; the shoulder should lie well on the chest, and be oblique and well +covered with muscle, so as to reduce concussion in galloping; the upper +and lower arms should be long and muscular; the knees broad and strong; +legs short, flat and broad; fetlock joints large; pasterns strong and of +moderate length; the feet should be moderately large, with the heels +open and frogs sound--with no signs of contraction. The body or barrel +should be moderately deep, long and straight, the length being really in +the shoulders and in the quarters; the back should be strong and +muscular, with the shoulders and loins running well in at each end; the +loins themselves should have great breadth and substance, this being a +vital necessity for weight-carrying and propelling power uphill. The +hips should be long and wide, with the stifle and thigh strong, long and +proportionately developed, and the hind quarters well let down. The hock +should have plenty of bone, and be strongly affixed to the leg, and show +no signs of curb; the bones below the hock should be flat, and free from +adhesions; the ligaments and tendons well developed, and standing out +from the bone; the joints well formed and wide, yet without undue +enlargement; the pasterns and feet similar to those of the forehand. The +tail should be high set on, the croup being continued in a straight line +to the tail, and not falling away and drooping to a low-set tail. +Fine action is the best criterion of everything fitting properly, and +all a horse's points ought to harmonize or be in proportion to one +another, no one point being more prominent than another, such as good +shoulders, fine loins or excellent quarters. If the observer is struck +with the remarkable prominence of any one feature, it is probable that +the remaining parts are deficient. A well-made horse wants dissecting in +detail, and then if a good judge can discover no fault with any part, +but finds each of good proportions, and the whole to harmonize without +defect, deformity or deficiency, he has before him a well-shaped horse; +and of two equally well-made and equitably proportioned horses the best +bred one will be the best. As regards hue, the favourite colour of the +ancients, according to Xenophon, was bay, and for a long time it was the +fashionable colour in England; but for some time chestnut thoroughbreds +have been the most conspicuous figure on English race-courses, so far as +the more important events are concerned. Eclipse was a chestnut; +Castrel, Selim and Rubens were chestnuts; so also were Glencoe and +Pantaloon, of whom the latter had black spots on his hind quarters like +Eclipse; and also Stockwell and Doncaster. Birdcatcher was a chestnut, +so also were Stockwell and his brother Rataplan, Manganese, Mandragora, +Thormanby, Kettledrum, St Albans, Blair Athol, Regalia, Formosa, Hermit, +Marie Stuart, Doncaster, George Frederick, Apology, Craig Millar, Prince +Charlie, Rayon d'Or and Bend Or. The dark browns or black browns, such +as the Sweetmeat tribe, are not so common as the bays, and black or grey +horses are almost as unusual as roans. The skin and hair of the +throughbred are finer, and the veins which underlie the skin are larger +and more prominent than in other horses. The mane and tail should be +silky and devoid of curl, which is a sign of impurity. + +Whether the race-horse of to-day is as good as the stock to which he +traces back has often been disputed, chiefly no doubt because he is +brought to more early maturity, commencing to win races at two years +instead of at five years of age, as in the days of Childers and Eclipse; +but the highest authorities, and none more emphatically than the late +Admiral Rous, have insisted that he can not only stay quite as long as +his ancestors, but also go a good deal faster. In size and shape the +modern race-horse is unquestionably superior, being on an average fully +a hand higher than the Eastern horses from which he is descended; and in +elegance of shape and beauty of outline he has certainly never been +surpassed. That experiments, founded on the study of his nature and +properties, which have from time to time been made to improve the breed, +and bring the different varieties to the perfection in which we now find +them, have succeeded, is best confirmed by the high estimation in which +the horses of Great Britain are held in all parts of the civilized +world; and it is not too much to assert that, although the cold, humid +and variable nature of their climate is by no means favourable to the +production of these animals in their very best form, Englishmen have by +great care, and by sedulous attention to breeding, high feeding and good +grooming, with consequent development of muscle, brought them to the +highest state of perfection of which their nature is capable. + (E. D. B.) + +[Illustration: PLATE I. + + SHIRE STALLION. + CLYDESDALE STALLION. + SUFFOLK STALLION. + HACKNEY STALLION. + + BREEDS OF HORSES. (_From Photographs by F. Babbage._) The comparative + sizes of the horses are shown.] + +[Illustration: PLATE II. + + THOROUGHBRED STALLION. + SHETLAND PONY STALLION. + COACHING STALLION. + POLO PONY STALLION. + + BREEDS OF HORSES. (_From Photographs by F. Babbage._) The comparative + sizes of the horses are shown.] + + +BREEDS OF HORSES + +The British breeds of _light_ horses include the Thoroughbred, the +Yorkshire Coach-horse, the Cleveland Bay, the Hackney and the Pony; of +_heavy_ horses, the Shire, the Clydesdale and the Suffolk. + +The _Thoroughbred_ is probably the oldest of the breeds, and it is known +as the "blood-horse" on account of the length of time through which its +purity of descent can be traced. The frame is light, slender and +graceful. The points of chief importance are a fine, clean, lean head, +set on free from collar heaviness; a long and strongly muscular neck, +shoulders oblique and covered with muscle; high, long withers, chest of +good depth and narrow but not extremely so; body round in type; back rib +well down; depth at withers a little under half the height; length equal +to the height at withers and croup; loins level and muscular; croup +long, rather level; tail set on high and carried gracefully; the hind +quarters long, strongly developed, and full of muscle and driving power; +the limbs clean-cut and sinewy, possessing abundance of good bone, +especially desired in the cannons, which are short, broad and flat; +comparatively little space between the fore legs; pastern joints smooth +and true; pasterns strong, clean and springy, sloping when at rest at an +angle of 45°; feet medium size, wide and high at the heels, concave +below and set on straight. The action in trotting is generally low, but +the bending of the knee and the flexing of the hock is smooth, free and +true. The thoroughbred is apt to be nervous and excitable, and impatient +of common work, but its speed, resolution and endurance, as tested on +the race-course, are beyond praise. + +Many of the best hunters in the United Kingdom are thoroughbreds, but of +the substantial weight-carrying type. The Hunters Improvement Society, +established in 1885, did not restrict entries to the _Hunters' +Stud-Book_ to entirely clean-bred animals, but admitted those with +breeding enough to pass strict inspection. This society acts in consort +with two other powerful organizations (the Royal Commission on +Horse-breeding, which began its work in 1888, and the Brood Mare +Society, established in 1903), with the desirable object of improving +the standard of light horse breeding. The initial efforts began by +securing the services of thoroughbred stallions for specified districts, +by offering a limited number of "Queen's Premiums," of £200 each, to +selected animals of four years old and upwards. Since the formation of +the Brood Mare Society mares have come within the sphere of influence of +the three bodies, and well-conceived inducements are offered to breeders +to retain their young mares at home. The efforts have met with +gratifying success, and they were much needed, for while in 1904 the +Dutch government took away 350 of the best young Irish mares, Great +Britain was paying the foreigner over £2,000,000 a year for horses which +the old system of management did not supply at home. The Royal Dublin +Society also keeps a _Register of Thoroughbred Stallions_ under the +horse-breeding scheme of 1892, which, like the British efforts, is now +bearing fruit. + +The _Yorkshire Coach-horse_ is extensively bred in the North and East +Ridings of Yorkshire, and the thoroughbred has taken a share in its +development. The colour is usually bay, with black or brown points. A +fine head, sloping shoulders, strong loins, lengthy quarters, +high-stepping action, flat bone and sound feet are characteristic. The +height varies from 16 hands to 16 hands 2 in. + +The _Cleveland Bay_ is an ancestor of the Yorkshire Coach-horse and is +bred in parts of Yorkshire, Durham and Northumberland. He is adapted +alike for the plough, for heavy draught, and for slow saddle work. Some +specimens make imposing-looking carriage horses, but they have low +action and are lacking in quality. The colour is light or dark bay, with +black legs. Though rather coarse-headed, the Cleveland Bay has a +well-set shoulder and neck, a deep chest and round barrel. The height is +from 16 to 17 hands. + +The _Hackney_ has come prominently to the front in recent years. The +term _Nag_, applied to the active riding or trotting horse, is derived +from the A.S. _hnegan_, to neigh. The Normans brought with them their +own word _haquenée_, or _hacquenée_, a French derivative from the Latin +_equus_, a horse, whence the name hackney. Both nag and hackney continue +to be used as synonymous terms. Frequent mention is made of hackneys and +trotters in old farm accounts of the 14th century. The first noteworthy +trotting hackney stallion, of the modern type, was a horse foaled about +1755, and known as the Schales, Shields or Shales horse, and most of the +recognized hackneys of to-day trace back to him. The breeding of +hackneys is extensively pursued in the counties of Norfolk, Cambridge, +Huntingdon, Lincoln and York, and in the showyard competitions a keen +but friendly rivalry is usually to be noticed between the +hackney-breeding farmers of Norfolk and Yorkshire. The high hackney +action is uncomfortable in a riding horse. Excellent results have +sometimes followed the use of hackney sires upon half-bred mares, i.e. +by thoroughbred stallions and trotting mares, but it is not always so. +As regards the movement, or "action," of the hackney, he should go light +in hand, and the knee should be well elevated and advanced during the +trot, and, before the foot is put down, the leg should be well extended. +The hackney should also possess good hock action, as distinguished from +mere fetlock action, the propelling power depending upon the efficiency +of the former. The hackney type of the day is "a powerfully built, +short-legged, big horse, with an intelligent head, neat neck, strong, +level back, powerful loins, and as perfect shoulders as can be obtained, +good feet, flat-boned legs, and a height of from 15 hands 2 in. to 15 +hands 3½ in." Carriage-horses hackney-bred have been produced over 17 +hands high. + +The _Pony_ differs essentially from the hackney in height, the former +not exceeding 14 hands. There is one exception, which is made clear in +the following extract from Sir Walter Gilbey's _Ponies Past and Present_ +(1900):-- + + Before the establishment of the Hackney Horse Society in 1883 the + dividing line between the horse and the pony in England was vague and + undefined. It was then found necessary to distinguish clearly between + horses and ponies, and, accordingly, all animals measuring 14 hands or + under were designated "ponies," and registered in a separate part of + the (Hackney) Stud-Book. This record of height, with other particulars + as to breeding, &c., serves to direct breeders in their choice of + sires and dams. The standard of height established by the Hackney + Horse Society was accepted and officially recognized by the Royal + Agricultural Society in 1889, when the prize-list for the Windsor show + contained pony classes for animals not exceeding 14 hands. The altered + polo-rule, which fixes the limit of height at 14 hands 2 in., may be + productive of some little confusion; but for all other purposes 14 + hands is the recognized _maximum_ height of a pony. Prior to 1883 + small horses were called indifferently Galloways, hobbies, cobs or + ponies, irrespective of their height. + +Native ponies include those variously known as Welsh, New Forest, +Exmoor, Dartmoor, Cumberland and Westmorland, Fell, Highland, Highland +Garron, Celtic, Shetland and Connemara. Ponies range in height from 14 +hands down to 8 hands, Shetland ponies eligible for the Stud-Book not +exceeding the latter. As in the case of the hackney, so with the pony, +thoroughbred blood has been used, and with good results, except in the +case of those animals which have to remain to breed in their native +haunts on the hills and moorlands. There the only possible way of +improvement is by selecting the best native specimens, especially the +sires, to breed from. The thin-skinned progeny of thoroughbred or Arab +stock is too delicate to live unless when hand-fed--and hand-feeding is +not according to custom. Excellent polo ponies are bred as first or +second crosses by thoroughbred stallions on the mares of nearly all the +varieties of ponies named. The defective formation of the pony, the +perpendicular shoulder and the drooping hind quarters, are modified; but +neither the latter, nor bent hocks, which place the hind legs under the +body as in the zebra, are objected to, as the conformation is favourable +to rapid turning. One object of the pony breeder, while maintaining +hardiness of constitution, is to control size--to compress the most +valuable qualities into small compass. He endeavours to breed an animal +possessing a small head, good shoulders, true action and perfect +manners. A combination of the best points of the hunter with the style +and finish of the hackney produces a class of weight-carrying pony which +is always saleable. + +The _Shire_ horse owes its happily-chosen name to Arthur Young's +remarks, in the description of his agricultural tours during the closing +years of the 18th century, concerning the large Old English Black Horse, +"the produce principally of the _Shire_ counties in the heart of +England." Long previous to this, however, the word Shire, in connexion +with horses, was used in the statutes of Henry VIII. Under the various +names of the War Horse, the Great Horse, the Old English Black Horse and +the Shire Horse, the breed has for centuries been cultivated in the rich +fen-lands of Lincolnshire and Cambridgeshire, and in many counties to +the west. The Shire is the largest of draught horses, the stallion +commonly attaining a height of 17 to 17.3 hands. Though the black colour +is still frequently met with, bay and brown are more usually seen. With +their immense size and weight--1800 lb. to 2200 lb.--the Shires combine +great strength, and they are withal docile and intelligent. They stand +on short stout legs, with a plentiful covering--sometimes too +abundant--of long hair extending chiefly down the back but also round +the front of the limbs from knees and hocks, and when in full feather +obscuring nearly the whole of the hoofs. The head is a good size, and +broad between the eyes; the neck fairly long, with the crest well arched +on to the shoulders, which are deep and strong, and moderately oblique. +The chest is wide, full and deep, the back short and straight, the ribs +are round and deep, the hind quarters long, level and well let down into +the muscular thighs. The cannon-bones should be flat, heavy and clean, +and the feet wide, tough, and prominent at the heels. A good type of +Shire horse combines symmetrical outlines and bold, free action. There +is a good and remunerative demand for Shire geldings for use as draught +horses in towns. + +The _Clydesdale_, the Scottish breed named from the valley of the Clyde, +is not quite so large as the Shire, the average height of stallions +being about 16 hands 2 in. The popular colour is bay, particularly if of +a dark shade, or dappled. Black is not uncommon, but grey is not +encouraged. White markings on one or more of the legs, with a white star +or stripe on the face, are characteristic. The long hair on the legs is +not so abundant as in the Shires, and it is finer in texture. It is +regarded as an indication of good bone. The bones of the legs should be +short, flat, clean and hard; the feet large, with hoofs deep and concave +below. With its symmetry, activity, strength and endurance the +Clydesdale is easily broken to harness, and makes an excellent draught +horse. This breed is growing rapidly in favour in Canada, but in the +United States the _Percheron_, with its round bone and short pasterns, +holds the field. A blend of the Shire and Clydesdale strains of the +British rough-legged draught horse (virtually sections of the same +breed) is a better animal than either of the parents. It is an +improvement upon the Shire due to the quality contributed by the +Clydesdale, and it surpasses the Clydesdale in strength and substance, +as a result of the Shire connexion. To secure success the two Stud-Books +will require to be opened to animals eligible to be entered in either +record. The blend is being established in U.S.A. as a National breed. + +The _Suffolk_ is a horse quite distinct from the Shire and the +Clydesdale. Its body looks too heavy for its limbs, which are free from +the "feather" so much admired in the two other heavy breeds; it +possesses a characteristic chestnut colour. How long the Suffolks have +been associated with the county after which they are named is unknown, +but they are mentioned in 1586 in Camden's _Britannia_. With an average +height of about 16 hands they often have a weight of as much as 2000 +lb., and this may explain the appearance which has given rise to the +name of the Suffolk Punch, by which the breed is known. The Suffolk is a +resolute and unwearying worker, and is richly endowed with many of the +best qualities of a horse. The _Suffolk Stud-Book and History of the +Breed_, published in 1880, is the most exhaustive record of its kind in +England. (W. Fr.; R. W.) + + +MANAGEMENT + +_Breeding._--Animals to breed from should be of good blood, sound and +compactly built, with good pluck and free from nervous excitability and +vicious tendency. A mare used to be put to the horse at three years old, +but latterly two has become the common age. Young sires begin to serve +in moderation at two. May is considered the best month for a mare to +foal, as there is abundance of natural food and the weather is mild +enough for the mare to lie out. Show specimens generally profit by being +born earlier. The period of gestation in the mare is about eleven +months. No nursing mare should go to work, if this can possibly be +avoided. A brood mare requires plenty of exercise at a slow pace and may +work, except between shafts or on a road, till the day of foaling. + +To avoid colic an animal has to be gradually prepared by giving small +quantities of green food for a few days before going to grass. Shelter +against severe storms is needed. Succulent food encourages the flow of +milk, and the success of the foal greatly depends on its milk supply. +Mares most readily conceive when served at the "foal heat" eleven days +after foaling. A mature stallion can serve from eighty to one hundred +mares per annum. + +Foals are weaned when five or six months old, often in October, and +require to be housed to save the foal-flesh, and liberally but not +overfed; but from the time they are a month old they require to be +"gentled" by handling and kindly treatment, and the elementary training +of leading from time to time by a halter adjusted permanently to the +head. When they are hand-reared on cow's milk foals require firm +treatment and must have no fooling to teach them tricks. Young horses +that are too highly fed are apt to become weak-limbed and top-heavy. + +_Breaking._--Systematic breaking begins at about the age of two years, +and the method of subduing a colt by "galvayning" is as good as any. It +is a more humane system than "rareying," which overcame by exhaustion +under circumstances which were not fruitful of permanent results. +Galvayning is accomplished by bending the horse's neck round at an angle +of thirty-five to forty degrees and tieing the halter to the tail, so +that when he attempts to walk forward he holds himself and turns "round +and round, almost upon his own ground." The more strenuous his +resistance the sooner he yields to the inevitable force applied by +himself. A wooden pole, the "third hand," is then gently applied to all +parts of the body until kicking or any form of resistance ceases. +"Bitting" or "mouthing," or the familiarizing of an animal to the bit in +his mouth, and to answer to the rein without bending his neck, is still +a necessity with the galvayning method of breaking. Experience can only +be gained by a horse continuing during a considerable time to practise +what he has been taught. + +Three main characteristics of a successful horse-breaker are firmness, +good temper and incessant vigilance. Carelessness in trusting too much +to a young colt that begins its training by being docile is a fruitful +source of untrustworthy habits which need never have developed. Driving +with long reins in the field should precede the fastening of ropes to +the collar, as it accustoms the animal to the pressure on the shoulders +of the draught, later to be experienced in the yoke. If a young horse be +well handled and accustomed to the dummy jockey, mounting it is not +attended with much risk of resistance, although this should invariably +be anticipated. An animal ought to be in good condition when being +broken in, else it is liable to break out in unpleasant ways when it +becomes high-spirited as a result of improved condition. It should be +well but not overfed, and while young not overworked, as an overtired +animal is liable to refuse to pull, and thus contract a bad habit. Most +bad habits and stable tricks are the result of defective management and +avoidable accidents. + +_Feeding._--Horses have small stomachs relatively to ruminating animals, +and require small quantities of food frequently. While grazing they feed +almost continually, preferring short pasture. No stable food for quick +work surpasses a superior sample of fine-hulled whole oats like +"Garton's Abundance" (120 lb. per week), and Timothy hay harvested in +dry weather. The unbruised oats develop a spirit and courage in either a +saddle or harness horse that no other food can. A double handful of +clean chaff, or of bran mixed with the oats in the manger, prevents a +greedy horse from swallowing a considerable proportion whole. Unchewed +oats pass out in the faeces uninjured, so that they are capable of +germination, and are of less than no value to a horse. Horses doing slow +or other than "upper ten" work may have oats crushed, not ground, and a +variety of additions made to the oats which are usually the basis of the +feed--for example, a few old crushed beans, a little linseed meal, +ground linseed cake or about a wine-glassful of unboiled linseed oil. +Indian pulses are to be avoided on account of the danger of Lathyrus +poisoning. A seasoning of ground fenugreek or spice is sometimes given +to shy feeders to encourage them to eat. A little sugar or molascuit +added to the food will sometimes serve the same purpose. Newly crushed +barley or cracked maize, even in considerable proportion to the rest of +the food, gives good results with draught, coach, 'bus and light +harness horses generally. Boiled food of any kind is unnatural to a +horse, and is risky to give, being liable to produce colic, especially +if the animal bolts its food when hungry, although it generally produces +a glossy coat. Too much linseed, often used in preparing horses for +market, gives a similar appearance, but is liable to induce fatty +degeneration of the liver; given in moderation it regulates the bowels +and stimulates the more perfect digestion of other foods. In England +red-clover hay, or, better still, crimson-clover or lucerne hay, is +liberally fed to farm horses with about 10 lb. per day of oats, while +they usually run in open yards with shelter sheds. Bean straw is +sometimes given as part of the roughage in Scotland, but not in England. +In England hunters and carriage horses are generally fed on natural hay, +in Scotland on Timothy, largely imported from Canada, or ryegrass hay +that has not been grown with nitrate of soda. Heavily nitrated hay is +reputed to produce excessive urination and irritation of the bladder. +Pease straw, if not sandy, and good bright oat straw are good fodder for +horses; but with barley and wheat straw, in the case of a horse, more +energy is consumed during its passage through the alimentary canal than +the digested straw yields. Three or four Swedish turnips or an +equivalent of carrots is an excellent cooling food for a horse at hard +work. The greater number of horses in the country should have green +forage given them during summer, when the work they do will permit of +it, as it is their natural food, and they thrive better on it than on +any dry food. + +When a horse has been overstrained by work the best remedy is a long +rest at pasture, and, if it be lame or weak in the limbs, the winter +season is most conducive to recovery. The horse becomes low in condition +and moves about quietly, and the frost tends to brace up the limbs. In +autumn all horses that have been grazing should be dosed with some +vermifuge to destroy the worms that are invariably present, and thus +prevent colic or an unthrifty or anaemic state. On a long journey a +horse should have occasional short drinks, and near the end a long drink +with a slower rate of progression with the object of cooling off. In the +stable a horse should always be provided with rock salt, and water to +drink at will by means of some such stall fixture as the Mundt hygienic +water-supply fittings. Overhead hay-racks are unnatural and are liable +to drop seeds into a horse's eye. + + LITERATURE.--For riding, &c. see RIDING, DRIVING, HORSEMANSHIP, and + HORSE-RACING. For diseases of the horse see VETERINARY SCIENCE. The + literature about the horse and its history and uses is voluminous, and + is collected up to 1887 in Huth's _Works on Horses, &c._, a + bibliographical record of hippology. See also, besides the works + already mentioned, various books by Capt. M. Horace Hayes, _Points of + the Horse_ (1893, 2nd ed., 1897); _Stable Management and Exercise_ + (1900); _Illustrated Horse-breaking_ (1889, 2nd ed., 1896); and _The + Horsewoman_ (1893) (with Mrs Hayes); E. L. Anderson, _Modern + Horsemanship_ (1884); W. Day, _The Horse: How to Breed and Rear Him_ + (1888); W. Ridgeway, _Origin and Influence of the Thoroughbred Horse_ + (1905); Major-General Tweedie, _The Arab Horse_ (1894); J. Wortley + Axe, _The Horse; its Treatment in Health and Disease_ (1906); R. + Wallace, _Farm Live Stock of Great Britain_ (1885, 4th ed., 1907); + Sydney Galvayne, _The Twentieth Century Book of the Horse_ (1905); C. + Bruce Low, _Breeding Racehorses by the Figure System_ (1895); J. H. + Wallace, _The Horse of America in his Derivation, &c._ (1897); + Weatherly's _Celebrated Racehorses_ (1887); Ruff's _Guide to the + Turf_; T. A. Cook, _History of the English Turf_ (1903); _The General + Stud-Book_ (issued quinquennially); and the _Stud-Books_ of the + various breed societies. (R. W.) + + +FOOTNOTES: + + [1] Compare Sans, _açva_, Zendish and Old Persian _açpa_, Lithuanian + _aszva_ (mare), Prussian _asvinan_ (mare's milk), O.H. Ger. _ehu_, + A.S. _eoh_, Icel. _iör_, Gothic _aihos_, _aihous_ (?), Old Irish + _ech_, Old Cambrian and Gaelic _ep_ (as in _Epona_, the horse + goddess), Lat. _equus_, Gr. [Greek: hippos] or [Greek: ikkos]. The + word seems, however, to have disappeared from the Slavonic languages. + The root is probably _ak_, with the idea of sharpness or swiftness + ([Greek: akros, ôkus], _acus_, _ocior_). See Pott, _Etym. Forsch_, + ii. 256, and Hehn, _Kulturpflanzen u. Hausthiere in ihrem Ueber gang + aus Asien nach Griechenland u. Italien sowie in das übrige Europa_ + (3rd ed., 1877), p. 38. The last-named author, who points out the + absence of the horse from the Egyptian monuments prior to the + beginning of the 18th century B.C., and the fact that the earliest + references to this animal in Hebrew literature (Judges v. 22, 28; cf. + Josh, xi. 4) do not carry us any farther back, is of opinion that the + Semitic peoples as a whole were indebted for the horse to the lands + of Iran. He also shows that literature affords no trace of the horse + as indigenous to Arabia prior to about the beginning of the 5th + century A.D., although references abound in the pre-Islamitic poetry. + Horses were not numerous even in Mahomet's time (Sprenger, _Leb. + Moh._ iii. 139, 140). Compare Ignazio Guidi's paper "Della sede + primitiva dei popoli Semitici" in the _Transactions_ of the Accademia + dei Lincei (1878-1879), Professor W. Ridgeway, in his _Origin and + Influence of the Thoroughbred Horse_ (1905), reinvestigated the + historical mystery as to the Arab breed, and its connexion with the + English thoroughbred stock, but his conclusions have been hotly + controverted; archaeology and biology are in fact still in the dark + on the subject, but see the section on "Species" above. According to + Ridgeway, the original source of the finest equine blood is Africa, + still the home of the largest variety of wild Equidae; he concludes + that thence it passed into Europe at an early time, to be blended + with that of the indigenous Celtic species, and thence into western + Asia into the veins of an indigenous Mongolian species, still + represented by "Przewalski's horse"; not till a comparatively late + period did it reach Arabia, though the "Arab" now represents the + purest form of the Libyan blood. The controversy depends upon the + consideration of a wealth of detail, which should be studied in + Ridgeway's book; but zoological authorities are sceptical as to the + suggested species, _Equus caballus libycus_. + + [2] Some fragments of legislation relating to the horse about this + period may be gleaned from _Ancient Laws and Institutes of England_ + (fol., London, 1840), and _Ancient Laws and Institutes of Wales_ + (fol., London, 1841). + + + + +HORSE LATITUDES, the belts of calms and variable breezes at the polar +edge of the N.E. and S.E. trades. According to the _New English +Dictionary_ two explanations have been given of the origin of the name: +one that the calm kills horses on a sailing ship, the other that the +name signifies the unruly and boisterous nature of these winds compared +with the pleasant trades. The name is commonly applied to the permanent +belt of high atmospheric pressure which encircles the globe in 30° to +35° from the equator. + + + + +HORSE-MACKEREL, the name applied to a genus of fishes (_Caranx_) found +in abundance in almost all temperate and especially in tropical seas. +The designation "cavalli," given to them by the early Portuguese +navigators, and often met with in the accounts of the adventures of the +buccaneers, is still in frequent use among the sailors of all nations. +Some ninety different kinds are known--the majority being wholesome +food, and some of the species attaining a length of 3 ft. and more. The +fish to which the name horse-mackerel is applied in Great Britain is +_Caranx trachurus_, distinguished by having the lateral line in its +whole length armed with large but narrow bony plates. Horse-mackerel are +found singly on the coast all the year round, but sometimes they +congregate in shoals of many thousands. Although well-flavoured, they +are much more frequently used for bait than for food. This species has a +most extraordinary range, being found almost everywhere within the +temperate and tropical zones of the northern and southern hemispheres. + + + + +HORSEMANSHIP, the art of managing the horse from his back and +controlling his paces and the direction and speed of his movement. The +ordinary procedure is dealt with in the articles on RIDING and cognate +subjects (see also HORSE: section _Management_). A special kind of skill +is, however, needed in breaking, training, bitting and schooling horses +for a game like polo, or for the evolutions of what is known as the +_haute école_. It is with the latter, or "school" riding, that we deal +here. The middle ages had seen chivalry developed into a social +distinction, and horsemanship into a form of knightly prowess. The +Renaissance introduced the cultivation of horsemanship as an art, with +regular conditions and rules, instead of merely its skilful practice for +utility and exercise. In Italy in the 16th century schools of +horsemanship were established at Naples, Rome and other chief cities; +thither flocked the nobility of France, Spain and Germany; and Henry +VIII. of England and other monarchs of his time had Italians for their +masters of the horse. The academy of Pignatelli at Naples was the most +famous of the schools in the middle of the 16th century, but a score of +other less renowned masters devoted themselves to teaching the riders +and training the horses. Trappings of all sorts multiplied; the +prescribed tricks, feats and postures involved considerable dexterity; +they were fatiguing to both man and beast, and were really useless +except for show. This elaborate art, enthusiastically followed among the +Romance nations, was the parent of later developments of the _haute +école_, and of the circus-performances of modern days. In England, +however, the continental style did not find favour for long. The duke of +Newcastle's _Méthode nouvelle de dresser les chevaux_ (1648) was the +leading text-book of the day, and in 1761 the earl of Pembroke published +his _Manual of Cavalry Horsemanship_. In France a simplification was +introduced in the early part of the 18th century by La Guérinière +(_École de cavalerie_) and others. The French military school thus +became the model for Europe, though the English style remained in +opposition, forming a sort of compromise with the ordinary method of +riding across country. In more modern times France again came to the +front in regard to the _haute école_, through the innovations of the +vicomte d'Aure (1798-1863) and François Baucher (1796-1873). Baucher was +a circus-rider who became the greatest master of his art, and who had an +elaborate theory of the principles involved in training a horse. His +system was carried on, with modifications, by masters and theorists like +Captain Raabe, M. Barroil and M. Fillis. In more recent times the style +of the _haute école_ has also been cultivated by various masters in the +United States, such as H. L. de Bussigny at Boston. + + See d'Aure, _Traité d'équitation_ (1847); Hundersdorf, _Équitation + allemande_ (Bruxelles, 1843); Baucher, _Passe-temps équestres_ (1840), + _Méthode d'équitation_ (1867); Raabe, _Méthode de haute école + d'équitation_ (1863); Barroil, _Art équestre_; Fillis, _Principes de + dressage_; Hayes, _Riding on the flat, &c._ (1882). + + + + +HORSENS, a market town of Denmark, at the head of Horsens Fjord, on the +east side of Jutland, 32 m. by rail S.W. of Aarhus, in the _amt_ +(county) of that name. Pop. (1901) 22,243. It is the junction of branch +railways to Bryrup and to Törring inland, and to Juelsminde on the +coast. The exports are chiefly bacon and butter; the imports, iron, +yarn, coal and timber. The town is ancient; there is a disused convent +church with tombs of the 17th century, and the Vor-Frelsers-Kirke has a +carved pulpit of the same period. Horsens is the birthplace of the +navigator Vitus Bering or Behring (1680), the Arctic explorer. To the +north lies the picturesque lake district between Skanderborg and +Silkeborg (see AARHUS). + + + + +HORSE-POWER. The device, frequently seen in farmyards, by which the +power of a horse is utilized to drive threshing or other machinery, is +sometimes described as a "horse-power," but this term usually denotes +the unit in which the performance of steam and other engines is +expressed, and which is defined as the rate at which work is done when +33,000 lb. are raised one foot in one minute. This value was adopted by +James Watt as the result of experiments with strong dray-horses, but, as +he was aware, it is in excess of what can be done by an average horse +over a full day's work. It is equal to 746 watts. On the metric system +it is reckoned as 4500 kilogram-metres a minute, and the French +_cheval-vapeur_ is thus equal to 32,549 foot-pounds a minute, or 0.9863 +of an English horse-power, or 736 watts. The "nominal horse-power" by +which engines are sometimes rated is an arbitrary and obsolescent term +of indefinite significance. An ordinary formula for obtaining it is +(1/15.6)D^2 [root 3]S for high-pressure engines, and (1/47)D^2 [root 3]S +for condensing engines, where D is the diameter of the piston in inches +and S the length of the stroke in feet, though varying numbers are used +for the divisor. The "indicated horse-power" of a reciprocating engine +is given by ASPN/33,000, where A is the area of the piston in square +inches, S the length of the stroke in feet, P the mean pressure on the +piston in lb. per sq. in., and N the number of effective strokes per +minute, namely, one for each revolution of the crank shaft if the engine +is single-acting, but twice as many if it is double-acting. The mean +pressure P is ascertained from the diagram or "card" given by an +indicator (see STEAM-ENGINE). In turbine engines this method is +inapplicable. A statement of indicated horse-power supplies a measure of +the force acting in the cylinder of an engine, but the power available +for doing external work off the crank-shaft is less than this by the +amount absorbed in driving the engine itself. The useful residue, known +as the "actual," "effective" or "brake" horse-power, can be directly +measured by a dynamometer (q.v.); it amounts to about 80% of the +indicated horse-power for good condensing engines and about 85% for +non-condensing engines, or perhaps a little more when the engines are of +the largest sizes. When turbines, as often happens in land practice, are +directly coupled to electrical generators, their horse-power can be +deduced from the electrical output. When they are used for the +propulsion of ships recourse is had to "torsion meters" which measure +the amount of twist undergone by the propeller shafts while transmitting +power. Two points are selected on the surface of the shaft at different +positions along it, and the relative displacement which occurs between +them round the shaft when power is being transmitted is determined +either by electrical means, as in the Denny-Johnson torsion-meter, or +optically, as in the Hopkinson-Thring and Bevis-Gibson instruments. The +twist or surface-shear being proportional to the torque, the horse-power +can be calculated if the modulus of rigidity of the steel employed is +known or if the amount of twist corresponding to a given power has +previously been ascertained by direct experiment on the shaft before it +has been put in place. + + + + +HORSE-RACING. Probably the earliest instance of the use of horses in +racing recorded in literature occurs in _Il._ xxiii. 212-650, where the +various incidents of the chariot-race at the funeral games held in +honour of Patroclus are detailed with much vividness. According to the +ancient authorities the four-horse chariot-race was introduced into the +Olympic games as early as the 23rd Olympiad; to this the race with +mounted horses was added in the 33rd; while other variations (such as +two-horse chariot-races, mule races, loose-horse races, special races +for under-aged horses) were admitted at a still later period. Of the +training and management of the Olympic race-horse we are left in +ignorance; but it is known that the equestrian candidates were required +to enter their names and send their horses to Elis at least thirty days +before the celebration of the games commenced, and that the charioteers +and riders, whether owners or proxies, went through a prescribed course +of exercise during the intervening month. At all the other national +games of Greece (Pythian, Isthmian, Nemean), as well as at many of the +local festivals (the Athenian Olympia and Panathenaea), similar contests +had a prominent place. Some indication of the extent to which the +passion for horse-racing was indulged in at Athens, for example, about +the time of Aristophanes may be obtained from the scene with which _The +Clouds_ opens; while it is a significant fact that the Boeotians termed +one of the months of their year, corresponding to the Athenian +Hecatombaeon, Hippodromius ("Horse-race month"; see Plutarch, _Cam._ +15). For the chariot-races and horse-races of the Greeks and Romans, see +CIRCUS and GAMES. + + +GREAT BRITAIN + +There is no direct historical evidence to show that the ancient Britons +addicted themselves to any form of this amusement; but there are +indications that among some at least of the Germanic tribes, from a very +early period, horse-racing was an accompaniment of their religious +cultus. There can be no doubt that the Romans encouraged the pursuit in +Britain, if they did not introduce it; traces of race-courses belonging +to the period of their occupation have been frequently discovered. The +influence of the Christian Church was everywhere at first strongly +against the practice. The opinion of Augustine and other fathers of the +church with regard to attendance at the spectacles, whether of theatre +or of circus, is well known; those who performed in them were rigidly +excluded from church fellowship, and sometimes even those who merely +frequented them. Thus the first council of Arles, in its fourth canon, +declared that those members of the church who drove chariots at the +public games should, so long as they continued in that employment, be +denied communion. (Compare the rule in the _Ap. Const._ viii. 32; ap. +Bingham. _Ant. Chr. Church_, xvi. 4, 10.) In many cases, however, the +weight of ecclesiastical authority proved insufficient to cope with the +force of old custom, or with the fascination of a sport the unchristian +character of which was not very easily demonstrable; and ultimately in +Germany and elsewhere the old local races appear to have been admitted +to a recognized place among the ceremonies peculiar to certain Christian +festivals. + +The first distinct indication which contemporary history affords of +horse-racing as a sport occurs in the _Description of the City of +London_ of William Fitzstephen (c. 1174). He says that in a certain +"plane field without one of the gates (quidam planus campus re et +nomine--_Smithfield_, quasi Smoothfield) every Friday, unless it be one +of the more solemn festivals, is a noted show of well-bred (_nobilium_) +horses exposed for sale. The earls, barons and knights who are resident +in the city, as well as a multitude of citizens, flock thither either to +look on or buy." After describing the different varieties of horses +brought into the market, especially the more valuable chargers +(_dextrarios preciosos_), he says: "When a race is to be run by such +horses as these, and perhaps by others which, in like manner, according +to their breed are strong for carriage and vigorous for the course, the +people raise a shout and order the common horses to be withdrawn to +another part of the field. The jockeys, who are boys expert in the +management of horses, which they regulate by means of curb bridles, +sometimes by threes and sometimes by twos, as the match is made, prepare +themselves for the contest. Their chief aim is to prevent a competitor +from getting before them. The horses too, after their manner, are eager +for the race: their limbs tremble, and impatient of delay they cannot +stand still; upon the signal being given they stretch out their limbs, +hurry on the course, and are borne along with unremitting speed. The +riders, inspired with the love of praise and the hope of victory, clap +spurs to their flying horses, lashing them with whips, and inciting them +by their shouts" (see Stow's Translation). + +In the reign of Richard I. knights rode at Whitsuntide on steeds and +palfreys over a three-mile course for "forty pounds of ready gold," +according to the old romance of Sir Bevys of Hampton. The feats of the +tilt-yard, however, seem to have surpassed horse-racing in popular +estimation at the period of the crusades. That the sport was to some +extent indulged in by King John is quite possible, as running horses are +frequently mentioned in the register of royal expenditure; and we know +that Edward III. had a number of running horses, but it is probable they +were chiefly used for field sports. + +An evidence of the growing favour in which horse-racing was held as a +popular amusement is furnished by the fact that public races were +established at Chester in 1512. Randle Holme of that city tells us that +towards the latter part of Henry VIII.'s reign, on Shrove Tuesday, the +company of saddlers of Chester presented to "the drapers a wooden ball +embellished with flowers, and placed upon the point of a lance. This +ceremony was performed in the presence of the mayor at the cross of the +Roody or Roodee, an open place near the city; but this year (1540) the +ball was changed into a silver bell, valued at three shillings and +sixpence or more, to be given to him who shall run best and furthest on +horseback before them on the same day, Shrove Tuesday; these bells were +denominated St George's bells." In the reign of Elizabeth there is +evidence from the poems of Bishop Hall (1597) that racing was in vogue, +though apparently not patronized by the queen, or it would no doubt have +formed part of the pastimes at Kenilworth; indeed, it seems then to have +gone much out of fashion. + +The accession of the Stuarts opened up an era of prosperity for the +sport, for James I., who, according to Youatt, had encouraged if not +established horse-racing in Scotland, greatly patronized it in England +when he came to the throne. Not only did he run races at Croydon and +Enfield, but he endeavoured to improve the breed of horses by the +purchase for a high figure of the Arab stallion known as Markham's +Arabian, which little horse, however, was beaten in every race he ran. + +In 1607, according to Camden's _Britannia_, races were run near York, +the prize being a little golden bell. Camden also mentions as the prize +for running horses in Gatherley Forest a little golden ball, which was +apparently anterior to the bell. In 1609 Mr Robert Ambrye, sometime +sheriff of the city of Chester, caused three silver bells to be made of +good value, which bells he appointed to be run for with horses on St +George's day upon the Roodee, the first horse to have the best bell and +the money put in by the horses that ran--in other words, a +sweepstake--the bells to be returned that day twelvemonth as challenge +cups are now; towards the expenses he had an allowance from the city. In +1613 subscription purses are first mentioned. Nicholls, in his _Progress +of James I._, makes mention of racing in the years 1617 and 1619. +Challenge bells appear to have continued to be the prizes at Chester, +according to Randle Holme the younger, and Ormerod's _History of +Chester_, until 1623 or 1624, when Mr John Brereton, mayor of Chester, +altered the course and caused the horses to run five times round the +Roodee, the bell to be of good value, £8 or £10, and to be a free bell +to be held for ever--in other words, a presentation and not a challenge +prize. + +During James's reign public race meetings were established at Gatherley +or Garterley, near Richmond in Yorkshire, at Croydon in Surrey, and at +Enfield Chase, the last two being patronized by the king, who not only +had races at Epsom during his residence at Nonsuch, but also built a +house at Newmarket for the purpose of enjoying hunting, and no doubt +racing too, as we find a note of there having been horse-races at this +place as early as 1605. Races are also recorded as having taken place at +Linton near Cambridge, but they were probably merely casual meetings. +The prizes were for the most part silver or gold bells, whence the +phrase "bearing away the bell." The turf indeed appears to have +attracted a great deal of notice, and the systematic preparation of +running horses was studied, attention being paid to their feeding and +training, to the instruction of jockeys--although private matches +between gentlemen who rode their own horses were very common,--and to +the adjustment of weights, which were usually about 10 stone. The sport +also seems to have taken firm hold of the people, and to have become +very popular. + +The reign of Charles I., which commenced in 1625, saw still more marked +strides made, for the king not only patronized the racing at Newmarket, +which we know was current In 1640, but thoroughly established it there, +and built a stand house in 1667, since which year the races have been +annual. Mention is likewise made in the comedy of the _Merry Beggars_, +played in 1641, of races, both horse and foot, in Hyde Park, which were +patronized by Charles I., who gave a silver cup, value 100 guineas, to +be run for instead of bells. Butcher, in his survey of the town of +Stamford (1646), also says that a race was annually run in that town for +a silver and gilt cup and cover, of the value of £7 or £8, provided by +the care of the aldermen for the time being out of the interest of a +stock formerly made by the nobility and gentry of the neighbourhood. + +In 1648 Clarendon tells us that a meeting of Royalists was held at +Banstead Downs, as Epsom Downs were then called, "under the pretence of +a horse-race," so that horse-racing at Epsom was not unknown early in +the 17th century; Pepys, too, in his _Diary_ of 1663, mentions his +having intended to go to Banstead Downs to see a famous horse-race. +Cromwell is said to have kept running horses in the year 1653, but in +1654 he appears to have gone so far as to forbid racing for six and +eight months respectively. After the Reformation in 1660, a new impetus +was given to horse-racing, which had languished during the civil wars, +and the races at Newmarket, which had been suspended, were restored and +attended by the king; and as an additional spur to emulation, according +to Youatt, royal plates were given at each of the principal courses, and +royal mares, as they were called, were imported from abroad. Charles II. +rebuilt the house originally erected at Newmarket by James I., which had +fallen into decay. The Round course was made in 1666, and racing at the +headquarters of the turf was regulated in the most systematic way, as to +the course, weights and other conditions. Charles II. was the first +monarch who entered and ran horses in his own name; and, besides being a +frequent visitor at the races on Newmarket Heath, and on Burford Downs, +near Stockbridge, where the Bibury Club meeting was held, he established +races at Datchet. In the reign of James II. nothing specially noteworthy +occurred, but William III. continued former crown donations and even +added to them. + +Anne was much devoted to horse-racing, and not only gave royal plates to +be competed for, but ran horses for them in her own name. In 1703 +Doncaster races were established, when 4 guineas a year were voted by +the corporation towards a plate, and in 1716 the Town Plate was +established by the same authority to be run on Doncaster Moor. Nearly a +century, however, elapsed before the St Leger was instituted. Matches at +Newmarket had become common, for we find that Basto, one of the earliest +race-horses of whom we have any authentic account, won several matches +there in 1708 and 1709. In the latter year, according to Camden, York +races were established, the course at first being on Clifton Ings, but +it was subsequently removed to Knavesmire, on which the races are now +run. In 1710 the first gold cup said to have been given by the queen, of +60 guineas value, was run for by six-year-old horses carrying 12 stone +each, the best of three 4-mile heats, and was won by Bay Bolton. In 1711 +it was increased to 100 guineas. In 1712 Queen Anne's gelding Pepper ran +for the Royal Cup of £100 at York, and her Mustard, a nutmeg-grey horse, +ran for the same prize in 1713. Again in 1714 her Majesty's bay horse +Star won a sweepstake of 10 guineas added to a plate of £40 at the same +place, in four heats, carrying 11 stone. In 1716 the Ladies' Plate at +York for five-year-olds was won by Aleppo, son of the Darley Arabian. +Racing and match-making continued to be a regular sport at Newmarket, +and at York and Hambleton, and we also find a record of a race at +Lincoln in August 1717 for a silver tea-board, won by Brocklesby Betty, +as was the Queen's Plate at Black Hambleton in the year before. + +Between 1714 and 1720 there were races at Pontefract in Yorkshire for +plates or money. The best of two out of three heats was to be the +winner, provided the said horse was not distanced in the third heat--the +distance post being 1 furlong from the winning post; and this appears to +have been a usual condition. In or about the year 1721 Flying Childers +is said to have run a trial against Almanzor and Brown Betty over the +Round course at Newmarket (3 m. 4 f. 93 y.) in 6 m. 40 s., and another +trial over the Beacon course (4 m. 1 f. 138 y.) in 7 m. 30 s.--which is +fast even for a six-year old; but it is just possible that in those days +the art of time-taking was anything but perfect. In 1721 George I. gave +100 guineas in specie in lieu of the gold cup at York presented by Anne, +and the king's or queen's plates have been given in cash ever since. In +1725 a ladies' plate was run for on the 14th of September by female +riders on Ripon Heath in Yorkshire. In 1727 Mr John Cheney established +the _Racing Calendar_--an historical list of all the horse matches run, +and of all plates and prizes run for in England and Wales of the value +of £10 or upwards in 1727, &c. No systematic records had till then been +preserved of the running of the race-horses of the day, and it is only +through the performances of certain celebrated horses and mares that we +have any information of what actually took place, and even that is more +or less of a fragmentary kind. At this time racing was thoroughly +established as a national and popular sport, for there were upwards of a +hundred meetings in England and Wales; but the plates or sweepstakes run +for were for the most part of small value, as £10, £20, £30, £40, and +sometimes £50. In 1727, according to Whyte, there were only a dozen +royal plates run for in England: one at Newmarket in April for +six-year-old horses at 12 stone each, in heats over the Round +course--first called the King's Plate course; one for five-year-old +mares at 10 stone each, in one heat, and another in October for +six-year-old horses at 12 stone, in heats over the same course; one at +York (which commenced in 1711) for six-year-old horses, 12 stone each, +4-m. heats; one at Black Hambleton, Yorkshire (of which no regular +account was kept until 1715), for five-year-old mares, 10 stone, 4 m.; +one at each of the following places, Nottingham, Lincoln, Guildford, +Winchester, Salisbury and Lewes, for six-year-old horses, 12 stone each, +4-m. heats; and one at Ipswich for five-year-old horses, 10 stone each. +A royal plate was also run for at Edinburgh in 1728 or 1729, and one at +the Curragh of Kildare in 1741. + +In 1739 an act was passed to prevent racing by ponies and weak horses, +13 Geo. II. cap. 10, which also prohibited prizes or plates of less +value than £50. At this period the best horses seldom ran more than five +or six times, and some not so often, there being scarcely any plates of +note except royal ones, and very few sweepstakes or matches of value +except at Newmarket until after 1750; moreover, as the races were run in +heats, best three out of four, over a course of several miles in length, +the task set the horses before winning a plate was very severe, and by +no means commensurate with the value of the prize. In 1751 the great +subscription races commenced at York, the city also giving £50 added +money to each day's racing. At Newmarket there were only two meetings, +one in April and the other in October, but in 1753 a second spring +meeting was established, and in that year the Jockey Club, which was +founded in 1750, established the present racing ground. In 1762 a second +October meeting was added, in 1765 the July meeting, in 1770 the +Houghton meeting, and in 1771 the Craven meeting. In 1766 Tattersall's +was established at Hyde Park Corner by Richard Tattersall for the sale +of horses; it remained the great emporium of horses, and the rendezvous +for betting on horse races, until 1865, when, the lease of the premises +at the Corner having run out, it was removed to Knightsbridge. + +We now come to a very important period--that at which the great +three-year-old races were instituted. + + + The St Leger. + +The St Leger was established in 1776 by Colonel St Leger, who resided at +Parkhill, near Doncaster. On the 24th of September, during the Doncaster +races, which took place annually in the autumn, at his suggestion a +sweepstake of 25 guineas each for three-year-old colts and fillies was +run over a 2-m. course; there were six competitors, the property of as +many subscribers,--a very small beginning, it must be owned. The race +was won by a filly by Sampson, belonging to Lord Rockingham, which was +afterwards named Allabaculia. In the following year the same stake had +twelve subscribers and ten starters, and was won by Mr Sotheron's +Bourbon. It was not, however, until the succeeding year, 1778, that it +was named the St Leger, in compliment to the founder, at the suggestion +of the marquis of Rockingham. The stakes were increased in 1832 to 50 +sovs. each, and the weights have been raised from time to time to keep +pace with modern requirements. The Doncaster Cup, a weight for age race +for three-year-olds and upwards, was established in 1801. The course is +nearly flat, of an oval or kite shape, about 1¾ m. round the town-moor. + + + The Derby and Oaks. + +The Epsom Derby and Oaks were established in 1779 and 1780, the Oaks in +the former and the Derby in the latter year. It is true that in 1730 +Epsom races became annual, but the prizes were nothing more than the +usual plates run for in heats, the money required being raised by +voluntary subscriptions, as well by the owners of booths on the downs as +by the parties more immediately interested, whence arose the custom of +charges being made by the lord of the manor for permission to erect +booths, &c. during the race-meetings. On the 14th of May 1779 the +twelfth earl of Derby originated the Oaks stakes (named after his seat +or hunting-box "The Oaks" at Woodmansterne), a sweepstake for +three-year-old fillies run on a course 1½ m. long. The race was won by +Lord Derby's bay filly Bridget, bred by himself--her sire being Herod +and her dam Jemima. In the following year the earl established a +sweepstake of 50 sovs. each, half forfeit, for three-year-old colts. +This, the first Derby, was won by Sir C. Bunbury's chestnut colt Diomed +by Florizel, son of Herod, who beat eight opponents, including the duke +of Bolton's Bay Bolton and Lord Grosvenor's Diadem. These two races have +since been run for regularly every year, the Derby, which before 1839 +was run on the Thursday, now taking place on the Wednesday, and the Oaks +on the Friday, in the same week at the end of May. + + + Ascot Races. + +Ascot races, which are held on Ascot Heath, were established by the duke +of Cumberland, uncle of George III., and are patronized by royalty in +state or semi-state. They are mentioned in the first _Racing Calendar_, +published in 1727, but the races were for the most part plates and other +prizes of small importance, though a royal plate for hunters appears to +have been given in 1785. The Gold Cup was first given in 1807, and has +been regularly competed for ever since, though from 1845 to 1853 +inclusive it went by the designation of the Emperor's Plate, the prize +being offered by the emperor of Russia. In 1854, during the Crimean War, +the cup was again called the Ascot Gold Cup, and was given from the race +fund. The Queen's Vase was first given in 1838, and the Royal Hunt Cup +in 1843, while in 1865 a new long-distance race for four-year-olds and +upwards was established, and named the Alexandra Plate, after the +Princess of Wales. + + + Goodwood. + +Goodwood races were established by the duke of Richmond on the downs at +the northern edge of Goodwood Park in 1802, upon the earl of Egremont +discontinuing races in his park at Petworth. The races take place at the +end of July, on the close of the London season. The Goodwood Cup, the +chief prize of the meeting, was first given in 1812; but from 1815 to +1824 inclusive there was no race for it, with the single exception of +1816. + + + Two Thousand, &c. + +During the latter half of the 18th century horse-racing declined very +much in England, and numbers of meetings were discontinued, the wars +which took place necessarily causing the change. From the beginning of +the 19th century, and especially after the conclusion of the French war +in 1815, racing rapidly revived, and many new meetings were either +founded or renewed after a period of suspension, and new races were from +time to time established. Among others the Two Thousand Guineas at +Newmarket for three-year-old colts and fillies, and the One Thousand +Guineas for fillies, were established in 1809 and 1814 respectively, the +Goodwood Stakes in 1823, the Chester Cup and Brighton Stakes in 1824, +the Liverpool Summer Cup in 1828, the Northumberland Plate in 1833, the +Manchester Cup in 1834, the Ascot Stakes and the Cesarewitch and +Cambridgeshire Handicaps at Newmarket in 1839, the Stewards' and +Chesterfield Cups at Goodwood in 1840, the Great Ebor Handicap at York +in 1843, and, to omit others, the City and Suburban Handicap at Epsom in +1851, and the Lincoln Handicap in 1853. + +Two-year-old racing was established very shortly after the great +three-year-old races, and on a similar footing, that is to say, the +competitors carried the same weights, with the exception of a slight +allowance for sex,--the July Stakes at the Newmarket Midsummer Meeting +having been founded as early as 1786. The Woodcote Stakes at Epsom +succeeded in 1807, the Champagne Stakes at Doncaster in 1823, the +Criterion Stakes at the Houghton Meeting in 1829, the Chesterfield +Stakes at the Newmarket July meeting in 1834, the New Stakes at Ascot in +1843, the Middle Park Plate (or two-year-old Derby, as it is sometimes +called) at the Newmarket Second October Meeting in 1866, the Dewhurst +Plate at the Houghton Meeting in 1875, and the Richmond Stakes at +Goodwood in 1877. (E. D. B.) + + + Classic Races in England. + +_Present Conditions._--Horse-racing, usually described as "the national +sport," has greatly advanced in general popularity in the British Isles. +There is no doubt that the best specimens of the English thoroughbred +horse are the finest animals of their kind in existence; the value of an +infusion of the blood for chargers, hunters, hacks, and other varieties +is scarcely to be overestimated; and the only way of ascertaining what +animals may be most judiciously employed for breeding purposes is to +submit them to the tests of preparation for and performance on the turf. +Racing is therefore a practical necessity. On some accepted authority, +the origin of which is not to be traced, five races run each season by +three-year-olds are distinguished as "classic." Of these the chief, by +universal consent, is the Derby, which takes place at Epsom during the +week which includes the 31st May. The Epsom course, on which the Derby +has been run since its origin in 1780, is by no means a good one, in +consequence of the abrupt turn at Tattenham Corner; and the severe +descent after this turn is made is also held to be a disadvantage, +though a really good horse should be able to act on ascents, descents +and level ground with equal relative facility. In many respects the St +Leger, run at Doncaster about the middle of September, is a better test, +as here colts and fillies meet when both are presumably able to do +themselves the fullest justice. September, indeed, has been called "the +Mares' Month," for though fillies are eligible to run in the Derby, they +are very frequently out of sorts and always more or less uncertain in +their performances during the summer--only four have been successful in +129 contests for the stake--whereas in the autumn their numerous +victories in the St Leger prove them to be at their best. It was the +recognition of this fact which induced an alteration of the weights in +the year 1882, previously to which fillies had carried 5 lb. less than +colts; the weights, formerly 8 st. 10 lb. and 8 st. 5 lb., are now 9 st. +and 8 st. 11 lb. The Doncaster course is superior for racing purposes to +that at Epsom, where the Oaks, another of the "classic races," is run on +the Friday following the Derby; the other two contests which come into +this category being the Two Thousand Guineas for colts and fillies, and +the One Thousand Guineas for fillies only. These races take place at +Newmarket during the First Spring Meeting, the former always on a +Wednesday, the latter on Friday. The expression "a Derby horse" is +common, but has no precise significance, as the three-year-olds vary +much in capacity from year to year. It is generally understood, for +instance, that Ormonde, who won the Derby in 1886, must have been at +least 21 lb. superior to Sir Visto or Jeddah, who were successful in +1895 and 1898. By their ability to carry weight the value of horses is +estimated on the turf. Thus one horse who beats another by a length over +a distance of a mile would be described as a 5-lb. better animal. + + + Handicap Horses. + +The term "handicap horse" once had an adverse significance which it does +not now possess. In handicaps horses carry weight according to their +presumed capacity, as calculated by handicappers who are licensed by the +Jockey Club and employed by the directors of different meetings. The +idea of a handicap is to afford chances of success to animals who would +have no prospect of winning if they met their rivals on equal terms; but +of late years the value of handicaps has been so greatly increased that +few owners resist the temptation of taking part in them. Horses nowadays +who do not run in this kind of contest are very rare, though a few, such +as Ormonde, Isinglass, and Persimmon, never condescended to this class +of sport. The duke of Westminster did not hesitate to put his Derby +winner Bend Or into some of the chief handicaps; and it is, of course, a +great test of merit when horses carrying heavy weights show marked +superiority in these contests to rivals of good reputation more lightly +burdened. St Gatien, who dead-heated with Harvester in the Derby of +1884; Robert the Devil, who won the St Leger in 1880 and on several +occasions beat the Derby winner Bend Or; and La Flèche, who won the Oaks +and the St Leger in 1892, added to the esteem in which they were held by +their successes under heavy weights, the colts in the Cesarewitch, the +filly in the Cambridgeshire. Of the chief handicaps of the year, special +mention may be made of the City and Suburban, run at the Epsom Spring +Meeting over 1¼ m.; the Kempton Park Jubilee, over 1 m.; the Ascot +Stakes, 2 m., and the Royal Hunt Cup, 1 m.; the Stewards' Cup at +Goodwood, six furlongs; the Cesarewitch Stakes and the Cambridgeshire +Stakes at Newmarket, the former 2¼ m., the latter now a mile and a +furlong--till lately it was "a mile and a distance"--"a distance" on the +Turf being a fixed limit of 240 yds. The cups at Manchester, Newbury, +and Liverpool are also handicaps of some note, though it may be remarked +that the expression "a cup horse" is understood to imply an animal +capable of distinguishing himself over a long distance at even weights +against the best opponents. There are many other valuable stakes of +almost equal importance, diminishing to what are known as "selling +handicaps," the winners of which are always put up for sale by auction +immediately after the race, in the lowest class of them the condition +being that the winner is to be offered for £50. No stake of less than +£100 can be run for under Jockey Club rules, which govern all reputable +flat racing in England, nor is any horse ever entered to be sold for +less than £50. As horses mature they are naturally able to carry heavier +weights. + + _Scale of Weight for Age._ + + The following scale of weight for age is published under the sanction + of the Stewards of the Jockey Club as a guide to managers of race + meetings, but is not intended to be imperative, especially as regards + the weights of two-and three-year olds relatively to the old horses in + selling races early in the year. It is founded on the scale published + by Admiral Rous, and revised by him in 1873, but has been modified in + accordance with suggestions from the principal trainers and practical + authorities. + + +-----------------+--------+--------+--------+--------+--------+--------+--------+ + | Age. |Mar. and| May. | June. | July. | Aug. | Sept. |Oct. and| + | | April. | | | | | | Nov. | + +-----------------+--------+--------+--------+--------+--------+--------+--------+ + |_Five Furlongs_--|st. lb.|st. lb.|st. lb.|st. lb.|st. lb.|st. lb.|st. lb.| + | Two years | 6 0 | 6 2 | 6 7 | 6 9 | 7 0 | 7 4 | 7 7 | + | Three years | 8 2 | 8 3 | 8 5 | 8 7 | 8 9 | 8 10 | 8 11 | + | Four years | 9 0 | 9 0 | 9 0 | 9 0 | 9 0 | 9 0 | 9 0 | + | Five, six and | | | | | | | | + | aged | 9 1 | 9 0 | 9 0 | 9 0 | 9 0 | 9 0 | 9 0 | + |_Six Furlongs_-- | | | | | | | | + | Two years | 6 0 | 6 4 | 6 7 | 6 11 | 7 0 | 7 5 | 7 7 | + | Three years | 8 4 | 8 6 | 8 8 | 8 10 | 8 12 | 9 0 | 9 2 | + | Four years | 9 7 | 9 7 | 9 7 | 9 7 | 9 7 | 9 7 | 9 7 | + | Five, six and | | | | | | | | + | aged | 9 9 | 9 8 | 9 7 | 9 7 | 9 7 | 9 7 | 9 7 | + |_One Mile_-- | | | | | | | | + | Two years | .. | .. | .. | .. | .. | 6 5 | 6 7 | + | Three years | 7 9 | 7 11 | 7 13 | 8 2 | 8 4 | 8 5 | 8 6 | + | Four years | 9 0 | 9 0 | 9 0 | 9 0 | 9 0 | 9 0 | 9 0 | + | Five, six and | | | | | | | | + | aged | 9 4 | 9 3 | 9 2 | 9 0 | 9 0 | 9 0 | 9 0 | + |_One Mile and a | | | | | | | | + | Half_-- | | | | | | | | + | Two years | .. | .. | .. | .. | .. | 6 0 | 6 4 | + | Three years | 7 7 | 7 9 | 7 11 | 7 13 | 8 1 | 8 3 | 8 5 | + | Four years | 9 0 | 9 0 | 9 0 | 9 0 | 9 0 | 9 0 | 9 0 | + | Five, six and | | | | | | | | + | aged | 9 5 | 9 4 | 9 3 | 9 2 | 9 1 | 9 0 | 9 0 | + |_Two Miles_-- | | | | | | | | + | Two years | .. | .. | .. | .. | .. | 6 0 | 6 2 | + | Three years | 7 8 | 7 11 | 7 12 | 8 0 | 8 3 | 8 4 | 8 5 | + | Four years | 9 4 | 9 4 | 9 4 | 9 4 | 9 4 | 9 4 | 9 4 | + | Five, six and | | | | | | | | + | aged | 9 10 | 9 9 | 9 8 | 9 7 | 9 6 | 9 5 | 9 4 | + |_Three Miles_-- | | | | | | | | + | Three years | 7 1 | 7 4 | 7 5 | 7 7 | 7 9 | 7 11 | 7 13 | + | Four years | 9 0 | 9 0 | 9 0 | 9 0 | 9 0 | 9 0 | 9 0 | + | Five years | 9 8 | 9 7 | 9 6 | 9 5 | 9 5 | 9 4 | 9 3 | + | Six and aged | 9 10 | 9 8 | 9 7 | 9 6 | 9 5 | 9 4 | 9 3 | + +-----------------+--------+--------+--------+--------+--------+--------+--------+ + + + £10,000 Races. + +In the year 1884 the managers of Sandown Park formulated the scheme of a +race for a prize of £10,000, to be called the Eclipse Stakes, and to be +run over a distance of 1¼ m. In order to secure a large entry, horses +were to be nominated soon after their birth; owners who perceived the +hopelessness of their nominations could withdraw at stated intervals by +the payment of increasing forfeits; if their animals finally went to the +post a stake amounting in all to £115 would have to be paid for them; +and thus it will be seen that owners were really running for their own +money, though if there were an insufficient number of entries the funds +of the club might be taxed to supply the deficiency. The scheme was +found to be attractive, and the example was followed at Leicester and at +Manchester, at both of which places, however, it lapsed. At Newmarket, +under the immediate auspices of the Jockey Club, the £10,000 races +succeeded, and there were two of them each year. The Princess of Wales's +Stakes was run for the first time in 1894 at the First July Meeting, and +the Jockey Club Stakes at the First October. The former has, however, +now been reduced to £2000 added to a sweepstake of £30 each with a minor +forfeit. In the year 1900 a fourth race of similar character, the +Century Stakes, was originated at Sandown, but the experiment proved a +failure, and the contest was discontinued. + + + Two-year-old Races. + +The age of the thoroughbred horse is always dated from the 1st January. +Foals are generally born in February, March or April, though not a few +good horses have been born in May; they become yearlings, therefore, on +the 1st January following, two-year-olds twelve months later, and many +of them begin to race in the following March, for flat racing always +starts during the week which contains the 25th, except when Easter falls +unusually early. In France no two-year-olds run until the 1st August, +and discussion is frequently raised as to the respective wisdom of the +English and French systems. It happens, however, that some young horses +"come to hand" soon, and deteriorate with equal rapidity. They are, in +fact, able to win races at the beginning of the season, and fail to hold +their own later in the year against bigger and more powerful animals of +their own age who have taken longer to mature; so that there is some +argument in favour of the earlier date. The first noteworthy +two-year-old race is the Brocklesby Stakes, run at Lincoln during the +first week of the season. Sometimes the winner of the Brocklesby is +really a good animal, as was the case with The Bard in 1885 and Donovan +in 1888, but as a general rule when the autumn comes he is found to be +far inferior to the winners of subsequent two-year-old races of good +class. It is seldom that a first-class two-year-old appears before the +Ascot Meeting about the middle of June, though horses of character +sometimes run for the Woodcote Stakes at Epsom and in other contests +elsewhere. The names of many of the most famous horses on the turf are +found in the list of winners of the New Stakes at Ascot, which was first +run in 1843 and maintains its character. In 1890 the Coventry Stakes was +originated, and is regarded as a race of practically equal importance. +The July Stakes at Newmarket is the oldest of existing two-year-old +races, having been first run in 1786. The list of winners is a brilliant +one. The Chesterfield Stakes ranks with it. The best two-year-olds are +usually seen out at Goodwood, and as a general rule those that have +chiefly distinguished themselves during the year, and are to make names +for themselves later in life, are found contesting the Middle Park Plate +at the Newmarket Second October Meeting and the Dewhurst Plate at the +Newmarket Houghton. The Middle Park Plate is generally worth over £2000, +the other races named are between £1000 and £2000 in value; but these +are not the richest two-year-old prizes of the year, the value of the +National Breeders' Produce Stakes at Sandown, run on the day following +the Eclipse, being between £4000 and £5000, and the Imperial Stakes at +Kempton Park falling not very far short of £3000. As a rule, a colt who +has been specially successful as a two-year-old maintains his capacity +later in life, unless it be found that he cannot "stay"--that is to say, +is unable to maintain his best speed over more than five or six +furlongs; but it is frequently the case that fillies who have won good +races as two-year-olds entirely lose their form and meet with little or +no success afterwards. + + + Newmarket. + + Ascot and other meetings. + +Newmarket is called with reason "the headquarters of the Turf." There +are about forty training establishments in the town, each trainer being +in charge of an average of thirty to forty horses, irrespective of +mares, foals and yearlings. During the year eight race meetings are held +on the Heath: the Craven; the First and Second Spring; the First and +Second October--the First October usually occurring at the end of +September; and the Houghton. These are contested on "the Flat," the +course which includes the Rowley Mile. It is said that the Rowley Mile +is so called from the fact of its having been a favourite race-ground +with Charles II. The First and Second July Meetings take place on +another course, known as "Behind the Ditch," the Ditch being the huge +embankment which runs through several counties and has existed from time +immemorial. The Craven Stakes for three-year-olds is an event of some +importance at the first meeting of the year. It used to finish on an +ascent at what is called the "Top of the Town," a course over which the +handicap for the Cambridgeshire was run. This course has now been +abandoned and the stand pulled down. At the First Spring Meeting the Two +Thousand Guineas and the One Thousand Guineas occur, as already stated, +but the names do not represent the values of the stakes, which are, in +fact, usually worth close on £5000 each. The July Stakes and the +Princess of Wales' Stakes are run at the First July Meeting. The Jockey +Club Stakes is the leading event of the First October; the Cesarewitch +and the Middle Park Plates follow in the Second October; the Criterion +Stakes, another of the few races that once finished at the "Top of the +Town," the Cambridgeshire and the Dewhurst Plate take place at the +Houghton Meeting. The majority of races finish at the Rowley Mile post; +but there are three other winning-posts along the Rowley Mile. "Behind +the Ditch" races finish at two different posts, one of which enables +horses to avoid the necessity of galloping up the severe ascent of the +"Bunbury Mile." Although, as a rule, there is no better racing to be +seen than the best events at Newmarket, the programmes are often spun +out by selling plates and paltry handicaps, and a high level is nowhere +so consistently maintained as at Ascot. The Ascot meeting is +distinguished by the entire absence of selling plates, and much more +"added money" is given than on any other course. Added money is the sum +supplied by the directors of a race meeting, derived by them from the +amounts paid for entrances to stands and enclosures; for in many +races--the Ten Thousand prizes, for instance--owners run mainly or +entirely for money which they have themselves provided. The Ascot Cup is +generally spoken of as a race success in which sets the seal to the fame +of a good horse. It is a prize of the highest distinction, and of late +years has been of considerable value, the winner in 1909 having gained +for his owner £3430. That the number of runners for this race should be +invariably small--the average for many years past has been about six--is +not a matter of surprise to those who are familiar with the Turf. There +are very few horses possessing sufficient speed and staying power to +make it worth the while of their owners to submit them to the +exceedingly severe test of a preparation for this race, which is run +over 2½ m. of ground at a time of year when the turf is almost always +extremely hard everywhere, and harder at Ascot than almost anywhere +else. There is no course on which more good horses have hopelessly +broken down. All the prizes are handsome, and success at Ascot confers +much prestige, for the reason that the majority of horses that run are +good ones; but annually there is a list of victims that never recover +from the effects of galloping on this ground. Goodwood also attracts +horses of high character, though some unimportant races fill out the +programme. Formerly there were many meetings around London, which fell +into disrepute in consequence of the manner in which they were +conducted. These have been replaced by well-managed gatherings in +enclosed parks, and here the value of the prizes is often so high that +the best horses in training are attracted. These meetings include +Sandown, Kempton, Gatwick, Lingfield, Newbury and Hurst Park. Liverpool, +Manchester, Birmingham, Brighton, York and various other towns have race +meetings twice or oftener in the course of each year. At the various +fixtures over half a million of money is annually given in stakes. The +largest sum ever won by a horse was the £57,185 gained by Isinglass in +1892-1895. Donovan follows with £54,935. In all probability these large +totals would have been considerably exceeded had not Flying Fox--who had +won in his first two seasons £40,090--been disqualified by the death of +his owner, the duke of Westminster, as this colt was engaged in the four +£10,000 races of 1900, in which to all appearance he could not have been +beaten, so much was he superior to his contemporaries. The death of an +owner of horses disqualifies the animals he has entered--a necessary +regulation, as otherwise an heir might be burdened with a stable of +horses the possession of which would entail heavy expense and serious +responsibility on a person who perhaps had no knowledge of or taste for +racing. + + + Value of horses. + +The value of an unquestionably good horse is enormous. It has been seen +what handsome prizes are offered for competition, and when withdrawn +from the Turf the horse may secure a large income to his owner at the +stud. A stallion's fee of 600 guineas (as in the case of St Simon) +should mean well over £20,000 a year; and fees of 100 guineas and more +are common. Proved merit on the Turf is considered essential in a sire, +though there have been instances of horses, unsuccessful during their +racing career, who have distinguished themselves at the stud: Wisdom, +sire of the Derby winner Sir Hugo, and several notable examples might be +cited. Mares are much more uncertain in this respect. On the whole, the +famous mares that have won the Oaks, the St Leger and other leading +races, have been apt to fail in the paddocks; but there is always a hope +of success with them, and the large sum of 12,600 guineas was paid for +La Flèche when she had ceased from active service on the Turf. For +None-the-Wiser 7200 guineas was given; and 4600 guineas for Wedlock when +well advanced in years, on the strength of her having been the dam of a +good horse called Best Man. Well-bred mares that have shown no capacity +for racing are, however, frequently the dams of good winners. Breeding +is a lottery. An Australian enthusiast some years since published a book +the object of which was to enable breeders to produce good horses by a +species of mathematical calculation; but the fallacy of the "Figure +System" was at once proved by the simple circumstance that in very many +cases the own brothers and sisters of good winners, whose breeding +conformed entirely to the system, proved to be utterly worthless for +racing purposes. It is a fact difficult of explanation that the majority +of famous winners have been privately bred by their owners. Many persons +breed for sale, in some cases sparing no expense or trouble in the +endeavour to secure good results, and yearlings sold by auction have +fetched prices of from 10,000 guineas (paid for Sceptre, a daughter of +Persimmon and Ornament, in 1900) downwards; sums of over 1000 guineas +being frequently given. That so large a proportion of high-priced +yearlings should turn out failures is not at all a matter for surprise, +considering the uncertainties of the Turf, but it by no means follows +that a high-priced yearling is necessarily an expensive animal; 5500 +guineas was, for instance, given for La Flèche, who won for her owner +£34,585 in stakes, and, as already observed, was subsequently sold for +12,600 guineas. The principal yearling sales take place during the July +meeting at Newmarket and the Doncaster meeting in September. There are +also sales at Ascot and elsewhere. The Royal Stud at Bushey Park, where +Memoir, La Flèche, Best Man and other good animals were bred, has now +been abandoned. + + + Trainers and jockeys. + +In many cases trainers have graduated from jockeys. The usual charge to +an owner is 50s. a week per horse, but, as regards the cost of a horse +in training, to this there are various additions irrespective of +entrances to races, forfeits, travelling, jockey's fees, &c. The +recognized sum paid to a jockey is 3 guineas for a losing mount, 5 +guineas for winning. In many cases special terms are made; the principal +owners usually have a claim on a rider's services, and for this call as +much as £5000 per annum, exclusive of the usual riding fees, has been +given. + +From time immemorial until within a very recent period jockeys rode in +much the same style, though, of course, with varying degrees of skill. +Many hundreds of boys exercise daily at Newmarket and other training +grounds, all of them necessarily having a firm seat in the saddle, for +the thoroughbred horse is, as a rule, high-couraged and apt to play +violent tricks; but though most of these lads find chances to +distinguish themselves in trials and races for apprentices, probably not +5% grow into professional jockeys, increasing weight keeping many from +the business, as a jockey has few chances unless he can ride well under +9 stone. Knowledge of pace is a rare gift or acquisition which is +essential to successful jockeyship. The rider must also be quick to +perceive how his own horse is going--what he has "left in him"; he must +understand at a glance which of his rivals are beaten and which are +still likely to be dangerous; must know when the moment comes for the +supreme effort to be made, and how to balance and prepare the horse for +that critical struggle. At the beginning of the race the jockey used to +stand in his stirrups, with the idea of removing weight from the horse's +back and preserving perfect steadiness; towards the end of the race, if +it were necessary to drive the animal home, he sat down "to finish." + +This method used to be adopted in all countries, but recently a new +system came into practice in America. Instead of putting the saddle in +the middle of the horse's back, where it had always been placed +previously, it was shifted forward on to the animal's withers. The +jockey rode with very short stirrups, leaning forward over the neck and +grasping the reins within a few inches of the horse's mouth. The +appearance of this was ungainly in the extreme and an entire departure +from ancient ways (though Fordham and a few other riders of great +reputation had always sat much more forward than their contemporaries), +but it was found to be remarkably effective. From the position thus +adopted there was less resistance to the wind, and though the saving in +this respect was largely exaggerated, in racing, where success or +failure is frequently a matter of a very few inches, every little that +helps is to be considered. The value of the discovery lay almost +entirely in the fact that the horse carries weight better--and is +therefore able to stride out more freely--when it is placed well forward +on his shoulders. With characteristic conservatism the English were slow +to accept the new plan. Several American jockeys, however, came to +England. In all the main attributes of horsemanship there was no reason +to believe that they were in the least superior to English jockeys, but +their constant successes required explanation, and the only way to +account for them appeared to be that horses derived a marked advantage +from the new system of saddling. A number of English riders followed the +American lead, and those who did so met with an unusual degree of +success. Race-riding, indeed, was in a very great measure revolutionized +in the closing years of the 19th century. + + + Foreign horses. + +Of late years American horses--bred, it must always be remembered, from +stock imported from England--have won many races in England. Australian +horses have also been sent to the mother country, with results +remunerative to their owners, and the intermixture of blood which will +necessarily result should have beneficial consequences. French +horses--i.e. horses bred in France from immediate or from more or less +remote English parentage--have also on various occasions distinguished +themselves on English race-courses. That coveted trophy, the Ascot Cup, +was won by a French horse, Elf II., in 1898, it having fallen also to +the French-bred Verneuil in 1878, to Boiard in 1874, to Henry in 1872 +and to Mortemer in 1871. In the Cesarewitch Plaisanterie (3 yrs., 7 st. +8 lb.) and Ténébreuse (4 yrs., 8 st. 12 lb.) were successful in 1885 and +1888; and Plaisanterie also carried off the Cambridgeshire as a +three-year-old with the heavy weight of 8 st. 12 lb. in a field of 27 +runners. In most respects racing in France is conducted with +praiseworthy discrimination. There are scarcely any of the five- and +six-furlong scrambles for horses over two years old which are such +common features of English programmes. + + + Time. + +That the horses who have covered various distances in the shortest times +on record must have been exceptionally speedy animals is obvious. The +times of races, however, frequently form a most deceptive basis in any +attempt to gauge the relative capacity of horses. A good animal will +often win a race in bad time, for the reason that his opponents are +unable to make him exert himself to the utmost. Not seldom a race is +described as having been "won in a canter," and this necessarily +signifies that if the winner had been harder pressed he would have +completed the course more quickly. The following figures show the +shortest times that had been occupied in winning over various distances +up to the spring of 1910:-- + + M. S. + / Mirida (2 years), Epsom, 1905 \ + Five furlongs < Le Buff (aged), Epsom, 1903 > 0 56(2/5) + \ Master Willie (aged), Epsom, 1903 / + Six furlongs Master Willie (5 years), Epsom, 1901 1 7(1/5) + Seven furlongs Vav (4 years), Epsom, 1907 1 20(3/5) + Mile Caiman (4 years), Lingfield, 1900 1 33(1/5) + Mile and a quarter Housewife (3 years), Brighton, 1904 2 1(4/5) + Mile and a half Zinfandel (3 years), Manchester, 1903 2 28(4/5) + Mile and three quarters Golden Measure (4 years), York, 1906 2 57(4/5) + Two miles Pradella (aged), Ascot, 1906 3 19(2/5) + Two miles and a half Bachelor's Button, Ascot, 1906 4 23(1/5) + Three miles Corrie Roy, Ascot, 1884 5 9 + + It may be noted that, as compared with similar records in 1901, only + three of these latter held good in 1910, i.e. the mile, the six + furlongs and the three miles. The fastest times over a mile and a half + (the Derby and Oaks distance) up to 1901 may be repeated here as of + some interest: Avidity, 2 min. 30(4/5) secs., in September 1901 at + Doncaster; Santoi, 2 min. 31 secs., in May 1901 at Hurst Park; King's + Courier, 2 min. 31 secs., in 1900 at Hurst Park; Landrail, 2 min. 34 + secs., in September 1899 at Doncaster; Carbiston, 2 min. 37(2/5) + secs., in August 1899 at York; Bend Or, 2 min. 40 secs., in 1881 at + Epsom (gold cup): Volodyovski won the Derby in 1901, and Memoir the + Oaks in 1890, in 2 min. 40(4/5) secs. + +As regards time in famous races, Ormonde, perhaps the best horse of the +19th century--one, at any rate, that can scarcely have had a +superior--occupied 2 minutes 45(3/5) seconds in winning the Derby; and +Lonely, one of the worst mares that have won the Oaks, galloped the same +mile and a half in 2 seconds less. Ormonde's St Leger time was 3 m. +21(2/5) s., and Sir Visto, one of the poorest specimens of a winner of +the great Doncaster race, took 3 m. 18(2/5) s. The regulation of the +weight to be carried serves to "bring the horses together," as the +popular sporting phrase runs--that is to say, it equalizes their chances +of winning; hence handicaps, the carrying of penalties by winners of +previous races, and the granting of "maiden allowances." A horse that +has never won a race, and is therefore known as a "maiden," often has an +allowance of as much as 7 lb. made in its favour. + + + The Jockey Club. + +Sport is carried on under the auspices of the Jockey Club, a +self-elected body of the highest standing, whose powers are absolute and +whose sway is judicious and beneficent. Three stewards, one of whom +retires each year, when a successor is nominated, govern the active--and +extremely arduous--work of the club. They grant licences to trainers and +jockeys and all officials, and supervise the whole business of racing. +The stewards of the Jockey Club are _ex officio_ stewards of Ascot, +Epsom, Goodwood and Doncaster. All other meetings are controlled by +stewards, usually well-known patrons of the Turf invited to act by the +projectors of the fixture, who settle disputed points, hear and +adjudicate on objections, &c., and, if special difficulties arise, +report to the stewards of the Jockey Club, whose decision is final. + + + Steeplechasing. + +Steeplechasing has altered entirely since the first introduction of this +essentially British sport. In early days men were accustomed to match +their hunters against each other and ride across country to a fixed +point near to some steeple which guided them on their way; and this is +no doubt, in several respects, a class of sport superior to that now +practised under the name of steeplechasing; for it tested the capacity +of the horse to jump fences of all descriptions, and provided the rider +with opportunities of showing his readiness and skill in picking the +best line of country. But racing of this kind afforded spectators a very +small chance of watching the struggle; and made-up steeplechase courses, +the whole circuit of which could be viewed from the enclosures, came +into existence. The steeplechase horse has also changed. The speed of +the thoroughbred is so much greater than that of all other breeds that +if one were in the field, if he only stood up and could jump a little, +his success was certain; consequently, except in "point-to-point" races, +organized by various hunts, where a qualification is that all starters +must have been regularly ridden with hounds, few other than thoroughbred +horses are nowadays ever found in races run under the rules of the +National Hunt Committee, the body which governs the sport of +steeplechasing. A considerable proportion of existing steeplechase +horses have done duty on the flat. Members of certain equine families +display a special aptitude for jumping; thus the descendants of Hermit, +who won the Derby in 1867, are very frequently successful in +steeplechases--Hermit's son Ascetic, the sire of Cloister, Hidden +Mystery and other good winners, is a notable case in point. The sons and +daughters of Timothy and of several other Hermit horses often jump well. +When a flat-race horse appears to have comparatively poor prospects of +winning under Jockey Club rules, he is frequently, if he "looks like +jumping," schooled for steeplechasing, generally in the first place over +hurdles, and subsequently over what is technically called "a country," +beginning with small fences, over which he canters, led by some steady +animal who is to be depended on to show the way. A great many +steeplechase horses also come from Ireland. They are usually +recognizable as thoroughbred, though it is possible that in some cases +the name of an ancestor may be missing from the Stud Book. Irish +horse-masters are for the most part particularly skilful in schooling +jumpers, and the grass and climate of Ireland appear to have beneficial +effects on young stock; but, as a rule, the imported Irish horse +improves considerably in an English training-stable, where he is better +fed and groomed than in most Irish establishments. All steeplechase +courses must at the present time contain certain regulation jumps, the +nature of which is specified in the National Hunt rules:-- + + 44. In all steeplechase courses there shall be at least twelve fences + (exclusive of hurdles) in the first 2 m., and at least six fences in + each succeeding m. There shall be a water jump at least 12 ft. wide + and 2 ft. deep, to be left open, or guarded only by a perpendicular + fence not exceeding 2 ft. in height. There shall be in each m. at + least one ditch 6 ft. wide and 3 ft. deep on the taking-off side of + the fence, which ditch may be guarded by a single rail, or left open, + and which fence must be 4 ft. 6 in. in height, and, if of dead + brushwood or gorse, 2 ft. in width. + + 45. In all hurdle-race courses there shall be not less than eight + flights of hurdles in the first 2 m., with an additional flight of + hurdles for every quarter of a m. or part of one beyond that distance, + the height of the hurdles being not less than 3 ft. 6 in. from the + bottom bar to the top bar. + +Natural fences would no doubt be desirable if they could be utilized; +but it is obvious that fences must be made up, because when the same +hedge is jumped frequently, and for the most part in the same place--as +it is the object of riders to go the shortest way round--gaps would +necessarily be made. The use of these made courses naturally renders +the sport somewhat artificial, but under existing conditions this is +unavoidable; and as a matter of fact, by reason of the conformation of +the ground, the arrangement and make of the fences, courses do vary in +no small degree. The steeplechase horse differs from the hunter in his +method of jumping. In riding to hounds a man usually steadies his horse +at a fence, and in almost every case the animal "dwells" more or less +after the leap. In a steeplechase, where speed is everything, horses +must be taught to dash resolutely at their jumps without hesitation, and +to get away with no pause on the other side; as a rule, therefore, an +old steeplechase horse who is employed as a hunter is rarely a pleasant +mount for any but a bold rider. It has been remarked that steeplechase +horses are usually in the first place schooled over hurdles, and many +animals remain hurdle racers till the end. More speed is required for +hurdles than for a steeplechase course, and there is more money to be +won over hurdles than over "a country." No hurdle race is worth so much +as the Grand National or the Lancashire Handicap Steeplechase, the two +richest prizes now offered; but, with the exception of these, +hurdle-race stakes are as a rule of greater value. Except as a +spectacle, there is little to be said in defence of this mongrel +business, which is neither one thing nor the other; but hurdle races are +popular and are therefore likely to continue. A few years ago an attempt +was made to discriminate between what were called "hunters" and handicap +steeplechase horses, and certain races were only open to the former +class. It proved, however, to be a distinction without a difference; +thoroughbred horses crept into the ranks of the so-called hunters, and +when nominal hunters began to be entered for, and in some cases to win, +the Grand National and other important steeplechases, for which they +could be nominated by abandoning their qualification of hunter, the +meaningless title was relinquished. Still more absurd were the hunters' +flat races of a former day. In order to compete in these the rule was +that an owner must produce a certificate from a master of hounds to the +effect that his horse had been hunted. Thoroughbreds who lacked speed to +win under Jockey Club rules used to be ridden to a meet, perhaps +cantered across a field or two, and were then supposed to have become +hunters. Animals who were genuinely and regularly utilized for the +pursuit of foxes had of course no chance against these race-horses in +shallow disguise. What are called National Hunt flat races still exist, +the qualification being that a horse must have been placed first, second +or third in a steeplechase in Great Britain or Ireland, after having +jumped all the fences and completed the whole distance of the race to +the satisfaction of at least two of the stewards, to whom previous +notice must have been given in writing. There are no handicaps for such +animals, and none is allowed to carry less than 11 stone. No race under +National Hunt rules can be of a shorter distance than 2 m., except for +three-year-olds, who sometimes run a mile and a half over hurdles; and +the lowest weight carried can never be less than 10 stone except in a +handicap steeplechase of 3½ m. or upwards, when it may be 9 st. 7 lb. + +Horses are ridden in these races either by gentlemen, or qualified +riders or jockeys. The first of these classes comprises officers on full +pay in the army or navy, persons holding commissions under the Crown, +bearing titles either in their own right or by courtesy, or members of +certain social and racing clubs. Qualified riders may be farmers holding +at least a hundred acres of land, their sons if following the same +occupation, and persons elected by members of the National Hunt +Committee, a proviso being that they must never have ridden for hire; +but it is feared that this rule is in not a few cases evaded. +Professional jockeys are paid £5 for each mount or £10 if they win. The +sport is governed by the National Hunt Committee, a body which receives +delegated powers from the Jockey Club, and six stewards are elected +every year to supervise the business of the various meetings. +Steeplechases and hurdle races are either handicaps or weight-for-age +races according to the following scale:-- + + _For Steeplechases of 3 miles and upwards._ + + From the 1st of January to the 30th of June, both inclusive:-- + 4 yrs. 5 yrs. 6 and aged + 10 st. 3 lb. 11 st. 8 lb. 12 st. 3 lb. + + From the 1st of July to the 31st of December, both inclusive:-- + 4 yrs. 5 yrs. 6 and aged + 11 st. 11 st. 12 lb. 12 st. 3 lb. + + _For Steeplechases of less than 3 miles._ + + From the 1st of January to the 30th of June, both inclusive:-- + 4 yrs. 5 yrs. 6 and aged + 10 st. 10 lb. 11 st. 10 lb. 12 st. 3 lb. + + From the 1st of July to the 31st of December, both inclusive:-- + 4 yrs. 5 yrs. 6 and aged + 11 st. 6 lb. 12 st. 12 st. 3 lb. + + _For Hurdle Races._ + + From the 1st of January to the 31st of August, inclusive:-- + 4 yrs. 5 yrs. 6 and aged + 11 st. 6 lb. 11 st. 10 lb. 12 st. 0 lb. + + From the 1st of September to the 31st of December, inclusive:-- + 3 yrs. 4 yrs. 5, 6, and aged + 10 st. 7 lb. 11 st. 12 lb. 12 st. 3 lb. + + + The Grand National. + +The great test of merit in a steeplechase horse is success in the Grand +National, which is always run at Liverpool during the first week of the +flat-racing season. The course is 4½ m., and includes thirty jumps, the +fences being for the most part larger than are found elsewhere. The +average time occupied is well under ten minutes. The stake has varied in +value since the race was originated in 1839; it now amounts to close on +£2500. Only a very small percentage of steeplechase horses possess the +speed and staying power to give them a chance in this race, and the +number of entries year by year falls considerably short of a hundred, +the prospects of many of these usually appearing hopeless to all but +unduly sanguine owners. The average number of starters during the period +1860-1901 was rather over twenty. As many as thirty-two competed in +1909, when the French-bred Latteur III. won; in 1883, when Zoedone, +ridden by her owner, Count Kinsky, was successful, only ten went to the +post. Mishaps are almost invariably numerous; in most years about +one-third complete the course. So severe is the task that for a long +time many good judges of steeplechasing believed that no horse with more +than 12 stone on his back could possibly win. In 1893, however, Cloister +won in a canter by forty lengths carrying 12 st. 7 lb., and with the +same weight Manifesto also won in 1899. The race which most nearly +approaches the Grand National in importance is the Lancashire Handicap +Steeplechase, run at Manchester over 3½ m. early in April. The stake is +worth about £1750. An interesting steeplechase called the Grand Sefton +takes place at Liverpool about the middle of November; the distance is 3 +m. During the winter, and extending into the spring, steeplechasing and +hurdle racing are carried on at Sandown, Kempton, Gatwick, Lingfield, +Newbury and Hurst Park; at Ludlow, Newmarket, Aldershot, Birmingham, +Manchester, Windsor and other places. A race called the National Hunt +Steeplechase, under the immediate patronage of the National Hunt +Committee, is run annually over a 4-mile course, the stake being £1000. +Managers of various courses bid for the privilege of having the race on +their ground, and it is therefore found in different localities. A +condition is that no horse who has ever won a race can compete; and, as +few owners are willing to keep their animals with a view to success in +this event, the field consists either of unknown horses or of those that +have been beaten. + + + AUSTRALIA + + Racing in Australia has its headquarters at Sydney, under the + government of the Australian Jockey Club, the principal course being + at Ranwick; and at Melbourne, where the Victoria Jockey Club is + supreme, the principal course being at Flemington. In New Zealand + sport is carried on under the authority of delegates from the chief + racing clubs, who meet in conference. There is a Sydney Derby and a + Victoria Derby, and a notable event at Flemington is the Champion + Race, weight-for-age, for three-year-olds and upwards, which usually + attracts the best horses in training, as the fee at which a sire + stands depends in a great measure on his success in this contest. This + race is over a distance of 3 m., and to ensure a good pace there is a + regulation that the time in which it is run must not exceed 5 minutes + 40 seconds, though the stewards have power to extend this in case the + ground should be made exceptionally heavy by rainy weather. The + Melbourne Cup is regarded as one of the most important races in the + state. This is a handicap, and in comparison with English races may + perhaps be ranked with the Cesarewitch. The birth of horses dates from + the 1st of August, which corresponds as nearly as possible to the 1st + of February in England, so that the Australian horses are practically + seven months younger than the English--a matter of some importance in + the case of those sent to run in England. There are few races which + close long before the date of decision, and practically all the good + animals run in handicaps. The five- and six-furlong races for other + than two-year-olds, so common in Great Britain, are extremely rare; + and it is asserted by colonial sportsmen that their horses stay better + than those bred in England, a circumstance which is largely attributed + to the fact that mares and foals have much more liberty and exercise + than is the case in the mother country. + + +UNITED STATES + +Horse-racing was indulged in to a limited extent in Maryland and +Virginia as early as the middle of the 17th century, particularly in the +latter colony. Most of the inhabitants of both were either from the +British Isles or were descended from parents who had immigrated from +them, and they inherited a taste for the sport. The animals used for +this purpose, however, were not highly prized at the time, and the +pedigree of not even one of them has been preserved. A horse called +Bully Rock by the Darley Arabian out of a mare by the Byerly Turk, +granddam by the Lister Turk, great-granddam a royal mare, foaled 1718, +is the first recorded importation of a thoroughbred horse into America. +He was imported into Virginia in 1730. In 1723 the duke of Bolton bred a +mare named Bonny Lass by his celebrated horse Bay Bolton out of a +daughter of the Darley Arabian. She became celebrated in England as a +brood mare, and was the first thoroughbred mare, according to the +records, that was carried to America. This is supposed to have been in +or after 1740, as the _Stud-Book_ shows she produced in England after +1739 a filly by Lord Lonsdale's Arabian, and subsequently became +familiar to the public as the granddam of Zamora. The importations +increased very rapidly from this period, and many valuable shipments +were made before the war which resulted in a separation of the colonies +from the mother country. This acquisition of thoroughbred stock +increased the number and value of racing prizes, and extended the area +of operations into the Carolinas in the South, and New Jersey and New +York in the North. The first race run in South Carolina was in February +1734 for £20. It took place over "the Green," on Charleston Neck. This +shows that the earlier races in America were actually on the turf, as +they have always been in England. The next year a Jockey Club was +organized at Charleston (1735), and a course was prepared, such as those +which came later into general use throughout the states, the turf being +removed and the ground made as level as possible. + +After 1776, when the United States declared their independence of Great +Britain, the importation of thoroughbred horses from England became +quite common, and selections were made from the best stocks in the +United Kingdom. This continued and even increased as the country became +developed, down to 1840. The following Derby winners were among those +carried into the states: Diomed, who won the first Derby in 1780; +Saltram, winner in 1783; John Bull, winner in 1792; Spread Eagle, winner +in 1795; Sir Harry, winner in 1798; Archduke, winner in 1799; and Priam, +who won in 1830. The most important and valuable importations, however, +proved to be Jolly Roger, Fearnought, Medley, Traveller, Diomed, +Glencoe, Leviathan, Tranby, Lexington, Margrave, Yorkshire Buzzard, +Albion and Leamington. The best results were obtained from Diomed and +Glencoe. Diomed sired one horse, Sir Archy, who founded a family to +which nearly all the blood horses of America trace back. He was foaled +in 1805, in Virginia, and became celebrated as a sire. The superiority +of his progeny was so generally conceded that they were greatly sought +after. From this period, too, the number and value of races increased; +still they were comparatively few in number, and could not compare in +value with those of Great Britain. Up to 1860 the value of racing prizes +was quite inadequate to develop large breeding establishments, or to +sustain extensive training stables. Then the civil war between the North +and the South broke out, which raged for four years. Breeding +establishments were broken up during that time; the horses were taken by +the armies for cavalry purposes, for which service they were highly +prized; and racing was completely paralysed. It took some time to regain +its strength; but an era of prosperity set in about 1870, and since then +the progress in interest has been continuous. + +In the United States interest in trotting races more than rivals that +felt in the contests of thoroughbred horses. This interest dates back to +the importation to Philadelphia from England, in 1788, of the +thoroughbred horse Messenger, a grey stallion, by Mambrino, 1st dam by +Turf, 2nd dam by Regulus, 3rd dam by Starling, 4th dam by Fox, 5th dam +Gipsey, by Bay Bolton, 6th dam by duke of Newcastle's Turk, 7th dam by +Byerly Turk, 8th dam by Taffolet Barb, 9th dam by Place's White Turk. He +was eight years old when imported to the United States. He was at the +stud for twenty years, in the vicinity of Philadelphia and New York, +serving a number of thoroughbred mares, but a far greater number of +cold-blooded mares, and in the progeny of the latter the trotting +instinct was almost invariably developed, while his thoroughbred sons, +who became scattered over the country, were also noted for transmitting +the trotting instinct. The first public trotting race of which there is +any account in the United States was in 1818, when the grey gelding +Boston Blue was matched to trot a mile in 3 minutes, a feat deemed +impossible; but he won, though the time of his performance has not been +preserved. From about that date interest in this gait began to increase; +breeders of trotters sprang up, and horses were trained for trotting +contests. The problem of breeding trotters has been necessarily found to +be a much more complex one than that of breeding the thoroughbred, as in +the latter case pure blood lines of long recognized value could be +relied upon, while in the former the best results were constantly being +obtained from most unexpected sources. Among the leading families came +to be the Hambletonian, of which the modern head was Rysdyk's +Hambletonian, a bay horse foaled in 1849, got by Abdallah (traced to +imp. Messenger on the side of both sire and dam) out of the Charles Kent +mare, by imp. (i.e. imported) Bellfounder, with two crosses to imp. +Messenger on her dam's side; the Mambrinos, whose modern head was +Mambrino Chief, foaled 1844, by Mambrino Paymaster, a grandson of imp. +Messenger; the Bashaws, founded by Young Bashaw, foaled 1822, by Grand +Bashaw, an Arabian horse, dam Pearl, by First Consul; the Clays, +springing from Henry Clay, a grandson of Young Bashaw through Andrew +Jackson; the Stars, springing from Stockholm's American Star, by Duroc, +son of imp. Diomed; the Morgans, whose founder was Justin Morgan, foaled +1793, by a horse called True Briton, or Beautiful Bay, who was probably +thoroughbred; the Black Hawks, a branch of the Morgan family; the Blue +Bulls, descended from Doyle's Blue Bull, foaled 1855, a pacer, sired by +a pacer of the same name, dam by Blacknose, son of Medoc; the Canadians, +whose best representatives were St Lawrence and pacing Pilot, horses of +unknown pedigree; the Gold Dusts, another branch of the Morgan family; +and the Royal Georges, springing from Tippoo, a horse who was probably +by Ogden's Messenger, son of imp. Messenger. But trotters of great speed +have been produced which do not trace to any of the sources mentioned. +Very large prices are paid. Steinway, a three-year-old colt, was sold in +1879, to go to California, for $13,000; and in 1878 $21,000 was paid for +the four-year-old filly Maud S., after she had trotted a mile in public +in 2 m. 17½ s. Much larger sums have been paid, however, for matured +trotters, such as $40,000 for the stallion Smuggler, $38,000 for +Pocahontas, $35,000 for Dexter, $36,000 for Rarus, and long prices for +many others; St Julien, the trotter with the fastest record at the close +of 1879, was held at $50,000, while Rysdyk's Hambletonian, Messenger +Duroc and Volunteer were valued, in their prime, at $100,000 each. + +Compared with the early days of American trotting, the advance has been +rapid and the changes marked. After the performance of Boston Blue, +mentioned above, more attention was paid to the gait, but for a long +time the races were generally under saddle, and at long distances, 3 m. +being rather the favourite. The best of the old time trotters were Edwin +Forrest, who trotted a mile in 2 m. 31½ s. in 1834; Dutchman, who did 3 +m. under saddle in 7 m. 32½ s.; Ripton; Lady Suffolk, who trotted a mile +in 2 m. 26½ s. in 1843, and headed the list of performers; Mac, Tacony, +&c. After 1850, however, the taste of the people settled upon the style +of race called "mile heats, best three out of five, in harness" as the +favourite. By "in harness" is meant that the horse draws a sulky, a +light two-wheeled vehicle in which the driver sits close to the horse, +with his legs on each side of his flanks. These sulkies often weigh less +than 40 lb. The driver is required to weigh, with the blanket on which +he sits, 150 lb., while for saddle races the regulation weight is 145 +lb., or 10 st. 5 lb. Each heat of a mile is a separate race; 20 minutes +is allowed between heats; and the horse that first places three heats to +his credit wins the race. There are various penalties imposed upon a +horse that breaks into a run in a trotting race. The driver is required +to pull him to a trot as quickly as possible; if the horse gains by +running, the judges set him back at the finish twice the distance he has +gained, in their estimation, by running; and for repeated "breaks" they +can declare him distanced. The first-class tracks are of oval shape, +with long stretches and easy curves, measuring 1 m. at 3 ft. distance +from the "pole," as the inner railing of the track is called. The time +in which the leading horse trots each heat is accurately kept, placed on +a blackboard in front of the judges' stand for the information of the +public, and also placed in the book of the course. The fastest time that +any trotter has is thus entered as his "record." This is one of the +distinctive features of trotting in America. + +Prior to 1866 purses for trotters were small; match races were more in +vogue, and the trotting turf was in bad odour. In that year an +association was formed at Buffalo, N.Y., which inaugurated its efforts +by offering the then unprecedented sum of $10,500 for a trotting meeting +of four days' duration. The experiment was successful; other cities +followed the example of Buffalo; larger and larger purses were given; +and at Buffalo in 1872 the prizes amounted to $70,000. Since then the +amount offered in the United States and Canada, during a single year, +has reached $1,500,000. Individual trotters, in the course of a long +turf career, earn enormous amounts. A remarkable instance of this was +the mare Goldsmith Maid, by Alexander's Abdallah (a son of Rysdyk's +Hambletonian), out of an Abdallah mare. She began trotting in 1866, and +left the turf in 1878, when twenty-one years old, and her winnings +amounted to over $200,000. + +In 1869 the National Trotting Association was formed, under which an +elaborate code of rules has been published. + +In trotting races, it will be noted, the time test is supreme, differing +from running races, in which time is of comparatively little +consequence. The animal which has the fastest record for 1 mile in +harness is, until deposed, the king or queen of the trotting turf. Lady +Suffolk, with her record of 2 m. 26½ s., in 1843, held this honour until +1853, when Tacony trotted in 2 m. 25½ s. under saddle; Flora Temple +wrested it from him in 1856 by trotting in 2 m. 24½ s. in harness. This +latter mare, in 1859, trotted a mile in 2 m. 19¾ s., a feat which the +best horsemen thought would never be repeated, but since that time +forty-two trotters have beaten 2 m. 20 s. Dexter's record was 2 m. 17¼ +s. in 1867, and Goldsmith Maid's in 1871 was 2 m. 17 s., which she +reduced, by successive efforts, to 2 m. 16¾ s., 2 m. 16 s., 2 m. 15 s., +2 m. 14¾ s., and finally, in 1874, to 2 m. 14 s. In 1878 Rarus trotted a +mile in 2 m. 13¼ s., and in October 1879 the bay gelding St Julien, by +Volunteer, son of Rysdyk's Hambletonian, dam by Henry Clay, trotted a +mile in California in 2 m. 12¾ s. Other notable performances reducing +the record were Maud S. in 1881, 2 m. 10¼ s.; Maud S. in 1885, 2 m. 8¾ +s.; Sunol in 1891, 2 m. 8¼ s.; Nancy Hanks in 1892, 2 m. 4 s.; Alix in +1894, 2 m. 3¾ s.; Cresceus in 1901, 2 m. 2¼ s.; Lou Dillon in 1905, 1 m. +58½ s. Improved times have doubtless been the result of improved +methods, as well as of care in the breeding of the trotter. Some very +severe training rules used to be sedulously observed; about 1870, for +instance, a horse never had water the night before a race, and the +system generally appears to have overtaxed the animal's strength. A +prominent consideration in trotting races is the adjustment of +toe-weights, which are fastened on to the horses' feet to equalize their +action, and it is found that horses improve their time to the extent of +several seconds when properly shod. + +Pacing races are also frequent in the United States. In trotting the +action may be described as diagonal; the pacer moves both legs on the +same side at the same time, and both feet stride as one. A similar +"gait," to employ the American term, was called in England some +centuries ago an "amble." The pacer moves more easily and with +apparently less exertion than the trotter, and the mile record (made by +Prince Alert in 1903) stands at 1 m. 57 s. + +Owing to the vast size of the country there are various centres of +sport, which can be classified with reasonable accuracy as follows: the +Eastern States, dominated by the Jockey Club, founded in New York in +1894, and recognized by a state law in 1895; the Middle Western States, +under the control of the Western Jockey Club, whose headquarters are in +Chicago; the Pacific Coast, with San Francisco for its centre; and the +Southern and South-Western States, with Louisville as the most important +centre. The passage of the racing law in New York State marked the +opening of a new era. Supreme even over the Jockey Club is a State +Racing Commission of three, appointed by the governor of the state. +While the Jockey Club is only recognized by law in its native state, it +has assumed and maintains control of all racing on the eastern seaboard, +within certain lines of latitude and longitude, extending as far north +as the Canadian border and south to Georgia. There is small question +that other states, both east and west, will follow suit and enact +similar laws. The Western Jockey Club, though not recognized by law, +controls practically all the racing through the middle west, south-west +and south; but the racing associations of the Pacific Coast have +maintained a position of independence. + +What New York is to the east, Chicago is to the middle west, and a very +large proportion of American racing is conducted close to these centres. +In New York State the Coney Island Jockey Club, at Sheepshead Bay; the +Brooklyn Jockey Club, at Gravesend; the Westchester Racing Association, +at Morris Park; the Brighton Beach Racing Association, at Brighton +Beach; the Queen's County Jockey Club, at Aqueduct; and the Saratoga +Racing Association, at Saratoga, are the leading organizations; and all +these race-courses, with the exception of Saratoga, are within a radius +of 20 miles of the city. The Empire City Jockey Club, near Yonkers, and +another club with headquarters near Jamaica, Long Island, have also +become prominent institutions. The Washington Park Club, at Chicago, is +the leading Turf body of the west, and the only one on an equal footing +with the prominent associations of New York State. With this single +exception the most important and valuable stakes of the American Turf +are given in the east; and so great has the prosperity of the Turf been +since the Jockey Club came into existence that the list of rich prizes +is growing at a surprising rate. In this respect the principal fault is +the undue encouragement given to the racing of two-year-olds. At the +winter meetings held at New Orleans and San Francisco, two-year-olds are +raced from the very beginning of the year; and under the rules of the +Jockey Club of New York they run as early as March. The Westchester +Racing Association, with which are closely identified some of the +principal members of the Jockey Club, gives valuable two-year-old stakes +in May. The Futurity Stakes, the richest event of the year--on one +occasion it reached a value of $67,675--is for two-year-olds, and is run +at Sheepshead Bay in the autumn. The institution of races, either +absolutely or practically at weight-for-age, and over long courses, has +engaged much attention. The Coney Island Jockey Club has the leading +three-year-old stake in the Lawrence Realization, over 1 mile 5 +furlongs, with an average value of about $30,000. The Westchester Racing +Association's two principal three-year-old stakes, the Withers, over a +mile, run in May, and the Belmont, 1 mile and 3 furlongs, run later in +the same month, are of less value, but are much older-established and +have a species of "classic" prestige, dating from the old Jerome Park +race-course in the 'sixties. The Coney Island Jockey Club's Century and +the Annual Champion Stakes, both for three-year-olds and upwards, over a +mile and a half and two miles and a quarter respectively, are fair +specimens of the races the associations have founded. At Saratoga a +stake of $50,000 for three-year-olds and upwards, distance a mile and a +quarter, was opened, and run for first in 1904. The hope is to wean +owners from the practice of overtaxing their two-year-olds, which has +resulted practically in a positive dearth, almost a total absence, of +good four-year-olds and upwards of late years. Handicaps play a more +important part than in England. The principal events of this character, +such as the Brooklyn Handicap at Gravesend and the Suburban at +Sheepshead Bay, have for years drawn the largest attendances of the +racing season. + +Practically all flat racing in the United States is held on +"dirt-tracks," i.e. courses with soil specially prepared for racing, +instead of turf courses. At Sheepshead Bay there is a turf course, but +it is only used for a minority of races. Dirt-tracks, which are, like +many other things in American racing, a legacy from the once hugely +popular harness-racing, are conducive to great speed, but are costly in +the extreme strain on horses' legs. Steeplechases are run on turf. This +branch of the sport in the east is now flourishing under the +administration of the National Steeplechase and Hunt Association, a +sister body of the Jockey Club. Comparatively few races are, however, +run under these rules, as the weather conditions render it impossible to +have a separate season for cross-country sport and steeplechases, and +hurdle races are incorporated in programmes of flat racing held through +the spring, summer and autumn, though the ground is frequently so hard +as to be unsafe. Since the National Steeplechase and Hunt Association +assumed control, regulation courses, practically similar in every +respect to those used in England, have been insisted upon in the east, +the "open ditch" figuring under the name of the "Liverpool." In the west +and south there is not the same uniformity, and so far the sport has not +flourished. + + +FRANCE + +Racing in France as conducted on modern lines may be said to date from +the year 1833, when the French _Stud-Book_ was originated, and a body +formed, somewhat after the model of the English Jockey Club, under the +title of the Société d'Encouragement pour l'Amélioration des Races de +Chevaux en France. Races took place in the Champs de Mars, and an +unsuccessful attempt was made in 1834 to arrange for a course, or +"hippodrome," as it is termed in France, at Maisons Laffitte. Chantilly +was, however, fixed upon as the principal racing centre; on the 22nd +April 1836 the first meeting was held there, with five races on the +card, the principal being the Prix d'Orléans, a stake of 3500 francs, +named after the due d'Orléans, one of the chief promoters of the +fixture. Next day the first race for the Prix du Jockey Club was run, +and won by Frank, the property of Lord Henry Seymour, who was at the +time taking a very active part in French sport. The Prix du Jockey Club +was then worth 5000 francs; the value has since increased to 200,000 +francs. This race occupies in France the place of the English Derby. The +Prix de Diane, which corresponds to the English Oaks, was first run in +1843. Chantilly still continues an important centre of the French Turf, +and a great many horses are trained in the district. Attempts had been +made to popularize racing at Longchamps prior to the year 1856, when the +Société d'Encouragement obtained a lease, erected stands, laid out the +course, and held their first meeting on the 27th August 1857. Next +season two meetings were held, one of four days in the spring and +another of three in the autumn; at the present time the sport is +vigorously carried on from March to the end of October, except during a +summer recess. In 1857 meetings under the auspices of the Société +d'Encouragement began to take place at Amiens, Caen, Nantes, +Versailles, Moulins and other towns; and there were stakes for +two-year-olds in the spring, though of late years the appearance of the +young horses has been postponed to the 1st of August. Progress was +rapid, and in 1863 two important events were contested for the first +time, the Prix du Prince Impérial, which was designed to balance the +English St Leger, but for obvious reasons faded out of the programme, +and the Grand Prix de Paris, an international race for three-year-olds, +run at Longchamps over a distance of 1 mile 7 furlongs, and now the most +valuable stake in Europe. In 1909 the prize was £14,071. The first Grand +Prix fell to an English horse, Mr Savile's The Ranger; two years later +it was won by Gladiateur, winner of the English Derby and the property +of the comte de Lagrange, who raced equally in France and in England; +the duke of Beaufort's Ceylon was successful in 1866, and the marquis of +Hastings' Earl in 1868. Mr Savile's Cremorne followed up his Derby +victory by a victory at Longchamps in 1872, as did Mr Baltazzi's Kisber +four years later. English horses were also victorious in 1874 (Mr W. R. +Marshall's Trent), in 1878 (Prince Soltykoff's Thurio), in 1880 (Mr C. +Brewer's Robert the Devil), in 1881 (Mr Keene's Foxhall, who, however, +should rather rank as an American horse), in 1882 (Mr Rymill's Bruce), +in 1885 (Mr Cloete's Paradox), in 1886 (Mr Vyner's Minting); and in 1906 +Major Eustace Loder's Derby winner Spearmint. During the first 23 years +of the Grand Prix (owing to the war the race did not take place in 1871) +the stake fell to English horses--if Kisber and Foxhall be included--on +twelve occasions, and generally to English jockeys. In recent years, +however, French owners have held their own. In not a few respects racing +is managed more judiciously than in England. The courses, for one thing, +are better tended and maintained. The five- and six-furlong races for +others than two-year-olds, which are so common at English meetings, are +comparatively rare in France, and the value of the prizes in an average +day's racing is considerably higher across the Channel than in England. +A very large percentage of trainers and jockeys are English, and the +former are, as a rule, quite as expert as at Newmarket and elsewhere. +Transatlantic methods have been introduced by American jockeys since +1899. From the middle of February until the middle of December a race +meeting within easy reach of Paris takes place almost every day, except +during August, when the sport is carried on in the provinces, notably at +Deauville. Near Paris, the chief centre after Longchamps is Maisons +Laffitte. At Longchamps, early in October, a race called the Prix du +Conseil Municipal, worth £4000, for three-year-olds and upwards, over a +mile and a half, was organized in 1893, and has usually attracted +English horses, Mr Wallace Johnstone's Best Man having been successful +in 1894, and Mr Sullivan's Winkfield's Pride the following year. Except +when the Whip is challenged for and the challenge decided over the +Beacon Course at Newmarket, no race is run in England over a longer +distance than two miles and 6 furlongs; but in France the Prix +Gladiateur, of £1200 and a work of art value £100, 3 miles 7 furlongs, +creates considerable interest at Longchamps in the autumn. + + + Steeplechasing. + +The first recognized steeplechase in France took place at Croix de +Berny, and was won by the comte de Vaublanc's May-fly, all the horses at +that time being ridden by gentlemen. Sport does not seem to have been +carried on with much spirit, for it is said that the death of an animal +called Barcha, in 1839, nearly led to the abandonment of the meeting; +and it was not till 1863, when the Société des Steeplechases de France +was founded, that the business was resolutely taken in hand. Gravelle +and Vincennes were the principal centres until 1873, when the Société +obtained possession of the ground at Auteuil, where the excellent course +now in use was laid out. In 1874 twelve days' racing took place here, +the card each day including three steeplechases and a hurdle race, the +"hurdles," however, being small fences, as they are at present. The +Grand Steeplechase d'Auteuil was then for a stake of 30,000 francs, at +the time the most valuable offered in any country; but, as in racing on +the flat, the stakes have enormously increased in value, and in 1901 the +Paris Grand Steeplechase, as the chief event is now called, credited the +winner with £6020, the hurdle race being worth rather more than half as +much. In England there is scarcely any steeplechasing between March and +November, except at hunt meetings, but in Paris cross-country sport is +pursued almost all through the year, the chief races at Auteuil taking +place in June, about the time of the Grand Prix, which is usually run +for between the English Epsom and Ascot meetings. The Auteuil course is +laid out in the shape of the figure 8, with varied fences, several of +which really test a horse's jumping capacity; and variety is further +obtained by starting the fields in different places and traversing the +course in different ways. St Ouen, a meeting within half an hour's drive +of the Louvre, is entirely devoted to steeplechasing; and jumping is +also carried on at Vincennes, Colombes, Enghien, and elsewhere near +Paris, as also at Nice in the winter, at Dieppe and other places in +August. As a rule, the stakes run for, especially at Auteuil, are very +much larger than in England. There are none of the clubs and special +enclosures such as at Sandown, Kempton, Hurst, Lingfield, Gatwick, &c., +though portions of the stand are set apart for privileged persons. A fee +of 20 francs is charged for admission to the chief French race-courses, +with half as much for a lady's voucher, and the tickets give access +everywhere but to the very few reserved portions. At Vincennes, St +Cloud, and some other courses trotting races are also contested. + + _Other Countries._--Racing in Germany is mainly conducted under the + authority of the Union Club of Berlin, the principal course being the + Hoppegarten. Two-year-olds do not run until the 1st of June, except in + Saxony, where they appear a month earlier. During the month of August + there are several days' racing at Baden-Baden, steeplechases as well + as flat races being run. Some of the more valuable stakes are usually + contested by a proportion of horses from France and other countries, a + few being occasionally sent from England. For years past blood-stock + has been imported from England. In Austria the two centres of racing + are Vienna and Budapest, each of which has its Jockey Club. Racing in + Belgium derives no little support from the contiguity of the country + to France. The headquarters of the Belgium Jockey Club are in the Bois + de la Cambre at Boisfort, and meetings are held at Ostend, Antwerp, + Spa, Bruges and elsewhere. Steeplechases take place at Groenenval and + on other Belgian courses, but are not of high class. Racing has not + reached a great degree of excellence in Italy, though attempts have + been made to improve competitors by the purchase of Melton, who won + the Derby of 1885, and of other notable animals. Meetings take place + at Florence, Padua, Bologna and other places, but the stakes are + usually small. (A. E. T. W.) + + + + +HORSERADISH (Ger. _Meerrettig_; Fr. _raifort_ = _racine forte_, _cran de +Bretagne_; Swed. _Peppar-rot_; Russ. _chren_), known botanically as +_Cochlearia Armoracia_, a perennial plant of the natural order +Cruciferae, having a stout cylindrical rootstock from the crown of which +spring large radical leaves on long stalks, 4 to 6 in. broad, and about +a foot in length with a deeply crenate margin, and coarsely veined; the +stem-leaves are short-stalked or sessile, elongated and tapering to +their attachment, the lower ones often deeply toothed. The flowers, +which appear in May and June, are 3/8 in. in width, in flat-topped +panicles, with purplish sepals and white petals; the fruit is a small +silicula, which does not ripen in the climate of England. The +horseradish is indigenous to eastern Europe. Into western Europe and +Great Britain, where it is to be met with on waste ground, it was +probably introduced. It was wild in various parts of England in Gerard's +time. + +The root, the _armoraciae radix_ of pharmacy, is ½ to 2 in. or more in +diameter, and commonly 1 ft., sometimes 3 ft. in length; the upper part +is enlarged into a crown, which is annulated with the scars of fallen +leaves; and from the numerous irregular lateral branches are produced +vertical stolons, and also adventitious buds, which latter render the +plant very difficult of extirpation. From the root of Aconite (q.v.), +which has occasionally been mistaken for it, horseradish root differs in +being more or less cylindrical from a little below the crown, and in its +pale yellowish (or brownish) white hue externally, acrid and penetrating +odour when scraped or bruised, and pungent and either sweetish or +bitter taste. Under the influence of a ferment which it contains, the +fresh root yields on distillation with water about .05% of a volatile +oil, butyl sulphocyanide, C4H9CNS. After drying, the root has been found +to afford 11.15% of ash. Horseradish root is an ingredient in the +_spiritus armoraciae compositus_ (dose 1-2 drachms) of the British +Pharmacopoeia. It is an agreeable flavouring agent. In common with other +species of _Cochlearia_, the horseradish was formerly in high repute as +an antiscorbutic. The root was, as well as the leaves, taken with food +by the Germans in the middle ages, whence the old French name for it, +_moutarde des Allemands_; and Coles, writing in 1657, mentions its use +with meat in England, where it is still chiefly employed as a condiment +with beef. + +For the successful cultivation of the horseradish, a light and friable +damp soil is the most suitable; this having been trenched 3 ft. deep in +autumn, and the surface turned down with a liberal supply of farm-yard +manure, a second dressing of decomposed manure should in the ensuing +spring be dug in 2 ft. deep, and pieces of the root 6 in. in length may +then be planted a foot apart in narrow trenches. During summer the +ground requires to be kept free of weeds; and the application of liquid +manure twice or thrice in sufficient quantity to reach the lowest roots +is an advantage. When dug the root may be long preserved in good +condition by placing it in sand. + + See Gerard, _Herball_, p. 240, ed. Johnson (1636); Flückiger and + Hanbury, _Pharmacographia_, p. 71 (2nd ed., 1879); Bentley and Trimen, + _Med. Pl._, i. 21 (1880). + + + + +HORSE-SHOES. The horny casing of the foot of the horse and other +Solidungulates, while quite sufficient to protect the extremity of the +limb under natural conditions, is found to wear away and break, +especially in moist climates, when the animal is subjected to hard work +of any kind. This, however, can be obviated by the simple device of +attaching to the hoof a rim of iron, adjusted to the shape of the hoof. +The animal itself has been in a very marked manner modified by shoeing, +for without this we could have had neither the fleet racers nor the +heavy and powerful cart-horses of the present day. Though the ancients +were sufficiently impressed by the damage done to horses' hoofs to +devise certain forms of covering for them (in the shape of socks or +sandals), the practice of nailing iron plates or rim-shoes to the hoof +does not appear to have been introduced earlier than the 2nd century +B.C., and was not commonly known till the close of the 5th century A.D., +or in regular use till the middle ages. The evidence for the earlier +date depends on the doubtful interpretations of designs on coins, &c. As +time went on, however, the profession of the farrier and the art of the +shoesmith gradually grew in importance. It was only in the 19th century +that horse-shoeing was introduced in Japan, where the former practice +was to attach to the horse's feet slippers of straw, which were renewed +when necessary, a custom which may indicate the usage of early peoples. +In modern times much attention has been devoted to horse-shoeing by +veterinary science, with the result of showing that methods formerly +adopted caused cruel injury to horses and serious loss to their owners. +The evils resulted from (1) paring the sole and frog; (2) applying shoes +too heavy and of faulty shape; (3) employing too many and too large +nails; (4) applying shoes too small and removing the wall of the hoof to +make the feet fit the shoes, and (5) rasping the front of the hoof. In +rural districts, where the art of the farrier is combined with general +blacksmith work, too little attention is apt to be given to +considerations which have an important bearing on the comfort, +usefulness and life of the horse. According to modern principles (1) +shoes should be as light as compatible with the wear demanded of them; +(2) the ground face of the shoe should be concave, and the face applied +to the foot plain; (3) heavy draught horses alone should have toe and +heel calks on their shoes to increase foothold; (4) the excess growth of +the wall or outer portion of horny matter should only be removed in +re-shoeing, care being taken to keep both sides of the hoof of equal +height; (5) the shoe should fit accurately to the circumference of the +hoof, and project slightly beyond the heel; (6) the shoes should be +fixed with as few nails as possible, six or seven in fore-shoes and +eight in hind-shoes, and (7) the nails should take a short thick hold of +the wall, so that old nail-holes may be removed with the natural growth +and paring of the horny matter. Horse-shoes and nails are now made with +great economy by machinery, and special forms of shoe or plate are made +for race-horses and trotters, or to suit abnormalities of the hoof. + + + + +HORSETAIL (_Equisetum_), the sole genus of the botanical natural order +Equisetaceae, consisting of a group of vascular cryptogamous plants (see +PTERIDOPHYTA) remarkable for the vegetative structure which resembles in +general appearance the genera of flowering plants _Casuarina_ and +_Ephedra_. They are herbaceous plants growing from an underground +much-branched rootstock from which spring slender aerial shoots which +are green, ribbed, and bear at each node a whorl of leaves reduced to a +toothed sheath. From the nodes spring whorls of similar but more slender +branches. Some shoots are sterile while others are fertile, bearing at +the apex the so-called fructification--a dense oval, oblong conical or +cylindrical spike, consisting of a number of shortly-stalked peltate +scales, each of which has attached to its under surface a circle of +spore-cases (sporangia) which open by a longitudinal slit on their +inner side. The spores differ from those of ferns in their outer coat +(_exospore_) being split up into four club-shaped hygroscopic threads +(_elaters_) which are curled when moist, but become straightened when +dry. In most species the fertile and sterile shoots are alike, both +being green and leaf-bearing, but in a few species the fertile are more +or less different, e.g. in _E. arvense_ the fertile shoots appear first, +in the spring, and are unbranched and not green. Any portion of the +underground rhizome when broken off is capable of producing a new plant; +hence the difficulty of eradicating them when once established. There +are 24 known species of the genus which is universally distributed. + +[Illustration: From Strasburger's _Lehrbuch der Botanik_, by permission +of Gustav Fischer. + +_Equisetum arvense._ + + A, Fertile shoot, springing from the rhizome, which also bears tubers; + the vegetative shoots have not yet unfolded. + F, Sterile vegetative shoot. + B, C, Sporophylls bearing sporangia, which in C have opened. + D, Spore showing the two spiral bands of the perinium. + E, Dry spores showing the expanded spiral bands. + (A, F, reduced. B, C, D, E, enlarged.)] + +The corn horsetail _E. arvense_, one of the commonest species, is a +troublesome weed in clayey cornfields (see fig.). The fructification +appears in March and April, terminating in short unbranched stems. It is +said to produce diarrhoea in such cattle as eat it. The bog horsetail, +_E. palustre_, is said to possess similar properties. It grows in +marshes, ditches, pools and drains in meadows, and sometimes obstructs +the flow of water with its dense matted roots. The fructification in +this species is cylindrical, and in that of _E. limosum_, which grows in +similar situations, it is ovate in outline. The largest British species, +_E. maximum_, grows in wet sandy declivities by railway embankments or +streams, &c., and is remarkable for its beauty, due to the abundance of +its elegant branches and the alternately green and white appearance of +the stem. In this species the fructification is conical or lanceolate, +and is found in April on short, stout, unbranched stems which have large +loose sheaths. Horses appear to be fond of this species, and in Sweden +it is stored for use as winter fodder. _E. hyemale_, commonly known as +the Dutch rush, is much more abundant in Holland than in Britain; it is +used for polishing purposes. _E. variegatum_ grows on wet sandy ground, +and serves by means of its fibrous roots to bind the sand together. The +horsetails are remarkable for the large quantity of silica they contain +in the cuticle (hence their value in polishing), which often amounts to +half the weight of the ash yielded by burning them; the roots contain a +quantity of starch. + + + + +HORSHAM, a market town in the Horsham parliamentary division of Sussex, +England, 38 m. S. by W. from London by the London, Brighton and South +Coast railway. Pop. of urban district (1901) 9446. It is pleasantly +situated in the midst of a fertile country near the source of the Arun. +A picturesque avenue leads to the church of St Mary, principally Early +English and Perpendicular, with remains of Norman work, having a lofty +tower surmounted by a spire, and containing several fine monuments, +tombs and brasses. Other buildings include the grammar school, founded +in 1532 and rebuilt in 1893, a town hall and corn exchange, erected in +1866 in Italian style, with an assembly room. In the vicinity are +several fine mansions. The buildings of Christ's Hospital (q.v.) at West +Horsham were opened in 1902, the school being removed hither from +London. The town has industries of tanning, founding, carriage-building +and flour-milling. + +Some neolithic remains have been found at Horsham. The town is not +mentioned in Domesday Book, but the Rape of Bramber, in which it lies, +belonged at that time to William de Braose. His descendants held the +borough and the manor of Horsham, and through them they passed to the +family of Mowbray, afterwards dukes of Norfolk. There are traces of +burgage tenure at Horsham in 1210, and it was called a borough in 1236. +It has no charter of incorporation. Horsham sent two representatives to +parliament from 1295 until 1832, when the number was reduced to one. In +1885 it was disfranchised. In 1233 Henry III. granted William de Braose +a yearly three-days' fair at his manor of Horsham. In the reign of +Edward I. William de Braose claimed to have a free market on Wednesdays +and Saturdays. Fairs are held on the 5th of April, 18th of July, 17th of +November and 27th of November. Market days are Monday and Wednesday. +"Glovers" of Horsham are mentioned in a patent roll of 1485, and a +brewery existed here in the time of Queen Anne. + + + + +HORSLEY, JOHN (c. 1685-1732), British archaeologist. John Hodgson +(1779-1845), the historian of Northumberland, in a short memoir +published in 1831, held that he was born in 1685, at Pinkie House, in +the parish of Inveresk, Midlothian, and that his father was a +Northumberland Nonconformist, who had migrated to Scotland, but returned +to England soon after the Revolution of 1688. J. H. Hinde, in the +_Archaeologia Aeliana_ (Feb. 1865), held that he was a native of +Newcastle-on-Tyne, the son of Charles Horsley, a member of the Tailors' +Company of that town. He was educated at Newcastle, and at Edinburgh +University, where he graduated M.A. on the 29th of April 1701. There is +evidence that he "was settled in Morpeth as a Presbyterian minister as +early as 1709." Hodgson, however, thought that up to 1721, at which time +he was residing at Widdrington, "he had not received ordination, but +preached as a licentiate." Even if he was ordained then, his stay at the +latter place was probably prolonged beyond that date; for he +communicated to the _Philosophical Transactions_ (xxxii. 328) notes on +the rainfall there in the years 1722 and 1723. Hinde shows that during +these years "he certainly followed a secular employment as agent to the +York Buildings Company, who had contracted to purchase and were then in +possession of the Widdrington estates." At Morpeth Horsley opened a +private school. Respect for his character and abilities attracted pupils +irrespective of religious connexion, among them Newton Ogle, afterwards +dean of Westminster. He gave lectures on mechanics and hydrostatics in +Morpeth, Alnwick and Newcastle, and was elected F.R.S. on the 23rd of +April 1730. It is as an archaeologist that Horsley is now known. His +great work, _Britannia Romana, or the Roman Antiquities of Britain_ +(London, 1732), one of the scarcest and most valuable of its class, +contains the result of patient labour. There is in the British Museum a +copy with notes by John Ward (c. 1679-1758), biographer of the Gresham +professors. Horsley died of apoplexy on the 12th of January 1732, on the +eve of the publication of the _Britannia Romana_. He also published two +sermons and a handbook to his lectures on mechanics, &c., and projected +a history of Northumberland and Durham, collections for which were found +among his papers. + + J. P. Wood (d. 1838) (_Parish of Cramond_, 1794, and _Anecdotes of + Bowyer_, 1782, p. 371) says that his wife was a daughter of William + Hamilton, D.D., minister of Cramond, afterwards professor of divinity + in Edinburgh University, but probably the John Horsley in question was + another, the father of Samuel Horsley (q.v.). + + + + +HORSLEY, JOHN CALLCOTT (1817-1903), English painter, son of William +Horsley, the musician, and grand-nephew of Sir Augustus Callcott, was +born in London, on the 29th of January 1817. He studied painting in the +Academy schools, and in 1836 exhibited "The Pride of the Village" +(Vernon Gallery) at the Royal Academy. This was followed by numerous +_genre_ pictures at subsequent exhibitions up to 1893, the best known of +these being "Malvolio," "L'Allegro and il Penseroso" (painted for the +Prince Consort), "Le Jour des Morts," "A Scene from Don Quixote," &c. In +1843 his cartoon of "St Augustine Preaching" won a prize in the +Westminster Hall competition, and in 1844 he was selected as one of the +six painters commissioned to execute frescoes for the Houses of +Parliament, his "Religion" (1845) being put in the House of Lords; he +also painted the "Henry V. assuming the Crown" and "Satan surprised at +the Ear of Eve." In 1864 he became R.A., and in 1882 was elected +treasurer, a post which he held till 1897, when he resigned and became a +"retired Academician." Mr Horsley had much to do with organizing the +winter exhibitions of "Old Masters" at Burlington House after 1870. +When, during the 'eighties, the example of the French Salon began to +affect the Academy exhibitors, and paintings of the nude became the +fashion, he protested against the innovation, and his attitude caused +_Punch_ to give him the punning sobriquet of "Mr J. C(lothes) Horsley." +He died on the 18th of October 1903. His son, Sir Victor Horsley (b. +1857), became famous as a surgeon and neuropathologist, and a prominent +supporter of the cause of experimental research. + + + + +HORSLEY, SAMUEL (1733-1806), English divine, was born in London on the +15th of September 1733. Entering Trinity College, Cambridge, he became +LL.B. in 1758 without graduating in arts, and in the following year +succeeded his father in the living of Newington Butts in Surrey. Horsley +was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society in 1767; and secretary in +1773, but, in consequence of a difference with the president (Sir Joseph +Banks) he withdrew in 1784. In 1768 he attended the eldest son of the +4th earl of Aylesford to Oxford as private tutor; and, after receiving +through the earl and Bishop Lowth various minor preferments, which by +dispensations he combined with his first living, he was installed in +1781 as archdeacon of St Albans. Horsley now entered in earnest upon his +famous controversy with Joseph Priestley, who denied that the early +Christians held the doctrine of the Trinity. In this controversy, +conducted on both sides in the fiercest polemical spirit, Horsley showed +the superior learning and ability. His aim was to lessen the influence +which the prestige of Priestley's name gave to his views, by indicating +inaccuracies in his scholarship and undue haste in his conclusions. For +the energy displayed in the contest Horsley was rewarded by Lord +Chancellor Thurlow with a prebendal stall at Gloucester; and in 1788 the +same patron procured his promotion to the see of St David's. As a +bishop, Horsley was energetic both in his diocese, where he strove to +better the position of his clergy, and in parliament. The efficient +support which he afforded the government was acknowledged by his +successive translations to Rochester in 1793, and to St Asaph in 1802. +With the bishopric of Rochester he held the deanery of Westminster. He +died at Brighton on the 4th of October 1806. + + Besides the controversial _Tracts_, which appeared in 1783-1784-1786, + and were republished in 1789 and 1812, Horsley's more important works + are:--_Apollonii Pergaei inclinationum libri duo_ (1770); _Remarks on + the Observation ... for determining the acceleration of the Pendulum + in Lat. 70° 51´_ (1774); _Isaaci Newtoni Opera quae extant Omnia_, + with a commentary (5 vols. 4to, 1779-1785); _On the Prosodies of the + Greek and Latin Languages_ (1796); _Disquisitions on Isaiah xviii._ + (1796); _Hosea, translated ... with Notes_ (1801); _Elementary + Treatises on ... Mathematics_ (1801); _Euclidis elementorum libri + priores XII._ (1802); _Euclidis datorum liber_ (1803); _Virgil's Two + Seasons of Honey_, &c. (1805); and papers in the _Philosophical + Transactions_ from 1767 to 1776. After his death there + appeared--_Sermons_ (1810-1812); _Speeches in Parliament_ (1813); + _Book of Psalms, translated with Notes_ (1815); _Biblical Criticism_ + (1820); _Collected Theological Works_ (6 vols. 8vo, 1845). + + + + +HORSLEY, WILLIAM (1774-1858), English musician, was born on the 15th of +November 1774. He became in 1790 the pupil of Theodore Smith, an +indifferent musician of the time, who, however, taught him sufficient to +obtain in 1794 the position of organist at Ely Chapel, Holborn. This +post he resigned in 1798, to become organist at the Asylum for Female +Orphans, as assistant to Dr Callcott, with whom he had long been on +terms of personal and artistic intimacy, and whose eldest daughter he +married. In 1802 he became his friend's successor upon the latter's +resignation. Besides holding this appointment he became in 1812 organist +of Belgrave Chapel, Halkin Street, and in 1838 of the Charter House. He +died on the 12th of June 1858. Horsley's compositions are numerous, and +include amongst other instrumental pieces three symphonies for full +orchestra. Infinitely more important are his glees, of which he +published five books (1801-1807) besides contributing many detached +glees and part songs to various collections. His glees, "By Celia's +arbour," "O nightingale," "Now the storm begins to lower," and others, +are amongst the finest specimens of this peculiarly English class of +compositions. Horsley's son Charles Edward (1822-1876), also enjoyed a +certain reputation as a musician. He studied in Germany under Hauptmann +and Mendelssohn, and on his return to England composed several oratorios +and other pieces, none of which had permanent success. In 1808 he +emigrated to Australia, and in 1872 went to America; he died in New +York. + + + + +HORSMAN, EDWARD (1807-1876), English politician, was the son of a +well-to-do gentleman of Stirling, and connected on the mother's side +with the earls of Stair. He was educated at Rugby and Cambridge, and +was called to the Scotch bar in 1832, but then took to politics. He was +elected to parliament as a Liberal for Cockermouth in 1836, and +represented that constituency till 1852, when he was defeated; in 1853 +he was returned for Stroud, and sat there till 1868; and from 1869 till +he died he was member for Liskeard. He was a junior lord of the treasury +in Lord Melbourne's administration for a few months during 1841, and +became prominent for attacking Lord John Russell's ecclesiastical policy +in 1847 and subsequent years. In 1855, under Lord Palmerston, he was +made chief secretary for Ireland, but resigned in 1857. He gradually +took up a position as an independent Liberal, and was well known for his +attacks on the Church, and his exposures of various "jobs." But his name +is principally connected with his influence over Robert Lowe (Lord +Sherbrooke) in 1866 at the time of Mr Gladstone's Reform Bill, to which +he and Lowe were hostile; and it was in describing the Lowe-Horsman +combination that John Bright spoke of the "Cave of Adullam." Horsman +died at Biarritz on the 30th of November 1876. + + + + +HORST, the term used In physical geography and geology for a block of +the earth's crust that has remained stationary while the land has sunk +on either side of it, or has been crushed in a mountain range against +it. The Vosges and Black Forest are examples of the former, the Table, +Jura and the Dôle of the latter result. The word is also applied to +those larger areas, such as the Russian plain, Arabia, India and Central +South Africa, where the continent remains stable, with horizontal +table-land stratification, in distinction to folded regions such as the +Eurasian chains. + + + + +HORT, FENTON JOHN ANTHONY (1828-1892), English theologian, was born in +Dublin on the 23rd of April 1828, the great-grandson of Josiah Hort, +archbishop of Tuam in the 18th century. In 1846 he passed from Rugby to +Trinity College, Cambridge, where he was the contemporary of E. W. +Benson, B. F. Westcott and J. B. Lightfoot. The four men became lifelong +friends and fellow-workers. In 1850 Hort took his degree, being third in +the classical tripos, and in 1852 he became fellow of his college. In +1854, in conjunction with J. E. B. Mayor and Lightfoot, he established +the _Journal of Classical and Sacred Philology_, and plunged eagerly +into theological and patristic study. He had been brought up in the +strictest principles of the Evangelical school, but at Rugby he fell +under the influence of Arnold and Tait, and his acquaintance with +Maurice and Kingsley finally gave his opinions a direction towards +Liberalism. In 1857 he married, and accepted the college living of St +Ippolyts, near Hitchin, in Hertfordshire, where he remained for fifteen +years. During his residence there he took some part in the discussions +on university reform, continued his studies, and wrote essays for +various periodicals. In 1870 he was appointed a member of the committee +for revising the translation of the New Testament, and in 1871 he +delivered the Hulsean lectures before the university. Their title was +_The Way, the Truth, and the Life_, but they were not prepared for +publication until many years after their delivery. In 1872 he accepted a +fellowship and lectureship at Emmanuel College; in 1878 he was made +Hulsean professor of divinity, and in 1887 Lady Margaret reader in +divinity. In the meantime he had published, with his friend Westcott, an +edition of the text of the New Testament. The Revision Committee had +very largely accepted this text, even before its publication, as a basis +for their translation of the New Testament. The work on its appearance +created an immense sensation among scholars, and was vehemently attacked +in many quarters, but on the whole it was received as being much the +nearest approximation yet made to the original text of the New Testament +(see BIBLE: _New Testament_, "Textual Criticism"). The introduction was +the work of Hort, and its depth and fulness convinced all who read it +that they were under the guidance of a master. Hort died on the 30th of +November 1892, worn out by intense mental labour. Next to his Greek +Testament his best-known work is _The Christian Ecclesia_ (1897). Other +publications are: _Judaistic Christianity_ (1894); _Village Sermons_ +(two series); _Cambridge and other Sermons_; _Prolegomena to ... +Romans and Ephesians_ (1895); _The Ante-Nicene Fathers_ (1895); and two +_Dissertations_, on the reading [Greek: monogenês theos] in John i. 18, +and on _The Constantinopolitan and other Eastern Creeds in the Fourth +Century_. All are models of exact scholarship and skilful use of +materials. + + His _Life and Letters_ was edited by his son, Sir Arthur Hort, Bart. + (1896). + + + + +HORTA, the capital of an administrative district comprising the islands +of Pico, Fayal, Flores and Corvo, in the Portuguese archipelago of the +Azores. Pop. (1900) 6574. Horta is a seaport on the south-east coast of +Fayal. It is defended by two castles and a wall, but these +fortifications are obsolete. The harbour, a bay 2 m. long and nearly 1 +m. broad, affords good anchorage in 5 to 20 fathoms of water, but is +dangerous in south-westerly and south-easterly winds. It is the +headquarters of profitable whale, tunny, bonito and mullet fisheries. +Its exports include sperm-oil, fruit, wine and grain. Between 1897 and +1904 the port annually accommodated about 140 vessels of 220,000 tons, +mostly of British or Portuguese nationality. + + + + +HORTEN, a seaport of Norway, in Jarlsberg-Laurvik _amt_ (county), +beautifully situated on the west bank of the Christiania Fjord, opposite +Moss, 38 m. by water and 66 by rail S. of Christiania. Pop. (1900) 8460. +It is practically united with Karl-Johansvaern, which is defended by +strong fortifications, is the headquarters of the Norwegian fleet, and +possesses an arsenal and shipbuilding yards. There are also an +observatory and a nautical museum. + + + + +HORTENSIUS, QUINTUS (114-50 B.C.), surnamed Hortalus, Roman orator and +advocate. At the age of nineteen he made his first speech at the bar, +and shortly afterwards successfully defended Nicomedes III. of Bithynia, +one of Rome's dependants in the East, who had been deprived of his +throne by his brother. From that time his reputation as an advocate was +established. As the son-in-law of Q. Lutatius Catulus he was attached to +the aristocratic party. During Sulla's ascendancy the courts of law were +under the control of the senate, the judges being themselves senators. +To this circumstance perhaps, as well as to his own merits, Hortensius +may have been indebted for much of his success. Many of his clients were +the governors of provinces which they were accused of having plundered. +Such men were sure to find themselves brought before a friendly, not to +say a corrupt, tribunal, and Hortensius, according to Cicero (_Div. in +Caecil._ 7), was not ashamed to avail himself of this advantage. Having +served during two campaigns (90-89) in the Social War, he became +quaestor in 81, aedile in 75, praetor in 72, and consul in 69. In the +year before his consulship he came into collision with Cicero in the +case of Verres, and from that time his supremacy at the bar was lost. +After 63 Cicero was himself drawn towards the party to which Hortensius +belonged. Consequently, in political cases, the two men were often +engaged on the same side (e.g. in defence of Rabirius, Murena, Publius +Cornelius Sulla, and Milo). After Pompey's return from the East in 61, +Hortensius withdrew from public life and devoted himself to his +profession. In 50, the year of his death, he successfully defended +Appius Claudius Pulcher when accused of treason and corrupt practices by +P. Cornelius Dolabella, afterwards Cicero's son-in-law. + +Hortensius's speeches are not extant. His oratory, according to Cicero, +was of the Asiatic style, a florid rhetoric, better to hear than to +read. He had a wonderfully tenacious memory (Cicero, _Brutus_, 88, 95), +and could retain every single point in his opponent's argument. His +action was highly artificial, and his manner of folding his toga was +noted by tragic actors of the day (Macrobius, _Sat._ iii. 13. 4). He +also possessed a fine musical voice, which he could skilfully command. +The vast wealth he had accumulated he spent on splendid villas, parks, +fish-ponds and costly entertainments. He was the first to introduce +peacocks as a table delicacy at Rome. He was a great buyer of wine, +pictures and works of art. He wrote a treatise on general questions of +oratory, erotic poems (Ovid, _Tristia_, ii. 441), and an _Annales_, +which gained him considerable reputation as an historian (Vell. Pat. ii. +16. 3). + +His daughter HORTENSIA was also a successful orator. In 42 she spoke +against the imposition of a special tax on wealthy Roman matrons with +such success that part of it was remitted (Quint. _Instit._ i. 1. 6; +Val. Max. viii. 3. 3). + + In addition to Cicero (_passim_), see Dio Cassius xxxviii. 16, xxxix. + 37; Pliny, _Nat. Hist._ ix. 81, x. 23, xiv. 17, xxxv. 40; Varro, + _R.R._ iii. 13. 17. + + + + +HORTENSIUS, QUINTUS, dictator of Rome 286 B.C. When the people, pressed +by their patrician creditors, "seceded" to the Janiculum, he was +commissioned to put an end to the strife. He passed a law whereby the +resolutions of the multitude (_plebiscita_) were made binding on all the +citizens, without the approval of the senate being necessary. This was +not a mere re-enactment of previous laws. Another law, passed about the +same time, which declared the _nundinae_ (market days) to be _dies +fasti_ (days on which legal business might be transacted), is also +attributed to him. He is said to have died while still dictator. + + Aulus Gellius xv. 27; Pliny, _Nat. Hist._ xvi. 15; Macrobius, + _Saturnalia_ i. 16; Livy, _Epit._ ii. + + + + + + +End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th +Edition, Volume 13, Slice 6, by Various + +*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ENCYC. BRITANNICA, VOL 13 SLICE 6 *** + +***** This file should be named 39127-8.txt or 39127-8.zip ***** +This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: + http://www.gutenberg.org/3/9/1/2/39127/ + +Produced by Marius Masi, Don Kretz and the Online +Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net + + +Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions +will be renamed. + +Creating the works from public domain print editions means that no +one owns a United States copyright in these works, so the Foundation +(and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United States without +permission and without paying copyright royalties. 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