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diff --git a/39029-8.txt b/39029-8.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..2ea6347 --- /dev/null +++ b/39029-8.txt @@ -0,0 +1,17597 @@ +The Project Gutenberg EBook of Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th Edition, +Volume 13, Slice 7, by Various + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with +almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + +Title: Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th Edition, Volume 13, Slice 7 + "Horticulture" to "Hudson Bay" + +Author: Various + +Release Date: March 2, 2012 [EBook #39029] + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1 + +*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA *** + + + + +Produced by Marius Masi, Don Kretz and the Online +Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net + + + + + + + +Transcriber's notes: + +(1) Numbers following letters (without space) like C2 were originally + printed in subscript. Letter subscripts are preceded by an + underscore, like C_n. + +(2) Characters following a carat (^) were printed in superscript. + +(3) Side-notes were relocated to function as titles of their respective + paragraphs. + +(4) Macrons and breves above letters and dots below letters were not + inserted. + +(5) [root] stands for the root symbol; [alpha], [beta], etc. for greek + letters. + +(6) The following typographical errors have been corrected: + + ARTICLE HORTICULTURE: "Portable boilers are convenient for heating + small areas, and are less expensive to install than those described + above." 'install' amended from 'instal'. + + ARTICLE HOUSE: "The end walls were closed with wooden studs and + wattle-and-daub filling. The pairs of trees were known as forks or + crucks." 'daub' amended from 'dab'. + + ARTICLE HOUSING: "The argument is confirmed by the very substantial + diminution which actually took place between 1891 and 1901." + 'between' amended from 'betweeen'. + + ARTICLE HOUSING: "In London the percentage fell by 3.7, and the + number of persons overcrowded was reduced by 103,669 in spite of an + increase of population of 324,798." 'percentage' amended from + 'precentage'. + + ARTICLE HOWARD: "His grandson Thomas succeeded him in 1554, and in + 1556 made the second of those marriages which have given the + Howards their high place among the English nobility." 'marriages' + amended from 'marraiges'. + + ARTICLE HRABANUS MAURUS MAGNENTIUS: "Returning after the lapse of + two years to Fulda, he was entrusted with the principal charge of + the school, which under his direction rose into a state of great + efficiency for that age, and sent forth such pupils as Walafrid + Strabo, Servatus Lupus of Ferières and Otfrid of Weissenburg." 'as' + amended from 'at'. + + + + + ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA + + A DICTIONARY OF ARTS, SCIENCES, LITERATURE + AND GENERAL INFORMATION + + ELEVENTH EDITION + + + VOLUME XIII, SLICE VII + + Horticulture to Hudson Bay + + + + +ARTICLES IN THIS SLICE: + + + HORTICULTURE HOVE + HORTON, CHRISTIANA HOVENDEN, THOMAS + HORTON, ROBERT FORMAN HOW, WILLIAM WALSHAM + HORTON, SAMUEL DANA HOWARD (family) + HORUS HOWARD, CATHERINE + HORWICH HOWARD, JOHN + HOSANNA HOWARD, OLIVER OTIS + HOSE HOWARD, SIR ROBERT + HOSEA HOWARD, LORD WILLIAM + HOSE-PIPE HOWARD OF EFFINGHAM, WILLIAM HOWARD + HOSHANGABAD HOWE, ELIAS + HOSHEA HOWE, JOHN + HOSHIARPUR HOWE, JOSEPH + HOSIERY HOWE, JULIA WARD + HOSIUS HOWE, RICHARD HOWE + HOSIUS, STANISLAUS HOWE, SAMUEL GRIDLEY + HOSKINS, JOHN HOWE, WILLIAM HOWE + HOSMER, HARRIET GOODHUE HOWEL DDA + HOSPICE HOWELL, JAMES + HOSPITAL HOWELLS, WILLIAM DEAN + HOSPITIUM HOWITT WILLIAM + HOSPODAR HOWITZER + HOST HOWLER + HOSTAGE HOWRAH + HOSTE, SIR WILLIAM HOWSON, JOHN SAUL + HOSTEL HOWTH + HOSTIUS HÖXTER + HOSUR HOY + HOTCH-POT HOYLAKE + HÔTEL-DE-VILLE HOYLAND NETHER + HÔTEL-DIEU HOYLE, EDMUND + HOTHAM, SIR JOHN HOZIER, PIERRE D' + HOTHAM, WILLIAM HOTHAM HRABANUS MAURUS MAGNENTIUS + HOTHO, HEINRICH GUSTAV HRÓLFR KRAKI + HOTI-MARDAN HROSVITHA + HOTMAN, FRANÇOIS HSÜAN TSANG + HOT SPRINGS (Arkansas, U.S.A.) HUAMBISAS + HOT SPRINGS (Virginia, U.S.A.) HUANCAVELICA + HOTTENTOTS HUÁNUCO + HOTTINGER, JOHANN HEINRICH HUARAZ + HOUBRAKEN, JACOBUS HUARTE DE SAN JUAN + HOUDENC, RAOUL DE HUASTECS + HOUDETOT HUBER, FRANÇOIS + HOUDETOT, ELISABETH DE BELLEGARDE HUBER, JOHANN NEPOMUK + HOUDON, JEAN ANTOINE HUBER, LUDWIG FERDINAND + HOUFFALIZE HUBERT, ST + HOUGHTON, RICHARD MONCKTON MILNES HUBERTUSBURG + HOUGHTON-LE-SPRING HUBLI + HOUND HÜBNER, EMIL + HOUNSLOW HÜBNER, JOSEPH ALEXANDER + HOUR HUC, ÉVARISTE RÉGIS + HOUR ANGLE HUCBALD + HOUR-GLASS HU-CHOW-FU + HOURI HUCHOWN + HOURS, CANONICAL HUCHTENBURG + HOUSE HUCKABACK + HOUSEHOLD, ROYAL HUCKLEBERRY + HOUSEL HUCKNALL TORKARD + HOUSELEEK HUCKSTER + HOUSING HUDDERSFIELD + HOUSMAN, LAURENCE HUDSON, GEORGE + HOUSSAYE, ARSÈNE HUDSON, HENRY + HOUSTON, SAM HUDSON, JOHN + HOUSTON HUDSON + HOUWALD, CHRISTOPH ERNST HUDSON BAY + HÒVA + + + + +HORTICULTURE (Lat. _hortus_, a garden), the art and science of the +cultivation of garden plants, whether for utilitarian or for decorative +purposes. The subject naturally divides itself into two sections, which +we here propose to treat separately, commencing with the science, and +passing on to the practice of the cultivation of flowers, fruits and +vegetables as applicable to the home garden. The point of view taken is +necessarily, as a rule, that of a British gardener. + + +PART I.--PRINCIPLES OR SCIENCE OF HORTICULTURE + +Horticulture, apart from the mechanical details connected with the +maintenance of a garden and its appurtenances, may be considered as the +application of the principles of plant physiology to the cultivation of +plants from all parts of the globe, and from various altitudes, soils +and situations. The lessons derived from the abstract principles +enunciated by the physiologist, the chemist and the physicist require, +however, to be modified to suit the special circumstances of plants +under cultivation. The necessity for this modification arises from the +fact that such plants are subjected to conditions more or less unnatural +to them, and that they are grown for special purposes which are at +variance, in degree at any rate, with their natural requirements. + +The life of the plant (see PLANTS) makes itself manifest in the +processes of growth, development and reproduction. By growth is here +meant mere increase in bulk, and by development the series of gradual +modifications by which a plant, originally simple in its structure and +conformation, becomes eventually complicated, and endowed with distinct +parts or organs. The reproduction of the higher plants takes place +either asexually by the formation of buds or organs answering thereto, +or sexually by the production of an embryo plant within the seed. The +conditions requisite for the growth, development and reproduction of +plants are, in general terms, exposure, at the proper time, to suitable +amounts of light, heat and moisture, and a due supply of appropriate +food. The various amounts of these needed in different cases have to be +adjusted by the gardener, according to the nature of the plant, its +"habit" or general mode of growth in its native country, and the +influence to which it is there subjected, as also in accordance with the +purposes for which it is to be cultivated, &c. It is but rarely that +direct information on all these points can be obtained; but inference +from previous experience, especially with regard to allied forms, will +go far to supply such deficiencies. Moreover, it must be remembered that +the conditions most favourable to plants are not always those to which +they are subjected in nature, for, owing to the competition of other +forms in the struggle for existence, liability to injury from insects, +and other adverse circumstances, plants may actually be excluded from +the localities best suited for their development. The gardener therefore +may, and does, by modifying, improve upon the conditions under which a +plant naturally exists. Thus it frequently happens that in our gardens +flowers have a beauty and a fragrance, and fruits a size and savour +denied to them in their native haunts. It behooves the judicious +gardener, then, not to be too slavish in his attempts to imitate natural +conditions, and to bear in mind that such attempts sometimes end in +failure. The most successful gardening is that which turns to the best +account the plastic organization of the plant, and enables it to develop +and multiply as perfectly as possible. Experience, coupled with +observation and reflection, as well as the more indirect teachings of +tradition, are therefore of primary importance to the practical +gardener. + +We propose here to notice briefly the several parts of a flowering +plant, and to point out the rationale of the cultural procedures +connected with them (see the references to separate articles at the end +of article on BOTANY). + + _The Root._--The root, though not precluded from access of air, is not + directly dependent for its growth on the agency of light. The + efficiency of drainage, digging, hoeing and like operations is + accounted for by the manner in which they promote aeration of the + soil, raise its temperature and remove its stagnant water. Owing to + their growth in length at, or rather in the immediate vicinity of, + their tips, roots are enabled to traverse long distances by + surmounting some obstacles, penetrating others, and insinuating + themselves into narrow crevices. As they have no power of absorbing + solid materials, their food must be of a liquid or gaseous character. + It is taken up from the interstices between the particles of soil + exclusively by the finest subdivisions of the fibrils, and in many + cases by the extremely delicate thread-like cells which project from + them and which are known as root-hairs. The importance of the + root-fibres, or "feeding roots" justifies the care which is taken by + every good gardener to secure their fullest development, and to + prevent as far as possible any injury to them in digging, potting and + transplanting, such operations being therefore least prejudicial at + seasons when the plant is in a state of comparative rest. + + _Root-Pruning and Lifting._--In apparent disregard of the general rule + just enunciated is the practice of root-pruning fruit trees, when, + from the formation of wood being more active than that of fruit, they + bear badly. The contrariety is more apparent than real, as the + operation consists in the removal of the coarser roots, a process + which results in the development of a mass of fine feeding roots. + Moreover, there is a generally recognised quasi-antagonism between the + vegetative and reproductive processes, so that, other things being + equal, anything that checks the one helps forward the other. + + _Watering._--So far as practical gardening is concerned, feeding by + the roots after they have been placed in suitable soil is confined + principally to the administration of water and, under certain + circumstances, of liquid or chemical manure; and no operations demand + more judicious management. The amount of water required, and the times + when it should be applied, vary greatly according to the kind of plant + and the object for which it is grown, the season, the supply of heat + and light, and numerous other conditions, the influence of which is to + be learnt by experience only. The same may be said with respect to the + application of manures. The watering of pot-plants requires especial + care. Water should as a rule be used at a temperature not lower than + that of the surrounding atmosphere, and preferably after exposure for + some time to the air. + + _Bottom-Heat._--The "optimum" temperature, or that best suited to + promote the general activity of roots, and indeed of all vegetable + organs, necessarily varies very much with the nature of the plant, and + the circumstances in which it is placed, and is ascertained by + practical experience. Artificial heat applied to the roots, called by + gardeners "bottom-heat," is supplied by fermenting materials such as + stable manure, leaves, &c., or by hot-water pipes. In winter the + temperature of the soil, out of doors, beyond a certain depth is + usually higher than that of the atmosphere, so that the roots are in a + warmer and more uniform medium than are the upper parts of the plant. + Often the escape of heat from the soil is prevented by "mulching," + i.e. by depositing on it a layer of litter, straw, dead leaves and the + like. + + The _Stem_ and its subdivisions or branches raise to the light and air + the leaves and flowers, serve as channels for the passage to them of + fluids from the roots, and act as reservoirs for nutritive substances. + Their functions in annual, biennial and herbaceous perennial plants + cease after the ripening of the seed, whilst in plants of longer + duration layer after layer of strong woody tissue is formed, which + enables them to bear the strains which the weight of foliage and the + exposure to wind entail. The gardener aims usually at producing stout, + robust, short-jointed stems, instead of long lanky growths defective + in woody tissue. To secure these conditions free exposure to light and + air is requisite; but in the case of coppices and woods, or where long + straight spars are needed by the forester, plants are allowed to grow + thickly so as to ensure development in an upward rather than in a + lateral direction. This and like matters will, however, be more fitly + considered in dealing hereafter with the buds and their treatment. + + _Leaves._--The work of the leaves may briefly be stated to consist of + the processes of nutrition, respiration and transpiration. Nutri tion + (assimilation) by the leaves includes the inhalation of air, and the + interaction under the influence of light and in the presence of + chlorophyll of the carbon dioxide of the air with the water received + from the root, to form carbonaceous food. Respiration in plants, as in + other organisms, is a process that goes on by night as well as by day + and consists in plants in the breaking up of the complex carbonaceous + substances formed by assimilation into less complex and more + transportable substances. This process, which is as yet imperfectly + understood, is attended by the consumption of oxygen, the liberation + of energy in the form of heat, and the exhalation of carbon dioxide + and water vapour. Transpiration is loss of water by the plant by + evaporation, chiefly from the minute pores or stomata on the leaves. + In xerophytic plants (_e.g._ cacti, euphorbias, &c.) from hot, dry and + almost waterless regions where evaporation would be excessive, the + leaf surface, and consequently the number of stomata, are reduced to a + minimum, as it would be fatal to such plants to exhale vapour as + freely in those regions as the broad-leaved plants that grow in places + where there is abundance of moisture. Although transpiration is a + necessary accompaniment of nutrition, it may easily become excessive, + especially where the plant cannot readily recoup itself. In these + circumstances "syringing" and "damping down" are of value in cooling + the temperature of the air in hothouses and greenhouses and increasing + its humidity, thereby checking excessive transpiration. Shading the + glass with canvas or washes during the summer months has the same + object in view. Syringing is also beneficial in washing away dirt and + insects. + + _Buds._--The recognition of the various forms of buds and their modes + of disposition in different plants is a matter of the first + consequence in the operations of pruning and training. Flower-buds are + produced either on the old wood, _i.e._ the shoots of the past year's + growth, or on a shoot of the present year. The peach, horse-chestnut, + lilac, morello cherry, black currant, rhododendron and many other + trees and shrubs develop flower-buds for the next season speedily + after blossoming, and these may be stimulated into premature growth. + The peculiar short, stunted branches or "spurs" which bear the + flower-buds of the pear, apple, plum, sweet cherry, red currant, + laburnum, &c., deserve special attention. In the rose, passion-flower, + clematis, honeysuckle, &c., in which the flower-buds are developed at + the ends of the young shoot of the year, we have examples of plants + destitute of flower-buds during the winter. + + _Propagation by Buds._--The detached leaf-buds (_gemmae_ or + _bulbils_), of some plants are capable under favourable conditions of + forming new plants. The edges of the leaves of _Bryophyllum calycinum_ + and of _Cardamine pratensis_, and the growths in the axils of the + leaves of _Lilium bulbiferum_, as well as the fronds of certain ferns + (e.g. _Asplenium bulbiferum_), produce buds of this character. It is + a matter of familiar observation that the ends of the shoots of + brambles take root when bent down to the ground. In some instances + buds form on the roots, and may be used for purposes of propagation, + as in the Japan quince, the globe thistle, the sea holly, some sea + lavenders, _Bocconia_, _Acanthus_, &c. Of the tendency in buds to + assume an independent existence gardeners avail themselves in the + operations of striking "cuttings," and making "layers" and "pipings," + as also in budding and grafting. In taking a slip or cutting the + gardener removes from the parent plant a shoot having one or more buds + or "eyes," in the case of the vine one only, and places it in a moist + and sufficiently warm situation, where, as previously mentioned, undue + evaporation from the surface is prevented. For some cuttings, pots + filled with light soil, with the protection of the propagating-house + and of bell-glasses, are requisite; but for many of our hardy + deciduous trees and shrubs no such precautions are necessary, and the + insertion of a short shoot about half its length into moist and gritty + ground at the proper season suffices to ensure its growth. In the case + of the more delicate plants, the formation of roots is preceded by the + production from the cambium of the cuttings of a succulent mass of + tissue, the _callus_. It is important in some cases, _e.g._ zonal + pelargoniums, fuchsias, shrubby calceolarias, dahlias, carnations, + &c., to retain on the cutting some of its leaves, so as to supply the + requisite food for storage in the callus. In other cases, where the + buds themselves contain a sufficiency of nutritive matter for the + young growths, the retention of leaves is not necessary. The most + successful mode of forming roots is to place the cuttings in a mild + bottom-heat, which expedites their growth, even in the case of many + hardy plants whose cuttings strike roots in the open soil. With some + hard-wooded trees, as the common white-thorn, roots cannot be obtained + without bottom-heat. It is a general rule throughout plant culture + that the activity of the roots shall be in advance of that of the + leaves. Cuttings of deciduous trees and shrubs succeed best if planted + early in autumn while the soil still retains the solar heat absorbed + during summer. For evergreens August or September, and for greenhouse + and stove-plants the spring and summer months, are the times most + suitable for propagation by cuttings. + + _Layering_ consists simply in bending down a branch and keeping it in + contact with or buried to a small depth in the soil until roots are + formed; the connexion with the parent plant may then be severed. Many + plants can be far more easily propagated thus than by cuttings. + + _Grafting_ or "_working_" consists in the transfer of a branch, the + "graft" or "scion," from one plant to another, which latter is termed + the "stock." The operation must be so performed that the growing + tissues, or cambium-layer of the scion, may fit accurately to the + corresponding layer of the stock. In _budding_, as with roses and + peaches, a single bud only is implanted. _Inarching_ is essentially + the promotion of the union of a shoot of one plant to that of another + of the same or allied species or variety. The outer bark of each being + removed, the two shoots are kept in contact by ligature until union is + established, when the scion is completely severed from its original + attachments. This operation is varied in detail according to the kind + of plant to be propagated, but it is essential in all cases that the + affinity between the two plants be near, that the union be neatly + effected, and that the ratio as well as the season of growth of stock + and scion be similar. + + The selection of suitable stocks is a matter still requiring much + scientific experiment. The object of grafting is to expedite and + increase the formation of flowers and fruit. Strong-growing pears, for + instance, are grafted on the quince stock in order to restrict their + tendency to form "gross" shoots and a superabundance of wood in place + of flowers and fruit. Apples, for the same reason, are "worked" on the + "paradise" or "doucin" stocks, which from their influence on the scion + are known as dwarfing stocks. Scions from a tree which is weakly, or + liable to injury by frosts, are strengthened by engrafting on robust + stocks. Lindley has pointed out that, while in Persia, its native + country, the peach is probably best grafted on the peach, or on its + wild type the almond, in England, where the summer temperature of the + soil is much lower than that of Persia, it might be expected, as + experience has proved, to be most successful on stocks of the native + plum. + + The soil in which the stock grows is a point demanding attention. From + a careful series of experiments made in the Horticultural Society's + Garden at Chiswick, it was found that where the soil is loamy, or + light and slightly enriched with decayed vegetable matter, the apple + succeeds best on the doucin stock, and the pear on the quince; and + where it is chalky it is preferable to graft the apple on the crab, + and the pear on the wild pear. For the plum on loamy soils the plum, + and on chalky and light soils the almond, are the most desirable + stocks, and for the cherry on loamy or light rich soils the wild + cherry, and on chalk the "mahaleb" stock. + + The form and especially the quality of fruit is more or less affected + by the stock upon which it is grown. The Stanwick nectarine, so apt to + crack and not to ripen when worked in the ordinary way, is said to be + cured of these propensities by being first budded close to the ground, + on a very strong-growing Magnum Bonum plum, worked on a Brussels + stock, and by then budding the nectarine on the Magnum Bonum about a + foot from the ground. The fruit of the pear is of a higher colour and + smaller on the quince stock than on the wild pear; still more so on + the medlar. On the mountain ash the pear becomes earlier. + + The effects produced by stock on scion, and more particularly by scion + on stock, are as a rule with difficulty appreciable. Nevertheless, in + exceptional cases modified growths, termed "graft-hybrids," have been + obtained which have been attributed to the commingling of the + characteristics of stock and scion (see HYBRIDISM). Of these the most + remarkable example is _Cytisus Adami_, a tree which year after year + produces some shoots, foliage and flowers like those of the common + laburnum, others like those of the very different looking dwarf shrub + _C. purpureus_, and others again intermediate between these. We may + hence infer that _C. purpureus_ was grafted or budded on the common + laburnum, and that the intermediate forms are the result of + graft-hybridization. Numerous similar facts have been recorded. Among + gardeners the general opinion is against the possibility of + graft-hybridization. The wonder, however, seems to be that it does not + occur more frequently, seeing that fluids must pass from stock to + scion, and matter elaborated in the leaves of the scion must certainly + to some extent enter the stock. It is clear, nevertheless, from + examination that as a rule the wood of the stock and the wood of the + scion retain their external characters year by year without change. + Still, as in the laburnum just mentioned, in the variegated jasmine + and in _Abutilon Darwinii_, in the copper beech and in the + horse-chestnut, the influence of a variegated scion has occasionally + shown itself in the production from the stock of variegated shoots. At + a meeting of the Scottish Horticultural Association (see _Gard. + Chron._, Jan. 10, 1880, figs. 12-14) specimens of a small roundish + pear, the "Aston Town," and of the elongated kind known as "Beurré + Clairgeau," were exhibited. Two more dissimilar pears hardly exist. + The result of working the Beurré Clairgeau upon the Aston Town was the + production of fruits precisely intermediate in size, form, colour, + speckling of rind and other characteristics. Similar, though less + marked, intermediate characters were obvious in the foliage and + flowers. + + Double grafting (French, _greffe sur greffe_) is sufficiently + explained by its name. By means of it a variety may often be + propagated, or its fruit improved in a way not found practicable under + ordinary circumstances. For its successful prosecution prolonged + experiments in different localities and in gardens devoted to the + purpose are requisite. + + _Planting._--By removal from one place to another the growth of every + plant receives a check. How this check can be obviated or reduced, + with regard to the season, the state of atmosphere, and the condition + and circumstances of the plant generally, is a matter to be considered + by the practical gardener. + + As to season, it is now admitted with respect to deciduous trees and + shrubs that the earlier in autumn planting is performed the better; + although some extend it from the period when the leaves fall to the + first part of spring, before the sap begins to move. If feasible, the + operation should be completed by the end of November, whilst the soil + is still warm with the heat absorbed during summer. Attention to this + rule is specially important in the case of rare and delicate plants. + Early autumn planting enables wounded parts of roots to be healed + over, and to form fibrils, which will be ready in spring, when it is + most required, to collect food for the plant. Planting late in spring + should, as far as possible, be avoided, for the buds then begin to + awaken into active life, and the draught upon the roots becomes great. + It has been supposed that because the surface of the young leaves is + small transpiration is correspondingly feeble; but it must be + remembered, not only that their newly-formed tissue is unable without + an abundant supply of sap from the roots to resist the excessive + drying action of the atmosphere, but that, in spring, the lowness of + the temperature at that season in Great Britain prevents the free + circulation of the sap. The comparative dryness of the atmosphere in + spring also causes a greater amount of transpiration then than in + autumn and winter. Another fact in favour of autumnal planting is the + production of roots in winter. + + The best way of performing transplantation depends greatly on the size + of the trees, the soil in which they grow, and the mechanical + appliances made use of in lifting and transporting them. The smaller + the tree the more successfully can it be removed. The more + argillaceous and the less siliceous the soil the more readily can + balls of earth be retained about the roots. All planters lay great + stress on the preservation of the fibrils; the point principally + disputed is to what extent they can with safety be allowed to be cut + off in transplantation. Trees and shrubs in thick plantations, or in + sheltered warm places, are ill fitted for planting in bleak and cold + situations. During their removal it is important that the roots be + covered, if only to prevent desiccation by the air. Damp days are + therefore the best for the operation; the dryest months are the most + unfavourable. Though success in transplanting depends much on the + humidity of the atmosphere, the most important requisite is warmth in + the soil; humidity can be supplied artificially, but heat cannot. + + _Pruning_, or the removal of superfluous growths, is practised in + order to equalize the development of the different parts of trees, or + to promote it in particular directions so as to secure a certain form, + and, by checking undue luxuriance, to promote enhanced fertility. In + the rose-bush, for instance, in which, as we have seen, the + flower-buds are formed on the new wood of the year, pruning causes the + old wood to "break," i.e. to put forth a number of new buds, some of + which will produce flowers at their extremities. The manner and the + time in which pruning should be accomplished, and its extent, vary + with the plant, the objects of the operation, i.e. whether for the + production of timber or fruit, the season and various other + circumstances. So much judgment and experience does the operation call + for that it is a truism to say that bad pruning is worse than none. + The removal of weakly, sickly, overcrowded and gross infertile shoots + is usually, however, a matter about which there can be few mistakes + when once the habit of growth and the form and arrangement of the buds + are known. Winter pruning is effected when the tree is comparatively + at rest, and is therefore less liable to "bleeding" or outpouring of + sap. Summer pruning or pinching off the tips of such of the younger + shoots as are not required for the extension of the tree, when not + carried to too great an extent, is preferable to the coarser more + reckless style of pruning. The injury inflicted is less and not so + concentrated; the wounds are smaller, and have time to heal before + winter sets in. The effects of badly-executed pruning, or rather + hacking, are most noticeable in the case of forest trees, the + mutilation of which often results in rotting, canker and other + diseases. Judicious and timely thinning so as to allow the trees room + to grow, and to give them sufficiency of light and air, will generally + obviate the need of the pruning-saw, except to a relatively small + extent. + + _Training_ is a procedure adopted when it is required to grow plants + in a limited area, or in a particular shape, as in the case of many + plants of trailing habit. Judicious training also may be of importance + as encouraging the formation of flowers and fruit. Growth in length is + mainly in a vertical direction, or at least at the ends of the shoots; + and this should be encouraged, in the case of a timber tree, or of a + climbing plant which it is desired should cover a wall quickly; but + where flowers or fruit are specially desired, then, when the wood + required is formed, the lateral shoots may often be trained more or + less downward to induce fertility. The refinements of training, as of + pruning, may, however, be carried too far; and not unfrequently the + symmetrically trained trees of the French excite admiration in every + respect save fertility. + + _Sports or Bud Variations._--Here we may conveniently mention certain + variations from the normal condition in the size, form or disposition + of buds or shoots on a given plant. An inferior variety of pear, for + instance, may suddenly produce a shoot bearing fruit of superior + quality; a beech tree, without obvious cause, a shoot with finely + divided foliage; or a camellia an unwontedly fine flower. When removed + from the plant and treated as cuttings or grafts, such sports may be + perpetuated. Many garden varieties of flowers and fruits have thus + originated. The cause of their production is very obscure. + + _Formation of Flowers._--Flowers, whether for their own sake or as the + necessary precursors of the fruit and seed, are objects of the + greatest concern to the gardener. As a rule they are not formed until + the plant has arrived at a certain degree of vigour, or until a + sufficient supply of nourishment has been stored in the tissues of the + plant. The reproductive process of which the formation of the flower + is the first stage being an exhaustive one, it is necessary that the + plant, as gardeners say, should get "established" before it flowers. + Moreover, although the green portions of the flower do indeed perform + the same office as the leaves, the more highly coloured and more + specialized portions, which are further removed from the typical + leaf-form, do not carry on those processes for which the presence of + chlorophyll is essential; and the floral organs may, therefore, in a + rough sense, be said to be parasitic upon the green parts. A check or + arrest of growth in the vegetative organs seems to be a necessary + preliminary to the development of the flower. + + A diminished supply of water at the root is requisite, so as to check + energy of growth, or rather to divert it from leaf-making. Partial + starvation will sometimes effect this; hence the grafting of + free-growing fruit trees upon dwarfing stocks, as before alluded to, + and also the "ringing" or girdling of fruit trees, i.e. the removal + from the branch of a ring of bark, or the application of a tight + cincture, in consequence of which the growth of the fruits above the + wound or the obstruction is enhanced. On the same principle the use of + small pots to confine the roots, root-pruning and lifting the roots, + and exposing them to the sun, as is done in the case of the vine in + some countries, are resorted to. A higher temperature, especially with + deficiency of moisture, will tend to throw a plant into a flowering + condition. This is exemplified by the fact that the temperature of the + climate of Great Britain is too low for the flowering, though + sufficiently high for the growth of many plants. Thus the Jerusalem + artichoke, though able to produce stems and tubers abundantly, only + flowers in exceptionally hot seasons. + + _Forcing._--The operation of forcing is based upon the facts just + mentioned. By subjecting a plant to a gradually increasing + temperature, and supplying water in proportion, its growth may be + accelerated; its season of development may be, as it were, + anticipated; it is roused from a dormant to an active state. Forcing + therefore demands the most careful adjustment of temperature and + supplies of moisture and light. + + Deficiency of light is less injurious than might at first be expected, + because the plant to be forced has stored up in its tissues, and + available for use, a reserve stock of material formed through the + agency of light in former seasons. The intensity of the colour of + flowers and the richness of flavour of fruit are, however, deficient + where there is feebleness of light. Recent experiments show that the + influence of electric light on chlorophyll is similar to that of + sunlight, and that deficiencies of natural light may to some extent be + made good by its use. The employment of that light for forcing + purposes would seem to be in part a question of expense. The advantage + hitherto obtained from its use has consisted in the rapidity with + which flowers have been formed and fruits ripened under its influence, + circumstances which go towards compensating for the extra cost of + production. + + _Retardation._--The art of retarding the period of flowering in + certain plants consists, in principle, in the artificial application + of cold temperatures whereby the resting condition induced by low + winter temperature is prolonged. For commercial purposes, crowns of + lily of the valley, tulip and other bulbs, and such deciduous woody + plants as lilac and deciduous species of rhododendron, while in a + state of rest, are packed in wet moss and introduced into cold-storage + chambers, where they may be kept in a state of quiescence, it desired, + throughout the following summer. The temperature of the cold chamber + is varied from the freezing-point of water, to a few degrees lower, + according to the needs of the plants under treatment. When required + for use they are removed to cool sheds to thaw, and are then gradually + inured to higher temperatures. The chief advantages of retarded plants + are:--(a) they may be flowered almost at will; (b) they are readily + induced to flower at those times when unretarded plants refuse to + respond to forcing. Cold-storage chambers form a part of the equipment + of most of the leading establishments where flowers are grown for + market. + + _Double Flowers._--The taste of the day demands that "double flowers" + should be largely grown. Though in many instances, as in hyacinths, + they are less beautiful than single ones, they always present the + advantage of being less evanescent. Under the vague term "double" many + very different morphological changes are included. The flower of a + double dahlia, e.g. offers a totally different condition of structure + from that of a rose or a hyacinth. The double poinsettia, again, owes + its so-called double condition merely to the increased number of its + scarlet involucral leaves, which are not parts of the flower at all. + It is reasonable, therefore, to infer that the causes leading to the + production of double flowers are varied. A good deal of difference of + opinion exists as to whether they are the result of arrested growth or + of exuberant development, and accordingly whether restricted food or + abundant supplies of nourishment are the more necessary for their + production. It must suffice here to say that double flowers are most + commonly the result of the substitution of brightly-coloured petals + for stamens or pistils or both, and that a perfectly double flower + where all the stamens and pistils are thus metamorphosed is + necessarily barren. Such a plant must needs be propagated by cuttings. + It rarely happens, however, that the change is quite complete + throughout the flower, and so a few seeds may be formed, some of which + may be expected to reproduce the double-blossomed plants. By + continuous selection of seed from the best varieties, and "roguing" or + eliminating plants of the ordinary type, a "strain" or race of double + flowers is gradually produced. + + _Formation of Seed--Fertilization._--In fertilization--the influence + in flowering plants of the male-cell in the pollen tube upon the + egg-cell in the ovule (see BOTANY)--there are many circumstances of + importance horticulturally, to which, therefore, brief reference must + be made. Flowers, generally speaking, are either self-fertilized, + cross-fertilized or hybridized. Self-fertilization occurs when the + pollen of a given flower affects the egg-cell of the same individual + flower. Cross-fertilization varies both in manner and degree. In the + simplest instances the pollen of one flower fertilizes the ovules of + another on the same plant, owing to the stamens arriving at maturity + in any one flower earlier or later than the pistils. + + Cross-fertilization must of necessity occur when the flowers are + structurally unisexual, as in the hazel, in which the male and female + flowers are monoecious, or separate on the same plant, and in the + willow, in which they are dioecious, or on different plants. A + conspicuous example of a dioecious plant is the common aucuba, of + which for years only the female plant was known in Britain. When, + through the introduction of the male plant from Japan, its + fertilization was rendered possible, ripe berries, before unknown, + became common ornaments of the shrub. + + The conveyance of pollen from one flower to another in + cross-fertilization is effected naturally by the wind, or by the + agency of insects and other creatures. Flowers that require the aid of + insects usually offer some attraction to their visitors in the shape + of bright colour, fragrance or sweet juices. The colour and markings + of a flower often serve to guide the insects to the honey, in the + obtaining of which they are compelled either to remove or to deposit + pollen. The reciprocal adaptations of insects and flowers demand + attentive observation on the part of the gardener concerned with the + growing of grapes, cucumbers, melons and strawberries, or with the + raising of new and improved varieties of plants. In wind-fertilized + plants the flowers are comparatively inconspicuous and devoid of much + attraction for insects; and their pollen is smoother and smaller, and + better adapted for transport by the wind, than that of + insect-fertilized plants, the roughness of which adapts it for + attachment to the bodies of insects. + + It is very probable that the same flower at certain times and seasons + is self-fertilizing, and at others not so. The defects which cause + gardeners to speak of certain vines as "shy setters," and of certain + strawberries as "blind," may be due either to unsuitable conditions of + external temperature, or to the non-accomplishment, from some cause or + other, of cross-fertilization. In a vinery, tomato-house or a + peach-house it is often good practice at the time of flowering to tap + the branches smartly with a stick so as to ensure the dispersal of the + pollen. Sometimes more delicate and direct manipulation is required, + and the gardener has himself to convey the pollen from one flower to + another, for which purpose a small camel's-hair pencil is generally + suitable. The degree of fertility varies greatly according to external + conditions, the structural and functional arrangements just alluded + to, and other causes which may roughly be called constitutional. Thus, + it often happens that an apparently very slight change in climate + alters the degree of fertility. In a particular country or at certain + seasons one flower will be self-sterile or nearly so, and another just + the opposite. + + _Hybridization._--Some of the most interesting results and many of the + gardener's greatest triumphs have been obtained by hybridization, i.e. + the crossing of two individuals not of the same but of two distinct + species of plants, as, for instance, two species of rhododendron or + two species of orchid (see HYBRIDISM). It is obvious that + hybridization differs more in degree than in kind from + cross-fertilization. The occurrence of hybrids in nature explains the + difficulty experienced by botanists in deciding on what is a species, + and the widely different limitations of the term adopted by different + observers in the case of willows, roses, brambles, &c. The artificial + process is practically the same in hybridization as in + cross-fertilization, but usually requires more care. To prevent + self-fertilization, or the access of insects, it is advisable to + remove the stamens and even the corolla from the flower to be + impregnated, as its own pollen or that of a flower of the same species + is often found to be "prepotent." There are, however, cases, e.g. some + passion-flowers and rhododendrons, in which a flower is more or less + sterile with its own, but fertile with foreign pollen, even when this + is from a distinct species. It is a singular circumstance that + reciprocal crosses are not always or even often possible; thus, one + rhododendron may afford pollen perfectly potent on the stigma of + another kind, by the pollen of which latter its own stigma is + unaffected. + + The object of the hybridizer is to obtain varieties exhibiting + improvements in hardihood, vigour, size, shape, colour, fruitfulness, + resistance to disease or other attributes. His success depends not + alone on skill and judgment, for some seasons, or days even, are found + more propitious than others. Although promiscuous and hap-hazard + procedures no doubt meet with a measure of success, the best results + are those which are attained by systematic work with a definite aim. + + Hybrids are sometimes less fertile than pure-bred species, and are + occasionally quite sterile. Some hybrids, however, are as fertile as + pure-bred plants. Hybrid plants may be again crossed, or even + re-hybridized, so as to produce a progeny of very mixed parentage. + This is the case with many of our roses, dahlias, begonias, + pelargoniums, orchids and other long or widely cultivated garden + plants. + + _Reversion._--In modified forms of plants there is frequently a + tendency to "sport" or revert to parental or ancestral + characteristics. So markedly is this the case with hybrids that in a + few generations all traces of a hybrid origin may disappear. The + dissociation of the hybrid element in a plant must be obviated by + careful selection. The researches of Gregor Johann Mendel (1822-1884), + abbot of the Augustinian monastery at Brünn, in connexion with peas + and other plants, apparently indicate that there is a definite natural + law at work in the production of hybrids. Having crossed yellow and + green seeded peas both ways, he found that the progeny resulted in + _all yellow_ coloured seeds. These gave rise in due course to a second + generation in which there were three yellows to one green. In the + third generation the yellows from the second generation gave the + proportion of one pure yellow, two impure yellows, and one green; + while the green seed of the second generation threw only green seeds + in the third, fourth and fifth generations. The pure yellow in the + third generation also threw pure yellows in the fourth and fifth and + succeeding generations. The impure yellows, however, in the next + generation gave rise to one pure yellow, one pure green, to two impure + yellows, and so on from generation to generation. Accordingly as the + green or the yellow predominated in the progeny it was termed + "dominant," while the colour that disappeared was called "recessive." + It happened, however, that a recessive colour in one generation + becomes the dominant in a succeeding one. + + _Germination._--The length of the period during which seeds remain + dormant after their formation is very variable. The conditions for + germination are much the same as for growth in general. Access to + light is not required, because the seed contains a sufficiency of + stored-up food. The temperature necessary varies according to the + nature and source of the seed. Some seeds require prolonged immersion + in water to soften their shells; others are of so delicate a texture + that they would dry up and perish if not kept constantly in a moist + atmosphere. Seeds buried too deeply receive a deficient supply of air. + As a rule, seeds require to be sown more deeply in proportion to their + size and the lightness of the soil. + + The time required for germination in the most favourable circumstances + varies very greatly, even in the same species, and in seeds taken from + one pod. Thus the seeds of _Primula japonica_, though sown under + precisely similar conditions, yet come up at very irregular intervals + of time. Germination is often slower where there is a store of + available food in the perisperm, or in the endosperm, or in the embryo + itself, than where this is scanty or wanting. In the latter case the + seedling has early to shift for itself, and to form roots and leaves + for the supply of its needs. + + _Selection._--Supposing seedlings to have been developed, it is found + that a large number of them present considerable variations, some + being especially robust, others peculiar in size or form. Those most + suitable for the purpose of the gardener are carefully selected for + propagation, while others not so desirable are destroyed; and thus + after a few generations a fixed variety, race or strain superior to + the original form is obtained. Many garden plants have originated + solely by selection; and much has been done to improve our breeds of + vegetables, flowers and fruit by systematic selection. + + Large and well-formed seeds are to be preferred for harvesting. The + seeds should be kept in sacks or bags in a dry place, and if from + plants which are rare, or liable to lose their vitality, they are + advantageously packed for transmission to a distance in hermetically + sealed bottles or jars filled with earth or moss, without the addition + of moisture. + + It will have been gathered from what has been said that seeds cannot + always be depended on to reproduce exactly the characteristics of the + plant which yielded them; for instance, seeds of the greengage plum or + of the Ribston pippin will produce a plum or an apple, but not these + particular varieties, to perpetuate which grafts or buds must be + employed. (M. T. M.; W. R. W.) + + +PART II.--THE PRACTICE OF HORTICULTURE + +The details of horticultural practice naturally range under the three +heads of flowers, fruits and vegetables (see also FRUIT AND FLOWER +FARMING). There are, however, certain general aspects of the subject +which will be more conveniently noticed apart, since they apply alike to +each department. We shall therefore first treat of these under four +headings: formation and preparation of the garden, garden structures and +edifices, garden materials and appliances, and garden operations. + + +I. _Formation and Preparation of the Garden._ + +_Site._--The site chosen for the mansion will more or less determine +that of the garden, the pleasure grounds and flower garden being placed +so as to surround or lie contiguous to it, while the fruit and vegetable +gardens, either together or separate, should be placed on one side or in +the rear, according to fitness as regards the nature of the soil and +subsoil, the slope of the surface or the general features of the park +scenery. In the case of villa gardens there is usually little choice: +the land to be occupied is cut up into plots, usually rectangular, and +of greater or less breadth, and in laying out these plots there is +generally a smaller space left in the front of the villa residence and a +larger one behind, the front plot being usually devoted to approaches, +shrubbery and plantations, flower beds being added if space permits, +while the back or more private plot has a piece of lawn grass with +flower beds next the house, and a space for vegetables and fruit trees +at the far end, this latter being shut off from the lawn by an +intervening screen of evergreens or other plants. Between these two +classes of gardens there are many gradations, but our remarks will +chiefly apply to those of larger extent. + +The almost universal practice is to have the fruit and vegetable gardens +combined; and the flower garden may sometimes be conveniently placed in +juxtaposition with them. When the fruit and vegetable gardens are +combined, the smaller and choicer fruit trees only should be admitted, +such larger-growing hardy fruits as apples, pears, plums, cherries, &c., +being relegated to the orchard. + +Ground possessing a gentle inclination towards the south is desirable +for a garden. On such a slope effectual draining is easily accomplished, +and the greatest possible benefit is derived from the sun's rays. It is +well also to have an open exposure towards the east and west, so that +the garden may enjoy the full benefit of the morning and evening sun, +especially the latter; but shelter is desirable on the north and +north-east, or in any direction in which the particular locality may +happen to be exposed. In some places the south-western gales are so +severe that a belt of trees is useful as a break wind and shelter. + +_Soil and Subsoil._--A hazel-coloured loam, moderately light in texture, +is well adapted for most garden crops, whether of fruits or vegetables, +especially a good warm deep loam resting upon chalk; and if such a soil +occurs naturally in the selected site, but little will be required in +the way of preparation. If the soil is not moderately good and of fair +depth, it is not so favourable for gardening purposes. Wherever the soil +is not quite suitable, but is capable of being made so, it is best to +remedy the defect at the outset by trenching it all over to a depth of 2 +or 3 ft., incorporating plenty of manure with it. A heavy soil, although +at first requiring more labour, generally gives far better results when +worked than a light soil. The latter is not sufficiently retentive of +moisture and gets too hot in summer and requires large quantities of +organic manures to keep it in good condition. It is advantageous to +possess a variety of soils; and if the garden be on a slope it will +often be practicable to render the upper part light and dry, while the +lower remains of a heavier and damper nature. + +Natural soils consist of substances derived from the decomposition of +various kinds of rocks, the bulk consisting of clay, silica and lime, in +various proportions. As regards preparation, draining is of course of +the utmost importance. The ground should also be trenched to the depth +of 3 ft. at least, and the deeper the better so as to bring up the +subsoil--whether it be clay, sand, gravel, marl, &c.--for exposure to +the weather and thus convert it from a sterile mass into a living soil +teeming with bacteria. In this operation all stones larger than a man's +fist must be taken out, and all roots of trees and of perennial weeds +carefully cleared away. When the whole ground has been thus treated, a +moderate liming will, in general, be useful, especially on heavy clay +soils. After this, supposing the work to have occupied most of the +summer, the whole may be laid up in ridges, to expose as great a surface +as possible to the action of the winter's frost. + + Argillaceous or clay soils are those which contain a large percentage + (45-50) of clay, and a small percentage (5 or less) of lime. These are + unfitted for garden purposes until improved by draining, liming, + trenching and the addition of porous materials, such as ashes, burnt + ballast or sand, but when thoroughly improved they are very fertile + and less liable to become exhausted than most other soils. Loamy soils + contain a considerable quantity (30-45%) of clay, and smaller + quantities of lime, humus and sand. Such soils properly drained and + prepared are very suitable for orchards, and when the proportion of + clay is smaller (20-30%) they form excellent garden soils, in which + the better sort of fruit trees luxuriate. Marly soils are those which + contain a considerable percentage (10-20) of lime, and are called clay + marls, loamy marls and sandy marls, according as these several + ingredients preponderate. The clay marls are, like clay soils, too + stiff for garden purposes until well worked and heavily manured; but + loamy marls are fertile and well suited to fruit trees, and sandy + marls are adapted for producing early crops. Calcareous soils, which + may also be heavy, intermediate or light, are those which contain more + than 20% of lime, their fertility depending on the proportions of clay + and sand which enter into their composition; they are generally cold + and wet. Vegetable soils or moulds, or humus soils, contain a + considerable percentage (more than 5) of humus, and embrace both the + rich productive garden moulds and those known as peaty soils. + +The nature of the subsoil is of scarcely less importance than that of +the surface soil. Many gardeners are still afraid to disturb an +unsuitable subsoil, but experienced growers have proved that by bringing +it up to the surface and placing plenty of manure in the bottoms of the +various trenches, the very best results are attained in the course of a +season or so. An uneven subsoil, especially if retentive, is most +undesirable, as water is apt to collect in the hollows, and thus affect +the upper soil. The remedy is to make the plane of its surface agree +with that of the ground. When there is a hard pan this should be broken +up with the spade or the fork, and have plenty of manure mixed with it. +When there is an injurious preponderance of metallic oxides or other +deleterious substances, the roots of trees would be affected by them, +and they must therefore be removed. When the subsoil is too compact to +be pervious to water, effectual drainage must be resorted to; when it is +very loose, so that it drains away the fertile ingredients of the soil +as well as those which are artificially supplied, the compactness of the +stratum should be increased by the addition of clay, marl or loam. The +best of all subsoils is a dry bed of clay overlying sandstone. + +_Plan._--In laying out the garden, the plan should be prepared in minute +detail before commencing operations. The form of the kitchen and fruit +garden should be square or oblong, rather than curvilinear, since the +working and cropping of the ground can thus be more easily carried out. +The whole should be compactly arranged, so as to facilitate working, and +to afford convenient access for the carting of the heavy materials. This +access is especially desirable as regards the store-yards and framing +ground, where fermenting manures and tree leaves for making up hot beds, +coals or wood for fuel and ingredients for composts, together with +flower-pots and the many necessaries of garden culture, have to be +accommodated. In the case of villas or picturesque residences, gardens +of irregular form may be permitted; when adapted to the conditions of +the locality, they associate better with surrounding objects, but in +such gardens wall space is usually limited. + +The distribution of paths must be governed by circumstances. Generally +speaking, the main paths for cartage should be 8 ft. wide, made up of 9 +in. hard core covered by 4 in. of gravel or ash, with a gentle rise to +centre to throw off surface water. The smaller paths, not intended for +cartage, should be 4 ft. to 6 ft. wide, according to circumstances, made +up of 6 in. hard core and 3 in. of gravel or ash, and should be slightly +raised at centre. + +A considerable portion of the north wall is usually covered in front +with the glazed structures called forcing-houses, and to these the +houses for ornamental plants are sometimes attached; but a more +appropriate site for the latter is the flower garden, when that forms a +separate department. It is well, however, that everything connected with +the forcing of fruits or flowers should be concentrated in one place. +The frame ground, including melon and pine pits, should occupy some +well-sheltered spot in the slips, or on one side of the garden, and +adjoining to this may be found a suitable site for the compost ground, +in which the various kinds of soils are kept in store, and in which also +composts may be prepared. + +As walls afford valuable space for the growth of the choicer kinds of +hardy fruits, the direction in which they are built is of considerable +importance. In the warmer parts of the country the wall on the north +side of the garden should be so placed as to face the sun at about an +hour before noon, or a little to the east of south; in less favoured +localities it should be made to face direct south, and in still more +unfavourable districts it should face the sun an hour after noon, or a +little west of south. The east and west walls should run parallel to +each other, and at right angles to that on the north side, in all the +most favoured localities; but in colder or later ones, though parallel, +they should be so far removed from a right angle as to get the sun by +eleven o'clock. On the whole, the form of a parallelogram with its +longest sides in the proportion of about five to three of the shorter, +and running east and west, may be considered the best form, since it +affords a greater extent of south wall than any other. + +[Illustration: FIG. 1.--Plan of Garden an acre in area.] + + Fig. 1 represents a garden of one acre and admits of nearly double the + number of trees on the south aspect as compared with the east and + west; it allows a greater number of espalier or pyramid trees to face + the south; and it admits of being divided into equal principal + compartments, each of which forms nearly a square. The size of course + can be increased to any requisite extent. That of the royal gardens at + Frogmore, 760 ft. from east to west and 440 ft. from north to south, + is nearly of the same proportions. + +The spaces between the walls and the outer fence are called "slips." A +considerable extent is sometimes thus enclosed, and utilized for the +growth of such vegetables as potatoes, winter greens and sea-kale, for +the small bush fruits, and for strawberries. The slips are also +convenient as affording a variety of aspects, and thus helping to +prolong the season of particular vegetable crops. + +_Shelter._--A screen of some kind to temper the fury of the blast is +absolutely necessary. If the situation is not naturally well sheltered, +the defect may be remedied by masses of forest trees disposed at a +considerable distance so as not to shade the walls or fruit trees. They +should not be nearer than, say, 50 yds., and may vary from that to 100 +or 150 yds. distance according to circumstances, regard being had +especially to peculiarities occasioned by the configuration of the +country, as for instance to aerial currents from adjacent eminences. +Care should be taken, however, not to hem in the garden by crowded +plantations, shelter from the prevailing strong winds being all that is +required, while the more open it is in other directions the better. The +trees employed for screens should include both those of deciduous and of +evergreen habit, and should suit the peculiarities of local soil and +climate. Of deciduous trees the sycamore, wych-elm, horse-chestnut, +beech, lime, plane and poplar may be used,--the abele or white poplar, +_Populus alba_, being one of the most rapid-growing of all trees, and, +like other poplars, well suited for nursing other choicer subjects; +while of evergreens, the holm oak, holly, laurel (both common and +Portugal), and such conifers as the Scotch, Weymouth and Austrian pines, +with spruce and silver firs and yews, are suitable. The conifers make +the most effective screens. + +Extensive gardens in exposed situations are often divided into +compartments by hedges, so disposed as to break the force of high winds. +Where these are required to be narrow as well as lofty, holly, yew or +beech is to be preferred; but, if there is sufficient space, the +beautiful laurel and the bay may be employed where they will thrive. +Smaller hedges may be formed of evergreen privet or of tree-box. These +subordinate divisions furnish, not only shelter but also shade, which, +at certain seasons, is peculiarly valuable. + +Belts of shrubbery may be placed round the slips outside the walls; and +these may in many cases, or in certain parts, be of sufficient breadth +to furnish pleasant retired promenades, at the same time that they serve +to mask the formality of the walled gardens, and are made to harmonize +with the picturesque scenery of the pleasure ground. + +_Water Supply._--Although water is one of the most important elements in +plant life, we do not find one garden in twenty where even ordinary +precautions have been taken to secure a competent supply. Rain-water is +the best, next to that river or pond water, and last of all that from +springs; but a chemical analysis should be made of the last before +introducing it, as some spring waters contain mineral ingredients +injurious to vegetation. Iron pipes are the best conductors; they should +lead to a capacious open reservoir placed outside the garden, and at the +highest convenient level, in order to secure sufficient pressure for +effective distribution, and so that the wall trees also may be +effectually washed. Stand-pipes should be placed at intervals beside the +walks and in other convenient places, from which water may at all times +be drawn; and to which a garden hose can be attached, so as to permit of +the whole garden being readily watered. The mains should be placed under +the walks for safety, and also that they may be easily reached when +repairs are required. Pipes should also be laid having a connexion with +all the various greenhouses and forcing-houses, each of which should be +provided with a cistern for aerating the daily supplies. In fact, every +part of the garden, including the working sheds and offices, should have +water supplied without stint. + +_Fence._--Gardens of large extent should be encircled by an outer +boundary, which is often formed by a sunk wall or ha-ha surrounded by an +invisible wire fence to exclude ground game, or consists of a hedge with +low wire fence on its inner side. Occasionally this sunk wall is placed +on the exterior of the screen plantations, and walks lead through the +trees, so that views are obtained of the adjacent country. Although the +interior garden receives its form from the walls, the ring fence and +plantations may be adapted to the shape and surface of the ground. In +smaller country gardens the enclosure or outer fence is often a hedge, +and there is possibly no space enclosed by walls, but some divisional +wall having a suitable aspect is utilized for the growth of peaches, +apricots, &c., and the hedge merely separates the garden from a paddock +used for grazing. The still smaller gardens of villas are generally +bounded by a wall or wood fence, the inner side of which is appropriated +to fruit trees. For the latter walls are much more convenient and +suitable than a boarded fence, but in general these are too low to be of +much value as aids to cultivation, and they are best covered with bush +fruits or with ornamental plants of limited growth. + +_Walks._--The best material for the construction of garden walks is good +binding gravel. The ground should be excavated to the depth of a foot or +more--the bottom being made firm and slightly concave, so that it may +slope to the centre, where a drain should be introduced; or the bottom +may be made convex and the water allowed to drain away at the sides. The +bottom 9 in. should be filled in compactly with hard, coarse materials, +such as stones, brickbats, clinkers, burned clay, &c., on which should +be laid 2 or 3 in. of coarse gravel, and then 1 or 2 in. of firm binding +gravel on the surface. The surface of the walks should be kept well +rolled, for nothing contributes more to their elegance and durability. + +All the principal lines of walk should be broad enough to allow at least +three persons to walk abreast; the others may be narrower, but a +multitude of narrow walks has a puny effect. Much of the neatness of +walks depends upon the material of which they are made. Gravel from an +inland pit is to be preferred; though occasionally very excellent +varieties are found upon the sea-coast. Gravel walks must be kept free +from weeds, either by hand weeding, or by the use of one of the many +weed killers now on the market. In some parts of the country the +available material does not bind to form a close, even surface, and such +walks are kept clean by hoeing. + +Grass walks were common in English gardens during the prevalence of the +Dutch taste, but, owing to the frequent humidity of the climate, they +have in a great measure been discarded. Grass walks are made in the same +way as grass lawns. When the space to be thus occupied is prepared, a +thin layer of sand or poor earth is laid upon the surface and over this +a similar layer of good soil. This arrangement is adopted in order to +prevent excessive luxuriance in the grass. In many modern gardens +pathways made of old paving stones lead from the house to different +parts. They give an old-fashioned and restful appearance to a garden, +and in the interstices charming little plants like thyme, _Ionopsidium +acaule_, &c., are allowed to grow. + +_Edgings._--Walks are separated from the adjoining beds and borders in a +variety of ways. If a living edging is adopted, by far the best is +afforded by the dwarf box planted closely in line. It is of extremely +neat growth, and when annually clipped will remain in good order for +many years. Very good edgings, but of a less durable character, are +formed by thrift (_Armeria vulgaris_), double daisy (_Bellis perennis_), +gentianella (_Gentiana acaulis_) and London pride (_Saxifraga umbrosa_), +_Cerastium tomentosum_, _Stachys lavata_ and the beautiful evergreen +_Veronica rupestris_ with sheets of bright blue flowers close to the +ground, or by some of the finer grasses very carefully selected, such as +the sheep's fescue (_Festuca ovina_) or its glaucous-leaved variety. +Indeed, any low-growing herbaceous plant, susceptible of minute +division, is suitable for an edging. Amongst shrubby plants suitable for +edgings are the evergreen candytuft (_Iberis sempervirens_), _Euonymus +radicans variegata_, ivy, and _Euonymus microphyllus_--a charming little +evergreen with small serrated leaves. Edgings may also be formed of +narrow slips of sandstone flag, slate, tiles or bricks. One advantage of +using edgings of this kind, especially in kitchen gardens, is that they +do not harbour slugs and similar vermin, which all live edgings do, and +often to a serious extent, if they are left to grow large. In +shrubberies and large flower-plots, verges of grass-turf, from 1 to 3 +ft. in breadth, according to the size of the border and width of the +walk, make a very handsome edging, but they should not be allowed to +rise more than an inch and a half above the gravel, the grass being kept +short by repeated mowings, and the edges kept trim and well-defined by +frequently clipping with shears and cutting once or twice a year with an +edging iron. + + +II. _Garden Structures._ + +_Walls._--The position to be given to the garden walls has been already +referred to. The shelter afforded by a wall, and the increased +temperature secured by its presence, are indispensable in the climate of +Great Britain, for the production of all the finer kinds of outdoor +fruits; and hence the inner side of a north wall, having a southern +aspect, is appropriated to the more tender kinds. It is, indeed, +estimated that such positions enjoy an increased temperature equal to 7° +of latitude--that is to say, the mean temperature within a few inches of +the wall is equal to the mean temperature of the open plain 7° farther +south. The eastern and western aspects are set apart for fruits of a +somewhat hardier character. + +Where the inclination of the ground is considerable, and the presence of +high walls would be objectionable, the latter may be replaced by sunk +walls. These should not rise more than 3 ft. above the level of the +ground behind them. As dryness is favourable to an increase of heat, +such walls should be either built hollow or packed behind to the +thickness of 3 or 4 ft. with rubble stones, flints, brickbats or similar +material, thoroughly drained at bottom. For mere purposes of shelter a +height of 6 or 7 ft. will generally be sufficient for the walls of a +garden, but for the training of fruit trees it is found that an average +height of 12 ft. is more suitable. In gardens of large size the northern +or principal wall may be 14 ft., and the side walls 12 ft. in height; +while smaller areas of an acre or so should have the principal walls 12 +and the side walls 10 ft. in height. As brick is more easily built +hollow than stone, it is to be preferred for garden walls. A 14-in. +hollow wall will take in its construction 12,800 bricks, while a solid +9-in. one, with piers, will take 11,000; but the hollow wall, while thus +only a little more costly, will be greatly superior, being drier and +warmer, as well as more substantial. Bricks cannot be too well burnt for +garden walls; the harder they are the less moisture will they absorb. +Many excellent walls are built of stone. The best is dark-coloured +whinstone, because it absorbs very little moisture, or in Scotland +Caithness pavement 4 in. thick. The stones can be cut (in the quarries) +to any required length, and built in regular courses. Stone walls should +always be built with thin courses for convenience of training over their +surface. Concrete walls, properly coped and provided with a trellis, may +in some places be cheapest, and they are very durable. Common rubble +walls are the worst of all. + +The coping of garden walls is important, both for the preservation of +the walls and for throwing the rain-water off their surfaces. It should +not project less than from 2 to 2½ in., but in wet districts may be +extended to 6 in. Stone copings are best, but they are costly, and +Portland cement is sometimes substituted. Temporary copings of wood, +which may be fixed by means of permanent iron brackets just below the +stone coping, are extremely useful in spring for the protection of the +blossoms of fruit trees. They should be 9 in. or 1 ft. wide, and should +be put on during spring before the blossom buds begin to expand; they +should have attached to them scrim cloth (a sort of thin canvas), which +admits light pretty freely, yet is sufficient to ward off ordinary +frosts; this canvas is to be let down towards evening and drawn up again +in the morning. These copings should be removed when they are of no +further utility as protectors, so that the foliage may have the full +benefit of rain and dew. Any contrivance that serves to interrupt +radiation, though it may not keep the temperature much above freezing, +will be found sufficient. Standard fruit trees must be left to take +their chance; and, indeed from the lateness of their flowering, they are +generally more injured by blight, and by drenching rains, which wash +away the pollen of the flowers, than by the direct effects of cold. + +_Espalier Rails._--Subsidiary to walls as a means of training fruit +trees, espalier rails were formerly much employed, and are still used in +many gardens. In their simplest form, they are merely a row of slender +stakes of larch or other wood driven into the ground, and connected by a +slight rod or fillet at top. The use of iron rails has now been almost +wholly discontinued on account of metallic substances acting as powerful +conductors of both heat and cold in equal extremes. Standards from which +galvanized wire is tightly strained from one end to the other are +preferable and very convenient. Trees trained to them are easily got at +for all cultural operations, space is saved, and the fruit, while freely +exposed to sun and air, is tolerably secure against wind. They form, +moreover, neat enclosures for the vegetable quarters, and, provided +excess of growth from the centre is successfully grappled with, they are +productive in soils and situations which are suitable. + +_Plant Houses._--These include all those structures which are more +intimately associated with the growth of ornamental plants and flowers, +and comprise conservatory, plant stove, greenhouse and the subsidiary +pits and frames. They should be so erected as to present the smallest +extent of opaque surface consistent with stability. With this object in +view, the early improvers of hot-house architecture substituted metal +for wood in the construction of the roofs, and for the most part +dispensed with back walls; but the conducting power of the metal caused +a great irregularity of temperature, which it was found difficult to +control; and, notwithstanding the elegance of metallic houses, this +circumstance, together with their greater cost, has induced most recent +authorities to give the preference to wood. The combination of the two, +however, shows clearly that, without much variation of heat or loss of +light, any extent of space may be covered, and houses of any altitude +constructed. + + The earliest notice we have of such structures is given in the Latin + writers of the 1st century (Mart. _Epigr._ viii. 14 and 68); the + [Greek: Adônidos kêpoi], to which allusion is made by various Greek + authors, have no claim to be mentioned in this connexion. Columella + (xi. 3, 51, 52) and Pliny (_H.N._ xix. 23) both refer to their use in + Italy for the cultivation of the rarer and more delicate sorts of + plants and trees. Seneca has given us a description of the application + of hot water for securing the necessary temperature. The botanist + Jungermann had plant houses at Altdorf in Switzerland; those of + Loader, a London merchant, and the conservatory in the Apothecaries' + Botanic Garden at Chelsea, were among the first structures of the kind + erected in British gardens. These were, however, ill adapted for the + growth of plants, as they consisted of little else than a huge chamber + of masonry, having large windows in front, with the roof invariably + opaque. The next step was taken when it became fashionable to have + conservatories attached to mansions, instead of having them in the + pleasure grounds. This arrangement brought them within the province of + architects, and for nearly a century utility and fitness for the + cultivation of plants were sacrificed, as still is often the case, to + the unity of architectural expression between the conservatory and the + mansion. + +[Illustration: FIG. 2.--Lean-to Plant House.] + +Plant houses must be as far as possible impervious to wet and cold air +from the exterior, provision at the same time being made for +ventilation, while the escape of warm air from the interior must also be +under control. The most important part of the enclosing material is +necessarily glass. But as the rays of light, even in passing through +transparent glass, lose much of their energy, which is further weakened +in proportion to the distance it has to travel, the nearer the plant can +be placed to the glass the more perfectly will its functions be +performed; hence the importance of constructing the roofs at such an +angle as will admit the most light, especially sunlight, at the time it +is most required. Plants in glass houses require for their fullest +development more solar light probably than even our best hot-houses +transmit--certainly much more than is transmitted through the roofs of +houses as generally constructed. + +Plant houses constructed of the best Baltic pine timber are very +durable, but the whole of the parts should be kept as light as possible. +In many houses, especially those where ornament is of no consequence, +the rafters are now omitted, or only used at wide intervals, somewhat +stouter sash-bars being adopted, and stout panes of glass (usually +called 21-oz.) 12 to 18 in. wide, made use of. Such houses are very +light; being also very close, they require careful ventilation. The +glass roof is commonly designed so as to form a uniform plane or slope +from back to front in lean-to houses (fig. 2), and from centre to sides +in span-roofed houses. To secure the greatest possible influx of light, +some horticulturists recommend curvilinear roofs; but the superiority of +these is largely due to the absence of rafters, which may also be +dispensed with in plain roofs. They are very expensive to build and +maintain. Span and ridge-and-furrow roofs, the forms now mostly +preferred, are exceedingly well adapted for the admission of light, +especially when they are glazed to within a few inches of the ground. +They can be made, too, to cover in any extent of area without sustaining +walls. Indeed, it has been proposed to support such roofs to a great +extent upon suspension principles, the internal columns of support being +utilized for conducting the rain-water off the roof to underground +drains or reservoirs. The lean-to is the least desirable form, since it +scarcely admits of elegance of design, but it is necessarily adopted in +many cases. + +In glazing, the greater the surface of glass, and the less space +occupied by rafters and astragals as well as overlaps, the greater the +admission of light. Some prefer that the sash-bars should be grooved +instead of rebated, and this plan exposes less putty to the action of +the weather. The simple bedding of the glass, without the use of over +putty, seems to be widely approved; but the glass may be fixed in a +variety of other ways, some of which are patented. + + The _Conservatory_ is often built in connexion with the mansion, so as + to be entered from the drawing-room or boudoir. But when so situated + it is apt to suffer from the shade of the building, and is + objectionable on account of admitting damp to the drawing-room. Where + circumstances will admit, it is better to place it at some distance + from the house, and to form a connexion by means of a glass corridor. + In order that the conservatory may be kept gay with flowers, there + should be a subsidiary structure to receive the plants as they go out + of bloom. The conservatory may also with great propriety be placed in + the flower garden, where it may occupy an elevated terrace, and form + the termination of one of the more important walks. + + Great variety of design is admissible in the conservatory, but it + ought always to be adapted to the style of the mansion of which it is + a prominent appendage. Some very pleasing examples are to be met with + which have the form of a parallelogram with a lightly-rounded roof; + others of appropriate character are square or nearly so, with a + ridge-and-furrow roof. Whatever the form, there must be light in + abundance; and the shade both of buildings and of trees must be + avoided. A southern aspect, or one varying to south-east or + south-west, is preferable; if these aspects cannot be secured, the + plants selected must be adapted to the position. The central part of + the house may be devoted to permanent plants; the side stages and open + spaces in the permanent beds should be reserved for the temporary + plants. + + [Illustration: FIG. 3.--Section of Greenhouse.] + + The _Greenhouse_ is a structure designed for the growth of such exotic + plants as require to be kept during winter in a temperature + considerably above the freezing-point. The best form is the + span-roofed, a single span being better even than a series of spans + such as form the ridge-and-furrow roof. For plant culture, houses at a + comparatively low pitch are better than higher ones where the plants + have to stand at a greater distance from the glass, and therefore in + greater gloom. Fig. 3 represents a convenient form of greenhouse. It + is 20 ft. wide and 12 ft. high, and may be of any convenient length. + The side walls are surmounted by short upright sashes which open + outwards by machinery a, and the roof is provided with sliding upper + sashes for top ventilation. The upper sashes may also be made to lift, + and are in many respects more convenient to operate. In the centre is + a two-tier stage 6 ft. wide, for plants, with a pathway on each side 3 + ft. wide, and a side stage 4 ft. wide, the side stages being flat, and + the centre stage having the middle portion one-third of the width + elevated 1 ft. above the rest so as to lift up the middle row of + plants nearer the light. Span-roofed houses of this character should + run north and south so as to secure an equalization of light, and + should be warmed by two flow, and one or two return 4-in. hot-water + pipes, carried under the side stages along each side and across each + end. Where it is desired to cultivate a large number of plants, it is + much better to increase the number of such houses than to provide + larger structures. The smaller houses are far better for cultural + purposes, while the plants can be classified, and the little details + of management more conveniently attended to. Pelargoniums, cinerarias, + calceolarias, cyclamens, camellias, heaths, roses and other + specialities might thus have to themselves either a whole house or + part of a house, the conditions of which could then be more accurately + fitted to the wants of the inmates. + + The lean-to house is in most respects inferior to the span-roofed; one + of the latter could be converted into two of the former of opposite + aspects by a divisional wall along the centre. Except where space does + not permit a span-roofed building to be introduced, a lean-to is not + to be recommended; but a house of this class may often be greatly + improved by adopting a half-span or hipped roof--that is, one with a + short slope behind and a longer in front. + + [Illustration: FIG. 4.--Section of Plant Stove.] + + Where the cultivation of large specimens has to be carried on, a + span-roofed house of greater height and larger dimensions may + sometimes prove useful; but space for this class of plants may + generally be secured in a house of the smaller elevation, simply by + lowering or removing altogether the staging erected for smaller + plants, and allowing the larger ones to stand on or nearer the floor. + The _Plant Stove_ differs in no respect from the greenhouse except in + having a greater extent of hot-water pipes for the purpose of securing + a greater degree of heat, although, as the plants in stove houses + often attain a larger size, and many of them require a bed of coco-nut + fibre, tan or leaf mould to supply them with bottom heat, a somewhat + greater elevation may perhaps be occasionally required in some of the + houses. For the smaller plants, and for all choicer subjects, the + smaller size of house already recommended for greenhouses, namely 20 + ft. wide and 12 ft. high, with a side table of 4 ft. on each side, a + pathway of 3 ft. and a central stage on two levels of 6 ft. wide, will + be preferable, because more easily managed as to the supply of heat + and moisture. It will be seen (fig. 4) that along the ridge of the + roof a raised portion or lantern light b, b is introduced, which + permits of the fixing of two continuous ventilators, one along each + side, for the egress of heated and foul air, openings a, a being also + provided in the side walls opposite the hot-water pipes for the + admission of pure cold air. This type of house is also very suitable + for greenhouse plants, but would not need so much heating apparatus. + Three or four rows of flow and return pipes respectively will be + required on each side, according to the heat proposed to be + maintained. + + In their interior fittings plant stoves require more care than + greenhouses, which are much drier, and in which consequently the + staging does not so soon decay. In stoves the stages should be of + slate or stone where practicable, and the supports of iron. These + should be covered with a layer of 2 or 3 in. of some coarse gritty + material, such as pounded spar, or the shell sand obtained on the + sea-coast, on which the pots are to stand; its use is to absorb + moisture and gradually give it out for the benefit of the plants. The + pathways should be paved with tiles, brick or stone, or made of + concrete and cement, and the surface should be gently rounded so that + the water required for evaporation may drain to the sides while the + centre is sufficiently dry to walk upon; they should also have brick + or stone edgings to prevent the water so applied soaking away at the + sides and thus being wasted. + +[Illustration: FIG. 5.--Lean-to Vinery.] + +_Fruit Houses._--The principal of these are the vinery, peach house, +cucumber and melon house and orchard house. These, or a portion of them, +especially the vineries and peacheries, are frequently brought together +into a range along the principal interior or south wall of the garden, +where they are well exposed to sun and light, an ornamental plant house +being sometimes introduced into the centre of the range in order to give +effect to the outline of the buildings. When thus associated, the houses +are usually of the lean-to class, which have the advantage of being more +easily warmed and kept warm than buildings having glass on both sides, a +matter of great importance for forcing purposes. + +[Illustration: FIG. 6.--Hip-Roofed Vinery.] + + The _Vinery_ is a house devoted to the culture of the grape-vine, + which is by far the most important exotic fruit cultivated in English + gardens. When forming part of a range a vinery would in most cases be + a lean-to structure, with a sharp pitch (45-50°) if intended for early + forcing, and a flatter roof (40°) with longer rafters if designed for + the main and late crops. (1) The _lean-to_ (fig. 5) is the simplest + form, often erected against some existing wall, and the best for early + forcing, being warmer on account of the shelter afforded by the back + wall. In this house the principal part of the roof is a fixture, + ventilation being provided for by small lifting sashes against the + back wall, and by the upright front sashes being hung on a pivot so as + to swing outwards on the lower side. The necessary heat is provided by + four 4-in. hot-water pipes, which would perhaps be best placed if all + laid side by side, while the vines are planted in front and trained + upwards under the roof. A second set of vines may be planted against + the back wall, and will thrive there until the shade of the roof + becomes too dense. (2) The _hip-roofed_ or three-quarter span (fig. 6) + is a combination of the lean-to and the span-roofed, uniting to a + great degree the advantages of both, being warmer than the span and + lighter than the lean-to. The heating and ventilating arrangements are + much the same as in the lean-to, only the top sashes which open are on + the back slope, and therefore do not interfere so much with the vines + on the front slope. In both this and the lean-to the aspect should be + as nearly due south as possible. Houses of this form are excellent for + general purposes, and they are well adapted both for muscats, which + require a high temperature, and for late-keeping grapes. (3) The + _span-roofed_ (fig. 7), the most elegant and ornamental form, is + especially adapted for isolated positions; indeed, no other form + affords so much roof space for the development of the vines. The + amount of light admitted being very great, these houses answer well + for general purposes and for the main crop. The large amount of glass + or cooling surface, however, makes it more difficult to keep up a high + and regular temperature in them, and from this cause they are not so + well adapted for very early or very late crops. They are best, + nevertheless, when grapes and ornamental plants are grown in the same + house, except, indeed, in very wet and cold districts, where, in + consequence of its greater warmth, the lean-to is to be preferred. + This type of house, cheaply constructed, is in general use for raising + grapes for market. + + [Illustration: FIG. 7.--Span-Roofed Vinery.] + + The _Peach House_ is a structure in which the ripening of the fruit is + accelerated by the judicious employment of artificial heat. For early + forcing, as in vineries, the lean-to form is to be preferred, and the + house may have a tolerably sharp pitch. A width of 7 or 8 ft., with + the glass slope continued down to within a foot or two of the ground, + and without any upright front sashes, will be suitable for such a + house, which may also be conveniently divided into compartments of + from 30 to 50 ft. in length according to the extent of the building, + small houses being preferable to larger ones. As a very high + temperature is not required, two or three pipes running the whole + length of the house will suffice. The front wall should be built on + piers and arches to allow the roots to pass outwards into a prepared + border, the trees being planted just within the house. Abundant means + of ventilation should be provided. + + [Illustration: FIG. 8.--Peach House.] + + For more general purposes the house represented in fig. 8 will be + found more useful. One set of trees is planted near the front, and + trained to an arched trellis b. Another set is planted at the back, + and trained on a trellis c, which is nearly upright, and leans against + the back wall; or the back wall itself may be used for training. There + are no upright front sashes, but to facilitate ventilation there are + ventilators d in the front wall, and the upper roof sashes are made to + move up and down for the same object. Two or three hot-water pipes are + placed near the front wall. The back wall is usually planted with + dwarf and standard trees alternately, the latter being temporary, and + intended to furnish the upper part of the trellis, while the permanent + dwarfs arc gradually filling up the trellis from below. In any case + the front trellis should stop conveniently short of the top of the + sashes if there are trees against the back wall, in order to admit + light to them. They would also be better carried up nearly parallel to + the roof, and at about 1 ft. distant from it, supposing there were no + trees at the back. + + [Illustration: FIG. 9.--Forcing House.] + + A span-roofed house, being lighter than a lean-to, would be so much + the better for peach culture, especially for the crop grown just in + anticipation of those from the open walls since a high temperature is + not required. A low span, with dwarf side walls, and a lantern + ventilator along the ridge, the height in the centre being 9 ft., + would be very well adapted for the purpose. The trees should be + planted inside and trained up towards the ridge on a trellis about a + foot from the glass, the walls being arched to permit the egress of + the roots. A trellis path should run along the centre, and movable + pieces of trellis should be provided to prevent trampling on the soil + while dressing and tying in the young wood. + + The _Forcing House_.--Whenever continuous supplies of cucumbers, + melons and tomatoes are required, it is most convenient to grow them + in properly constructed forcing houses. Span-roofed houses (fig. 9) + arc probably the most useful for the purpose. They are usually 12 to + 14 ft. wide, by 10 to 12 ft. high, and of any convenient length. + Heating is effected by means of hot-water pipes below the beds, and + against the side ventilators. The walls bordering the central paths + are arched or clotted to admit heat from the chambers below the beds. + Side pipes are occasionally dispensed with, heat being obtained by + means of slots at the back of the beds, communicating with the + chambers. The beds are also of use for plunging pot plants. + Ventilation is provided at sides and top. + + Pits and frames of various kinds are frequently used for the + cultivation of cucumbers and melons, as well as hot beds covered by + ordinary garden frames. In these cases the first supply of heat is + derived from the hot bed made up within the pit. When the heat of the + original bed subsides, linings of fermenting dung must be added, and + these must be kept active by occasional turnings and the addition of + fresh material as often as required. It is better, however, to effect + both top and bottom heating by hot-water pipes. + + _Orchard Houses_ are span-roofed or lean-to structures, in which + various fruits are cultivated without the aid of artificial heat. + Peaches, nectarines, apricots, cherries and the more tender varieties + of plums and pears succeed well in houses of this kind. The types of + houses in general use are substantially as shown in fig. 7, for + span-roofed, and as fig. 5, for lean-to; in each case without the + heating apparatus. The orchard house is among the most generally + useful of all garden structures. These houses require careful + management in early summer so as to induce the more delicate varieties + of peaches and nectarines to complete and ripen their growth before + cold, sunless weather sets in. + + In commercial establishments where utility is of more importance than + ornament, the glass houses and hot water apparatus are not of so + elaborate a type as indicated in the foregoing remarks, and in many + cases excellent produce is grown in structures more or less + dilapidated. In some places movable greenhouses have been erected for + market purposes, so that the soil may be exposed to the sweetening + effect of the weather, when the glass roof is moved to an adjoining + patch. + +_Pits and Frames._--These are used both for the summer growth and winter +protection of various kinds of ornamental plants, for the growth of such +fruits as cucumbers, melons and strawberries, and for the forcing of +vegetables. When heat is required, it is sometimes supplied by means of +fermenting dung, or dung and leaves, or tanner's bark, but it is much +more economically provided by hot-water pipes. Pits of many different +forms have been designed, but it may be sufficient here to describe one +or two which can be recommended for general purposes. + + [Illustration: FIG. 10.--Ventilated Plant Pit.] + + An excellent pit for wintering bedding-out plants or young greenhouse + stock is shown at fig. 10. It is built upon the pigeon-hole principle + as high as the ground level a, a, and above that in 9-in. brickwork. + At a distance of 9 in. retaining walls b, b are built up to the ground + level, and the spaces between the two are covered by thick boarding, + which is to be shut down as shown at c in cold weather to exclude + frost, and opened as shown at d in mild weather to promote a free + circulation of air through the pit. The height of the pit might be + reduced according to the size of the plants; and, to secure the + interior against frost, flow and return hot-water pipe e should pass + along beneath the staging, which should be a strong wooden trellis + supported by projections in the brickwork. The water which drains from + the plants or is spilt in watering would fall on the bottom, which + should be made porous to carry it away. For many plants this under + current of ventilation would be exceedingly beneficial, especially + when cold winds prevented the sashes from being opened. A pit of this + character may be sunk into the ground deeper than is indicated in the + figure if the subsoil is dry and gravelly, bat in the case of a damp + subsoil it should rather be more elevated, as the soil could easily be + sloped up to meet the retaining wall. + + _Frames._--Frames (fig. 11) should be made of the best red deal, 1¼ + in. thick. A convenient size is 6 ft. wide, 24 in. high at the back + and 15 in front; and they are usually 12 ft. long, which makes three + lights and sashes, though they can be made with two lights or one + light for particular purposes. Indeed, a one-light frame is often + found very convenient for many purposes. The lights should be 2 in. + thick, and glazed with 21 oz. sheet glass, in broad panes four or five + to the breadth of a light, and of a length which will work in + conveniently and economically, very long panes being undesirable from + the havoc caused by accidents, and very short ones being objectionable + as multiplying the chances of drip, and the exclusion of light by the + numerous lappings; panes about 12 in. long are of convenient size for + garden lights of this character. In all gardens the frames and lights + should be of one size so as to be interchangeable, and a good supply + of extra lights (sashes) may always be turned to good account for + various purposes. + + [Illustration: FIG. 11.--Hot-Bed Three-Light Frame.] + + [Illustration: FIG. 12.--Span-Roof Frame.] + + Span-roof garden frame (fig. 12) may under some circumstances be + useful as a substitute for the three-light frame. It is adapted for + storing plants in winter, for nursing small plants in summer and for + the culture of melons and other crops requiring glass shelter. These + frames are made 11 in. high in front, 22 at the back and 32 at the + ridge, with ends of 1½-in. red deal; the sashes, which are 2 in. + thick, open by gearing, the front and back separately. The lights are + hinged so that they can be turned completely back when necessary. This + more direct and ready access to the plants within is one of the + principal recommendations of this form of pit. + +_Mushroom House._--Mushrooms may be grown in sheds and cellars, or even +in protected ridges in the open ground, but a special structure is +usually devoted to them. A lean-to against the north side of the garden +wall will be found suitable for the purpose, though a span-roofed form +may also be adopted, especially if the building stands apart. + +[Illustration: FIG. 13.--Lean-to Mushroom House.] + + The internal arrangement of a lean-to mushroom house is shown in fig. + 13. The length may vary from 30 ft. to 60 ft.; a convenient width is + 10 ft., which admits of a 3½ ft. central path, and beds 3 ft. wide on + each side. The shelves should be of slate a, a, supported by iron + uprights b, b, each half having a front ledge of bricks set on edge in + cement c, c. The slabs of slate forming the shelves should not be too + closely fitted, as a small interval will prevent the accumulation of + moisture at the bottom of the bed. They may be supported by iron + standards or brick piers, back and front, bearing up a flat bar of + iron on which the slates may rest; the use of the bar will give wider + intervals between the supports, which will be found convenient for + filling and emptying the beds. The roof may be tiled or slated; but, + to prevent the injurious influence of hot sun, there should be an + inner roof or ceiling d, the space between which and the outer roof e + should be packed with sawdust. A hot-water pipe f should run along + both sides of the pathway, close to the front ledge of the lowest + beds. The different shelves can be planted in succession; and the + lower ones, especially those on the floor level, as being most + convenient, can be utilized for forcing sea-kale and rhubarb. + +_The Fruit Room._--This important store should be dark, moderately dry, +with a steady, moderately cool atmosphere, and with the means of giving +sufficient ventilation to keep the air sweet. It should also be +sufficiently commodious to permit of the fruit being arranged in single +layers on the shelves or trays. A type of building which is becoming +increasingly popular for this purpose, and which is in many respects +superior to the older, and often more expensive structures, is built of +wood, with or without brick foundations, and is thickly thatched with +reeds or other non-conducting material externally--on walls and +roof--while the interior is matchboarded. Ventilation is afforded at the +ends, usually by tilting laths, operated by a cord. Two doors are +provided at one end--an inner, and an outer--the inner being glazed at +the top to admit light. They are generally span-roofed, about 6 ft. high +at the eaves, and 8 or 10 ft. high at the ridge, according to width. + + The length and breadth of these stores should be governed by the + amount and character of the storage accommodation to be provided. If + intended for storage only, a width of 9 ft. 6 in. would suffice, but + if intended to combine display with storage, the internal diameter + should be about 13 ft. In the former type, the walls are fitted with + four rows of shelves, about 3 ft. wide, and about 1 ft. 6 in. apart. + The shelves are of deal strips, 2 or 3 in. wide, laid about 1 in. + apart for ventilation. These are being superseded, however, by + sliding-out trays of convenient lengths and about 9 in. deep, working + on fixed framework. By this means the storage accommodation is nearly + doubled and the fruit is more easily manipulated. The central gangway + is about 3 ft. 6 in. wide. In the latter a central exhibition bench + about 3 ft. wide and of convenient height is provided. Gangways 2½ ft. + wide flank this, while the shelves or drawers with which the walls are + fitted are about 2½ ft. wide. + + _Care of the Fruit Room._--This consists mainly in the storing only of + such fruits as are dry and in proper condition; in judicious + ventilation, especially in the presence of large quantities of + newly-gathered fruit; in the prompt removal of all decaying fruit; and + in the exclusion of vermin. It is also advisable to wash all woodwork + and gangways annually with a weak solution of formalin, or other + inodorous germicide. + +_Heating Apparatus._--Plant houses were formerly heated in a variety of +ways--by fermenting organic matter, such as dung, by smoke flues, by +steam and by hot water circulating in iron pipes. The last-named method +has proved so satisfactory in practice that it is now in general use for +all ordinary purposes. The water is heated by a furnace, and is conveyed +from the boiler into the houses by a main or "flow" pipe, connected by +means of syphon branches with as many pipes as it is intended to serve. +When cooled it is returned to the boiler by another main or "return" +pipe. Heat is regulated in the structures by means of valves on the +various branch pipes. The flow pipe is attached to the boiler at its +highest point, to take the heated water as it ascends. The return pipe +is connected with the boiler at or near its lowest point. The highest +points of the pipes are fitted with small taps, for the removal of air, +which would retard circulation if allowed to remain. Heating by hot +water may be said to depend, in part, on the influence of gravity on +water being to some extent overcome by heating in a boiler. It ascends +the flow pipe by convection, where its onward journey would speedily end +if it were not for the driving force of other molecules of water +following, and the suction set up by the gravitation into the boiler of +the cooled water by the return pipe. The power of water to conduct heat +is very low. The conducting power of the iron in which it is conveyed is +high. It is, however, probable that conduction is to some extent a +factor in the process. + + Pipes.--It is a mistake to stint the quantity of piping, since it is + far more economical and better for the plants to have a larger surface + heated moderately than a smaller surface heated excessively. In view + of the fact that air expands, becomes lighter and rises, under the + influence of heat, the pipes should be set near the floor. If intended + to raise the temperature of the structure, they should be set on iron + or brick supports just clear of walls, earth or other heat-absorbing + bodies. Those intended to provide bottom heat, however, are set in (a) + water tanks running under the beds, or (b) in enclosed dry chambers + under the beds, or are (c) embedded in the soil or plunging material. + The first-named method is distinctly superior to the others. Pipes of + 2 in., 3 in., 4 in. and 6 in. diameters are mostly used, the 4 in. + size being the most convenient for general purposes. The joints are + packed or caulked with tow, smeared with a mixture of white and red + lead. Flanged joints are made to bolt together on washers of + vulcanized rubber. + + _Boilers._--There are numerous types of boilers in use, illustrative + of efforts to secure as much exposure as possible to the action of the + flames. The water-tube type, with multiple waterways, consists of a + number of separate tubes joined together in various ways. Some of + these are built in the form of a blunt cone, and are known as conical + tubular boilers. Others are built with the tubes arranged + horizontally, and are known as horizontal tubular boilers. The + majority of the latter are more or less saddle-shaped. Boilers with a + single waterway are of three principal types, the Cornish, the saddle + and the conical. The Cornish is cylindrical with the furnace occupying + about half the length of the cylinder. The saddle is so named from its + supposed resemblance to a saddle. It is set to span the furnace, + additional exposure to heat being secured in a variety of ways by + flues. Exposure in the conical boiler is direct on its inner surface, + and is supplemented by flues. Tubular boilers, especially the + horizontal types, are very powerful and economical. The Cornish type + is a rather slow and steady boiler, and is much used for providing + heat for large areas. The saddle boiler is very commonly employed to + provide heat for moderately sized and small areas. Both are powerful + and economical. Conical boilers are more expensive to set by reason of + their shape, and are not so convenient to manipulate as the horizontal + kinds. All the above types require a setting of masonry. Portable + boilers are convenient for heating small areas, and are less expensive + to install than those described above. They are less economical, + however, owing to loss of heat from their exposed surfaces. What are + called sectional boilers as used in America and on the Continent are + being introduced to British gardens. Portions can be added or taken + away according to the amount of heating surface required. + + _Water Supply._--Wastage of water in the boilers should be made good + automatically from a cistern controlled by means of a ball-cock. It + should be placed as high above the boiler as practicable. The feed + should connect with the return pipe near the point at which it enters + the boiler. + + _Stokeholds._--These have usually to be excavated to admit of the + boilers being set below the level of the pipes they are intended to + serve. In consequence of their depth, the draining of stokeholds often + presents difficulties. Care should be taken to allow sufficient room + to properly manipulate the fires and to store fuel. It is important + that the ventilation should be as efficient as practicable, especially + where coke fuel is to be used. + + _Stoking._--The management of the furnaces is relatively easy, and + consists in adapting the volume and intensity of the fires to + particular needs. It involves the keeping dean of flues, ashpits and + especially the fires themselves. Where coke or ordinary hard coal are + used, the removal of clinkers should be done systematically, and the + fires stirred. Anthracite coal fires should not be stirred more than + is absolutely necessary, and should not be fed in driblets. They + require more draught than coke fires, but care must be taken not to + give too much, as excessive heat is likely to melt or soften the + fire-bars. Draught is regulated in the ashpit by opening or closing + the bottom door of the furnace and by the damper on the smoke shaft. + The latter must be of a fairly good height, according to + circumstances, to secure a good draught. + + _Solar Heat._--The importance of sun heat to the general well-being of + plant life, its influence on the production of flowers and the + ripening of edible fruits, has long been appreciated in horticulture. + The practice of "closing up" early in the afternoon, i.e. the closing + of ventilators (accompanied by syringing and damping of surfaces to + produce a humid atmosphere) has for its object the conservation of as + much solar heat as practicable. + + _Ventilation._--This consists in the admission of air for the purpose + of preventing stagnation of the atmosphere and for the regulation of + temperature. Means of affording ventilation in all plant houses should + be provided in at least two places--as near the floor as practicable, + and at the top. Mechanical contrivances whereby whole sets of + ventilators may be operated simultaneously are now in common use, and + are much more convenient and economical than the older method of + working each ventilator separately. Efficient ventilating can only be + effected by the exercise of common sense and vigilance, and care must + be taken to avoid cold draughts through the houses. + + +III. _Garden Materials and Appliances._ + +_Soils and Composts._--The principal soils used in gardens, either +alone, or mixed to form what are called composts, are--loam, sand, peat, +leaf-mould and various mixtures and combinations of these made up to +suit the different subjects under cultivation. + +_Loam_ is the staple soil for the gardener; it is not only used +extensively in the pure and simple state, but enters into most of the +composts prepared specially for his plants. For garden purposes loam +should be rather unctuous or soapy to the touch when moderately dry, not +too clinging nor adhesive, and should readily crumble when a compressed +handful is thrown on the ground. If it clings together closely it is too +heavy and requires amelioration by the admixture of gritty material; if +it has little or no cohesion when squeezed tightly in the hand, it is +too light, and needs to be improved by the addition of heavier or clayey +material. Sound friable loam cut one sod deep from the surface of a +pasture, and stacked up for twelve months in a heap or ridge, is +invaluable to the gardener. When employed for making vine borders, loam +of a somewhat heavier nature can be used with advantage, on account of +the porous materials which should accompany it. For stone fruits a +calcareous loam is best; indeed, for these subjects a rich calcareous +loam used in a pure and simple state cannot be surpassed. Somewhat heavy +loams are best for potting pine apples, for melons and strawberries, +fruit trees in pots, &c., and may be used with the addition of manures +only; but for ornamental plants a loam of a somewhat freer texture is +preferable and more pleasant to work. Loam which contains much red +matter (iron) should be avoided. + +_Sand_ is by itself of little value except for striking cuttings, for +which purpose fine clean sharp silver sand is the best; and a somewhat +coarser kind, if it is gritty, is to be preferred to the comminuted +sands which contain a large proportion of earthy matter. River sand and +the sharp grit washed up sometimes by the road side are excellent +materials for laying around choice bulbs at planting time to prevent +contact with earth which is perhaps manure-tainted. Sea sand may be +advantageously used both for propagating purposes and for mixing in +composts. For the growth of pot plants sand is an essential part of most +composts, in order to give them the needful porosity to carry off all +excess of moisture from the roots. If the finer earthy sands only are +obtainable, they must be rendered sharper by washing away the earthy +particles. Washed sand is best for all plants like heaths, which need a +pure and lasting peaty compost. + +_Peat_ soil is largely employed for the culture of such plants as +rhododendrons, azaleas, heaths, &c. In districts where heather and +gritty soil predominate, the peat soil is poor and unprofitable, but +selections from both the heathy and the richer peat soils, collected +with judgment, and stored in a dry part of the compost yard, are +essential ingredients in the cultivation of many choice pot plants, such +as the Cape heaths and many of the Australian plants. Many +monocotyledons do well in peat, even if they do not absolutely require +it. + +_Leaf-mould_ is eminently suited for the growth of many free-growing +plants, especially when it has been mixed with stable manure and has +been subjected to fermentation for the formation of hot beds. It any +state most plants feed greedily upon it, and when pure or free from +decaying wood or sticks it is a very safe ingredient in composts; but it +is so liable to generate fungus, and the mycelium or spawn of certain +fungi is so injurious to the roots of trees, attacking them if at all +sickly or weakened by drought, that many cultivators prefer not to mix +leaf-mould with the soil used for permanent plants, as peaches or choice +ornamental trees. For quick growing plants, however, as for example most +annuals cultivated in pots, such as balsams, cockscombs, globe-amaranths +and the like, for cucumbers, and for young soft-wooded plants generally, +it is exceedingly useful, both by preventing the consolidation of the +soil and as a manure. The accumulations of light earth formed on the +surface in woods where the leaves fall and decay annually are leaf-mould +of the finest quality. Leaves collected in the autumn and stored in pits +or heaps, and covered with a layer of soil, make beautiful leaf-mould at +the end of about twelve months, if frequently drenched with water or +rain during this period. + +_Composts_ are mixtures of the foregoing ingredients in varying +proportions, and in combination with manures if necessary, so as to suit +particular plants or classes of plants. The chief point to be borne in +mind in making these mixtures is not to combine in the same compost any +bodies that are antagonistic in their nature, as for example lime and +ammonia. In making up composts for pot plants, the fibrous portion +should not be removed by sifting, except for small-sized pots, but the +turfy portions should be broken up by hand and distributed in smaller or +larger lumps throughout the mass. When sifting is had recourse to, the +fibrous matter should be rubbed through the meshes of the sieve along +with the earthy particles. Before being used the turfy ingredients of +composts should lie together in a heap only long enough for the roots of +the herbage to die, not to decompose. + +_Manures_ (see MANURE).--These are of two classes, organic and +inorganic--the former being of animal and vegetable, the latter of +mineral origin. The following are organic manures: + + _Farm-yard manure_ consists of the mixed dung of horses and cattle + thrown together, and more or less soaked with liquid drainings of the + stable or byre. It is no doubt the finest stimulant for the growth of + plants, and that most adapted to restore the fertile elements which + the plants have abstracted from exhausted soils. This manure is best + fitted for garden use when in a moderately fermented state. + + _Horse dung_ is generally the principal ingredient in all hot bed + manure; and, in its partially decomposed state, as afforded by + exhausted hot beds, it is well adapted for garden use. It is most + beneficial on cold stiff soils. It should not be allowed to lie too + long unmoved when fresh, as it will then heat violently, and the + ammonia is thus driven off. To avoid this, it should be turned over + two or three times if practicable, and well moistened--preferably with + farm-yard drainings. + + _Cow dung_ is less fertilizing than horse dung, but being slower in + its action it is more durable; it is also cooler, and therefore better + for hot dry sandy soils. Thoroughly decayed, it is one of the best of + all manures for mixing in composts for florists' flowers and other + choice plants. + + _Pig dung_ is very powerful, containing more nitrogen than horse dung; + it is therefore desirable that it should undergo moderate + fermentation, which will be secured by mixing it with litter and a + portion of earth. When weeds are thrown to the pigs, this fermentation + becomes specially desirable to kill their seeds. + + _Night-soil_ is an excellent manure for all bulky crops, but requires + to be mixed with earth or peat, or coal-ashes, so as both to deodorize + it and to ensure its being equally distributed. Quicklime should not + be used, as it dispels the greater part of the ammonia. When prepared + by drying and mixing with various substances, night-soil is sold as + desiccated night-soil or native guano, the value of which depends upon + the materials used for admixture. + + _Malt-dust_ is an active manure frequently used as a top-dressing, + especially for fruit trees in pots. It is rapid in its action, but its + effects are not very permanent. _Rape dust_ is somewhat similar in its + character and action. + + _Bones_ are employed as a manure with decided advantage both to + vegetable crops and to fruit trees, as well as to flowers. For turnips + bone manure is invaluable. The effects of bones are no doubt mainly + due to the phosphates they contain, and they are most effectual on dry + soils. They are most quickly available when dissolved in sulphuric + acid. + + _Guano_ is a valuable manure now much employed, and may be applied to + almost every kind of crop with decided advantage. It should be mixed + with six or eight times its weight of loam or ashes, charred peat, + charcoal-dust or some earthy matter, before it is applied to the soil, + as from its causticity it is otherwise not unlikely to kill or injure + the plants to which it is administered. Peruvian guano is obtained + from the excreta of South American sea-birds, and fish guano from the + waste of fish. Both are remarkable for the quantity of nitrates and + phosphates they contain. + + _Pigeon dung_ approaches guano in its power as manure. It should be + laid up in ridges of good loamy soil in alternate layers to form a + compost, which becomes a valuable stimulant for any very choice + subjects if cautiously used. The dung of the domestic fowl is very + similar in character. + + _Horn_, _hoof-parings_, _woollen rags_, _fish_, _blubber_ and _blood_, + after treatment with sulphuric acid, are all good manures, and should + be utilized if readily obtainable. + + _Liquid manure_, consisting of the drainings of dung-heaps, stables, + cowsheds, &c., or of urine collected from dwelling houses or other + sources, is a most valuable and powerful stimulant, and can be readily + applied to the roots of growing plants. The urine should be allowed to + putrefy, as in its decomposition a large amount of ammonia is formed, + which should then be fixed by sulphuric acid or gypsum; or it may be + applied to the growing crops after being freely diluted with water or + absorbed in a compost heap. Liquid manures can be readily made from + most of the solid manures when required, simply by admixture with + water. When thus artificially compounded, unless for immediate use, + they should be made strong for convenience of storage, and applied as + required much diluted. + + The following are inorganic manures: + + _Ammonia_ is the most powerful and one of the most important of the + constituents of manures generally, since it is the chief source whence + plants derive their nitrogen. It is largely supplied in all the most + fertilizing of organic manures, but when required in the inorganic + state must be obtained from some of the salts of ammonia, as the + sulphate, the muriate or the phosphate, all of which, being extremely + energetic, require to be used with great caution. These salts of + ammonia may be used at the rate of from 2 to 3 cwt. per acre as a + top-dressing in moist weather. When dissolved in water they form + active liquid manures. The most commonly used nitrogenous manures are + nitrate of soda, nitrate of potash and sulphate of ammonia, the prices + of which are constantly fluctuating. + + _Potash_ and _soda_ are also valuable inorganic manures in the form of + carbonates, sulphates, silicates and phosphates, but the most valuable + is the nitrate of potash. The price, however, is generally so high + that its use is practically nil, except in small doses as a liquid + manure for choice pot plants. Cheaper substitutes, however, are now + found in sulphate of potash, and muriate of potash and kainit. The two + last-named must not be applied direct to growing crops, but to the + soil some weeks in advance of sowing or cropping. The manures of this + class are of course of value only in cases where the soil is naturally + deficient in them. On this account the salts of soda are of less + importance than those of potash. The value of wood ashes as a manure + very much depends upon the carbonate and other salts of potash which + they contain. + + _Phosphoric acid_, in the form of phosphates, is a most valuable plant + food, and is absorbed by most plants in fairly large quantities from + the soil. It induces the earlier production of flowers and fruits. In + a natural state it is obtained from bones, guano and wood ashes; and + in an artificial condition from basic slag or Thomas's phosphate, + coprolites and superphosphate of lime. + + _Lime_ in the caustic state is beneficially applied to soils which + contain an excess of inert vegetable matter, and hence may be used for + the improvement of old garden soils saturated with humus, or of peaty + soils not thoroughly reclaimed. It does not supply the place of + organic manures, but only renders that which is present available for + the nourishment of the plants. It also improves the texture of clay + soils. + + _Gypsum_, or sulphate of lime, applied as a top-dressing at the rate + of 2 to 3 cwt. per acre, has been found to yield good results, + especially on light soils. It is also employed in the case of liquid + manures to fix the ammonia. + + _Gas lime_, after it has been exposed to the air for a few months is + an excellent manure on heavy soils. In a fresh state it is poisonous + and fatal to vegetation, and is often used for this reason to dress + land infested with wireworms, grubs, club-root fungus, &c. + + _Burnt clay_ has a very beneficial effect on clay land by improving + its texture and rendering soluble the alkaline substances it contains. + The clay should be only slightly burnt, so as to make it crumble down + readily; in fact, the fire should not be allowed to break through, but + should be constantly repressed by the addition of material. The + burning should be effected when the soil is dry. + + _Vegetable refuse_ of all kinds, when smother-burned in a similar way, + becomes a valuable mechanical improver of the soil; but the preferable + course is to decompose it in a heap with quicklime and layers of + earth, converting it into leaf-mould. Potato haulms, and club-rooted + cabbage crops should, however, never be mixed with ordinary clean + vegetable refuse, as they would be most likely to perpetuate the + terrible diseases to which they are subject. The refuse of such plants + should be burned as early as possible. The ash may be used as manure. + + _Soot_ forms a good top-dressing; it consists principally of charcoal, + but contains ammonia and a smaller proportion of phosphates and + potash, whence its value as a manure is derived. It should be kept dry + until required for use. It may also be used beneficially in preventing + the attacks of insects, such as the onion gnat and turnip fly, by + dusting the plants or dressing the ground with it. + + _Common salt_ acts as a manure when used in moderate quantities, but + in strong doses is injurious to vegetation. It suits many of the + esculent crops, as onions, beans, cabbages, carrots, beet-root, + asparagus, &c.; the quantity applied varies from 5 to 10 bushels per + acre. It is used as a top-dressing sown by the hand. Hyacinths and + other bulbs derive benefit from slight doses, while to asparagus as + much as 20 lb. to the rood has been used with beneficial effect. At + the rate of from 6 to 10 bushels to the acre it may be used on garden + lawns to prevent worm casts. For the destruction of weeds on gravel + walks or in paved yards a strong dose of salt, applied either dry or + in a very strong solution, is found very effective, especially a hot + solution, but after a time much of it becomes washed down, and the + residue acts as a manure; its continued application is undesirable, as + gravel so treated becomes pasty. + +_Garden Tools, &c._--Most of these are so well known that we shall not +discuss them here. They are, moreover, illustrated and described in the +catalogues of most nurserymen and dealers in horticultural sundries. + +_Tallies or Labels._--The importance of properly labelling plants can +hardly be over-estimated. For ordinary purposes labels of wood of +various sizes (sold in bundles) are the most convenient. These should be +wiped with a little white paint or linseed oil, and written with a soft +lead pencil before the surface becomes dry. Copying-ink pencils should +not be used, as water will wash away the writing. For permanent plants, +as trees, roses, &c., metallic labels with raised type are procurable +from dealers, and are neat, durable and convenient. Permanent labels may +also be made from sheet lead, the names being punched in by means of +steel type. For stove and greenhouse plants, orchids, ferns, &c., labels +made of xylonite, zinc and other materials are also used. + + +IV. _Garden Operations._ + +_Propagation._--The increase of plants, so far as the production of new +individuals of particular kinds is concerned, is one of the most +important and constantly recurring of gardening operations. In effecting +this, various processes are adopted, which will now be described. + + 1. _By Seeds._--This may be called the natural means of increasing the + number of any particular kind of plant, but it is to be remembered + that we do not by that means secure an exact reproduction of the + parent, especially in the case of plants raised or evolved in the + course of generations by hybridization and selection. We may get a + progeny very closely resembling it, yet each plant possessing a + distinct individuality of its own; or we may get a progeny very unlike + the parent, or a mixed progeny showing various degrees of divergence. + Many seeds will grow freely if sown in a partially ripened state; but + as a general rule seeds have to be kept for some weeks or months in + store, and hence they should be thoroughly ripened before being + gathered. They should be sown in fine rich soil, and such as will not + readily get consolidated. In the case of outdoor crops, if the soil is + inclined to be heavy, it is a good plan to cover all the smaller seeds + with a light compost. Very small seeds should only have a sprinkling + of light earth or of sand, and sometimes only a thin layer of soft + moss to exclude light and preserve an equable degree of moisture. + Somewhat larger seeds sown indoors may be covered to the depth of + one-eighth or one-fourth of an inch, according to their size. Outdoor + crops require to be sown, the smaller seeds from ½ to 1 in., and the + larger ones from 2 to 4 in. under the surface, the covering of the + smaller ones especially being light and open. Many seeds grow well + when raked in; that is, the surface on which they are scattered is + raked backwards and forwards until most of them are covered. Whatever + the seeds, the ground should be made tolerably firm both beneath and + above them; this may be done by treading in the case of most kitchen + garden crops, which are also better sown in drills, this admitting the + more readily of the ground being kept clear from weeds by hoeing. All + seeds require a certain degree of heat to induce germination. For + tropical plants the heat of a propagating house--75° to 80°, with a + bottom heat of 80° to 90°--is desirable, and in many cases absolutely + necessary; for others, such as half-hardy annuals, a mild hot bed, or + a temperate pit ranging from 60° to 70°, is convenient; while of + course all outdoor crops have to submit to the natural temperature of + the season. It is very important that seeds should be sown when the + ground is in a good working condition, and not clammy with moisture. + + 2. _By Offsets._--This mode of increase applies specially to bulbous + plants, such as the lily and hyacinth, which produce little bulbs on + the exterior round their base. Most bulbs do so naturally to a limited + but variable extent; when more rapid increase is wanted the heart is + destroyed, and this induces the formation of a larger number of + offsets. The stem bulbs of lilies are similar in character to the + offsets from the parent bulb. The same mode of increase occurs in the + gladiolus and crocus, but their bulb-like permanent parts are called + corms, not bulbs. After they have ripened in connexion with the parent + bulb, the offsets are taken off, stored in appropriate places, and at + the proper season planted out in nursery beds. + + 3. _By Tubers._--The tuber is a fleshy underground stem, furnished + with eyes which are either visible, as in the potato and in some + familiar kinds of _Tropaeolum_ (_T. tuberosum_) and of _Oxalis_ (_O. + crenata_), or latent, as in the Chinese yam (_Dioscorea Batatas_). + When used for propagation, the tubers are cut up into what are called + "sets," every portion having an eye attached being capable of forming + an independent plant. The cut portions of bulky sets should be + suffered to lie a short time before being planted, in order to dry the + surface and prevent rotting; this should not, however, be done with + such tropical subjects as caladiums, the tubers of which are often cut + up into very small fragments for propagation, and of course require to + be manipulated in a properly heated propagating pit. No eyes are + visible in the Chinese yam, but slices of the long club-shaped tubers + will push out young shoots and form independent plants, if planted + with ordinary care. + + 4. _By Division._--Division, or partition, is usually resorted to in + the case of tufted growing plants, chiefly perennial herbs; they may + be evergreen, as chamomile or thrift, or when dormant may consist only + of underground crowns, as larkspur or lily-of-the-valley; but in + either case the old tufted plant being dug up may be divided into + separate pieces, each furnished with roots, and, when replanted, + generally starting on its own account without much check. Suffruticose + plants and even small shrubs may be propagated in this way, by first + planting them deeper than they are ordinarily grown, and then after + the lapse of a year, which time they require to get rooted, taking + them up again and dividing them into parts or separate plants. + Box-edging and southernwood are examples. The same ends may sometimes + be effected by merely working fine soil in amongst the base of the + stems, and giving them time to throw out roots before parting them. + + 5. _By Suckers._--Root suckers are young shoots from the roots of + plants, chiefly woody plants, as may often be seen in the case of the + elm and the plum. The shoots when used for propagation must be + transplanted with all the roots attached to them, care being taken not + to injure the parent plant. If they spring from a thick root it is not + to be wantonly severed, but the soil should be removed and the sucker + taken off by cutting away a clean slice of the root, which will then + heal and sustain no harm. Stem suckers are such as proceed from the + base of the stem, as is often seen in the case of the currant and + lilac. They should be removed in any case; when required for + propagation they should be taken with all the roots attached to them, + and they should be as thoroughly disbudded below ground as possible, + or they are liable to continue the habit of suckering. In this case, + too, the soil should be carefully opened and the shoots removed with a + suckering iron, a sharp concave implement with long iron handle (fig. + 14). When the number of roots is limited, the tops should be + shortened, and some care in watering and mulching should be bestowed + on the plant if it is of value. + + [Illustration: FIG. 14.--Suckering Iron.] + + 6. _By Runners._--The young string-like shoots produced by the + strawberry are a well-known example of runners. The process of rooting + these runners should be facilitated by fixing them close down to the + soil, which is done by small wooden hooked pegs or by stones; + hair-pins, short lengths of bent wire, &c., may also be used. After + the roots are formed, the strings are cut through, and the runners + become independent plants. + + 7. _By Proliferous Buds._--Not unlike the runner, though growing in a + very different way, are the bud-plants formed on the fronds of several + kinds of ferns belonging to the genera _Asplenium_, _Woodwardia_, + _Polystichum_, _Lastrea_, _Adiantum_, _Cystopteris_, &c. In some of + these (_Adiantum caudatum_, _Polystichum lepidocaulon_) the rachis of + the frond is lengthened out much like the string of the strawberry + runner, and bears a plant at its apex. In others (_Polystichum + angulare proliferum_) the stipes below and the rachis amongst the + pinnae develop buds, which are often numerous and crowded. In others + again (_Woodwardia orientalis_, _Asplenium bulbiferum_), buds are + numerously produced on the upper surface of the fronds. These will + develop on the plant if allowed to remain. For propagation the + buibiferous portion is pegged down on the surface of a pot of suitable + soil; if kept close in a moist atmosphere, the little buds will soon + strike root and form independent plants. In _Cystopteris_ the buds are + deciduous, falling off as the fronds acquire maturity, but, if + collected and pressed into the surface of a pot of soil and kept + close, they will grow up into young plants the following season. In + some genera of flowering plants, and notably in Bryophyllum, little + plants form on various parts of the leaves. In some Monocotyledons, + ordinarily in Chlorophytum, and exceptionally in Phalaenopsis and + others, new plants arise on the flower stems. + + [Illustration: FIG. 15.--Propagation by Layers--a, tonguing; b, + ringing.] + + 8. _By Layers._--Layering consists in preparing the branch of a plant + while still attached to the parent, bending it so that the part + operated on is brought under ground, and then fixing it there by means + of a forked peg. Some plants root so freely that they need only + pegging down; but in most cases the arrest of the returning sap to + form a callus, and ultimately young roots, must be brought about + artificially, either by twisting the branch, by splitting it, by + girding it closely with wire, by taking off a ring of bark, or by + "tonguing." In tonguing the leaves are cut off the portion which has + to be brought under ground, and a tongue or slit is then cut from + below upwards close beyond a joint, of such length that, when the cut + part of the layer is pegged an inch or two (or in larger woody + subjects 3 or 4 in.) below the surface, the elevation of the point of + the shoot to an upright position may open the incision, and thus set + it free, so that it may be surrounded by earth to induce it to form + roots. The whole branch, except a few buds at the extremity, is + covered with soil. The best seasons for these operations are early + spring and mid-summer, that is, before the sap begins to flow, and + after the first flush of growth has passed off. One whole summer, + sometimes two, must elapse before the layers will be fully rooted in + the case of woody plants; but such plants as carnations and picotees, + which are usually propagated in this way, in favourable seasons take + only a few weeks to root, as they are layered towards the end of the + blooming season in July, and are taken off and planted separately + early in the autumn. Fig. 15 shows a woody plant with one layer + prepared by tonguing and another by ringing. + + In general, each shoot makes one layer, but in plants like the + _Wistaria_ or _Clematis_, which make long shoots, what is called + serpentine layering may be adopted; that is, the shoot is taken + alternately below and above the surface, as frequently as its length + permits. There must, however, be a joint at the underground part where + it is to be tongued and pegged, and at least one sound bud in each + exposed part, from which a shoot may be developed to form the top of + the young plant. + + 9. _By Circumposition._--When a plant is too high or its habit does + not conveniently admit of its being layered, it may often be increased + by what is called circumposition, the soil being carried up to the + branch operated on. The branch is to be prepared by ringing or + notching or wiring as in layering, and a temporary stand made to + support the vessel which is to contain the soil. The vessel may be a + flower-pot sawn in two, so that the halves may be bound together when + used, or it may be a flower-pot or box with a side slit which will + admit the shoot; this vessel is to be filled compactly with suitable + porous earth, the opening at the slit being stopped by pieces of slate + or tile. The earth must be kept moist, which is perhaps best done by a + thick mulching of moss, the moss being also bound closely over the + openings in the vessel, and all being kept damp by frequent + syringings. Gardeners often dispense with the pot, using sphagnum moss + and leaf-mould only when propagating india-rubber plants, perpetual + carnations, dracaenas, &c. + + 10. _By Grafts._--Grafting is so extensively resorted to that it is + impossible here to notice all its phases. It is perhaps of most + importance as the principal means of propagating our hardy kinds of + fruit, especially the apple and the pear; but the process is the same + with most other fruits and ornamental hardy trees and shrubs that are + thus propagated. The stocks are commonly divided into two + classes:--(1) free stocks, which consist of seedling plants, chiefly + of the same genus or species as the trees from which the scions are + taken; and (2) dwarfing stocks, which are of more diminutive growth, + either varieties of the same species or species of the same or some + allied genus as the scion, which have a tendency to lessen the + expansion of the engrafted tree. The French Paradise is the best + dwarfing stock for apples, and the quince for pears. In determining + the choice of stocks, the nature of the soil in which the grafted + trees are to grow should have full weight. In a soil, for example, + naturally moist, it is proper to graft pears on the quince, because + this plant not only thrives in such a soil, but serves to check the + luxuriance thereby produced. The scions should always be ripened + portions of the wood of the preceding year, selected from healthy + parents; in the case of shy-bearing kinds, it is better to obtain them + from the fruitful branches. The scions should be taken off some weeks + before they are wanted, and half-buried in the earth, since the stock + at the time of grafting should in point of vegetation be somewhat in + advance of the graft. During winter, grafts may be conveyed long + distances, if carefully packed. If they have been six weeks or two + months separated from the parent plant, they should be grafted low on + the stock, and the earth should be ridged up round them, leaving only + one bud of the scion exposed above ground. The best season for + grafting apples and similar hardy subjects in the open air is in March + and April; but it may be commenced as soon as the sap in the stock is + fairly in motion. + + _Whip-grafting_ or _Tongue-grafting_ (fig. 16) is the most usual mode + of performing the operation when there is no great difference in + thickness between the stock and scion. The stock is headed off by an + oblique transverse cut as shown at a, a slice is then pared off the + side as at b, and on the face of this a tongue or notch is made, the + cut being in a downward direction; the scion c is pared off in a + similar way by a single clean sharp cut, and this is notched or + tongued in the opposite direction as the figure indicates; the two are + then fitted together as shown at d, so that the inner bark of each may + come in contact at least on one side, and then tied round with damp + soft bast as at e; next some grafting clay is taken on the forefinger + and pushed down on each side so as to fill out the space between the + top of the stock and the graft, and a portion is also rubbed over the + ligatures on the side where the graft is placed, a handful of the clay + is then taken, flattened out, and rolled closely round the whole point + of junction, being finished off to a tapering form both above and + below, as shown by the dotted line f. To do this deftly, the hands + should be plunged from time to time in dry ashes, to prevent the clay + from sticking to them. Various kinds of grafting wax are now + obtainable, and are a great improvement upon the clay process. Some + cold mastics become very pliable with the warmth of the hands. They + are best applied with a piece of flat wood; or very liquid waxes may + be applied with a brush. + + [Illustration: FIG. 16.--Whip-grafting or Tongue-grafting.] + + _Cleft-grafting_ (fig. 17) is another method in common use. The stock + a is cleft down from the horizontal cut d (but not nearly so much as + the sketch would indicate), and the scion, when cut to a thin wedge + form, as shown at c and e, is inserted into the cleft; the whole is + then bound up and clayed as in the former case. This is not so good a + plan as whip-grafting; it is improved by sloping the stock on one side + to the size of the graft. + + [Illustration: Fig. 17.--Cleft-grafting.] + + [Illustration: Fig. 18.--Crown-Grafting.] + + _Crown-grafting_ or _Rind-grafting_ (fig. 18) is preferable to + cleft-grafting, inasmuch as it leaves no open spaces in the wood. The + stock b is cut off horizontally or nearly so in January or February. + At grafting time a slit is cut in the bark f, f, a wedge-shaped piece + of iron or a small chisel being inserted to raise the bark; the scion + is then cut to the same wedge-shaped form g, h, and inserted in the + space opened for it between the alburnum and the bark, after which it + is tied down and clayed or waxed over in the manner already described. + + _Side-grafting_ is performed like whip-grafting, the graft being + inserted on the side of a branch and not at the cut end of the stock. + It may be practised for the purpose of changing a part of the tree, + and is sometimes very useful for filling out vacant spaces, in trained + trees especially. + + _Inarching_ is another form of side-grafting. Here the graft is fixed + to the side of the stock, which is planted or potted close to the + plant to be worked. The branches are applied to the stock while yet + attached to the parent tree, and remain so until united. In the case + of trained trees, a young shoot is sometimes inarched to its parent + stem to supply a branch where one has not been developed in the + ordinary way. + + For the propagation by grafts of stove and greenhouse plants the + process adopted is whip-grafting or a modification of it. The parts + are, however, sometimes so small that the tongue of the graft is + dispensed with, and the two stems simply pared smooth and bound + together. In this way hardy rhododendrons of choice sorts, greenhouse + azaleas, the varieties of the orange family, camellias, roses, rare + conifers, clematises and numerous other plants are increased. + Raffia--which has taken the place of bast--is generally used for + tying, and grafting wax is only used occasionally with such plants + under glass. All grafting of this kind is done in the propagating + house, at any season when grafts are obtainable in a fit state--the + plants when operated on being placed in close frames warmed to a + suitable temperature. Roses and clematis, however, are generally + grafted from January to March and April. + + _Root-grafting_ is sometimes resorted to where extensive increase is + an object, or where stem-grafting or other means of propagation are + not available. In this case the scion is grafted directly on to a + portion of the root of some appropriate stock, both graft and stock + being usually very small; the grafted root is then potted so as to + cover the point of junction with the soil, and is plunged in the bed + of the propagating house, where it gets the slight stimulus of a + gentle bottom heat. Dahlias (fig. 19), paeonies, and Wistarias may be + grafted by inserting young shoots into the neck of one of the fleshy + roots of each kind respectively--the best method of doing so being to + cut a triangular section near the upper end of the root, just large + enough to admit the young shoot when slightly pared away on two sides + to give it a similar form. In the case of large woody plants thus + worked (fig. 20) the grafted roots, after the operation is completed, + are planted in nursery beds, so that the upper buds only are exposed + to the atmosphere, as shown in the figure. + + [Illustration: FIG. 19.--Root-grafting of Dahlia.] + + [Illustration: FIG. 20.--Root-grafting of Woody Plant.] + + 11. _By Buds._--Budding is the inserting of a bud of a choice variety + cut with a portion of bark into the bark of the stock of an inferior + nature where it is bound gently but firmly. Stone fruits, such as + peaches, apricots, plums, cherries, &c., are usually propagated in + this way, as well as roses and many other plants. In the propagating + house budding may be done at any season when the sap is in motion; but + for fruit trees, roses, &c., in the open air, it is usually done in + July or August, when the buds destined for the following year are + completely formed in the axils of the leaves, and when the bark + separates freely from the wood it covers. Those buds are to be + preferred, as being best ripened, which occur on the middle portion of + a young shoot, and which are quite dormant at the time. + + [Illustration: FIG. 21.--Shield-budding.] + + The simplest and most generally practised form of budding is that + called _shield-budding_ or T-_budding_ (fig. 21). The operator should + be provided with a sharp budding knife having a thin ivory or bone + handle, for raising the bark of the stock. A horizontal incision is + made in the bark quite down to the wood, and from this a perpendicular + slit is drawn upwards to the extent of perhaps an inch, so that the + slit has a resemblance to the letter T, as at a. A bud is then cut by + a clean incision from the tree intended to be propagated, having a + portion of the wood attached to it, and so that the whole may be about + 1 in. long, as at d. The bit of wood e must be gently withdrawn, care + being taken that the bud adheres wholly to the bark or shield, as it + is called, of which f is a side view. The bark on each side of the + perpendicular slit being then cautiously opened, as at b, with the + handle of the knife, the bud and shield are inserted as shown at c. + The upper tip of the shield is cut off horizontally, and brought to + fit the bark of the stock at the transverse incision. Slight ties of + soft cotton wool or worsted, or moist raffia, are then applied. In + about a month or six weeks the ligatures may be removed or slit with + the knife to allow for the swelling stem, when, if the operation has + been successful, the bud will be fresh and full, and the shield firmly + united to the wood. In the following spring a strong shoot will be + thrown out, and to prevent its being blown out by the wind, must be + fastened to a stake, or to the lower portion of the old stock which + has been left for the purpose. + + To be successful the operation should be performed with a quick and + light hand, so that no part of the delicate tissues be injured, as + would happen if they were left for a time exposed, or if the bud were + forced in like a wedge. The union is effected as in grafting, by means + of the organizable sap or cambium, and the less this is disturbed + until the inner bark of the shield is pressed and fixed against it the + better. Trees to be grown in the form of a bush are usually budded low + down on the stem of the stock as near the root as possible to obviate + the development of wild suckers later on. Standard trees, however, are + budded on a sturdy young shoot close to the top. In either case the + stocks should have been carefully planted at least the previous + November when the work is to be done in the open air the following + July or August. + + [Illustration: FIG. 22.--Propagation by Cuttings.] + + 12. _By Branch Cuttings._--Propagation by cuttings is the mode of + increase most commonly adopted, next to that by seeds. It is effected + by taking a portion from a branch or shoot of the plant, and placing + it in the soil. There are great differences to be observed in the + selection and treatment of cuttings. Sometimes soft green leafy + shoots, as in _Verbena_ (fig. 22, a), are used; sometimes the shoots + must be half-ripened, and sometimes fully matured. So of the mode of + preparation; some will root if cut off or broken off at any point and + thrust into wet earth or sand in a warm place (fig. 22, a); others + require to be cut with the utmost care just below a joint or + leaf-base, and by a keen blade so as to sever the tissues without + tearing or bruising; and others again after being cut across may be + split up for a short distance, but there seems to be no particular + virtue in this. It is usual and in most cases necessary to cut away + the lower portion of a cutting up to just below the node or joint + (fig. 22, b, d, e). The internodal parts will not often divide so as + to form separate individual plants; sometimes, however, this happens; + it is said that the smallest piece of _Torenia asiatica_, for + instance, will grow. Then as to position, certain cuttings grow + readily enough if planted outdoors in the open soil, some preferring + shade, others sunshine, while less hardy subjects must be covered with + a bell-glass, or must be in a close atmosphere with bottom heat, or + must have the aid of pure silver sand to facilitate their rooting + (fig. 22, c). Cuttings should in all cases be taken from healthy + plants, and from shoots of a moderate degree of vigour. It is also + important to select leafy growths, and not such as will at once run up + to flower. Young shoots which have become moderately firm generally + make the best cuttings, but sometimes the very softest shoots strike + more readily. For all indoor plants in a growing state spring is a + good time for taking cuttings, but at any time during the summer + months is also favourable if cuttings are obtainable. + + Cuttings of deciduous plants should be taken off after the fall of the + leaf. These cuttings should be about 6 in. to 1 ft. in length, and + should be planted at once in the ground so as to leave only the top + with the two or three preserved buds exposed. If a clean stem, + however, is desired, a longer portion may be left uncovered. + Gooseberries, currants, roses and many hardy deciduous trees and + shrubs are easily propagated in this way if the cuttings are inserted + in well-drained soil about the end of October or early in November. + + Cuttings of growing plants are prepared by removing with a sharp + knife, and moderately close, the few leaves which would otherwise be + buried in the soil; they are then cut clean across just below a joint; + the fewer the leaves thus removed, however, the better, as if kept + from being exhausted they help to supply the elaborated sap out of + which the roots are formed. Free-rooting subjects strike in any + lightish sandy mixture; but difficult subjects should have thoroughly + well-drained pots, a portion of the soil proper for the particular + plants made very sandy, and a surfacing of clean sharp silver sand + about as deep as the length of the cutting. + + [Illustration: FIG. 23.--Leaf Cuttings.] + + Such difficult plants as heaths are reared in silver sand, a stratum + of which is placed over the sandy peat soil in a specially prepared + cutting pot, and thus the cuttings, though rooting in the sand under a + bell-glass, find at once on the emission of roots congenial soil for + them to grow in (fig. 22, c). + + Hardy plants, such as pinks, pansies, &c., are propagated by cuttings + planted during early summer in light rich soil. The cuttings of pinks + are called pipings (fig. 22, d), and are planted about June, while + pansies may be renewed in this way both in spring and in autumn. + + 13. _By Leaf Cuttings._--Many plants may be propagated by planting + their leaves or portions of the leaves as cuttings, as, for example, + the _Gloxinia_ (fig. 23, a) and _Gesnera_, the succulent + _Sempervivum_, _Echeveria_, _Pachyphytum_ and their allies, and such + hard-leaved plants as _Theophrasta_ (fig. 23, b). The leaves are best + taken off with the base whole, and should be planted in well-drained + sandy soil; in due time they form roots, and ultimately from some + latent bud a little shoot which forms the young plant. The treatment + is precisely like that of branch cuttings. Gloxinias, begonias, &c., + grow readily from fragments of the leaves cut clean through the thick + veins and ribs, and planted edgewise like cuttings. This class of + subjects may also be fixed flat on the surface of the cutting pot, by + means of little pegs or hooks, the main ribs being cut across at + intervals, and from these points roots, and eventually young tubers, + will be produced (fig. 24). + + [Illustration: FIG. 24.--Leaf-Propagation of Begonia.] + + 14. _By Root Cuttings._--Some plants which are not easily increased by + other means propagate readily from root cuttings. Amongst the indoor + plants which may be so treated, _Bouvardia_, _Pelargonium_, _Aralia_ + and _Wigandia_ may be mentioned. The _modus operandi_ is to turn the + plant out of its pot, shake away the soil so as to free the roots, and + then select as many pieces of the stouter roots as may be required. + These are cut up into half-inch lengths (more or less), and inserted + in light sandy soil round the margin of a cutting pot, so that the + upper end of the root cutting may be level with the soil or only just + covered by it. The pots should be watered so as to settle the soil, + and be placed in the close atmosphere of the propagating pit or frame, + where they will need scarcely any water until the buds are seen + pushing through the surface. + + There are various herbaceous plants which may be similarly treated, + such as sea-kale and horseradish, and, among ornamental plants, the + beautiful autumn-blooming _Anemone japonica_, _Bocconia cordata_, + _Dictamnus Fraxinella_--the burning bush; the sea hollies + (_Eryngium_), the globe thistle (_Echinops ritro_), the Oriental poppy + (Papaver orientale), the sea lavender (_Statice latifolia_), _Senecio + pulcher_, &c. The sea-kale and horseradish require to be treated in + the open garden, where the cut portions should be planted in lines in + well-worked soil; but the roots of the others should be planted in + pots and kept in a close frame with a little warmth till the young + shoots have started. + + Various hardy ornamental trees are also increased in this way, as the + quince, elm, robinia and mulberry, and the rose amongst shrubs. The + most important use to which this mode of propagation is put is, + however, the increase of roses, and of the various plums used as + stocks for working the choicer stone fruits. The method in the latter + case is to select roots averaging the thickness of the little finger, + to cut these into lengths of about 3 or 4 in., and to plant them in + lines just beneath the surface in nursery beds. The root cuttings of + rose-stocks are prepared and treated in a similar way. + + [Illustration: FIG. 25.--Cutting of Single Eye.] + + 15. _By Cuttings of Single Eyes._--This mode of propagation is by + cutting the ripened young branches into short lengths, each containing + one well-matured bud or eye, with a short portion of the stem above + and below. It is a common mode of propagating vines, the eyes being in + this case cut from the ripened leafless wood. The eyes (fig. 25, a) + are planted just below the surface in pots of light soil, which are + placed in a hot bed or propagating pit, and in due time each pushes up + a young shoot which forms the future stem, while from about its base + the young roots are produced (fig. 25, b) which convert it into an + independent plant. In the case of plants with persistent leaves, the + stem may be cut through just above and below the bud, retaining the + leaf which is left on the cutting, the old wood and eye being placed + beneath the soil and the leaf left exposed. In this way the + india-rubber tree (_Ficus elastica_), for example, and many other + tender plants may be increased with the aid of a brisk bottom heat. + Many of the free-growing soft-wooded plants may also be grown from + cuttings of single joints of the young wood, where rapid increase is + desired; and in the case of opposite-leaved plants two cuttings may + often be made from one joint by splitting the stem longitudinally, + each cutting consisting of a leaf and a perfect bud attached to half + the thickness of the stem. + +_Planting and Transplanting._--In preparing a fruit tree for +transplantation, the first thing to be done is to open a trench round it +at a distance of from 3 to 4 ft., according to size. The trench should +be opened to about two spades' depth, and any coarse roots which may +extend thus far from the trunk may be cut clean off with a sharp knife. +The soil between the trench and the stem is to be reduced as far as may +seem necessary or practicable by means of a digging fork, the roots as +soon as they are liberated being fixed on one side and carefully +preserved. By working in this way all round the ball, the best roots +will be got out and preserved, and the ball lightened of all superfluous +soil. The tree will then be ready to lift if carefully prized up from +beneath the ball, and if it does not lift readily, it will probably be +found that a root has struck downwards, which will have to be sought out +and cut through. Whenever practicable, it is best to secure a ball of +earth round the roots. On the tree being lifted from its hole the roots +should be examined, and all which have been severed roughly with the +spade should have the ends cut smooth with the knife to facilitate the +emission of fibres. The tree can then be transported to its new +position. The hole for its reception should be of sufficient depth to +allow the base of the ball of earth, or of the roots, to stand so that +the point whence the uppermost roots spring from the stem may be 2 or 3 +in. below the general surface level. Then the bottom being regulated so +as to leave the soil rather highest in the centre, the plant is to be +set in the hole in the position desired, and steadied there by hand. +Next the roots from the lower portion of the ball are to be sought out +and laid outwards in lines radiating from the stem, being distributed +equally on all sides as nearly as this can be done; some fine and +suitable good earth should be thrown amongst the roots as they are thus +being placed, and worked in well up to the base of the ball. The soil +covering the roots may be gently pressed down, but the tree should not +be pulled up and down, as is sometimes done, to settle the soil. This +done, another set of roots higher up the ball must be laid out in the +same way, and again another, until the whole of the roots, thus +carefully laid, are embedded as firmly as may be in the soil, which may +now receive another gentle treading. The stem should next be supported +permanently, either by one stake or by three, according to its size. The +excavation will now be filled up about two-thirds perhaps; and if so the +tree may have a thorough good watering, sufficient to settle the soil +closely about its roots. After twenty-four hours the hole may be +levelled in, with moderate treading, if the water has soaked well in, +the surface being left level and not sloping upwards towards the stem of +the tree. In transplanting trees of the ornamental class, less need be +attempted in respect to providing new soil, although the soil should be +made as congenial as practicable. Generally speaking, fruit trees are +best transplanted when three or four years of age, in which time they +will have acquired the shape given by the nurseryman, who generally +transplants his stock each autumn to produce large masses of root +fibres. Nowadays, however, quite large trees, chiefly of an ornamental +character, and perhaps weighing several tons, are lifted with a large +ball of soil attached to the roots, by means of a special tree-lifting +machine, and are readily transferred from one part of the garden to +another, or even for a distance of several miles, without serious +injury. The best season for transplanting deciduous trees is during the +early autumn months. As regards evergreens opinions are divided, some +preferring August and September, others April or May. They can be +successfully planted at either period, but for subjects which are at all +difficult to remove the spring months are to be preferred. + +In transplanting smaller subjects, such as plants for the flower garden, +much less effort is required. The plant must be lifted with as little +injury to its rootlets as possible, and carefully set into the hole, the +soil being filled in round it, and carefully pressed close by the hand. +For moving small plants the garden trowel is a very convenient tool, but +we are inclined to give the preference to the hand-fork. For larger +masses, such as strong-growing herbaceous plants, a spade or +digging-fork will be requisite and the soil may be trodden down with the +feet. + +When seedlings of vigorous plants have to be "pricked out," a dibble or +dibber is the best implement to be used. The ground being prepared and, +if necessary, enriched, and the surface made fine and smooth, a hole is +made with the dibble deep enough and large enough to receive the roots +of the seedling plants without doubling them up, and the hole is filled +in by working the soil close to the plant with the point of the dibble. +The pricking out of seedlings in pots in the propagating pit is effected +in a similar way. The plants, indeed, often require to be removed and +set from ½ in. to 1 in. apart before they have become sufficiently +developed to admit of being handled with any degree of facility, and for +these a pointed stick of convenient size is used as a dibble. In +delicate cases, such as seedling gloxinias and begonias, it is best to +lift the little seedling on the end of a flattish pointed stick, often +cleft at the apex, pressing this into the new soil where the plant is to +be placed, and liberating it and closing the earth about it by the aid +of a similar stick held in the other hand. + +[Illustration: FIG. 26.--Section of Pot showing Crocks.] + +_Potting and Repotting._--Garden pots are made with a comparatively +large hole in the bottom, and those of the largest size have also holes +at the side near the bottom; these openings are to prevent the soil +becoming saturated or soured with superabundant water. To prepare the +pot for the plant, a broadish piece of potsherd, called a "crock," is +placed over the large hole, and if there be side holes they also are +covered. The bottom crock is made from a piece of a broken garden pot, +and is laid with the convex side upwards; then comes a layer of +irregular pieces of crock of various sizes, about 1 in. deep in a 5-in. +pot, 2 in. in an 11-in. or 12-in. pot, &c. The mode of crocking a pot is +shown in fig. 26. A few of the coarser lumps from the outer edge of the +heap of potting soil are spread over the crocks. The same end, that of +keeping the finer particles of the soil from mixing with the drainage +crocks, may be attained by shaking in a little clean moss. A handful or +two of the soil is then put in, and on this the plant with its roots +spread out is to be set, a trifle higher than the plant should stand in +the pot when finished off; more soil is to be added, and the whole +pressed firmly with the fingers, the base of the stem being just below +the pot-rim, and the surface being smoothed off so as to slope a little +outwards. When finished off, the pots should be watered well, to settle +the soil; but they should stand till the water has well drained away, +since, if they are moved about while the fresh soil is very wet, there +will be a risk of its becoming puddled or too much consolidated. Larger +plants do not need quite such delicate treatment, but care should be +taken not to handle the roots roughly. The soil for these may be +somewhat coarser, and the amount of drainage material more ample. Larger +bodies of soil also require to be more thoroughly consolidated before +watering; otherwise they would settle down so as to leave an unsightly +void at the pot-rim. + +Some plants, especially when potted temporarily, may be dealt with in a +simpler way. A single crock may be used in some cases, and in others no +crock at all, but a handful of half-decayed leaves or half-decayed dung +thrown into the bottom of the pot. This mode of potting does well for +bulbs, such as hyacinths, which are either thrown away or planted out +when the bloom is over. The bedding plants generally may be potted in +this way, the advantage being that at planting-out time there is less +risk of disturbing the roots than if there were potsherds to remove. +Plants of this character should be potted a little less firmly than +specimens which are likely to stand long in the pot, and indeed the soil +should be made comparatively light by the intermixture of leaf-mould or +some equivalent, in order that the roots may run freely and quickly into +it. + +For epiphytal plants like orchids the most thorough drainage must be +secured by the abundant use of potsherds, small pots being sometimes +inserted inside the larger ones, or by planting in shallow pots or pans, +so that there shall be no large mass of soil to get consolidated. For +most of these the lightest spongy but sweet turfy peat must be used, +this being packed lightly about the roots, and built up above the +pot-rim, or in some cases freely mixed before use with chopped sphagnum +moss and small pieces of broken pots or nodules of charcoal. The plants +under these conditions often require to be supported by wooden pegs or +sticks. Some of the species grow better when altogether taken out of the +soil and fixed to blocks of wood, but in this case they require a little +coaxing with moss about the roots until they get established. In other +cases they are planted in open baskets of wood or wire, using the porous +peat and sphagnum compost. Both blocks and baskets are usually suspended +from the roof of the house, hanging free, so that no accumulation of +water is possible. These conditions of orchid-growing have undergone +great changes of late years, and the plants are grown much as other +stove and greenhouse plants in ordinary pots with composts not only of +peat but of leaf-mould, and fibres from osmunda and polypodium ferns. + +When repotting is adopted as a temporary expedient, as in the case of +bedding-out plants which it is required to push forward as much as +possible, it will suffice if provision is made to prevent the drainage +hole from getting blocked, and a rich light compost is provided for the +encouragement of the roots. When, however, a hard-wooded plant has to be +repotted, the case is different; it may stand without further potting +for one year or two years or more, and therefore much more care is +necessary. The old ball of earth must be freed from all or most of the +old crocks without doing injury to the roots, and the sharp edge of the +upper surface gently rubbed off. If there be any sour or sodden or +effete soil into which the roots have not run, this should be carefully +picked out with a pointed stick. The ball is to be set on the new soil +just high enough that when finished the base of the stem may be somewhat +below the pot-rim, and the space between the old ball and the sides of +the pot is to be filled in gradually with the prepared compost, which is +from time to time to be pressed down with a blunt-ended flat piece of +wood called a potting-stick, so as to render the new soil as solid as +the old. The object of this is to prevent the plant from starving by the +water applied all running off by way of the new soil, and not +penetrating the original ball of earth. When this amount of pressure is +necessary, especially in the case of loamy composts, the soil itself +should be rather inclined to dryness, and should in no case be +sufficiently moist to knead together into a pasty mass. In ordinary +cases the potting soil should be just so far removed from dryness that +when a handful is gently pressed it may hang together, but may lose its +cohesion when dropped. + +When plants are required to stand in ornamental china pots or vases, it +is better, both for the plants and for avoiding risk of breakage, to +grow them in ordinary garden pots of a size that will drop into the more +valuable vessels. Slate pots or tubs, usually square, are sometimes +adopted, and are durable and otherwise unobjectionable, only, their +sides being less porous, the earth does not dry so rapidly, and some +modification of treatment as to watering is necessary. For large +conservatory specimens wooden tubs, round or square, are frequently +used; these should be coated with pitch inside to render them more +durable. + +Various other contrivances take the place of garden pots for special +purposes. Thus shallow square or oblong wooden boxes, made of light, +inexpensive wood, are very useful for seed-sowing, for pricking out +seedlings, or for planting cuttings. When the disturbance of the roots +incidental to all transplanting is sought to be avoided, the seed or +plant is started in some cases in squares of turf (used grassy-side +downwards), which can when ready be transferred to the place the plant +is to occupy. Cucumber and melon plants and vines reared from eyes are +sometimes started in this way, both for the reason above mentioned and +because it prevents the curling of the roots apt to take place in plants +raised in pots. Strips of turf are sometimes used for the rearing of +early peas, which are sown in a warmish house or frame, and gradually +hardened so as to bear exposure before removal to the open air. + +_Watering._--The guiding principle in watering plants is to do it +thoroughly when it is required, and to abstain from giving a second +supply till the first has been taken up. + +When watering becomes necessary for kitchen-garden crops, the hose +should be laid on and the lines of esculents allowed to drink their +fill, if fresh succulent vegetables are desired. So also, if +well-swelled and luscious fruits, such as strawberries, are required, +there must be no parching at the roots. This applies even more strongly +to conservatory borders and to forcing-houses than to the outside +fruit-tree borders, because from these the natural rain supply is in +most cases more distinctly cut off. In the case of forcing-houses, the +water should be heated before being applied to the borders containing +the roots of the trees. + +In the watering of pot plants the utmost care is requisite if the plant +be a shy-growing or valuable one, and yet it is almost impossible to +give any intelligible instruction for performing the operation. The +roots should never be suffered either to get thoroughly dry or to get +sodden with excess of water. An adept will know by the ring of the pot +on striking it with his knuckles whether water is wanted or not, +according as it rings loud and clear or dull and heavy. With very choice +subjects watering may be necessary two or three times a day in drying +summer weather. It is a wrong though common practice to press the +surface of the soil in the pot in order to feel if it is moist enough, +as this soon consolidates it, and prevents it from getting the full +benefit of aeration. + +In all heated houses the water used should be warmed at least up to the +temperature of the atmosphere, so as to avoid chilling the roots. This +is also necessary in the case of water used for syringing the plants, +which should be done two or three times a day in all stoves and +forcing-houses, especially during the period when the young growth is +being developed. The damping of all absorbent surfaces, such as the +floors or bare walls, &c., is frequently necessary several times a day +in the growing season, so as to keep up a humid atmosphere; hence the +advantage of laying the floors a little rounded, as then the water draws +off to the sides against the kerbstone, while the centre remains dry for +promenaders. + +In cooler structures it becomes necessary in the dull season of the year +to prevent the slopping of water over the plants or on the floor, as +this tends to cause "damping off,"--the stems assuming a state of +mildewy decay, which not infrequently, if it once attacks a plant, will +destroy it piece by piece. For the same reason cleanliness and free +ventilation under favourable weather conditions are of great importance. + +_Pruning._--Pruning is a very important operation in the fruit garden, +its object being twofold--(1) to give form to the tree, and (2) to +induce the free production of flower buds as the precursors of a +plentiful crop of fruit. To form a standard tree, either the stock is +allowed to grow up with a straight stem, by cutting away all side +branches up to the height required, say about 6 ft., the scion or bud +being worked at that point, and the head developed therefrom; or the +stock is worked close to the ground, and the young shoot obtained +therefrom is allowed to grow up in the same way, being pruned in its +progress to keep it single and straight, and the top being cut off when +the desired height is reached, so as to cause the growth of lateral +shoots. If these are three or four in number, and fairly balanced as to +strength and position, little pruning will be required. The tips of +unripened wood should be cut back about one-third their length at an +outwardly placed bud, and the chief pruning thereafter required will be +to cut away inwardly directed shoots which cross or crowd each other and +tend to confuse the centre of the tree. Bushy heads should be thinned +out, and those that are too large cut back so as to remodel them. If the +shoots produced are not sufficient in number, or are badly placed, or +very unequal in vigour, the head should be cut back moderately close, +leaving a few inches only of the young shoots, which should be pruned +back to buds so placed as to furnish shoots in the positions desired. +When worked at the top of a stem formed of the stock, the growth from +the graft or bud must be pruned in a similar way. Three or four leading +shoots should be selected to pass ere long into boughs and form a +well-balanced framework for the tree; these boughs, however, will soon +grow beyond any artificial system the pruner may adopt. + +[Illustration: FIG. 27.--Dwarf-Tree Pruning.] + +To form a dwarf or bush fruit tree the stock must be worked near the +ground, and the young shoot produced from the scion or bud must be cut +back to whatever height it is desired the dwarf stem should be, say 1½ +to 2 ft. The young shoots produced from the portion of the new wood +retained are to form the framework of the bush tree, and must be dealt +with as in the case of standard trees. The growth of inwardly directed +shoots is to be prevented, and the centre kept open, the tree assuming a +cup-shaped outline. Fig. 27, reduced from M. Hardy's excellent work, +_Traité de la taille des arbres fruitiers_, will give a good idea how +these dwarf trees are to be manipulated, a showing the first year's +development from the maiden tree after being headed back, and b the form +assumed a year or two later. + +[Illustration: FIG. 28.--Pyramid Pruning.] + +In forming a pyramidal tree, the lateral growths, instead of being +removed, as in the standard tree, are encouraged to the utmost; and in +order to strengthen them the upper part of the leading shoot is removed +annually, the side branches being also shortened somewhat as the tree +advances in size. In fig. 28, reduced from M. Hardy's work, a shows a +young tree with its second year's growth, the upright shoot of the +maiden tree having been moderately headed back, being left longer if the +buds near the base promise to break freely, or cut shorter if they are +weak and wanting in vigour. The winter pruning, carried out with the +view to shape the tree into a well-grown pyramid, would be effected at +the places marked by a cross line. The lowest branch would have four +buds retained, the end one being on the lower side of the branch. The +two next would be cut to three buds, which here also are fortunately so +situated that the one to be left is on the lower side of the branches. +The fourth is not cut at all owing to its shortness and weakness, its +terminal bud being allowed to grow to draw strength into it. The fifth +is an example where the bud to which the shoot should be cut back is +badly placed; a shoot resulting from a bud left on the upper side is apt +instead of growing outwards to grow erect, and lead to confusion in the +form of the tree; to avoid this it is tied down in its proper place +during the summer by a small twig. The upper shoots are cut closer in. +Near the base of the stem are two prominent buds, which would produce +two vigorous shoots, but these would be too near the ground, and the +buds should therefore be suppressed; but, to strengthen the lower part, +the weaker buds just above and below the lowest branch should be forced +into growth, by making a transverse incision close above each. Fig. 28, +b, shows what a similar tree would be at the end of the third year's +growth. + +In order to bring a young tree into the cordon shape, all its side +branches are shortened back, either to form permanent spurs, as in the +case of pears, or to yield annual young shoots, as in peaches and +nectarines. The single-stemmed cordon may be trained horizontally, +obliquely at any required angle, or vertically if required, the first +two arrangements being preferable. If a double cordon is required, the +original young stem must be headed back, and the two best shoots +produced must be selected, trained right and left, and treated as for +the single cordon. + +The forms chiefly adopted for trees trained to walls and espalier rails +are the fan-shaped, the half-fan and the horizontal, with their various +modifications. + +The maiden tree is headed down, and two shoots led away right and left. +Two laterals should be allowed to grow from the upper side of them, one +from near the base, the other from near the middle, all others being +pinched out beyond the second or third leaf during summer, but cut away +to the last bud in winter. The tree will thus consist of six shoots, +probably 3 ft. to 4 ft. long, which are not to be pruned unless they are +unequal in strength, a defect which is rather to be remedied by summer +pinching than by winter pruning. The second year three young shoots are +to be left on each of the six, one close to the base, one about the +middle, and one at the point, the rest being rubbed off. These three +shoots will produce laterals, of which one or two may be selected and +laid in; and thus a number of moderately strong fertile shoots will be +obtained, and at the end of the season a comparatively large tree will +be the result. + +[Illustration: FIG. 29.--Pruning for Fan-shaped Tree.] + +[Illustration: FIG. 30.--The same--third year.] + +[Illustration: FIG. 31.--The same--fourth year.] + +The method of pruning formerly adopted for the formation of a fan-shaped +tree was to head down the maiden plant to about two eyes, so placed as +to yield a young shoot on each side (fig. 29), the supernumerary shoots +being rubbed off while quite young, and the reserved shoots trained +against the wall during the summer so as to get them well matured. The +next year they were cut back again; often nearly to the base, in order +that the lower pair of these shoots might each produce two well-placed +young shoots, and the upper pair three young shoots. The tree would thus +consist of ten shoots, to be laid out at regular distances, and then if +closely cut the frame-work of the tree would be as in fig. 30. These +main shoots were not again to be shortened back, but from each of them +three young shoots were to be selected and trained in two, on the upper +side, one near the base, and the other halfway up, and one on the lower +side placed about midway between these two; these with the leading +shoot, which was also to be nailed in, made four branches of the current +year from each of the ten main branches, and the form of the tree would +therefore be that of fig. 31. The other young shoots produced were +pinched off while quite young, to throw all the strength of the tree +into those which were to form its basis, and to secure abundant light +and air. In after years the leading shoot was not to be cut back, but +all the lateral shoots were to be shortened, and from these year by year +other shoots were to be selected to fill up the area occupied by the +tree. + +[Illustration: FIG. 32.--Pruning for Horizontally trained Tree.] + +[Illustration: FIG. 33.--The same--third year.] + +[Illustration: FIG. 34.--The same--fifth year.] + +In pruning for a horizontal tree the young maiden tree has to be headed +back nearly to its base, and from the young shoots three are to be +selected, the two best-placed lower ones to form an opposite or nearly +opposite pair of main branches, and the best-placed upper one to +continue the erect stem (fig. 32). This upper shoot is at the next +winter pruning to be cut down to within about a foot of the point whence +it sprung, and its buds rubbed off except the upper one for a leader, +and one on each side just below it to furnish another pair of side +shoots; these being trained in position, the tree would appear as in +fig. 33. The same course is to be followed annually till the space is +filled. Sometimes in very favourable soils and with vigorous trees two +pairs of branches may be obtained in one season by summer-stopping the +erect shoots and selecting others from the young growths thus induced, +but more commonly the trees have to be built up by forming one pair of +branches annually. The shoots are not at first lowered to the horizontal +line, but are brought down gradually and tied to thin stakes; and while +the tree is being formed weak shoots may be allowed to grow in a more +erect position than it is ultimately intended they should occupy. Thus +in four or five years the tree will have acquired something of the +character of fig. 34, and will go on thus increasing until the space is +filled. + +The half-fan is a combination of the two forms, but as regards pruning +does not materially differ from the horizontal, as two opposite side +branches are produced in succession upwards till the space is filled, +only they are not taken out so abruptly, but are allowed to rise at an +acute angle and then to curve into the horizontal line. + +In all the various forms of cordons, in horizontal training, and in fan +and half-fan training, the pruning of the main branches when the form of +the tree is worked out will vary in accordance with the kind of fruit +under treatment. Thus in the peach, nectarine, apricot, plum and cherry, +which are commonly trained fan-fashion, the first three (and also the +morello cherry if grown) will have to be pruned so as to keep a +succession of young annual shoots, these being their fruit-bearing wood. +The others are generally pruned so as to combine a moderate supply of +young wood with a greater or less number of fruit spurs. In the pear and +apple the fruit is borne principally on spurs, and hence what is known +as spur-pruning has to be adopted, the young shoots being all cut back +nearly to their base, so as to cause fruit buds to evolve from the +remaining eyes or buds. Cordons of apples and pears have to be similarly +treated, but cordons of peaches and nectarines are pruned so as to +provide the necessary annual succession of young bearing wood. + +Fruit trees trained as espaliers, fans or cordons against walls, +trellises or fences, are not only pruned carefully in the winter but +must be also pruned during the early summer months. Many of the smaller, +useless shoots are rubbed out altogether; the best are allowed to grow +perhaps a foot or more in length, and then either have the tips pinched +out with the finger and thumb, or the ends may be cracked or broken, and +allowed to hang down, but are not detached completely. This is called +summer pruning, and is an important operation requiring knowledge on the +part of the gardener to perform properly. Shoots of peaches, nectarines +and morello cherries are "laid in," that is, placed in between fruiting +shoots where there is the space to be ripened for next year's crop. + +[Illustration: FIG. 35.--Summer Pruning for Spurs.] + +_Summer Pruning_ should be performed while the shoots are yet young and +succulent, so that they may in most cases be nipped off with the +thumb-nail. It is very necessary in the case of trees trained to a flat +surface, as a wall or espalier rail, to prevent undue crowding. In some +cases, as, for example, with peaches, the superfluous shoots are wholly +removed, and certain selected shoots reserved to supply bearing wood for +next year. In others, as pears, the tops of the young shoots are +removed, leaving three or four leaves and their buds at the base, to be +developed into fruit buds by the additional nourishment thus thrown into +them (fig. 35, a). One or two may push out a late summer growth, b; this +will serve as a vent for the vigour of the tree, and if the lowermost +only go to the formation of a fruit spur, the object will have been +gained. They are cut to the last dormant bud in winter. + +But summer pruning has been much extended since the introduction of +restricted growth and the use of dwarfing stocks. Orchard-house trees, +and also pyramidal and bush trees of apples, pears and plums, are mainly +fashioned by summer pruning; in fact, the less the knife is used upon +them, except in the necessary cutting of the roots in potted trees, the +better. In the case of orchard-house plants no shoots are suffered to +lengthen out, except as occasionally wanted to fill up a gap in the +outline of the tree. On the contrary, the tops of all young shoots are +pinched off when some three or four leaves are formed, and this is done +again and again throughout the season. When this pruning is just brought +to a balance with the vigour of the roots, the consequence is that fruit +buds are formed all over the tree, instead of a thicket of sterile and +useless wood. Pyramidal and bush trees out of doors are, of course, +suffered to become somewhat larger, and sufficient wood must be allowed +to grow to give them the form desired; but after the first year or two, +when the framework is laid out, they are permitted to extend very +slowly, and never to any great extent, while the young growths are +continually nipped off, so as to clothe the branches with fruit buds as +closely placed as will permit of their healthy development. + +The nature of the cut itself in pruning is of more consequence, +especially in the case of fruit trees, than at first sight may appear. +The branches should be separated by a clean cut at an angle of about +45°, just at the back of a bud, the cut entering on a level with the +base of the bud and passing out on a level with its top (fig. 36, a), +for when cut in this way the wound becomes rapidly covered with new +wood, as soon as growth recommences, whereas if the cut is too close the +bud is starved, or if less close an ugly and awkward snag is left. Fig +36, b and c, are examples of the former, and d, e, f of the latter. In +fact there is only one right way to cut a shoot and that is as shown at +a. + +The _Pruning of flowering plants_ is generally a much lighter matter +than the pruning of fruit trees. If a young seedling or cutting of any +soft-wooded plant is to be bushy, it must have its top nipped out by the +thumb-nail or pruning-scissors at a very early stage, and this stopping +must be repeated frequently. If what is called a well-furnished plant is +required, an average of from 2 to 3 in. is all the extension that must +be permitted--sometimes scarcely so much--before the top is nipped out; +and this must be continued until the desired size is attained, whether +that be large or small. Then generally the plant is allowed to grow away +till bloom or blooming shoots are developed. To form a pyramidal plant, +which is a very elegant and useful shape to give to a decorative pot +plant, the main stem should be encouraged to grow upright, for a length +perhaps of 6 or 8 in. before it is topped; this induces the formation of +laterals, and favours their development. The best-placed upper young +shoot is selected and trained upright to a slender stake, and this also +is topped when it has advanced 6 or 8 in. further, in order to induce +the laterals on the second portion to push freely. This process is +continued till the required size is gained. With all the difficult and +slow-growing plants of the hard-wooded section, all the pruning must be +done in this gradual way in the young wood as the plant progresses. + +[Illustration: FIG. 36.--Cuts--Good and Bad.] + +[Illustration: FIG. 37.] + +Some plants, like pelargoniums, can only be kept handsomely formed and +well furnished by cutting them down severely every season, after the +blooming is over. The plants should be prepared for this by keeping them +rather dry at the root, and after cutting they must stand with little or +no water till the stems heal over, and produce young shoots, or "break," +as it is technically termed. The appearance of a specimen pelargonium +properly pruned is shown in fig. 37, in which a shows a young plant, the +head of which has been taken off to form a cutting, and whose buds are +ready to break into young shoots. Three shoots will be produced, and +these, after growing from 4 to 6 in. in length, should be stopped by +pinching out the point, this giving rise to lateral shoots. These will +blossom in due course, and, after being ripened thoroughly by full +exposure to the sun, should be cut back as shown at b. This is the +proper foundation for a good specimen, and illustrates how all such +subjects should be pruned to keep them stocky and presentable in form. + +_Root-pruning_ is most commonly practised in fruit-tree cultivation. It +is often resorted to as a means of restoring fertility in plants which +have become over rank from an excess of nourishment in the soil, or +sterile from want of it. The effect of root-pruning in the first case is +to reduce the supply of crude sap to the branches, and consequently to +cause a check in their development. In the second case all roots that +have struck downwards into a cold uncongenial subsoil must be pruned off +if they cannot be turned in a lateral direction, and all the lateral +ones that have become coarse and fibreless must also be shortened back +by means of a clean cut with a sharp knife, while a compost of rich +loamy soil with a little bone-meal, and leaf-mould or old manure, should +be filled into the trenches from which the old sterile soil has been +taken. The operation is best performed early in autumn, and may be +safely resorted to in the case of fruit trees of moderate age, and even +of old trees if due care be exercised. In transplanting trees all the +roots which may have become bruised or broken in the process of lifting +should be cut clean away behind the broken part, as they then more +readily strike out new roots from the cut parts. In all these cases the +cut should be a clean sloping one, and made in an upward and outward +direction. + +The root-pruning of pot-plants is necessary in the case of many +soft-wooded subjects which are grown on year after year--pelargoniums +and fuchsias, for example. After the close pruning of the branches to +which they are annually subjected, and when the young shoots have shot +forth an inch or two in length, they are turned out of their pots and +have the old soil shaken away from their roots, the longest of which, to +the extent of about half the existing quantity, are then cut clean away, +and the plants repotted into small pots. This permits the growing plant +to be fed with rich fresh soil, without having been necessarily +transferred to pots of unwieldy size by the time the flowering stage is +reached. + +_Ringing._--One of the expedients for inducing a state of fruitfulness +in trees is the ringing of the branches or stem, that is, removing a +narrow annular portion of the bark, by which means, it is said, the +trees are not only rendered productive, but the quality of the fruit is +at the same time improved. The advantage depends on the obstruction +given to the descent of the sap. The ring should be cut out in spring, +and be of such a width that the bark may remain separated for the +season. A tight ligature of twine or wire answers the same end. The +advantages of the operation may generally be gained by judicious root +pruning, and it is not at all adapted for the various stone fruits. + +[Illustration: FIG. 38.--Diagram illustrating Branch Distribution.] + +_Training._--What is called training is the guiding of the branches of a +tree or plant in certain positions which they would not naturally +assume, the object being partly to secure their full exposure to light, +and partly to regulate the flow and distribution of the sap. To secure +the former object, the branches must be so fixed as to shade each other +as little as possible; and to realize the second, the branches must have +given to them an upward or downward direction, as they may require to be +encouraged or repressed. Something of the same vegetative vigour which +is given to a plant or tree by hard pruning is afforded by training in +an upward direction so as to promote the flow of the sap; while the +repression effected by summer pruning is supplemented by downward +training, which acts as a check. One main object is the preservation of +equilibrium in the growth of the several parts of the tree; and for this +various minor details deserve attention. Thus a shoot will grow more +vigorously whilst waving in the air than when nailed close to the wall; +consequently a weak shoot should be left free, whilst its stronger +antagonist should be restrained; and a luxuriant shoot may be retarded +for some time by having its tender extremity pinched off to allow a +weaker shoot to overtake it. + +By the prudent use of the knife, fruit trees may be readily trained into +the forms indicated below, which are amongst the best out of the many +which have been devised. + +The training of standard and bush trees in the open ground has been +already referred to under the section _Pruning_. When the growth of +pyramids is completed, the outline is something like that of fig. 39, +and very pretty trees are thus formed. It is better, however, especially +if the tendency to bear fruit is rather slack, to adopt what the French +call _en quenouille_ training (fig. 40), which consists in tying or +weighting the tips of the branches so as to give them all a downward +curve. Pear trees worked on the quince stock, and trained en quenouille, +are generally very fertile. + +[Illustration: FIG. 39.--Pyramidal Training.] + +[Illustration: FIG. 40.--Training _en quenouille_.] + +Wall trees, it must be evident, are placed in a very unnatural and +constrained position, and would in fact soon be reduced to a state of +utter confusion if allowed to grow unrestricted; hence the following +modes of training have been adopted. + +[Illustration: FIG. 41.--Horizontal Training.] + +[Illustration: FIG. 42.--Forms of Horizontal Training.] + +_Horizontal Training_ (fig. 41) has long been a favourite form in +England. There is one principal ascending stem, from which the branches +depart at right angles, at intervals of about a foot. Horizontal +training is best adapted to the apple and the pear; and for the more +twiggy growing slender varieties, the forms shown in fig. 42 have been +recommended. In these the horizontal branches are placed wider, 18 to 20 +in. apart, and the smaller shoots are trained between them, either on +both sides, as at a, or deflexed from the lower side, as at b. The +latter is an excellent method of reclaiming neglected trees. Every +alternate branch should be taken away, and the spurs cut off, after +which the young shoots are trained in, and soon produce good fruit. + +In _Fan Training_ (fig. 43) there is no leading stem, but the branches +spring from the base and are arranged somewhat like the ribs of a fan. +This mode of training is commonly adopted for the peach, nectarine, +apricot and morello cherry, to which it is best adapted. Though +sometimes adopted, it is not so well suited as the horizontal form for +apples and pears, because, when the branches reach the top of the wall, +where they must be cut short, a hedge of young shoots is inevitable. A +modification of the fan shape (fig. 44) is sometimes adopted for stone +fruits, such as the plum and apricot. In this the object is to establish +a number of mother branches, and on these to form a series of +subordinate members, chiefly composed of bearing wood. The mother +branches or limbs should not be numerous, but well marked, equal in +strength and regularly disposed. The side branches should be pretty +abundant, short and not so vigorous as to rival the leading members. + +[Illustration: FIG. 43.--Fan Training.] + +[Illustration: FIG. 44.--Modified Fan Training.] + +The _Half-fan_ mode of training, which is intermediate between +horizontal and fan training, is most nearly allied to the former, but +the branches leave the stem at an acute angle, a disposition supposed to +favour the more equal distribution of the sap. Sometimes, as in fig. 45, +two vertical stems are adopted, but there is no particular advantage in +this, and a single-stemmed tree is more manageable. The half-fan form is +well adapted for such fruits as the plum and the cherry; and, indeed, +for fruits of vigorous habit, it seems to combine the advantages of both +the foregoing. + +[Illustration: FIG. 45.--Half-Fan Training.] + +Trees must be fixed to the walls and buildings against which they are +trained by means of nails and shreds (neat medicated strips are now sold +for this purpose), or in cases where it is desired to preserve the wall +surface intact, by permanent nails or studs driven in in regular order. +Sometimes the walls are furnished with galvanized wires, but this has +been objected to as causing cankering of the shoots, for which, however, +painting is recommended as a remedy. By crossing the tying material +between the wire and the wood, however, and so preventing them from +coming in contact, there is no danger. If they are adopted, the wires +should be a few inches away from the wall, to allow free circulation of +air between it and the tree, and thus avoid the scorching or burning of +leaves and fruits during the summer months in very hot places. Care +should be taken that the ties or fastenings do not eventually cut into +the bark as the branches swell with increased age. When shreds and nails +are used, short thick wire nails and "medicated shreds" are the best; +the ordinary cast iron wall nails being much too brittle and difficult +to drive into the wall. It must be remembered that nails spoil a wall +sooner or later, whereas a wire trellis is not only much neater, but +enables the gardener to tie his trees up much more quickly. + +For tying plants to trellises and stakes soft tarred string or raffia +(the fibre from the Raphia palm of Madagascar) is used. + +[Illustration: FIG. 46.--Clematis trained on Balloon-Shaped Trellis.] + +In training greenhouse plants the young branches should be drawn +outwards by means of ties fastened to a string or wire under the +pot-rim; the centre then fills up, and slender stakes are used as +required; but the fewer these are in number the better. Climbers are +trained from the bottom around or across trellises, of which the +cylindrical or the balloon-shaped, or sometimes the flat oval or +circular, are the best forms. The size should be adapted to the habit of +the plant, which should cover the whole by the time flowers are +produced. Bast fibre and raffia fibre are to be preferred for light +subjects of this character, as they can be split to any degree of +fineness. Very durable trellises for greenhouse climbers are made of +slender round iron rods for standards, having a series of hooks on the +inner edge, into which rings of similar metal are dropped; the rings may +be graduated so as to form a broad open top, or may be all of the same +size, when the trellis will assume the cylindrical form. Fig. 46 shows a +pot specimen of clematis trained, over a balloon-shaped trellis. + +The training of certain bedding plants over the surface of the soil is +done by small pegs of birch wood or bracken, by loops of wire or cheap +hair-pins, or sometimes by loops of raffia having the ends fixed in the +soil by the aid of the dibble. The object is to fill up the blank space +as quickly and as evenly as possible. + +_Forcing_ is the accelerating, by special treatment, of the growth of +certain plants, which are required to be had in leaf, in flower or in +fruit before their natural season,--as, for instance, the leaves of mint +at Eastertide or the leafstalks of sea-kale and rhubarb at Christmas, +the flowers of summer in the depth of winter, or some of the choicest +fruits perfected so much before their normal period as to complete, with +the retarded crops of winter, the circle of the seasons. + +In the management of artificial heat for this purpose, a considerable +degree of caution is required. The first stages of forcing should, of +course, be very gentle, so that the whole growth of the plants may +advance in harmony. The immediate application of a very hot atmosphere +would unduly force the tops, while the roots remained partially or +wholly inactive; and a strong bottom heat, if it did not cause injury by +its excess, would probably result in abortive growth. + +Any sudden decrease of warmth would be very prejudicial to the progress +of vegetation through the successive stages of foliation, inflorescence +and fructification. But it is not necessary that one unvarying range of +temperature should be kept up at whatever pains or risk. Indeed, in very +severe weather it is found better to drop a little from the maximum +temperature by fire heat, and the loss so occasioned may be made good by +a little extra heat applied when the weather is more genial. Night +temperatures also should always be allowed to drop somewhat, the heat +being increased again in the morning. In other words, the artificial +temperature should increase by day and decrease by night, should rise in +summer and fall in winter, should, in short, imitate as nearly as +possible the varying influence of the sun. + +For the growth of flowers generally, and for that of all fruits, every +ray of light to be obtained in the dull winter season is required, and +therefore every possible care should be taken to keep the glass clean. A +moist genial atmosphere too is essential, a point requiring unremitting +attention on account of the necessity of keeping up strong fires. With +moisture as with heat, the cultivator must hold his hand somewhat in +very severe or very dull weather; but while heat must not drop so as to +chill the progressing vegetation, so neither must the lack of moisture +parch the plants so as to check their growth. + +There are some few subjects which when forced do not require a light +house. Thus amongst flowers the white blossoms of the lilac, so much +prized during winter, are produced by forcing purple-flowered plants in +darkness. Rhubarb and sea-kale among esculents both need to be forced in +darkness to keep them crisp and tender, and mushrooms also are always +grown in dark structures. In fact, a roomy mushroom house is one of the +most convenient of all places for forcing the vegetables just referred +to. The lilac would be better placed in a dark shed heated to about 70° +or 80°, in which some dung and leaves could be allowed to lie and +ferment, giving off both a genial heat and moisture. + +One of the most important preliminaries to successful forcing is the +securing to the plants a previous state of rest. The thorough ripening +of the preceding season's wood in fruit trees and flowering plants, and +of the crown in perennial herbs like strawberries, and the cessation of +all active growth before the time they are to start into a new growth, +are of paramount importance. The ripening process must be brought about +by free exposure to light, and by the application of a little extra heat +with dryness, if the season should be unfavourable; and both roots and +tops must submit to a limitation of their water supply. When the +ripening is perfected, the resting process must be aided by keeping the +temperature in which they await the forcing process as low as each +particular subject can bear. (See _Retardation_ above.) + + +V. _Flowers._ + +_Flower Garden and Pleasure Grounds._--Wherever there is a flower garden +of considerable magnitude, and in a separate situation, it should be +constructed on principles of its own. The great object must be to +exhibit to advantage the graceful forms and glorious hues of flowering +plants and shrubs. Two varieties of flower gardens have chiefly +prevailed in Britain. In one the ground is turf, out of which +flower-beds, of varied patterns, are cut; in the other the flower-beds +are separated by gravel walks, without the introduction of grass. When +the flower garden is to be seen from the windows, or any other elevated +point of view, the former is to be preferred; but where the surface is +irregular, and the situation more remote, and especially where the +beauty of flowers is mainly looked to, the choice should probably fall +on the latter. + +The flower garden may include several different compartments. Thus, for +example, there is the "Rock Garden," which should consist of variously +grouped masses of large stones, those which are remarkable for being +figured by water-wearing, or containing petrifactions or impressions, or +showing something of natural stratification, being generally preferred. +In the cavities between the stones, filled with earth, alpine or +trailing plants are inserted, and also some of the choicest flowers. In +proper situations, a small pool of water may be introduced for the +culture of aquatic plants. In these days the rock-garden is a most +important feature, and it requires a good deal of care and skill to +arrange the boulders, walks, pools or streams in natural and artistic +fashion. The selection of suitable alpines, perennials and shrubs and +trees also necessitates considerable knowledge on the part of the +gardener. A separate compartment laid out on some regular plan is often +set apart for roses, under the name of the "Rosery." A moist or rather a +shady border, or a section of the pleasure ground supplied with bog +earth, may be devoted to what is called the "American Garden," which, as +it includes the gorgeous rhododendrons and azaleas, forms one of the +grandest features of the establishment during the early summer, while if +properly selected the plants are effective as a garden of evergreens at +all seasons. The number of variegated and various-coloured hardy shrubs +is now so great that a most pleasant plot for a "Winter Garden" may be +arrayed with plants of this class, with which may be associated hardy +subjects which flower during that season or very early spring, as the +Christmas rose, and amongst bulbs the crocus and snowdrop. Later the +spring garden department is a scene of great attraction; and some of the +gardens of this character, as those of Cliveden and Belvoir, are among +the most fascinating examples of horticultural art. The old-fashioned +stereotyped flower garden that one met with almost everywhere is rapidly +becoming a thing of the past, and grounds are now laid out more in +accordance with their natural disposition, their climatic conditions and +their suitability for certain kinds of plants. Besides the features +already mentioned there are now bamboo gardens, Japanese gardens, water +gardens and wall gardens, each placed in the most suitable position and +displaying its own special features. + +[Illustration: FIG. 47.--Turf-Beater.] + +_Lawns._--In the formation of lawns the ground must be regularly broken +up so that it may settle down evenly, any deep excavations that may have +to be filled in being very carefully rammed down to prevent subsequent +settlement. The ground must also be thoroughly cleared of the roots of +all coarse, perennial weeds, and be worked to a fine tilth ready for +turfing or sowing. The more expeditious method is of course to lay down +turf, which should be free from weeds, and is cut usually in strips of 1 +ft. wide, 3 ft. long, and about 1 in. in thickness. This must be laid +very evenly and compactly, and should then be beaten down firmly with +the implement called a turf-beater (fig. 47). When there is a large +space to cover, it is much the cheaper plan to sow the lawn with +grass-seeds, and equally effective, though the sward takes much longer +to thicken. It is of the utmost importance that a good selection of +grasses be made, and that pure seeds should be obtained (see GRASS AND +GRASSLAND). The following sorts can be recommended, the quantities given +being those for sowing an acre of ground:-- + + _Cynosurus cristatus_--Crested Dog's-tail 6 lb. + _Festuca duriuscula_--Hard Fescue 3 lb. + _Festuca ovina_--Sheep's Fescue 3 lb. + _Lolium perenne tenue_ 18 lb. + _Poa nemoralis sempervirens_--Evergreen Meadow-grass 3 lb. + _Poa trivialis_--Trivial Meadow-grass 3 lb. + _Trisetum flavescens_--Yellow Oat-grass 2 lb. + _Trifolium repens_--Dutch Clover 6 lb. + +The seeds should be thoroughly mixed, and very evenly sown, after which +the surface should be raked over to bury them, and then rolled down +while dry so as to finish it off smooth and level. When thus sown, lawns +require to be promptly weeded. During the growing season established +lawns should be mown at least once a week. They should be occasionally +rolled, and towards autumn they require frequent sweepings to remove +worm-casts. + + HARDY ANNUALS.--Annual plants are those which grow up from seed, + flower, ripen seed, and die in the course of one season--one year. + They are useful in the mixed garden, for though in some cases they are + of short duration, many of them are possessed of much beauty of hue + and elegance of form. Annuals may be divided into three classes: the + _hardy_, which are sown at once in the ground they are to occupy; the + _half-hardy_, which succeed best when aided at first by a slight hot + bed, and then transplanted into the open air; and the _tender_, which + are kept in pots, and treated as greenhouse or stove plants, to which + departments they properly belong. Some of the more popular annuals, + hardy and half-hardy, have been very much varied as regards habit and + the colour of the flowers, and purchases may be made in the seed shops + of such things as China asters, stocks, Chinese and Indian pinks, + larkspurs, phloxes and others, amongst which some of the most + beautiful of the summer flowers may be found. + + The hardy annuals may be sown in the open ground during the latter + part of March or beginning of April, as the season may determine, for + the weather should be dry and open, and the soil in a free-working + condition before sowing is attempted. In favourable situations and + seasons some of the very hardiest, as _Silene pendula_, Saponaria, + Nemophila, Gilia, &c., may be sown in September or October, and + transplanted to the beds or borders for very early spring flowering. + Those sown in spring begin to flower about June. The plants, if left + to flower where they are sown, should be thinned out while young, to + give them space for proper development. It is from having ample room + that pricked out transplanted seedlings often make the finest plants. + The soil should be rich and light. + + The half-hardy series are best sown in pots or pans under glass in + mild heat, in order to accelerate germination. Those of them which are + in danger of becoming leggy should be speedily removed to a cooler + frame and placed near the glass, the young plants being pricked off + into fresh soil, in other pots or pans or boxes, as may seem best in + each case. All the plants must be hardened off gradually during the + month of April, and may generally be planted out some time in May, + earlier or later according to the season. + + The class of tender annuals, being chiefly grown for greenhouse + decoration, should be treated much the same as soft-wooded plants, + being sown in spring, and grown on rapidly in brisk heat, near the + glass, and finally hardened off to stand in the greenhouse when in + flower. + + We add a select list of some of the more distinct annuals desirable + for general cultivation as decorative plants for the open air:-- + + _Acroclinium roseum_: half-hardy, 1 ft., rose-pink or white; + everlasting. + + _Agrostis pulchella_: hardy, 6 in.; a most graceful grass for + bouquets. + + _Amberboa moschata atropurpurea_ (Sweet Sultan): hardy, 1½ ft., + purple: musk-scented. + + _Antirrhinum majus_ (Snapdragon): hardy, 6 in. to 2 ft., white, yellow + and red. This plant is perennial, but is best treated as an annual. + + _Arnebia cornuta_: hardy, 1½ to 2 ft. yellow. + + _Bartonia aurea_: hardy, 2 ft., golden yellow; showy and free. + + _Brachycome iberidifolia_: half-hardy, 1 ft., blue or white with dark + disk. + + _Calendula officinalis Meteor_: hardy, 1 ft., orange striped with + yellow. + + _Calliopsis_ or _Coreopsis bicolor (tinctoria)_: hardy, 2 to 3 ft., + yellow and chestnut-brown. + + _Calliopsis_ or _Coreopsis Drummondii_: hardy, 1 to 2 ft., golden + yellow with red disk. + + _Callistephus hortensis_ or _chinensis_ (the China aster): half-hardy, + 6 in. to 1½ ft.; there arc several groups of various colours. The + species itself is a very handsome plant. + + _Campanula Loreyi_: hardy, 1½ ft., purplish-lilac or white. + + _Campanula macrostyla_: hardy, 1 to 2 ft., purple, beautifully veined. + + _Carnations_, _Marguerite_: half-hardy, 9 to 12 in., colours various. + + _Centaurea Cyanus_: hardy, 3 ft., blue, purple, pink or white; showy. + + _Centranthus macrosiphon_: hardy, 1½ to 2 ft., rosy-carmine. + + _Centranthus ruber_ (known as Pretty Betsy and Red Valerian): hardy, 2 + to 3 ft., red. + + _Chrysanthemum carinatum_: a charming half-hardy annual, 2 to 3 ft. + high, with several varieties, of which C. Burridgeanum with zones of + white, crimson and yellow is best. + + _C. coronarium_, a yellow-flowered species requires similar treatment. + + _Clarkia pulchella_: hardy, 1½ ft., rosy-purple; some varieties very + handsome. + + _Collinsia bicolor_: hardy, 1½ ft., white and purple; pretty. + + _Collinsia verna_: hardy, 1 ft., white and azure; sow as soon as ripe. + + _Convolvulus tricolor atroviolacea_: hardy, 1 ft., white, blue and + yellow. This is the _Convolvulus minor_ of gardens. + + _Cosmos bipinnatus_: half-hardy, 3 ft., rose, purple, white; requires + sunny spots. + + _Dianthus chinensis_ (Indian pink): half-hardy, 6 in. to 1 ft., + various shades of red and white. + + _Delphinium Ajacis_ and _Delphinium Consolida_ (Larkspurs): hardy, 3 + ft., various colours. + + _Erysimum Peroffskianum_: hardy, 2 ft., deep orange; in erect racemes. + + _Eschscholtzia californica_: hardy, 1½ ft., yellow with saffron eye. + + _Eschscholtzia crocea flore-pleno_: hardy, 1½ ft., orange yellow; + double. + + _Eutoca viscida_: hardy, 2 ft., bright blue, with white hairy centre. + + _Gaillardia Drummondii (picta)_: half-hardy, 1½ ft., crimson, yellow + margin. + + _Gilia achilleaefolia_: hardy, 2 ft., deep blue; in large globose + heads. + + _Godetia Lindleyana_: hardy, 2 to 3 ft., rose-purple, with crimson + spots. + + _Godetia Whitneyi_: hardy, 1 ft., rosy-red, with crimson spots. The + variety _Lady Albemarle_ is wholly crimson, and very handsome. + + _Gypsophila elegans_: hardy, 1½ ft., pale rose; branched very + gracefully. + + _Helianthus cucumerifolius_: hardy, 3 to 4 ft., golden yellow, black + disk; branching, free and bold without coarseness. + + _Helichrysum bracteatum_: half-hardy, 2 ft., the incurved crimson, + rose and other forms very handsome. + + _Hibiscus Trionum (africanus)_: hardy, 1½ ft., cream colour, dark + purple centre. + + _Iberis umbellata_ (Candytuft): hardy, 1 ft., white, rose, purple, + crimson. Some new dwarf white and flesh-coloured varieties are very + handsome. + + _Kaulfussia amelloides_: hardy, 1 ft., blue or rose; the var. + kermesina is deep crimson. + + _Kochia scoparia_ (Belvedere or lawn cypress): hardy, graceful green + foliage, turning purple in autumn. + + _Königa maritima_ (Sweet Alyssum): hardy, 1 ft., white; fragrant, + compact. + + _Lathyrus odoratus_ (Sweet Pea): hardy; there are two races, dwarf and + tall, the latter--far and away the most beautiful--requires support; + various colours; numerous immensely popular forms. + + _Lavatera trimestris_: hardy, 3 ft., pale-rose, showy malvaceous + flowers. + + _Leptosiphon densiflorus_: hardy in light soil, 1 ft., purplish or + rosy-lilac. + + _Leptosiphon roseus_: hardy in light soil, 6 in., delicate rose; fine + in masses. + + _Linaria bipartita splendida_: hardy, 1 ft., deep purple. + + _Linum grandiflorum_: hardy, 1 ft., splendid crimson; var. roseum is + pink. + + _Lupinus luteus_: hardy, 2 ft., bright yellow, fragrant. + + _Lupinus mutabilis Cruickshanksii_: hardy, 4 ft., blue and yellow; + changeable. + + _Lupinus nanus_: hardy, 1 ft., bluish-purple; abundant flowering. + + _Lychnis Coeli-rosa_: hardy, 1½ ft., rosy-purple, with pale centre; + pretty. + + _Lychnis oculata cardinalis_: hardy, 1½ ft., rosy-crimson; very + brilliant. + + _Malcolmia maritima_ (Virginian Stock): hardy, 6 in., lilac, rose or + white. + + _Malope trifida_: hardy, 3 ft., rich glossy purplish-crimson; showy. + _M. grandiflora_ is a finer plant in every way. + + _Matthiola annua_ (Ten-week Stock and its variety, the intermediate + stock): half-hardy, 1 to 2 ft., white, rose and red. + + _Matthiola graeca_ (Wallflower-lvd. Stock): hardy, 1 ft., various as + in Stock. + + _Mesembryanthemum tricolor_: half-hardy, 3 in., pink and crimson, with + dark centre. + + _Mimulus cupreus_: half-hardy, 6 in., coppery red, varying + considerably. + + _Mimulus luteus tigrinus_: half-hardy, 1 ft., yellow spotted with red; + var. _duplex_ has hose-in-hose flowers. + + _Mirabilis Jalapa_: half-hardy, 3 ft., various colours; flowers + evening-scented. + + _Nemesia floribunda_: hardy, 1 ft., white and yellow; pretty and + compact. + + _Nemophila insignis_: hardy, 6 in., azure blue, with white centre. + + _Nemophila maculata_: hardy, 6 in., white, with violet spots at the + edge. + + _Nicotiana affinis_: half-hardy, 2 to 3 ft., white. + + _Nicotiana Sanderae_: half-hardy, 2 to 3 ft., white, crimson, scarlet, + &c. + + _Nigella hispanica_: hardy, 1½ ft., pale blue, white or dark purple. + + _Oenothera odorata_: hardy, 2 to 3 ft., yellow; fragrant. + + _Omphalodes linifolia_ (Venus's Navelwort): hardy, 1 ft., white. + + _Papaver Rhoeas flore-pleno_: hardy, 2 ft., scarlet and other colours; + showy. + + _Papaver somniferum flore-pleno_: hardy, 3 ft., white, lilac, rose, + &c.; petals sometimes fringed. + + _Petunia violacea hybrida_: half-hardy, 1½ ft., various colours; sow + in heat. + + _Pharbitis hispida_: hardy, 6 ft., various; the many-coloured twining + _Convolvulus major_. + + _Phlox Drummondii_: half-hardy, 1 ft., various colours. + + _Platystemon californicus_: hardy, 1 ft., sulphur yellow; neat and + distinct. + + _Portulaca splendens_: half-hardy, 6 in., crimson, rose, yellow, + white, &c., single and double; splendid prostrate plants for sunny + rockwork. + + _Pyrethrum Parthenium aureum_: half-hardy, 1 ft.; grown for its golden + foliage, and much used for bedding. + + _Reseda odorata_ (Mignonette): hardy, 1 ft., greenish, but exquisitely + fragrant; there are some choice new sorts. + + _Rhodanthe maculata_: half-hardy, 1½ ft., rosy-pink or white; larger + flower-heads than the next. + + _Rhodanthe Manglesii_: half-hardy, 1 ft., rosy-pink; a drooping + everlasting. + + _Salpiglossis sinuata_: half-hardy, 2 to 3 ft., yellow, purple, + crimson, &c.; much varied and beautifully veined. + + _Sanvitalia procumbens flore-pleno_: half-hardy, 6 in., golden yellow; + procumbent. + + _Saponaria calabrica_: hardy, 6 to 8 in., bright rose pink or white; + continuous blooming, compact-growing. + + _Scabiosa atropurpurea_: hardy, 1 to 2 ft., rose, white, lilac, + crimson, &c. + + _Schizanthus pinnatus_: hardy, 1 to 2 ft., purple-lilac, prettily + blotched; curiously lobed flowers. + + _Schizopetalon Walkeri_: hardy, 1 ft., white, sweet-scented at night; + curiously fringed petals. + + _Senecio elegans_: half-hardy, 1½ ft., white, rose or purple; the + various double forms are showy. + + _Silene pendula_: hardy, 1 ft., bright rose pink; very showy in + masses; var. _compacta_ forms close dense tufts. + + _Silene Pseudo-Atocion_: hardy, 1 ft., rose pink; free-flowering. + + _Specularia Speculum_: hardy, 6 in., reddish-violet; free-flowering. + + _Sphenogyne speciosa_: half-hardy, 1 ft., orange-yellow, with black + ring around the disk. + + _Statice Bonduelli_ (Sea Lavender): half-hardy, 1½ ft., yellow. + + _S. Limonum_: bluish purple. + + _S. sinuata_: white, blue, yellow. + + _S. Suworowi_: lilac. + + _Tagetes signata_: half-hardy, 1½ ft., golden yellow; continuous + blooming, with elegant foliage. The French and African marigolds, + favourites of some, are allied to this. + + _Tropaeolum aduncum_ (Canary creeper): half-hardy, 10 ft., yellow, + fringed; an elegant climber. + + _Tropaeolum majus_ (the nasturtium of gardens): hardy. There are two + races, dwarf and tall, various shades of red and yellow. + + _Waitzia aurea_: half-hardy, 1½ ft., golden yellow; a showy + everlasting. + + _Xeranthemum annuum flore-pleno_: hardy, 2 ft., lilac-purple; + floriferous. + + _Zinnia elegans_: half-hardy, 1 to 2 ft., various colours. + + HARDY BIENNIALS.--Biennials live through one winter period. They + require to be sown in the summer months, about June or July, in order + to get established before winter; they should be pricked out as soon + as large enough, and should have ample space so as to become hardy and + stocky. They should be planted in good soil, but not of too + stimulating a character. Those that are perfectly hardy are best + planted where they are to flower in good time during autumn. This + transplanting acts as a kind of check, which is rather beneficial than + otherwise. Of those that are liable to suffer injury in winter, as the + Brompton and Queen Stocks, a portion should be potted and wintered in + cold frames ventilated as freely as the weather will permit. + + The number of biennials is not large, but a few very desirable garden + plants, such as the following, occur amongst them:-- + + _Agrostemma coronaria_ (Rose Campion): hardy, 1½ ft., bright + rose-purple or rose and white. + + _Beta Cicla variegata_: hardy, 2 ft., beautifully coloured leaves and + midribs, crimson, golden, &c. + + _Campanula Medium_ (Canterbury Bell): hardy, 2 ft., blue, white, rose, + &c. The double-flowered varieties of various colours are very + handsome. + + _Campanula Medium calycanthema_: hardy, 2 ft., blue or white; + hose-in-hose flowered. + + _Catananche coerulea_: hardy, 2 to 3 ft., blue or white. + + _Celsia cretica_: hardy, 4 to 5 ft., yellow, with two dark spots near + centre; in spikes. + + _Cheiranthus Cheiri_ (Wallflower): hardy, 1½ to 2 ft., red, purple, + yellow, &c.; really a perennial but better as a biennial. + + _Coreopsis grandiflora_: hardy, 2 to 3 ft., bright yellow; the finest + member of the genus. + + _Dianthus barbatus_ (Sweet William): hardy, 1 to 1½ ft., crimson, + purple, white or parti-coloured. + + _Dianthus chinensis_ (Indian Pink): half-hardy, 1 ft., various; flower + earlier if treated as biennials; must be protected from frost. + + _Digitalis purpurea_ (Foxglove): hardy, 3 to 5 ft., rosy-purple or + white; beautifully spotted; the variety called _gloxinioides_ has + regular, erect flowers. + + _Echium pomponium_: hardy, 4 ft., rosy-pink. + + _Hedysarum coronarium_ (French Honeysuckle): hardy, 2 to 3 ft., + scarlet or white; fragrant. + + _Hesperis tristis_ (Night-scented Rocket): hardy, 3 ft., dull + purplish; fragrant at night. + + _Lunaria biennis_ (Honesty): hardy, 2 to 3 ft., purple; the silvery + dissepiment attractive among everlastings. + + _Matthiola incana_ (two groups, the Brompton and the Queen stocks): + hardy, 2 to 2½ ft., white, red and purple. + + _Meconopsis._ Charming members of the poppy family, of which _M. + aculeata_, purple; _M. grandis_, purple; _M. heterophylla_, + coppery-orange; _M. nepalensis_, golden yellow; _M. integrifolia_, + yellow; _M. simplicifolia_, violet purple, are grown with care in + sheltered spots, and in rich, very gritty soil. + + _Michauxia campanuloides_, a remarkable bell flower, 3 to 8 ft. high, + white tinged purple. Requires rich loam in warm sheltered spots. + + _Oenothera biennis_ and _O. Lamarckiana_ (Evening primrose): hardy, 5 + ft., bright yellow; large. + + _Scabiosa caucasica_: hardy, 3 ft., blue, white. + + _Silene compacta_: half-hardy, 3 to 6 inches, bright pink; clustered + as in S. Armeria. + + _Verbascum Blattaria_: hardy, 3 to 4 ft., yellowish, with purple hairs + on the filaments; in tall spikes. + + HARDY HERBACEOUS PERENNIALS.--This term includes not only those + fibrous-rooted plants of herbaceous habit which spring up from the + root year after year, but also those old-fashioned subjects known as + florists' flowers, and the hardy bulbs. Some of the most beautiful of + hardy flowering plants belong to this class. When the length of the + flowering season is considered, it will be obvious that it is + impossible to keep up the show of a single border or plot for six + months together, since plants, as they are commonly arranged, come + dropping into and out of flower one after another; and even where a + certain number are in bloom at the same time, they necessarily stand + apart, and so the effects of contrast, which can be perceived only + among adjacent objects, are lost. To obviate this defect, it has been + recommended that ornamental plants should be formed into four or five + separate suites of flowering, to be distributed over the garden. Not + to mention the more vernal flowers, the first might contain the flora + of May; the second that of June; the third that of July; and the + fourth that of August and the following months. These compartments + should be so intermingled that no particular class may be entirely + absent from any one quarter of the garden. + + Before beginning to plant, it would be well to construct tables or + lists of the plants, specifying their respective times of flowering, + colours and heights. To diversify properly and mingle well together + the reds, whites, purples, yellows and blues, with all their + intervening shades, requires considerable taste and powers of + combination; and ascertained failures may be rectified at the proper + time the next season. The one great object aimed at should be to + present an agreeable contrast--a floral picture; and, as at particular + seasons a monotony of tint prevails, it is useful at such times to be + in possession of some strong glaring colours. White, for instance, + should be much employed in July, to break the duller blues and purples + which then preponderate. Orange, too, is very effective at this + season. On the other hand, yellows are superabundant in autumn, and + therefore reds and blues should then be sought for. The + flower-gardener should have a small nursery, or reserve garden, for + the propagation of the finer plants, to be transferred into the + borders as often as is required. + + As a rule, all the fibrous-rooted herbaceous plants flourish in good + soil which has been fairly enriched with manure, that of a loamy + character being the most suitable. Many of them also grow + satisfactorily in a peaty soil if well worked, especially if they have + a cool moist subsoil. Pentstemons and phloxes, amongst others, succeed + well in soil of this character, but the surface must be well drained; + the former are rather apt to perish in winter in loamy soil, if at all + close and heavy. The herbaceous border should be a distinct + compartment varying from 6 to 10 ft. in width, and perhaps backed up + by evergreens under certain conditions. Such a border will take in + about four lines of plants, the tallest being placed in groups at the + back and in the centre, and the others graduated in height down to the + front. In the front row patches of the white arabis, the yellow + alyssum, white, yellow, blue, or purple violas, and the purple + aubrietia, recurring at intervals of 5 or 6 yards on a border of + considerable length, carry the eye forwards and give a balanced kind + of finish to the whole. The same might be done with dianthuses or the + larger narcissi in the second row, with paeonies, columbines and + phloxes in the third, and with delphiniums, aconitums and some of the + taller yellow composites as helianthus and rudbeckia at the back. + Spring and autumn flowers, as well as those blooming in summer, should + be regularly distributed throughout the border, which will then at no + season be devoid of interest in any part. Many of the little alpines + may be brought into the front line planted between suitable pieces of + stone, or they may be relegated to a particular spot, and placed on an + artificial rockery. Most of the hardy bulbs will do well enough in the + border, care being taken not to disturb them while leafless and + dormant. + + Some deep-rooting perennials do not spread much at the surface, and + only require refreshing from time to time by top-dressings. Others, as + the asters, spread rapidly; those possessing this habit should be + taken up every second or third year, and, a nice patch being selected + for replanting from the outer portions, the rest may be either thrown + aside, or reserved for increase; the portion selected for replanting + should be returned to its place, the ground having meanwhile been well + broken up. Some plants are apt to decay at the base, frequently from + exposure caused by the lifting process going on during their growth; + these should be taken up annually in early autumn, the soil refreshed, + and the plants returned to their places, care being taken to plant + them sufficiently deep. + + Only a section of some of the best of the decorative hardy perennials + can be noted, before we pass on to those popular subjects of this + class which have been directly influenced by the hybridizer and + improver. Many more might be added to the subjoined list:-- + + _Acaena._--Neat trailing plants adapted for rockwork, thriving in + sandy soil. _A. microphylla_ and _A. myriophylla_ have pretty spiny + heads of flowers. + + _Acantholimon._--Pretty dwarf tufted plants, with needle-shaped + leaves, adapted for rockwork. _A. glumaceum_ and _A. venustum_ bear + bright pink flowers in July and August. Light sandy loam. + + _Acanthus._--Bold handsome plants, with stately spikes, 2 to 3 ft. + high, of flowers with spiny bracts. _A. mollis_, _A. latifolius_, and + _A. longifolius_ are broad-leaved sorts; _A. spinosus_ and _A. + spinosissimus_ have narrower spiny toothed leaves. + + _Achillea._--Handsome composite plants, the stronger ones of easy + culture in common soil. _A. Eupatorium_ and _filipendula_, 3 to 4 ft., + have showy yellow corymbose flowers; _A. rosea_, 2 ft., rosy-crimson; + and _A. Ptarmica flore-pleno_, 2 ft., double white flowers. Others + suitable for front lines or rockwork are _A. tomentosa_, 9 in., bright + yellow; _A. aegyptiaca_, 1 ft., silvery leaves and yellow flowers; _A. + umbellata_, 8 in., silvery leaves and white flowers; and _A. + Clavennae_, 6 in., with silvery leaves and pure white flowers. + + _Aconitum._--Handsome border plants, the tall stems crowned by racemes + of showy hooded flowers. _A. Camarum_, 3 to 4 ft., has deep purple + flowers in August; _A. sinense_, 1½ to 2 ft., has large dark purple + flowers in September; _A. variegatum_, 3 ft., has the flowers white + edged with blue; _A. autumnale_, 3 ft., has pale blue flowers; _A. + Anthora_, 1 to 2 ft., yellow; and _A. japonicum_, 2½ ft., deep blue + flowers, produced in September and October. _A. Wilsoni_, a new + species from China, 6 ft. high, with bluish-purple flowers. + + _Adenophora._--Bell-shaped flowers. _A. stylosa_, 2 ft., pale blue, + elegant; _A. denticulata_, 1½ ft., dark blue; and in _A. liliifolia_, + 1½ ft., pale blue, sweet-scented--all blooming during summer. Light + soil. + + _Adonis._--_A. vernalis_, 1 ft., has large bright yellow stellate + flowers in April. Deep light soil. _A. amurensis_ is a fine Chinese + species. + + _Ajuga._--Free growing, dwarf and showy. _A. reptans_, 8 in., has + creeping runners, which _A. genevensis_ has not; both bear handsome + spikes of blue labiate flowers. Ordinary soil. + + _Allium._--Hardy bulbs of the garlic family, some species of which are + ornamental; the inflorescence is umbellate. In _A. azureum_, 1 to 2 + ft., the flowers are deep-blue; in _A. Moly_, 1 ft., golden yellow; in + _A. neapolitanum_, 1½ ft., white, very handsome; in _A. triquetrum_, 8 + in., white with green central stripes; in _A. pedemontanum_, 9 in., + reddish-violet, very beautiful, the umbels nodding. + + _Alstroemeria._--Beautiful plants with fleshy tuberous roots, which + are the better if not often disturbed. _A. aurantiaca_, 2 to 3 ft., + orange streaked with red, in July and August; _A. chilensis_, 2 to 3 + ft., blood-red, streaked with yellow, affording many varieties. Deep + sandy loam or peat. Should be planted at least 6 or 8 in. deep. + + _Althaea rosea._--The hollyhock is a noble perennial, 6 to 15 ft. + high, with flowers of every colour except blue. Requires rich loamy + soil and plenty of space. + + _Alyssum._--Showy rockwork or front row border plants of easy culture + in any light soil; the plants should be frequently renewed from + cuttings. _A. saxatile_, with greyish leaves, and deep yellow flowers, + produced in April and May, and the dwarfer _A. montanum_ are useful. + + _Amaryllis._--Noble half-hardy bulbs, for planting near the front wall + of a hothouse or greenhouse; the soil must be deep, rich and well + drained. _A. Belladonna_, the Belladonna Lily, 3 ft., has large + funnel-shaped flowers in September, of a delicate rose colour. The + variety _A. blanda_ has paler flowers, almost white. + + _Anchusa._--Pretty boraginaceous herbs, easily grown. _A. italica_, 3 + to 4 ft., has blue star-like flowers. _A. sempervirens_, 1½ ft., rich + blue, is well suited for rough borders. + + _Androsace._--Pretty dwarf rock plants, requiring rather careful + management and a gritty soil. _A. Vitaliana_, yellow; _A. Wulfeniana_, + purplish-crimson; _A. villosa_, white or pale rose; _A. lactea_, white + with yellow eye; _A. lanuginosa_, delicate rose; and _A. Chamaejasme_, + delicate rose, are some of the best. + + _Anemone._--The Japanese kinds, _A. japonica_, flowers white and + purple, are very easily grown and are particularly fine in autumn. The + scarlet _A. fulgens_, and _A. coronaria_, the poppy anemone, are + useful for the front, or in nooks in the rockery; while the common + hepatica (_A. hepatica_) with its bright blue flowers should also + have a place. + + _Antennaria._--Composite plants, with everlasting flowers. _A. + margaritacea_, 1½ to 2 ft., has white woolly stems and leaves, and + white flower-heads. + + _Anthericum._--Charming border flowers. _A. Liliastrum_, St Bruno's + Lily, 1½ ft., bears pretty white sweet-scented flowers in May; _A. + Hookeri (Chrysobactron)_, 2 ft., with long racemes of bright golden + yellow flowers, requires cool peaty soil. + + _Aquilegia._--The Columbine family, consisting of beautiful border + flowers in great variety, ranging from 1 to 2 or 3 ft. in height. + Besides the common purple _A. vulgaris_ with its numerous varieties, + double and single, there are of choice sorts _A. alpina_ and _A. + pyrenaica_, blue; _A. glandulosa_, _A. jucunda_, and _A. coerulea_, + blue and white; _A. leptoceras_, blue and yellow; _A. canadensis_, _A. + Skinneri_, and _A. truncata (californica)_, scarlet and yellow; _A. + chrysantha_, yellow; and _A. fragrans_, white or flesh-colour, very + fragrant. Light rich garden soil. + + _Arabis._--Dwarf close-growing evergreen cruciferous plants, adapted + for rockwork and the front part of the flower border, and of the + easiest culture. _A. albida_ forms a conspicuous mass of greyish + leaves and white blossoms. There is also a charming double variety. + _A. lucida_, which is also white-flowered, bears its bright green + leaves in rosettes, and has a variety with prettily gold-margined + leaves. + + _Arenaria._--Evergreen rock plants of easy culture. _A. graminifolia_, + and _A. laricifolia_ are tufted, with grassy foliage and white + flowers, while A. balearica, a creeping rock plant, has tiny leaves + and solitary white flowers. + + _Armeria._--The Thrift or Sea-Pink, of which the common form _A. + maritima_ is sometimes planted as an edging for garden walks; there + are three varieties, the common pale pink, the deep rose, and the + white, the last two being the most desirable. _A. cephalotes_, 1½ ft., + is a larger plant, with tufts of linear lance-shaped leaves, and + abundant globular heads of deep rose flowers, in June and July. + + _Asclepias._--_A. tuberosa_ is a handsome fleshy-rooted plant, very + impatient of being disturbed, and preferring good peat soil; it grows + 1 to 1½ ft. high, and bears corymbs of deep yellow and orange flowers + in September. _A. incarnata_, 2 to 4 ft., produces deep rose + sweet-scented flowers towards the end of summer. + + _Asperula odorata._--The woodruff, a charming white-flowered plant + with leaves in circles. Well adapted for carpeting the border or + rockery. + + _Asphodelus._--Handsome liliaceous plants, with fleshy roots, erect + stems, and showy flowers, thriving in any good garden soil. _A. + albus_, 4 ft., _A. aestivus_, 4 ft., and _A. ramosus_, 4 ft., have all + long tapering keeled leaves, and simple or branched spikes of white + flowers; _A. luteus_, 2 ft., has awl-shaped leaves and dense spikes of + fragrant yellow flowers; _A. capillaris_ is similar to _A. luteus_, + but more slender and elegant. + + _Aster._--A very large family of autumn-blooming composites, including + some ornamental species, all of the easiest culture. Of these, _A. + alpinus_, 1 ft., and _A. Amellus_, 1½ ft., with its var. + _bessarabicus_, have broadish blunt leaves, and large starry bluish + flowers; _A. longifolius formosus_, 2 ft., bright rosy lilac; _A. + elegans_, 3 to 5 ft., small pale purple or whitish; _A. laxus_, 2 ft., + purplish-blue; _A. pendulus_, 2½ ft., white, changing to rose; _A. + pyrenaeus_, 2 to 3 ft., lilac-blue; _A. turbinellus_, 2 to 3 ft., + mauve-coloured, are showy border plants; and _A. Novae Angliae_, 5 to + 6 ft., rosy-violet; _A. cyaneus_, 5 ft., blue-lilac; and _A. + grandiflorus_, 3 ft., violet, are especially useful from their + late-flowering habit. + + _Astilbe._--_A. japonica_, 1 to 1½ ft., better known as _Hoteia + japonica_ or _Spiraea japonica_, thrives in peaty or sandy soil; its + glossy tripinnate leaves, and feathery panicles of white flowers early + in summer, are very attractive. It proves to be a fine decorative + pot-plant, and invaluable for forcing during the spring. + + _Astragalus._--Showy pea-flowered plants, the smaller species adapted + for rockwork; sandy soil. _A. dasyglottis_, 6 in., has bluish-purple + flowers in August and September; and _A. monspessulanus_, 8 in., + crimson-purple in July; while _A. hypoglottis_, 6 in., produces in + summer compact heads of pretty flowers, which are either purple or + white. There are many very ornamental kinds. + + _Aubrietia._--Beautiful dwarf spring-blooming rock plants, forming + carpety tufts of flowers of simple cruciferous form. _A. delioidea_ is + of a deep lilac-blue; _A. Campbelliae_ is more compact and rather + darker, approaching to purple; _A. grandiflora_ and _graeca_ are + rather larger, but of a lighter hue. Light sandy soil. + + _Bambusa._--The bamboo family are elegant arborescent grasses (see + BAMBOO). + + _Baptisia._--Stoutish erect-growing, 2 to 3 ft., with smooth foliage + and spikes of pea-like flowers. _B. australis_ is purplish-blue, _B. + alba_, white, _B. exaltata_, deep blue; all flowering in the summer + months. + + _Bellis._--_B. perennis flore-pleno_, the Double Daisy, consists of + dwarf showy plants 3 to 4 in. high, flowering freely in spring if + grown in rich light soil, and frequently divided and transplanted. The + white and pink forms, with the white and red quilled, and the + variegated-leaved _aucubaefolia_, are some of the best. + + _Bocconia._--Stately poppyworts, 6 to 8 ft. _B. cordata_ has + heart-shaped lobed leaves, and large panicles of small flesh-coloured + flowers. Sometimes called _Macleaya_. Deep sandy loam. + + _Brodiaea._--Pretty bulbous plants. _B. grandiflora_, 1 ft., has large + bluish-purple flowers; _B. coccinea_, 2 to 3 ft., has tubular + campanulate nodding flowers of a rich crimson with green tips. Sandy + loam. + + _Bulbocodium._--Pretty spring-flowering crocus-like bulbs. _B. + vernum_, 4 to 6 in. high, purplish-lilac, blooms in March. Good garden + soil. + + _Buphthalmum._--Robust composite herbs with striking foliage, for the + back of herbaceous or shrubbery borders. _B. cordifolium_, 4 ft., has + large cordate leaves, and heads of rich orange flowers in cymose + panicles in July. Also called _Telekia speciosa_. + + _Calandrinia._--Showy dwarf plants for sunny rockwork, in light sandy + soil. _C. umbellata_, 3 to 4 in., much branched, with narrow hairy + leaves, and corymbs of magenta-crimson flowers in the summer months. + + _Calochortus._--Beautiful bulbous plants, called mariposa lilies, + requiring warm sheltered spots in rich gritty and well-drained soil. + There are several species known, the best being _albus_, _elegans_, + _luteus_, _Plummerae_, _splendens_, _Purdyi_, _venustus_ and _Weedi_. + + _Caltha._--Showy marsh plants, adapted for the margins of lakes, + streamlets or artificial bogs. _C. palustris flore-pleno_, 1 ft., has + double brilliant yellow flowers in May. + + _Calystegia._--Twining plants with running perennial roots. _C. + pubescens flore-pleno_, 8 to 10 ft., has showy double-pink + convolvuloid flowers in July; _C. dahurica_ is a handsome + single-flowered summer-blooming kind, with rosy-coloured flowers. + + _Camassia esculenta._--A beautiful bulbous plant 2 to 3 ft. high with + large pale blue flowers. Also a white variety. + + _Campanula._--Beautiful, as well as varied in habit and character. + They are called bell-flowers. _C. pulla_, 6 in., purplish, nodding, on + slender erect stalks; _C. turbinata_, 9 in., purple, broad-belled; _C. + carpatica_, 1 ft., blue, broad-belled; _C. nobilis_, 1½ ft., + long-belled, whitish or tinted with chocolate; _C. persicifolia_, 2 + ft., a fine border plant, single or double, white or purple, blooming + in July; and _C. pyramidalis_, 6 ft., blue or white, in tall branching + spikes, are good and diverse. There are many other fine sorts. + + _Centaurea._--Bold-habited composites of showy character; common soil. + _C. babylonica_, 5 to 7 ft., has winged stems, silvery leaves, and + yellow flower-heads from June to September; _C. montana_, 3 ft., deep + bright blue or white. + + _Centranthus._--Showy free-flowering plants, for rockwork, banks, or + stony soil. _C. ruber_, 2 ft., branches and blooms freely all summer, + and varies with rosy, or crimson, or white flowers. It clothes the + chalk cuttings on some English railways with a sheet of colour in the + blooming season. + + _Cheiranthus._--Pretty rock plants, for light stony soils. _C. + alpinus_, 6 in., grows in dense tufts, and bears sulphur-yellow + flowers in May. _C. ochroleucus_ is similar in character. + + _Chionodoxa._--Charming dwarf hardy bulbous plants of the liliaceous + order, blooming in the early spring in company with _Scilla sibirica_, + and of equally easy cultivation. _C. Luciliae_, 6 in., has star-shaped + flowers of a brilliant blue with a white centre. _C. gigantea_ is the + finest of the few known species. It blooms from February to April. + + _Chrysanthemum._--Apart from the florist's varieties of _C. indicum_ + there are a few fine natural species. One of the best for the flower + border is _C. maximum_ and its varieties--all with beautiful white + flowers having yellow centres. _C. latifolium_ is also a fine species. + + _Colchicum._--Showy autumn-blooming bulbs (corms), with crocus-like + flowers, all rosy-purple or white. _C. speciosum_, _C. autumnale_, + single and double, _C. byzantinum_, and _C. variegatum_ are all worth + growing. + + _Convallaria._--_C. majalis_, the lily of the valley, a well-known + sweet-scented favourite spring flower, growing freely in rich garden + soil; its spikes, 6 to 9 in. high, of pretty white fragrant bells, are + produced in May and June. Requires shady places, and plenty of old + manure each autumn. + + _Coreopsis._--Effective composite plants, thriving in good garden + soil. _C. auriculata_, 2 to 3 ft., has yellow and brown flowers in + July and August; _C. lanceolata_, 2 to 3 ft., bright yellow, in + August; next to the biennial _C. grandiflora_ it is the best garden + plant. + + _Corydalis._--Interesting and elegant plants, mostly tuberous, growing + in good garden soil. _C. bracteata_, 9 in., has sulphur-coloured + flowers in April, and _C. nobilis_, 1 ft., rich yellow, in May; _C. + solida_, with purplish, and _C. tuberosa_, with white flowers, are + pretty spring-flowering plants, 4 to 6 in. high. _C. thalictrifolia_, + 1 ft., yellow, May to October. + + _Cyclamen._--Charming tuberous-rooted plants of dwarf habit, suitable + for sheltered rockeries, and growing in light gritty soil. _C. + europaeum_, reddish-purple, flowers in summer, and _C. hederae-folium_ + in autumn. + + _Cypripedium._--Beautiful terrestrial orchids, requiring to be planted + in peat soil, in a cool and rather shady situation. _C. spectabile_, + 1½ to 2 ft., white and rose colour, in June, is a lovely species, as + is _C. Calceolus_, 1 ft., yellow and brown, in May; all are full of + interest and beauty. + + _Delphinium._--The Larkspur family, tall showy plants, with spikes of + blue flowers in July. Distinct sorts are _D. grandiflorum_ and _D. + grandiflorum flore-pleno_, 2 to 3 ft., of the richest dazzling blue, + flowering on till September; _D. chinense_, 2 ft., blue, and its + double-flowered variety, are good, as is _D. Barlowi_, 3 ft., a + brilliant double blue-purple. _D. nudicaule_, 2 ft., orange-scarlet, + very showy, is best treated as a biennial, its brilliant flowers being + produced freely in the second year from the seed. + + _Dianthus._--Chiefly rock plants with handsome and fragrant flowers, + the smaller sorts growing in light sandy soil, and the larger border + plants in rich garden earth. Of the dwarfer sorts for rock gardens, + _D. alpinus_, _D. caesius_, _D. deltoides_, _D. dentosus_, _D. + neglectus_, _D. petraeus_, and _D. glacialis_ are good examples; while + for borders or larger rockwork _D. plumarius_, _D. superbus_, _D. + Fischeri_, _D. cruentus_, and the clove section of _D. Caryophyllus_ + are most desirable. + + _Dicentra._--Very elegant plants, of easy growth in good soil. _D. + spectabilis_, 2 to 3 ft., has paeony-like foliage, and gracefully + drooping spikes of heart-shaped pink flowers, about May, but it should + have a sheltered place, as it suffers from spring frosts and winds; + _D. formosa_ and _D. eximia_, 1 ft., are also pretty rosy-flowered + species. + + _Dictamnus._--_D. Fraxinella_ is a very characteristic and attractive + plant, 2 to 3 ft., with bold pinnate leaves, and tall racemes of + irregular-shaped purple or white flowers. It is everywhere glandular, + and strongly scented. + + _Digitalis._--Stately erect-growing plants, with long racemes of + pouch-shaped drooping flowers. The native D. purpurea, or foxglove, 3 + to 5 ft., with its dense racemes of purple flowers, spotted inside, is + very showy, but is surpassed by the garden varieties that have been + raised. It is really a biennial, but grows itself so freely as to + become perennial in the garden. An erect flowered form is called + _gloxinioides_. The yellow-flowered _D. lutea_ and _D. grandiflora_ + are less showy. Good garden soil, and frequent renewal from seeds. + + _Doronicum._--Showy composites of free growth in ordinary soil. _D. + caucasicum_ and _D. austriacum_, 1 to 1½ ft., both yellow-flowered, + bloom in spring and early summer. _D. plantagineum excelsum_, 3 to 5 + ft. high, is the best garden plant. + + _Draba._--Good rockwork cruciferous plants. _D. alpina_, _D. + aizoides_, _D. ciliaris_, _D. Aizoon_, and _D. cuspidata_ bear yellow + flowers in early spring; _D. cinerea_ and _D. ciliata_ have white + flowers. Gritty well-drained soil. + + _Dracocephalum._--Handsome labiate plants, requiring a warm and + well-drained soil. _D. argunense_, 1½ ft., _D. austriacum_, 1 ft., _D. + grandiflorum_, 1 ft., and _D. Ruyschianum_, 1½ ft., with its var. + japonicum, all produce showy blue flowers during the summer months. + + _Echinacea._--Stout growing showy composites for late summer and + autumn flowering, requiring rich deep soil, and not to be often + disturbed. _E. angustifolia_, 3 to 4 ft., light purplish-rose, and _E. + intermedia_, 3 to 4 ft., reddish-purple, are desirable kinds. _E. + purpurea_ (often called Rudbeckia) is the showiest species. Height 3 + to 4 ft., with rosy-purple flowers. + + _Eomecon chionanthus._--A lovely poppywort about 1 ft. high, with pure + white flowers 2 to 3 in. across. Root-stocks thick, creeping. + + _Epimedium._--Pretty plants, growing about 1 ft. high, with elegant + foliage, and curious flowers. _E. macranthum_, white flowers, and _E. + rubrum_, red, are distinctly spurred; _E. pinnatum_ and _E. + Perralderianum_, yellow, less so. They bloom in spring, and prefer a + shady situation and a peaty soil. + + _Eranthis hyemalis._--A charming tuberous rooted plant, called winter + aconite. Flowers bright yellow, January to March, close to the ground. + + _Eremurus._--Noble plants with thick rootstocks, large sword-like + leaves, and spikes of flowers from 3 to 10 ft. high. They require warm + sunny spots and rich gritty soil. The best kinds are _robustus_, pink, + 6 to 10 ft.; _himalaicus_, 4 to 8 ft., white; _Aitchisoni_, 3 to 5 + ft., red; _Bungei_, 2 to 3 ft., yellow; and _aurantiacus_, 2 to 3 ft., + orange-yellow. There are now several hybrid forms. + + _Erigeron._--Composite plants, variable in character. _E. purpureus_, + 1½ ft., with pink flower-heads, having narrow twisted ray-florets; _E. + Roylei_, 1 ft., dark blue; and _E. pulchellus_, 1 ft., rich orange, + flowering during the summer, are among the best kinds. Good ordinary + garden soil. + + _Erinus._--_E. alpinus_ is a beautiful little alpine for rockwork, 3 + to 6 in., of tufted habit, with small-toothed leaves, and heads of + pinkish-purple or, in a variety, white flowers, early in summer. Sandy + well-drained soil. + + _Erodium._--Handsome dwarf tufted plants. _E. Manescavi_, 1 to 1½ ft., + has large purplish-red flowers in summer; _E. Reichardi_, a minute + stemless plant, has small heart-shaped leaves in rosette-like tufts, + and white flowers striped with pink, produced successively. Light + soil. + + _Eryngium._--Very remarkable plants of the umbelliferous order, mostly + of an attractive character. _E. amethystinum_, 2 ft., has the upper + part of the stem, the bracts, and heads of flowers all of an + amethystine blue. Some of more recent introduction have the aspect of + the pine-apple, such as _E. bromeliaefolium_, _E. pandanifolium_, and + _E. eburneum_. Deep light soil. + + _Erythronium._--_E. dens-canis_, the Dog's Tooth Violet, is a pretty + dwarf bulbous plant with spotted leaves, and rosy or white flowers + produced in spring, and having reflexed petals. Mixed peaty and loamy + soil, deep and cool. Several charming American species are now in + cultivation. + + _Euphorbia._--Plants whose beauty resides in the bracts or floral + leaves which surround the inconspicuous flowers. _E. aleppica_, 2 ft., + and _E. Characias_, 2 to 3 ft., with green bracts, are fine plants + for rockwork or sheltered, corners. + + _Ferula._--Gigantic umbelliferous plants, with magnificent foliage, + adapted for shrubbery borders or open spots on lawns. They have thick + fleshy roots, deeply penetrating, and therefore requiring deep soil, + which should be of a light or sandy character. _F. communis_, _F. + glauca_, and _F. tingitana_, the last with glossy lozenge-shaped + leaflets, grow 8 to 10 ft. high; _F. Ferulago_, with more finely cut + leaves, grows 5 to 6 ft. high. They flower in early spring, and all + have a fine appearance when in bloom, on account of their large showy + umbels of yellow flowers. + + _Fritillaria._--A large genus of liliaceous bulbs, the best known of + which is the crown imperial (_F. imperialis_) and the snake's head + (_F. Meleagris_). There are many charming species grown, such as + _aurea_, _pudica_, _recurva_, _sewerzowi_, _askabadensis_, &c. + + _Funkia._--Pretty liliaceous plants, with simple conspicuously + longitudinal-ribbed leaves, the racemose flowers funnel-shaped and + deflexed. _F. Sieboldiana_, 1 ft., has lilac flowers; _F. + grandiflora_, 18 in., is white and fragrant; _F. coerulea_, 18 in., is + violet-blue; _F. albo-marginata_, 15 in., has the leaves edged with + white, and the flowers lilac. Rich garden soil. + + _Gaillardia._--Showy composite plants, thriving in good garden soil. + _G. aristata_, 2 ft., has large yellow flower-heads, 2 or 3 in. + across, in summer; _G. Baeselari_ and _G. Loiselii_ have the lower + part of the ray-florets red, the upper part yellow. + + _Galanthus._--The Snowdrop. Early spring-flowering amaryllidaceous + bulbs, with pretty drooping flowers, snow-white, having the tips of + the enclosed petals green. The common sort is _G. nivalis_, which + blossoms on the first break of the winter frosts; _G. Imperoti_, _G. + Elwesi_ and _G. plicatus_ have larger flowers. + + _Galax aphylla._--A neat little rock plant, 6 to 8 in. high, with + pretty round leaves and white flowers. Requires moist peaty soil. + + _Galega officinalis._--A strong-growing leguminous plant, 2 to 5 ft. + high, with pinnate leaves, and masses of pinkish purple pea-like + flowers. Also a white variety. Grows anywhere. + + _Galtonia candicans._--~A fine bulbous plant, 3 to 4 ft. high, with + drooping white flowers. + + _Gaura._--_G. Lindheimeri_, 3 to 5 ft., is much branched, with elegant + white and red flowers of the onagraceous type, in long slender ramose + spikes during the late summer and autumn months. Light garden soil; + not long-lived. + + _Gentiana._--Beautiful tufted erect-stemmed plants preferring a strong + rich loamy soil. _G. acaulis_, known as the Gentianella, forms a close + carpet of shining leaves, and in summer bears large erect tubular deep + blue flowers. _G. Andrewsii_, 1 ft., has, during summer, large deep + blue flowers in clusters, the corollas closed at the mouth; _G. + asclepiadea_, 18 in., purplish-blue, flowers in July. + + _Geranium._--Showy border flowers, mostly growing to a height of 1½ or + 2 ft., having deeply cut leaves, and abundant saucer-shaped blossoms + of considerable size. _G. ibericum_, _platypetalum_, _armenum_ and + _Endressi_ are desirable purple- and rose-flowered sorts; _G. + sanguineum_, a tufted grower, has the flowers a deep rose colour; and + the double-flowered white and blue forms of _G. pratense_ and _G. + sylvaticum_ make pretty summer flowers. Good garden soil. + + _Gerbera._--A South African genus of composites requiring very warm + sunny spots and rich gritty soil. _G. Jamesoni_, with large scarlet + marguerite-like flowers, and _G. viridiflora_, with white flowers + tinged with lilac, are best known. Numerous hybrids have been raised, + varying in colour from creamy white to salmon, pink, yellow, red and + orange. + + _Geum._--Pretty rosaceous plants. The single and double flowered forms + of _G. chiloense_ and its varieties _grandiflorum_ and _miniatum_, 2 + ft., with brilliant scarlet flowers; _G. coccineum_, 6 to 12 in., + scarlet, and _G. montana_, 9 in., yellow, are among the best sorts. + Good garden soil. + + _Gillenia trifoliata_.--A pretty rosaceous plant about 2 ft. high. + Flowers white in graceful panicles; flourishes in a mixture of sandy + peat and loam. + + _Gunnera._--Remarkable rhubarb-like plants with huge lobed leaves, + often 6 ft. across. They should be grown near water as they like much + moisture, and a good loamy soil. _G. manicata_ and _G. scabra_ are the + two kinds grown. + + _Gynerium._--The Pampas-Grass, a noble species, introduced from Buenos + Aires; it forms huge tussocks, 4 or 5 ft. high, above which towards + autumn rise the bold dense silvery plumes of the inflorescence. It + does best in sheltered nooks. + + _Gypsophila._--Interesting caryophyllaceous plants, thriving in dryish + situations. _G. paniculata_, 2 ft., from Siberia, forms a dense + semi-globular mass of small white flowers from July onwards till + autumn, and is very useful for cutting. + + _Haberlea rhodopensis._--A pretty rock plant with dense tufts of + leaves and bluish-lilac flowers. It likes fibrous peat in fissures of + the rocks. + + _Helenium._--Showy composites of free growth in lightish soil. _H. + autumnale_, 4 ft., bears a profusion of yellow-rayed flower-heads in + August and September. + + _Helianthemum._--Dwarf subshrubby plants well suited for rockwork, and + called Sun-Roses from their blossoms resembling small wild roses and + their thriving best in sunny spots. Some of the handsomest are _H. + roseum_, _mutabile_, _cupreum_ and _rhodanthum_, with red flowers; + _H. vulgare flore-pleno_, _grandiflorum_ and _stramineum_, with yellow + flowers; and _H. macranthum_ and _papyraceum_, with the flowers white. + + _Helianthus._--The Sunflower genus, of which there are several + ornamental kinds. _H. multiflorus_, 4 ft., and its double-flowered + varieties, bear showy golden yellow flower-heads in profusion, and are + well adapted for shrubbery borders; _H. orgyalis_, 8 ft., has drooping + willow-like leaves. Many other showy species. + + _Helichrysum._--Composite plants, with the flower-heads of the + scarious character known as Everlastings. _H. arenarium_, 6 to 8 in., + is a pretty species, of dwarf spreading habit, with woolly leaves and + corymbs of golden yellow flowers, about July. + + _Helleborus._--Charming very early blooming dwarf ranunculaceous + herbs. _H. niger_ or Christmas Rose, the finest variety of which is + called _maximus_, has white showy saucer-shaped flowers; _H. + orientalis_, 1 ft., rose-coloured; _H. atrorubens_, 1 ft., + purplish-red; and _H. colchicus_, 1 ft., deep purple. Deep rich loam. + + _Hemerocallis._--The name of the day lilies of which _H. fulva_, _H. + disticha_, _H. flava_, _H. Dumortieri_ and _H. aurantiaca major_ are + the most showy, all with yellow or orange flowers. They flourish in + any garden soil. + + _Hepatica._--Charming little tufted plants requiring good loamy soil, + and sometimes included with Anemone. _H. triloba_, 4 in., has + three-lobed leaves, and a profusion of small white, blue, or pink + single or double flowers, from February onwards; _H. angulosa_, from + Transylvania, 6 to 8 in., is a larger plant, with sky-blue flowers. + + _Hesperis._--_H. matronalis_, 1 to 2 ft., is the old garden Rocket, of + which some double forms with white and purplish blossoms are amongst + the choicest of border flowers. They require a rich loamy soil, not + too dry, and should be divided and transplanted into fresh soil + annually or every second year, in the early autumn season. + + _Heuchera._--_H. sanguinea_ and its varieties are charming and + brilliant border plants with scarlet flowers in long racemes. Rich and + well-drained soil. + + _Hibiscus._--Showy malvaceous plants. _H. Moscheutos_, rose-coloured, + and _H. palustris_, purple, both North American herbs, 3 to 5 ft. + high, are suitable for moist borders or for boggy places near the + margin of lakes. + + _Iberis._--The Candytuft, of which several dwarf spreading subshrubby + species are amongst the best of rock plants, clothing the surface with + tufts of green shoots, and flowering in masses during May and June. + The best are _I. saxatilis_, 6 to 10 in.; _I. sempervirens_, 12 to 15 + in.; and _I. Pruitii_ (variously called _coriacea_, _carnosa_, + _correaefolia_), 12 in. + + _Incarvillea._--_I. Delavayi_ is the best species for the open air. It + grows 2 ft. high and has large tubular rosy carmine blossoms. It likes + rich sandy loam and sunny spots. + + _Lathyrus._--Handsome climbing herbs, increased by seeds or division. + _L. grandiflorus_, 3 ft., has large rose-coloured flowers with + purplish-crimson wings, in June; _L. latifolius_, the everlasting pea, + 6 ft., has bright rosy flowers in the late summer and autumn; the + vars. _albus_, white, and _superbus_, deep rose, are distinct. + Ordinary garden soil. + + _Lavatera._--_L. thuringiaca_, 4 ft., is a fine erect-growing + malvaceous plant, producing rosy-pink blossoms freely, about August + and September. Good garden soil. + + _Leucojum._--Snowflake. Pretty early-blooming bulbs, quite hardy. _L. + vernum_, 6 in., blooms shortly after the snowdrop, and should have a + light rich soil and sheltered position; _L. carpaticum_, flowers about + a month later; _L. pulchellum_, 1½ ft., blooms in April and May; and + _L. aestivum_, 2 ft., in May. All have white pendant flowers, tipped + with green. + + _Liatris._--Pretty composites with the flower-heads collected into + spikes. _L. pumila_, 1 ft., _L. squarrosa_, 2 to 3 ft., _L. spicata_, + 3 to 4 ft., _L. pycnostachya_, 3 to 4 ft., all have rosy-purplish + flowers. Deep, cool, and moist soil. + + _Lilium._--See LILY. + + _Linaria._--Toadflax. Pretty scrophulariads, of which _L. alpina_, 3 + to 6 in., with bluish-violet flowers having a brilliant orange spot, + is suitable for rockwork; _L. dalmatica_, 4 ft., and _L. + genistifolia_, 3 ft., both yellow-flowered, are good border plants; + _L. vulgaris_, the common British toad-flax, and its regular peloriate + form, are very handsome and free flowering during the summer months. + + _Linum._--Flax. _L. alpinum_, 6 in., large, dark blue; _L. + narbonnense_, 1½ ft., large, blue; _L. perenne_, 1½ ft., cobalt blue; + and _L. arboreum (flavum)_, 1 ft., yellow, are all pretty. The last is + liable to suffer from damp during winter, and some spare plants should + be wintered in a frame. It is really shrubby in character. + + _Lithospermum._--_L. prostratum_, 3 in., is a trailing evergreen herb, + with narrow hairy leaves, and paniculate brilliant blue flowers in May + and June. Well adapted for rockwork or banks of sandy soil. + + _Lupinus._--Showy erect-growing plants with papilionaceous flowers, + thriving in good deep garden soil. _L. polyphyllus_, 3 ft., forms + noble tufts of palmate leaves, and long spikes of bluish-purple or + white flowers in June and July; _L. arboreus_ is subshrubby, and has + yellow flowers. + + _Lychnis._--Brilliant erect-growing caryophyllaceous plants, thriving + best in beds of peat earth or of deep sandy loam. _L. chalcedonica_, 3 + ft., has dense heads of bright scarlet flowers, both single and + double, in June and July; _L. fulgens_, 1 ft., vermilion; _L. + Haageana_, 1½ ft., scarlet; and _L. grandiflora_, 1 to 2 ft., with + clusters of scarlet, crimson, pink and white flowers. All + large-flowered and showy, but require a little protection in winter. + + _Lysimachia._--The best known is the Creeping Jenny, _L. Nummularia_, + much used for trailing over rockeries and window boxes, with bright + yellow flowers. The variety _aurea_ with golden leaves is also + popular. Other species that grow from 2 to 3 ft. high, and are good + border plants, are _L. clethroides_, with white spikes of flowers; _L. + vulgaris_, _L. thyrsiflora_, _L. ciliata_, _L. verticillata_ and _L. + punctata_, all yellow. + + _Malva._--_M. moschata_, 2 ft., with a profusion of pale pink or white + flowers, and musky deeply cut leaves, though a British plant, is worth + introducing to the flower borders when the soil is light and free. + + _Meconopsis._--The Welsh poppy, _M. cambrica_, 1 to 2 ft. high, + yellow, and _M. Wallichi_, from the Himalayas, 4 to 6 ft. high with + pale blue flowers, are the best known perennials of the genus. The + last-named, however, is best raised from seeds every year, and treated + like the biennial kinds. + + _Mertensia._--_M. virginica_, 1 to 1½ ft., azure blue, shows flowers + in drooping panicles in May and June. It does best in shady peat + borders. + + _Mimulus._--Monkey-flower. Free-blooming, showy scrophulariaceous + plants, thriving best in moist situations. _M. cardinalis_, 2 to 3 + ft., has scarlet flowers, with the limb segments reflexed; _M. luteus_ + and its many garden forms, 1 to 1½ ft., are variously coloured and + often richly spotted; and _M. cupreus_, 8 to 10 in., is bright + coppery-red. _M. moschatus_ is the Musk-plant, of which the variety + _Harrisoni_ is a greatly improved form, with much larger yellow + flowers. + + _Monarda._--Handsome labiate plants, flowering towards autumn, and + preferring a cool soil and partially shaded situation. _M. didyma_, 2 + ft., scarlet or white; M. fistulosa, 3 ft., purple; and _M. purpurea_, + 2 ft., deep purple, are good border flowers. + + _Muscari._--Pretty dwarf spring-flowering bulbs. _M. botryoides_ + (Grape Hyacinth), 6 in., blue or white, is the handsomest; _M. + moschatum_ (Musk Hyacinth), 10 in., has peculiar livid greenish-yellow + flowers and a strong musky odour; _M. monstrosum_ (Feather Hyacinth) + bears sterile flowers broken up into a feather-like mass. Good garden + soil. + + _Myosotidium nobile._--A remarkable plant, 1½ to 2 ft. high, with + large blue forget-me-not-like flowers. Requires gritty peat soil and + cool situations, but must be protected from frost in winter. + + _Myosotis._--Forget-me-not. Lovely boraginaceous plants. M. + dissitiflora, 6 to 8 in., with large, handsome and abundant sky-blue + flowers, is the best and earliest, flowering from February onwards; it + does well in light cool soils, preferring peaty ones, and should be + renewed annually from seeds or cuttings. _M. rupicola_, 2 to 3 in., + intense blue, is a fine rock plant, preferring shady situations and + gritty soil; _M. sylvatica_, 1 ft., blue, pink or white, used for + spring bedding, should be sown annually in August. + + _Narcissus._--See NARCISSUS. + + _Nepeta._--_N. Mussinii_, 1 ft., is a compactly spreading + greyish-leaved labiate, with lavender-blue flowers, and is sometimes + used for bedding or for marginal lines in large compound beds. + + _Nierembergia._--_N. rivularis_, 4 in., from La Plata, has slender, + creeping, rooting stems, bearing stalked ovate leaves, and large + funnel-shaped white flowers, with a remarkably long slender tube; + especially adapted for rockwork, requiring moist sandy loam. + + _Nymphaea._--See WATER-LILY. + + _Oenothera._--The genus of the Evening Primrose, consisting of showy + species, all of which grow and blossom freely in rich deep soils. _Oe. + missouriensis (macrocarpa)_, 6 to 12 in., has stout trailing branches, + lance-shaped leaves and large yellow blossoms; _Oe. taraxacifolia_, 6 + to 12 in., has a stout crown from which the trailing branches spring + out, and these bear very large white flowers, changing to delicate + rose; this perishes in cold soils, and should therefore be raised from + seed annually. Of erect habit are _Oe. speciosa_, 1 to 2 ft., with + large white flowers; _Oe. fruticosa_, 2 to 3 ft., with abundant yellow + flowers; and _Oe. serotina_, 2 ft., also bright yellow. + + _Omphalodes._--Elegant dwarf boraginaceous plants. _O. verna_, 4 to 6 + in., a creeping, shade-loving plant, has bright blue flowers in the + very early spring; _O. Luciliae_, 6 in., has much larger lilac-blue + flowers, and is an exquisite rock plant for warm, sheltered spots. + Light sandy soil. + + _Onosma._--_O. taurica_, 6 to 8 in., is a charming boraginaceous plant + from the Caucasus, producing hispid leaves and cymose heads of + drooping, tubular, yellow flowers. It is of evergreen habit, and + requires a warm position on the rockwork and well-drained sandy soil; + or a duplicate should be sheltered during winter in a cold, dry frame. + + _Ornithogalum._--The Star of Bethlehem. _O. arabicum_ can only be + grown in the warmest parts of the kingdom, and then requires + protection in winter. Other species, all bulbous, are _O. nutans_, _O. + pyramidale_, _O. pyrenaicum_, and the common Star of Bethlehem, _O. + umbellatum_; all are easily grown, and have white flowers. + + _Ostrowskya magnifica._--A magnificent bellflower from Bokhara, 4 to 5 + ft. high, and white flowers tinted and veined with lilac, 3 to 5 in. + across. Requires rich, gritty loam of good depth, as it produces + tuberous roots 1 to 2 ft. long. + + _Ourisia._--Handsome scrophulariaceous plants, from Chile, thriving in + moist, well-drained peaty soil, and in moderate shade. _O. coccinea_, + 1 ft., has erect racemes of pendent crimson flowers. + + _Papaver._--The Poppy. Very showy plants, often of strong growth, and + of easy culture in ordinary garden soil. _P. orientale_, 3 ft., has + crimson-scarlet flowers, 6 in. across, and the variety _bracteatum_ + closely resembles it, but has leafy bracts just beneath the blossom. + _P. alpinum_, 6 in., white with yellow centre; _P. nudicaule_, 1 ft., + yellow, scented, and _P. pilosum_, 1 to 2 ft., deep orange, are + ornamental smaller kinds. + + _Pentstemon._--The popular garden varieties have sprung from _P. + Hartwegii_ and _P. Cobaea_. Other distinct kinds are _P. + campanulatus_, 1½ ft., pale rose, of bushy habit; _P. humilis_, 9 in., + bright blue; _P. speciosus_, _cyananthus_ and _Jaffrayanus_, 2 to 3 + ft., all bright blue; _P. barbatus_, 3 to 4 ft., scarlet, in long + terminal panicles; _P. Murrayanus_, 6 ft., with scarlet flowers and + connate leaves; and _P. Palmeri_, 3 to 4 ft., with large, wide-tubed, + rose-coloured flowers. + + _Petasites._--_P. fragrans_, the Winter Heliotrope, though of weedy + habit, with ample cordate coltsfoot-like leaves, yields in January and + February its abundant spikes, about 1 ft. high, of greyish flowers + scented like heliotrope; it should have a corner to itself. + + _Phlomis._--Bold and showy labiates, growing in ordinary soil. _P. + Russelliana (lunariaefolia)_, 4 ft., yellow, and _P. tuberosa_, 3 ft., + purplish-rose, both with downy hoary leaves, come in well in broad + flower borders. + + _Phygelius._--_P. capensis_ from South Africa is hardy south of the + Thames and in favoured localities. Flowers tubular scarlet, on + branching stems, 2 to 3 ft. high. Requires light, rich soil. + + _Physalis._--_P. Alkekengi_ from South Europe has long been known in + gardens for its bright orange-red globular calyxes. It has been + surpassed by the much larger and finer _P. Francheti_ from Japan; the + brilliant calyxes are often 3 in. in diameter in autumn. Grows in any + garden soil. + + _Physostegia._--Tall, autumn-blooming labiates, of easy growth in + ordinary garden soils. _P. imbricata_, 5 to 6 ft., has pale purple + flowers in closely imbricated spikes. + + _Phytolacca._--Ornamental strong-growing perennials requiring much + space. _P. acinosa_, from the Himalayas, 3 to 4 ft., with whitish + flowers in erect spikes. _P. decandra_, the North American Poke Weed + or Red Ink plant, grows 5 to 10 ft. high, has fleshy poisonous roots, + erect purple stems and white flowers. _P. icosandra_, from Mexico, 2 + to 3 ft., pinky white. The foliage in all cases is handsome. Ordinary + garden soil. + + _Platycodon._--_P. grandiflorum_, 6 to 24 in. high, is a fine Chinese + perennial with flattish, bell-shaped flowers, 2 to 3 in. across, and + purple in colour. The variety _Mariesi_ (or _pumilum_) is dwarf, with + larger, deeper-coloured flowers. Requires rich sandy loam. + + _Podophyllum._--Ornamental herbs with large lobed leaves. _P. Emodi_, + 6 to 12 in. high, from the Himalayas, has large white or pale-rose + flowers, and in autumn bright red, hen's-egg-like fruits. _P. + peltatum_, the North American mandrake, has large umbrella-like leaves + and white flowers; _P. pleianthum_, from China, purple. They all + require moist, peaty soil in warm, sheltered nooks. + + _Polemonium._--Pretty border flowers. _P. coeruleum_ (Jacob's Ladder), + 2 ft., has elegant pinnate leaves, and long panicles of blue rotate + flowers. The variety called variegatum has very elegantly marked + leaves, and is sometimes used as a margin or otherwise in bedding + arrangements. Good garden soil. + + _Polygonatum._--Elegant liliaceous plants, with rhizomatous stems. _P. + multiflorum_ (Solomon's Seal), 2 to 3 ft., with arching stems, and + drooping white flowers from the leaf axils, is a handsome border + plant, doing especially well in partial shade amongst shrubs, and also + well adapted for pot culture for early forcing. Good garden soil. + + _Polygonum._--A large family, varying much in character, often weedy, + but of easy culture in ordinary soil. _P. vacciniifolium_, 6 to 10 + in., is a pretty prostrate subshrubby species, with handsome rose-pink + flowers, suitable for rockwork, and prefers boggy soil; _P. affine + (Brunonis)_, 1 ft., deep rose, is a showy border plant, flowering in + the late summer; _P. cuspidatum_, 8 to 10 ft., is a grand object for + planting where a screen is desired, as it suckers abundantly, and its + tall spotted stems and handsome cordate leaves have quite a noble + appearance. Other fine species are _P. baldschuanium_, a climber, _P. + sphaerostachyum_, _P. lanigerum_, _P. polystachyum_ and _P. + sachalinense_, all bold and handsome. + + _Potentilla._--The double varieties are fine garden plants obtained + from _P. argyrophylla atrosanguinea_ and _P. nepalensis_. The colours + include golden-yellow, red, orange-yellow, crimson, maroon and + intermediate shades. They all flourish in rich sandy soil. + + _Primula._--Beautiful and popular spring flowers, of which many forms + are highly esteemed in most gardens. _P. vulgaris_, 6 in., affords + numerous handsome single- and double-flowered varieties, with + various-coloured flowers for the spring flower-beds and borders. + Besides this, _P. Sieboldii (cortusoides amoena)_, 1 ft., originally + deep rose with white eye, but now including many varieties of colour, + such as white, pink, lilac and purple; _P. japonica_, 1 to 2 ft., + crimson-rose; _P. denticulata_, 1 ft., bright bluish-lilac, with its + allies _P. erosa_ and _P. purpurea_, all best grown in a cold frame; + _P. viscosa_, 6 in., purple, and its white variety nivalis, with _P. + pedemontana_ and _P. spectabilis_, 6 in., both purple; and the + charming little Indian _P. rosea_, 3 to 6 in., bright cherry-rose + colour, are but a few of the many beautiful kinds in cultivation. + + _Pulmonaria._--Handsome dwarf, boraginaceous plants, requiring good + deep garden soil. _P. officinalis_, 1 ft., has prettily mottled leaves + and blue flowers; _P. sibirica_ is similar in character, but has + broader leaves more distinctly mottled with white. + + _Pyrethrum._--Composite plants of various character, but of easy + culture. _P. Parthenium eximium_, 2 ft., is a handsome double white + form of ornamental character for the mixed border; _P. uliginosum_, 5 + to 6 ft., has fine large, white, radiate flowers in October; _P. + Tchihatchewii_, a close-growing, dense evergreen, creeping species, + with long-stalked, white flower-heads, is adapted for covering slopes + in lieu of turf, and for rockwork. + + _Ramondia._--_R. pyrenaica_, 3 to 6 in., is a pretty dwarf plant, + requiring a warm position on the rockwork and a moist, peaty soil more + or less gritty; it has rosettes of ovate spreading root-leaves, and + large purple, yellow-centred, rotate flowers, solitary, or two to + three together, on naked stalks. + + _Ranunculus._--The florists' ranunculus is a cultivated form of _R. + asiaticus_ (see RANUNCULUS). _R. amplexicaulis_, 1 ft., white; _R. + aconitifolius_, 1 to 2 ft., white, with its double variety _R. + aconitifolius flore-pleno_ (Fair Maids of France); and _R. acris + flore-pleno_ (Bachelor's Buttons), 2 ft., golden yellow, are pretty. + Of dwarfer interesting plants there are _R. alpestris_, 4 in., white; + _R. gramineus_, 6 to 10 in., yellow; _R. parnassifolius_, 6 in., + white; and _R. rutaefolius_, 4 to 6 in., white with orange centre. + + _Rodgersia._--Handsome herbs of the saxifrage family. _R. podophylla_ + with large bronzy-green leaves cut into 5 large lobes, and tall + branching spikes 3 to 4 ft. high--the whole plant resembling one of + the large meadow sweets. _R. aesculifolia_, yellowish-white; _R. + Henrici_, deep purple; _R. pinnata_, fleshy pink; and _R. + sambucifolia_, white, are recently introduced species from China. They + require rich sandy peat and warm sheltered spots. + + _Romneya._--_R. Coulteri_, a fine Californian plant, with large white + flowers on shoots often as high as 7 ft.; _R. trichocalyx_ is similar. + Both require very warm, sunny spots and rich, sandy soil, and should + not be disturbed often. + + _Rudbeckia._--Bold-habited composite plants, well suited for shrubbery + borders, and thriving in light loamy soil. The flower-heads have a + dark-coloured elevated disk. _R. Drummondii_, 2 to 3 ft., with the + ray-florets reflexed, yellow at the tip and purplish-brown towards the + base; _R. fulgida_, 2 ft. golden-yellow with dark chocolate disk, the + flower-heads 2 to 3 in. across; and _R. speciosa_, 2 to 3 ft., + orange-yellow with blackish-purple disk, the flower-heads 3 to 4 in. + across, are showy plants. + + _Sagittaria._--Graceful water or marsh plants with hastate leaves, and + tuberous, running and fibrous roots. _S. japonica plena_; _S. + lancifolia_, _S. macrophylla_ and _S. sagittifolia_, are among the + best kinds, all with white flowers. + + _Salvia._--The Sage, a large genus of labiates, often very handsome, + but sometimes too tender for English winters. _S. Sclarea_, 5 to 6 + ft., is a very striking plant little more than a biennial, with + branched panicles of bluish flowers issuing from rosy-coloured bracts; + _S. patens_, 2 ft., which is intense azure, has tuberous roots, and + may be taken up, stored away and replanted in spring like a dahlia. + _S. pratensis_, 2 ft., blue, a showy native species, is quite hardy; + the variety lupinoides has the centre of the lower lip white. + + _Saxifraga._--A very large genus of rock and border plants of easy + culture. The Megasea group, to which _S. ligulata_, _S. cordifolia_ + and _S. crassifolia_ belong, are early-flowering kinds of great + beauty, with fleshy leaves and large cymose clusters of flowers of + various shades of rose, red and purple. Another very distinct group + with silvery foliage--the crustaceous group--contains some of our + choicest Alpines. Of these _S. caesia_, _S. calyciflora_, _S. + Cotyledon_ are among the best known. Some of the species look more + like lichens than flowering plants. The green moss-like saxifrages are + also a very distinct group, with dense tufted leaves which appear + greener in winter than in summer. The flowers are borne on erect + branching stems and are chiefly white in colour. _Saxifraga umbrosa_ + (London Pride) and _S. Geum_ belong to still another group, and are + valuable alike on border and rockery. _S. peltata_ is unique owing to + its large peltate leaves, often 1 ft. to 18 in. across, with stalks 1 + to 2 ft. long. Flowers in April, white or pinkish. Likes plenty of + water and a moist peaty soil or marshy place. _S. sarmentosa_, the + well-known "mother of thousands," is often grown as a pot plant in + cottagers' windows. + + _Scilla._--Beautiful dwarf bulbous plants, thriving in well-worked + sandy loam, or sandy peat. _S. bifolia_, 3 in., and _S. sibirica_, 4 + in., both intense blue, are among the most charming of early spring + flowers; _S. patula_, 6 to 8 in., and _S. campanulata_, 1 ft., with + tubular greyish-blue flowers, freely produced, are fine border plants, + as is the later-blooming _S. peruviana_, 6 to 8 in., dark blue or + white. + + _Sedum._--Pretty succulent plants of easy growth, and mostly suitable + for rockwork. They are numerous, varied in the colour of both leaves + and foliage, and mostly of compact tufted growth. _S. spectabile_, 1 + to 1½ ft., pink, in great cymose heads, is a fine plant for the + borders, and worthy also of pot-culture for greenhouse decoration. + Mention may also be made of the common _S. acre_ (Stonecrop), 3 in., + yellow, and its variety with yellow-tipped leaves. + + _Sempervivum._--House-Leek. Neat-growing, succulent plants, forming + rosettes of fleshy leaves close to the ground, and rapidly increasing + by runner-like offsets; they are well adapted for rockwork, and do + best in sandy soil. The flowers are stellate, cymose, on stems rising + from the heart of the leafy rosettes. _S. arachnoideum_, purplish, _S. + arenarium_, yellow, _S. globiferum_ and _S. Laggeri_, rose, grow when + in flower 3 to 6 in. high; _S. calcareum_, rose colour, and _S. + Boutignianum_, pale rose, both have glaucous leaves tipped with + purple; _S. Heuffelii_, yellow, with deep chocolate leaves, and _S. + Wulfeni_, sulphur-yellow, are from 8 to 12 in. high. + + _Senecio._--A large genus with comparatively few good garden plants. + Large and coarse-growing kinds like _S. Doria_, _S. macrophyllus_ and + _S. sarracenicus_ are good for rough places; all yellow-flowered. _S. + pulcher_ is a charming plant, 2 to 3 ft. high, with rosy-purple + flower-heads, having a bright orange centre. It likes a warm corner + and moist soil. _S. clivorum_, from China, has large roundish leaves + and orange-yellow flowers. It flourishes near water and in damp + places. + + _Shortia._--_S. galacifolia_, a beautiful tufted plant 2 to 3 in. + high, with roundish crenate leaves, on long stalks, and white + funnel-shaped flowers in March and April. _S. uniflora_ from Japan is + closely related. The leaves of both assume rich purple-red tints in + autumn. Warm sunny situations and rich sandy loam and peat are + required. + + _Silene._--Pretty caryophyllaceous plants, preferring sandy loam, and + well adapted for rockwork. _S. alpestris_, 6 in., white, and _S. + quadridentata_, 4 in., white, are beautiful tufted plants for rockwork + or the front parts of borders; _S. maritima flore-pleno_, 6 in., + white, _S. Elizabethae_, 4 in., bright rose, and _S. Schafta_, 6 in., + purplish-rose, are also good kinds. + + _Sisyrinchium._--Pretty dwarf iridaceous plants, thriving in peaty + soil. _S. grandiflorum_, 10 in., deep purple or white, blooms about + April, and is a fine plant for pot-culture in cold frames. + + _Sparaxis._--Graceful bulbous plants from South Africa. _S. + grandiflora_, with deep violet-purple, and _S. tricolor_, with rich + orange-red, flowers are best known. _S. pulcherrima_, a lovely + species, 3 to 6 ft. high, with drooping blood-red blossoms, is now + referred to the genus _Dierama_. A warm, light, but rich soil in + sheltered spots required. + + _Spiraea._--Vigorous growing plants of great beauty, preferring good, + deep, rather moist soil; the flowers small but very abundant, in large + corymbose or spicate panicles. _S. Aruncus_, 4 ft., white; _S. + astilbioides_, 2 ft., white; _S. Filipendula_, 1½ ft., and _S. + Ulmaria_, 3 ft., both white; _S. palmata_, 2 ft., rosy-crimson; and + _S. venusta_, 3 ft., carmine rose, are some of the best. + + _Statice._--Pretty plants with broad, radical leaves, and a + much-branched inflorescence of numerous small flowers. _S. latifolia_, + 2 ft., greyish-blue; _S. tatarica_, 1 ft., lavender-pink; _S. + speciosa_, 1½ ft., rose colour; and _S. eximia_, 1½ ft., + rosy-lilac--are good border plants. _S. bellidifolia_, 9 in., + lavender; _S. emarginata_, 6 in., purple; _S. globulariaefolia_, 9 + in., white; and _S. nana_, 4 in.--are good sorts for the rockery. + + _Stenactis._--_S. speciosa_, 1 to 2 ft., is a showy composite, of easy + culture in good garden soil; it produces large corymbs of + flower-heads, with numerous narrow blue ray-florets surrounding the + yellow disk. Now more generally known as Erigeron. + + _Stipa._--_S. pennata_ (Feather Grass), 1½ ft., is a very + graceful-habited grass, with stiff slender erect leaves, and long + feathery awns to the seeds. + + _Stokesia._--_S. cyanea_, 2 ft., is a grand, autumn-flowering, + composite plant, with blue flower-heads, 4 in. across. Sandy loam and + warm situation. + + _Symphytum._--Rather coarse-growing but showy boraginaceous plants, + succeeding in ordinary soil. _S. caucasicum_, 2 ft., with blue flowers + changing to red, is one of the finer kinds for early summer blooming. + + _Thalictrum._--Free-growing but rather weedy ranunculaceous plants, in + many cases having elegantly cut foliage. _T. aquilegifolium_, 2 ft., + purplish from the conspicuous stamens, the leaves glaucous, is a good + border plant; and _T. minus_ has foliage somewhat resembling that of + the Maidenhair fern. Ordinary garden soil. + + _Tiarella._--_T. cordifolia_, the foam flower, is very ornamental in + border or rockery. Leaves heart-shaped lobed and toothed; flowers + white starry; ordinary garden soil. + + _Tigridia._--Lovely bulbous plants called tiger flowers, useful in the + warmest parts of the kingdom for the border in rich but gritty soil. + _T. Pavonia_, the peacock tiger flower, from Mexico, grows 1 to 2 ft. + high, with plaited sword-like leaves, and large flowers about 6 in. + across, having zones of violet and yellow blotched with purple and + tipped with scarlet. There are many varieties, all charming. + + _Trillium._--_T. grandiflorum_, the wood-lily of North America, is the + finest. It has large white flowers and grows freely in peaty soil in + shady borders. There are several other species, some with purplish + flowers. + + _Tritonia._--A genus of South African plants with fibrous-coated corms + or solid bulbs, often known as montbretas. _T. crocata_, 2 ft., + orange-yellow, _T. crocosmiaeflora_, 2 to 2½ ft., orange-scarlet, and + _T. Pottsi_, 3 to 4 ft., bright yellow, are the best-known varieties, + of which there are many subsidiary ones, some being very large and + free in flowering. A rich, gritty soil, and warm, sunny situations are + best for these plants. + + _Triteleia._--Charming spring-flowering bulbs, thriving in any good + sandy soil. _T. Murrayana_, 8 in., lavender-blue, and _T. uniflora_, + 6 in., white, are both pretty plants of the easiest culture, either + for borders or rockeries. + + _Tritoma._--Splendid stoutish-growing plants of noble aspect, + familiarly known as the Poker plant, from their erect, rigid spikes of + flame-coloured flowers; sometimes called Kniphofia. _T. Uvaria_, 3 to + 4 ft., bright orange-red, passing to yellow in the lower flowers, is a + fine autumnal decorative plant. They should be protected from frosts + by a covering of ashes over the crown during winter. + + _Trollius._--Showy ranunculaceous plants, of free growth, flowering + about May and June. _T. europaeus_, 18 in., lemon globular; _T. + asiaticus_, 2 ft., deep yellow; and _T. napellifolius_, 2 to 2½ ft., + golden yellow, are all fine showy kinds. Rich and rather moist soil. + + _Tulipa._--Splendid dwarfish bulbs, thriving in deep, sandy, + well-enriched garden soil, and increased by offsets. They bloom during + the spring and early summer months. _T. Gesneriana_, the parent of the + florists' tulip, 12 to 18 in., crimson and other colours; _T. + Eichleri_, 1 ft., crimson with dark spot; _T. Greigi_, 1 ft., orange + with dark spot edged with yellow, and having dark spotted leaves; _T. + oculus solis_, 1 ft., scarlet with black centre; and _T. sylvestris_, + 12 to 18 in., bright yellow, are showy kinds. + + _Veratrum._--Distinct liliaceous plants with bold ornamental leaves + regularly folded and plaited. _V. album_, 3 to 5 ft., has whitish + blossoms in dense panicles, 1 to 2 ft. long. _V. nigrum_, 2 to 3 ft., + has blackish-purple flowers, also _V. Maacki_, 2 ft. Rich sandy loam + and peat. + + _Verbascum._--Showy border flowers of erect spire-like habit, of the + easiest culture. _V. Chaixii_, 4 to 5 ft., yellow, in large pyramidal + panicles; _V. phoeniceum_, 3 ft., rich purple or white; and _V. + formosum_, 6 ft., golden yellow in dense panicles, are desirable + species. + + _Veronica._--The Speedwell family, containing many ornamental members; + all the hardy species are of the easiest cultivation in ordinary + garden soil. The rotate flowers are in close, erect spikes, sometimes + branched. _V. crassifolia_, 2 ft., dark blue; _V. incarnata_, 1½ ft., + flesh-colour; _V. corymbosa_, 1½ ft., pale blue in + corymbosely-arranged racemes; _V. gentianoides_, 2 ft., grey with blue + streaks; _V. spicata_, blue, and its charming white variety _alba_; + and _V. virginica_, 5 ft., white, are distinct. + + _Vinca._--Periwinkle. Pretty rock plants, growing freely in ordinary + soil. _V. herbacea_, of creeping habit, with purplish-blue flowers; + _V. minor_, of trailing habit, blue; and _V. major_, 1 to 2 ft. high, + also trailing, are suitable for the rock garden. The last two are + evergreen, and afford varieties which differ in the colour of their + flowers, while some are single and others double. + + _Viola._--Violet. Charming dwarf plants, mostly evergreen and of + tufted habit, requiring well-worked rich sandy soil. _V. calcarata_, 6 + in., light blue; _V. cornuta_, 6 to 8 in., blue; _V. lutea_, 4 in., + yellow; _V. altaica_, 6 in., yellow or violet with yellow eye; _V. + palmaensis_, 6 to 8 in., lavender-blue; _V. pedata_, 6 in., pale blue; + and _V. odorata_, the Sweet Violet, in its many single and double + flowered varieties, are all desirable. + + _Yucca._--Noble subarborescent liliaceous plants, which should be + grown in every garden. They do well in light, well-drained soils, and + have a close family resemblance, the inflorescence being a panicle of + white, drooping, tulip-shaped flowers, and the foliage rosulate, + sword-shaped and spear-pointed. Of the more shrubby-habited sorts _Y. + gloriosa_, _recurvifolia_ and _Treculeana_ are good and distinct; and + of the dwarfer and more herbaceous sorts _Y. filamentosa_, _flaccida_ + and _angustifolia_ are distinct and interesting kinds, the first two + flowering annually. + + The taste for cultivation of the class of plants, of which the + foregoing list embraces some of the more prominent members, is on the + increase, and gardens will benefit by its extension. + + HARDY TREES AND SHRUBS.--Much of the beauty of the pleasure garden + depends upon the proper selection and disposition of ornamental trees + and shrubs. We can only afford space here for lists of some of the + better and more useful and ornamental trees and shrubs, old and new. + + The following list, which is not exhaustive, furnishes material from + which a selection may be made to suit various soils and situations. + The shrubs marked * are climbers. + + _Hardy Deciduous Trees._ + + Acer--Maple. Larix--Larch. + Aesculus--Horse-Chestnut. Liriodendron--Tulip-tree. + Ailantus--Tree of Heaven. Magnolia. + Alnus--Alder. Morus--Mulberry. + Amygdalus--Almond. Negundo--Box-Elder. + Betula--Birch. Ostrya--Hop Hornbeam. + Carpinus--Hornbeam. Paulownia. + Carya--Hickory. Planera. + Castanea--Sweet Chestnut. Platanus--Plane. + Catalpa. Populus--Poplar. + Celtis--Nettle Tree. Prunus (Plums, Cherries, &c.). + Cercis--Judas Tree. Ptelea--Hop Tree. + Cotoneaster (some species). Pyrus--Pear, &c. + Crataegus--Thorn. Quercus--Oak. + Davidia. Rhus--Sumach. + Diospyros. Robinia--Locust Tree. + Fagus--Beech. Salix--Willow. + Fraxinus--Ash. Sophora. + Ginkgo--Maidenhair Tree. Taxodium--Deciduous Cypress. + Gleditschia--Honey Locust. Tilia--Lime. + Gymnocladus--Kentucky Coffee Tree. Ulmus--Elm. + Juglans--Walnut. Virgilia. + Kolreuteria. Xanthoceras. + Laburnum. + + _Hardy Evergreen Trees._ + + Abies--Silver Fir. Libocedrus. + Araucaria--Chili Pine. Magnolia grandiflora. + Arbutus--Strawberry Tree. Picea--Spruce Fir. + Biota--Arbor Vitae. Pinus--Pine. + Buxus--Box. Quercus Ilex--Holm-Oak. + Cedrus--Cedar. Retinospora. + Cephalotaxus. Sciadopitys--Umbrella Pine. + Cryptomeria--Japan Cedar. Sequoia (Wellingtonia). + Cupressus--Cypress. Taxus--Yew. + Ilex--Holly. Thuiopsis. + Juniperus--Juniper. Thuya--Arbor Vitae. + Laurus--Bay Laurel. Tsuga. + + _Hardy Deciduous Shrubs._ + + Abelia. Halesia--Snowdrop Tree. + Acer--Maple. Hamamelis--Wych Hazel. + Amelanchier. Hibiscus--Althaea frutex, &c. + Ampelopsis.* Hippophaë--Sea Buckthorn. + Amygdalopsis. Hypericum--St John's Wort. + Aralia. Jasminum*--Jasmine. + Aristolochia.* Kerria. + Berberis--Berberry. Lonicera*--Honeysuckle. + Bignonia*--Trumpet Flower. Lycium.* + Buddleia. Magnolia. + Calophaca. Menispermum*--Moonseed. + Calycanthus--Carolina Allspice. Periploca.* + Caragana. Philadelphus--Mock Orange. + Chimonanthus. Rhus--Wig Tree, &c. + Clematis.* Ribes--Flowering Currant. + Colutea--Bladder Senna. Robinia--Rose Acacia, &c. + Cornus--Dogwood. Rosa--Rose. + Cotoneaster (some species). Rubus*--Bramble. + Crataegus--Thorn. Spartium--Spanish Broom. + Cydonia--Japan Quince. Spiraea. + Cytisus--Broom, &c. Staphylaea--Bladder-Nut. + Daphne. Symphoricarpus--Snowberry. + Deutzia. Syringa--Lilac. + Edwardsia. Tamarix--Tamarisk. + Euonymus europaeus--Spindle Tree. Viburnum--Guelder Rose, &c. + Forsythia. Vitis*--Vine. + Fremontia. Weigela. + Genista. + + _Hardy Evergreen Shrubs._ + + Akebia.* Hedera*--Ivy. + Arbutus. Hypericum--St John's Wort. + Aucuba--Japan Laurel. Ilex--Holly. + Azara. Jasminum*--Jasmine. + Bambusa--Bamboo. Kadsura.* + Berberidopsis.* Lardizabala.* + Berberis--Berberry. Laurus--Sweet Bay. + Buddleia. Ligustrum--Privet. + Bupleurum. Lonicera*--Honeysuckle. + Buxus--Box. Osmanthus. + Ceanothus. Pernettya. + Cerasus--Cherry-Laurel, &c. Phillyrea. + Cistus-Sun-Rose. Photinia. + Cotoneaster. Rhamnus Alaternus. + Crataegus Pyracantha--Fire Thorn. Rhododendron--Rose-Bay. + Daphne. Rosa*--Rose. + Desfontainea. Ruscus. + Elaeagnus--Oleaster. Skimmia. + Erica--Heath. Smilax.* + Escallonia. Stauntonia.* + Euonymus. Ulex--Furze. + Fabiana. Viburnum--Laurustinus. + Fatsia (Aralia). Vinca--Periwinkle. + Garrya. Yucca--Adam's Needle. + Griselinia. + + BEDDING PLANTS.--This term is chiefly applied to those + summer-flowering plants, such as ivy-leaved and zonal pelargoniums, + petunias, dwarf lobelias, verbenas, &c., which are employed in masses + for filling the beds of a geometrical parterre. Of late years, + however, more attention has been bestowed on arrangements of brilliant + flowering plants with those of fine foliage, and the massing also of + hardy early-blooming plants in parterre fashion has been very greatly + extended. Bedding plants thrive best in a light loam, liberally + manured with thoroughly rotten dung from an old hotbed or thoroughly + decomposed cow droppings and leaf-mould. + + _Spring Bedding._--For this description of bedding, hardy plants only + must be used; but even then the choice is tolerably extensive. For + example, there are the Alyssums, of which _A. saxatile_ and _A. + gemonense_ are in cultivation; _Antennaria tomentosa_; the double + white _Arabis albida_; Aubrietias, of which the best sorts are _A. + Campbelliae_ and _A. grandiflora_; the double _Bellis perennis_ or + Daisy; the Wallflowers, including _Cheiranthus Cheiri_ (the Common + Wallflower), _C. alpina_ and _C. Marshallii_; Hepaticas, the principal + of which are the varieties of _H. triloba_, and the blue _H. + angulosa_; Iberis or Candytuft; _Lithospermum fruticosum_; Myosotis or + Forget-me-not, including _M. alpestris_, _M. dissitiflora_, _M. + azorica_ and _M. sylvestris_; Phloxes, like _P. subulata_, with its + varieties _setacea_, _Nelsoni_, _nivalis_; the single-flowered + varieties of the Primrose, _Primula vulgaris_; the Polyanthuses; + _Pyrethrum Parthenium aureum_, called Golden Feather; _Sempervivum + calcareum_; the pink-flowered _Silene pendula_; self-coloured + varieties of the Pansy, _V. tricolor_, and of _V. lutea_ and _V. + cornuta_, as well as some recent hybrids. Besides these there are the + various spring-flowering bulbs, such as the varieties of Hyacinthus, + Tulipa, Narcissus, Fritillaria, Muscari or Grape Hyacinth, Crocus, + Scilla, Chionodoxa and Galanthus or Snowdrop. + + _Summer Bedding._--There is great variety amongst the plants which are + used for bedding-out in the garden during the summer months, but we + can note only some of the most important of them. Amongst them are the + Ageratums, the old tall-growing sorts of which have been superseded by + dwarfer blue and white flowered varieties; Alternantheras, the + principal of which are _A. amoena_, _amoena spectabilis_, _magnifica_, + _paronychioides major aurea_ and _amabilis_; _Alyssum maritimum + variegatum_; some of the dwarf varieties of _Antirrhinum majus_; + _Arundo Donax variegata_; Begonias; Calceolarias; Cannas; _Centaurea + ragusina_; Clematises, of which the hybrids of the _Jackmanni_ type + are best; _Dahlia variabilis_, and the single-flowered forms of _D. + coccinea_; Echeverias, of which _E. secunda_ and _E. metallica_ are + much employed; Gazanias; Heliotropes; Iresines; Lantanas; Lobelias; + _Mesembryanthemum cordifolium variegatum_; Pelargoniums, of which the + various classes of zonal or bedding varieties are unapproachable for + effect and general utility; Petunias; Phloxes; _Polemonium coeruleum + variegatum_; _Pyrethrum Parthenium aureum_, the well-known Golden + Feather, especially useful as an edging to define the outline of beds + upon grass; Tropaeolums, especially some of the varieties of _T. + Lobbianum_; and Verbenas, the offspring of _Tweedieana_, + _chamaedrifolia_ and others. Few bulbs come into the summer flower + gardens, but amongst those which should always be well represented are + the Gladiolus, the Lilium, the Tigridia and the Montbretia. + + _Subtropical Bedding._--Foliage and the less common flowering plants + may be used either in masses of one kind, or in groups arranged for + contrast, or as the centres of groups of less imposing or of + dwarfer-flowering subjects; or they may be planted as single specimens + in appropriate open spaces, in recesses, or as distant striking + objects terminating a vista. + + _Carpet Bedding_ consists in covering the surface of a bed, or a + series of beds forming a design, with close, low-growing plants, in + which certain figures are brought out by means of plants of a + different habit or having different coloured leaves. Sometimes, in + addition to the carpet or ground colour, individual plants of larger + size and handsome appearance are dotted symmetrically over the beds, + an arrangement which is very telling. Some of the best plants for + carpeting the surface of the beds are: _Antennaria tomentosa_ and + _Leucophytum Browni_, white; _Sedum acre_, _dasyphyllum_, _corsicum_ + and _glaucum_, grey; and _Sedum Lydium_, _Mentha Pulegium + gibraltarica_, _Sagina subulata_ and _Herniaria glabra_, green. The + Alternantheras, Amaranthuses, Iresines and _Coleus Verschaffelti_ + furnish high and warm colours; while _Pyrethrum Parthenium aureum_ + yields greenish-yellow: _Thymus citriodorus aureus_, yellowish; + _Mesembryanthemum cordifolium variegatum_, creamy yellow; Centaureas + and others, white; _Lobelia Erinus_, blue; and the succulent + Echeverias and Sempervivums, glaucous rosettes, which last add much to + the general effect. In connexion with the various designs such fine + plants as _Agave americana_, _Dracaena indivisa_ are often used as + centre-pieces. + + GREENHOUSE PLANTS.--These are plants requiring the shelter of a glass + house, provided with a moderate degree of heat, of which 45° Fahr. may + be taken as the minimum in winter. The house should be opened for + ventilation in all mild weather in winter, and daily throughout the + rest of the year. The following is a select list of genera of + miscellaneous decorative plants (orchids, palms and ferns excluded; + climbers are denoted by *; bulbous and tuberous plants by +): + + Abutilon Coleus Lachenalia+ + Acacia Coprosma Lantana + Agapanthus Cordyline Lapageria* + Agathaea Correa Lilium+ + Agave Cuphea Lophospermum* + Alonsoa Cyclamen+ Mandevillea* + Aloysia Cyperus Manettia* + Amaryllis+ Cytisus Mutisia* + Ardisia Darwinia (Genetyllis) Myrsiphyllum* + Asparagus Diosma Maurandya* + Aspidistra Dracaena Nerine+ + Asystasia (Mackaya) Eccremocarpus* Nerium + Azalea Epacris Pelargonium + Bauera Epiphyllum Petunia + Begonia+ Erica Pimelia + Blandfordia Eriostemon Plumbago* + Bomarea* Erythrina Polianthes+ + Boronia Eucalyptus Primula + Bougainvillea* Eupatorium Rhododendron + Bouvardia Eurya Richardia (Calla)+ + Brugmansia Ficus Salvia + Calceolaria Fuchsia Sarracenia + Camellia Grevillea Solanum + Campanula Haemanthus+ Sparmannia + Canna Heliotropium Statice + Celosia Hibiscus Strelitzia + Cestrum* Hoya* Streptocarpus + Chorizema* Hydrangea Swainsonia + Chrysanthemum Impatiens Tacsonia* + Cineraria Jasminum* Tecoma + Clianthus Justicia Tradescantia + Clivia Kalosanthes Vallota+ + Cobaea* + + STOVE PLANTS.--For the successful culture of stove plants two houses + at least, wherein different temperatures can be maintained, should be + devoted to their growth. The minimum temperature during winter should + range at night from about 55° in the cooler to 65° in the warmer + house, and from 65° to 75° by day, allowing a few degrees further rise + by sun heat. In summer the temperature may range 10° higher by + artificial heat, night and day, and will often by sun heat run up to + 90° or even 95°, beyond which it should be kept down by ventilation + and frequent syringing and damping down of the pathways. During the + growing period the atmosphere must be kept moist by damping the walls + and pathways, and by syringing the plants according to their needs; + when growth is completed less moisture will be necessary. Watering, + which, except during the resting period, should generally be copious, + is best done in the forenoon; while syringing should be done early in + the morning before the sun becomes too powerful, and late in the + afternoon to admit of the foliage drying moderately before night. The + following is a select list of genera of stove plants (climbers are + denoted by *, bulbous and tuberous plants by +): + + Acalypha Cyanophyllum (Miconia) Musa + Achimenes+ Cycas Nelumbium+ + Aeschynanthus Dieffenbachia Nepenthes + Allamanda* Dipladenia* Nymphaea+ + Alocasia+ Dracaena Oxera* + Amaryllis+ Eranthemum Pancratium+ + Anthurium Eucharis+ Pandanus + Aphelandra Euphorbia Passiflora* + Aralia Ficus Pavetta + Ardisia Franciscea Petraea* + Arisaema+ Gardenia Pleroma* + Aristolochia* Gesnera Poinsettia + Ataccia Gloriosa* Rondeletia + Begonia Gloxinia+ Sanchezia + Bertolonia Heliconia+ Schubertia* + Bignonia* Hoffmannia Scutellaria + Bromeliads Ipomaea* Stephanotis + Cactus Ixora Tabernaemontana + Caladium+ Jacobinia Terminalia + Calathea Jasminum* Thunbergia + Centropogon Luculia Torenia + Cissus* Maranta Thyrsacanthus + Clerodendron* Medinilla Tydaea + Crinum+ Meyenia Vinca + Codiaeum (Croton) + + ORCHIDS.--For the successful cultivation of a mixed collection of + tropical orchids, it is necessary that two or three houses, in which + different temperatures can be maintained, should be provided. The + greater number of them are epiphytes or plants that grow on others + without absorbing nourishment from them, and heat and moisture afford + all or nearly all the nourishment they require. At one time it was + thought the plants themselves were better for being associated with + such objects as ferns and palms, but they are best grown by + themselves. + + The East Indian orchid house takes in those species which are found in + the warm parts of the eastern hemisphere, as well as those from the + hottest parts of the western, and its temperature should range from + about 70° to 80° during the summer or growing season and from 65° to + 70° during winter. The Mexican or Brazilian orchid house accommodates + the plants from the warm parts of South America, and its temperature + should range from about 65° to 75° during summer and from 60° to 65° + in winter. A structure called the cool orchid house is set apart for + the accommodation of the many lovely mountain species from South + America and India, such as _odontoglossums_, _masdevallias_, &c., and + in this the more uniform the temperature can be kept the better, that + in summer varying between 60° and 65°, and in winter from 45° to 60°. + A genial moist atmosphere must be kept up in the hottest houses during + the growing season, with a free circulation of air admitted very + cautiously by well-guarded ventilators. In winter, when the plants are + at rest, little water will be necessary; but in the case of those + plants which have no fleshy pseudobulbs to fall back upon for + sustenance, they must not be suffered to become so dry as to cause the + leaves to shrivel. In the Mexican house the plants will generally be + able to withstand greater drought occasionally, being greatly assisted + by their thick pseudobulbs. In the cool or odontoglossum house a + considerable degree of moisture must be maintained at all times, for + in these the plants keep growing more or less continuously. + + For potting or basketing purposes, or for plants requiring + block-culture, the materials used are light fibrous peat, special + leaf-mould, osmunda or polypodium fibre and living sphagnum moss, + which supply free drainage for the copious supply of water required. + Good turfy loam is also used for some, such as _cypripediums_ and + _calanthes_. Indeed the composts now used are varied considerably + according to the particular group of orchids. The water should, + however, be so used as not to run down into the sheathing bases of the + leaves. While in flower, orchids may with advantage be removed to a + drier and cooler situation, and may be utilized in the drawing-room or + boudoir. Of late years not only have many fine hybrids been raised + artificially between various species, but some remarkable bigeneric + hybrids (between what are considered two distinct genera) have also + been produced (indicated in the list below by *). To keep a valuable + collection of orchids in good condition requires the services of an + expert orchid grower. + + The following is a select list of genera in cultivation:-- + + Acineta Cymbidium Peristeria + Ada Cypripedium Pescatorea + Aërides Cyrtopodium Phajus + Angraecum Dendrobium Phaio-calanthe* + Anguloa Diacrium Phalaenopsis + Anoectochilus Disa Pilumna + Ansellia Epidendrum Platyclinis + Arachnanthe Eulophia Pleione + Arpophyllum Eulophiella Pleurothallis + Barkeria Galeandra Polystachya + Batemannia Gongora Promenaea + Bifrenaria Grammatophyllum Renanthera + Brassavola Habenaria Restrepia + Brassia Houlletia Rodriguezia + Brasso-Cattleya* Ionopsis Saccolabium + Broughtonia Ipsea Schomburgkia + Bulbophyllum Laelia Scuticaria + Burlingtonia Laelio-Cattleya* Sobralia + Calanthe Leptotes Sophro-cattleya* + Catasetum Lissochilus Sophronitis + Cattleya Lycaste Spathoglottis + Chysis Masdevallia Stanhopea + Cirrhopetalum Miltonia Thunia + Cochlioda Mormodes Trichopilia + Coelia Odontoglossum Trichosma + Coelogyne Odontioda* Vanda + Comparettia Oncidium Zygo-colax* + Cycnoches Pachystoma Zygopetalum + + PALMS.--These form charming table and drawing-room plants when quite + young. When more fully developed, and long before their full growth is + attained, they are among the most decorative plants known for the + conservatory and for subtropical gardening. They are easily + cultivated, but should not be allowed to become dry. The soil should + consist of about 3 parts turfy loam, 1 part leaf mould, 1 part coarse + silver sand, with enough chemical or other manure added to render the + whole moderately rich. The older plants will occasionally require the + roots pruned in order to keep them in as small pots as possible + without being starved. This should be done early in the spring, and + the plants heavily shaded until feeding roots are again produced. It + is of advantage to afford stove culture while the plants are quite + young. A little later most of the genera succeed well under moderately + cool conditions. + + The following genera are among those most commonly cultivated: + + Acanthophoenix Chamaerops Martinezia + Acanthorhiza Cocos Oreodoxa + Areca Corypha Phoenix + Bactris Geonoma Pritchardia + Brahea Hyophorbe Rhapis + Calamus Kentia Sabal + Caryota Latania Stevensonia + Ceroxylon Livistonia Thrinax + Chamaedorea + + FERNS.--These popular plants are usually increased by means of their + spores, the "dust" produced on the back of their fronds. The spores + should be sown in well-drained pots or seed pans on the surface of a + mixture of fibrous sifted peat and small broken crocks or sandstone; + this soil should be firmly pressed and well-watered, and the spores + scattered over it, and at once covered with propagating glasses or + pieces of sheet glass, to prevent water or dry air getting to the + surface. The pots should be placed in pans full of water, which they + will absorb as required. A shady place is desirable, with temperature + of 50° to 55° by night and 65° to 70° by day, or they may be set on a + shelf in an ordinary propagating pit. The spores may be sown as soon + as ripe, and when the young plants can be handled, or rather can be + lifted with the end of a pointed flat stick, they should be pricked + out into well-drained pots or pans filled with similar soil and should + be kept moist and shady. As they become large enough, pot them singly + in 3-in. pots, and when the pots are fairly filled with roots shift on + into larger ones. + + The best time for a general repotting of ferns is in spring, just + before growth commences. Those with creeping rhizomes can be + propagated by dividing these into well-rooted portions, and, if a + number of crowns is formed, they can be divided at that season. In + most cases this can be performed with little risk, but the + gleichenias, for example, must only be cut into large portions, as + small divisions of the rhizomes are almost certain to die; in such + cases, however, the points of the rhizomes can be led over and layered + into small pots, several in succession, and allowed to remain + unsevered from the parent plant until they become well-rooted. In + potting the well-established plants, and all those of considerable + size, the soil should be used in a rough turfy state, not sifted but + broken, and one-sixth of broken crocks or charcoal and as much sand as + will insure free percolation should be mixed with it. + + The stove ferns require a day temperature of 65° to 75°, but do not + thrive in an excessively high or close dry atmosphere. They require + only such shade as will shut out the direct rays of the sun, and, + though abundant moisture must be supplied, the atmosphere should not + be overloaded with it. Ferns should not be allowed to become quite dry + at the root, and the water used should always be at or near the + temperature of the house in which the plants are growing. Some ferns, + as the different kinds of Gymnogramme and Cheilanthes, prefer a drier + atmosphere than others, and the former do not well bear a lower winter + temperature than about 60° by night. Most other stove ferns, if + dormant, will bear a temperature as low as 55° by night and 60° by day + from November to February. About the end of the latter month the whole + collection should be turned out of the pots, and redrained or repotted + into larger pots as required. This should take place before growth has + commenced. Towards the end of March the night temperature may be + raised to 60°, and the day temperature to 70° or 75°, the plants being + shaded in bright weather. Such ferns as Gymnogrammes, which have their + surface covered with golden or silver powder, and certain species of + scaly-surfaced Cheilanthes and Nothochlaena, as they cannot bear to + have their fronds wetted, should never be syringed; but most other + ferns may have a moderate sprinkling occasionally (not necessarily + daily), and as the season advances, sufficient air and light must be + admitted to solidify the tissues. + + Hardy British ferns belonging to such genera as Asplenium, Nephrodium, + Aspidium, Scolopendrium, have become fairly popular of late years, and + many charming varieties are now used in borders and rockeries. Spores + may be sown as above described, but in a much lower temperature. + + The following is a select list of genera:-- + + Acrostichum Davallia Osmunda + Actiniopteris Dicksonia Onoclea + Adiantum Gleichenia Phlebodium + Alsophila Gymnogramme Platycerium + Aspidium Hymenophyllum Polypodium + Asplenium Lastrea Pteris + Blechnum Lomaria Scolopendrium + Cheilanthes Lygodium Todea + Cibotium Nephrodium Trichomanes + Cyathea Nephrolepis Woodwardia + + +VI. _Fruits._ + +_Fruit-Tree Borders._--No pains should be spared, in the preparation of +fruit-tree borders, to secure their thorough drainage. In case of +adhesive clayey subsoil this can generally be secured by placing over +the sloping bottom a good layer of coarse rubbly material, communicating +with a drain in front to carry off the water, while earthenware drain +tubes may be laid beneath the rubble from 8 to 10 ft. apart, so as to +form air drains, and provided with openings both at the side of the walk +and also near the base of the wall. Over this rubbly matter, rough turfy +soil, grass-side downwards, should be laid, and on this the good +prepared soil in which the trees are to be planted. + +The borders should consist of 3 parts rich turfy loam, the top spit of a +pasture, and 1 part light gritty earth, such as road-grit, with a small +portion (one-sixth) of fine brick rubbish. They should not be less than +12 ft. in breadth, and may vary up to 15 or 18 ft., with a fall from the +wall of about 1 in. in 3 ft. The border itself should be raised a foot +or more above the general level. The bottom of the border as well as +that of the drain must be kept lower than the general level of the +subsoil, else the soakage will gather in all the little depressions of +its surface. Fruit-tree borders should not be at all cropped with +culinary vegetables, or very slightly so, as the process of digging +destroys the roots of the trees, and drives them from near the surface, +where they ought to be. + +Shallow planting, whether of wall trees or standards, is generally to be +preferred, a covering of a few inches of soil being sufficient for the +roots, but a surface of at least equal size to the surface of the hole +should be covered with dung or litter so as to restrain evaporation and +preserve moisture. In the case of wall trees, a space of 5 or 6 in. is +usually left between the stem at the insertion of the roots and the +wall, to allow for increase of girth. Young standard trees should be +tied to stakes so as to prevent their roots being ruptured by the +wind-waving of the stems and to keep them erect. The best time for +planting fruit trees in the open air is from the end of September till +the end of November in open weather. + +In the selection and distribution of fruit trees regard must of course +be had to local situation and climate. The best walls having a south or +south-east aspect are devoted to the peach, nectarine, apricot, dessert +pears, plums and early cherries. Cherries and the generality of plums +succeed very well either on an east or a west aspect. Morello cherries, +apples and stewing pears succeed well on a north wall. In Scotland the +mulberry requires the protection of a wall, and several of the finer +apples and pears do not arrive at perfection without this help and a +tolerably good aspect. The wall-trees intended to be permanent are +called dwarfs, from their branches springing from near the ground. +Between these, trees with tall stems, called riders, are planted as +temporary occupants of the upper part of the wall. The riders should +have been trained in the nursery into good-sized trees, in order that +when planted out they may come into bearing as speedily as possible. + +_Standard Fruit Trees_ should not be planted, if it can be avoided, in +the borders of the kitchen garden, but in the outer slips, where they +either may be allowed to attain their full size or may be kept dwarfed. +Each sort of fruit should be planted by itself, for the sake of orderly +arrangement, and in order to facilitate protection when necessary by a +covering of nets. Their produce is often superior in flavour to that of +the same kind of fruit grown on walls. + +_Orchard-house Trees._--Peaches, nectarines, apricots, figs and dessert +plums, cherries, apples and pears are commonly cultivated in the +orchard-house. Peaches and nectarines are generally planted out, while +the rest are more commonly cultivated in pots. This allows of the +hardier pot plants being removed out of doors while those planted out +are in need of the room. The pot plants are overhauled in the autumn, +the roots pruned, a layer being cut off to allow new soil to be +introduced. Surface dressing and feeding by liquid manure should also be +afforded these plants while the fruit is swelling. Every effort should +be made to complete the growth of peaches and nectarines while the sun +is sufficiently strong to ripen them. Tomatoes are frequently employed +to fill gaps in the orchard-house. Should it be provided with a central +path, requiring shade, Hambro and Sweet-water grapes serve the purpose +well, and in favourable seasons afford excellent crops of fruit. + + +VII. _Vegetables._ + +Under this head are included those esculents which are largely eaten as +"vegetables" or as "salads." The more important are treated under their +individual headings (see ARTICHOKE, ASPARAGUS, BEAN, &c. &c.). The +culinary herbs used for flavouring and garnishing are for the most part +dwarf perennial plants requiring to be grown on a rich soil in an open +sunny aspect, or annuals for which a warm sheltered border is the most +suitable place; and they may therefore be conveniently grown together in +the same compartment--a herb garden. The perennials should be +transplanted either every year or every second year. For winter use the +tops of the most useful kinds of herbs should be cut when in flower or +full leaf and quite dry, and spread out in an airy but shady place so +as to part slowly with the moisture they contain and at the same time +retain their aromatic properties. When quite dry they should be put into +dry wide-mouthed bottles and kept closely corked. In this way such herbs +as basil, marjoram, mint, sage, savory, thyme, balm, chamomile, +horehound, hyssop and rue, as well as parsley, may be had throughout the +season with almost the full flavour of the fresh herb. + +_Intensive Cultivation._--This name has been applied to the method of +forcing early vegetables and salads during the winter and spring months +in the market gardens in the neighbourhood of Paris. The system is now +popularly known in England as "French gardening." Although a few assert +that it is an old English one that has been discarded in favour of +superior methods, there seems to be little or no evidence in support of +this contention. The system itself has been practised for about 300 +years in the "marais" gardens round Paris. At one time these gardens +were in the centre of the city itself, but owing to modern improvements +they have been gradually pushed out beyond the city boundaries farther +and farther. Most of these gardens are small--not more than a couple of +acres in extent, and the rent paid by the _maraîcher_, or market +gardener, is very high--as much as £30 to £40 per acre. + +The French _maraîcher_ does not use hot-water apparatus for forcing his +plants into early growth. He relies mainly upon the best stable manure, +a few shallow frames about 4½ ft. wide covered with lights, and a number +of large bell glasses or "cloches." The work is carried on from October +till the end of March and April, after which, with the exception of +melons, the cultures are carried on in the open air. + +The chief crops grown for early supplies, or "primeurs" as they are +called, are special varieties of cos and cabbage lettuces, short +carrots, radishes, turnips, cauliflowers, endives, spinach, onions, corn +salad and celery. To these is added a very important crop of melons, a +special large-fruited variety known as the Prescott Canteloup being the +most favoured. + +It is astonishing how much produce is taken off one of these small +intensive gardens during the year, and especially during the worst +months when prices usually run fairly high. The fact that rents are so +heavy around Paris is in itself an indication of the money that is +realized by the growers not only in the Paris markets, but also in +Covent Garden. + +During the winter season narrow beds are made up of manure, either quite +fresh or mixed with old manure, according to the amount of heat +required. These beds are covered with a few inches of the fine old mould +obtained from the decayed manure of previous years. In the early stages +seeds of carrots and radishes are sown simultaneously on the same beds, +and over them young lettuces that have been raised in advance are +planted. In this way three crops are actually on the same beds at the +same time. Owing, however, to the difference in their vegetative growth, +they mature one after the other instead of simultaneously. Thus with the +genial warmth and moisture of the hotbeds, all crops grow rapidly, but +the radishes mature first, then the lettuces are taken off in due +course, thus leaving the beds to finish up with the carrots by +themselves. Later on in the season, perhaps small cauliflowers will be +planted along the margins of the beds where the carrots are growing, and +will be developing into larger plants requiring more space by the time +all the carrots have been picked and marketed. So on throughout the year +with other crops, this system of intercropping or overlapping of one +crop with another is carried out in a most ingenious manner, not only +under glass lights, but also in the open air. Spinach, corn salad, +radishes and carrots are the favourite crops for sowing between others +such as lettuces and cauliflowers. + +Although enormous quantities of water are required during the summer +season, great care must be exercised in applying water to the winter +crops. When severe frost prevails the lights or cloches are rarely taken +off except to gather mature specimens; and no water is given directly +overhead to the plants for fear of chilling them and checking growth. +They must secure their supply of moisture from the rain that falls on +the glass, and flows into the narrow pathways from 9 in. to 12 in. wide +between each range of frames. As the beds are only about 4½ ft. wide, +the water from the pathways is soaked up on each side by capillary +attraction, and in this way the roots secure a sufficient supply. + +Besides an abundance of water in summer there must also be an enormous +quantity of good stable manure available during the winter months. This +is necessary not only to make up the required hotbeds in the first +place, but also to fill in the pathways between the frames, wherever it +is considered advisable to maintain the heat within the frames at a +certain point. As it is impossible to use an ordinary wheelbarrow in +these narrow pathways, the workman carries a specially made wicker +basket called a "hotte" on his shoulders by means of two straps. In this +way large quantities of manure are easily transported to any required +spot, and although the work looks hard to an English gardener, the +Frenchman says he can carry more manure with less fatigue in half a day +than an Englishman can transport in a day with a wheelbarrow. + +This is merely an outline of the system, which is now being taken up in +various parts of the United Kingdom, but not too rapidly. The initial +expenses for frames, lights, cloches, mats and water-supply are in many +cases prohibitive to men with the necessary gardening experience, while +on the other hand those who have the capital lack the practical +knowledge so essential to success. + + For full details of this system see _French Market-Gardening, with + details of Intensive Cultivation_, by John Weathers (London, 1909). + + VIII.--_Calendar of Garden Operations (A) for Great Britain._ + + JANUARY + + _Kitchen Garden._--Wheel out manure and composts during frosty + weather; trench vacant ground not turned up roughly in autumn. Sow + early peas in a cold frame for transplanting. Sow also first-crop + peas, early in the month, and William I. towards the end; Early + Seville and Early Longpod beans; and short-topped radish in two or + three sowings, at a week's interval, all on a warm border; also Hardy + Green and Brown cos lettuce in a frame or on south border. Plant + shallots and Ashleaf potatoes on a warm border. Protect broccoli as it + becomes fit for use, or remove to a dry shed or cellar; lettuces and + endive, which are best planted in frames; and parsley in frames so as + to be accessible. + + _Fruit Garden._--Plant fruit trees in open weather, if not done in + autumn, which is the proper season, mulching over the roots to protect + them from frost, and from drought which may occur in spring. Prune + fruit trees in mild weather or in moderate frosts, nailing only in + fine weather. Wash trees infested with insects with one of the many + insecticides now obtainable. Take off grafts, and lay them aside in + moist earth in a shady place. + + _Forcing._--Prepare manure for making up hotbeds for early cucumbers + and melons, where pits heated with hot water are not in use; also for + Ashleaf potatoes. Sow also in heat mustard and cress for salads, + onions for salads; tomatoes, celery to be pricked out for an early + crop; and Early Horn carrot and kidney-beans on slight hotbeds. Force + asparagus, sea-kale and rhubarb, in hotbeds, in pits, in the + mushroom-house or in the open garden by the use of covers surrounded + with warm litter; for cucumbers a top heat of 70°; for vines in leaf + and flower a temperature ranging from 65° to 70°. Keep forced + strawberries with swelling fruit well watered. Plant vine eyes for + propagation in a brisk heat. + + _Plant Houses._--Give abundance of air to the greenhouse, conservatory + and alpine frame in mild weather, but use little water. A supply of + roses, kalmias, rhododendrons, &c., and of hardy flowers and bulbs, as + lily of the valley, hyacinths, tulips, daffodils, &c., should be kept + up by forcing. + + _Flower Garden._---Plant out tubers and bulbs of border flowers, where + neglected in autumn, deferring the finer florists' flowers till next + month. Transplant herbaceous plants in light soils, if not done in + autumn; also deciduous trees, shrubs and hedges. Lay edgings in fine + weather. Sow mignonette, stocks, &c., in pots; sow sweet peas and a + few hardy annuals on a warm border. Give auriculas and carnations + abundance of air, but keep the roots rather dry to prevent damping + off. + + FEBRUARY + + _Kitchen Garden._--Sow successional crops of Early Seville beans, and + William I., American Wonder or other peas in the beginning and end of + the month; early cabbages to follow the last sowing in August; red + cabbages and savoys towards the end. Sow also Early Horn carrot; Early + Purple-top Munich turnip; onions for a full crop in light soils, with + a few leeks and some parsley. Sow lettuce for succession, with + radishes and Round-leaved spinach, twice in the course of the month; + and small salads every fortnight. Plant Jerusalem artichokes, + shallots, garlic, horse-radish and early potatoes. Transplant to the + bottom of a south wall a portion of the peas sown in pots in frames in + November and January for the first crop. Sow Brussels sprouts in + gentle heat for an early crop. + + _Fruit Garden._--Prune apricots, peaches, nectarines and plums, before + the buds are much swelled; finish pruning apples, pears, cherries, + gooseberries, currants and raspberries, before the end of the month; + also the dressing of vines. Keep the fruit-room free from spoiled + fruit, and shut it close. Cut down the double-bearing raspberries to + secure strong autumn-fruiting shoots. Head back stocks preparatory to + grafting. + + _Forcing._--Sow melons and cucumbers on hotbeds and in pits. Sow + carrots, turnips, early celery, also aubergines or egg-plants, + capsicums, tomatoes and successional crops of kidney-beans; + cauliflower and Brussels sprouts, in gentle heat, to be afterwards + planted out. Plant early potatoes on slight hotbeds. Continue the + forcing of asparagus, rhubarb and sea-kale. Commence or continue the + forcing of the various choice fruits, as vines, peaches, figs, + cherries, strawberries, &c. Pot roots of mint and place in heat to + produce sprigs for mint sauce. Be careful to protect the stems of + vines that are outside the forcing-houses. + + _Plant Houses._--Let the greenhouse and conservatory have plenty of + air in mild weather. Pot and start tuberous-rooted begonias and + gloxinias. Pot young plants of Hippeastrum, and start the established + ones. Propagate chrysanthemums in cool-house or vinery under hand + lights or frames. Put plants of fuchsias, petunias, verbenas, + heliotropes, salvias and other soft-wooded subjects, into a + propagating house to obtain cuttings, &c., for the flower garden. Sow + stocks, dahlias and a few tender and half-hardy annuals, on a slight + hotbed, or in pots. Propagate old roots of dahlias by cuttings of the + young shoots in a hotbed. Sow petunias in heat, and prick out and + harden for bedding out; also gloxinias to be grown on in heat till the + flowering season. + + _Flower Garden._--In dry open weather plant dried roots, including + most of the finer florists' flowers; continue the transplanting of + hardy biennial flowers and herbaceous plants. Sow in the last week + mignonette, and hardy annuals, in a warm border, for subsequent + transplanting. + + MARCH + + _Kitchen Garden._--Sow main crops of wrinkled marrow peas; Longpod and + Windsor beans; cabbage, onions, leeks, Early Horn carrots, parsnips, + salsafy, scorzonera, Brussels sprouts, borecoles, lettuces and + spinach. In the beginning and also at the end of the month sow Early + Strap-leaf and Early Snowball turnips and savoys. In the last + fortnight sow asparagus, cauliflower and the various sweet and savoury + herbs; also sea-kale, radishes, celery, celeriac and parsley. Small + salads should be sown every ten days. Make up beds for mushrooms with + well-prepared dung towards the end of the month. Plant early potatoes + in the first week, and a main crop during the last fortnight. + Sea-kale, asparagus and peas raised in frames may now be planted; also + garlic and shallots. Full crops of cabbages should be planted out; + also cauliflowers under hand-glasses. Propagate by slips, or by + earthing up the old stems, the various pot-herbs. + + _Fruit Garden._--Finish the pruning of fruit trees before the middle + of the month. Protect those coming into blossom. Begin grafting in the + third week; dig and dress between the rows of gooseberries, currants + and other fruit trees, if not already done. Kill wasps assiduously as + soon as they appear. + + _Forcing._--Continue the forcing of melons, cucumbers, tomatoes and + the various fruits. In the vinery and peach-house, attend to the + keeping down of insects by syringing; and promote the growth of the + young shoots, by damping the walls and paths morning and evening. Sow + capsicum and tomato; also in slight heat such tender herbs as basil + and marjoram. + + _Plant Houses._--More water may be given than formerly. Sow seeds of + greenhouse and hothouse plants; also the different sorts of tender + annuals; pot off those sown last month; sow cineraria for the earliest + bloom; also Chinese primulas. Shift heaths and other hard-wooded + subjects and stove-plants; plant tuberoses in pots for forcing. Begin + to propagate greenhouse plants by cuttings; also coleuses by cuttings + in heat, potting them off as soon as rooted. + + _Flower Garden and Shrubbery._--In the last week, sow hardy annuals in + the borders, with biennials that flower the first season, as also + perennials. Plant anemone and ranunculus roots and the corms of + gladiolus. Transplant from the nursery to their final sites annuals + sown in autumn, with biennials and herbaceous plants. Propagate + perennials from root-slips and offsets. Continue to propagate the + finer sorts of dahlias, both by cuttings and by division of the roots. + Finish the pruning of all deciduous trees and hedges as soon as + possible. Attend to the dressing of shrubberies; lay turf-edgings, and + regulate the surface of gravel walks. + + APRIL + + _Kitchen Garden._--Sow asparagus, sea-kale, Turnip-rooted beet, + salsafy, scorzonera, skirret, carrots and onions on heavy soils; also + marrow peas, Longpod and Windsor beans, turnips, spinach, celery, + cabbage, savoys and Brussels sprouts for succession. Sow broccoli and + kidney-beans both in the second and in the last week, and lettuces and + small salads twice or thrice during the month; sow all herbs, if not + done last month. Sow vegetable marrow. Plant cauliflower, cabbages, + sea-kale, lettuce; and finish the planting of the main crops of + potatoes; divide and replant globe-artichokes. Propagate all sorts of + pot-herbs, and attend to the hoeing and thinning of spinach, onions, + turnips, carrots, beet, &c. Earth up cabbages, cauliflower, peas, + beans and early potatoes. Stake up peas; blanch sea-kale and rhubarb + in the open air by covering with straw or leaves. + + _Fruit Garden._--If vines have been neglected to be pruned, rub off + the buds that are not wanted; this is safer than pruning now. Protect + the finer sorts of fruit trees on the walls. The hardier orchard-house + fruits should now be moved outdoors under temporary awnings, to give + the choicer fruits more space,--the roots being protected by plunging + the pots. Mulch all newly-planted fruit trees, watering abundantly in + dry weather. + + _Forcing._--Continue the preparation of succession beds and pits for + cucumbers and melons. Sow; pot tomatoes and capsicums for succession. + Pollinate tomatoes by hand to ensure early fruit on plants intended + for outdoor culture. In the forcing-houses, from the variable state of + the weather, considerable vigilance is required in giving air. Keep + down red spider (Acarus) in the more advanced houses by frequent + syringings and a well-moistened atmosphere. Continue the usual + operations of disbudding and thinning of fruit, and take care to keep + up the proper temperatures. + + _Plant Houses._--Still sow tender annuals if required; also cinerarias + and primulas. Proceed with all necessary shiftings. Propagate rare and + fine plants by cuttings or grafting; increase bouvardias by cuttings, + and grow on for winter flowering. Pot off tender annuals, and cuttings + of half-hardy greenhouse plants put in during February to get them + well established for use in the flower garden. Transfer chrysanthemums + to sheltered positions out of doors, and provide means of protecting + them from frost and cutting winds. + + _Flower Garden and Shrubbery._--Sow main or successional crops of + annuals of all sorts--half-hardy annuals in warm borders, or on slight + hotbeds. Biennials and perennials should be sown before the middle of + the month. Plant out gladioli, if not done, tigridias and fine stocks. + Finish the transplanting of herbaceous plants by the end of the first + week. Cuttings of border chrysanthemums may now be dibbled in a warm + spot out of doors. Protect stage auriculas and hyacinths from extremes + of every description of weather; and tulips from hoar-frosts and heavy + rains. Plant out tender deciduous trees and shrubs raised in pots; + plant out tea-roses, mulching the roots. Remove part of the coverings + of all tender shrubs and plants in the first week, and the remainder + at the end of the month. Form and repair lawns and grass walks by + laying turf and sowing perennial grass-seeds; mow the lawns + frequently; plant evergreens. + + MAY + + _Kitchen Garden._--Sow main crop of beet in the first week, small + salads every week, radishes and lettuces thrice, spinach once a + fortnight, carrots and onions for late drawing, kidney-beans in the + first week and together with scarlet runners in the last fortnight; + endive for an early crop; also peas and Longpod and Windsor beans, + cauliflowers, Early York or Little Pixie cabbages, Brussels sprouts, + borecole, broccoli, savoys and kale for late crops. Sow vegetable + marrows and hardy cucumbers on a warm border in the last week; sow + cardoons in trenches, or (in the north) in pots under glass shelter; + sow chicory for salading. Continue hoeing and earthing up the several + crops. + + _Fruit Garden._--Disbud peaches, nectarines and other early trees + against the walls; also attend to the thinning of fruit. Give + occasional washings with the engine to keep down insects. Pick + caterpillars from gooseberries and wall trees on their first + appearance. Remove from raspberries and strawberries all suckers and + runners that are not wanted. + + _Forcing._--Plant melons and cucumbers on the hotbeds prepared for + vegetables in February, and now free. Plant out vegetable marrows and + pumpkins on dung-ridges, under hand-glasses. Sow late crops of + cucumbers and melons. + + _Plant Houses._--Turn out hardy plants about the middle, and the more + tender at the latter end of the month. Sow tender annuals for + succession, potting and shifting those sown at an earlier period; sow + cinerarias for succession; and a few hardy annuals and ten-week stock, + &c., for late crops. Pot off all rooted cuttings. Put in cuttings of + the different desirable species which are now fit for that purpose. + Plant out in rich soil Richardias, to be potted up in autumn for + flowering. Bedding plants should be placed to harden in sheltered + positions out of doors towards end of month. Towards the end of the + month many of the main stock of chrysanthemums will be ready for the + final potting. + + _Flower Garden._--Sow annuals for succession in the last week, also + biennials and perennials in the nursery compartment, for planting out + next year. Propagate plants of which more stock is required either by + cuttings or by dividing the roots. Plant out, during the last week, + dahlias, hardy pelargoniums, stocks and calceolarias, protecting the + dahlias from slight frosts. By the end of the month, masses of the + following plants may be formed with safety in warm + localities:--pelargonium, heliotropium, fuchsia, petunia, + nierembergia, salvia, verbena, bouvardia and lobelia. Protect tulips, + ranunculuses and anemones from the mid-day sun, and from rains and + winds. Remove the coverings from all tender plants in the open air. + + _Shrubbery._--Transplant all kinds of evergreens, this month and + September being the proper seasons. The rarer conifers should be + planted now and in June, after they have commenced to grow. Proceed + with the laying down of lawns and gravel-walks, and keep the former + regularly mown. + + JUNE + + _Kitchen Garden._--Sow kidney-beans for succession; also the wrinkled + marrow peas and Seville Longpod and Windsor beans for late crops. Sow + salading every ten days; also carrots, onions and radishes for drawing + young; and chicory for salads; sow endive for a full crop. In the + first week sow Early Munich and Golden Ball turnips for succession, + and in the third week for a full autumn crop. Sow scarlet and white + runner beans for a late crop, and cabbages for coleworts. Make up + successional mushroom beds early in the month. Plant full crops of + broccoli, Brussels sprouts, savoys, kales, leeks and early celery, + with successional crops of cabbage and cauliflower. In the first + fortnight of the month, plant hardy cucumbers for pickling, in a warm + border, placing hand-glasses over them towards the end of the month. + Plant out capsicums and tomatoes in sunny positions, and stake and tie + securely. Pull and store winter onions, if ripe. + + _Fruit Garden._--Train and prune the summer shoots of wall and trellis + and other trained trees. Mulch and water fruit trees and strawberries + in dry weather, desisting when the fruit begins to ripen. Net over + cherry-trees. Destroy aphides and other insects by syringing with + tobacco water, or by fumigating, or by dusting with tobacco powder. + + _Forcing._--Proceed with planting melons, cucumbers and tomatoes. Keep + up the necessary temperatures for the ripening of the various fruits. + Ventilation will still require constant care. Tomatoes will now be + fruiting freely; thin out judiciously, avoiding excessive pruning at + one time. Attend to the gathering of fruit as it ripens. + + _Plant Houses._--These will now be occupied with tender greenhouse + plants and annuals, and the more hardy plants from the stove. Shift, + repot and propagate all plants that are desirable. Sow fragrant or + showy annuals to flower in pots during winter; and grow on a set of + decorative plants for the same object. Continue the final potting of + chrysanthemums as the plants become ready. + + _Flower Garden._--Plant out dahlias and other tender subjects, if risk + of frost is past. Take up bulbs and tuberous roots and dry them in the + shade before removing them to the store-room. Fill up with annuals and + greenhouse plants those beds from which the bulbs and roots have been + raised. After this season, keep always a reserve of annuals in pots, + or planted on beds of thin layers of fibrous matter, so as to be + readily transplanted. Layer carnations and pipe pinks in the end of + the month. Keep the lawns closely mown. + + JULY + + _Kitchen Garden._--Watering will be necessary in each department, if + the weather is hot and dry. In the first week, sow peas for the last + crop of the season; also Longpod beans and French beans. In the last + week, sow red globe or Chirk Castle turnip for a full winter crop, + spinach for an early winter supply and Enfield Market cabbage for + early summer use. Sow endive, for autumn and winter use, in the + beginning and end of the month; also successional crops of lettuce and + small salads. Make up successional mushroom beds. Plant full crops of + celery, celeriac, endive about the middle and end of the month; late + crops of broccoli, cauliflower and coleworts in the last week. Gather + and dry herbs; also propagate these by slips and cuttings. + + _Fruit Garden._--Continue the pruning and training of wall and + espalier trees, and the destruction of noxious insects. Pot + strawberries for forcing next winter, and make new beds out of doors + as soon as well-rooted runners can be obtained. Propagate the + different sorts of stone fruit trees by budding on other trees or on + prepared stocks. Gather fruits of all kinds as they ripen. + + _Forcing._--Prune melons and cucumbers, giving air and water and + maintaining heat, &c. Continue the routine treatment in the + tomato-houses. Feed the plants artificially as soon as good crops are + set; do not wait for signs of distress. The forcing-houses ought to + have abundance of fresh air and moisture where required, along with + the necessary heat. + + _Plant Houses._--Ventilation will be necessary to keep down excessive + heat; and attention must be paid to potting, shifting and putting in + cuttings, and giving abundance of water to the potted plants, both + indoors and out. Sow seed of herbaceous calceolarias; shift heaths, if + they require it; cut down pelargoniums past flowering, and plant the + cuttings. + + _Flower Garden and Shrubbery._--Take up the remaining tuberous roots, + such as anemones, ranunculuses, &c., by the end of the first week; + fill up their places, and any vacancies that may have occurred, with + annuals or bedding plants from the reserve ground. Repot auriculas, + and sow auricula seed in boxes under glass. Propagate herbaceous and + other plants that have gone out of flower, by means of cuttings and + slips, especially those required for spring bedding; propagate also + the various summer bedding plants increased by cuttings. Increase + roses and American shrubs, by layering, budding or cuttings, and go on + with the layering of carnations and picotees. Stake and tie up dahlias + and strong herbaceous plants. + + AUGUST + + _Kitchen Garden._--Sow winter and spring spinach in the beginning and + about the end of the month; parsley and winter onions, for a full + crop, in the first week; cabbages about the middle of the month, for + planting out in spring; cauliflower in the first half (Scotland) and + in the second half (England) of the month; Hardy Hammersmith and Brown + Cos lettuce in the first and last week; small salads occasionally; and + Black Spanish radish, for winter crops. Plant out kales and broccoli + for late crops; plant celery (earthing up the advancing crops as + required), endive for succession, and a few coleworts. Take up + shallots, garlic, &c. + + _Fruit Garden._--Proceed in training and regulating the summer shoots + of all fruit trees as directed for the last three months. Net up, in + dry weather, gooseberry and currant bushes, to preserve the fruit till + late in the autumn. Make new strawberry beds if required. Preserve the + ripening fruits on the wall and other trees from insects, and destroy + wasp nests. Gather fruits as they ripen. + + _Forcing._--The routine of cultivation in hotbeds and pits may be + continued. Sow tomatoes and cucumbers for a winter crop. Make up + mushroom beds. In the forcing-houses, where the crops are past, part + of the sashes may be removed, so as to permit thorough ventilation. + + _Plant Houses._--Attend to the propagation of all sorts of greenhouse + plants by cuttings, and to the replacing in the greenhouse and stoves + the more tender species, by the end of the month in ordinary seasons, + but in wet weather in the second week. Sow half-hardy annuals, as + Nemophila, Collinsia, Schizanthus, Rhodanthe, &c., to flower during + winter. + + _Flower Garden and Shrubbery._--Sow in the second and the last week, + on a warm border of a light sandy soil, with an east aspect, any + free-flowering hardy annuals as _Silene pendula_, Nemophila, &c., for + planting in spring; and auricula and primula seeds in pots and boxes. + Propagate, all sorts of herbaceous plants by rooted slips or suckers; + take off layers of carnations, picotees and pansies. Plant cuttings of + bedding plants, and of bedding pelargoniums in boxes for convenience + of removal. Layer the tops of chrysanthemums, to obtain dwarf + flowering plants. Transplant evergreens in moist weather, about the + end of the month; and propagate them by layers and cuttings. Pot + Neapolitan violets for forcing; or plant out on a mild hotbed. Clip + box edgings. + + SEPTEMBER + + _Kitchen Garden._--Sow small salading for late crops; and lettuce and + spinach, if not done last month, for spring crops. Plant endive and + lettuce at the foot of a south wall to stand the winter; plant out + cabbages from the chief autumn sowing. Plant cauliflowers on a warm + border in spaces such as can be protected by hand-lights. Thin the + winter spinach, when large enough, that it may have space to grow. If + broccoli be too rank or tall to withstand the winter, lift and lay + nearly up to the neck in the earth, the heads sloping towards the + north. Lift onions, and lay them out to ripen on a dry border or + gravel-walk. Lift potatoes and store them. + + _Fruit Garden._--Finish the summer pruning and training. Where the + walls are heated, assist the maturing of peaches and nectarines, and + the ripening of the young wood for next year, by fires during the day. + Gather and lay up in the fruit-room with care the autumnal sorts of + apples and pears. Prepare borders and stations for fruit trees during + dry weather. Plant strawberries for a main crop. Repot orchard-house + trees, disrooting if necessary. + + _Forcing._--Take care that late melons, cucumbers and tomatoes be not + injured by getting too much water and too little air. Sow a few kidney + beans for an early forced crop. Expel damp, and assist the ripening of + late grapes and peaches with fires during the day. Prune early vines + and peaches. + + _Plant Houses._--The various pot plants should now be put in their + winter quarters. Keep up moderate temperatures in the stove, and + merely repel frosts in the greenhouse, guarding against damp, by + ventilation and by the cautious use of water. Pot hyacinths, tulips + and other bulbs for forcing; and propagate half-hardy plants by + cuttings. Begin the housing of the main stock of chrysanthemums. + + _Flower Garden, &c._--Sow in the beginning of this month all + half-hardy annuals required for early flowering; also mignonette in + pots, thinning the plants at an early stage; the different species of + primula; and the seeds of such plants as, if sown in spring, seldom + come up the same season, but if sown in September and October, + vegetate readily the succeeding spring. Put in cuttings of bedding + pelargoniums in boxes, which may stand outdoors exposed to the sun, + but should be sheltered from excessive rains. Continue the propagation + of herbaceous plants, taking off the layers of carnations, picotees, + pansies and chrysanthemums, by the end of the month; choice + carnations and picotees may be potted and wintered in cold frames if + the season is wet and ungenial. Plant evergreens; lay and put in + cuttings of most of the hard-wooded sorts of shrubby plants. + + OCTOBER + + _Kitchen Garden._--Sow small salading and radishes in the first week, + and lettuces in frames on a shallow hotbed for planting out in spring. + If the winter prove mild they will be somewhat earlier than those sown + next month or in January. Plant parsley in pots or boxes to protect + under glass in case very severe weather occurs. Plant cabbages in beds + or close rows till wanted in spring; and cauliflowers in the last + week, to receive the protection of frames, or a sheltered situation. + Store potatoes, beet, salsafy, scorzonera, skirret, carrots and + parsnips, by the end of the month. Band and earth up cardoons. + + _Fruit Garden._--Such fruit trees as have dropped their leaves may be + transplanted; this is the best season for transplanting (though with + care it may be done earlier), whether the leaves have fallen or not. + Protect fig-trees, if the weather proves frosty, as soon as they have + cast their leaves. Plant out raspberries. The orchard-house trees + should be got under glass before the end of the month. Gather and + store all sorts of apples and pears, the longest-keeping sorts not + before the end of the month, if the weather be mild. + + _Forcing._--Maintain the heat in hotbeds and pits by means of fresh + dung linings. Give abundance of air in mild bright weather. Dress + vines and peaches. Clean and repair the forcing-houses, and overhaul + the heating apparatus to see it is in good working condition. Plant + chicory in boxes or on hotbeds for blanching. Sow kidney beans. Make + up successional winter mushroom beds. + + _Plant Houses._--Replace all sorts of greenhouse plants. Fill the pits + with pots of stocks, mignonette and hardy annuals for planting out in + spring, along with many of the hardy sorts of greenhouse plants; the + whole ought to be thoroughly ventilated, except in frosty weather. + From this time till spring keep succulent plants almost without water. + Begin to force roses, hyacinths and a few other bulbs, for winter and + early spring decoration. Plant hyacinths in glasses for windows. The + last of the pot chrysanthemums should be housed by the end of the + first week. + + _Flower Garden._--Sow a few pots of hardy annuals in a frame, or on a + sheltered border, for successional spring use if required. Plant the + greater part of the common border bulbs, as hyacinths, narcissi, + crocuses and early tulips, about the end of the month, with a few + anemones for early flowering. Transplant strong plants of biennials + and perennials to their final situations; also the select plants used + for spring bedding. Protect alpine plants, stage auriculas, and choice + carnations and picotees with glass frames; and tea roses and other + tender plants with bracken or other protective material. Take up, dry + and store dahlias and all tender tubers at the end of the month; pot + lobelias and similar half-hardy plants from the open borders. + Transplant all sorts of hardy evergreens and shrubs, especially in dry + soils, giving abundance of water. Put in cuttings of all sorts of + evergreens, &c. Plant out the hardier sorts of roses. + + NOVEMBER + + _Kitchen Garden._---Trench up all vacant ground as soon as cleared of + its crops, leaving the surface as rough as possible. Sow early peas + and Early Dwarf Prolific beans in the second week, for an early crop; + also in frames for transplanting. Protect endive, celery, artichoke + and sea-kale with stable-litter or fern, or by planting the former in + frames; take up late cauliflower, early broccoli and lettuces, and + place them in sheltered pits or lay them in an open shed; earth up + celery; manure and dress up asparagus beds. + + _Fruit Garden._--Plant all sorts of fruit trees in fine weather--the + earlier in the month the better. Protect fig-trees. Commence pruning + and nailing. Gather and store the latest apples and pears. Examine the + fruit-room and remove all decayed fruit. + + _Forcing._--Keep up the requisite degree of heat in hotbeds and pits. + Cucumbers and tomatoes will require more than ordinary attention. + Force asparagus, rhubarb and sea-kale, in the mushroom-house, in pits, + or in the open border under boxes or cases surrounded and covered by + well-fermented stable dung and leaves. Sow Early Horn carrot; also + kidney beans and radishes, on hotbeds. In the forcing-houses prune and + train the trees; fork over and dress the borders of such houses as + have not been already done. + + _Plant Houses._--The directions for the greenhouse and conservatory in + January apply also to this month generally. Continue the forcing of + roses, hyacinths, &c. Houses containing large-flowered Japanese + chrysanthemums will require to be kept dry, airy and moderately warm + to prevent "damping-off" of petals. + + _Flower Garden, &c._--Plant dried tubers of border flowers, but the + finer sorts had better be deferred till spring. Plant tulips in the + early part of the month. Put in cuttings of bedding calceolarias, + choosing the shoots that will not run up to flower. Protect such + half-hardy plants as are not already sheltered. Plant deciduous trees + and shrubs so long as the weather continues favourable, and before the + soil has parted with the solar heat absorbed during summer. Dig and + dress such flower borders and shrubberies as may now be cleared of + annuals and the stems of herbaceous plants. + + DECEMBER + + _Kitchen Garden._--Collect and smother-burn all vegetable refuse, and + apply it as a dressing to the ground. Sow a few peas and beans, in + case of accident to those sown in November, drawing up the soil + towards the stems of those which are above ground as a protection; + earth up celery; blanch endive with flower-pots; sow radishes in a + very sheltered place. Attend to trenching and digging in dry weather. + + _Fruit Garden._--Plant all sorts of fruit trees in mild weather. + Proceed with pruning and nailing wall-trees. Examine the fruit-room + every week, removing promptly all decaying fruit. + + _Forcing._--The same degree of attention to hotbeds and pits will be + necessary as in the last month. Continue the forcing of asparagus, + rhubarb and sea-kale, in pits and in the mushroom-house. Proceed with + the usual routine of culture commenced last month. Make the necessary + preparations to begin forcing early or succession crops by the last + week of this or the first of next month. + + _Plant Houses, Frames, &c._--Carnations and picotees in pots must be + kept rather dry to prevent damping off. Heaths and Australian plants + must be very sparingly watered, and kept with only fire heat enough to + repel frost. Cut down plants of chrysanthemums, which should be placed + in a cool pit, near the glass, in order to afford hard sturdy cuttings + in February. Shy plants should be given gentle bottom heat to induce + growth, which should be gently hardened by exposure under cooler + conditions. + + _Flower Garden, &c._--Plant shrubs in open weather. Prune shrubs. + Sweep and roll the lawns, and put in repair the gravel-walks, keeping + the surface frequently rolled. (J. Ws.; W. R. W.) + + (B) _For the United States (chiefly for the latitude of New York)._ + + JANUARY + + _Flower Garden and Greenhouse._--Little is to be done in either. In + the greenhouse care must be used to protect against frost. Ventilate + but little, and with care; raise the ventilating sash only high enough + to let the heated air from the greenhouse drive back the outer air so + as not to chill the plants. To destroy the red spider, syringe the + plants copiously at night, and splash the paths with water. The aphis, + or "green fly," must also be destroyed; tobacco may be used. Various + new preparations are coming on the market for the destruction of + greenhouse pests. Several new effective preparations of tobacco have + been brought into use. The white-fly is now a common pest in + greenhouses, the nymphs being greenish scale-like objects on the under + sides of the leaves, and adults very small white flies. The remedy is + to spray with kerosene emulsion or whale-oil soap; or if on cucumbers + or tomatoes, it is best to fumigate with hydrocyanic acid gas, using + one ounce of potassium cyanide to each 1000 cubic ft. of space. (This + material is very poisonous.) Many greenhouse insects can be kept more + or less in check by careful and effective hosing of the plants at + proper times. At this season roses, grape vines and other plants are + often affected by mildew; an effectual remedy is to paint the + hot-water pipes with a mixture of sulphur and lime, put on as thick as + ordinary whitewash, once each week until it is checked; but care must + be taken not to apply it on any surface at a higher temperature than + 212°. Hyacinths and other bulbs that have been kept in a cellar or + other dark cool place may now be brought into the light of the + greenhouse or sitting-room, provided they have filled the pots with + roots. If they are not well rooted, leave them until they are, or + select such of them as are best, leaving the others. In the outside + flower garden little can be done except that shrubs may be pruned, or + new work, such as making walks or grading, performed, if weather + permits. See that the ornamental plants and trees are not injured by + heavy weights of ice or snow. + + _Fruit Garden._--Pruning, staking up or mulching can be done if the + weather is such that the workmen can stand out. In all warm or + comfortable days the fruit trees may be pruned. + + _Grapery._--Graperies used for the forcing of foreign grapes may be + started, beginning at a temperature of 50° at night, with 10° or 15° + higher during the day. The borders must be covered sufficiently deep + with leaves or manure to prevent the soil from freezing, as it would + be destruction to the vines to start the shoots if the roots were + frozen; hence, when forcing is begun in January, the covering should + be put on in November, before severe frosts begin. + + _Vegetable Garden._--But little can be done in the northern states + except to prepare manure, and get sashes, tools, &c., in working + order; but in sections of the country where there is little or no + frost the hardier kinds of seeds and plants may be sown and planted, + such as asparagus, cabbage, cauliflower, carrot, leek, lettuce, onion, + parsnip, peas, spinach, turnip, &c. In any section where these seeds + can be sown in open ground, it is an indication that hotbeds may be + started for the sowing of such tender vegetables as tomatoes, egg and + pepper plants, &c.; though, unless in the extreme southern states, + hotbeds should not be started before the beginning or middle of + February. Make orders for the spring seeds. + + FEBRUARY + + _Flower Garden and Greenhouse._--The directions for January will in + the main apply to this month, except that now some of the hardier + annuals may be sown in hotbed or greenhouse, and also the propagation + of plants by cuttings may be done rather better now than in January, + as the greater amount of light gives more vitality to the cutting. + + _Fruit Garden._--But little can be done in most of the northern states + as yet, and in sections where there is no frost in the ground it is + likely to be too wet to work; but in many southern states this will be + the best month for planting fruit trees and plants of all kinds, + particularly strawberries, raspberries, blackberries, pear and apple + trees, while grape vines will do, though they will also do well quite + a month later. Continue the pruning. Fruit trees for spring planting + should be ordered, if not already done. + + _Grapery._--The graperies started last month at 50° at night may now + be increased to 60°, with a correspondingly higher day temperature. + Great care must be taken to syringe the leaves thoroughly at least + once a day, and to deluge the paths with water, so as to produce a + moist atmosphere. Paint the hot-water pipes with sulphur mixture, as + recommended in January. + + _Vegetable Garden._--Leaves from the woods, house manure or refuse + hops from breweries may be got together towards the latter part of + this month, and mixed and turned to get "sweetened" preparatory to + forming hotbeds. Cabbage, lettuce and cauliflower seeds, if sown early + this month in hotbed or greenhouse, will make fine plants if + transplanted into hotbed in March. This is preferable to the use of + fall-sown plants. Manure that is to be used for the crop should be + broken up as fine as possible, for the more completely manure of any + kind can be mixed with the soil the better the crop will be, and, of + course, if it is dug or ploughed in in large unbroken lumps it cannot + be properly commingled. + + MARCH + + _Flower Garden and Greenhouse._--The long days and bright sunshine + will now begin to tell on the plants under glass. Examine all plants + that are vigorous and healthy; if the roots have matted the "ball" of + earth they must be shifted into a larger-sized pot. Plants from + cuttings struck last month may now be shifted, and the propagation of + all plants that are likely to be wanted should be continued. Hardier + kinds of annuals may be sown; it is best done in shallow boxes, say 2 + in. deep. + + _Lawns_ can be raked off and mulched with short manure, or rich garden + earth where manure cannot be obtained. Flower-beds on light soils may + be dug up so as to forward the work of the coming busy spring season. + Lawns may be benefited by a good dressing, in addition to the manure, + of some reliable commercial fertilizer. If the lawn is thin in spots, + these places may be raked over heavily and new grass seed sown. + + _Fruit Garden._--In many sections, planting may now be done with + safety, provided the soil is light and dry, but not otherwise. + Although a tree or plant will receive no injury when its roots are + undisturbed in the soil should a frost come after planting, the same + amount of freezing will, and very often does, greatly injure the plant + if the roots are exposed. + + _Grapery._--The grapery started in January will have set its fruit, + which should be thinned by one-third. The temperature may now be + further advanced to 70° at night, with 15° higher in the daytime. The + same precautions must be used against mildew and insects as given in + January. Graperies wanted for succession may be started in February or + this month. + + _Vegetable Garden._--This is a busy month. In localities where the + frost is out of the ground, if it is not wet, seeds of the hardier + vegetables can be sown. The list of seeds given for the southern + states in January may now be used at the north, while for most of the + southern states tender vegetables, such as egg plant, okra, sweet + potatoes, melon, squash, potatoes, tomatoes, &c., may be sown and + planted. Hotbeds must now be all started. In March flower seeds and + vegetable seeds may be sown in boxes or flats in the greenhouse, or in + residence windows, or near the kitchen stove. Unless one has space + under glass, or in hotbeds, in which the plants may be transplanted + before they are set in the open ground, it is well not to start the + seeds too early, inasmuch as the plants are likely to become too large + or to be pot-bound, or to become drawn. + + APRIL + + _Flower Garden and Greenhouse._--Window and greenhouse plants require + more water and ventilation. Due attention must be paid to shifting + well-rooted plants into larger pots; and, if space is desired, many + kinds of hardier plants can be safely put out in cold frames. Towards + the end of the month it may be necessary slightly to shade the glass + of the greenhouse. All herbaceous plants and hardy shrubs may be + planted in the garden. The covering of leaves or litter should be + taken off bulbs and tender plants that were covered up for winter, so + that the beds can be lightly forked and raked. Sow tender annual + flower seeds in boxes inside. + + _Fruit Garden._--Strawberries that have been covered up with straw or + leaves should be relieved around the plants, leaving the covering + between them. Special care must be exercised that the mulch be not + left on too long; the plants should not become whitened or "drawn." + Raspberries, grape vines, &c., that have been laid down may now be + uncovered and tied up to stakes or trellises, and all new plantations + of these and other fruits may now be made. Fruit trees may be grafted. + + _Vegetable Garden._--Asparagus, rhubarb, spinach, &c., should be + uncovered., and the beds hoed or dug lightly. Hardier sorts of + vegetable seeds and plants, such as beets, cabbage, cauliflower, + celery, lettuce, onions, parsley, parsnips, peas, potatoes, radishes, + spinach, turnip, &c., should all be sown or planted by the middle of + the month if the soil is dry and warm, and in all cases, where + practicable, before the end of the month. It is essential, in sowing + seeds now, that they be well firmed in the soil. Any who expect to get + early cabbage, cauliflower, lettuce or radishes, while planting or + sowing is delayed until the time of sowing tomato and egg plant in + May, are sure to be disappointed of a full crop. Frequent rotation of + crops should be practised in the vegetable garden, in order to head + off insects and diseases; and also to make the best use of the land. + Every three or four years the vegetable garden should be laid out in + some new place; but if this cannot be done, the crops should be + rotated on different parts of the old garden. + + MAY + + _Flower Garden and Greenhouse._--Window and greenhouse plants should + be in their finest bloom. Firing may be entirely dispensed with, + though care must still be exercised in ventilating. If weather is cold + and backward, however, and in very northern regions, care must be + taken not to stop firing too soon, or the plants will mildew and + become stunted. Every precaution must be used to keep the air moist. + "Moss culture" may be tried, the common sphagnum or moss of the + swamps, mixed with one-twentieth of its bulk of bone-dust, being laid + as a mulch on the top of the earth of the flower-pots; its effect is + to shield the pots from the sun, and at the same time stimulate the + roots to come to the surface. By the end of the month all of the + plants that are wanted for the summer decoration of the flower border + may be planted out, first loosening a little the ball of earth at the + roots. If the weather is dry, water freely after planting. When the + greenhouse is not to be used during the summer months, camellias, + azaleas and plants of that character should be set out of doors under + partial shade; but most of the other plants usually grown in the + conservatory or window garden in winter may be set in the open border. + Flower-beds should be kept well hoed, and raked, to prevent the growth + of weeds next month. + + Pelargoniums, pinks, monthly roses and all the half-hardy kinds of + flowering plants should be planted early, but coleus, heliotrope and + the more tender plants should be delayed until the end of the month. + Annuals that have been sown in the greenhouse or hotbed may be planted + out, and seeds of such sorts as mignonette, sweet alyssum, Phlox + Drummondii, portulaca, &c., may be sown in the beds or borders. The + china aster is now one of the most popular of summer and fall plants. + The seed may be sown in the north as late as the middle of May, or + even the first of June, with good results for fall blooming. If the + plants are started early in the greenhouse, they are likely to spend + themselves before fall, and therefore a later sowing should be + provided. + + _Lawns_ should be mown, and the edgings trimmed. + + _Fruit Garden._--The hay or leaf mulching on the strawberry beds + should be removed and the ground deeply hoed (if not removed in April + in the more forward places), after which it may be placed on again to + keep the fruit clean and the ground from drying. Where it has not been + convenient before, most of the smaller fruits may yet be planted + during the first part of the month. Tobacco dust will dislodge most of + the numerous kinds of slugs, caterpillars or worms that make their + appearance on the young shoots of vines or trees. Fruit trees may be + planted this month, if they were not planted in March or April. If + they have been kept fresh and dormant, they should still be in good + condition. The broken roots should be cut back to fresh wood, and the + tops should be headed back in proportion. + + _Vegetable Garden._--Attention should be given to new sowings and + plantings for succession. Crops sown last month will have to be + thinned out if large enough. Hoe deeply all transplanted crops, such + as cabbage, cauliflower, lettuce, &c. Tender vegetables, such as + tomatoes, egg and pepper plants, sweet potatoes, &c., can be planted + out. Seeds of Lima beans, sweet corn, melon, okra, cucumbers, &c., + should be sown; and sow for succession peas, spinach, lettuce, beans, + radishes, &c., every ten days. + + JUNE + + _Flower Garden and Greenhouse._--Tropical plants can now be used to + fill up the greenhouse during the summer months. It should be well + shaded, and fine specimens of fancy caladiums, dracaenas, coleus, + crotons, palms, ferns and such plants as are grown for the beauty of + their foliage, will make a very attractive show. If these cannot be + had, common geraniums may be used. The "moss culture" will be found + particularly valuable for these plants. Hyacinths, tulips and other + spring bulbs may be dug up, dried and placed away for next fall's + planting, and their places filled with bedding plants, such as coleus, + achyranthes, pelargoniums, and the various white and coloured leaf + plants. It will be necessary to mow the lawn once a week, and + sometimes oftener. + + _Fruit Garden._--The small fruits should be mulched about the roots, + if this has not yet been done. If the fruit garden is large enough to + admit of horse culture, it is best to keep the bush-fruits well + cultivated during the season; this tillage conserves the moisture and + helps to make a full and plump crop of berries. In small areas the + mulching system is sometimes preferable. + + _Vegetable Garden._--Beets, beans, carrots, corn, cucumbers, lettuce, + peas and radishes may be sown for succession. This is usually a busy + month, as many crops have to be gathered, and, if hoeing is not + promptly seen to, weeds are certain to give great trouble. Tomatoes + should be tied up to trellises or stakes if fine-flavoured and + handsome fruit is desired, for if left to ripen on the ground they are + apt to have a gross earthy flavour. + + JULY + + _Flower Garden and Greenhouse._--Watering, ventilating and fumigating + (or the use of tobacco in other forms for destruction of aphides) must + be attended to. The atmosphere of the greenhouse must be kept moist. + Watch the plants that have been plunged out of doors, and see if any + require repotting. All plants that require staking, such as dahlias, + roses, gladioli and many herbaceous plants, should now be looked to. + Carnations and other plants that are throwing up flower stems, if + wanted to flower in winter, should be cut back, that is, the flower + stems should be cut off to say 5 in. from the ground. + + _Fruit Garden._--If grape vines show any signs of mildew, dust them + over with dry sulphur, selecting a still warm day. The fruit having + now been gathered from strawberry plants, if new beds are to be + formed, the system of layering the plants in small pots is the best. + In general, field strawberries are not grown from potted layers, but + from good strong layers that strike naturally in the field. In the + north, spring planting of strawberries is generally advised for market + conditions; although planting in early fall or late summer is + successful when the ground is well prepared and when it does not + suffer from drought. Where apples, pears, peaches, grapes, &c., have + set fruit thickly, thin out at least one-half to two-thirds of the + young fruit. + + _Vegetable Garden._--The first ten days of this month will yet be time + enough to sow sweet corn, beets, lettuce, beans, cucumbers and + ruta-baga turnips. Such vegetables as cabbage, cauliflower, celery, + &c., wanted for fall or winter use, are best planted this month, + though in some sections they will do later. Keep sweet potatoes hoed + to prevent the vines rooting at the joints. + + AUGUST + + _Flower Garden and Greenhouse._--But little deviation is required in + these departments from the instructions for July. See that sufficient + water is applied; the walks may be wet in the houses. + + _Fruit Garden._--Strawberries that have fruited will now be making + "runners," or young plants. These should be kept cut off close to the + old plant, so that the full force of the root is expended in making + the "crowns" or fruit buds for next season's crop. If plants are + required for new beds, only the required number should be allowed to + grow, and these may be layered in pots as recommended in July. The old + stems of raspberries and blackberries that have borne fruit should be + cut away, and the young shoots thinned to three or four canes to each + hill or plant. If tied to stakes and topped when 4 or 5 ft. high, they + will form three or four branches on a cane, and will make stronger + fruiting plants for next year. + + _Vegetable Garden._--Hoe deeply such crops as cabbage, cauliflower and + celery. The earthing up of celery this month is not to be recommended, + unless a little very early supply is wanted. Onions in many sections + can be harvested. The proper condition is when the tops are turning + yellow and falling down. They are dried best by placing them in a dry + shed in thin layers. Sow spinach for fall use, but not yet for the + winter crop. Red top, white globe, and yellow Aberdeen turnips should + now be sown; ruta-baga turnips sown last month will need thinning, and + in extreme southern states they may yet be sown. + + SEPTEMBER + + _Flower Garden and Greenhouse._--The flower-beds in the lawn should be + at their best. If planted in "ribbon lines" or "massing," strict + attention must be given to pinching off the tops, so that the lines or + masses will present an even surface. Tender plants will require to be + put in the greenhouse or housed in some way towards the end of this + month; but be careful to keep them as cool as possible during the day. + Cuttings of bedding plants may now be made freely if wanted for next + season, as young cuttings rooted in the fall make better plants for + next spring's use than old plants, in the case of such soft-wooded + plants as pelargoniums, fuchsias, verbenas, heliotropes, &c.; with + roses and plants of a woody nature, however, the old plants usually do + best. Dutch bulbs, such as hyacinths, tulips, crocus, &c., and most of + the varieties of lilies, may be planted. Violets that are wanted for + winter flowering will now be growing freely, and the runners should be + trimmed off. Sow seeds of sweet alyssum, candytuft, daisies, + mignonette, pansies, &c. Visit the roadsides and woods for interesting + plants to put in the hardy borders. + + _Fruit Garden._--Strawberry plants that have been layered in pots may + yet be planted, or in southern districts the ordinary ground layers + may be planted. The sooner in the month both are planted the better + crop they will give next season; and, as these plants soon make + runners, it will be necessary to trim them off. Attend to raspberries + and blackberries as advised for last month, if they have not already + been attended to. All fruit trees should be gone over for borers + before cold weather sets in; they also should have been gone over for + the same purpose in May and June. + + _Vegetable Garden._--If cabbage, cauliflower and lettuce are wanted to + plant in cold frames, the seed should be sown from about the 10th to + the 20th of this month; but judgment should be exercised, for, if sown + too early, cabbage and cauliflower are apt to run to seed. The best + date for latitude of New York is September 15th. The main crop of + spinach or sprouts that is wanted for winter or spring use should be + sown about the same date. The earth should be drawn up to celery with + a hoe preparatory to earthing up with a spade. Onions that were not + harvested and dried last month must now be attended to. Turnips of the + early or flat sorts may yet be sown the first week of this month in + the northern states, and in the south from two to four weeks later. + + OCTOBER + + _Flower Garden and Greenhouse._--In northern sections of the United + States, tender plants that are still outside should be got under cover + as early as possible. Delay using fire heat as long as possible, + unless the nights become so cold as to chill the plants inside the + house. Roses, carnations, camellias, azaleas, pelargoniums and the + hardier sorts of plants will do better if placed in a cold frame or + pit until the middle of November than they would in an ordinary + greenhouse. Look out for insects. Fall bulbs of all kinds may be + planted. Take up summer-flowering bulbs and tubers, such as dahlias, + tuberoses, gladioli, cannas, caladiums, tigridias, and dry them off + thoroughly, stowing them away afterwards in some place free from frost + and moisture during the winter. Before winter sets in see that the + lawn is freely top-dressed. Be careful not to mow the grass too short + in fall. + + _Fruit Garden._--Strawberries that have been grown from pot-grown + layers may yet be planted in southern states; keep the runners trimmed + off. Fruit trees and shrubs may be set out; but, if planting is + deferred to the last of the month, the ground around the roots should + be mulched to the thickness of 3 or 4 in. with straw, leaves or rough + manure, as a protection against frost. The fruit garden must be + protected from the ravages of mice in winter. Mice will nest about the + plants if there is straw or other litter around them. Before winter, + all tall grass and loose litter should be taken away; if this is not + done, then the first snow should be tramped heavily around the plants, + in order to destroy any nesting-places. + + _Vegetable Garden._--Celery will now be in full growth, and will + require close attention to earthing up, and during the last part of + the month the first lot may be stored away in trenches for winter. All + vegetable roots not designed to be left in the ground during the + winter should be dug up, such as beets, carrots, parsnips, sweet + potatoes, &c. The cabbage, cauliflower and lettuce plants grown from + seed sown last month should be pricked out in cold frames. If lettuce + is wanted for winter use, it may now be planted in the greenhouse or + cold frame, and will be ready for use about Christmas. If asparagus or + rhubarb is wanted for winter use, it should be taken up and stowed + away in pit, frame, shed or cellar for a month or two. It may then be + taken into the greenhouse and packed closely together under the stage, + and will be fit for use from January to March, according to the + temperature of the house. Vegetable gardens often become infested with + diseases that are carried over from year to year in the old plants and + litter; this is specially true of water-melons and of some diseases of + tomatoes. It is well, therefore, to burn the tops of the plants in the + fall, rather than to plough them under or to throw them on the compost + heap. + + NOVEMBER + + _Flower Garden and Greenhouse._--Plants intended to be grown inside + should now all be indoors. Keep a sharp look-out for cold snaps, as + they come very unexpectedly in November, and many plants are lost + thereby. In cases where it is not convenient to use fire heat, 5° to + 10° of cold can be resisted by covering the plants over with paper, + and by using this before frost has struck the plants valuable + collections may be saved. When fire heat is freely used, be careful to + keep up the proper amount of moisture by sprinkling the paths with + water. Little can be done in the flower garden, except to clean off + all dead stalks, and straw up tender roses, vines, &c., and, wherever + there is time, to dig up and rake the borders, as it will greatly + facilitate spring work. Cover up all beds in which there are + hyacinths, tulips and other bulbs with a litter of leaves or straw to + the depth of 2 or 3 in. If short, thoroughly-decayed manure can be + spared, a good sprinkling spread over the lawn will help it to a finer + growth next spring. + + _Fruit Garden._--Strawberry beds should be covered (in cold sections) + with hay, straw or leaf mulching, to a depth not exceeding 2 in. Fruit + trees and grape vines generally should be pruned; and, if the wood of + the vine is wanted for cuttings, or scions of fruit trees for grafts, + they should be tied in small bundles and buried in the ground until + spring. They may be taken in December or January if preferred. + + _Vegetable Garden._--Celery that is to be stored for winter use should + be put away before the end of the month in all sections north of + Virginia; south of that it may be left in most places where grown + throughout the winter if well covered up. The stalks of the asparagus + bed should be cut off, and burned if there are berries on them, as the + seeds scattered in the soil sometimes produce troublesome weeds. Mulch + the beds with 2 or 3 in. of rough manure. All vegetable roots that are + yet in the ground, and not designed to be left there over winter, must + be dug up in this latitude before the middle of the month or they may + be frozen in. Cover up onions, spinach, sprouts, cabbage or lettuce + plants with a covering of 2 or 3 in. of leaves, hay, or straw, to + protect them during the winter. Cabbages that have headed may usually + be preserved against injury by frost until the middle of next month, + by simply pulling them up and packing them closely in a dry spot in + the open field with the heads down and roots up. On approach of cold + weather in December they should be covered up with leaves as high as + the tops of the roots, or, if the soil is light, it may be thrown over + them, if leaves are not convenient. Cabbages will keep this way until + March if the covering has not been put on too early. Plough all empty + ground if practicable, and, whenever time will permit, do trenching + and subsoiling. Cabbage, cauliflower and lettuce plants that are in + frames should be regularly ventilated by lifting the sash on warm + days, and on the approach of very cold weather they should be covered + with straw mats or shutters. In the colder latitudes, and even in the + middle states, it is absolutely necessary to protect cauliflower in + this way, as it is much more tender than cabbage and lettuce plants. + + DECEMBER + + _Flower Garden and Greenhouse._--Close attention must be paid to + protecting all tender plants, for it is not uncommon to have the care + of a whole year spoiled by one night's neglect. Vigilance and extra + hot fires will have to be kept up when the thermometer falls to 34° or + 35° in the parlour or conservatory. It is well to set the plants under + the benches or on the walks of the greenhouses; if they are in the + parlour move them away from the cold point and protect them with + paper; this will usually save them even if the thermometer falls to + 24° or 26°. Another plan in the greenhouse is to dash water on the + pipes or flues, which causes steam to rise to the glass and freeze + there, stopping up all the crevices. With plants outside that require + strawing up or to be mulched, this will have now to be finished. + + _Fruit Garden._--In sections where it is an advantage to protect grape + vines, raspberries, &c., from severe frost, these should be laid down + as close to the ground as possible, and covered with leaves, straw or + hay, or with a few inches of soil. Grapes may be pruned. Fruit trees + may be pruned from now till March in the north. + + _Vegetable Garden._--Celery in trenches should receive the final + covering for the winter, which is best done by leaves or light stable + litter; in the latitude of New York it should not be less than 12 in. + thick. Potatoes, beets, turnips or other roots in pits, the spinach + crop in the ground, or any other article in need of protection, should + be attended to before the end of the month; manure and compost heaps + should be forwarded as rapidly as possible, and turned and mixed so as + to be in proper condition for spring. Remove the snow that accumulates + on cold frames or other glass structures, particularly if the soil + which the glass covers was not frozen before the snow fell; it may + remain on the sashes longer if the plants are frozen in, since they + are dormant, and would not be injured if deprived of light for eight + or ten days. If roots have been placed in cellars, attention must be + given to ventilation, which can be done by making a wooden box, say 6 + by 8 in., to run from the ceiling of the cellar to the eaves of the + building above. (L. H. B.; P. H.) + + BIBLIOGRAPHY OF MODERN WORKS ON HORTICULTURE.--W. Robinson, _Alpine + Flowers_; Lord Redesdale (A. B. Freeman Mitford), _The Bamboo Garden_; + J. Weathers, _Bulbous Plants_ (33 col. plates); H. H. Cousins, + _Chemistry of the Garden_; W. Watson, _Cactus Culture for Amateurs_; + R. P. Brotherston and M. R. Smith, _Book of the Carnation_; J. + Weathers, _Cottage and Allotment Gardening_; J. Veitch and Sons, + _Manual of Coniferae_; W. Wells, _Culture of the Chrysanthemum_; Rev. + S. E. Bourne, _Book of the Daffodil_; Geo. Nicholson, _Dictionary of + Gardening_ (5 vols.); W. Robinson, _The English Flower Garden_; Geo. + Schneider, _Book of Choice Ferns_ (3 vols.); W. Robinson, _Flora and + Sylva_ (3 vols.; col. plates by the late H. G. Moon); J. Weathers, + _Flowering Trees and Shrubs_ (33 col. plates); J. Weathers, _French + Market-Gardening and Intensive Cultivation_; T. Smith, _French + Gardening_; Geo. Bunyard and O. Thomas, _The Fruit Garden_; Josh. + Brace, Fruit Trees in Pots; Dr R. Hogg, The Fruit Manual; M. C. Cooke, + _Fungoid Pests of Cultivated Plants_; Thos. H. Mawson, _The Art and + Craft of Garden-Making_; J. Weathers, _A Practical Guide to Garden + Plants_; W. Watson, _The Gardeners' Assistant_; C. H. Wright and D. + Dewar, _The Gardeners' Dictionary_; J. Weathers, _Garden Flowers for + Town and Country_ (33 col. plates); Chas. Baltet, _The Art of Grafting + and Budding_; W. Thomson, _The Grape Vine_; Thos. Baines, _Greenhouse + and Stove Plants_; R. Irwin Lynch, _The Book of the Iris_; G. Jekyll, + _Lilies for English Gardens_; E. A. Ormerod, _Manual of Injurious + Insects_; Dr A. B. Griffiths, _Manures for Fruit and other Trees_; F. + W. Burbridge and J. G. Baker, _The Narcissus_ (48 col. plates); H. A. + Burberry, _The Orchid Cultivator's Handbook_; B. S. Williams, _The + Orchid Grower's Manual_; J. Veitch & Sons, _Manual of Orchidaceous + Plants_; Dr Paul Sorauer and F. E. Weiss, _Physiology of Plants_; W. + Watson, _Orchids, their Culture and Management_; G. Massee, _Plant + Diseases_; Rev. A. Foster-Melliar, _Book of the Rose_; Wm. Paul, _The + Rose Garden_ (20 col. plates); G. Jekyll and E. Mawley, _Roses for + English Gardens_; J. Weathers, _Roses for Garden and Greenhouse_ (33 + col. plates); _Nat. Rose Society, Handbook on Pruning Roses_; Rev. J. + H. Pemberton, _Roses, their History, Development and Culture_; Very + Rev. Dean Hole, _A Book about Roses_; J. Hoffmann, _The Amateur + Gardener's Rose Book_ (20 col. plates; translated from the German); A. + Gaut, _Seaside Planting of Trees and Shrubs_; E. Beckett, _Book of the + Strawberry_; W. Iggulden, _The Tomato_; J. Weathers, _Trees and Shrubs + for English and Irish Gardens_ (33 col. plates); Vilmorin et Cie., + _The Vegetable Garden_ (Eng. ed. by W. Robinson); A. F. Barron, _Vines + and Vine Culture_; G. Jekyll, _Wall and Water Gardens_; W. Robinson, + _The Wild Garden_; L. H. Bailey, _Practical Garden Book_ (New York, + 1908). (J. Ws.; W. R. W.) + + + + +HORTON, CHRISTIANA (c. 1696-c. 1756), English actress, first appeared in +London as Melinda in _The Recruiting Officer_ in 1714 at Drury Lane. +Here she remained twenty years, followed by fifteen at Covent Garden. At +both houses during this long career she played all the leading tragedy +and comedy parts, and Barton Booth (who "discovered" her) said she was +the best successor of Mrs. Oldfield. She was the original Mariana in +Fielding's _Miser_ (1733). + + + + +HORTON, ROBERT FORMAN (1855- ), British Nonconformist divine, was born +in London on the 18th of September 1855. He was educated at Shrewsbury +school and New College, Oxford, where he took first classes in classics. +He was president of the Oxford Union in 1877. He became a fellow of his +college in 1879, and lectured on history for four years. In 1880 he +accepted an influential invitation to become pastor of the Lyndhurst +Road Congregational church, Hampstead, and subsequently took a very +prominent part in church and denominational work generally. He delivered +the Lyman Beecher lectures at Yale in 1893; in 1898 he was chairman of +the London Congregational Union; and in 1903 of the Congregational Union +of England and Wales. In 1909 he took a prominent part in the 75th +anniversary celebration of Hartford Theological Seminary. His numerous +publications include books on theological, critical, historical, +biographical and devotional subjects. + + + + +HORTON, SAMUEL DANA (1844-1895), American writer on bimetallism, was +born in Pomeroy, Ohio, on the 16th of January 1844. He graduated at +Harvard in 1864, and at the Harvard Law School in 1868, studied Roman +law in Berlin in 1869, and in 1871 was admitted to the Ohio bar. He +practised law in Cincinnati, and then in Pomeroy until 1885, when he +gave up law for the advancement of bimetallism. His attention had been +turned to monetary questions by the "greenback campaign" of 1875 in +Ohio, in which, as in former campaigns, he had spoken, particularly +effectively in German, for the Republican party. He was secretary of the +American delegation to the Monetary Conference which met in Paris in +1878, and edited the report of the delegation. To the conference of 1881 +he was a delegate, and thereafter he spent much of his time in Europe, +whither he was sent by President Harrison in 1889 as special +commissioner to promote the international restoration of silver. He died +in Washington, D.C., on the 23rd of February 1895. Horton's principal +works were _The Silver Pound_ (1887) and _Silver in Europe_ (1890), a +volume of essays. + + + + +HORUS (Egyptian _Hor_), the name of an Egyptian god, if not of several +distinct gods. To all forms of Horus the falcon was sacred; the name +Hor, written with a standing figure of that bird, [Hieroglyph] is +connected with a root signifying "upper," and probably means "the +high-flyer." The tame sacred falcon on its perch [Hieroglyph] is the +commonest symbol of divinity in early hieroglyphic writing; the +commonest title of the king in the earliest dynasties, and his first +title later, was that which named him Horus. Hawk gods were the +presiding deities of Poi (Pe) and Nekhen, which had been the royal +quarters in the capitals of the two primeval kingdoms of Upper and Lower +Egypt, at Buto and opposite El Kab. A principal festival in very early +times was the "worship of Horus," and the kings of the prehistoric +dynasties were afterwards called "the worshippers of Horus." The +Northern Kingdom in particular was under the patronage of Horus. He was +a solar divinity, but appears very early in the Osiris cycle of deities, +a son of Isis and probably of Osiris, and opponent of Seth. On monuments +of the Middle Kingdom or somewhat later we find besides Hor the +following special forms: Har-behtet, i.e. Hor of Beht, the winged solar +disk, god of Edfu (_Apollinopolis Magna_); Har-khentekthai, god of +Athribis; Har-mesen (whose principal sacred animal was a lion), god of +the Sethroite (?) nome; Har-khentemna, i.e. the blind (?) Horus (with a +shrew-mouse) at Letopolis; Har-mert ("of two eyes") at Pharbaethus; +Har-akht, Ra-har-akht, or Har-m-akhi (Harikakhis, "Hor of the horizon"), +the sun-god of Heliopolis. + +As a sun-god Horus not only worsted the hostile darkness and avenged his +father, but also daily renewed himself. He was thus identical with his +own father from one point of view. In the mythology, especially that of +the New Kingdom, or of quite late times, we find the following standing +epithets applied to more or less distinct forms or phases: Harendotes +(Har-ent-yotf), i.e. "Hor, avenger of his father (Osiris)"; Harpokhrates +(Har-p-khrat), i.e. "Hor the child," with finger in mouth, sometimes +seated on a lotus-flower; Harsiesis (Har-si-Esi), i.e. "Hor, son of +Isis," as a child; Har-en-khebi, "Hor in Chemmis," a child nursed by +Isis in the papyrus marshes; Haroeris (Har-uer), i.e. "the elder Hor," +at Ombos, &c., human-headed or falcon-headed; Harsemteus (Har-sem-teu), +i.e. "Hor, uniter of the two lands," and others. + +In the judgment scene Horus introduces the deceased to Osiris. To the +Greeks Horus was equivalent to Apollo, but in the name of Hermopolis +Parva (see DAMANHUR), which must have been among the first of the +Egyptian cities to be known to them, he was apparently identified with +Hermes. Although the falcon was the bird most properly sacred to Horus, +not only its varieties, but also the sparrow-hawk, kestrel and other +small hawks were mummified in his honour in late times. + + See EGYPT: section _Religion_; Meyer, art. "Horos" in Röscher, + _Lexicon der Griech. und Rom. Mythologie_. (F. Ll. G.) + + + + +HORWICH, an urban district in the Westhoughton parliamentary division of +Lancashire, England, 4 m. W.N.W. of Bolton, on the Lancashire and +Yorkshire railway. Pop. (1901) 15,084. It lies beneath the considerable +elevation of Rivington Pike, where formerly was a great forest. It has +extensive locomotive works, and there are large stone quarries in the +district. Bleaching and cotton-spinning and the manufacture of +fire-bricks and tiles are carried on. + + + + +HOSANNA, the cry of praise or adoration shouted in recognition of the +Messiahship of Jesus on his entry into Jerusalem (Matt. xxi. 9, 15; Mark +xi. 9 sq.; John xii. 13), and since used in the Christian Church. It is +also a Jewish liturgical term, and was applied specifically to the +"hosanna" branches carried in procession in the Feast of Booths or +Tabernacles, the seventh day of which was called the Hosanna-day (so +also in Syrian usage; cf. "Palm" Sunday). This festival (for which see +Lev. xxiii. 39 sqq.; 2 Macc. x. 7; Jos. _Ant._ xii. 10. 4, xiii. 13. 15; +and the Talmudic tractate _Sukkah_) already suggested a Dionysiac +celebration to Plutarch (_Symp._ iv. 6), and was associated with a +ceremonial drawing of water which, it was believed, secured fertilizing +rains in the following year; the penalty for abstinence was drought (cf. +Zech. xiv. 16 seq.). The evidence (see further _Ency. Bib._ cols. 3354, +4880 seq.; I. Levy, _Rev. des Ét. juives_, 1901, pp. 192 sqq.) points to +rites of nature-worship, and it is possible that in these the term +Hosanna had some other application. + + The old interpretation "save, now!" which may be a popular etymology, + is based on Ps. cxviii. 25 (Heb. _hoshi'ah-nna_), but this does not + explain the occurrence of the word in the Gospels, a complicated + problem, on which see the articles of J. H. Thayer in Hastings's + _Dict. Bib._, and more especially T. K. Cheyne, _Ency. Bib._ s.v. + + + + +HOSE (a word common to many Teutonic languages; cf. Dutch, _hoos_, +stocking, Ger. _Hose_, breeches, tights; the ultimate origin is +unknown), the name of an article of dress, used as a covering for the +leg and foot. The word has been used for various forms of a long +stocking covering both the foot and leg (see HOSIERY), and this is the +usual modern sense. But it also formerly meant a kind of gaiter covering +the leg from the knee to the ankle only, of the long tight covering for +the whole of the lower limbs, and later of the short puffed or slashed +breeches worn with the doublet--at this period, from the early part of +the 16th century onwards, comes the distinction between the "hose" or +"trunk hose" and the stocking (see COSTUME). The term is applied to +certain objects resembling such a covering, as in its application to +flexible rubber or canvas piping used for conveying water (see +HOSEPIPE), and in botany, to the "sheath" covering, e.g. the ear of +corn. The term "hose-in-hose" is thus used in botany for a flower in +which the corolla has become doubled, as though a second were inserted +in the throat of the first; it occurs sometimes in the primrose. + + + + +HOSEA, the son of Beeri, the first in order of the minor prophets of the +Old Testament. The name Hosea ([Hebrew: Hoshea], LXX. [Greek:, Ôsêe], +Vulg. _Osee_, and so the English version in Rom. ix. 25) ought rather to +be written Hoshea, and is identical with that borne by the last king of +Ephraim, and by Joshua in Num. xiii. 16, Deut. xxxii. 44. Of the life of +Hosea[1] we know nothing beyond what can be gathered from his +prophecies. That he was a citizen of the northern kingdom appears from +the whole tenor of the book, but most expressly from i. 2, where "the +land," the prophet's land, is the realm of Israel, and vii. 5, where +"our king" is the king of Samaria. The date at which Hosea flourished is +given in the title, i. 1, by the reigning kings of Judah and Israel. He +prophesied (i) in the days of Uzziah, Jotham, Ahaz and Hezekiah, kings +of Judah; (2) in the days of Jeroboam the son of Joash, king of Israel. +The dates indicated by the title, which may be regarded as editorial, +are, for the four kings of the southern kingdom, 789-740, 739-734, +733-721 and 720-693 B.C. respectively; and, for Jeroboam II., 782-743 +(cf. _Ency. Bib._ col. 797-798). The book itself, however, plainly +belongs to the period prior to 734 B.C. since, in that year, (a) the +Syro-Ephraimitic war began, to which there is here no reference, nor is +Assyria yet the open foe it then became; (b) Gilead became +Tiglath-Pileser's (2 Kings xv. 29), whereas it is here described as +still part of the territory of Israel (vi. 8; xii. 11; cf. the included +place-names of v. 1). On the other hand, the prophet connects with the +birth of his eldest child the approaching fall of the house of Jehu (i. +4), thus anticipating the death of Jeroboam II. in 743, and the period +of anarchy which followed (2 Kings xv.). Thus the prophetic work of +Hosea may be dated, with practical certainty, as beginning from some +point previous to 743 and extending not later than 734.[2] This is +corroborated by the general character of the book. Of its two parts, +i.-iii. reflects the wealth and prosperity of the reign of Jeroboam II., +whilst iv.-xiv. contains frequent references to the social disorder and +anarchy of the subsequent years. + +The first part of Hosea's prophetic work, corresponding to chs. i.-iii., +lay in the years of external prosperity immediately preceding the +catastrophe of the house of Jehu in or near the year 743. The second +part of the book is a summary of prophetic teaching during the +subsequent troublous reign of Menahem, and, perhaps, that of his +successor, Pekahiah, and must have been completed before 734 B.C. Apart +from the narrative in chs. i.-iii., to which we shall presently recur, +the book throws little or no light on the details of Hosea's life. It +appears from ix. 7, 8, that his prophetic work was greatly embarrassed +by opposition: "As for the prophet, a fowler's snare is in all his ways, +and enmity in the house of his God." The enmity which had its centre in +the sanctuary probably proceeded from the priests (comp. Amos vii.), +against whose profligacy and profanation of their office our prophet +frequently declaims--perhaps also from the degenerate prophetic gilds +which had their seats in the holy cities of the northern kingdom, and +with whom Hosea's elder contemporary Amos so indignantly refuses to be +identified (Amos vii. 14). In ch. iv. 5 Hosea seems to comprise priests +and prophets in one condemnation, thus placing himself in direct +antagonism to all the leaders of the religious life of his nation. He is +not less antagonistic to the kings and princes of his day (vii. 3-7, +viii. 4, viii. 10 Septuagint, x. 7-15, xiii. 11).[3] In view of the +familiarity shown with the intrigues of rulers and the doings of +priests, it has been conjectured that Hosea held a prominent position, +or even (by Duhm) that he was himself a priest (Marti, p. 2). + +The most interesting problem of Hosea's history lies in the +interpretation of the story of his married life (chs. i.-iii.). We read +in these chapters that God's revelation to Hosea began when in +accordance with a divine command he married a profligate wife, Gomer, +the daughter of Diblaim. Three children were born in this marriage and +received symbolical names, illustrative of the divine purpose towards +Israel, which are expounded in ch. i. In ch. ii. the faithlessness of +Israel to Jehovah (Yahweh), the long-suffering of God, the moral +discipline of sorrow and tribulation by which He will yet bring back His +erring people and betroth it to Himself for ever in righteousness, love +and truth, are depicted under the figure of the relation of a husband to +an erring spouse. The suggestion of this allegory lies in the prophet's +marriage with Gomer, but the details are worked out quite independently, +and under a rich multiplicity of figures derived from other sources. In +the third chapter we return to the personal experience of the prophet. +His faithless wife had at length left him and fallen, under +circumstances which are not detailed, into a state of misery, from which +Hosea, still following her with tender affection, and encouraged by a +divine command, brought her back and restored her to his house, where he +kept her in seclusion, and patiently watched over her for many days, yet +not readmitting her to the privileges of a wife. + +In these experiences the prophet again recognizes a parallel to Yahweh's +long-suffering love to Israel, and the discipline by which the people +shall be brought back to God through a period in which all their +political and religious institutions are overthrown. Throughout these +chapters personal narrative and prophetic allegory are interwoven with a +rapidity of transition very puzzling to the modern reader; but an +unbiassed exegesis can hardly fail to acknowledge that chs. i. and iii. +narrate an actual passage in the prophet's life. The names of the three +children are symbolical, but Isaiah in like manner gave symbolical names +to his sons, embodying prominent points in his prophetic teaching +(Shear-jashub, Isa. vii. 3, comp. x. 21; Maher-shalal-hash-baz, viii. +3). And the name of Gomer bath Diblaim is certainly that of an actual +person, upon which all the allegorists, from the Targum, Jerome and +Ephraem Syrus downwards, have spent their arts in vain, whereas the true +symbolical names in the book are perfectly easy of interpretation.[4] +That the ancient interpreters take the whole narrative as a mere parable +is no more than an application of their standing rule that everything in +the Biblical history is allegorical which in its literal sense appears +offensive to propriety (comp. Jerome's proem to the book). But the +supposed offence to propriety seems to rest on mistaken exegesis and too +narrow a conception of the way in which the Divine word was communicated +to the prophets.[5] There is no reason to suppose that Hosea knowingly +married a woman of profligate character. The point of the allegory in i. +2 is plainly infidelity after marriage as a parallel to Israel's +departure from the covenant God, and a profligate wife ([Hebrew: eshet +znunim]) is not the same thing with an open prostitute ([Hebrew: +zonna]). The marriage was marred by Gomer's infidelity; and the struggle +of Hosea's affection for his wife with this great unhappiness--a +struggle inconceivable unless his first love had been pure and full of +trust in the purity of its object--furnished him with a new insight into +Yahweh's dealings with Israel. Then he recognized that the great +calamity of his life was God's own ordinance and appointed means to +communicate to him a deep prophetic lesson. The recognition of a divine +command after the fact has its parallel, as Wellhausen observes, in Jer. +xxxii. 8. + +It was in the experiences of his married life, and in the spiritual +lessons opened to him through these, that Hosea first heard the +revealing voice of Yahweh (i. 2).[6] Like Amos (Amos iii. 8), he was +called to speak for God by an inward constraining voice, and there is +no reason to think that he had any connexion with the recognized +prophetic societies, or ever received such outward adoption to office as +was given to Elisha. His position in Israel was one of tragic isolation. +Amos, when he had discharged his mission at Bethel, could return to his +home and to his friends; Hosea was a stranger among his own people, and +his home was full of sorrow and shame. Isaiah in the gloomiest days of +Judah's declensions had faithful disciples about him, and knew that +there was a believing remnant in the land. Hosea knows no such remnant, +and there is not a line in his prophecy from which we can conclude that +his words ever found an obedient ear. + +As already stated, this prophecy falls into two clearly distinguished +sections,[7] the former (i.-iii.), already dealt with, accounting for +the general standpoint of the latter (iv.-xiv.). It is not possible to +make any convincing subdivisions of this latter section (cf. G. A. +Smith, i. p. 223) which is best regarded as a series of separate +discourses on certain recurrent topics, viz. (a) the cultus, (b) the +social disorder and immorality, (c) political tendencies (alliance with +either Assyria or Egypt sought).[8] In regard to each of these topics, +the attitude of the prophet involves the discernment of present guilt, +and the assertion of future punishment. For him the present condition of +the people contained no germ or pledge of future amendment, and he +describes the impending judgment, not as a sifting process (Amos ix. 9, +10) in which the wicked perish and the righteous remain, but as the +total wreck of the nation which has wholly turned aside from its God. In +truth, while the idolatrous feasts of Ephraim still ran their joyous +round, while the careless people crowded to the high places, and there +in unbridled and licentious mirth flattered themselves that their many +sacrifices ensured the help of their God against all calamity, the +nation was already in the last stage of internal dissolution. To the +prophet's eye there was "no truth, nor mercy, nor knowledge of God in +the land--nought but swearing, and lying, and killing, and stealing and +adultery; they break out, and blood toucheth blood" (iv. 1, 2). The root +of this corruption lay in total ignorance of Yahweh, whose precepts were +no longer taught by the priests, while in the national calf-worship, and +in the local high places, this worship was confounded with the service +of the Canaanite Baalim. Thus the whole religious constitution of Israel +was undermined. And the political state of the realm was in Hosea's eyes +not more hopeful. The dynasty of Jehu, still great and powerful when the +prophet's labours began, is itself an incorporation of national sin. +Founded on the bloodshed of Jezreel, it must fall by God's vengeance, +and the state shall fall with it (i. 4, iii. 4). This sentence stands at +the head of Hosea's predictions, and throughout the book the civil +constitution of Ephraim is represented as equally lawless and godless +with the corrupt religious establishment. The anarchy that followed on +the murder of Zachariah appears to the prophet as the natural decadence +of a realm not founded on divine ordinance. The nation had rejected +Yahweh, the only helper. And now the avenging Assyrian[9] is at hand. +Samaria's king shall pass away as foam on the water. Fortress and city +shall fall before the ruthless invader, who spares neither age nor sex, +and thistles shall cover the desolate altars of Ephraim. + + In our present book of Hosea, this condemnatory judgment on + contemporary Israel culminates in a chapter of appeal for penitence, + with promise of divine forgiveness. The question of the authenticity + of this and of other "restoration" passages[10] forms the chief + problem for literary criticism presented by the book.[11] Amongst the + more recent commentators, Davidson, G. A. Smith and Nowack regard + Hosea xiv. as written by the prophet, though the second admits its + chronological misplacement and the third its later expansion. On the + other hand, it is altogether rejected by Cheyne, Wellhausen, Marti and + Harper. These claim that the passage reflects the later standpoint of + completed punishment, and is therefore inconsistent in the prophet who + anticipates that punishment. But the case is different from that of + the epilogue to Amos, since Hosea's personal experience covers + forgiveness as well as discipline (Marti consistently, though without + ground, rejects this experience also). There seems, therefore, to be + no sufficient evidence for denying thoughts of restoration to Hosea, + whilst it is highly probable that such passages would be amplified in + a later age. Indeed, the importance of these passages for the + interpretation of Hosea is apt to be overrated, for, as one of those + rejecting them remarks, though Hosea "promised nothing," yet he + "contributed a conception of Yahweh which made such a future not only + possible but even probable" (Harper, p. cliii.). We may therefore read + the closing chapter as, at least, the explicit statement of a hope + implicit in Hosea's teaching. + +Hosea could discern no faithful remnant in Ephraim, yet Ephraim in all +his corruption is the son of Yahweh, a child nurtured with tender love, +a chosen people, whose past history declares in every episode the +watchful and patient affection of his father. And that father is God and +not man, the Holy One who will not and cannot sacrifice His love even to +the justest indignation (chap. xi.). To the prophet who knows this love +of Yahweh, who has learned to understand it in the like experience of +his own life, the very ruin of the state of Israel is a step in the +loving guidance which makes the valley of trouble a door of hope (ii. +15), and the wilderness of tribulation as full of promise as the desert +road from Egypt to Canaan was to Israel of old. Of the manner of +Israel's repentance and conversion Hosea presents no clear image--nay, +it is plain that on this point he had nothing to tell. The certainty +that the people will at length return and seek Yahweh their God rests, +not on any germ of better things in Israel, but on the invincible +supremacy of Yahweh's love. And so the two sides of his prophetic +declaration, the passionate denunciation of Israel's sin and folly, and +the not less passionate tenderness with which he describes the final +victory of divine love, are united by no logical bond. The unity is one +of feeling only, and the sob of anguish in which many of his appeals to +a heedless people seem to end turns once and again with sudden revulsion +into the clear accents of evangelical promise, which in the closing +chapter swell forth in pure and strong cadence out of a heart that has +found its rest with God from all the troubles of a stormy life. + +The strongly emotional temperament of Hosea suggests comparison with +that of Jeremiah, who like himself is the prophet of the decline and +fall of a kingdom. The subsequent influence of Hosea on the literature +of the Old and New Testaments is very marked. Not only is it seen in the +conception of the relation between God and His people as a marriage, +which he makes current coin (cf. Marti, p. 15), but still more in the +fact that his conception of the divine character becomes the inspiration +of the book of Deuteronomy and so of the whole canon of Scripture. "In a +special degree, the author of Deuteronomy is the spiritual heir of +Hosea."[12] + + RECENT LITERATURE (where references to older works will be found): + Cheyne, "Hosea" in _Cambridge Bible_ (1884); W. R. Smith, _The + Prophets of Israel_,^2 with Cheyne's introduction (1895); G. A. Smith, + "The Book of the Twelve," i., in _The Expositor's Bible_ (1896); + Nowack, _Die Kleinen Propheten_ (1897); Wellhausen, _Die Kleinen + Propheten_^3 (1898); Smend, _Alttest. Religionsgeschichte_,^2 pp. 204 + f. (1899); Davidson, art. "Hosea" in Hastings' _Dictionary of the + Bible_, ii. pp. 419 f. (1900); Marti, art. "Hosea" in _Ency. + Biblica_, ii. c. 2119 (1901) (a revision of the original article by + W. R. Smith, in the _Ency. Britannica_, partially reproduced above); + Marti, _Dodekapropheton_ (1903); W. R. Harper, "Amos and Hosea" in + _Inter. Critical Commentary_ (1905) (with copious bibliography). + (W. R. S.; H. W. R.*) + + +FOOTNOTES: + + [1] _Traditions about Hosea._--Beeri, the prophet's father, is + identified by the Rabbins with Beerah (1 Chron. v. 6), a Reubenite + prince carried captive by Tiglath-Pileser. This view is already + expressed by Jerome, _Quaest. in Paralip._, and doubtless underlies + the statement of the Targum to Chronicles that Beerah was a prophet. + For it is a Jewish maxim that when a prophet's father is named, he, + too, was a prophet, and accordingly a tradition of R. Simon makes + Isa. viii. 19, 20 a prophecy of Beeri (Kimchi in loc.; _Leviticus + Rabba_, par. 15). According to the usual Christian tradition, + however, Hosea was of the tribe of Issachar, and from an unknown + town, Belemoth or Belemon (pseudo-Epiphanius, pseudo-Dorotheus, + Ephraem Syr. ii. 234; _Chron. Pasch._, Bonn ed., i. 276). As the + tradition adds that he died there, and was buried in peace, the + source of the story lies probably in some holy place shown as his + grave. There are other traditions as to the burial-place of Hosea. A + Jewish legend in the _Shalshelet haqqabala_ (Carpzov, _Introd._, pt. + iii. ch. vii. § 3) tells that he died in captivity at Babylon, and + was carried to Upper Galilee, and buried at [Hebrew: Zefat], that is, + Safed (Neubauer, Géog. _du Talmud_, p. 227); and the Arabs show the + grave of Nebi 'Osha, east of the Jordan, near Es-Salt (Baedeker's + _Palestine_, p. 337; Burckhardt's _Syria_, p. 353). + + [2] The supposed reference of viii. 9-10 to the tribute paid by + Menahem to Tiglath-Pileser (2 Kings xv. 19), and dated, on the + monuments, 738 B.C., depends on a corrupt text: read v. 10 with + Septuagint. + + [3] Some scholars hold that his attack is directed against the very + principle of monarchy (Nowack, p. 8; Smend, p. 209: "Hosea rejects + the kingship in itself"; Wellhausen, p. 125: "The making of kings in + Israel is for him, together with the heathen cultus, the fundamental + evil"). This view depends on a disputed interpretation of the + reference to Gibeah (x. 9; cf. ix. 9); and on the words: "I give thee + kings in mine anger, and I take them away in my wrath" (xiii. 11), + which may refer to the rise and fall of contemporary kings (cf. + Marti, ad loc). In any case, as Wellhausen himself says (p. 132): "He + does not start from a dogmatic theory, but simply from historical + experience." + + [4] Theodorus Mops. remarks very justly, [Greek: kai to onoma kai ton + patera legei, ôs mê plasma psilon ti dokoiê to legomenon, historia de + alêthês tôn pragmatôn.] + + [5] This explanation of the narrative, which is essentially Ewald's, + is now generally accepted. It has the great advantage of supplying a + psychological key to the conception of Israel or the land of Israel + (i. 2) as the spouse of Yahweh, which dominates these chapters, but + in the later part of the book gives way to the personification of the + nation as God's son. This conception has, indeed, formal points of + contact with notions previously current, and even with the ideas of + Semitic heathenism. On the one hand, it is a standing Hebrew usage to + represent the land as mother of its people, while the representation + of worshippers as children of their god is found in Num. xxi. 29, + where the Moabites are called children of Chemosh, and is early and + widespread throughout the Semitic field (cf. _Trans. Bib. Arch._ vi. + 438; _Jour. of Phil._ ix. 82). The combination of these two notions + gives at once the conception of the national deity as husband of the + land. On the other hand, the designation of Yahweh as Baal, which, in + accordance with the antique view of marriage, means husband as well + as lord and owner, was current among the Israelites in early times, + perhaps, indeed, down to Hosea's age (ii. 16). Now it is highly + probable that among the idolatrous Israelites the idea of a marriage + between the deity and individual worshippers was actually current and + connected with the immorality which Hosea often condemns in the + worship of the local Baalim whom the ignorant people identified with + Yahweh. For we have a Punic woman's name, [Hebrew: areshetbaal], "the + betrothed of Baal" (Euting, Punische Steine, pp. 9, 15), and a + similar conception existed among the Babylonians (Herod. i. 181, + 182). But Hosea takes the idea of Yahweh as husband, and gives it an + altogether different turn, filling it with a new and profound + meaning, based on the psychical experiences of a deep human affection + in contest with outraged honour and the wilful self-degradation of a + spouse. It can hardly be supposed that all that lies in these + chapters is an abstract study in the psychology of the emotions. It + is actual human experience that gives Hosea the key to divine truth. + + [6] Davidson (_D.B._ ii. 422) remarks that "it was not his + misfortunes that gave Hosea his prophetic word. Israel's apostasy was + plain to him, and he foreshadowed her doom in Jezreel, the name of + his first child, before any misfortunes overtook him. At most, his + misfortunes may at a later time have given a complexion to his + prophetic thoughts." Wellhausen (p. 108) objects to the emergence of + the call from the experience, on the ground that the name given to + the first child gives no indication that Hosea had yet reached his + specific message, the infidelity of his wife and of Israel, though it + shows him already as a prophet. Marti (p. 15) agrees with Davidson in + making the order (a) call, (b) marriage and birth of three children, + (c) comprehension of the significance of the marriage for himself and + for Israel. The statement made above must be interpreted of Hosea's + _specific_ message from Yahweh, as recorded in his book. + + [7] Marti disregards this generally accepted division, arguing that + (a) i.-iii. was not written earlier than iv.-xiv., (b) iii. is not + Hoseanic, (c) ii. is much more akin to iv.-xiv. than to i.-iii. + (_Comm._ p. 1; cf. _Enc. Bib._ 2123 n.^3). He holds that another + wife, not Gomer, is intended in iii., which is an allegory referring + to Israel, as Gomer referred to Judah. His arguments are not + convincing. + + [8] So, practically, Davidson, _D.B._ ii. p. 423 seq., where the + detailed references will be found. + + [9] This is too definite for the data; cf. Davidson, _l.c._ "Hosea + has no clear idea of the instrument or means of Israel's destruction. + It is 'the sword' (vii. 16, xi. 6), the 'enemy' (viii. 3, v. 8-9); or + it is natural, internal decay (vii. 8-9, ix. 16), the moth and + rottenness (v. 12)." + + [10] e.g. i. 10-ii. 1, ii. 14 f., iii. 5, v. 15-vi. 3, xi. 10-11. + + [11] Apart from glosses and minor alterations, the only other + critical problem of importance is that of the references to _Judah_ + scattered throughout the book (i. 7, iv. 15, v. 5, v. 10 f., vi. 4, + 11, viii. 14, x. 11, xi. 12). There is no inherent improbability in + some mention of the sister kingdom; but some of the actual references + do suggest interpolation, especially i. 7, where the deliverance of + Judah from Sennacherib in 701 B.C. seems intended. Each case, as + Wellhausen implies, is to be considered on its merits. On these and + other suspected passages, cf. Cheyne, Intro. to W. R. Smith's + _Prophets of Israel_, pp. xvii.-xxii.; Marti, p. 8; Harper, p. clix. + + [12] Driver, _Deuteronomy_, p. xxvii. + + + + +HOSE-PIPE, or simply "hose," the name given to flexible piping by means +of which water may be conveyed from one place to another. One end of the +pipe is connected to the source of the water, while the other end is +free, so that the direction of the stream of water which issues from the +pipe may be changed at will. The method of manufacture and the strength +of the materials used depend naturally upon the particular use to which +the finished article is to be put. Simple garden hose is often made of +india-rubber or composition, but the hose intended for fire brigade and +similar important purposes must be of a much more substantial material. +The most satisfactory material is the best long flax, although cotton is +also extensively used for many types of this fabric. + +The flax fibre, after having been carefully spun into yarn, is boiled +twice and then beetled; these two processes remove all injurious matter, +and make the yarn soft and lustrous. The yarn is then wound on to large +bobbins, and made into a chain; the number of threads in the chain +depends upon the size of the hose, which may be anything from half an +inch to 15 in. or even more in diameter. When the chain is warped, it is +beamed upon the weaver's beam, and the ends--either double or +triple--are drawn through the leaves of the cambs of heddles, passed +through the reed and finally tied to the cloth beam. The preparation of +the warp for any kind of loom varies very little, but the weaving may +vary greatly. In all cases the hose fabric is essentially circular, +although it appears quite flat during the weaving operation. + +There are very few hand-made fabrics which can compete with the +machine-made article, but the very best type of hose-pipe is certainly +one of the former class. The cloth can be made much more cheaply in the +power-loom than in the hand-loom, but, up to the present, no power-loom +has been made which can weave as substantial a cloth as the hand-loom +product; the weak part in all hose-pipes is where the weft passes round +the sides from top to bottom of the fabric or vice versa, that is, the +side corresponding to the selvages in an ordinary cloth; the hand-loom +weaver can draw the weft tighter than is possible in the power-loom, +hence the threads at the sides can be brought close together, and by +this means the fabric is made almost, but not quite, as perfect here as +in other parts. It is essential that the warp threads be held tightly in +the loom, and to secure this, they pass alternately over and under three +or four back rests before reaching the heddles or cambs, which are +almost invariably made of wire. Although the warp yarn is made very soft +and pliable by boiling and beetling, the weaver always tallows it in +order to make it work more easily. + + [Illustration: FIG. 1.] + + [Illustration: FIG. 2.] + + The commonest type of hose-pipe is made on the double-plain principle + of weaving, the cloth being perfectly plain but woven in such a manner + that the pipe is without seams of any kind. Fig. 1 is a design showing + two repeats or eight shots in the way of the weft, and six repeats or + twenty-four-threads in the way of the warp, consequently the weave is + complete on four threads, or leaves, and four picks. Fig. 2 + illustrates the method of interlacing the threads and the picks: this + figure shows that twenty-three threads only are used, the first + thread--shown shaded in fig. 1--having been left out. It is necessary + to use a number of threads which is either one less or one more than + some multiple of four--the number of threads in the unit weave. The + sectional view (fig. 2), although indicating the crossings of the warp + and the weft, is quite different from an actual section through the + threads: the warp is almost invariably two or three ply, and in + addition two or more of these twisted threads pass through the same + heddle-eye in the camb; moreover, they are set very closely + together--so closely, indeed, that the threads entirely conceal the + weft; it is, therefore, impossible to give a correct sectional view + with satisfactory clearness, as the threads are so very rank, but fig. + 3 gives some idea of the structure of the fabric. This view shows + ninety-nine threads and one complete round of weft; this round is, of + course, equal to two picks or shots--one pick for the top part of the + cloth and one for the bottom part. A comparison of this figure with + fig. 2 will, perhaps, make the description clearer. The weft in fig. 3 + is thinner than the warp, but, in practice, it is always much thicker, + and may consist of from two to seventy threads twisted together. + + [Illustration: FIG. 3.--Section through the Warp.] + + Hose-pipes are also woven with the three-leaf twill on both sides, and + occasionally with the four-leaf twill. These pipes, woven with the + twill weaves, are usually lined with a pure rubber tube which is fixed + to the inside of the cloth by another layer of rubber after the cloth + leaves the loom. Such pipes have usually, but not invariably, a + smoother inner surface than those which are unlined, hence, when they + are used, less friction is presented to the flow of water, and there + is less tendency for the pipe to leak. They are, therefore, suitable + for hotels, public buildings and similar places where their temporary + use will not result in undue damage to articles of furniture, carpets + and general decoration. + + The greatest care must be observed in the weaving of these fabrics, + the slightest flaw in the structure rendering the article practically + useless. After the cloth has been woven, it is carefully examined, and + then steeped in a chemical solution which acts as an antiseptic. The + cloth is thus effectively preserved from mildew, and is, in addition, + made more pliable. Finally the hose-pipe is dried artificially, and + then fitted with the necessary couplings and nozzles. + + For a more detailed description of circular weaving see Woodhouse and + Milne, _Textile Design: Pure and Applied_. (T. Wo.) + + + + +HOSHANGABAD, a town and district of British India, in the Nerbudda +division of the Central Provinces. The town stands on the left bank of +the Nerbudda, 1009 ft. above the sea, and has a railway station. Pop. +(1901), 14,940. It is supposed to have been founded by Hoshang Shah, the +second of the Ghori kings of Malwa, in the 15th century; but it remained +an insignificant place till the Bhopal conquest about 1720, when a +massive stone fort was constructed, with its base on the river, +commanding the Bhopal road. It sustained several sieges during the 18th +century, and passed alternately into the hands of the Bhopal and Nagpur +rulers. Since 1818 it has been the residence of the chief British +officials in charge of the district. It has a government high school, +and agricultural school and a brass-working industry. + +The DISTRICT OF HOSHANGABAD has an area of 3676 sq. m. Pop. (1901), +449,165, showing a decrease of 10% in the decade, due to famine. It may +be described as a valley of varying breadth, extending for 150 m. +between the Nerbudda river and the Satpura mountains. The soil consists +chiefly of black basaltic alluvium, often more than 20 ft. deep; but +along the banks of the Nerbudda the fertility of the land compensates +for the tameness of the scenery. Towards the west, low stony hills and +broken ridges cut up the level ground, while the Vindhyas and the +Satpuras throw out jutting spurs and ranges. In this wilder country +considerable regions are covered with jungle. On the south the lofty +range which shuts in the valley is remarkable in mountain scenery, +surpassing in its picturesque irregularity the Vindhyan chain in the +north. Many streams take their rise amid its precipices, then, winding +through deep glens, flow across the plain between sandy banks covered +with low jungle till they swell the waters of the Nerbudda. None is of +any importance except the Tawa, which is interesting to the geologist on +account of the many minerals to be found along its course. The boundary +rivers, the Nerbudda and Tapti, are the only considerable waters in +Hoshangabad. The principal crops are wheat, millets and oil-seeds. The +district is traversed throughout its length by the Great Indian +Peninsula railway. + + + + +HOSHEA (Heb. for "deliverance"), the last king of Israel, in the Bible. +The attempt of his predecessor Pekah to take Jerusalem with the help of +his ally Rasun (Rezin) of Damascus was frustrated by the intervention of +Tiglath-Pileser IV. (see AHAZ), who attacked Gilead, Galilee and the +north frontier, and carried off some of its population (cp. 1 Chron. v. +26). Pekah's resistance to Assyria led to a conspiracy in which he lost +his life, and Hoshea the son of Elah became king (2 Kings xv. 27-30). +The Assyrian king held him as his vassal (and indeed claims to have set +him on the throne), and exacted from him a yearly tribute. Meanwhile, +Damascus was besieged (733-732 B.C.), Rasun was slain and the +inhabitants deported (2 Kings xvi. 9; LXX. omits "to Kir," but see Amos +i. 5). The impending fate of Damascus is illustrated by Isaiah (vii. 16, +viii. 4, xvii. 1-11), who also gives a vivid description of the +impression left by the Assyrian army (v. 26-30). After the death of +Tiglath-Pileser, Israel regained confidence (Isa. ix. 8-x. 4) and took +steps to recover its independence. Its policy vacillated--"like a silly +dove" (Hos. vii. 11), and at length negotiations were opened with +Mizraim. The annual payment of tribute ceased and Shalmaneser IV. (who +began to reign in 727 B.C.) at once laid siege to Samaria, which fell at +the end of three years (722-721 B.C.). The achievement is claimed by his +successor Sargon. Hoshea was killed, the land was again partly +depopulated and a governor appointed (2 Kings xviii. 9-12; cp. xvii. 1 +sqq.). For other allusions to this period see HOSEA, ISAIAH. + + 2 Kings xvii. 3 and 5 imply _two_ attacks by Shalmaneser: in the first + of which Hoshea was imprisoned and perhaps blinded (Cheyne, emending, + "shut him up" in v. 4), although in v. 6 he is still reigning; see on + this Winckler, _Keilinschr. u. Alte Test._^3 p. 268; Burney, _Kings_, + p. 328 seq.; Skinner, _Kings_, p. 372 seq. The chronological notes, + moreover, are extremely confused; contrast xv. 30 with xvii. 1. The + usual identification of So (or Seve), king of Mizraim, with Shabaka of + Egypt is difficult, partly on chronological grounds (which Petrie, + _History of Egypt_, pp. 277, 281 sqq. does not remove), and partly + because the Ethiopian dominion in Egypt appears to be still weak and + divided. The Assyrian records name a certain Sibi as _officer_, and + also Piru (Pharaoh!) as _king_ of Musri, and it is doubtful whether + Hoshea's ally was a petty prince of Egypt or of a N. Arabian district + (see MIZRAIM). If the latter, Hoshea's policy becomes more + intelligible; see Whitehouse, _Isaiah_, p. 17 seq.; JEWS: _History_; + PHILISTINES. On the depopulation of Samaria and the introduction of + colonists, see Winckler's objections, _Alttest. Untersuch._ pp. + 95-107, with Burney's criticisms, _Kings_, p. 334 seq. (S. A. C.) + + + + +HOSHIARPUR, a town of British India, in the Jullundur division of the +Punjab. Pop. (1901), 17,549. It was founded, according to tradition, +about the early part of the 14th century. In 1809 it was occupied by +Ranjit Singh. The maharaja and his successors maintained a considerable +cantonment 1 m. S.E. of the town, and the British government kept it up +for several years after the annexation of the Punjab in 1849. There are +manufactures of cotton goods, inlaid woodwork, lacquered ware, shoes and +copper vessels. + +The DISTRICT OF HOSHIARPUR comprises an area of 2244 sq. m.; pop. (1901) +989,782, showing a decrease of 2% in the decade, compared with an +increase of 12% during the previous decade. It falls into two nearly +equal portions of hill and plain country. Its eastern face consists of +the westward slope of the Solar Singhi Hills; parallel with that ridge, +a line of lower heights belonging to the Siwalik range traverses the +district from south to north, while between the two chains stretches a +valley of uneven width, known as the Jaswan Dun. Its upper portion is +crossed by the Sohan torrent, while the Sutlej sweeps into its lower end +through a break in the hills, and flows in a southerly direction till it +turns the flank of the central range, and debouches westwards upon the +plains. This western plain consists of alluvial formation, with a +general westerly slope owing to the deposit of silt from the mountain +torrents in the sub-montane tract. The Beas has a fringe of lowland, +open to moderate but not excessive inundations, and considered very +fertile. A considerable area is covered by government woodlands, under +the care of the forest department. Rice is largely grown, in the marshy +flats along the banks of the Beas. Several religious fairs are held, at +Anandpur, Mukerian and Chintpurni, all of which attract an enormous +concourse of people. The district, owing to its proximity to the hills, +possesses a comparatively cool and humid climate. Cotton fabrics are +manufactured, and sugar, rice and other grains, tobacco and indigo are +among the exports. + +The country around Hoshiarpur formed part of the old Hindu kingdom of +Katoch In Jullundur. The state was eventually broken up, and the present +district was divided between the rajas of Ditarpur and Jaswan. They +retained undisturbed possession of their territories until 1759, when +the rising Sikh chieftains commenced a series of encroachments upon the +hill tracts. In 1815 the aggressive maharaja, Ranjit Singh, forced the +ruler of Jaswan to resign his territories in exchange for an estate on +feudal tenure; three years later the raja of Ditarpur met with similar +treatment. By the close of the year 1818 the whole country from the +Sutlej to the Beas had come under the government of Lahore, and after +the first Sikh war in 1846 passed to the British government. The deposed +rajas of Ditarpur and Jaswan received cash pensions from the new rulers, +but expressed bitter disappointment at not being restored to their +former sovereign position. Accordingly the outbreak of the second Sikh +war, in 1848 found the disaffected chieftains ready for rebellion. They +organized a revolt, but the two rajas and the other ringleaders were +captured, and their estates confiscated. + + + + +HOSIERY, a term used to designate all manufactured textile fabrics which +in their process of manufacture have been built on the principle of +looping or loop structure. The origin of the term is obvious, being +derived from "hose" or stocking, this being one of the earliest garments +made by the process of knitting (q.v.). While it still forms one of the +staples of the trade, it is only one of a very numerous and diversified +range of applications of the entire industry. The elastic structure of +knitting makes it very adaptable for all kinds of body or underwear. +There is scarcely a single textile article manufactured but can be +reproduced on the knitting or loop structure principle. The art of +knitting is of very modern origin as compared with that of weaving. No +certain allusion to the art occurs before the beginning of the 15th +century. In an act of parliament of Henry VII. (1488) knitted woollen +caps are mentioned. It is supposed that the art was first practised in +Scotland, and thence carried into England, and that caps were made by +knitting for some period before the more difficult feat of +stocking-making was attempted. In an act of Edward VI. (1553) "knitte +hose, knitte peticotes, knitte gloves and knitte sleeves" are +enumerated, and the trade of hosiers, among others, included in an act +dated 1563. Spanish silk stockings were worn on rare occasions by Henry +VIII., and the same much-prized articles are also mentioned in connexion +with the wardrobe of Edward VI. + +Knitting, or loop formation by mechanical means, is divided into two +distinct principles--frame-work knitting and warp knitting. Both +principles may be employed in the formation of a large variety of plain +and fancy stitches or a combination of the two. + + _Frame-work Knitting_ in its simplest form consists of rows of loops + supporting each other--built from one continuous thread of yarn and + running from one side of the fabric to the other and back (fig. 1). It + is on this principle of stitch that the greatest amount of hosiery is + built (hose, shirts, pants). + + [Illustration: FIG. 1.--The Stitch or Loop Structure of Plain Knitting + (back of fabric).] + + [Illustration: FIG. 2.--A Single Thread formed into a Chain of Crocket + Work, showing the Loop Structure of the plain Warp-knitted Fabric. It + is built up as shown in the diagram by a number of threads running up + the fabric.] + + _Warp Knitting_ in its simplest form consists of rows of loops, but + the number of threads employed are equal to the number of loops in the + width of the fabric. Thus it will be seen that the threads run + lengthwise of the fabric (fig. 2). This principle gives greater scope + for reproducing designs in openwork and colour than that of + frame-work knitting. For this reason it is largely used in the shawl, + glove and fancy hosiery industries. + + [Illustration: FIG. 3.--Hand Stocking Frame.] + + _Machinery._--In hand knitting the implements employed (a few needles + or wires) are very simple and inexpensive. In the manufacturing + industry the most complex and ingenious machinery is used. In 1589 the + Rev. William Lee, a graduate of St John's College, Cambridge, while + acting as curate (or vicar) of Calverton, Nottinghamshire, introduced + his stocking-frame. This machine was the first mechanical means + employed to produce a looped or knitted fabric. This frame or machine + of Lee's was the origin of all the hosiery and lace machines at + present in use. One of the most remarkable points about his invention + was its completeness and adaptability for the work for which its + inventor intended it. The main principles of Lee's frame are embodied + in most of the rotary or power frames of the present day. Fig. 3 shows + a hand frame of the present day. + + [Illustration: FIG. 4. + + A, The leads into which the needles (B) are cast. + D, The old loops or work. + C, The new loops formed and brought under the beards.] + + In hand knitting an indefinite number of loops are skewered on a wire + or pin, but, in Lee's frame, an individual hooked or bearded needle is + employed for the support and formation of each loop in the breadth of + the fabric. This needle consists of a shank with a terminal + spring-pointed hook (or beard), the point of which can be pressed at + will into a groove or eye in the shank. For method by which the loops + are formed on the needles of the frame see fig. 4. This shows a few of + Lee's hooked or bearded needles having the old loops or work hanging + round the needle shanks. The thread of yarn which is to form the new + row of loops is laid over the needle shanks and waved or looped + between each pair of needles. This waving or looping ensures + sufficient yarn being drawn and loops of a uniform size being made, so + that a regular and level fabric will be produced. The looping or + waving is obtained by having thin plates of shaped metal, called + sinkers, which have a nose-shaped point and hang between the needles. + When looping they have an individual movement downwards between the + needles, and as they fall the nose-shaped point carries the yarn down, + thus forming the new loop (fig. 5). The size of the loop is regulated + by the distance the sinker is allowed to fall. After the thread of + yarn has been looped between the needle shanks by the sinkers, the + loops are brought forward under the needle beards or hooks. A presser + bar is now brought down to close or press all the points of the needle + beards into the eye in the shank. Thus all the hook ends of the + needles are temporarily closed, with the newly formed loops under + them. While in this position, the old loops hanging round the shank + are brought forward and landed on to the top of the needle beard and + off the needle altogether, being thus left hanging round, or supported + by the loops newly formed. The needle beards are now released, and the + loops drawn back along the shanks to be in position for next new + course of loops. The foregoing is only an outline of how the loops are + formed on the needles. It is not necessary here to enter into a + description of the complex mechanical movements of Lee's + stocking-frame. The first fabric made by Lee was of a flat, + even-selvedged nature, so that garments had to be cut to shape from + the fabric. He soon learned to fashion or shape the garment at will, + during the process of making, by transferring loops at the edges, + inwards to narrow, or outwards to widen. This process at the present + day is known as fashioning, and all garments of the best make are + shaped or fashioned in this manner. After Lee had practised his new + art for a few years at Calverton he removed to London, but on his + receiving no help or encouragement from Queen Elizabeth or her + successor, King James, he was induced to cross over to France with his + frames. There he built up a flourishing industry at Rouen, under the + patronage of the French king, Henry IV. Through the murder of this + monarch he lost his patronage and died of want about the year 1610. He + was buried in an unknown grave in Paris. + + [Illustration: FIG. 5.--Formation of a Loop on a Hand Frame. + + 1, Bearded needle cast in the lead. A, Lead; B, Shank; C, Eye; D, + Beard. + 2, The thread is laid over the needles and formed into loops between + the needles by means of the sinkers, those new-formed loops being + brought under the needle beards (as at 3). + 4, The beards pressed or closed to allow the old loops to be passed + on to the top. + 5, The old loops knocked off the needles and left hanging round the + newly formed loops.] + + [Illustration: FIG. 6.--A 1/1 Rib Stitch.] + + [Illustration: FIG. 7.--Eight at once, 130 gauge, full-fashioned, + seamless bosom, sloped shoulder underwear frame, Cotton's patents. + (William Cotton, Ltd., Loughborough.)] + + A number of improvements had been made on Lee's frame during the 18th + century. The one of greatest importance was the rib machine invented + by Jedediah Strutt of Belper in 1758. It was not what could be + actually termed an improvement on Lee's frame, but an addition to it. + Lee's frame was not altered in any way, Strutt's machine being added + to it, and the two being worked in conjunction produced a fabric of a + more elastic nature and alike on both sides (fig. 6). Strutt's machine + consisted of a set of needles placed at right angles to and between + Lee's plain needles, with the result that, when knitting, the frame + needles drew their loops to one side and the machine needles their + loops to the opposite side of the fabric. The first offshoot from + frame-work knitting was the invention of the hand warp loom in 1775. + It was improved by the addition of the Dawson wheel by William Dawson + in 1791. This machine is the origin of the various complex machines + now working on this principle. Some of these have Jacquard mechanism + attached, and nearly all of them are driven by motive power. About the + middle of the 19th century close on 50,000 of Lee's hand frames were + in use, finding employment for nearly 100,000 persons. Many attempts + had been made previously to transform Lee's frame into a power or + rotary frame. One of the first and most successful was that invented + by Luke Barton in 1857. This frame was fitted with self-acting + mechanism for fashioning, and was practically Lee's frame having + rotary shafts with cams added to give the various movements, this type + of frame being known as straight bar rotary frames. In 1864 William + Cotton of Loughborough altered this frame by reversing the positions + of the needles and sinkers. Although made by various builders it is + still known as the "Cotton Patent Rotary Frame" (fig. 7). Since 1864 a + great number of important improvements and additions have been made to + this frame. Single frames are built which will turn off one dozen + pairs of hose at once, with the attention of one person. One of the + most important inventions in connexion with the hosiery trade was the + latch, tumbler, or self-acting needle invented by Matthew Townsend and + David Moulding of Leicester in 1858. Previous to this Lee's type of + needle was the only one in use. This latch-needle (fig. 8) consists of + a stem having a butt at lower end by which it receives its knitting + action from cams, the upper end being turned into a hook. Near the + hook end and attached to the stem by a pin is the spoon-shaped latch, + which closes over the hook as required. Machines fitted with + latch-needles have grooves in which the stem of the needle works. + Cams, which act on the needle butts, give the needles their individual + knitting action in rotation. This needle is self-acting, in that it is + made to draw its own loop, sinkers being dispensed with. + + [Illustration: FIG. 8.--Various Shapes of the Latch Needle.] + + Fig. 9 shows the looping action of this needle. The needles when not + knitting have a loop round their shank, thus holding the latch open. + When about to knit, they are raised individually and in rotation (by + the cams acting on the needle butts) to receive the new loop of yarn. + + [Illustration: FIG. 9.--Individual Action of the Latch Needle.] + + Down till almost the middle of the 19th century only a flat web could + be knitted in the machines in use, and for the finishing of stockings, + &c., it was necessary to seam up the selvedges of web shaped on the + frame (fashioned work), or to cut and seam them from even web (cut + work). The introduction of any device by which seamless garments could + be fabricated was obviously a great desideratum, and it is a singular + fact that a machine capable of doing this was patented in 1816 by Sir + Marc I. Brunel. This frame was the origin of the French-German + loop-wheel circular frame of the present day. Brunel's frame was + greatly improved by Peter Claussen of Brussels and was shown at an + exhibition in Nottingham in 1845. This frame had horizontal placed + needles fixed on a rotating rim. A few years later Moses Mellor of + Nottingham transformed this type of frame by altering the position of + the needles to perpendicular. This is now known as the English + loop-wheel circular frame. After the invention of the latch-needle + there was a revolution in the hosiery machine-building industry, new + types of machines being invented, fitted to work with latch-needles. + Among others there was the latch-needle circular frame, invented by + Thomas Thompson, which was the origin of the English latch-needle + circular frame, a frame largely used for the production of wide + circular fabric. + + A circular knitting machine of American origin is the type of machine + on which is produced the seamless hosiery of to-day. Like the sewing + machine it is largely used in the home as well as in the factory. From + this machine all the circular automatic power machines for making + plain and rib seamless hose and half hose have been developed. The + "flat" or "lamb" type of machine, an American invention, was + introduced by J. W. Lamb in 1863. This machine has two needle beds or + rows of needles sloping at an angle of nearly 90°. + + A great many varieties of this type of machine have been invented for + the production of all kinds of plain and fancy hosiery. It is built in + small sizes to be wrought by hand or in large power machines. A large + variety of sewing, seaming and linking machines are employed in the + hosiery industry for the purpose of putting together or joining all + kinds of hosiery and knitted goods. These machines have almost + entirely superseded the sewing or joining of the garments by hand. + + The principle centres in Great Britain of the hosiery industry are + Leicester and Nottingham and the surrounding districts. It is also an + industry of some extent in the south of Scotland. (T. B.*) + + + + +HOSIUS, or OSIUS (c. 257-359), bishop of Cordova, was born about A.D. +257, probably at Cordova, although from a passage in Zosimus it has +sometimes been conjectured that he was believed by that writer to be a +native of Egypt. Elected to the see of Cordova before the end of the 3rd +century, he narrowly escaped martyrdom in the persecution of Maximian +(303-305). In 305 or 306 he attended the council of Illiberis or Elvira +(his name appearing second in the list of those present), and upheld +its severe canons concerning such points of discipline as the treatment +of the lapsed and clerical marriages. In 313 he appears at the court of +Constantine, being expressly mentioned by name in a constitution +directed by the emperor to Caecilianus of Carthage in that year. In 323 +he was the bearer and possibly the writer of Constantine's letter to +Bishop Alexander of Alexandria and Arius his deacon, bidding them cease +disturbing the peace of the church; and, on the failure of the +negotiations in Egypt, it was doubtless with the active concurrence of +Hosius that the council of Nicaea was convened in 325. He certainly took +part in its proceedings, and was one of the large number of "confessors" +present; that he presided is a very doubtful assertion, as also that he +was the principal author of the Nicene Creed. Still he powerfully +influenced the judgment of the emperor in favour of the orthodox party. +After a period of quiet life in his own diocese, Hosius presided in 343 +at the fruitless synod of Sardica, which showed itself so hostile to +Arianism; and afterwards he spoke and wrote in favour of Athanasius in +such a way as to bring upon himself a sentence of banishment to Sirmium +(355). From his exile he wrote to Constantius II. his only extant +composition, a letter not unjustly characterized by the great French +historian Sebastian Tillemont as displaying gravity, dignity, +gentleness, wisdom, generosity and in fact all the qualities of a great +soul and a great bishop. Subjected to continual pressure the old man, +who was near his hundredth year, was weak enough to sign the formula +adopted by the second synod of Sirmium in 357, which involved communion +with the Arians but not the condemnation of Athanasius. He was then +permitted to return to his diocese, where he died in 359. + + See S. Tillemont, _Mémoires_, vii. 300-321 (1700); Hefele, + _Conciliengeschichte_, vol. i.; H. M. Gwatkin, _Studies of Arianism_ + (Cambridge, 1882, 2nd ed., 1900); A. W. W. Dale, _The Synod of Elvira_ + (London, 1882); and article _s.v._ in Herzog-Hauck, _Realencyklopädie_ + (3rd ed., 1900), with bibliography. + + + + +HOSIUS, STANISLAUS (1504-1579), Polish cardinal, was born in Cracow on +the 5th of May 1504. He studied law at Padua and Bologna, and entering +the church became in 1549 bishop of Kulm, in 1551 bishop of Ermland, and +in 1561 cardinal. Hosius had Jesuit sympathies and actively opposed the +Protestant reformation, going so far as to desire a repetition of the St +Bartholomew massacre in Poland. Apart from its being "the property of +the Roman Church," he regarded the Bible as having no more worth than +the fables of Aesop. Hosius was not distinguished as a theologian, +though he drew up the _Confessio fidei christiana catholica_ adopted by +the synod of Piotrkow in 1557. He was, however, supreme as a diplomatist +and administrator. Besides carrying through many difficult negotiations, +he founded the lyceum of Braunsberg, which became the centre of the +Roman Catholic mission among Protestants. He died at Capranica near Rome +on the 5th of August 1579. + + A collected edition of his works was published at Cologne in 1584. + Life by A. Eichhorn (Mainz, 1854), 2 vols. + + + + +HOSKINS, JOHN (d. 1664), English miniature painter, the uncle of Samuel +Cooper, who received his artistic education in Hoskins's house. His +finest miniatures are at Ham House, Montagu House, Windsor Castle, +Amsterdam and in the Pierpont Morgan collection. Vertue stated that +Hoskins had a son, and Redgrave added that the son painted a portrait of +James II. in 1686 and was paid £10, 5s, although it is not supported by +any reference in the State Papers. Some contemporary inscriptions on the +miniatures at Ham House record them as the work of "Old Hoskins," but +the fact of the existence of a younger artist of the same name is +settled by a miniature in the Pierpont Morgan collection, signed by +Hoskins, and bearing an authentic engraved inscription on its +contemporary frame to the effect that it represents the duke of Berwick +at the age of twenty-nine in 1700. The elder Hoskins was buried on the +22nd of February 1664, in St Paul's, Covent Garden, and as there is no +doubt of the authenticity of this miniature or of the signature upon +it, it is evident that he had a son who survived him thirty-six years +and whose monogram we find upon this portrait. The frame of it has also +the royal coat of arms debruised, the batons of a marshal of France, the +collar of the Golden Fleece and the ducal coronet. (G. C. W.) + + + + +HOSMER, HARRIET GOODHUE (1830-1908), American sculptor, was born at +Watertown, Massachussetts, on the 9th of October 1830. She early showed +marked aptitude for modelling, and studied anatomy with her father, a +physician, and afterwards at the St Louis Medical College. She then +studied in Boston until 1852, when, with her friend Charlotte Cushman, +she went to Rome, where from 1853 to 1860 she was the pupil of the +English sculptor John Gibson. She lived in Rome until a few years before +her death. There she was associated with Nathaniel Hawthorne, +Thorwaldsen, Flaxman, Thackeray, George Eliot and George Sand; and she +was frequently the guest of the Brownings at Casa Guidi, in Florence. +Among her works are "Daphne" and "Medusa," ideal heads (1853); "Puck" +(1855), a spirited and graceful conception which she copied for the +prince of Wales, the duke of Hamilton and others; "Oenone" (1855), her +first life-sized figure, now in the St Louis Museum of Fine Arts; +"Beatrice Cenci" (1857), for the Mercantile Library of St Louis; +"Zenobia, Queen of Palmyra, in Chains" (1859), now in the Metropolitan +Museum of Art, New York City; "A Sleeping Faun" (1867); "A Waking Faun"; +a bronze statue of Thomas H. Benton (1868) for Lafayette Park, St Louis; +bronze gates for the earl of Brownlow's art gallery at Ashridge Hall; a +Siren fountain for Lady Marian Alford; a fountain for Central Park, New +York City; a monument to Abraham Lincoln; and, for the Columbian +Exposition, Chicago, 1893, statues of the queen of Naples as the +"heroine of Gaëta," and of Queen Isabella of Spain. Miss Hosmer died at +Watertown, Mass., on the 21st of February 1908. + + + + +HOSPICE (Lat. _hospitium_, entertainment, hospitality, inn, _hospes_, +host), the name usually given to the homes of rest and refuge kept by +religious houses for pilgrims and guests. The most famous hospices are +those of the Great and Little St Bernard Passes in the Alps. + + + + +HOSPITAL (Lat. _hospitalis_, the adjective of _hospes_, host or guest), +a term now in general use for institutions in which medical treatment is +given to the sick or injured. The place where a guest was received, was +in Lat. _hospitium_ (Fr. _hospice_), but the terms _hospitalis_ (sc. +_domus_), _hospitale_ (sc. _cubiculum_) and _hospitalia_ (sc. +_cubicula_) came into use in the same sense. Hence were derived on the +one hand the Fr. _hospital_, _hôpital_, applied to establishments for +temporary occupation by the sick for the purpose of medical treatment, +and _hospice_ to places for permanent occupation by the poor, infirm, +incurable or insane; on the other, the form _hôtel_, which became +restricted (except in the ease of _hôtel-Dieu_) to private or public +dwelling-houses for ordinary occupation. In English, while "hostel" +retained the earlier sense and "hotel" has become confined to that of a +superior inn (q.v.), "hospital" was used both in the sense of a +permanent retreat for the poor infirm or for the insane, and also for a +regular institution for the temporary reception of sick cases; but +modern usage has gradually restricted it mainly to the latter, other +words, such as almshouse and asylum, being preferred in the former +cases. + +_The Origin of Hospitals._--In spite of contrary opinions the germ of +the hospital system may be seen in pre-Christian times (see CHARITY AND +CHARITIES). Pinel goes so far as to declare that there were asylums +distinctly set apart for the insane in the temples of Saturn in ancient +Egypt. But this is probably an exaggeration, the real historical facts +pointing to the existence of medical schools in connexion with the +temples generally, to the knowledge that the priests possessed what +medical science existed, and finally to the rite of "Incubation," which +involved the visit of sick persons to the temple, in the shade of which +they slept, that the god might inform them by dreams of the treatment +they ought to follow. The temples of Saturn are known to have existed +some 4000 years before Christ; and that those temples were medical +schools in their earliest form is beyond question. The reason why no +records of these temples have survived is due to the fact that they were +destroyed in a religious revolution which swept away the very name of +Saturn from the monuments in the country. Professor Georg Ebers of +Leipzig, whose possession of that important handbook of Egyptian +medicine called the _Papyrus Ebers_ constitutes him an authority, says +the Heliopolis certainly had a clinic united to the temple. The temples +of Dendera, Thebes and Memphis, are other examples. Those early medical +works, the Books of Hermes, were preserved in the shrines. Patients +coming to them paid contributions to the priests. The most famous +temples in Greece for the cure of disease were those of Aesculapius at +Cos and Trikka, while others at Rhodes, Cnidus, Pergamum and Epidaurus +were less known but frequented. Thus it is clear that both in Egypt and +in Greece the custom of laying the sick in the precincts of the temples +was a national practice. + +Alexandria again was a famous medical centre. Before describing the +European growth of the hospital system in modern times, to which its +development in the Roman Empire is the natural introduction, it will be +well to dispose very briefly of the facts relating to the hospital +system in the East. Harun al-Rashid (A.D. 763-809) attached a college to +every mosque, and to that again a hospital. He placed at Bagdad an +asylum for the insane open to all believers; and there was a large +number of public infirmaries for the sick without payment in that city. +Benjamin, the Jewish traveller, notes an efficient scheme for the +reception of the sick in A.D. 1173, which had long been in existence. +The Buddhists no less than the Mahommedans had their hospitals, and as +early as 260 B.C. the emperor Asoka founded the many hospitals of which +Hindustan could then boast. The one at Surat, made famous by travellers, +and considered to have been built under the emperor's second edict, is +still in existence. These hospitals contained provision so extensive as +to be quite comparable to modern institutions. In China the only records +that remain are those of books of very early date dealing with the +theory of medicine. To return to India, the hospitals of Asoka were +swept away by a revival of Brahmanism, and a practical hiatus exists +between the hospitals he introduced and those that were refounded by the +British ascendancy. Hadrian's reign contains the first notice of a +military hospital in Rome. At the beginning of the Christian era we hear +of the existence of open surgeries (of various price and reputation), +the specialization of the medical profession, and the presence of women +practitioners, often as obstetricians. Iatria, or _tabernae-medicae_, +are described by Galen and Placetus: many towns built them at their own +cost. These iatria attended almost entirely to out-patients, and the +system of medicine fostered by them continued without much development +down to the middle of the 18th century. It is to be noted that these +out-patients paid reasonable fees. In Christian days no establishments +were founded for the relief of the sick till the time of Constantine. A +law of Justinian referring to various institutions connected with the +church mentions among them the Nosocomia, which correspond to our idea +of hospitals. In A.D. 370 Basil had one built for lepers at Caesarea. St +Chrysostom founded a hospital at Constantinople. At Alexandria an order +of 600 Parabolani attended to the sick, being chosen for the purpose for +their experience by the prelate of the city (A.D. 416). Fabiola, a rich +Roman lady, founded the first hospital at Rome possessed of a +convalescent home in the country. She even became a nurse herself. St +Augustine founded one at his see of Hippo. These Nosocomia fell indeed +almost entirely into the hands of the church, which supported them by +its revenues when necessary and controlled their administration. Salerno +became famous as a school of medicine; its rosiest days were between +A.D. 1000 and 1050. Frederick II. prescribed the course for students +there, and founded a rival school at Naples. At this period the +connexion between monasteries and hospitals becomes a marked one. The +crusaders also created another bond between the church and hospital +development, as the route they traversed was marked by such foundations. +Lepers were some of the earliest patients for whom a specialized +treatment was recognized, and in 1118 a leprosarium was built in London +for isolation purposes. Russia seems the one country where the +interconnexion of hospital and monastery was not to be observed. After +the period already reached, the 13th century, hospitals became common +enough to demand individual or at any rate national treatment. + +_History of the Hospital Movement._--We have now to consider the +principles upon which the provision of the best form of medical care in +hospitals can be secured for all classes of people. Though hospitals +cannot be claimed as a direct result of Christianity, no doubt it +softened the relations between men, and gradually tended to instil +humanitarian views and to make them popular with the civilized peoples +of the world. These principles, as civilization grew, education +improved, and the tastes and requirements of the common people were +developed, made men and women of many races realize that the treatment +of disease in buildings set apart exclusively for the care of the sick +was, in fact, a necessity in urban districts. The establishment of a +hospital freed the streets of the abuses attendant upon beggars and +other poor creatures, who made their ailments the chief ground of appeal +for alms. As the knowledge of hygiene and of the doctrine of cleanliness +and purity in regard not only to dwellings and towns, but also in +relation to food of all descriptions, including water, became known and +appreciated, hospitals were found to be of even greater importance, if +that is possible, to the healthy in crowded communities, than to the +sick. It took many centuries before sound hygiene really began to occupy +the position of importance which it is now known to possess, not only in +regard to the treatment and cure of disease, but to its prevention and +eradication. So the history of the world shows, that, whereas a few of +the larger towns in most countries contained hospitals of sorts, up to +and including the middle ages, it was not until the commencement of the +18th century that inhabitants of important but relatively small towns of +from 50,000 to 100,000 inhabitants began to provide themselves with a +hospital for the care of the sick. Thus, twenty-three of the principal +English counties appear to have had no general hospital prior to 1710, +while London itself at that date, so far as the relief of the sick was +concerned, was mainly, if not entirely, dependent upon St Bartholomew's +and St Thomas's Hospitals. These facts are interesting to note, because +we are enabled from them to deduce from recent events that hospital +buildings in the past, though the planning of most of them was faulty to +begin with and became more and more faulty as extensions were added to +the original buildings, did in fact suffice to satisfy the requirements +of the medical profession for nearly two centuries. In other words, +under the old condition of affairs the life of a building devoted to the +care of the sick might be considered as at least 150 years. To-day, +under the conditions which modern science impose upon the management, +probably few hospital buildings are likely to be regarded as efficient +for the purpose of treating the sick for more than from 30 to 50 years. + +The foregoing statement is based upon the history of British hospitals +of importance throughout the country, but the same remark will apply in +practice to hospital buildings almost everywhere throughout the world. +In truth, hospitals have been more developed and improved in Great +Britain than in other countries, though, since the last quarter of the +19th century, German scientists especially have added much to the +efficiency of the accommodation for the sick, not only at hospitals but +in private clinics, and many German ideas have been accepted and copied +by other countries. In Great Britain hospitals for the treatment of +general and special diseases are mainly maintained upon what is known as +the voluntary system. On the European continent, hospitals as a rule are +maintained by the state or municipalities, and this system is so fully +developed in Sweden and elsewhere that a sound economical principle has +been embroidered upon the hospital system, to the great physical and +moral advantage of all classes of the community. The system referred to +confers great benefits upon inhabitants in large towns by bringing the +poor-law and voluntary institutions into more intimate association, +although they may be managed by separate governing bodies. The plan +pursued is to demand payment from all patients who are admitted to the +hospital under a scale of charges divided into three or four grades. The +first grade pays a substantial sum and obtains anything or everything +the patient may care to have or to pay for, subject to the control of +the medical attendant. The second pays much less, but a remunerative +rate, for all they receive at the hospital; and the third and fourth +classes are very poor people or paupers, who are paid for on a graduated +scale by the poor-law authorities, or the communal government, or the +municipality. Under this system well-to-do thrifty artisans and +improvident paupers are all treated by one staff, controlled by one +administration, and are located in immediate proximity to each other +though in separate pavilions. We have no doubt, as the result of many +years' investigation and an accurate knowledge of the working of the +system, that this is the true principle to enforce in providing adequate +medical relief for large urban populations everywhere throughout the +world. It should be accompanied by a system of government insurance, +whereby all classes who desire to be thrifty may pay a small annual +premium in the days of health, and secure adequate hospital treatment +and care when ill. Provided that pay wings were added to the existing +voluntary and municipal hospitals, it should be found that the +relatively small annual premium of £3 per annum should enable the +policyholders to defray the cost of medical treatment in a pay ward or +at a consultation department of a great hospital as a matter of +business. In the United States of America most large towns have great +hospitals, usually known as city hospitals, administered and mainly +supported by the municipality. Many such institutions have pay wards, +but nowhere, so far as we have been able to discover, has the system of +medical relief in its entirety been organized as yet upon the business +system we have just referred to. + +As to the relative merits and demerits of the systems of government of +municipal hospitals and voluntary hospitals a few words may be useful. +There can be no doubt that the voluntary hospital in Great Britain has +had a remarkable effect for good upon all classes in the making of +modern England. The management of these institutions is frequently +representative of all classes of the people, while the voluntary system, +as the Hospital Sunday collections all over the country, and all over +the English-speaking world, prove, has united all creeds in the good +work of caring and providing for the sick and injured members of each +community. Again the voluntary system makes for efficiency in the +administration of all hospitals. Each voluntary hospital is dependent +upon its popularity and efficiency, in large measure, for the financial +support it receives. In this way an ill-managed voluntary hospital, or +one which has ceased to fulfil any useful public purpose, is sure to +disappear in due course under the voluntary system. Voluntary hospitals +are always open to, as well as supported by, the public, and, owing +largely to the example so prominently set by King Edward VII. and +members of the royal family, more people every year devote some time in +some way to the cause of the hospitals. Attached to the voluntary +hospitals are the principal medical and nursing schools upon which the +public depend for the supply of doctors and nurses. The education of +students and nurses in a clinical hospital makes that hospital the most +desirable place for everybody when they are really ill. In such a +hospital no patient can be overlooked, no wrong or imperfect diagnosis +can long remain undiscovered and unrectified, and nowhere else have the +patients so continuous a guarantee that the treatment they receive will +be of the best, while the provision made for their comfort and welfare, +owing to the unceasing and ever varying quality of the criticism to +which the work of everybody, from the senior physician to the humblest +official, is subjected in a clinical hospital, is unequalled anywhere +else. At a great voluntary hospital, not only do hundreds of medical +students and nurses work in the wards, but thousands of people, in the +persons of the patients' friends, and those members of the public who +take an interest in hospitals, pass through the wards in the course of +every year. Again, each voluntary hospital has to live by competition, a +fact which guarantees that everything in the way of new treatment and +scientific development shall in due course find its proper place within +the walls of such an establishment. Open as they are to the full +inspection of everybody whose knowledge and presence can promote +efficiency, the voluntary hospitals have shown, especially since the +last quarter of the 19th century, a continuous development and +improvement. Here the patients are treated with invariable kindness and +consideration, as human beings rather than cases, to the great benefit +of the whole human family as represented by the officials, the patients +and the students, with their relations and friends, the honorary medical +officers, hundreds of medical practitioners and nurses, who receive +their medical training in the hospitals, and the ever-increasing number +of governors and supporters by whose contributions voluntary hospitals +live. The great missionary and social value of the voluntary hospitals +to the whole community cannot be questioned, and they have been of +inestimable value to the churches by inculcating the higher principles +of humanity, while removing the many acerbities which might otherwise +prevail between rich and poor in large cities. + +The voluntary hospitals are attended, however, by certain disadvantages +which do not attach to municipal institutions. A municipality which +undertakes the provision of hospitals for the entire community is +largely able to plan out the urban area, and to provide that each +hospital site selected shall not only be suitable for the purpose, but +that it shall be so chosen as to contribute to make the whole system of +hospital provision easily accessible to all classes who may require its +aid. The voluntary hospitals, on the contrary, have grown up without any +comprehensive plan of the districts or any real regard to the +convenience or necessities of their poorer inhabitants. Voluntary +hospital sites were almost invariably selected to suit the convenience +of the honorary medical staff and the general convenience of the +hospital economy rather than to save the patients and their friends long +journeys in search of medical aid. The best of the municipal systems too +enables economy to be enforced in the administration by a plan which +provides a central office in every town where the number of vacant beds +in each hospital is known, so that the average of occupied beds in all +the hospitals can be well maintained from an economical point of view. +This speedy and ready inter-communication between all hospitals in a +great city, which might perfectly well be secured under the voluntary +system if the managers could only be brought into active co-operation, +prevents delay in the admission of urgent cases, promotes the absence of +waste by keeping the average of beds occupied in each establishment high +and uniform, and has often proved a real gain to the poor by the +diminution in cost to the patients and their friends, who under the best +municipal systems can find a hospital within reasonable distance of +their home in a large city wherever it may be placed. Another advantage +of the municipal system should be that central control makes for +economical administration. Unfortunately a close study of this question +tends to prove that municipal hospitals for the most part have resulted +in a dead monotony of relative inefficiency, often entailing great +extravagance in buildings, and accompanied by much waste in many +directions. Existing municipal hospital systems are attended by several +grave disadvantages. The administration shows a tendency to lag and grow +sleepy and inert. The absence of competition, and the freedom from +continuous publicity and criticism such as the voluntary hospitals +enjoy, make for inefficiency and indifferent work. Rate-supported +hospitals, as a rule, are administered by permanent officials who reside +in houses usually situated on the hospital sites, and who are paid +salaries which attract the younger men, who, once appointed, tend to +continue in office for a long period of years. This fixture of tenure is +apt to cause a decline in the general interest in the work of the +municipal hospital, due mainly to the absence of a continuous criticism +from outside, and so the average of efficiency, both in regard to +treatment and other important matters, may become lower and lower. +Those who have habitually inspected great rate-supported hospitals must +have met instances over and over again where a gentleman who has held +office for twenty or thirty years has frankly stated that his income is +fixed, that his habits have become crystallized, that he finds the work +terribly monotonous, and yet, as he hopes ultimately to retire upon a +pension, he has felt there was no course open to him but to continue in +office, even though he may feel conscientiously that a change would be +good for the patients, for the hospital and for himself. Under the +voluntary system evils of this kind are seldom or never met with, nor +have these latter establishments, within living memory, ever been so +conducted as to exhibit the grave scandals which have marred the +administration of rate-supported hospitals not only in Great Britain but +in other parts of the world. We believe that the more thoroughly the +advantages and disadvantages of rate-supported and voluntary hospitals +for the care of the sick are weighed and considered, and the more +accurate and full the knowledge which is added to the judgment upon +which a decision can be based, the more certain will it be that every +capable administrator will come to the conclusion that on the whole it +is good for the sick and for the whole community that these +establishments should, at any rate in Great Britain, be maintained upon +the voluntary system. Of course it is essential to have rate-supported +hospitals where cases of infectious disease and the poorest of the +people who are dependent largely upon the poor-law for their maintenance +can be cared for. It is satisfactory to be able to state that of late +years the administration of both these types of rate-supported hospitals +has greatly improved. The added importance now given all over the +country to medical officers of health, and the disposition exhibited, +both by parliament and government departments, to make the position of +these officers more important and valuable than ever before, have tended +largely to improve the administrative efficiency of hospitals for +infectious diseases. No doubt the whole community would benefit if +residents in every part of the country could be moved to take a personal +interest in the infectious hospital in their immediate neighbourhood. +Amongst the smaller of these establishments there has been so marked an +inefficiency at times as to cause much avoidable suffering. The +existence of such inefficiency casts a grave reflection upon the local +authorities and others who are responsible for the evils which +undoubtedly exist in various places at the present time. Unfortunately +knowledge has not yet sufficiently spread to enable the public to +overcome its fear and dread of infectious maladies. It is therefore very +difficult to induce people to take an active interest in one of these +hospitals, but we look forward to the time when, owing to the activity +of the medical officers of health who have immediate charge of buildings +of this kind, this difficulty may be overcome, when the avoidable +dangers and risks and the appalling discomfort which a poor sufferer +from a severe infectious disease in a rural district may suddenly have +to encounter under existing circumstances, would be rendered impossible. + +The poor-law infirmary in large cities, so far as the buildings and +equipment are concerned, very often leaves little to desire. Poor-law +infirmaries lack, however, the stimulus and the checks and advantages +which impartial criticism continuously applied brings to a great +voluntary hospital. Such disadvantages might be entirely removed if +parliament would decide to throw open every poor-law infirmary for +clinical purposes, and to have connected with each such establishment a +responsible visiting medical staff, consisting of the best qualified men +to be found in the community which each hospital serves. The old +prejudice against hospital treatment has disappeared, for the least +intelligent members of the population now understand that, when a +citizen is sick, there is no place so good as the wards of a +well-administered hospital. Looking at the question of hospital +provision in Great Britain, and indeed in all countries at the present +time, it may be said, that there is everywhere evidence of improvement +and development upon the right lines, so that never before in the +history of the world has the lot of the sick man or woman been so +relatively fortunate and safe as it is in the present day. Probably it +is not too much to say that to-day hospitals occupy the most important +position in the social economy of nations. + +_Classification of Hospitals._--Having dealt with hospitals as a whole +it may be well very briefly to classify them in groups, and explain as +tersely as possible what they represent and how far it may be desirable +to eliminate by consolidation or to increase by disintegration the +number of special hospitals. + +_General Hospitals._--These establishments consist of two kinds, (a) +clinical and (b) non-clinical, each of which, under the modern system, +should include every department of medicine and surgery, and every +appliance and means for the alleviation of suffering, the healing of +wounds, the reduction of fractures, the removal of mal-formations and +foreign growths, the surgical restoration of damaged and diseased organs +and bones, and everything of every kind which experience and knowledge +prove to be necessary to the rapid cure of disease. The clinical +hospital means an institution to which a medical school is attached, +where technical instruction is given by able and qualified teachers to +medical students and others. A non-clinical hospital is one which is not +attached to a medical school, and where no medical instruction is +organized. + +_Special Hospitals._--Up to about 1840 the general hospital was, +speaking generally, the only hospital in existence. Twenty years later, +as the population increased and medical science became more and more +active, some of the more ardent members of the medical profession, +especially amongst the younger men, pressed continuously for +opportunities to develop the methods of treatment in regard to special +diseases for which neither accommodation nor appliances were at that +time forthcoming in general hospitals. In a few cases, where the +managers of the great general hospitals were men of action and +initiative special departments were introduced, and an attempt was made +to make them efficient. The conservative spirit which, on the whole, +represents the British character for the most part, resulted, however, +in a steady resistance being offered by the older members of the medical +staffs and existing committees to the advocates of special departments. +In the result, especially as such special departments as there were in +connexion with general hospitals were too often starved for want of +means and men for their development and improvement, the younger spirits +called their friends together and began to start special hospitals. +To-day every really efficient clinical general hospital has within its +walls special departments of almost every description, which have been +made as efficient and up-to-date as money and knowledge can make them. +Unfortunately the causes already referred to led to the establishment of +hundreds of the smaller special hospitals, many of which were started in +unsuitable buildings, and some of which have ever since maintained a +struggling existence. Others, on the contrary, through the energy of +their original promoters and the excellence of the work they have done, +have obtained a position of authority and reputation which has had a +very important bearing for good upon the development of medical science +in the treatment of disease. If the world had to-day to organize the +very best system of hospital accommodation which could be evolved, there +is no doubt that few or none of the special hospitals would find any +place in that system. As matters stand, however, the special hospital +has had to be accepted, and nothing which King Edward's Hospital Fund +has done in London has met with greater popularity and professional +approval than the labours which its council have undertaken in promoting +the amalgamation of the smaller special hospitals of certain kinds, so +as to secure the provision of one really efficient special hospital for +each speciality. No doubt this policy of amalgamation will be steadily +pursued, and in the course of years every great city will gradually +reorganize its hospital methods so as to secure that, whether the +patients are treated in a general hospital or in a special hospital, the +average efficiency in every institution shall be as high and as good as +possible. + + We will take now the special hospitals in detail. + + _Cancer Hospitals._--The justification for efficient cancer hospitals + must be found in the circumstance that most scientific men of + experience believe that, if adequate resources were placed at the + disposal of the medical profession, the origin of cancer might be + discovered, and so the human race would be freed from one of the most + awful diseases which affect humanity. Pending such a discovery the + experience of the cancer department connected with the Middlesex + Hospital in London proves to demonstration that the provision of + adequate and special accommodation for the exclusive treatment of + cases of cancer is not only desirable but necessary on humanitarian + grounds alone. + + _Hospitals for Consumption._--For many years it was held that this + group of hospitals was not a necessity, and the patients were treated + in the ordinary medical wards of the general hospitals. Since the + contagious character of tuberculosis became known, and improved + methods of treatment have been developed, every one agrees that this + type of special hospital is desirable, though it is believed by the + more advanced school of scientists that before long it may be happily + rendered obsolete owing to the discovery of methods of treatment which + will stay the disease at its commencement and restore the patient to + health. + + _Children's Hospitals._--These hospitals were very much opposed at the + outset. There can be no doubt that the children's ward or wards in a + big voluntary hospital is a most valuable asset to the managers, so + long as the children are treated in separate wards. There is no reason + of course why a hospital should confine its work to the treatment of + children, exclusively. Still this special hospital is popular with the + public; it has led to many discoveries and developments in the + treatment of children's diseases; on the whole the administration of + these establishments has been good; and we believe they will continue + to flourish, however many children's wards may be provided in general + hospitals. Children's hospitals with country branches for the + treatment of chronic ailments, such as hip disease, are a valuable + addition to the relief of suffering in cities. + + _Cottage Hospitals._--These hospitals, established originally in 1859 + by Mr Albert Napper at Cranleigh, Surrey, have fulfilled a most useful + function. Many of them are very efficient both in regard to equipment + and treatment. They have become essential to the well-being and + adequate medical care of rural populations, as they attract to the + country some of the best members of the profession, who are able, with + the aid of the cottage hospital, to keep themselves efficient and + up-to-date, so that all classes of the community are benefited in this + way by this type of hospital. + + _Ear, Throat and Nose Hospitals._--The history of this type of + hospital bears out in every particular the reason we have given above + for the establishment of special hospitals in the first instance. + There can be no doubt that the best conducted throat hospitals have + been beneficial to the poorer inhabitants of great cities. + + _Fever Hospitals._--Incidentally we have dealt with these + institutions, which are usually supported out of the rates and + administered by the medical officers of health, who are paid by the + county or municipal authorities. + + _Maternity and Lying-in Hospitals._--This is one of the oldest types + of special hospitals, and has done a great deal of good in its time. + Owing to modern methods of treatment and hygienic developments the + maternity hospital never occupied a stronger position than it does + to-day. + + _Mental Hospitals._--In Great Britain the insane are provided for in + asylums (see INSANITY, ad fin.), though such establishments, if + properly conducted, are essentially hospitals. Scientific and public + opinion tend towards the establishment of mental hospitals to which + all acute cases of mental disease should be first relegated for + treatment and diagnosis before they are consigned to a permanent + lunatic hospital. Too little attention on an organized plan has been + given to the continuous study of mental disease in its clinical and + pathological aspects. It is probable, therefore, that the advent of + the mental hospital may lead to important developments in treatment in + many ways. + + _Ophthalmic Hospitals._--Of all special hospitals this is one which + would probably be the least necessary, providing general hospitals + everywhere were properly equipped and organized. No special hospital + has probably been so abused in the material sense by the free relief + of patients who could well afford to pay for their treatment at the + ophthalmic hospital. Several of the existing ophthalmic hospitals have + entailed an enormous expenditure, and their modern equipment is + wonderfully efficient. + + _Orthopaedic Hospitals._--It is very doubtful whether this type o£ + hospital is really desirable or necessary. Its necessity may be + advocated on the ground that orthopaedic cases may require prolonged + treatment, and that the pressure upon the beds of general hospitals by + acute cases is nowadays so great as to render the orthopaedic hospital + more necessary than ever before. + + _Paralysis and Epileptic Hospitals._--Seeing that the percentage of + those who are at present attacked by paralysis and nervous disease + shows a continued tendency to increase under modern conditions of life + in large cities, hospitals of this type are necessary, and London at + any rate, like most foreign towns of importance, possesses, at + present, far too little accommodation for this class of case. + + _Skin and Photo-Therapy._--Up to the end of the 19th century hospitals + for diseases of the skin were a constant cause of scandal and + criticism. The introduction of modern methods of treatment by light + and electricity, including photo-therapy, has given an importance to + this department and treatment which it did not previously possess. We + are of opinion that, on the whole, it is better and more economical to + treat these cases in properly equipped departments of general + hospitals than in separate institutions. + + _Women's Hospitals._--These hospitals are not absolutely necessary, + but considering their popularity with the women themselves, and that + several of them have done excellent work, remembering too that women + constitute the majority of the population, there seems to be some + reason for their continuance. + +_The Evolution of the Modern Hospital._--The evolution of the modern +hospital affords one of the most marvellous evidences of the advance of +scientific and humanitarian principles which the world has ever seen. At +the outset hospitals were probably founded by the healthy more for their +own comfort than out of any regard for the sick. Nowadays the healthy, +whilst they realize that the more efficient they can make the hospital, +the more certain, in the human sense, is their own chance of prolonged +life and health, are, as the progress of the League of Mercy has shown +in recent years, genuinely anxious for the most part to do something as +individuals in the days of health in the cause of the sick. Formerly the +hospital was merely a building or buildings, very often unsuitable for +the purposes to which it was put, where sick and injured people were +retained and more frequently than not died. In other words the hygienic +condition, the methods of treatment and the hospital atmosphere were all +so relatively unsatisfactory as to yield a mortality in serious cases of +40%. Nowadays, despite, or possibly because of, the fact that operative +interference is the rule rather than the exception in the treatment of +hospital patients, and in consequence of the introduction of antiseptic +and aseptic methods, the mortality in hospitals is, in all the +circumstances, relatively less, and probably materially less, than it is +even amongst patients who are attended in their own homes. Originally +hospitals were unsystematic, crowded, ill-organized necessities which +wise people refused to enter, if they had any voice in the matter. At +the present time in all large cities, and in crowded communities in +civilized countries, great hospitals have been erected upon extensive +sites which are so planned as to constitute in fact a village with many +hundreds of inhabitants. This type of modern hospital has common +characteristics. A multitude of separate buildings are dotted over the +site, which may cover 20 acres or upwards. In one such institution, +within an area of 20 acres, there are 6 m. of drains, 29 m. of water and +steam pipes, 3 m. of roof gutters, 42 m. of electric wires, and 42 +separate buildings, which to all intents and purposes constitute a +series of distinct, isolated hospitals, in no case containing more than +forty-six patients. On the continent of Europe buildings of this class +are usually of one storey; in the United States, owing to the difficulty +of obtaining suitable sites and for reasons of economy, some competent +authorities strenuously advocate high buildings with many storeys for +town hospitals. In England the majority have two to three storeys each, +the ward unit containing a ward for twenty beds and two isolation wards +for one and two beds respectively. The two storeys in modern fever +hospitals, however, are absolutely distinct--that is, there is no +internal staircase going from one ward to the others, for each is +entered separately from the outside. This system carries to its extreme +limits the principle of separating the patients as much as possible into +small groups; the acute cases are usually treated in the upper ward, and +as they become convalescent are removed downstairs. In this way the +necessity for an entirely separate convalescent block is done away with +and the patients are kept under the same charge nurse, an arrangement +which promotes necessary discipline. The unit of these hospitals is the +pavilion, not the ward, and consists of an acute ward, a convalescent +ward, separation wards, nurses' duty rooms, store-rooms for linen, an +open-air balcony upstairs into which beds can be wheeled in suitable +weather, and a large airing-ground for convalescent patients directly +accessible from the downstairs ward. Each of the pavilions is raised +above the ground level, so that air can circulate freely underneath. +The wall, floor and air spaces in the scarlet fever wards of one of +these hospitals are respectively 12 ft., 156 ft. and 2028 ft. per bed; +and in the enteric and diphtheria wards they have been increased to 15 +ft., 195 ft. and 2535 ft. respectively. The provision of so large a +floor and linear space, especially in the diphtheria wards, is an +experiment the effect of which will be watched with considerable +interest. A building of this type is a splendid example of the separate +pavilion hospital, and is doing great service in the treatment of fevers +wherever it has been introduced. Some idea of a hospital village, some +of the wards of which we have been describing, may be gathered from the +circumstances that it costs from £300,000 to £400,000, that it usually +contains from 500 to 700 beds, and that the staff numbers from 350 to +500 persons. The medical superintendent lives in a separate house of his +own. The nurses are provided with a home, consisting of several blocks +of buildings under the control of the matron; the charge nurses usually +occupy the main block; where the dining and general sitting-rooms are +placed; the day assistant-nurses another block; and lastly, by a most +excellent arrangement, the night nurses, 80 to 120 in number, have one +whole block entirely given up to their use. The female servants have a +second home under the control of the housekeeper, and the male servants +occupy a third home under the supervision of the steward. The two main +ideas aimed at are to disconnect the houses occupied by the staff from +the infected area, and to place the members of each division of the +staff together, but in separate buildings, under their respective heads. +These objects are highly to be commended, as they have important +bearings upon the well-being and discipline of the whole establishment +and constitute a lesson for all who have to do with buildings where a +great number of people are constantly employed. + +_The Hospital City._--We have shown that the modern hospital where an +adequate site is available under the most favourable conditions has +developed into a hospital village. No one who is familiar with the +existing disadvantages of many of the sites and their surroundings of +town hospitals in many a large city can have any doubt that, if the +well-being of the patients and the good of the whole community, combined +with economical and administrative reasons, together with the provision +of an adequate system for the instruction and training of medical +students and nurses, are to be the first considerations with those +responsible for the hospitals of the future, the time will come, and is +probably not far distant, when each great urban community will provide +for the whole of its sick by removing them to a hospital city, which +will be situated upon a specially selected and most salubrious site some +distance from the town itself. The atmosphere of a great city grows less +and less suitable to the rapid and complete recovery of patients who may +undergo the major operations or be suffering from the severe and acute +forms of disease. Asepsis, it is true, has reduced the average residence +in hospital from about 35 to less than 20 days. It has thereby added +quite one million working days each year to the earning power of the +artisan classes in London alone. Medical opinion is more and more +favouring the provision of convalescent and suburban hospitals, to which +patients suffering from open wounds may be removed from the city +hospitals. This course, which entails much additional expenditure, is +advocated to overcome the difficulty arising from the fact that, in +operation and other cases, the patients cease to continue to make rapid +progress towards recovery after the seventh or ninth day's residence in +a city hospital. A change of such cases to the country restores the +balance and completes the recovery with a rapidity often remarkable. + +Thinking out the problem here presented in all its bearings, realizing +the great and ever-increasing cost of sites for hospitals in great +cities, the heavy consequential taxes and charges which they have to +meet there, and all the attendant disadvantages and drawbacks, the +present writer has ventured upon an anticipation which he hopes may +prove intelligent and well-founded. Nearly every difficulty in regard to +the cost of hospitals and in respect to all the many problems presented +by securing the material required, under present systems, for the +efficient training of students and nurses, would be removed by the +erection of the Hospital City, which, he foresees, must ultimately be +recognized by intelligent communities throughout the civilized world. +Why should we not have, on a carefully selected site well away from the +contaminations of the town, and adequately provided with every requisite +demanded from the site of the most perfect modern hospital which the +mind of man can conceive, a "Hospital City"? Here would be concentrated +all the means for relieving and treating every form of disease to the +abiding comfort of all responsible for their adequacy and success. At +the present time all the traffic and all the citizens give way to fire +engines and the ambulance in the public streets. Necessarily the means +of transit to and from the "Hospital City," and its rapidity, would be +the most perfect in the world. So the members of the medical staff, the +friends of the patients, and all who had business in the "Hospital +City," would find it easier and less exacting in time and energy to be +attached to one of the hospitals located therein than to one situated in +the centre of a big population in a crowded town. To meet the urgent and +accident cases a few receiving houses, or outpost relief stations, with +a couple of wards, would be situated in various quarters of the working +city, where patients could be temporarily treated, and whence they could +be removed to the "Hospital City" by an efficient motor ambulance +service. The writer can see such a "Hospital City" established, can +realize the comfort it will prove in practice to the medical profession, +to the patients' friends, to those who have to manage the hospitals and +train the medical and nursing students, and indeed to all who may go +there as well as to the whole community. The initial cost of hospital +buildings should be reduced at once to a quarter or less of the present +outlay. They could then be built of the cheapest but most suitable +material, which would have many advantages, whilst the actual money +forthcoming from the realization and sale of the existing hospital sites +in many cities would, in all probability, produce a sum which in the +whole might prove adequate, or nearly adequate, or even in some cases +more than adequate, to defray the entire cost of building the "Hospital +City" and of equipping it too. The cost of administration and working +must be everywhere reduced to a minimum. The hygienic completeness of +the whole city, its buildings and appliances, must expedite recovery to +the maximum extent. In all probability the removal of the sick from +contact with the healthy would tend in practice so to increase the +healthiness of the town population, i.e. of the workers of the city +proper, as to free them from some of the most burdensome trials which +now cripple their resources and diminish materially the happiness of +their lives. Probably the United States (where a city has sometimes +sprung up in twelve months) may be the home where this idea may first +find its realization in accomplished fact. The writer may never live to +see such a city in actual working or in its entirety, but he makes bold +to believe its adoption will one day solve the more difficult of the +problems involved in providing adequately for the sick in crowded +communities. He has formulated the idea because it seems desirable to +encourage discussion as to the best method of checking the growing +tendency to make hospital buildings everywhere too costly. If the idea +of the "Hospital City" commends itself to the profession and the public, +the practice of treating all the hospital accommodation in each city as +a whole will gradually increase and spread, until most of the present +pressing difficulties may disappear altogether. That is a consummation +devoutly to be wished. + +_The Problem of Hospital Administration._--A study of the hospital +problem in various countries, and especially in different portions of +the English-speaking world, convinces the writer that, apart from local +differences, the features presented are everywhere practically +identical. A number of hospitals under independent administration, +dependent in whole or in part on voluntary contributions, administered +under different regulations originally representing the idiosyncracies +of individual managers for the time being, without any standard of +efficiency or any system of co-operation, which would bring the whole +of the medical establishments of each or all of the great cities of the +world under one administration which the combined wisdom and experience +of hospital managers as a whole might agree to be the best, must mean in +practice a material gain in every way to each and all of the hospitals +and their supporters on economical, scientific and other grounds. Such +an absence of system throughout the world has everywhere led to +overlapping, to the perpetuation of many abuses, to the admission of an +increasing number of patients whose social position does not entitle +them to claim free medical relief at all, and, often too, to the +admission of patients belonging to a humbler grade of society who are +already provided for by the rates in institutions which they do not care +to enter and who find their way to the wards of hospitals which were +established to provide for patients of an entirely different social +grade. These evils have continued to grow and increase almost +everywhere, despite many and varied attempts to grapple with and remove +them. Amongst these attempts we may mention the assembling of hospital +conferences, the establishment of special funds and committees, and the +holding of inquiries of various kinds in London and other British cities +and also in the United States. The most remarkable proof of the +impossibility of inducing those responsible to act together and enforce +the necessary reforms is afforded by the historical fact that the famous +Commission on Hospital Abuse, known as Sir William Fergusson's +Commission, in 1871, after an exhaustive inquiry, made the following +recommendations: (1) to improve the administration of poor-law medical +relief; (2) to place all free dispensaries under the control of the +poor-law authorities; (3) to establish an adequate system of provident +dispensaries; (4) to curtail the unrestricted system of gratuitous +relief, partly by the selection of cases possessing special clinical +interest and partly by the exclusion of those who on social grounds are +not entitled to gratuitous medical advice; (5) the payment of the +medical staff engaged in both in- and out-patient work, and the payment +of fees by patients in the pay wards and in the consultation departments +of the voluntary hospitals. Other commissions have since been appointed, +have reported, and have disappeared, with the result that nothing +practical had been done up to 1910 in the way of reform. Yet it is an +undoubted fact that, if the foregoing recommendations of Sir William +Fergusson's Commission had been carried out in their entirety at the +time they were made, practically all the abuses from which British +hospitals afterwards suffered would have been removed, and the +charitable public might have been saved several millions of pounds +sterling. It may be well, therefore, briefly to indicate exactly what +these changes amount to, and how they can be made effective at any time +by those responsible for the working of a hospital. + +There is no doubt that all the facts available tend to prove that the +voluntary hospitals are used to an increasing extent by persons able to +make payment or partial payment for the treatment which they receive. +The evidence and statistics demonstrating these facts may be readily +gathered from a study of the Report (1909) and Evidence of the Royal +Commission on the Poor Laws and Relief of Distress (Lord George +Hamilton's Commission) and in the authorities mentioned at the end of +this article. The underlying cause of the abuse was that no means +existed whereby persons of moderate income could obtain efficient +treatment and hospital care when ill at a rate which they could afford +to pay. The system, or want of system, whereby medical relief is granted +to practically all applicants by the voluntary hospitals grew up without +any combined attempt to organize it efficiently or to check abuses. Such +a system rests upon a wrong basis, and the best interests of every class +of the population demand its abolition in favour of one which shall +afford the maximum of justice (1) to the poor, (2) to those who can +afford to pay in part or in whole the cost of their medical treatment +and care at a hospital, (3) to the medical profession, (4) to the +subscribers and supporters of voluntary hospitals, whose gifts should be +strictly applied to the purposes they were intended to serve, and (5) to +the ratepayers, who are entitled to a guarantee that the maximum +efficiency is secured by the poor-law system of medical relief. The +remedy is very simple and easy of application. Every voluntary hospital, +while admitting all accidents and urgent cases needing immediate +attention, should institute a system whereby each applicant would be +asked to prove that he or she was a fit object of charity. The only real +attempt at reform, up to 1909, was the appointment by many of the larger +hospitals of almoners to ascertain whether certain selected patients +were in a position to pay or not. By putting the burden of proof of +eligibility to receive free medical relief upon the patients and their +friends, all abuse of every kind must speedily cease. There would be no +hardship entailed upon the patients by such a system, as experience has +proved, but, to make it effective, the system of providing for in- and +out-patients in Great Britain requires radical change, for, in existing +circumstance, if a voluntary hospital attempted to enforce this simple +method, it would be met with the difficulty that, where it was found +that a patient or his friends could pay at any rate something, no +department connected with British hospitals existed--as is the case in +regard to hospitals in the United States--enabling such in-patients to +be transferred to accommodation provided in paying wards. In the same +way, directly the out-patients were dealt with under such a system, it +would be made apparent, where a case could be properly treated, under +the poor law, that no plan of co-operation to secure this was organized +under existing conditions. If the patient, being of a better class, were +suffering from a minor ailment, and could be properly dealt with at a +provident dispensary, the fees of which he could easily pay, the same +absence of co-operation must make it practically impossible readily to +enforce the system. When, again, an out-patient of the better class was +entitled, from the severity of his ailment, to receive the advantages of +a consultation by the medical staff, no method existed whereby this aid +could be rendered to him, and his transfer afterwards to the care of a +medical practitioner attached to some provident dispensary, or resident +near the patient's home, could be properly carried out. It follows that +adequate reform required that methods should be adopted with a view to +some part or all the cost of treatment being provided by the patient or +his friends through an entire reorganization of the system of medical +relief not only at the voluntary hospitals, but under the poor-law +system. The reforms required in regard to voluntary hospitals are that +every large hospital shall have connected with the in-patient +department, in separate buildings, but under the administration of the +managers, pay wards for the reception of those patients who are able to +pay some part or all of the cost of treatment; that, as regards +out-patients, the existing out-patient department should be abolished; +that in substitution for it each hospital should have a casualty +department and a department for consultation. In the casualty department +every applicant should be seen once, and be there disposed of by being +handed on to the consultation department; if his case was sufficiently +important, he should then be transferred to some provident or poor-law +dispensary, or be referred to a private medical attendant. It would no +doubt take time to overcome the incidental difficulties which would +necessarily arise in effecting so radical a reform as is here +contemplated, but if all voluntary hospitals adopted the same system, +and were to be brought into active co-operation with provident +dispensaries and poor-law dispensaries and private medical +practitioners, the new system might be successfully introduced and made +effective within twelve months, and probably within six months, from the +date of its commencement. This opinion is based upon the assumption that +the provident dispensaries would be standardized, and that every one of +them would be brought up to a state of the highest efficiency. In the +town of Northampton the Royal Victoria Dispensary has been worked with +the maximum of success, so far as the patients and the medical +practitioners are concerned. In London and in other large towns like +Manchester and elsewhere the provident dispensary has not succeeded as +it has done in Northampton, because so many members of the medical +profession are not alive to the importance of making it their first +business to provide that every patient connected with the provident +dispensary who attends at the surgery of a private medical practitioner +shall receive at least equal attention and accommodation to that +afforded to every other private patient, whatever the fee he may pay. In +the same way, poor-law dispensaries must be radically reformed. +Everything which tends to excite a feeling of shame on the part of the +patient attending the poor-law dispensary, such as the printing of the +word "pauper" at the beginning of the space on which the patient's name +is entered, must be abolished, and the class of medical service and all +the arrangements for the treatment of the patients, however poor, at the +poor-law dispensary, must be made at least as efficient as those +provided by voluntary hospitals. There undoubtedly is considerable +overlapping between the voluntary hospitals and the poor law in Great +Britain. The Royal Commission on the Poor Laws and Relief of Distress +(1909) deals with this point with a view to set up a standard of medical +relief to be granted by each class and type of hospitals, provides for +adequate co-operation between all classes of institutions; and these +reforms may be commended. It is too often forgotten that the function of +the poor law is the relief of destitution, while it should be the object +and duty of each voluntary hospital and indeed of all hospitals other +than poor-law institutions to apply their resources entirely to the +prevention of destitution, by stepping in to grant free medical relief +to the provident and thrifty when, through no fault of their own, they +meet with an accident or are overtaken by disease. An adequate system of +co-operation would preserve the privilege of the voluntary hospitals, +which save such patients from the necessity of requiring the relief +which it is the object of the poor law to supply. + +We have dealt with the relative advantages and disadvantages of +rate-supported hospitals and voluntary hospitals. We should regard the +establishment of a complete state-provided or rate-provided system of +gratuitous medical relief, either for indoor patients or for out-door +patients, or for both, as a grave evil. Such a system must eventually +lead to the extinction of voluntary hospitals. If this disaster ever +happens, it must result in the gravest evils, for it could not fail to +injure the morale of all classes and tend to harden unnecessarily the +relations between the rich and poor, who, under the voluntary system, +have come to share each other's sufferings and to be animated by respect +and confidence towards each other. + + _Hospital Construction. Locality and Site._--Hospitals are required + for the use of the community in a certain locality, and to be of use + they must be within reach of the centre of population. Formerly the + greater difficulty of locomotion made it necessary that they should be + actually in the midst of towns and cities, and to some extent this + continues to prevail. It is now proved to demonstration that this is + not the best plan. Fresh and pure air being a prime necessity, as well + as a considerable amount of space of actual area in proportion to + population, it would certainly be better to place hospitals as much in + the outskirts as is consistent with considerations of usefulness and + convenience. In short, the best site would be open fields; but if that + be impracticable, a large space, "a sanitary zone" as it is called by + Tollet, should be kept permanently free between them and surrounding + buildings, certainly never less than double the height of the highest + building. In the selection of a site various factors must be taken + into consideration. If the hospital is to be used as the clinical + school of a university or medical college, then the most suitable + ground available within easy reach of the university or college must + be secured. If, on the other hand, the hospital is not to be used as a + teaching school, a site more in the country should be favoured. In any + case ample ground must be purchased to permit of the wards receiving + the maximum of sunlight, an abundant supply of fresh air, and leave + room for possible future extensions. The site should be + self-contained; it should be in such a position as to prevent the + hospital being shadowed by other buildings in the neighbourhood, and, + unless the site is alongside a public park, it should be entirely + surrounded by streets of from 40 to 60 ft. in width. It is also + necessary to secure that adequate water mains serve the site, and that + the system of sewers be ample for all sewage purposes. + + The difference between the expense of purchase of land in a town and + in the environs is generally considerable, and this is therefore an + additional reason for choosing a suburban locality. Even with existing + hospitals it would be in most cases pecuniarily advantageous to + dispose of the present building and site and retain only a receiving + house in the town. St Thomas's in London, the Hôtel-Dieu in Paris and + the Royal Infirmary in Manchester, are all good examples where this + might have been carried out. In none, however, has this been done; + these hospitals have been rebuilt, at enormous outlay, in the cities + as before, although not exactly in the same locality. + + As regards the actual site itself, where circumstances admit of + choice, a dry gravelly or sandy soil should be selected, in a position + where the ground water is low and but little subject to fluctuations + of level, and where the means of drainage are capable of being + effectually carried out. There should also be a cheerful sunny aspect + and some protection from the coldest winds. + + _Form of Building._--A form of building must be selected which answers + the following conditions: (a) the freest possible circulation of air + round each ward, with no cul-de-sac or enclosed spaces where air can + stagnate; (b) free play of sunlight upon each ward during some portion + at least of the day; (c) the possibility of isolating any ward, or + group of wards, effectually, in case of infectious disease breaking + out; (d) the possibility of ventilating every ward independently of + any other part of the establishment. Those conditions can only be + fulfilled by one system, viz. a congeries of houses or pavilions, more + or less connected with each other by covered ways, so as to facilitate + convenient and economical administration. The older plans of huge + blocks of buildings, arranged in squares or rectangles, enclosing + spaces without free circulation of air, are obviously objectionable. + Even when arranged in single lines or crosses they are not desirable, + as the wards either communicate with each other or with common + passages or corridors, rendering separation impossible. On this point + it may be remarked that some of the buildings of the 18th century were + more wisely constructed than many of those in the first half of the + 19th century, and that the older buildings have been from time to time + spoilt by ignorant additions made in later times. + + The question next arises, is it better to have pavilions of two or + more storeys high, or to have single-storeyed huts or cottages + scattered more widely? For the treatment of tuberculosis there can be + no doubt that, for hygienic reasons, the _châlet_ or single-patient + hut is the best for the patients in the acute stages; for economical + reasons the _châlet_ has not been heretofore as popular as it deserves + to be, but if the welfare of the patient is to be the first + consideration there is no doubt that the _châlet_ will ultimately + prevail. It has the merit of being easily adapted to villages and + houses where there is a garden, and in this way poor families may + readily isolate and treat a member affected by tuberculosis at a cost + within their means. For hospital purposes, so long as the system of + placing hospital buildings in densely crowded areas prevails, + many-storeyed buildings for hospital purposes are likely to continue. + Should the proposal to institute a Hospital City ultimately prevail, + then it is probable that the majority of the pavilions will be + single-storeyed. Still some hospital authorities prefer the + multiple-storeyed system for administrative reasons, contending that + single-storeyed pavilions have no special advantages over two or + three-storeyed buildings, whereas the difficulties in administration + and service of a hospital building on the single-storey principle + outweigh any argument against the two- or three-storey building, if it + is properly designed and constructed. We hope that the time is + approaching when architects and those members of the public who have + to provide the money for hospital buildings will insist upon the + erection of simple structures, costing little, so that the whole cost + of hospital buildings may be, as it ought to be, reduced by at least + half when compared with the expenditure of the past. + + The pavilions may be arranged in various ways; they may be joined at + one end by a corridor, or may be divided by a central corridor at + right angles to them. In fact, the plan is very elastic, and adapts + itself to almost any circumstances. A certain distance, not less than + twice the height of the pavilions, ought to be preserved between them. + By this means free circulation of air and plenty of light are secured, + whilst separation or isolation may be at once accomplished if + required. + + _Foundations, Building Materials, &c._--It is of the first consequence + that a hospital should be dry; therefore the foundation and walls + ought to be constructed so as to prevent the inroads of damp. An + impervious foundation has the further advantage of preventing + emanations from the soil rising up in consequence of the suction force + produced by the higher temperature of the internal atmosphere of the + building itself. There should be free ventilation in the basement, and + the raising of the whole on arches is a good plan, now generally + carried out in hot climates. If the pavilions are two or more storeys + high, it is advisable to use fire-proof material as much as possible, + but single-storeyed huts may be of wood. In any case effectual means + of excluding damp must be employed. The interiors of wards ought to be + rendered as non-absorbent as possible, by being covered with + impervious coatings, such as glazed tiles (Parian, though much used, + is apt to crack), silicate paint, which is preferable to tiles, or the + like. The ceilings ought to be treated in the same way as the walls. + There must be a concrete floor between each flat, experience showing + that if a teak floor is laid hard on the concrete a very noisy floor + is the result, but if the teak is laid on strips of wood, leaving a + small space between the concrete and the floor, a more silent floor is + obtained. For the floors themselves various materials have been + suggested: in France there is a preference for flags (_dalles_), but + in England wood is more liked; and indeed hard well-fitting wood, + such as teak, oak or American willow, leaves nothing to be desired. + The surface should be waxed and polished or varnished. Even deal + floors can be rendered non-absorbent by waxing, by impregnating them + with solid paraffin as recommended by Dr Langstaff. + + _Shape and Arrangement of Wards._--It is now generally agreed that + wards should have windows on at least two opposite sides. Three main + shapes have been proposed: (a) long wards with windows down each side, + and (generally) one at the farther end with balcony; 26 ft. is a good + width for a ward of twelve or fourteen beds, but for larger wards of + more than fourteen beds the width should be not less than 28 ft.; (b) + wards nearly square, with windows on three sides; and (c) circular + wards with windows all round. The first (a) is the form usually + adopted in pavilions; (b) is recommended by Dr C. F. Folsom (_Plans + for the Johns Hopkins Hospital_); and (c) has been suggested by Mr + John Marshall, F.R.S. (_Nat. Assoc. for Promotion of Social Science_, + 1878). Of these (b) seems the least to be commended, and (c), now + comparatively common, has distinct advantages in an administrative + sense, when the wards are constructed as to floor space so as to allow + the same proportion of superficial space per bed in a circular ward to + that which is contained in a rectangular ward, as is the case at the + Great Northern Central Hospital, London. Some authorities object to a + chimney-stack up the centre of the circular ward, urging that it + prevents the nurses from having complete supervision over all the + beds. In practice this objection seems to us to have little force, and + it can be avoided by placing the fireplaces at the side of the + circular ward, if desirable, though this adds somewhat to the cost of + building. + + Each bed should be a little distance, say from 8 in. to 1 ft. from the + wall, and each bed may be reckoned as 6½ ft. long; this gives 7½ ft. + on each side. Between the ends of the beds about 10 ft. space is + necessary, so that 25 or 26 ft. of total breadth may be taken as a + favourable width. The wards of the Herbert Hospital are 26 ft.; but + some exceed this, as, for instance, St Thomas's, London, and the New + Royal infirmary, Edinburgh, 28; new Hôtel Dieu, 29; and Lariboisière, + 30. There seems no necessity for exceeding 26 for a ward of twelve or + fourteen beds, but if the breadth be greater there ought to be more + window space--the great difficulty being to get a wide space + thoroughly ventilated. There ought to be only two rows of beds, one + down each wall, with a window on each side of each bed. + + For ventilation two things are required--sufficient space and + sufficiently frequent change or renewal of air. As regards space, this + must be considered with reference both to total space and to lateral + or floor space. Unless a minimum of floor space be laid down, we shall + always be in danger of overcrowding, for cubic space may be supplied + vertically with little or no advantage to the occupier. If we allow a + minimum distance of 4 ft. between the beds and 10 ft. between the ends + of the beds, this gives 100 sq. ft. of space per bed; less than this + is undesirable. In severe surgical cases, fever cases and the like, a + much larger space is required; and in the Edinburgh Infirmary 150 sq. + ft. is allowed. Cubic space must be regulated by the means of + ventilation; we can rarely change the air oftener than three times in + an hour, and therefore the space ought to be at least one-third of the + hourly supply. This ought not to be less than 4000 cubic ft. per bed, + even in ordinary cases of sickness--and the third of that is 1333 + cubic ft. of space. With 100 sq. ft. of floor space a ward of 13½ ft. + high would supply this amount, and there is but little to be gained by + raising the ceiling higher,--indeed 12 ft. is practically enough. The + experiments of Drs Cowles and Wood of Boston (see _Report of State + Board of Health of Massachusetts for 1879_) show that above 12 ft. + there is little or no movement in the air except towards the outlet + ventilator; the space above is therefore of little value as + ventilation space. Authorities nowadays, however, fix 10 ft. 6 in. as + the maximum, and any height above this may be disregarded for purposes + of ventilation. Additional height adds also to the cost of + construction, increases the expense of warming, makes cleaning more + difficult, and to some extent hampers ventilation. Whatever be the + height of wards, the windows must reach to the ceiling, or there must + be ventilators in the ceiling or at the top of the side walls. If this + be not arranged for, a mass of foul air is apt to stagnate near the + ceiling, and sooner or later to be driven down upon the inmates. The + reasons for a large and constant renewal of air are, of course, the + immediate removal and dilution of the organic matter given off by the + inmates; as this is greater in quantity and more offensive and + dangerous in sickness than in health, the change of air in the former + case must be greater than in the latter. Hence in serious cases an + amount of air practically unlimited is desirable--the aim of true + ventilation being to approach as near as possible to the condition of + pure external air. Without going too much into details, a few general + rules may be laid down. (1) Fresh air ought, if possible, to be + brought in at the lowest part of the ward, warmed if necessary; (2) + foul air ought to be taken out at the highest part of the ward; (3) + fresh air should reach each patient without passing over the bed of + any other; (4) the vitiated air should be removed from each patient + without passing over the bed of any other; (5) 4000 cubic ft. of fresh + air per head per hour should be the minimum in ordinary cases of + sickness, to be increased without limit in severer cases; (6) the air + should move in no part of a ward at a greater rate than 1½ ft. per + second, except at the point of entry, where it should not exceed 5 ft. + per second, and at the outlet, where the rate may be somewhat higher; + about 64 sq. in. of inlet and outlet sectional area ought to be + supplied per head as a minimum; (7) every opportunity ought to be + taken of freely flushing the wards with air, by means of open windows, + when this can be done with safety. + + Warming is a question of great importance in most climates, especially + in such a climate as that of Great Britain, where every system of + ventilation must involve either the warming of some portion of the + incoming air, or the contriving its delivery without too great + lowering of temperature; at the same time it cannot be too strongly + insisted upon that the tendency is too much in the direction of + allowing warmth to supersede freshness of air. There are very few + cases of disease (if any) that are not more injured by foul air than + by low temperature; and in the zymotic diseases, such as typhus, + enteric fever, smallpox, &c., satisfactory results have been obtained + even in winter weather by almost open-air treatment. At the same time + a reasonable warmth is desirable on all grounds if it can be obtained + without sacrificing purity of atmosphere. For all practical purposes + 60° to 63° F. is quite sufficient, and surgical and lying-in cases do + well in lower temperatures. Various plans of warming have been + recommended, but probably a combination is the best. It is inadvisable + to do away altogether with radiant heat, although it is not always + possible to supply sufficient warmth with open-air fire-places alone. + A portion of the air may be warmed by being passed over a heating + apparatus before it enters the ward, by having an air-chamber round + the fire-place or stove, or by the use of radiators in the ward + itself. In each case, however, the air must be supplied independently + to each ward, so that no general system of air supply is applicable. + + The lighting of the ward at night will be most conveniently done by + means of electricity in the form of a lamp for each bed, where gas is + used each jet should have a special ventilator to carry off combustion + products, as in the Edinburgh Infirmary. + + _The Furniture of Wards_ should be simple, clean and non-absorbent; + the bedsteads of iron, mattresses hair, laid on spring bottoms without + sacking. No curtains should be permitted. + + The water-supply ought to be on the constant system, and plentiful; 50 + gallons per head per diem may be taken as a fair minimum estimate. + + The closets ought to be of the simplest construction, the pans of + earthenware all in one piece, the flushing arrangements simple but + perfect, and the supply of water ample. Each ward should have its own + closets, lavatories, &c., built in small annexes, with a + cross-ventilated vestibule separating them from the ward. All the + pipes should be disconnected from the drains, the closets by + intercepting traps, the sink and waste pipes by being made to pour + their contents over trapped gratings. The soil pipes should be + ventilated, and placed outside the walls, protected as may be + necessary from frost. Each ward should have a movable bath, which can + be wheeled to the patient's bedside. + + Each ward should have attached to it a small kitchen for any special + cooking that may be required, a room for the physician or surgeon, and + generally a room with one or two separate beds. No cooking should be + done in the wards, nor ought washing, airing or drying of linen to be + allowed there. + + _Hospital Economics._--There is no doubt that the voluntary system of + hospital government is far more economical than any system of state or + rate-supported hospitals. That the present condition of the voluntary + hospitals in regard to economy is all that can be wished is not, of + course, true. Still, resting as this system does upon the goodwill of + the public for its continuance and maintenance, it is satisfactory to + note that there is a continuous improvement in system and method, + which makes for economy. It has taken many years to perfect and + enforce the uniform system of hospital accounts, but this system with + the co-operation of the great funds has produced economical results of + the first importance. This system originated at the Queen's Hospital, + Birmingham, in 1869, and was devised by an eminent Birmingham + accountant, William Laundy, and Sir Henry Burdett. It proved so + fruitful in practice that six years later it was introduced at the + "Dreadnought" Seamen's Hospital, the first London hospital to use it, + and was then adopted spontaneously by a few of the best-administered + hospitals where the managers were keen in enforcing economy. In 1891, + in order to secure for comparative purposes an identical + classification of the items and charges included in the system, a + glossary or index of classification was prepared and published in the + _Hospital Annual_ of that year. This index enabled the same + classification of the many items included in the expenditure of a + great institution to be adopted generally. In the same year a + committee of hospital secretaries, at the instigation of the + Metropolitan Hospital Sunday Fund, revised and elaborated the index of + classification, and the new index was adopted by a general meeting of + hospital secretaries in January 1892. The Council of the Metropolitan + Hospital Sunday Fund approved it, and the Uniform System of Accounts + was formulated by that body for the use of the metropolitan hospitals. + In 1906 the whole of this system was inquired into on behalf of the + King's Fund by Mr John G. Griffiths, F.C.A., when a committee of + hospital secretaries and representatives of the King's Fund prepared a + further revision of the system. This was completed in the course of + the year and adopted by the King's, the Hospital Sunday and the + Hospital Saturday Funds. The publication of a book by Sir Henry + Burdett led to the adoption of the system in several of the British + Colonies, and as a result of the action taken in the British Empire + the Uniform System of Accounts has recently been set up and adopted by + the principal hospitals of the United States of America. The prince of + Wales (George V.) testified to the value of this system in enforcing + control over expenditure, and Sir Henry Burdett adapted it for the use + of the authorities of all charities of every class. It is probable + that no single reform has had a greater influence for good upon the + administration of charitable institutions than the evolution and + enforcement of the uniform system of accounts. + + _Nursing._--The arrangements for nursing the sick have greatly + improved in recent times, although controversy still goes on as to the + best method of carrying it out. In arranging for the nursing in a + hospital both efficiency and economy have to be considered. No ward in + a general hospital for acute cases should contain more than 24 beds. + In hospitals with clinical schools the proportion of nurses to + patients should be about one nurse to every three patients, and if + possible every ward should have a probationer on duty at night in + addition to the night nurse. In all well-conducted hospitals it is now + arranged that the nurses on night duty have a hot meal served in the + general dining-room during the night, and this is only possible where + a nurse and a probationer are allowed for each ward. The nurses' + quarters should be separate from the hospital proper, and connected by + a conservatory or covered way. Each nurse should have a separate + bedroom, measuring not less than 12 ft. long, 9 ft. broad and 10 ft. + high. A bath should be allowed for every eight rooms, and the + water-closets and sinks should, if possible, be in sanitary towers cut + off from the main block of buildings. + + Circumstances must to a large extent determine the arrangement, but it + seems desirable on the whole that the work of a nurse should be + confined to a single ward at a time if possible. The duties of nurses + ought also to be distinctly confined to attendance on the sick, and no + menial work, such as scrubbing floors and the like, should be demanded + of them; a proper staff of servants ought to be employed for such + purposes. It is also desirable that a separate pavilion for lodging + the nurses should be set apart, and that fair and reasonable time for + rest and recreation should be allowed. Some discussion has taken place + as to the advisability of placing the nursing of a hospital in the + hands of a sisterhood or a separate corporation. It will, however, be + admitted that the best plan is for the nursing staff of each hospital + to be special and under one head within the establishment itself, even + though it may be connected with some main institution outside. The + nursing must, of course, be carried on in accordance with the + directions and treatment of the physicians and surgeons. + + _General._--The kitchen, laundry, dispensary and other offices must be + in a separate pavilion or pavilions, away from the wards, but within + convenient access. A separate pavilion for isolation of infectious + cases is desirable. This may be a wooden hut, or in some cases even a + tent; either is probably preferable to a permanent block of buildings. + A disinfecting chamber ought to be provided where heat can be applied + to clothes and bedding, for the destruction both of vermin and of the + germs of disease. It is advisable to expose all bedding and clothing + to its influence after each occasion of wear. Although this may entail + additional expense from the deterioration of fabric, it is worth the + outlay to secure immunity from disease. This plan is rigidly followed + at the Royal South Hants Infirmary at Southampton. It is of great + importance that the wards should be periodically emptied and kept + unoccupied for not less than one month in each year, and longer if + possible. During such period thorough cleansing and flushing with air + could be carried out, so as to prevent any continuous deposit of + organic matter. + + _Gate House or Admission Block._--If the efficiency of a hospital and + the regular and smooth working of its departments are to be secured, + the proper management and control of the admission department is of + the greatest importance. When one considers for a moment the number of + applicants of all ages in various stages of disease, and the number of + accident cases of every degree of severity who present themselves + every day seeking admission, it will be evident that the most careful + supervision must be exercised on the very threshold. It is essential + that every precaution be taken against the admission of an unsuitable + case, or the refusal, without careful examination, of any patient + seeking admission. It is only necessary to instance the case of a + patient with delirium tremens being admitted to a general ward at a + late hour, or a case of infectious disease admitted through an + overlook, or a case refused admission and expiring on the way home, in + order to illustrate the danger and trouble which might arise should + the supervision exercised over this department not be systematic, + stringent and thorough. + + To secure this proper control it is necessary that the admission + department should be designed on a definite plan suitable for the + purposes in view. It is not sufficient to utilize any available rooms, + say, in the basement of the building, where patients may be casually + interviewed by a house surgeon or physician. This department should be + as carefully designed and equipped as any other department of the + hospital. + + Within recent years much more attention has been devoted to the + details of construction than was formerly considered necessary, but + even in the best type of hospital there is still much to be desired in + this respect. It is essential for an architect in designing any + building to have before him an accurate idea of all the requirements, + and the use to which each foot of space is to be put; for unless he is + furnished with this information it is not possible for him to design + his building so as to give effect to all the details which are so + necessary. The following is an endeavour in a general way to enumerate + the various points which an architect should have before him in + designing the admission department of a general hospital:-- + + The admission department should be conveniently placed on the ground + floor of the hospital--or it may be a detached building--with a large + court where ambulance wagons or other vehicles may easily pass each + other on approaching or retiring from the institution. The entrance to + the admission department for patients should, if possible, be entirely + separate and distinct from that for the staff and students. An + additional entrance should be provided for patients' friends on + visiting days, in order that they may be able to enter the hospital + without passing through the patients' entrance, or coming into contact + with an accident case or other patient seeking admission. The main + entrance door should be protected by a covered porch so that patients + may be removed from the ambulance or cab to the examination room + without being exposed to the weather or the gaze of inquisitive + onlookers. This door should be sufficiently wide to allow two hand + ambulances or barrows to pass should they require to be brought out to + the ambulance or cab, and to facilitate this the floor of the entrance + hall should be as nearly as possible on a level with that of the + outside porch. Adjoining the entrance vestibule, lavatory + accommodation should be provided for males and females who may + accompany the patient. Lavatory accommodation should also be provided + for porters on duty, and all lavatories should have a cut-off + ventilating passage. + + A recess to store ambulance barrows should adjoin the entrance, and + this recess must be in proportion to the size of the hospital, in + order that a hand ambulance may always be available when an accident + or urgent case arrives. The vestibule should lead into a large + waiting-hall with an inquiry office at its entrance, provided with a + telephone exchange, private exchange box, also letter and parcel + racks. If possible a window of the inquiry office should command a + view of the main entrance. A room should be provided for the medical + officer on duty, so that a medical officer may be always at hand and + that no delay will occur in attending to a patient on arrival. + + Leading off from this waiting-hall, well-lit examination rooms should + be available for the thorough examination of patients, both male and + female, the number of rooms, of course, varying with the size of the + hospital and the amount of work to be done. Each of these rooms should + be fitted with a wash-hand basin and sink, and a plentiful supply of + hot and cold water. + + Two rooms, with recovery rooms adjoining, should be fitted up as small + operating-rooms for the treatment of minor casualties. A special room + should also be furnished with an X-ray outfit, and arrangements should + be made whereby this room can be readily darkened so that suspected + fractures, &c. may be examined with the fluorescent screen. + + Adjoining the admission department two small wards should be provided + for the accommodation of drunk or noisy cases unfit to be placed in + the general wards. To these "emergency wards" must be attached the + usual bathroom and lavatory accommodation, nurses' room, ward kitchen + and urine-test room or small lavatory. These wards should have double + windows in order to prevent noise being heard outside if the wards are + near other buildings. + + The interior walls of the admission department should, as far as + possible, have a smooth and impervious surface, in order that they may + be easily cleaned. All angles should be avoided and all corners + rounded. Although glazed tiles are open to the criticism that they + have numerous joints, they probably make the most suitable wall yet + devised, as they can be easily washed down at very small cost. The + corridors and waiting-hall should be tiled to a height of 6 ft. 6 in., + and the upper walls covered with Parian or Kean's cement, and be + treated with three coats of flat paint and two coats of enamel, or, + what is equally suitable and less costly, enamellette. The floors of + the passages and corridors throughout the department should be covered + with terrazzo, which is a mixture of Portland cement and marble chips. + A margin of 1 ft. round the rooms should be treated in this way, and + the terrazzo carried up this same distance on the wall to join the + tiles. The remainder of the floors should be covered with hard wood, + such as American maple or teak. As these floors require to be + frequently washed, oak is not so suitable. Oak very soon becomes + destroyed with water; the same trouble is experienced with pitch pine. + The doors should also be made of a hard wood, preferably teak, and + have no mouldings or grooves where dust can lodge. They should be wide + enough to admit an ambulance barrow or bed with ease. In no case + should the doors of an examination room be less than 3 ft. 6 in. in + width. + + As an aid to a complete understanding of the varied work which has to + be provided for, and the most effective method of carrying it out, the + accompanying plans are given of an admission block designed to embody + the main principles which govern the construction of such a + department. + + [Illustration: Plans of Ground Floor and Basement of a Hospital.] + + All accidents and patients seeking admission to this hospital enter + through the central gateway, and on the left is shown the porters' + room, where a porter is always in readiness to attend to any + applicant. This room has suitable accommodation for parcels, letters, + telephones, &c., and adjoining it is a small lavatory for the use of + porters. At the side of the porters' room is the entrance to the + central waiting-hall, which is lit from the roof. On one side of this + hall are examination and dressing-rooms for males, with lavatory + accommodation; and on the other side similar provision for females, + with the addition of a nurses' duty room. At the end of the central + hall are two operating theatres, with recovery room adjoining each; + one theatre for males, and the other for females. Between these + theatres are rooms for sterilizers and dressings. An X-ray examination + room is provided beyond the male examination room on the right of the + hall. In the basement, under the entrance-hall and operating theatres + are two bathrooms for males and two for females, with W.C.'s for each. + The remainder of the basement is used as a store for patients' + clothes, and a hot-air chamber is provided for purposes of + disinfection. The basement can be reached by a lift or by a wide + staircase which is situated at the end of the waiting-hall. + + In the above plan provision is made for a sitting-room for the medical + officer on duty. This is a new and essential feature in the admission + block unit of all hospitals in large cities, for it should secure that + no patient is kept waiting for many minutes before being seen. One of + the blots on the management of many hospitals is that regrettable + delays often take place, and much dissatisfaction and avoidable + suffering may arise from this difficulty in the administration of a + general hospital. We have given this plan of a model gatehouse or + admission block for a modern general hospital, because the block as it + stands contains all the elements necessary for a receiving-house block + in cities in connexion with a great Hospital city situated outside its + area, in fulfilment of the suggestion for a Hospital city made above. + Apart from its interest as a new feature which all new hospitals + should adopt, the gatehouse or admission block has an importance in + the wider sense, that it may come to form the key to the solution of + the problem of how best to provide hospital accommodation for the poor + in great cities under the best hygienic conditions, while protecting + them from the misery and danger of prolonged delay in first treatment, + especially in connexion with accidents and other cases of urgency. + + BIBLIOGRAPHY.--Sir H. Burdett, _Cottage Hospitals, General, Fever and + Convalescent, their Construction, Management and Work_ (London, 1877, + 1880 and 1896); Tollet, _Les Édifices hospitaliers depuis leur_ + _origine jusqu'à nos jours_ (Paris, 1892); Sir H. Burdett, _Hospitals + and Asylums of the World_, with large portfolio of plans to a uniform + scale (London, 1893) (a supplement is published every year bringing + the information up to date, entitled _Burdett's Hospitals and + Charities_); J. S. Billings, _The Principles of Ventilation, Heating + and their Practical Application_ (New York, 1893); Galton, _Healthy + Hospitals_ (London, 1893); Tollet, _Les Hôpitaux au XIX^e siècle_ + (Paris, 1894); Billings and Hurd, _Suggestions to Hospital and Asylum + Visitors_ (Philadelphia, 1895); Oswald Kuhn, "Hospitals," _Handbuch + der Architektur_, 4th part, 5th half-volume, part i. (Stuttgart, + 1897); _Plans for the Johns Hopkins Hospital_ (Baltimore, 1875); + _Report of State Board of Health for Massachusetts for 1879_. + (H. Bt.) + + + + +HOSPITIUM (Gr. [Greek: xenia, proxenia]), "hospitality," among the +Greeks and Romans, was of a twofold character: (1) private; (2) public. + +(1) In Homeric times all strangers without exception were regarded as +being under the protection of Zeus Xenios, the god of strangers and +suppliants. It is doubtful whether, as is commonly assumed, they were +considered as _ipso facto_ enemies; they were rather guests. Immediately +on his arrival, the stranger was clothed and entertained, and no inquiry +was made as to his name or antecedents until the duties of hospitality +had been fulfilled. When the guest parted from his host he was often +presented with gifts ([Greek: xenia]), and sometimes a die ([Greek: +astragalos]) was broken between them. Each then took a part, a family +connexion was established, and the broken die served as a symbol of +recognition; thus the members of each family found in the other hosts +and protectors in case of need. Violation of the duties of hospitality +was likely to provoke the wrath of the gods; but it does not appear that +anything beyond this religious sanction existed to guard the rights of a +traveller. Similar customs seem to have existed among the Italian races. +Amongst the Romans, private hospitality, which had existed from the +earliest times, was more accurately and legally defined than amongst the +Greeks, the tie between host and guest being almost as strong as that +between patron and client. It was of the nature of a contract, entered +into by mutual promise, the clasping of hands, and exchange of an +agreement in writing (_tabula hospitalis_) or of a token (_tessera_ or +_symbolum_), and was rendered hereditary by the division of the tessera. +The advantages thus obtained by the guest were, the right of hospitality +when travelling and, above all, the protection of his host (representing +him as his patron) in a court of law. The contract was sacred and +inviolable, undertaken in the name of Jupiter Hospitalis, and could only +be dissolved by a formal act. + +(2) This private connexion developed into a custom according to which a +state appointed one of the citizens of a foreign state as its +representative ([Greek: proxenos]) to protect any of its citizens +travelling or resident in his country. Sometimes an individual came +forward voluntarily to perform these duties on behalf of another state +([Greek: etheloproxenos]). The proxenus is generally compared to the +modern consul or minister resident. His duties were to afford +hospitality to strangers from the state whose proxenus he was, to +introduce its ambassadors, to procure them admission to the assembly and +seats in the theatre, and in general to look after the commercial and +political interests of the state by which he had been appointed to his +office. Many cases occur where such an office was hereditary; thus the +family of Callias at Athens were proxeni of the Spartans. We find the +office mentioned in a Corcyraean inscription dating probably from the +7th century B.C., and it continued to grow more important and frequent +throughout Greek history. There is no proof that any direct emolument +was ever attached to the office, while the expense and trouble entailed +by it must often have been very great. Probably the honours which it +brought with it were sufficient recompense. These consisted partly in +the general respect and esteem paid to a proxenus, and partly in many +more substantial honours conferred by special decree of the state whose +representative he was, such as freedom from taxation and public burdens, +the right of acquiring property in Attica, admission to the senate and +popular assemblies, and perhaps even full citizenship. Public hospitium +seems also to have existed among the Italian races; but the +circumstances of their history prevented it from becoming so important +as in Greece. Cases, however, occur of the establishment of public +hospitality between two cities (Rome and Caere, Livy v. 50), and of +towns entering into a position of clientship to some distinguished +Roman, who then became patronus of such a town. Foreigners were +frequently granted the right of public hospitality by the senate down to +the end of the republic. The public hospes had a right to entertainment +at the public expense, admission to sacrifices and games, the right of +buying and selling on his own account, and of bringing an action at law +without the intervention of a Roman patron. + + A full bibliography of the subject will be found in the article in + Daremberg and Saglio, _Dictionnaire des antiquités_, to which may be + added R. von Jhering, _Die Gastfreundschaft im Altertum_ (1887); see + also Smith's _Dictionary of Greek and Roman Antiquities_ (3rd ed., + 1890). + + + + +HOSPODAR, a term of Slavonic origin, meaning "lord" (Russ. _gospodar_). +It is a derivative of _gospod_, "lord," and is akin to _gosudar_, which +primarily means "sovereign," and is now also used in Russia as a polite +form of address, equivalent to "sir." The pronunciation as _hospodar_ of +a word written _gospodar_ in all but one of the Slavonic languages which +retain the Cyrillic alphabet is not, as is sometimes alleged, due to the +influence of Little Russian, but to that of Church Slavonic. In both of +these g is frequently pronounced h. In Little Russian the title +_hospodar_ is specially applied to the master of a house or the head of +a family. The rulers of Walachia and Moldavia were styled _hospodars_ +from the 15th century to 1866. At the end of this period, as the title +had been held by many vassals of Turkey, its retention was considered +inconsistent with the growth of Rumanian independence. It was therefore +discarded in favour of _domn_ (_dominus_, "lord"), which continued to be +the official princely title up to the proclamation of a Rumanian kingdom +in 1881. + + + + +HOST. (1) (Through the O. Fr. _oste_ or _hoste_, modern _hôte_, from +Lat. _hospes_, a guest or host; _hospes_ being probably from an original +_hostipes_, one who feeds a stranger or enemy, from _hostis_ and the +root of _pascere_), one who receives another into his house and provides +him with lodging and entertainment, especially one who does this in +return for payment. The word is thus transferred, in biology, to an +animal or plant upon which a parasite lives. (2) (From Lat. _hostis_, a +stranger or enemy; in Med. Latin a military expedition), a very large +gathering of men, armed for war, an army, and so used generally of any +multitude. In biblical use the word is applied to the company of angels +in heaven; or to the sun, moon and stars, the "hosts of heaven," and +also to translate "Jehovah Sabaoth," the Lord God of hosts, the lord of +the armies of Israel or of the hosts of heaven. (3) (From Lat. _hostia_, +a victim or sacrifice), the sacrifice of Christ's body and blood in the +Eucharist, more particularly the consecrated wafer used in the service +of the mass in the Roman Church (see EUCHARIST). + + + + +HOSTAGE (through Fr. _ostage_, modern _otage_, from Late Lat. +_obsidaticum_, the state of being an obses or hostage; Med. Lat. +_ostaticum_, _ostagium_), a person handed over by one of two belligerent +parties to the other or seized as security for the carrying out of an +agreement, or as a preventive measure against certain acts of war. The +practice of taking hostages is very ancient, and has been used +constantly in negotiations with conquered nations, and in cases such as +surrenders, armistices and the like, where the two belligerents depended +for its proper carrying out on each other's good faith. The Romans were +accustomed to take the sons of tributary princes and educate them at +Rome, thus holding a security for the continued loyalty of the conquered +nation and also instilling a possible future ruler with ideas of Roman +civilization. This practice was also adopted in the early period of the +British occupation of India, and by France in her relations with the +Arab tribes in North Africa.[1] The position of a hostage was that of a +prisoner of war, to be retained till the negotiations or treaty +obligations were carried out, and liable to punishment (in ancient +times), and even to death, in case of treachery or refusal to fulfil the +promises made. The practice of taking hostages as security for the +carrying out of a treaty between civilized states is now obsolete. The +last occasion was at the treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle in 1748, when two +British peers, Henry Bowes Howard, 11th earl of Suffolk, and Charles, +9th Baron Cathcart, were sent to France as hostages for the restitution +of Cape Breton to France. + +In modern times the practice may be said to be confined to two +occasions: (1) to secure the payment of enforced contributions or +requisitions in an occupied territory and the obedience to regulations +the occupying army may think fit to issue; (2) as a precautionary +measure, to prevent illegitimate acts of war or violence by persons not +members of the recognized military forces of the enemy. During the +Franco-Prussian War of 1870, the Germans took as hostages the prominent +people or officials from towns or districts when making requisitions and +also when foraging, and it was a general practice for the mayor and +_adjoint_ of a town which failed to pay a fine imposed upon it to be +seized as "hostages" and retained till the money was paid. The last case +where "hostages" have been taken in modern warfare has been the subject +of much discussion. In 1870 the Germans found it necessary to take +special measures to put a stop to train-wrecking by parties in occupied +territory not belonging to the recognized armed forces of the enemy, an +illegitimate act of war. Prominent citizens were placed on the engine of +the train "so that it might be understood that in every accident caused +by the hostility of the inhabitants their compatriots will be the first +to suffer." The measure seems to have been effective. In 1900 during the +Boer War, by a proclamation issued at Pretoria (June 19th), Lord Roberts +adopted the plan for a similar reason, but shortly afterwards (July 29) +it was abandoned (see _The Times' History of the War in S. Africa_, iv. +402). The Germans also, between the surrender of a town and its final +occupation, took "hostages" as security against outbreaks of violence by +the inhabitants. Most writers on international law have regarded this +method of preventing such acts of hostility as unjustifiable, on the +ground that the persons taken as hostages are not the persons +responsible for the act;[2] that, as by the usage of war hostages are to +be treated strictly as prisoners of war, such an exposure to danger is +transgressing the rights of a belligerent; and as useless, for the mere +temporary removal of important citizens till the end of a war cannot be +a deterrent unless their mere removal deprives the combatants of persons +necessary to the continuance of the acts aimed at (see W. E. Hall, +_International Law_, 1904, pp. 418, 475). On the other hand it has been +urged (L. Oppenheim, _International Law_, 1905, vol. ii., "War and +Neutrality," pp. 271-273) that the acts, the prevention of which is +aimed at, are not legitimate acts on the part of the armed forces of the +enemy, but illegitimate acts by private persons, who, if caught, could +be quite lawfully punished, and that a precautionary and preventive +measure is more reasonable than "reprisals." It may be noticed, however, +that the hostages would suffer should the acts aimed at be performed by +the authorized belligerent forces of the enemy. + +In France, after the revolution of Prairial (June 18, 1799), the +so-called "law of hostages" was passed, to meet the insurrection in La +Vendée. Relatives of _émigrés_ were taken from disturbed districts and +imprisoned, and were liable to execution at any attempt to escape. +Sequestration of their property and deportation from France followed on +the murder of a republican, four to every such murder, with heavy fines +on the whole body of hostages. The law only resulted in an increase in +the insurrection. Napoleon in 1796 had used similar measures to deal +with the insurrection in Lombardy (_Correspondance de Napoléon I._ i. +323, 327, quoted in Hall, _International Law_). + +In May 1871, at the close of the Paris Commune, took place the massacre +of the so-called hostages. Strictly they were not "hostages," for they +had not been handed over or seized as security for the performance of +any undertaking or as a preventive measure, but merely in retaliation +for the death of their leaders E. V. Duval and Gustave Flourens. It was +an act of maniacal despair, on the defeat at Mont Valérien on the 4th of +April and the entry of the army into Paris on the 21st of May. Among the +many victims who were shot in batches the most noticeable were Monsignor +Darboy, archbishop of Paris, the Abbé Deguery, curé of the Madeleine, +and the president of the Court of Cassation, Louis Bernard Bonjean. + + +FOOTNOTES: + + [1] The sultan of Bagiemi, in Central Africa, in 1906 sent his nephew + to undergo military training with a squadron of Spahis, and at the + same time to serve as a guarantee of his fidelity to the French + (_Bulletin du Comité de l'Afrique française_, Oct. 1906). + + [2] Article 50 of the Hague War Regulations lays it down that "no + general penalty, pecuniary or otherwise, can be inflicted on the + population on account of the acts of individuals for which it cannot + be regarded as collectively responsible." The regulations, however, + do not allude to the practice of taking hostage. + + + + +HOSTE, SIR WILLIAM (1780-1828), British naval captain, was the son of +Dixon Hoste, rector of Godwick and Tittleshill in Norfolk. He was born +on the 26th of August 1780 at Ingoldsthorpe, and entered the navy in +April 1793, under the special care of Nelson, who had a lively affection +for him. He became lieutenant in 1798, and was appointed commander of +the "Mutine" brig after the battle of the Nile, at which he was present +as lieutenant of the "Theseus." In 1802 he was promoted post captain by +Lord St Vincent. During all his active career, he was employed in the +Mediterranean and the Adriatic. From 1808 to 1814 he held the command of +a detached force of frigates, and was engaged in operations against the +French who held Dalmatia at the time, and in watching, or, when they +came out, fighting, the ships of the squadron formed at Venice by +Napoleon's orders. The work was admirably done, and was also lucrative; +and Hoste, although he occasionally complained that his exertions did +not put much money in his pocket, made a fortune of at least £60,000 by +the capture of Italian and Dalmatian merchant ships. He also made many +successful attacks on the French military posts on shore. His most +brilliant feat was performed on the 13th of March 1811. A +Franco-Venetian squadron of six frigates and five small vessels, under +the command of a French officer named Dubourdieu, assailed Hoste's small +force of four frigates near the island of Lissa. The French officer +imitated Nelson's attack at Trafalgar by sailing down on the English +line from windward with his ships in two lines. But the rapid +manoeuvring and gunnery of Hoste's squadron proved how little virtue +there is in any formation in itself. Dubourdieu was killed, one of the +French frigates was driven on shore, and two of the Venetians were +taken. After the action, which attracted a great deal of attention, +Hoste returned to England, but in 1812 he was back on his station, where +he remained till the end of the war. During the peace he did not again +go to sea, and he died on the 6th of December 1828. He married Lady +Harriet Walpole in April 1817, and left three sons and three daughters. + + In 1833 his widow published his _Memoirs and Letters_. See also + Marshall, _Roy. Nav. Biog._ vol. iii., and James, _Naval History_. + + + + +HOSTEL, the old name for an inn (see HOSPITAL, ad init.); also employed +at Oxford and Cambridge to designate the lodgings which were in ancient +times occupied by students of the university and to a certain extent +regulated by the authorities. In some English public schools what is +known as the "hostel" system provides for an organization of the lodging +accommodation under separate masterships. + + + + +HOSTIUS, Roman epic poet, probably flourished in the 2nd century B.C. He +was the author of a _Bellum Histricum_ in at least seven books, of which +only a few fragments remain. The poem is probably intended to celebrate +the victory gained in 129 by Gaius Sempronius Tuditanus (consul and +himself an annalist) over the Illyrian Iapydes (Appian, _Illyrica_, 10; +Livy, _epit._ 59). Hostius is supposed by some to be the "doctus avus" +alluded to in Propertius (iv. 20. 8), the real name of Propertius's +Cynthia, according to Apuleius (_Apologia_ x.) and the scholiast on +Juvenal (vi. 7), being Hostia (perhaps Roscia). + + Fragments in E. Bährens, _Fragmenta poetarum Romanorum_ (1884); A. + Weichert, _Poetarum Latinorum reliquiae_ (1830). + + + + +HOSUR, a town of British India, in the Salem district of Madras, 24 m. +E. of Bangalore. Pop. (1901) 6695. It contains an old fort, frequently +mentioned in the history of the Mysore wars, and a fine castellated +mansion built by a former collector. Close by is the remount depôt, +established in 1828, where Australian horses are acclimatized and +trained for artillery and cavalry use in southern India. + + + + +HOTCH-POT, or HOTCH-POTCH (from Fr. _hocher_, to shake; used as early as +1292 as a law term, and from the 15th century in cookery for a sort of +broth with many ingredients, and so used figuratively for any +heterogeneous mixture), in English law, the name given to a rule of +equity whereby a person, interested along with others in a common fund, +and having already received something in the same interest, is required +to surrender what has been so acquired into the common fund, on pain of +being excluded from the distribution. "It seemeth," says Littleton, +"that this word _hotch-pot_ is in English a pudding; for in a pudding is +not commonly put one thing alone, but one thing with other things +together." The following is an old example given in Coke on Littleton: +"If a man seized of 30 acres of land in fee hath issue only two +daughters, and he gives with one of them 10 acres in marriage to the man +that marries her, and dies seized of the other 20; now she that is thus +married, to gain her share of the rest of the land, must put her part +given in marriage into hotch-pot; i.e. she must refuse to take the +profits thereof, and cause her land to be so mingled with the other that +an equal division of the whole may be made between her and her sister, +as if none had been given to her; and thus for her 10 acres she shall +have 15, or otherwise the sister will have the 20." In the common law +this seems to have been the only instance in which the rule was applied, +and the reason assigned for it is that, inasmuch as daughters succeeding +to lands take together as coparceners and not by primogeniture, the +policy of the law is that the land in such cases should be equally +divided. The law of hotch-pot applies only to lands descending in +fee-simple. The same principle is noticed by Blackstone as applying in +the customs of York and London to personal property. It is also +expressly enacted in the Statute of Distributions (§ 5) that no child of +the intestate, except his heir-at-law, who shall have any estate in land +by the settlement of the intestate, or who shall be advanced by the +intestate in his lifetime by pecuniary portion equal to the distributive +shares of the other children, shall participate with them in the +surplus; but if the estate so given to such child by way of advancement +be not equivalent to their shares, then such part of the surplus as will +make it equal shall be allotted to him. It has been decided that this +provision applies only to advancements by _fathers_, on the ground that +the rule was founded on the custom of London, which never affected a +widow's personal estate. The heir-at-law is not required to bring any +land which he has by descent or otherwise from the deceased into +hotch-pot, but advancements made to him out of the personal property +must be brought in. The same principle is to be found in the _collatio +bonorum_ of the Roman law: emancipated children, in order to share the +inheritance of their father with the children unemancipated, were +required to bring their property into the common fund. It is also found +in the law of Scotland. + + + + +HÔTEL-DE-VILLE, the town hall of every French municipality. The most +ancient example still in perfect preservation is that at St-Antonin +(Tarn-et-Garonne) dating from the middle of the 12th century. Other fine +town halls are those of Compiègne, Orléans, Saumur, Beaugency and St +Quentin. The Hôtel de Ville in Paris built in the 16th century was burnt +by the Commune in 1871 and has since been rebuilt on an extended site, +the central portion of the main front being a reproduction of the old +design. There is only one town hall in a French town, those erected for +the mayors of the different arrondissements in Paris being called +_mairies_. + + + + +HÔTEL-DIEU, the name given to the principal hospital in any French town. +The Hôtel-Dieu in Paris was founded in the year A.D. 660, has been +extended at various times, and was entirely rebuilt between 1868-1878. +One of the most ancient in France is at Angers, dating from 1153. The +Hôtel-Dieu of Beaune (Côte-d'Or), founded 1443, is one of the most +interesting, as it retains the picturesque disposition of its courtyard, +with covered galleries on two storeys and large dormer windows; and the +great hall of the Hôtel-Dieu at Tonnerre, Yonne (1338), nearly 60 ft. +wide and over 300 ft. long, is still preserved as part of the chief +hospital of the town. + + + + +HOTHAM, SIR JOHN (d. 1645), English parliamentarian, belonged to a +Yorkshire family, and fought on the continent of Europe during the early +part of the Thirty Years' War. In 1622 he was made a baronet, and he was +member of parliament for Beverley in the five parliaments between 1625 +and 1640, being sheriff of Yorkshire in 1635. In 1639 he was deprived by +the king of his office of governor of Hull, and joining the +parliamentary party refused to pay ship-money. In January 1642 Hotham +was ordered by the parliament to seize Hull, where there was a large +store of munitions of war; this was at once carried out by his son John. +Hotham took command of Hull and in April 1642 refused to admit Charles +I. to the town. Later he promised his prisoner, Lord Digby, that he +would surrender it to the king, but when Charles appeared again he +refused a second time and drove away the besiegers. Meanwhile the +younger Hotham was taking an active part in the Civil War in Yorkshire +and Lincolnshire, but was soon at variance with other parliamentary +leaders, especially with the Fairfaxes, and complaints about his conduct +and that of his troops were made by Cromwell and by Colonel Hutchinson. +Soon both the Hothams were corresponding with the earl of Newcastle, and +the younger one was probably ready to betray Hull; these proceedings +became known to the parliament, and in June 1643 father and son were +captured and taken to London. After a long delay they were tried by +court-martial, were found guilty and were sentenced to death. The +younger Hotham was beheaded on the 2nd of January 1645, and in spite of +efforts made by the House of Lords and the Presbyterians to save him, +the elder suffered the same fate on the following day. Sir John Hotham +had two other sons who were persons of some note: Charles Hotham +(1615-c. 1672), rector of Wigan, a Cambridge scholar and author of _Ad +philosophiam Teutonicam Manuductio_ (1648); and Durant Hotham +(1617-1691), who wrote a _Life of Jacob Boehme_ (1654). + + + + +HOTHAM, WILLIAM HOTHAM, 1st Baron (1736-1813), British Admiral, son of +Sir Beaumont Hotham (d. 1771), a lineal descendant of the above Sir John +Hotham, was educated at Westminster School and at the Royal Naval +Academy, Portsmouth. He entered the navy in 1751, and spent most of his +midshipman's time in American waters. In 1755 he became lieutenant in +Sir Edward Hawke's flagship the "St George," and he soon received a +small command, which led gradually to higher posts. In the "Syren" (20) +he fought a sharp action with the French "Télémaque" of superior force, +and in the "Fortune" sloop he carried, by boarding, a 26-gun privateer. +For this service he was rewarded with a more powerful ship, and from +1757 onwards commanded various frigates. In 1759 his ship the "Melampe," +with H.M.S. "Southampton," fought a spirited action with two hostile +frigates of similar force, one of which became their prize. The +"Melampe" was attached to Keppel's squadron in 1761, but was in the main +employed in detached duty and made many captures. In 1776, as a +commodore, Hotham served in North American waters, and he had a great +share in the brilliant action in the Cul de Sac of St Lucia (Dec. 15th, +1778). Here he continued till the spring of 1781, when he was sent home +in charge of a large convoy of merchantmen. Off Scilly Hotham fell in +with a powerful French squadron, against which he could effect nothing, +and many of the merchantmen went to France as prizes. In 1782 Commodore +Hotham was with Howe at the relief of Gibraltar, and at the time of the +Spanish armament of 1790 he flew his flag as rear-admiral of the red. +Some time later he was made vice-admiral. As Hood's second-in-command in +the Mediterranean he was engaged against the French Revolutionary navy, +and when his chief retired to England the command devolved upon him. On +March 12th, 1794 he fought an indecisive fleet action, in which the +brunt of the fighting was borne by Captain Horatio Nelson, and some +months later, now a full admiral, he again engaged, this time under +conditions which might have permitted a decisive victory; of this +affair Nelson wrote home that it was a "miserable action." A little +later he returned to England, and in 1797 he was made a peer of Ireland +under the title of Baron Hotham of South Dalton, near Hull. He died in +1813. Hotham lacked the fiery energy and genius of a Nelson or a Jervis, +but in subordinate positions he was a brave and capable officer. + +As Hotham died unmarried his barony passed to his brother, Sir Beaumont +Hotham (1737-1814), who became 2nd Baron Hotham in May 1813. Beaumont, +who was a baron of the exchequer for thirty years, died on the 4th of +March 1814, and was succeeded as 3rd baron by his grandson Beaumont +Hotham (1794-1870), who was present at the battle of Waterloo, being +afterwards a member of parliament for forty-eight years. He died +unmarried in December 1870 and was succeeded by his nephew, Charles +(1836-1872), and then by another nephew, John (1838-1907). In 1907 his +cousin Frederick William (b. 1863) became the 6th baron. + +Other distinguished members of this family were the 2nd baron's son, Sir +Henry Hotham (1777-1833), a vice-admiral, who saw a great deal of +service during the Napoleonic wars; and Sir William Hotham (1772-1848), +a nephew of the 1st baron, who served with Duncan in 1797 off Camperdown +and elsewhere. + + See Charnock, _Biographia navalis_, vi. 236. + + + + +HOTHO, HEINRICH GUSTAV (1802-1873), German historian of art, was born at +Berlin in 1802, and died in his native city on Christmas day 1873. +During boyhood he was affected for two years with blindness consequent +on an attack of measles. But recovering his sight he studied so hard as +to take his degree at Berlin in 1826. A year of travel spent in visiting +Paris, London and the Low Countries determined his vocation. He came +home delighted with the treasures which he had seen, worked laboriously +for a higher examination and passed as "docent" in aesthetics and art +history. In 1829 he was made professor at the university of Berlin. In +1833 G. F. Waagen accepted him as assistant in the museum of the +Prussian capital; and in 1858 he was promoted to the directorship of the +print-room. During a long and busy life, in which his time was divided +between literature and official duties, Hotho's ambition had always been +to master the history of the schools of Germany and the Netherlands. +Accordingly what he published was generally confined to those countries. +In 1842-1843 he gave to the world his account of German and Flemish +painting. From 1853 to 1858 he revised and published anew a part of this +work, which he called "The school of Hubert van Eyck, with his German +precursors and contemporaries." His attempt later on to write a history +of Christian painting overtasked his strength, and remained unfinished. +Hotho is important in the history of aesthetics as having developed +Hegel's theories; but he was deficient in knowledge of Italian painting. + + + + +HOTI-MARDAN, or MARDAN, a frontier cantonment of British India in the +Peshawar district of the North-West Frontier Province, situated 15 m. N. +of Nowshera. Pop. (1901) 3572. It is notable as the permanent +headquarters of the famous corps of Guides, and also contains a cavalry +brigade belonging to the 1st division of the northern army. + + + + +HOTMAN, FRANÇOIS (1524-1590), French publicist, eldest son of Pierre +Hotman, was born on the 23rd of August 1524, at Paris, his family being +of Silesian origin. His name is latinized by himself Hotomanus, by +others Hotomannus and Hottomannus. His father, a zealous Catholic, and a +counsellor of the parlement of Paris, destined him for the law, and sent +him at the age of fifteen to the university of Orleans. He obtained his +doctorate in three years, and became a pleader at Paris. The arts of the +barrister were not to his taste; he turned to the study of jurisprudence +and literature, and in 1546 was appointed lecturer in Roman Law at the +university of Paris. The fortitude of Anne Dubourg under torture gained +his adhesion to the cause of Reform. Giving up a career on which he had +entered with high repute, he went in 1547 to Lyons, and thence to Geneva +and to Lausanne, where, on the recommendation of Calvin, he was +appointed professor of belles-lettres and history, and married Claudine +Aubelin, a refugee from Orleans. On the invitation of the magistracy, +he lectured at Strassburg on law in 1555, and became professor in 1556, +superseding François Baudouin, who had been his colleague in Paris. His +fame was such that overtures were made to him by the courts of Prussia +and Hesse, and by Elizabeth of England. Twice he visited Germany, in +1556 accompanying Calvin to the Diet at Frankfort. He was entrusted with +confidential missions from the Huguenot leaders to German potentates, +carrying at one time credentials from Catherine de Medici. In 1560 he +was one of the principal instigators of the conspiracy of Amboise; in +September of that year he was with Antoine of Navarre at Nérac. In 1562 +he attached himself to Condé. In 1564 he became professor of civil law +at Valence, retrieving by his success the reputation of its university. +In 1567 he succeeded Cujas in the chair of jurisprudence at Bourges. +Five months later his house and library were wrecked by a Catholic mob; +he fled by Orleans to Paris, where L'Hôpital made him historiographer to +the king. As agent for the Huguenots, he was sent to Blois to negotiate +the peace of 1568. He returned to Bourges, only to be again driven away +by the outbreak of hostilities. At Sancerre, during its siege, he +composed his _Consolatio_ (published in 1593). The peace of 1570 +restored him to Bourges, whence a third time he fled, in consequence of +the St Bartholomew massacre (1572). In 1573, after publishing his +_Franco-Gallia_, he left France for ever with his family, and became +professor of Roman law at Geneva. On the approach of the duke of Savoy +he removed to Basel in 1579. In 1580 he was appointed councillor of +state to Henry of Navarre. The plague sent him in 1582 to Montbéliard; +here he lost his wife. Returning to Geneva in 1584 he developed a kind +of scientific turn, dabbling in alchemy and the research for the +philosopher's stone. In 1589 he made his final retirement to Basel, +where he died on the 12th of February 1590, leaving two sons and four +daughters; he was buried in the cathedral. + +Hotman was a man of pure life, real piety (as his _Consolatio_ shows) +and warm domestic virtues. His constant removals were inspired less by +fear for himself than by care for his family, and by a temperament +averse to the conditions of warfare, and a constitutional desire for +peace. He did much for 16th-century jurisprudence, having a critical +knowledge of Roman sources, and a fine Latin style. He broached the idea +of a national code of French law. His works were very numerous, +beginning with his _De gradibus cognationis_ (1546), and including a +treatise on the Eucharist (1566); a treatise (_Anti-Tribonien_, 1567) to +show that French law could not be based on Justinian; a life of Coligny +(1575); a polemic (_Brutum fulmen_, 1585) directed against a bull of +Sixtus V., with many other works on law, history, politics and classical +learning. His most important work, the _Franco-Gallia_ (1573), was in +advance of his age, and found favour neither with Catholics nor with +Huguenots in its day; yet its vogue has been compared to that obtained +later by Rousseau's _Contrat Social_. It presented an ideal of +Protestant statesmanship, pleading for a representative government and +an elective monarchy. It served the purpose of the Jesuits in their +pamphlet war against Henry IV. + + See Bayle, Dictionnaire; R. Dareste, _Essai sur F. Hotman_ (1850); E. + Grégoire, in _Nouvelle Biog. générale_ (1858). (A. Go.*) + + + + +HOT SPRINGS, a city of Arkansas, U.S.A., the county-seat of Garland +county, at the easterly base of the Ozark mountains, 55 m. by rail +W.S.W. of Little Rock. Pop. (1880) 3554; (1890) 8086; (1900) 9973, of +whom 3102 were of negro descent and 561 were foreign-born; (1910 census) +14,434. The transient population numbers more than 100,000 annually. Hot +Springs is served by the Chicago, Rock Island & Pacific, the Little Rock +& Hot Springs Western, and the St Louis, Iron Mountain & Southern +railways. The city lies partly in several mountain ravines and partly on +a plateau. A creek, flowing through the valley but walled over, empties +into the Ouachita river several miles from Hot Springs. The elevation of +the surrounding hills is about 1200 ft. above the sea and 600 above the +surrounding country. The scenery is beautiful, and there is a remarkable +view from a steel tower observatory, 150 ft. high, on the top of Hot +Springs mountain. The climate is delightful. The average rainfall for +the year is about 55 in. The springs are about forty-four in number, +rising within an area of 3 acres on the slope of Hot Springs mountain. +They are all included within a reservation held by the United States +government, which (since 1903) exercises complete jurisdiction. The +daily flow from the springs used is more than 800,000 gallons. Their +temperature varies from 95° to 147° F. The waters are tasteless and +inodorous, and contain calcium and magnesium bicarbonates, combinations +of hydrogen and silicon, and of iodides, bromides and lithium. The +national government maintains at Hot Springs an army and navy hospital, +and a bath-house open gratuitously to indigent bathers. The business of +Hot Springs consists mainly in caring for its visitors. Fruit-raising +and small gardening characterize its environs. There are sulphur, lithia +and other springs near the city, and an ostrich farm and an alligator +farm in the suburbs. The finest of the novaculite rocks of central +Arkansas are quarried near the city. The total value of its factory +product in 1905 was $597,029, an increase of 213.1% since 1900. + +The Springs were first used by the itinerant trappers. They were visited +about 1800 by French hunters; and by members of the Lewis and Clark +party in 1804 under instructions from President Thomas Jefferson. The +permanent occupation of the town site dates only from 1828, though as +early as 1807 a temporary settlement was made. In 1876 Hot Springs was +incorporated as a town, and in 1879 it was chartered as a city. In 1832 +Congress created a reservation, but the right of the government as +against private claimants was definitely settled only in 1876, by a +decision of the United States Supreme Court. The city was almost +destroyed by fire in 1878, and was greatly improved in the rebuilding. + + + + +HOT SPRINGS, a hamlet and health-resort in Cedar Creek District, Bath +county, Virginia, U.S.A., 25 m. by rail (a branch of the Chesapeake & +Ohio railway) N. by E. of Covington and near the N.W. border of the +state. It lies in a narrow valley, about 2200-2500 ft. above the sea, +with rugged mountains on either side. Pop. of the district (1900) 1761; +(1910) 2472. The mean summer temperature is only 69° F., and the summer +nights are always cool. There is a good golf-course. Mineral waters +(with magnesia, soda-lithia and alum) issue from several springs, some +at a temperature as high as 106° F., and are used both for drinking and +for bathing. The Warm Sulphur Springs (about 98° F.) are 5 m. N.; +Healing Springs (85° F.) are 2½ m. S. of Hot Springs; and a few miles to +the S.E., in Rockbridge county, are Rockbridge and Jordan Alum Springs. + + + + +HOTTENTOTS, an African people of western Cape Colony and the adjoining +German territory, formerly widely spread throughout South Africa. The +name is that given them by the early Dutch settlers at the Cape, being a +Dutch word of an onomatopoeic kind to express stammering, in reference +to the staccato pronunciation and clicks of the native language. Some +early writers termed them Hodmadods or Hodmandods, and others Hot-nots +and Ottentots--all corruptions of the same word. Their name for +themselves was Khoi-Khoin (men of men), or Quae Quae, Kwekhena, +t'Kuhkeub, the forms varying according to the several dialects. Early +authorities believed them to be totally distinct from all other African +races. The researches of Gustav Fritsch, Dr E. T. Hamy, F. Shrubsall and +others have demonstrated, however, that they are not so much a distinct +or independent variety of mankind as the result of a very old cross +between two other varieties--the Bantu Negro (containing a distinct +Hamitic element) and the Bushman. Hamy calls them simply "Bushman-Bantu +half-breeds," the Bushman element being seen in the leathery colour, +compared to that of the "sere and yellow leaf"; in the remarkably +prominent cheekbones and pointed chin, giving the face a peculiarly +triangular shape; and lastly, in such highly specialized characters as +the _tablier_ and the _steatopygia_ of the women. The cranial capacity +is also nearly the same (1331 c.c. in the Bushman, 1365 c.c. in the +Hottentot), and on these anatomical grounds Shrubsall concludes that the +two are essentially one race, allowing for the undeniable strain of +Bantu blood in the Hottentot. This view is further strengthened by the +vast range in prehistoric times of the Hottentot variety, which, since +the time of Martin H. K. Lichtenstein (1800-1804), was known to have +comprised the whole of Africa south of the Zambezi, and has since been +extended as far north as the equatorial lake region. + +Fritsch divides the Hottentots into three bodies; the Cape Hottentots, +from the Cape peninsula eastward to Kaffraria, the Koranna, chiefly on +the right bank of the Orange river, but also found on the Harts and the +Vaal, and the Namaqua in the western portion of South Africa. Of these +all save the last mentioned have ceased to exist in any racial purity. +The name which the Namaqua give to themselves is _Khoi-Khoin_, and this +name must be distinguished from that of the Berg-Damara or _Hau-Khoin_, +since the latter are physically of Bantu origin though they have +borrowed their speech from the Hottentots. While the Namaqua preserve +the racial type and speech, the other so-called Hottentots are more or +less Hottentot-Dutch or Hottentot-Bantu half-breeds, mainly of debased +Dutch speech, although the Koranna still here and there speak a moribund +Hottentot jargon flooded with Dutch and English words and expressions. +When the Cape Colony became a part of the British empire the protection +given to the natives arrested the process of extermination with which +the Hottentots were then threatened, but it did not promote racial +purity. Sir John Barrow, describing the condition of the Hottentots in +1798, estimated their number at about 15,000 souls. In 1806 the official +return gave a Hottentot population of 9784 males and 10,642 females. In +1824 they had increased to 31,000. At the census of 1865 they numbered +81,589, but by this time the official classification "Hottentot" +signified little more than a half-breed. The returns for 1904 showed a +"Hottentot" population of 85,892. Very few of these were pure-bred +Hottentots, while the official estimate of those in which Hottentot +blood was strongly marked was 56,000. + + _Customs and Culture._--The primitive character of the race having + greatly changed, the best information as to their original manners and + customs is therefore to be found in the older writers. All these agree + in describing the Hottentots as a gentle and friendly people. They + held in contempt the man who could eat, drink or smoke alone. They + were hospitable to strangers, even to the point of impoverishing + themselves. Although mentally and physically indolent, they were + active in the care of their cattle and, within certain limits, clever + hunters. They were of a medium height, the females rather smaller than + the men, slender but well proportioned, with small hands and feet. + Their skin was of a leathery brown colour; their face oval, with + prominent cheekbones; eyes dark brown or black and wide apart; nose + broad and thick and flat at the root; chin pointed and mouth large, + with thick turned-out lips. Their woolly hair grew in short thick + curly tufts and the beard was very scanty. Amongst the women abnormal + developments of fat were somewhat common; and cases occurred of + extraordinary elongation of the _labia minora_ and of the _praeputium + clitoridis_.[1] + + Their dress was a skin cloak (kaross) worn across the shoulders and a + smaller one across the loins. They wore these cloaks all the year + round, turning the hairy side inward in winter and outward in summer; + they slept in them at night, and when they died they were buried in + them. They had suspended around their necks little bags or pouches, + containing their knives, their pipes and tobacco or dakka (_Cannabis_, + or hemp), and an amulet of burnt wood. On their arms were rings of + ivory. Sometimes they wore sandals and carried a jackal's tail + fastened on a stick, which served as handkerchief and fan. The women + wore, besides the kaross, a little apron to which were hung their + ornaments; and underneath this one or two fringed girdles; and a skin + cap. Both sexes smeared themselves and even their dress with an + ointment made of soot, butter or fat, and the powdered leaves of a + shrub called by them _bucchu (Diosma crenata)_. + + Their villages were usually on meadow grounds. They never entirely + exhausted the grass but kept moving from one pasture to another. The + huts were in circles, the area of which varied with the pastoral + wealth of the community. In the centre of the huts a hole served for a + fire-place, and at each side of this small excavations an inch or two + deep were made in the ground in which both sexes, rolled up in their + karosses, slept. A few earthen vessels, well-made bowls of wood, + tortoise shells for spoons and dishes, calabashes, bamboos and skins + for holding milk and butter, and mats of rushes interwoven with bast, + were all their furniture. Their weapons were primarily bows and + arrows, but they also possessed assegais, and knob-kerries. To women + much respect was shown; the most sacred oath a Hottentot could take + was to swear by his sister or mother; yet the females ate apart from + the men and did all the work of the kraal with the exception of the + tending of cattle and of the curing of the hides; the men, however, + assisted in the erection of the framework of the huts. The usual food + of the Hottentots was milk, the flesh of the buffalo, hippopotamus, + antelope or other game, and edible roots and bulbs or wild fruits. On + the coast fish captured by hooks and lines or spears were also eaten. + Cows' milk was commonly drunk by both sexes, but ewes' milk only by + the women, and when cows' milk was scarce the women were obliged to + keep to ewes' milk or water. Milk was drunk fresh, and not allowed to + turn sour as among the Bantu. Meats were eaten either roasted or + boiled, but for the most part half raw, without salt, spices or bread. + From some meats they carefully abstained, such as swine's flesh. Hares + and rabbits were forbidden to the men, but not to the women; the pure + blood of beasts and the flesh of the mole were forbidden to the women, + but not to the men. + + In occupation they were essentially cattle-breeders, and showed great + skill in this pursuit, especially the Namaqua, who were capable of + training the horns of their cattle so that they grew in spirals. Their + social pleasures consisted in feasting, smoking, dancing and singing. + Dances were held every first quarter of the moon and lasted all night, + often for eight days in succession. Every signal event of life, and + every change of abode and condition was celebrated with a feast. On + the formation of a new kraal an arbour was constructed in the centre, + and the women and children adorned and perfumed it with flowers and + branches of trees and odoriferous herbs. The fattened ox was killed + and cooked, and the men ate of it in the arbour, while the women + sitting apart regaled themselves with broth. Upon such occasions the + only intoxicant was tobacco or dakka. + + Circumcision, which is common to the Kaffir tribes, was unknown to the + Hottentots, but when a youth entered upon manhood a ceremony was + performed. One of the elders, using a knife of quartz, made incisions + in the young man's body, afterwards besprinkling them with urine. When + a man killed his first elephant, hippopotamus or rhinoceros, similar + marks were made on his body, and were regarded as insignia of honour. + Finger mutilation was common, especially among women; this consisted + in the removal of one or two joints of the little finger, and, + sometimes, the first joint of the next. The reason for this is + doubtful; it may have been a sign of mourning, or, especially in the + case of children, it may have been regarded as magically protective. + Marriages were by arrangement between the man and the girl's parents, + the consent of the girl herself being a matter of little + consideration. If accepted, the suitor, accompanied by all his + kindred, drove two or three fat oxen to the house of his bride. There + her relations welcomed the visitors; the oxen were slain, and the + bridal feast took place. The nuptial ceremony was concluded by an + elder besprinkling the happy pair. Among the southern Hottentots these + ancient usages have ceased; but they are continued among some tribes + north of the Orange river. Polygamy was allowed: divorce was common. + Family names were perpetuated in a peculiar manner--the sons took the + family name of the mother, the daughters that of the father. The + children were very respectful to their parents, by whom they were + kindly and affectionately treated. Yet the aged father or mother was + sometimes put in the bush and left to die. Namaqua says this was done + by very poor people if they had no food for their parents. But even + when there was food enough, aged persons, especially women, who were + believed to be possessed of the evil spirit, were so treated. + + The Hottentots had few musical instruments. One named the "gorah" was + formed by stretching a piece of the twisted entrails of a sheep from + end to end of a thin hollow stick about 3 ft. in length in the manner + of a bow and string. At one end there was a piece of quill fixed into + the stick, to which the mouth of the player was applied. The + "rommel-pot" was a kind of drum shaped like a bowl and containing + water to keep the membrane moist. Reeds several feet long were used as + flutes. + + _Government and Laws._--The system of government was patriarchal. Each + tribe had its hereditary "khu-khoi" or "gao-ao" or chief, and each + kraal its captain. These met in council whenever any great matters had + to be decided. The post was honorary, and the councillors were held in + great reverence, and were installed in office with solemnities and + feasting. In certain tribes the hind part of every bullock slaughtered + was sent to the chief, and this he distributed among the males of the + village. He also collected sufficient milk at the door of his hut to + deal out amongst the poor. A part of every animal taken in hunting was + exacted by the chief, even though it was in a state of putrefaction + when brought to him. The captains, assisted by the men of each kraal, + settled disputes regarding property and tried criminals. A murderer + was beaten or stoned to death; but if one escaped and was at large for + a whole year, he was allowed to go unpunished. Adultery seldom + occurred; if any one found parties in the act and killed them he was + no murderer, but on the contrary received praise for his deed. Women + found offending were burnt. Theft, especially cattle-stealing, was + severely punished. The thief was bound hand and foot, and left on the + ground without food for a long time; then, if his offence was slight, + he received some blows with a stick, but if the case was an + aggravated one, he was severely beaten, and then unloosed and banished + from the kraal. The family of even the worst criminal suffered nothing + on his account in reputation, privilege or property. The duel was an + institution. If any one was insulted he challenged his enemy by + offering him a handful of earth. If the latter seized the hand and the + dust fell to the ground, the challenge was accepted. If it was not + accepted, the challenger threw the dust in his foe's face. The duel + took place by kicking, with clubs, or with the spear and shield. + + _Religious Ideas._--The religious ideas of the Hottentots were very + obscure. François le Vaillant says they had "neither priests nor + temples, nor idols, nor ceremonials, nor any traces of the notion of a + deity." Other authorities state that they believed in a benevolent + deity or "Great Captain," whom they named Tik-guoa (_Tsu-goab_). There + were other "captains" of less power, and a black captain named Gauna, + the spirit of evil. The moon was a secondary divinity, supposed to + govern the weather; and its appearance each month was hailed with + dancing and singing.[2] George Schmidt, the first missionary to the + Hottentots, says they also celebrated the annual appearance of the + Pleiades above the eastern horizon. As soon as the constellation + appeared, all the mothers ascended the nearest hill, carrying their + babies, whom they taught to stretch their arms towards the friendly + stars. Some of the tribes are said to worship a being whom they name + Tusib, the rain god. An old Namaqua was once heard to say "The stars + are the souls of the deceased," and a Hottentot form of imprecation is + "Thou happy one, may misfortune fall on thee from the star of my + grandfather." + + Such as it was, the Hottentot religion was largely ancestor-worship. + Their deified hero was named _Heitsi-Eibib_; and of him endless + stories are told. The one most generally accepted is that he was a + notable warrior of great physical strength, who once ruled the + Khoi-Khoin, and that in a desperate struggle with one of his enemies, + whom he finally overcame, he received a wound in the knee, from which + event he got the name of "Wounded knee." He had extraordinary powers + during life, and after death he continued to be invoked as one who + could still relieve and protect. According to the tradition preserved + among the Namaqua, Heitsi-Eibib came from the east. Therefore they + make the doors of their huts towards the east, and those who possess + waggons and carts put their vehicles alongside the mat-house with the + front turned towards the east. All the graves are in true + west-easterly direction, so that the face of the deceased looks + towards the east. The spirit of Heitsi-Eibib is supposed to exist in + the old burial places, and, whenever a heathen Hottentot passes them, + he throws stones on the spot as an offering, at the same time invoking + the spirit's blessing and protection. Johann Georg von Hahn asserts + that there are many proofs which justify the conclusion that + Heitsi-Eibib and Tsu-goab (the supreme being) were identical. Both + were benevolent. Both were believed to have died and risen again. They + killed the bad beings and restored peace on earth; they promised men + immortality, understood the secrets of nature, and could foretell the + future.[3] + + Various ceremonies were practised to ward off the evil influence of + ghosts and spectres, and charms were freely employed. If a Khoi-Khoi + went out hunting his wife kindled a fire, and assiduously watched by + it to keep it alive; if the fire should be extinguished her husband + would not be lucky. If she did not make a fire, she went to the water + and kept on throwing it about on the ground, believing that thereby + her husband would be successful in getting game. Charms, consisting of + bones, burnt wood, and roots of particular shrubs cut into small + pieces, were generally worn round the neck. There was also a belief + that in every fountain there was a snake, and that as long as the + snake remained there water would continue to flow, but that if the + snake was killed or left the fountain it would cease. Offerings were + sometimes made to the spirit of the fountain. In common with the + Bushmen, the Hottentots venerated the _mantis fausta_, a local variety + of the insect known as "the praying mantis" (_mantis religiosa_). P. + Kolbe saw sacrifices made in its honour when it appeared inside a + kraal; to kill it was strictly forbidden. The Hottentots had great + faith in witch-doctors, or sorcerers. When called to a sick-bed these + ordered the patient to lie on his back, and then pinched, cuffed, and + beat him all over until they expelled the illness. After that they + produced a bone, small snake, frog or other object which they + pretended to have extracted from the patient's body. If the treatment + did not succeed, the person was declared incurably bewitched. If death + occurred, the corpse was interred on the day of decease. It was wrapt + in skins, and placed in the ground in the same position it once + occupied in the mother's womb. Death was generally regarded in a very + stoical manner. + + _Language._--The existence of a fundamental connexion between the + language of the Hottentot and that of the Bushman was suggested by Dr + Bleek and is supported by further evidence advanced by Bertin. + + The Hottentot language was regarded by the early travellers and + colonists as an uncouth and barbarous tongue. The Portuguese called + the native manner of speaking stammering; and the Dutch compared it to + the "gobbling of a turkey-cock." These phonetic characteristics arose + from the common use of "clicks,"--sounds produced by applying the + tongue to the teeth or to various parts of the gums or roof of the + mouth, and suddenly jerking it back. Three-fourths of the syllabic + elements of the language begin with these clicks, and combined with + them are several hard and deep gutturals and nasal accompaniments. The + difficulty a European has in acquiring an accurate pronunciation is + not so much in producing the clicking sound singly as in following it + immediately with another letter or syllable. The four recognized + clicks, with the symbols generally adopted to denote them, are as + follows: dental = |; palatal = #; lateral = ||; cerebral = !. + According to Tindall, one of the best grammarians of the language, the + dental click (similar to a sound of surprise or indignation) is + produced by pressing the top of the tongue against the upper front + teeth, and then suddenly and forcibly withdrawing it. The palatal + click (like the crack of a whip) is produced by pressing the tongue + with as flat a surface as possible against the termination of the + palate at the gums, so that the top of the tongue touches the upper + front teeth and the back of the tongue lies towards the palate, and + then forcibly withdrawing the tongue. The cerebral click (compared to + the popping of the cork of a bottle of champagne) is produced by + curling up the tip of the tongue against the roof of the palate, and + withdrawing it suddenly and forcibly. The lateral click (similar to + the sound used in stimulating a horse to action) is articulated by + covering with the tongue the whole of the palate and producing the + sound as far back as possible; Europeans imitate it by placing the + tongue against the side teeth and then withdrawing it. The easiest + Hottentot clicks, the dental and cerebral, have been adopted by the + Kaffirs; and it is a striking circumstance, in evidence of the past + Hottentot influence upon the Kaffir languages, that the clicking + decreases amongst these tribes almost in proportion to their distance + from the former Hottentot domain. + + The language in its grammatical structure is beautiful and regular. Dr + Bleek describes it as having the distinctive features of the + suffix-pronominal order or higher form of languages, in which the + pronouns are identical with and borrowed from the derivative suffixes + of the nouns. The words are mostly monosyllables, always ending, with + two exceptions, in a vowel or nasal sound. Among the consonants + neither _l_, nor _f_ nor _v_ is found. There are two _g_'s, _g_ hard + and _g_ guttural, and a deeper guttural _kh_. Diphthongs abound. There + is no article, but the definite or indefinite sense of a noun is + determined by the gender. In the fullest known dialect (that spoken by + the Namaqua) nouns are formed with eight different suffixes, which in + nouns designating persons distinguish masc. sing. (-_b_), masc. plur. + (-_ku_), masc. dual (_kha_), fem. sing, (-_s_), fem. plur. (-_ti_), + com. sing. (-_i_), com. plur. (-_u_), com. dual (-_ra_). The adjective + is either prefixed to a noun or referred to it by a suffixed pronoun. + This grammatical division of the nouns according to gender led to the + classification of the language as "sex-denoting," thus suggesting its + relationship, in original structure, with the Galla and others. + + There are four dialectical varieties of the language, each with + well-marked characteristics: the Nama dialect, spoken by the Namaqua + as well as by the Hau-Khoin or Hill Damara; the Kora dialect, spoken + by the Koranna, or Koraqua, dwelling about the middle and upper part + of the Orange, Vaal and Modder rivers; the Eastern dialect, spoken by + the Gona or Gonaqua on the borders of Kaffirland; and the Cape + dialect, now no longer spoken but preserved in the records of early + voyagers and settlers. Of the Nama dialect there are three grammars: + Wallmann's (1857) and Hahn's in German, and Tindall's (1871) in + English, the last being the best; and the four Gospels, with a large + amount of missionary literature, have been published in it. + + The vocabulary is not limited merely to the expression of the rude + conceptions that are characteristic of primitive races. It possesses + such words as _koi_, human being; _khoi-si_, kindly or friendly; + _koi-si-b_, philanthropist; _khoi-si-s_, humanity; # _ei_, to think; # + _ei-s_, thought; _amo_, eternal; _amo-si-b_, eternity; _tsa_, to feel; + _tsa-b_, feeling, sentiment; _tsa-kha_, to condole; _ama_, true; + _ama-b_, the truth; _anu_, sacred; _anu-si-b_, holiness; _esa_, + pretty; _anu-xa_, full of beauty. + + _Literature and History._--Much traditionary literature--fables, myths + and legends--existed amongst the Hottentots,--a fact first made known + by Sir James Alexander, who in his journeyings through Great + Namaqualand in 1835 jotted down the stories told him around the camp + fire by his Hottentot followers. These Hottentot tales generally have + much of the character of fables; some are in many points identical + with northern nursery tales, and suggestive of European origin or of + contact with the white man; but the majority bear evidence of being + true native products. Bleek's _Reynard the Fox in South Africa_ (1864) + contains a translation of a legend written down from the lips of the + Namaqua by the Rev. G. Krönlein, which is regarded as an excellent + specimen of the national style. Another legend relating to the moon + and the hare conveys the idea of an early conception of the hope of + immortality. It is found in various versions, and, like many other + stories, occurs in Bushman as well as in Hottentot mythology. + + The earliest accounts of the Hottentots occur in the narratives of + Vasco da Gama's first voyage to India round the Cape in 1497-1498. In + 1510 the Portuguese viceroy, Francisco d'Almeida, count of Abrantes, + met his death in a dispute with the natives. Till the 17th century + they were believed to be cannibals, but with the occupation of the + Cape by the Dutch, in 1652, more accurate knowledge was obtained. A + century of Dutch rule resulted in the Hottentots becoming a nation of + slaves and in serious danger of extermination, and thus the arrival of + the English in 1795 was welcomed by them. In 1828 an ordinance was + passed declaring "all Hottentots and other free persons of colour" + entitled to all and every right to which any other British subjects + were entitled. (See CAPE COLONY: _History_; and SOUTH AFRICA.) + + BIBLIOGRAPHY.--A. de Quatrefages, _Les Pygmées_ (1887); G. W. Stow, + _The Native Races of South Africa_ (1905); E. T. Hamy, "Les Races + nègres," in _L'Anthropologie_ (1897), pp. 257 et sqq.; F. Shrubsall, + "Crania of African Bush Races," in _Jour. Anthrop. Inst._ (November + 1897); W. H. J. Bleek, _A Comparative Grammar of South African + Languages_ (1862); and "Die Hottentotten Stämme," in _Petermanns Mit._ + (1858), pp. 49 et sqq.; G. Fritsch, _Die Eingebornen Süd-Afrikas_ + (1872), and "Schilderungen der Hottentotten," in _Globus_ (1875), pp. + 374 et sqq.; G. Bertin, "The Bushmen and their Language," in _Jour. R. + Asiat. Soc._ xviii., part i., and reprint; P. Kolbe or Kolben, + _Present State of the Cape of Good Hope_; Sir John Barrow, _Travels in + South Africa_ (1801-1804). + + +FOOTNOTES: + + [1] See paper by Messrs Flower and Murie in _Journ. Comp. Anat. and + Physiology_ (1867); and Fritsch, _Die Eingebornen Süd-Afrikas_ + (Breslau, 1873). + + [2] An interesting notice of this form of worship occurs in the + journal of an expedition which the Dutch governor, Ryk van Tulbagh, + sent to the Great Namaqua in 1752, which reached as far as the Kamob + or Lion river (about 27° S. lat.). + + [3] On the religion and antiquities see Theophilus Hahn's papers, + "Graves of the Heitsi-Eibib," in _Cape Monthly Magazine_ (1879). and + "Der hottentottische Zai-goab und der griechische Zeus," in + _Zeitschr. für Geogr._ (Berlin, 1870). + + + + +HOTTINGER, JOHANN HEINRICH (1620-1667), Swiss philologist and +theologian, was born at Zürich on the 10th of March 1620. He studied at +Geneva, Groningen and Leiden, and after visiting France and England was +in 1642 appointed professor of church history in his native town. The +chair of Hebrew at the Carolinum was added in 1643, and in 1653 he was +appointed professor ordinarius of logic, rhetoric and theology. He +gained such a reputation as an Oriental scholar that the elector +palatine in 1655 appointed him professor of Oriental languages and +biblical criticism at Heidelberg. In 1661, however, he returned to +Zürich, where in 1662 he was chosen principal of the university. In 1667 +he accepted an invitation to succeed Johann Hoornbeck (1617-1666) as +professor in the university of Leiden, but he was drowned with three of +his children by the upsetting of a boat while crossing the river Limmat. +His chief works are _Historia ecclesiastica Nov. Test._ (1651-1667); +_Thesaurus philologicus seu clavis scripturae_ (1649; 3rd ed. 1698); +_Etymologicon orientale, sive lexicon harmonicum heptaglotton_ (1661). +He also wrote a Hebrew and an Aramaic grammar. + +His son, JOHANN JAKOB HOTTINGER (1652-1735), who became professor of +theology at Zürich in 1698, was the author of a work against Roman +Catholicism, _Helvetische Kirchengeschichte_ (4 vols., 1698-1729); and +his grandson, JOHANN HEINRICH HOTTINGER (1681-1750), who in 1721 was +appointed professor of theology at Heidelberg, wrote a work on +dogmatics, _Typus doctrinae christianae_ (1714). + + + + +HOUBRAKEN, JACOBUS (1698-1780), Dutch engraver, was born at Dort, on the +25th of December 1698. All that his father, Arnold Houbraken +(1660-1719), bequeathed to him was a fine constitution and a pure love +for work. In 1707 he came to reside at Amsterdam, where for years he had +to struggle incessantly against difficulties. He commenced the art of +engraving by studying the works of Cornelis Cort, Suyderhoef, Edelinck +and the Visschers. He devoted himself almost entirely to portraiture. +Among his best works are scenes from the comedy of _De Ontdekte +Schijndeugd_, executed in his eightieth year, after Cornelis Troost, who +was called by his countrymen the Dutch Hogarth. He died on the 14th of +November 1780. + + See A. Ver Hull, _Jacobus Houbraken et son oeuvre_ (Arnhem, 1875), + where 120 engraved works are fully described. + + + + +HOUDENC (or HOUDAN), RAOUL DE, 12th-century French trouvère, takes his +name from his native place, generally identified with Houdain (Artois), +though there are twelve places bearing the name in one or other of its +numerous variants. It has been suggested that he was a monk, but from +the scattered hints in his writings it seems more probable that he +followed the trade of jongleur and recited his chansons, with small +success apparently, in the houses of the great. He was well acquainted +with Paris, and probably spent a great part of his life there. His +undoubted works are: _Le Songe d'enfer_, _La Voie de paradis_, _Le Roman +des eles_ (pr. by A. Scheler in _Trouvères belges_, New Series, 1897) +and the romance of _Méraugis de Portlesguez_, edited by M. Michelant +(1869) and by Dr M. Friedwagner (Halle, 1897). Houdenc was an imitator +of Chrétien de Troyes; and Huon de Méri, in his _Tournoi de +l'antéchrist_ (1226) praises him with Chrétien in words that seem to +imply that both were dead. _Méraugis de Portlesguez_, the hero of which +perhaps derives his name from Lesguez, the port of Saint Brieuc in +Brittany, is a _roman d'aventures_ loosely attached to the Arthurian +cycle. + + See Gaston Paris in _Hist. litt. de la France_, xxx. 220-237; W. + Zingerlé, _Über Raoul de Houdenc und seine Werke_ (Erlangen, 1880); + and O. Boerner, _Raoul de Houdenc. Eine stilistische Untersuchung_ + (1885). + + + + +HOUDETOT, a French noble family, taking its name from the lordship of +Houdetot, between Arques and St Valéry. Louis de Houdetot went with +Robert, duke of Normandy, to Palestine in 1034, and the various branches +of the family trace descent from Richard I. de Houdetot (fl. 1229), who +married Marie de Montfort. Charles Louis de Houdetot received a +marquisate in 1722, and on his son Claude Constance César, +lieutenant-general in the French army, was conferred the hereditary +title of count in 1753. His wife (see below) was the Madame de Houdetot +of Rousseau's _Confessions_. Their son César Louis Marie François Ange, +comte de Houdetot (1749-1825), was governor of Martinique (1803-1809) +and lieutenant-general (1814) under the Empire. His son Frédéric +Christophe, comte de Houdetot (1778-1859), was director-general of +indirect imposts in Prussia after Jena, and prefect of Brussels in 1813. +He acquiesced in the Restoration, but had to resign from the service +after the Hundred Days. He became a peer of France in 1819, and under +the Second Empire he was returned by the department of Calvados to the +Corps Législatif. His half-brother, Charles Île-de-France, comte de +Houdetot (1789-1866), was wounded at Trafalgar and transferred to the +army, in which he served through the Napoleonic wars. He retired at the +Restoration, but returned to the service in 1823, and in 1826 became +aide-de-camp to the duke of Orleans, becoming lieutenant-general in +1842. He sat in the Chamber of Deputies from 1837 to 1848, when he +followed Louis Philippe into exile. A third brother, César François +Adolphe, comte de Houdetot (1799-1869), was a well-known writer on +military and other subjects. + + + + +HOUDETOT, ELISABETH FRANÇOISE SOPHIE DE LA LIVE DE BELLEGARDE, COMTESSE +DE (1730-1813), was born in 1730. She married the comte de Houdetot (see +above) in 1748. In 1753 she formed with the marquis de Saint Lambert +(q.v.) a connexion which lasted till his death. Mme de Houdetot has been +made famous by the chapter in Rousseau's _Confessions_ in which he +describes his unreciprocated passion for her. When questioned on the +subject she replied that he had much exaggerated. A view differing +considerably from Rousseau's is to be found in the _Mémoires_ of Mme +d'Epinay, Mme de Houdetot's sister-in-law. + + For a discussion of her relations with Rousseau see + Saint-Marc-Girardin in the _Revue des deux mondes_ (September 1853). + + + + +HOUDON, JEAN ANTOINE (1740-1828), French sculptor, was born at +Versailles on the 18th of March 1740. At the age of twelve he entered +the École royale de Sculpture, and at twenty, having learnt all that he +could from Michel Ange Slodtz and Pigalle, he carried off the prix de +Rome and left France for Italy, where he spent the next ten years of his +life. His brilliant talent, which seems to have been formed by the +influence of that world of statues with which Louis XIV. peopled the +gardens of Versailles rather than by the lessons of his masters, +delighted Pope Clement XIV., who, on seeing the St Bruno executed by +Houdon for the church of St Maria degli Angeli, said "he would speak, +were it not that the rules of his order impose silence." In Italy Houdon +had lived in the presence of that second Renaissance with which the name +of Winckelmann is associated, and the direct and simple treatment of the +Morpheus which he sent to the Salon of 1771 bore witness to its +influence. This work procured him his "agrégation" to the Academy of +Painting and Sculpture, of which he was made a full member in 1775. +Between these dates Houdon had not been idle; busts of Catharine II., +Diderot and Prince Galitzin were remarked at the Salon of 1773, and at +that of 1775 he produced, not only his Morpheus in marble, but busts of +Turgot, Gluck (in which the marks of small-pox in the face were +reproduced with striking effect) and Sophie Arnould as Iphigeneia (now +in the Wallace Collection, London), together with his well-known marble +relief, "Grive suspendue par les pattes." He took also an active part in +the teaching of the academy, and executed for the instruction of his +pupils the celebrated Écorché still in use. To every Salon Houdon was a +chief contributor; most of the leading men of the day were his sitters; +his busts of d'Alembert, Prince Henry of Prussia, Gerbier, Buffon (for +Catharine of Russia) and Mirabeau are remarkable portraits; and in 1778, +when the news of Rousseau's death reached him, Houdon started at once +for Ermenonville, and there took a cast of the dead man's face, from +which he produced the grand and life-like head now in the Louvre. In +1779 his bust of Molière, at the Théâtre Français, won universal praise, +and the celebrated draped statue of Voltaire, in the vestibule of the +same theatre, was exhibited at the Salon of 1781, to which Houdon also +sent a statue of Marshal de Tourville, commissioned by the king, and the +Diana executed for Catharine II. This work was refused; the jury alleged +that a statue of Diana demanded drapery; without drapery, they said, the +goddess became a "suivante de Vénus," and not even the proud and frank +chastity of the attitude and expression could save the Diana of Houdon +(a bronze reproduction of which is in the Louvre) from insult. Three +years later he went to America, there to carry out a statue of +Washington. With Franklin, whose bust he had recently executed, Houdon +left France in 1785, and, staying some time with Washington at Mount +Vernon, he modelled the bust, with which he decided to go back to Paris, +there to complete the statue destined for the capitol of the State of +Virginia. After his return to his native country Houdon executed for the +king of Prussia, as a companion to a statue of Summer, La Frileuse, a +naif embodiment of shivering cold, which is one of his best as well as +one of his best-known works. The Revolution interrupted the busy flow of +commissions, and Houdon took up a half-forgotten project for a statue of +St Scholastica. He was immediately denounced to the convention, and his +life was only saved by his instant and ingenious adaptation of St +Scholastica into an embodiment of Philosophy. Under Napoleon, of whom in +1806 he made a nude statue now at Dijon, Houdon received little +employment; he was, however, commissioned to execute the colossal +reliefs intended for the decoration of the column of the "Grand Army" at +Boulogne (which ultimately found a different destination); he also +produced a statue of Cicero for the senate, and various busts, amongst +which may be cited those of Marshal Ney, of Josephine and of Napoleon +himself, by whom Houdon was rewarded with the legion of honour. He died +at Paris on the 16th of July 1828. + + See memoir by Émile Délerot and Arsène Legrelle in _Mémoires de la + société des sciences morales ... de Seine-et-Oise_, iv. 49 et seq. + (1857); Anatole de Montaiglon and Georges Duplessis in _Revue + universelle des arts_, i. and ii. (1855-1856); Hermann Dierks, + _Houdons Leben und Werke_ (Gotha, 1887); Albert Terrade, _Autour de la + statue de Jean Houdon_ (Versailles, 1892); P. E. Mangeant, _Sur une + statuette de Voltaire par J. Houdon_ (Paris, 1896). + + + + +HOUFFALIZE, a small town occupying an elevated position (nearly 1100 +ft.) in the extreme south-east of the province of Luxemburg, Belgium, +much visited during the summer on account of its fine bracing air. There +are the ruins of an old castle, and some remains of the still older +abbey of Val Ste Catherine. The parish church dates from the 13th or +14th century. It contains two old black marble tombs to Thierry of +Houffalize and Henri his son, the latter killed at Woeringen in 1288. +Houffalize is on the eastern Ourthe, and is connected by a steam tramway +with Bourcy on the line from Libramont to Bastogne, Spa and Liége. Pop. +(1904) 1486. + + + + +HOUGHTON, RICHARD MONCKTON MILNES, 1ST BARON (1809-1885), English poet +and man of letters, son of Robert Pemberton Milnes, of Fryston Hall, +Yorkshire, and the Hon. Henrietta Monckton, daughter of the fourth Lord +Galway, was born in London on the 19th of June 1809. He was educated +privately, and entered Trinity College, Cambridge, in 1827. There he +was at once drawn into a literary set, and became a member of the famous +"Apostles" Club, which then included Tennyson, Hallam, Trench, J. W. +Blakesley, afterwards dean of Lincoln, and others. After taking his +degree, Milnes travelled abroad, spending some time at Bonn University. +Thence he went to Italy and Greece, and published in 1834 a volume of +_Memorials of a Tour in some Parts of Greece_, describing his +experiences. He returned to London in 1837, and was in that year elected +to Parliament as member for Pontefract. His parliamentary career was +marked by much strenuous activity. He interested himself particularly in +the question of copyright and the conditions of reformatory schools. He +left Peel's party over the Corn Law controversy, and was afterwards +identified in politics with Palmerston, at whose instance he was made a +peer in 1863. His literary career was industrious and cultured, without +being exceptionally distinguished. Church matters had always a claim +upon him: he wrote a striking tract in 1841, which was praised by +Newman; and took part in the discussion about "Essays and Reviews," +defending the tractarian position in _One Tract More_ (1841). He +published two volumes of verse in 1838, _Memorials of Residence upon the +Continent and Poems of Many Years_, _Poetry for the People in 1840_ and +_Palm Leaves_ in 1844. He also wrote a _Life and Letters of Keats_ in +1848, the material for which was largely provided by the poet's friend, +Charles Armitage Brown. Milnes also contributed largely to the reviews. +His poetry is meditative and delicate; some of his ballads were among +the most popular of their day, and all his work was marked by +refinement. But his chief distinctions were his keen sense of literary +merit in others, and the judgment and magnanimity with which he fostered +it. He was surrounded by the most brilliant men of his time, many of +whom he had been the first to acclaim. His chief title to remembrance +rests on the part he played, as a man of influence in society and in +moulding public opinion on literary matters, in connexion with his large +circle of talented friends. He secured a pension for Tennyson, helped to +make Emerson known in Great Britain, and was one of the earliest +champions of Swinburne. He helped David Gray and wrote a preface for +_The Luggie_. He was, in the old sense of the word, a patron of letters, +and one who never abused the privileges of his position. Milnes married +in 1851 the Hon. Annabel Crewe (d. 1874). He died at Vichy on the 11th +of August 1885, and was buried at Fryston. His son, the second Baron +Houghton, was created Earl of Crewe (q.v.) in 1895. + + See _The Life, Letters and Friendships of Richard Monckton Milnes, + first Lord Houghton_ (1890), by Sir T. Wemyss Reid. + + + + +HOUGHTON-LE-SPRING, an urban district in the Houghton-le-Spring +parliamentary division of Durham, England, 6 m. N.E. of the city of +Durham. Pop. (1901) 7858. It is well situated at the head of a small +valley branching from that of the Wear. St Michael's church is a +cruciform Early English and Decorated building, with a picturesque +embattled rectory adjoining. Bernard Gilpin, "the Apostle of the North," +was rector of this parish from 1556 to 1583, and the founder of the +grammar school. The principal public buildings are a town hall, market +house and church institute. Houghton Hall is a fine mansion of the late +16th century. In the orchard stands a tomb, that of the puritan Sir +Robert Hutton (d. 1680), of whom a curious tradition states that he +desired burial beside his war-horse, the body of which was denied +interment in consecrated ground. The main road from Durham to Sunderland +here passes through a remarkable cutting in the limestone 80 ft. deep. +The district affords frequent evidence of ice activity in the glacial +period. The town is the centre of a large system of electric tramways. +The population is mainly dependent on the neighbouring collieries, but +limestone quarrying is carried on to some extent. + + + + +HOUND, a dog, now used, except in poetry, only of dogs of the chase, and +particularly of the breed used in hunting the fox, the "hound" _par +excellence_. Other breeds have a defining word prefixed, e.g. +boar-hound, stag-hound, &c. (see DOG). The O. Eng. _hund_ is the common +Teutonic name for the animal, cf. Du. _hond_, Ger. _Hund_, &c., and is +cognate with Sansk. _çvan_, Gr. [Greek: kyôn], Lat. _canis_, Ir. and +Gael. _cu_. + + + + +HOUNSLOW, a town in the Brentford parliamentary division of Middlesex, +England, 12½ m. W. by S. of St Paul's Cathedral, London, on the District +and London & South Western railways. Pop. (1901) 11,377. It has grown +into an extensive residential suburb of London. Its situation at the +junction of two great roads from the west of England made it an +important coaching station, and some 500 coaches formerly passed through +it daily. A priory of friars of the Holy Trinity was founded at Hounslow +in 1296, and existed till the dissolution of the monasteries. The priory +chapel was used as a church till 1830, after which its place was taken +by the existing church of the Holy Trinity (1835). Hounslow Heath, west +of the town, had, according to the survey of 1546, an area of 4293 +acres. It was the site of Roman and British camps, and in the wars of +the 17th century was the scene of several important military rendezvous. +It was a favourite resort of highwaymen, whose bodies were exposed on +gibbets along the road. In 1784 the base-line of the first +trigonometrical survey in England was laid down on the heath. In 1793 +large cavalry barracks were erected upon it, and it is also the site of +extensive powder mills. It began to be enclosed towards the end of the +reign of George III. In Osterley Park, N.E. of Hounslow, Sir Thomas +Gresham built a mansion in 1577, and this was rebuilt with great +magnificence by Francis and Robert Child c. 1770. Hounslow is divided +between the parishes of Heston and Isleworth. Pop. of urban district of +Heston and Isleworth (1901) 30,863. + + + + +HOUR, the twenty-fourth part of a civil day, the twelfth part of a +natural day or night, a space of time of sixty minutes' duration. The +word is derived through the O. Fr. _ure_, _ore_, _houre_, mod. _heure_, +from Lat. _hora_, Gr. [Greek: hôra], season, time of day, hour (see +CALENDAR). + + + + +HOUR ANGLE, the angular distance of a heavenly body from the meridian, +as measured around the celestial pole. It is equal to the angle at the +pole between the hour circle through the body and the meridian, but is +usually expressed in time. + + + + +HOUR-GLASS, a device for measuring intervals of time, also known as +sand-glass, and as log-glass when used in conjunction with the common +log for ascertaining the speed of a ship. It consists of two pear-shaped +bulbs of glass, united at their apices and having a minute passage +formed between them. A quantity of sand (or occasionally of mercury) is +enclosed in the bulbs, and the size of the passage is so proportioned +that this sand will completely run through from one bulb to another in +the time it is desired to measure--e.g. an hour or a minute. Instruments +of this kind, which have no great pretensions to accuracy, were formerly +common in churches. In the English House of Commons, as a preliminary to +a division, a two-minute sand-glass is still turned, and while the sand +is running the "division bells" are set in motion in every part of the +building, to give members notice that a division is at hand. + + + + +HOURI, the term for a beautiful virgin who awaits the devout Mahommedan +in Paradise. The word is the French representative of the Pers. _huri_, +Arab, _hawra'_, a black-eyed virgin, from _hawira_, to be black-eyed, +like a gazelle. + + + + +HOURS, CANONICAL, certain portions of the day set apart by rule (canon) +of the church for prayer and devotion. The Jewish custom of praying +three times a day, i.e. at the third, sixth and ninth hours, was +perpetuated in the early Christian Church (Acts ii. 15, iii. 1, x. 9), +and to these were added midnight (when Paul and Silas sang in prison), +and the beginning of day and of night. Ambrose, Augustine and Hilary +commended the example of the psalmist who gave praise "seven times a +day" (Ps. cxix. 164). The seventh (Compline, _Completorium_) was added +by Benedict. These hours were adopted especially in the monasteries as a +part of the canonical life, and spread thence to the cathedral and +collegiate chapters. + +Since the 6th century the number and order of the hours have been fixed +thus: matins, lauds, prime, terce, sext, none, vespers, compline. + +_Matins_ theoretically belongs to midnight, but in Italy it is said +about 7 or 8 A.M. and in France often on the preceding evening in +accordance with the statement "evening and morning were one day." At +matins is said the _Venite_ (Ps. xcv.) and a hymn, followed by a +_Nocturna_ or night-watch (on Sundays three) which consists of twelve +psalms. After the _nocturna_ comes a lesson divided into three parts, +one biblical and two patristic, and finally the _Te Deum_. + +_Lauds_ is proper to sunrise, but is mostly grouped with matins. It +consists of four psalms, a canticle, psalms 148-150, a hymn, the +Benedictus (Luke i. 68-79) and prayers. + +_Prime_ (6 A.M.), _Terce_ (9 A.M.), _Sext_ (noon) and _None_ (3 P.M.) +are called the Little Day Hours, are often said together, and are alike +in character, consisting of a hymn and some sections of Ps. cxix., +followed by a prayer. On Sundays the Athanasian Creed is said at prime. + +_Vespers_ or _Evensong_ consists of five varying psalms, a hymn, the +_Magnificat_ (Luke i. 46-55) and prayers. It belongs theoretically to +sunset. + +_Compline_, technically 9 P.M., but usually combined with vespers, is a +prayer for protection during the darkness. It consists of the general +confession, four fixed psalms, a hymn, the _Nunc dimittis_ (Luke ii. +29-32), prayers and a Commemoration of the Virgin. + + The term "canonical hours" is also used of the time during which + English marriages may be solemnized without special licence, i.e. + between 8 A.M. and 3 P.M. + + + + +HOUSE (O. Eng. _hús_, a word common to Teutonic languages, cf. Dut. +_huis_, Ger. _Haus_; in Gothic it is only found in _gudhûs_, a temple; +it may be ultimately connected with the root of "hide," conceal), the +dwelling-place of a human being (treated, from the architectural point +of view, below), or, in a transferred sense, of an animal, particularly +of one whose abode, like that of the beaver, is built by the animal +itself, or, like that of the snail, resembles in some fancied way a +human dwelling. Apart from the numerous compound uses of the word, +denoting the purpose for which a building is employed, such as +custom-house, lighthouse, bakehouse, greenhouse and the like, there may +be mentioned the particular applications to a chamber of a legislative +body, the Houses of Parliament, House of Representatives, &c.; to the +upper and lower assemblies of convocation; and to the colleges at a +university; the heads of these foundations, known particularly as +master, principal, president, provost, rector, &c., are collectively +called heads of houses. At English public schools a "house" is the usual +unit of the organization. In the "houses" the boys sleep, have their +"studies" and their meals, if the school is arranged on the +"boarding-house" system. The houses have their representative teams in +the school games, but have no place in the educational class-system of +the school. It may be noticed that in Scotland the words "house" and +"tenement" are used in a way distinct from the English use, "tenement" +being applied to the large block containing "houses," portions, i.e., +occupied by separate families. "The House" is the name colloquially +given to such different institutions as the London Stock Exchange, the +House of Commons or Lords and to a workhouse. + +In the transferred sense, "house" is used of a family, genealogically +considered, and of the audience at a public meeting or entertainment, +especially of a theatre. A "house-physician" and "house-surgeon" is a +member of the resident medical staff of a hospital. In astrology the +twelve divisions into which the heavens are divided, and through which +the planets pass, are known as houses, the first being called the "house +of life." The word "house," "housing," used of the trappings of a horse, +especially of a covering for the back and flanks, attached to the +saddle, is of quite distinct origin. In medieval Latin it appears as +_hucia_, _houssia_ and _housia_ (see Ducange, _Glossarium_, s.v. +_housia_), and comes into English from the O. Fr. _huche_, modern +_housse_. It has been supposed to have been adopted, at the time of the +crusades, from the Arabic _yushiah_, a covering. + +Architecturally considered, the term "house" is given to a building +erected for habitation, in contradistinction to one built for secular or +ecclesiastical purposes. The term extends, therefore, to a dwelling of +any size, from a single-room building to one containing as many rooms as +a palace; thus in London some of the largest dwellings are those +inhabited by royalty, such as Marlborough House, or others by men of +rank, such as Devonshire House, Bridgewater House, Spencer House, &c.; +and even those which, formerly built as habitations, have subsequently +been devoted to other purposes, such as Somerset House and Burlington +House, retain the term. In Paris the larger houses thus named would be +called _hôtel_. + +So far as the history of domestic architecture is concerned, the +earliest houses of which remains have been found are those of the +village of Kahun in Egypt, which were built for the workmen employed in +the building of the pyramid at Illahun, and deserted on its completion. +They varied in size from the habitations of the chief inspectors to the +single room of the ordinary labourer, and were built in unburnt brick +with open courts in the larger examples, to give light and air to the +rooms round. The models found in 1907 at Deir-Rifa opposite Assiut in +Upper Egypt, by Flinders Petrie, and assumed by him to be those of +"soul-houses," suggest that the early type of building consisted of a +hut, to which later a porch or lean-to, with two poles in front, has +been added; subsequently, columns replaced the poles, and a flat roof +with parapet, suggesting the primitive forms of the Egyptian temple. + +The only remains of early houses found in Mesopotamia are those within +the precincts of the Temple of Bel, at Nippur, occupied by the king; but +beyond the fact that the walls were built in unburnt brick and were +sometimes of great thickness, nothing is known. + +The houses in Crete would seem to have been small in area, but this was +compensated for in height, as the small plaques found in the palace at +Cnossus show houses in two or three storeys, with gable roofs and +windows subdivided by mullions and transomes, corresponding with those +of the 15th to 17th centuries in England. The stone staircase in the +palace rising through two storeys shows that even at this early period +the houses in towns had floors superposed one above the other; to a +certain extent the same extension existed in the later Greek houses +found in Delos, in two of which there was clear evidence of wooden +staircases leading within to the roof or to an upper storey. The largest +series hitherto discovered is that at Priene in Asia Minor, where the +remains of some thirty examples were found, varying in dimensions, but +all based on the same plan; this consisted of an entrance passage +leading to an open court, on the north side of which, and therefore +facing south, was an open portico, corresponding to the _prostas_ in +Vitruvius (vi. 7), and in the rear two large rooms, one of which might +be the oecus or sitting-room, and the other the thalamos or chief +bedroom. Other rooms round the court were the triclinium, or dining +room, and cubicula or bedchambers. The largest of these houses occupied +an area measuring 75 × 30 ft. Those found in Delos, though fewer in +number, are of much greater importance, the house in the street of the +theatre having twelve rooms exclusive of the entrance passage and the +great central court, surrounded on all four sides by a peristyle; in +this house the oecus measured 26 × 18 ft. In a second example the +prostas consisted of a long gallery, the whole width of the site, which +was lighted by windows at each end, the sills of which were raised 8 ft. +or 9 ft. from the floor. + +[Illustration: PLATE II. + + _Photo, Neurdein._ + FIG. 4.--MUSICIAN'S HOUSE, REIMS. + + _Photo, F. Frith & Co._ + FIG. 5.--JEW'S HOUSE, LINCOLN. + + _Photo, Neurdein._ + FIG. 6.--HÔTEL DE CLUNY, PARIS.] + +[Illustration: PLATE II. + + _Photo, Neurdein._ + FIG. 7.--HÔTEL DE JACQUES COEUR, BOURGES, FAÇADE. + + Fig. 8.--HALF-TIMBERED HOUSE AT HILDESHEIM. + + _Photo. F. Frith & Co._ + FIG. 9.--HOUSE OF JOHN HARVARD'S MOTHER, STRATFORD-ON-AVON.] + +The remains of the houses found in the Peiraeus are of the same simple +plan as those at Priene, and suggest that the Greek house was considered +to be the private residence only for the members of the family, and +without any provision for entertaining guests as in Rome and Pompeii. +From the descriptions given by Vitruvius (ii. 8) it may be gathered that +in his time many of the houses in Rome were built in unburnt brick, the +walls of which, if properly protected at the top with a course of burnt +brick projecting over the face of the brickwork, and coated inside and +outside with stucco, were considered to be more lasting than those built +in soft stone. Vitruvius refers also to Greek houses thus built, and +states that in the house of Mausolus, at Halicarnassus, the walls were +of unburnt brick, and the plastering with which they were covered was +so polished that they sparkled like glass. In Rome, however, he points +out, such walls ought to be forbidden, as they are not fit to carry an +upper storey, unless they are of great thickness, and as upper storeys +become necessary in a crowded city such walls would occupy too much +space. The houses in Pompeii (q.v.) were built in rubble masonry with +clay mortar, and their walls were protected at the top by burnt brick +courses and their faces with stucco; they were, however, of a second- or +third-rate class compared with those in Rome, the magnificence of which +is attested in the descriptions given by various writers and +substantiated by the remains occasionally found in excavations. +Vitruvius refers to upper storeys, which were necessary in consequence +of the limited area in Rome, and representations in mosaic floors and in +bas-relief sculpture have been found on which two or three storeys are +indicated. The plans of many Roman houses are shown on the _Marble +Plan_, and they resemble those of Pompeii, but it is probable that the +principal reception rooms were on an upper storey, long since destroyed. +The house of Livia on the Palatine Hill was in two storeys, and the +decoration was of a much finer character than those of Pompeii; this +house and the House of the Vestals might be taken as representative of +the Roman house in Rome itself. In those built in colder climates, as in +England and Germany, account has to be taken of the special provision +required for warming the rooms by hypocausts, of which numerous examples +have been found, with rich mosaic floors over them. + +Of the houses in succeeding centuries, those found in the cities of +central Syria, described in the article ARCHITECTURE, are wonderfully +perfect, in consequence of their desertion at the time of the Mahommedan +invasion in the 7th century. Very little is known of the houses in +Europe during the dark ages, owing to the fact that they were generally +built in wood, with thatched roofs. The only examples in stone which +have been preserved are those in the island of Skellig Michael, Kerry, +which were constructed like the beehive tombs at Mycenae with stone +courses overlapping inside until they closed in at the top. These houses +or cells were rectangular inside and round or oval outside, with a small +low door at one end, and an opening above to let the smoke out. + +The houses, even in large towns like London, were built mainly in wood, +in some cases down to the 17th century; in the country, the smaller +houses were constructed with trunks of trees in pairs, one end of the +trunk being sunk in the ground, the other bent over and secured by a +ridge piece, thus forming a pointed arch, the opening of which was about +11 ft. The pairs were fixed 16 ft. apart, and the space included +constituted a bay, any requisite increase in the size of the house being +made by doubling or trebling the bays. The roofs were thatched with +straw on battens, and sometimes with a collar beam carrying a floor, +which constituted an upper storey. The end walls were closed with wooden +studs and wattle-and-daub filling. The pairs of trees were known as +forks or crucks. Vitruvius (ii. 1) suggests a similar kind of building +in ancient times, except that the interlaced twigs were covered with +clay, so as to carry off the rain. In Yorkshire there was another type +of house, known as a coit, which was a dwelling-house and barn (shippon) +united; the latter contained the cow-stalls with loft above, and the +former was in two storeys, with a ladder inside the room leading to the +upper floor.[1] + +[Illustration: FIG. 1.--Houses at Cluny.] + +Passing now to structures of a less ephemeral character, the earliest +houses of which there still remain substantial relics are those built in +stone (see MANOR HOUSE). The Jew's House at Lincoln, 12th century, is +one of the best-known examples, and still preserves its street front in +stone, with rich entrance doorway and first-floor windows lighting the +principal room, which seems invariably in those early houses to have +been on the first floor, the ground floor being used for service and +stores (see Plate I. fig. 5). To the 13th century belongs the old +Rectory House at West Dean, Sussex, and to the 14th century the +Parsonage House at Market Deeping, Lincolnshire. The principal examples +of the domestic architecture of this early period in the country are +castles, manor houses and farm buildings, as town houses occupied sites +too valuable to be left untouched; this, however, is not the case in +France, and particularly in the south, where streets of early houses are +still to be found in good preservation, such as those at Cluny (fig. 1) +and Cordes (Tarn), and others at Montferrand, Cahors, Figeac, Angers, +Provins, Sarlat (fig. 2), St Emilion, Périgueux, Soissons and Beauvais, +dating from the 12th to the 14th centuries. One of the most remarkable +examples is the Musician's House at Reims (see Plate I., fig. 4), with +large windows on the first floor, between which are niches with +life-size figures of musicians seated in them. Generally speaking, the +ground storeys of these houses, which in many cases were occupied by +shops, have been transformed, but occasionally the old shop fronts +remain, as in Dinan, Morlaix and other old towns in Brittany. Houses of +the first Renaissance of great beauty exist in Orleans, such as the +house of Agnes Sorel; and the example in the Market Place illustrated in +fig. 3; in Tours, Tristan's house in brick with stone quoins and +dressings to windows; in Rouen, Caen, Bayeux, Toulouse, Dijon and, in +fact, in almost every town throughout France. Of houses of large +dimensions, which in France are termed _hôtels_, there are also many +other fine examples, the best known of which are the hôtel de Jacques +Coeur (see Plate II., fig. 7), at Bourges, and the hôtel de Cluny at +Paris (see Plate I., fig. 6). In the 15th and 16th centuries in France, +owing to the value of the sites in towns, the houses rose to many +storeys, the upper of which were built in half-timber, sometimes +projecting on corbels and richly carved; of these numerous examples +exist at Rouen, Beauvais, Bayeux and other towns in Normandy and +Brittany. Of such structures in English towns (see Plate II. fig. 9) +there are still preserved some examples in York, Southampton, Chester, +Shrewsbury, Stratford-on-Avon, and many smaller towns; the greatest +development in half-timber houses in England is that which is found more +particularly throughout Kent, Sussex and Surrey, in houses of modest +dimensions, generally consisting of ground and first floor only, with +sometimes additional rooms in the roof; in these the upper storey +invariably projects in front of the lower, giving increased dimensions +to the rooms in the former, but adopted in order to protect the walls of +the ground storey from rain, which in the upper storey was effected by +the projecting eaves of the roof. In the north and west of England, +where stone could be obtained at less cost than brick, and in the east +of England, where brick, often imported from the Low Countries, was +largely employed, the ordinary houses were built in those materials, +and in consequence of their excellent construction many houses of the +16th and 17th centuries have remained in good preservation down to the +present day; they are found in the Cotswolds generally, and (among small +towns) at Broadway in Worcestershire and (of brick) throughout Essex and +Suffolk. Among the larger half-timber houses built in the 15th and 16th +centuries, mention may be made of Bramhall Hall, near Manchester; Speke +Hall, near Liverpool (see Plate III., fig. 10); The Oaks; West Bromwich; +and Moreton Old Hall, Cheshire, one of the most elaborate of the series +(see Plate III., fig. 11). + +[Illustration: FIG. 2.--House at Sarlat.] + +On the borders of the Rhine, as at Bacharach and Rhense, and throughout +Germany, hall-timber houses of the most picturesque character are found +in every town, large and small, those of Hildesheim (see Plate II., fig. +8) dating from the 15th and 16th centuries, and in some cases rising to +a great height with four or five storeys, not including those in the +lofty roofs. Houses in stone from the 12th to the 16th century are found +in Cologne, Metz, Trier, Hanover and Münster in Westphalia, where again +there are whole streets remaining; and in brick at Rostock, Stralsund, +Lübeck, Greifswald and Dantzig, forming a very remarkable series of 15th +and 16th-century work. + +Of half-timber work in Italy there are no examples, but sometimes (as at +Bologna) the rooms of the upper floors are carried on arcades, and +sometimes on corbels, as the casa dei Carracci in the same town. The +principal feature of the Italian house is the courtyard in the rear, +with arcades on one or more sides, the front in stone or brick, or both +combined, being of the greatest simplicity (examples in San Gimignano +and Pisa). At Viterbo are small houses in stone, two of which have +external stone staircases of fine design, and the few windows on the +ground floor suggest that the rooms there were used only for stores. +Houses with external staircases, but without any architectural +pretensions, are found throughout the Balkan provinces. + +[Illustration: FIG. 3.--Detail of house at Orleans.] + +The introduction of the purer Italian style into England in the 17th +century created a great change in domestic architecture. Instead of the +projecting wings and otherwise picturesque contour of the earlier work +the houses were made square or rectangular on plan, in two or three +storeys, crowned with a modillion cornice carrying a roof of red tiles; +the only embellishments of the main front were the projecting courses of +stone on the quoins and architraves round the windows, and flat +pilasters carrying a hood or pediment flanking the entrance doorway. In +the larger mansions more thought was bestowed on the introduction of +porticoes (scarcely necessary in the English climate), with sometimes +great flights of steps up to the principal floor, which was raised above +a basement with cold and dark passages; a great saloon in the centre of +the block, lighted from above, took the place of the great entrance hall +of the Tudor period, and the rooms frequently led one out of the other, +without an independent entrance door. On the other hand, in the ordinary +houses, the deficiency in external ornament was amply made up for by the +comfort in the interior and the decoration of the staircase and other +rooms. Towards the close of the century the square mullioned and +transomed windows, with opening casements, gave way to sash windows, +introduced from Holland, and these with moulded and stout sash-bars gave +a certain character to the outside of the houses, which are valued now +for their quiet unpretentious character and excellent construction. In +the closes of many English cathedrals, on the outskirts of London, and +in some of the older squares, as Lincoln's Inn Fields and Queen Square, +are examples of this style of house. The substitution of thin sash-bars +in the 19th century, and their omission occasionally, in favour of +plate-glass, deprived the house-front of one of its chief attractions; +but the old English casements and oriels or bow-windows have been again +introduced, and a return has been made to the style which prevailed in +the beginning of the 18th century, commonly known as that of Queen Anne. + +[Illustration: PLATE III. + + _Photo, Frith & Co._ + FIG. 10.--SPEKE HALL, NEAR LIVERPOOL. + + _Photo, F. Frith & Co._ + FIG. 11.--MORETON OLD HALL, NEAR CONGLETON, CHESHIRE.] + +[Illustration: PLATE IV. + + From Garner and Stratton, _Domestic Architecture of England during the + Tudor Period_, 1910. By permission of B. T. Batsford. + + FIG. 12.--SOUTH COURT OF SUTTON PLACE, SURREY, 1525. + + From _Gotch, Architecture of the Renaissance in England_, 1894. By + permission of B. T. Batsford. + + FIG. 13.--MOYNS PARK, ESSEX, 1580.] + +[Illustration: PLATE V. + + From Belcher and Macartney, _Later Renaissance Architecture in + England_, 1901. By permission of B. T. Batsford. + + FIG. 14.--HAM HOUSE, PETERSHAM, 1610. + + From Gotch, _Architecture of the Renaissance in England_, 1894. By + permission of B. T. Batsford. + + FIG. 15.--BRAMSHILL, HAMPSHIRE, 1612.] + +[Illustration: PLATE VI. + + From Belcher and MaCartney, _Later Renaissance Architecture in + England_, By permission of B. T. Batsford. + + FIG. 16.--THE EARL OF BURLINGTON'S VILLA, CHISWICK. EIGHTEENTH + CENTURY. + + From the same source as above. + FIG. 17.--HOUSES IN CAVENDISH SQUARE, LONDON. EIGHTEENTH CENTURY.] + +Perhaps in one respect the greatest change which has been made in the +English house is the adoption of "flats"; commenced some time in the +'fifties in Ashley Gardens, Westminster, they have spread throughout +London. In consequence of the great value of the sites on which they are +sometimes built, to which must be added the cost of the houses pulled +down to make way for them, the question of expense in material and rich +decoration has not always been worth considering, so that frontages in +stone, with the classic orders brought in with many varieties of design, +have given the character of a palace to a structure in which none of the +rooms exceeds the modest height of 10 ft. The increasing demand for +these, however, shows that they meet, so far as their accommodation and +comfort are concerned, the wants and tastes of the upper and middle +classes. In some of the London streets, where shops occupy the ground +floor, a far finer type of house has been erected than that which could +have been afforded for the shopkeeper's residence above, as in old +times, so that London promises in time to become a city of palaces. The +same change in the aspects of its streets has long been evident in +Paris, but there is one feature in the latter city which has never yet +found its way into London, much to the surprise of French visitors, viz. +the _porte-cochère_, through which the occupants of the house can in wet +weather drive and be landed in a covered hall or vestibule. This +requires, of course, a small court at the back, so small that one +wonders sometimes how it is possible for the carriage to turn round in +it. The _porte-cochère_ also, from its dimensions, is a feature of more +importance than the ordinary street doorway, even when a portico of some +kind is added; on the other hand, the strict regulations in Paris as +regards the projection of cornices and other decorative accessories +gives to the stranger the appearance of monotony in their design, which +certainly cannot be said of the houses in flats lately built in London. +Within recent years an old English feature, known as the bow-window, has +been introduced into Paris, the primary object of which does not seem +yet to have been thoroughly understood by the French architect. An +English bow-window, by its slight projection in front of the main wall, +increases greatly the amount of light entering the room, and it is +generally placed between solid piers of stone or brick. The French +architects, however, project their piers on immense corbels, and then +sink their windows with deep external reveals, so that no benefit +accrues to the room, so far as the increased light is concerned. In +Paris, since 1900, there has been a tendency to introduce a style of +design in French houses which is known as "l'art nouveau," a style which +commenced in furniture as a reaction against the revival of the Empire +and Louis XIV. and XVI. periods, and was then extended to house fronts; +this style has unfortunately spread through the various towns in France +and apparently to Germany, again as a reaction against the formal +classic style of the latter half of the 19th century. It is probable +that in Italy and Spain "l'art nouveau" may meet with the same success, +and for the same reasons, so that in the latter country it will be a +revival, with modifications, of the well-known Churrigueresque style, +the most debased Rococo style which has ever existed. In England it has +never met with any response. (R. P. S.) + + +FOOTNOTE: + + [1] A complete description of these houses will be found in _The + Evolution of the English House_, by S. O. Addy. + + + + +HOUSEHOLD, ROYAL. In all the medieval monarchies of western Europe the +general system of government sprang from, and centred in, the royal +household. The sovereign's domestics were his officers of state, and the +leading dignitaries of the palace were the principal administrators of +the kingdom. The royal household itself had, in its turn, grown out of +an earlier and more primitive institution. It took its rise in the +_comitatus_ described by Tacitus, the chosen band of _comites_ or +companions who, when the Roman historian wrote, constituted the personal +following, in peace as well as in war, of the Teutonic chieftain. In +England before the Conquest the _comitatus_ had developed or +degenerated into the thegnhood, and among the most eminent and powerful +of the king's thegns were his dishthegn, his bowerthegn, and his +horsethegn or staller. In Normandy at the time of the Conquest a similar +arrangement, imitated from the French court, had long been established, +and the Norman dukes, like their overlords the kings of France, had +their seneschal or steward, their chamberlain and their constable. After +the Conquest the ducal household of Normandy was reproduced in the royal +household of England; and since, in obedience to the spirit of +feudalism, the great offices of the first had been made hereditary, the +great offices of the second were made hereditary also, and were +thenceforth held by the grantees and their descendants as +grand-serjeanties of the crown. The consequence was that they passed out +of immediate relation to the practical conduct of affairs either in both +state and court or in the one or the other of them. The steward and +chamberlain of England were superseded in their political functions by +the justiciar and treasurer of England, and in their domestic functions +by the steward and chamberlain of the household. The marshal of England +took the place of the constable of England in the royal palace, and was +associated with him in the command of the royal armies. In due course, +however, the marshalship as well as the constableship became hereditary, +and, although the constable and marshal of England retained their +military authority until a comparatively late period, the duties they +had successively performed about the palace had been long before +transferred to the master of the horse. In these circumstances the +holders of the original great offices of state and the household ceased +to attend the court except on occasions of extraordinary ceremony, and +their representatives either by inheritance or by special appointment +have ever since continued to appear at coronations and some other public +solemnities, such as the opening of the parliament or trials by the +House of Lords.[1] + +The materials available for a history of the English royal household are +somewhat scanty and obscure. The earliest record relating to it is of +the reign of Henry II. and is contained in the _Black Book of the +Exchequer_. It enumerates the various inmates of the king's palace and +the daily allowances made to them at the period at which it was +compiled. Hence it affords valuable evidence of the antiquity and +relative importance of the court offices to which it refers, +notwithstanding that it is silent as to the functions and formal +subordination of the persons who filled them.[2] In addition to this +record we have a series of far later, but for the most part equally +meagre, documents bearing more or less directly on the constitution of +the royal household, and extending, with long intervals, from the reign +of Edward III. to the reign of William and Mary.[3] Among them, however, +are what are known as the _Black Book of the Household_ and the +_Statutes of Eltham_, the first compiled in the reign of Edward IV. and +the second in the reign of Henry VIII., from which a good deal of +detailed information may be gathered concerning the arrangements of the +court in the 15th and 16th centuries. The _Statutes of Eltham_ were +meant for the practical guidance merely of those who were responsible +for the good order and the sufficient supply of the sovereign's +household at the time they were issued. But the _Black Book of the +Household_, besides being a sort of treatise on princely magnificence +generally, professes to be based on the regulations established for the +governance of the court by Edward III., who, it affirms, was "the first +setter of certeynties among his domesticall meyne, upon a grounded rule" +and whose palace it describes as "the house of very policie and flowre +of England"; and it may therefore possibly, and even probably, take us +back to a period much more remote than that at which it was actually put +together.[4] Various orders, returns and accounts of the reigns of +Elizabeth, James I., Charles I., Charles II., and William and Mary throw +considerable light on the organization of particular sections of the +royal household in times nearer to our own.[5] Moreover, there were +several parliamentary inquiries into the expenses of the royal household +in connexion with the settlement or reform of the civil list during the +reigns of George III., George IV. and William IV.[6] But they add little +or nothing to our knowledge of the subject in what was then its +historical as distinguished from its contemporary aspects. So much, +indeed, is this the case that, on the accession of Queen Victoria, +Chamberlayne's _Present State of England_, which contains a catalogue of +the officials at the court of Queen Anne, was described by Lord +Melbourne the prime minister as the "only authority" which the advisers +of the crown could find for their assistance in determining the +appropriate constitution and dimensions of the domestic establishment of +a queen regnant.[7] + +In its main outlines the existing organization of the royal household is +essentially the same as it was under the Tudors or the Plantagenets. It +is now, as it was then, divided into three principal departments, at the +head of which are severally the lord steward, the lord chamberlain and +the master of the horse, and the respective provinces of which may be +generally described as "below stairs," "above stairs" and "out of +doors." The duties of these officials, and the various officers under +their charge are dealt with in the articles under those headings. When +the reigning sovereign is a queen, the royal household is in some other +respects rather differently arranged from that of a king and a queen +consort. When there is a king and a queen consort there is a separate +establishment "above stairs" and "out of doors" for the queen consort. +She has a lord chamberlain's department of her own, and all the ladies +of the court from the mistress of the robes to the maids of honour are +in her service. At the commencement of the reign of Queen Victoria the +two establishments were combined, and on the whole considerably reduced. +On the accession of Edward VII. the civil list was again reconstituted; +and while the household of the king and his consort became larger than +during the previous reign, there was a tendency towards increased +efficiency by abolishing certain offices which were either redundant or +unnecessary. + +The royal households of such of the continental monarchies of Europe as +have had a continuous history from medieval times resemble in general +outlines that described above. There are, common to many, certain great +offices, which have become, in course of time, merely titular and +sometimes hereditary. In most cases, as the name of the office would +suggest, they were held by those who discharged personal functions about +the sovereign. Gradually, in ways or for reasons which might vary in +each individual case, the office alone survived, the duties either +ceasing to be necessary, or being transferred to officers of less +exalted station and permanently attached to the sovereign's household. +For example, in Prussia, there are certain great titular officers, such +as the Oberstmarschall (great chamberlain); the Oberstjägermeister +(grand master of the hunt); the Oberstschenk (grand cup-bearer) and the +Obersttruchsess (grand carver), while, at the same time, there are also +departments which correspond, to a great extent--both as to offices and +their duties--to those of the household of the English sovereigns. This +is a feature which must necessarily be reproduced in any monarchical +country, whatever the date of its foundation, to a more or less limited +extent, and varying in its constitution with the needs or customs of the +particular countries. + + See also LORD STEWARD; LORD CHAMBERLAIN; MASTER OF THE HORSE; PRIVY + PURSE; and CIVIL LIST. + + +FOOTNOTES: + + [1] The great officers of state and the household whom we have + particularly mentioned do not of course exhaust the catalogue of + them. We have named those only whose representatives are still + dignitaries of the court and functionaries of the palace. If the + reader consults Hallam (_Middle Ages_, i. 181 seq.), Freeman (_Norman + Conquest_, i. 91 seq., and v. 426 seq.) and Stubbs (_Const. Hist._ i. + 343, seq.), he will be able himself to fill in the details of the + outline we have given above. + + [2] The record in question is entitled _Constitutio Domus Regis de + Procurationibus_, and is printed by Hearne (_Liber Niger Scaccarii_, + i. 341 sq.). It is analysed by Stubbs (_Const. Hist._ vol. i. note 2, + p. 345). + + [3] _A Collection of Ordinances and Regulations for the Government of + the Royal Household, made in Divers Reigns from King Edward III. to + King William and Queen Mary_, printed for the Society of Antiquaries, + (London, 1790). See also Pegge's _Curialia_, published partly before + and partly after this volume; and Carlisle's _Gentlemen of the Privy + Chamber_, published in 1829. Pegge and Carlisle, however, deal with + small and insignificant portions of the royal establishment. + + [4] _Liber niger domus Regis Edward IV._ and _Ordinances for the + Household made at Eltham in the seventeenth year of King Henry VIII., + A.D. 1526_, are the titles of these two documents. The earlier + documents printed in the same collection are _Household of King + Edward III. in Peace and War from the eighteenth to the twenty-first + year of his reign_; _Ordinances of the Household of King Henry IV. in + the thirty-third year of his reign, A.D. 1455_, and _Articles + ordained by King Henry VII. for the Regulation of his Household, A.D. + 1494_. + + [5] _The Book of the Household of Queen Elizabeth as it was ordained + in the forty-third year of her Reign delivered to our Sovereign Lord + King James, &c._, is simply a list of officers' names and allowances. + It seems to have been drawn up under the curious circumstances + referred to in _Archaeologia_ (xii. 80-85). For the rest of these + documents see _Ordinances and Regulations, &c._, pp. 299, 340, 347, + 352, 368 and 380. + + [6] Burke's celebrated Act "for enabling His Majesty to discharge the + debt contracted upon the civil list, and for preventing the same from + being in arrear for the future, &c.," 22 Geo. III. c. 82, was passed + in 1782. But it was foreshadowed in his great speech on "Economical + Reform" delivered two years before. Since the beginning of the 19th + century select committees of the House of Commons have reported on + the civil list and royal household in 1803, 1804, 1815, 1831 and + 1901. + + [7] Torrens's _Memoirs of William, second Viscount Melbourne_, + ii-303. + + + + +HOUSEL, the English name, until the time of the Reformation, for the +Eucharist. The word in O. Eng. was _húsel_. Its proper meaning is +"sacrifice," and thus the word _hunsl_ appears in Ulfilas' Gothic +version of Matt. ix. 13, "I will have mercy and not sacrifice." The +ultimate origin is doubtful. The _New English Dictionary_ connects it +with a Teutonic stem meaning "holy"; from which is derived the +Lithuanian _szwentas_, and Lettish _swéts_. Skeat refers it to a root +meaning "to kill," which may connect it with Gr. [Greek: kainein]. + + + + +HOUSELEEK, _Sempervivum_, a genus of ornamental evergreen plants +belonging to the natural order _Crassulaceae_. About 30 species are +known in gardens, some of which are hardy perennial herbs, and grow well +in dry or rocky situations; the others are evergreen shrubs or +undershrubs, fit only for cultivation in the greenhouse or conservatory. +The genus _Sempervivum_ is distinguished from the nearly allied _Sedum_ +by having more than five (about 12) petals, and by the glands at the +base of the ovary being laciniated if present. The common houseleek, _S. +tectorum_ (Ger. _Hauswurzel_, Fr. _joubarbe_), is often met with in +Britain on roofs of outhouses and wall-tops, but is not a native. +Originally it was indigenous in the Alps, but it is now widely dispersed +in Europe, and has been introduced into America. The leaves are thick, +fleshy and succulent, and are arranged in the form of a rosette lying +close to the soil. The plant propagates itself by offsets on all sides, +so that it forms after a time a dense cushion or aggregation of +rosettes. The flowering stem, which is of rather rare occurrence, is +about 1 ft. high, reddish, cylindrical and succulent, and ends in a +level-topped cyme, reflexed at the circumference, of reddish flowers, +which bloom from June to September. The houseleek has been known +variously as the houselick, homewort or great houseleek. _Sedum acre_ +(stone-crop) is styled the little houseleek. In Germany it is sometimes +called _Donnerkraut_, from being supposed to protect the house on which +it grows from thunder. The leaves are said to contain malic acid in +considerable quantity, and have been eaten as salad, like _Portulaca_. +_S. glutinosum_ and _S. balsamiferum_, natives respectively of Madeira +and the Canary Islands, contain a very viscous substance in large +quantity, and are used for the preparation of bird-lime; fishermen in +Madeira, after dipping their nets in an alkaline solution, rub them with +this substance, rendering them as tough as leather. _S. montanum_, +indigenous in Central Europe, according to Gmelin, causes violent +purging; _S. arboreum_, [Greek: to mega aeizôon] of Dioscorides, is +employed in Cyprus, the East, and northern Africa as an external remedy +for malignant ulcers, inflammations and burns, and internally for mucous +discharges. + + + + +HOUSING. The housing of the poorer classes has become a pressing problem +in all populous Western countries, and has engaged, in a varying but +constantly increasing measure, the attention of legislative and +administrative bodies and of philanthropic individuals and societies. +The general interest was signalized by an International Congress held +in London in 1907. The recognition of the problem is due in the first +instance to the science of public health, the rise of which dates from +the second quarter of the 19th century; and in the second instance to +the growth of urban populations consequent on the development of +manufacturing industries and of trading and transporting agencies, both +of which tend to mass increasing numbers of people in convenient +centres. To have a clear view of the subject it is necessary to +distinguish these factors and their respective influence upon the +problem. Urban congestion is quite secondary, and only important because +and so far as it has a prejudicial effect upon health and strength. +Further, the requirements on the scientific side, made on behalf of +public health, are of very much wider application and more expansive +than those which arise from the mere growth of urban population. That is +obvious at once from the fact that they extend to rural housing, which +has indeed become a prominent feature of the question in recent years. +To ascribe the housing problem to the "factory system," as some writers +have done, is to put forward an inadequate and misleading view of it. It +is, in fact, particularly acute in some places totally devoid of +factories and least acute in some purely factory towns. If the factory +system were abolished with all its effects the housing question would +remain. But there is a more important distinction than extent of +application. The requirements of public health are indeterminate and +interminable; knowledge increases, or rather changes, and the standard +constantly rises. It is the changing standard which gives most trouble; +housing at one period thought good enough is presently condemned. Fifty +years ago no house existed which would satisfy modern sanitary +standards, and the mansions of the great were in some respects inferior +to the worst quarters to-day. And to this process there is no end. It is +quite conceivable that urban congestion might cease to be a difficulty +at all. That actually happens in particular towns where the population +is stationary or diminishing. One whole nation (France) has already +reached that point, and others are moving towards it at varying rates. +But even where the supply of houses exceeds the demand and many stand +empty, the housing problem remains; condemnation of existing +accommodation continues and the effort to provide superior houses goes +on. In other words, there are two main aspects of the housing question, +quality and quantity; they touch at various points and interact, but +they are essentially distinct. The problem of quantity may be "solved," +that of quality has no finality. + +The importance attached to housing is much enhanced by the general +tendency to lay stress on the material conditions of life, which +characterizes the present age. Among material conditions environment +takes a leading place, largely under the influence of the theory of +evolution in a popular and probably erroneous form; and among the +factors of environment the home assumes a more and more prominent +position. There is reason in this, for whatever other provision be made +for work or recreation the home is after all the place where people +spend most of their time. Life begins there and generally ends there. At +the beginning of life the whole time is spent there and home conditions +are of paramount importance to the young, whose physical welfare has +become the object of increasing care. But the usual tendency to run to +extremes has asserted itself. It may be admitted that it is extremely +difficult to raise the character and condition of those who live in +thoroughly bad home surroundings, and that an indispensable or +preliminary step is to improve the dwelling. But if in pursuit of this +object other considerations are lost sight of, the result is failure. +Bad housing is intimately connected with poverty; it is, indeed, largely +a question of poverty now that the difference between good and bad +housing is understood and the effects of the latter are recognized. The +poorest people live under the worst housing conditions because they are +the cheapest; the economic factor governs the situation. Poverty again +is associated with bad habits, with dirt, waste, idleness and vice, both +as cause and as effect. These factors cannot be separated in real life; +they act and react upon each other in such a way that it is impossible +to disentangle their respective shares in producing physical and moral +evils. To lay all responsibility upon the structural environment is an +error constantly exposed by experience. + +Defective quality embraces some or all of the following +conditions--darkness, bad air, damp, dirt and dilapidation. Particular +insanitary conditions independent of the structure are often associated; +namely defects of water-supply, drainage, excrement and house refuse +removal, back-yards and surrounding ground; they contribute to dirt, +damp and bad air. Defective quantity produces high rents and +overcrowding, both of which have a prejudicial effect upon health; the +one by diminishing expenditure on other necessaries, the other by +fouling the atmosphere and promoting the spread of infectious illness. +The physical effects of these conditions have been demonstrated by +comparative statistics of mortality general and special; among the +latter particular stress is laid on the mortality of infants, that from +consumption and from "zymotic" diseases. The statistical evidence has +been especially directed to the effects of overcrowding, which can be +stated with greater precision than other insanitary conditions. It +generally takes the form of comparing the death-rates of different areas +having widely contrasted densities of population or proportions of +persons to a given space. It is not necessary to quote any of these +figures, which have been produced in great abundance. They broadly +establish a connexion between density and mortality; but the inference +that the connexion can be reduced to a precise numerical statement and +that the difference of mortality shown is all due to overcrowding or +other housing conditions is highly fallacious. Many other factors ought +to be taken into account, such as the age-distribution of the +population, the birth-rate, the occupations, means, character and habits +of the people, the geographical situation, the number of public +institutions, hospitals, workhouses, asylums and so forth. The +fallacious use of vital statistics for the purpose of proving some +particular point has become so common that it is necessary to enter a +warning against them; the subject of housing is a popular field for the +exercise of that art, though there is no need of it. + +The actual state of housing in different countries and localities, the +efforts made to deal with it by various agencies, the subsidiary points +which arise in connexion with it and the results attained--all these +heads embrace such a vast mass of facts that any attempt to treat them +fully in detail would run to inordinate length. It must suffice to +review the more salient points; and the most convenient way of doing so +is to deal first with Great Britain, which has led the way historically +in extent of need, in its recognition and in efforts to meet it, adding +some notes upon other countries, in which the question is of more recent +date and for which less information is available. + + +THE UNITED KINGDOM + +The importance of housing and the need of improvement had by 1909 +received public recognition in England for nearly 70 years, a period +coinciding almost exactly with the systematic study of sanitation or +public health. The active movement definitely began about 1841 with +voluntary effort in which Lord Shaftesbury was the most prominent and +active figure. The motive was philanthropic and the object was to +improve the condition of the working classes. It took the form of +societies; one was the "Metropolitan Association for Improving the +Dwellings of the Industrial Classes," incorporated in 1845 but founded +in 1841; another was the "Society for Improving the Condition of the +Labouring Classes," originally the "Labourers' Friend Society," of which +the Prince Consort became president. That fact and the statement of the +Society concerning improved housing that "the moral were almost equal to +the physical benefits," sufficiently prove that public interest in the +subject and a grasp of its significance already existed at that date. +Legislation followed not long after and has continued at intervals ever +since. + + _Legislation._--Twenty-eight Housing and Health Acts, passed between + 1851 and 1903, are enumerated by Mr Dewsnup, whose monograph on _The + Housing Problem in England_ is the fullest account of the subject + published. The first was the Shaftesbury Act of 1851 for the + establishment of lodging-houses for the working classes; the last was + the Housing of the Working Classes Act of 1903. The Shaftesbury Act + had in view the provision by local authorities of good lodging-houses + for the better class of artisans, and particularly of single persons, + male and female, though families were also contemplated. It was + accompanied in the same year by another act, not included in the list + of twenty-eight, for the regulation and control of common + lodging-houses, from which Mr Dewsnup reasonably infers that the + object of Lord Shaftesbury, who inspired both acts, was the separation + of the casual and disorderly class frequenting common lodging-houses + from the more regularly employed and respectable workers who were + sometimes driven to use them for lack of other accommodation. At any + rate this early legislation embodied the principle of differential + treatment and showed a grasp of the problem not always visible in + later procedure. The most important of the subsequent acts were those + of 1855 and 1866, both intended to encourage private enterprise in the + provision of working-class dwellings; the Torrens Act of 1868 + (Artisans' and Labourers' Dwellings Act) for the improvement or + demolition of existing buildings; the Cross Act of 1875 (Artisans' and + Labourers' Dwellings Improvement Act), for extending that process to + larger areas; the Public Health Act of 1875; the Housing of the + Working Classes Act of 1885 following the report of the Royal + Commission on the Housing of the Working Classes, of which King + Edward, then prince of Wales, was a member; the Housing of the Working + Classes Act of 1890; the Public Health (London) Act of 1891. The acts + of 1875 (Public Health), of 1890 and of 1891 are still in force. The + story of this half-century of legislation (which also includes a + number of Scotch and Irish acts, local private acts and others bearing + on the question) is one of tentative efforts first in one direction + then in another, of laws passed, amended, extended, consolidated, + superseded. Many of the enactments, originally of limited application, + were subsequently extended, and the principal laws now in force apply + to the whole of the United Kingdom. Two main objects can be + distinguished--(1) the treatment of existing dwellings by demolition + or improvement; (2) the construction of new ones. The second head is + further subdivided into (a) municipal action, (b) private action. + These objects have been alternately promoted by legislative measures + conceived and carried out on no systematic plan, but gradually and + continuously developed into an effective body of law, particularly + with regard to the means of dealing with existing insanitary + dwellings. The advancing requirements of public health are clearly + traceable in the series of enactments directed to that end. The + Nuisances Removal Act of 1855 took cognizance of premises in such a + state as to be "a nuisance or injurious to health," and made provision + for obtaining an order to prohibit the use of such premises for human + habitation. In the same act overcrowding obtained statutory + recognition as a condition dangerous or prejudicial to health, and + provision was made for compelling its abatement. The campaign against + bad housing conditions thus inaugurated by the legislature was + extended by subsequent acts in 1860, 1866 and 1868, culminating in the + Cross Act of 1875 for the demolition (and reconstruction) of large + insanitary areas and the extremely important Public Health Act of the + same year. The constructive policy, begun still earlier in 1851 by + Lord Shaftesbury's Act, was concurrently pursued, and for some years + more actively than the destructive; but after 1866 the latter became + more prominent, and though the other was not lost sight of it fell + into the background until revived by the Royal Commission of 1885 and + the housing legislation which followed, particularly the Housing of + the Working Classes Act of 1890, amending and consolidating previous + acts. + +The laws in operation at the beginning of 1909 were the Public Health +Acts of 1875 and 1891 (London), as amended by subsequent minor measures, +and the Housing of the Working Classes Act of 1890, amended in 1894, +1900 and 1903. The Public Health Acts place upon the local sanitary +authority the obligation of securing, under by-laws, the proper +construction, draining and cleaning of streets, removal of house refuse +and building of houses, including structural details for the prevention +of damp and decay, the provision of sanitary conveniences and an +adequate water-supply; also of inquiring into and removing nuisances, +which include any premises in such a condition as to be a nuisance or +injurious to health and any house so overcrowded as to be dangerous or +injurious to health. For the purpose of carrying out these duties the +local authority has the power of inspection, of declaring a building +unfit for human habitation and of closing it by order. The Housing Acts +give more extended power to the local authority to demolish insanitary +dwellings and clear whole areas or "slums," and also to construct +dwellings for the working classes with or without such clearance; they +also retain the older provisions for encouraging private enterprise in +the erection of superior dwellings for the working classes. The +procedure for dealing with insanitary property under these Acts is too +intricate to be stated in detail; but, briefly, there are two ways of +proceeding. In the first the local authority, on receiving formal +complaint of an unhealthy area, cause an inspection to be made by their +medical officer, and if the report in their opinion justifies action, +they may prepare an "improvement scheme," which is submitted to the +Local Government Board. The Board holds an inquiry, and, if satisfied, +issues a provisional order, which has to be confirmed by a special act +of parliament, under which the local authority can proceed to demolish +the houses concerned after paying compensation to the owners. This +procedure, which is authorized by part i. of the act of 1890, is +obviously both cumbrous and costly. The second way, provided for by part +ii. of the act, is much simpler and less ambitious; it only applies to +single houses or groups of houses. The medical officer in the course of +his duty reports to the local authority any houses which are in his +opinion unfit for human habitation; the local authority can then make an +order to serve notices on the owners to repair the houses at their own +expense. Failing compliance on the part of the owners, an order for +closing the houses can be obtained; and if nothing is done at the end of +three months an order for demolition can be made. Buildings injurious by +reason of their obstructive character (e.g. houses built back to back so +as to be without through ventilation and commonly called "back-to-back" +houses) can be dealt with in a similar manner. Small areas containing +groups of objectionable houses of either kind may be made the subject of +an improvement scheme, as above. Where areas are dealt with under +improvement schemes there is a certain obligation to re-house the +persons displaced. Building schemes are provided for under part iii. of +the act. Land may be compulsorily purchased for the purpose and the +money required may be raised by loans under certain conditions. The +provisions thus summarized were considerably modified by the "Housing, +Town Planning, &c., Act," passed at the end of 1909. It rendered +obligatory the adoption (previously permissive) of the housing +provisions (part iii.) of the act of 1890 by local authorities, +simplified the procedure for the compulsory purchase of land required +for the purpose and extended the facilities for obtaining loans. It +further gave power to the Local Government Board to compel local +authorities to put in force the act of 1890 in regard both to existing +insanitary housing and the provision of new housing. Power was also +given to county councils to act in default of rural district councils in +regard to new housing. The procedure for dealing with insanitary houses +by closing and demolition under part ii. (see above) was rendered more +stringent. The general intention of the new act was partly to facilitate +the administration of the previous one by local authorities and partly +to provide means of compelling supine authorities to take action. Its +town-planning provisions are noted below. + +_Effects of Legislation._--The efficacy of laws depends very largely on +their administration; and when they are permissive and dependent on the +energy and discretion of local bodies their administration varies +greatly in different localities. That has been the case with the British +housing and health laws, and is one cause of dissatisfaction with them. +But in the aggregate they have effected very great improvement. Public +action has chiefly taken effect in sanitary reform, which includes the +removal of the worst housing, through demolition or alteration, and +general sanitary improvements of various kinds. In some large towns the +worst parts have been transformed, masses of old, narrow, crowded, +dilapidated and filthy streets and courts have been swept away at one +blow or by degrees; other parts have been reconstructed or improved. The +extent to which this has been accomplished is not generally recognized. +It is not easily demonstrated, and to realize it local knowledge, +observation and memory are needed. The details of the story are hidden +away in local annals and official reports; and writers on the subject +are usually more concerned with what has not than with what has been +done. Both the Public Health and the Housing Acts have had a share in +the improvement effected. The operation of the former is slow and +gradual, but it is continuous and far more general than that of the +latter. It embraces many details which are not usually taken into +account in discussing housing, but which have as much bearing on the +healthiness of the home as the structure itself. The Public Health Acts +have further had a certain preventive influence in laying down a +standard for the erection of new houses by the ordinary commercial +agencies. Such houses are not ideal, because the commercial builder +studies economy and the question of rent; but the standard has risen, +and building plans involving insufficient light and air, such as once +were general, have now for several years been forbidden almost +everywhere. Supervision of commercial building is, in fact, vastly more +important than the erection of dwellings by public or philanthropic +agencies, because it affects a vastly larger proportion of the +population. The influence of the Public Health Acts in improving the +conditions of home life cannot be estimated or summarized, but it is +reflected in the general death-rate, which fell steadily in the United +Kingdom from 21.1 per 1000 in 1878 to 15.4 per 1000 in 1907. + + _Insanitary Areas._--The operation of the Housing Acts is more + susceptible of being stated in figures, though no fully comprehensive + information is available. The original Shaftesbury Act of 1851 for + erecting municipal lodging-houses appears to have been practically + inoperative and little or nothing was done for a good many years. In + 1864, however, Liverpool obtained a private act and entered on the + policy of improvement by the demolition of insanitary dwellings on a + considerable scale, following it up in 1869 by re-housing. In 1866 + Glasgow, also under a private act, created an Improvement Trust, + administered by the city council, and embarked on a large scheme of + improvement. These seem to have been the earliest examples. The + Torrens Act of 1868, which embodied the improvement policy, did not + produce much effect. According to a parliamentary return, during the + years 1883-1888, proceedings were only taken under this act in respect + of about 2000 houses in London and four provincial towns. More + advantage was taken of the Cross Act of 1875, which was intended to + promote large improvement schemes. Between 1875 and 1885 23 schemes + involving a total area of 51 acres and a population of about 30,000 + were undertaken, in London; and 11 schemes in provincial towns. By far + the most important of these, and the largest single scheme ever + undertaken, was one carried out in Birmingham. It affected an area of + 93 acres and involved a net cost of £550,000. Altogether between + £4,000,000 and £5,000,000 were raised for improvement schemes under + those acts. After the Housing Act of 1890 the clearance policy was + continued in London and extended in the provinces. During the period + 1891-1905 loans to the amount of about £2,300,000 were raised for + improvement schemes by 28 provincial towns in England and Wales. The + largest of these were Leeds (£923,000), Manchester (£285,000), + Liverpool (£178,000), Sheffield (£131,000), Brighton (£112,000). The + Leeds scheme affected an area of 75 acres, which was cleared at a cost + of £500,000. In London the area cleared was raised to a total of 104 + acres; the gross cost, down to March 31, 1908, was £3,417,337, the net + cost £2,434,096, and the number of persons displaced 48,525. Glasgow + has under its Improvement Trust cleared an area of 88 acres with a + population of 51,000. At the same time the policy of dealing with + houses unfit for habitation singly or in small groups by compelling + owners to improve them has been pursued by a certain number of local + authorities. In the six years 1899-1904 action was taken each year on + the average in respect of about 5000 houses by some 400 local + authorities large and small outside London. Representations were made + against 33,746 houses, 17,210 were rendered fit for habitation, + closing orders were obtained against 4220 and demolition orders + against 748. These figures do not include cases in which action was + taken under local acts and Public Health Acts. In Manchester, between + 1885 and 1905, nearly 10,000 "back-to-back" houses were closed and + about half of them reopened after reconstruction. Hull, an old seaport + town with a great deal of extremely bad housing, has made very + effective use of the method of gradual improvement and has transformed + its worst areas without appearing in any list of improvement schemes. + In recent years this procedure has been systematically taken up in + Birmingham and other places, and has been strongly advocated by Mr J. + S. Nettlefold (_Practical Housing_) in preference to large improvement + schemes on account of the excessive expense involved by the latter in + buying up insanitary areas. In the six years 1902-1907 Birmingham + dealt with 4111 houses represented as unfit for habitation; 1780 were + thoroughly repaired, 1005 were demolished; the rest were under notice + or in course of repair at the end of the period. Among other towns + which have adopted this policy are Liverpool, Cardiff, York, + Warrington and two London boroughs. + + _Building._--On the constructive side the operation of the Housing + Acts has been less extensive and much less general. In London alone + has the erection of working-class dwellings by municipal action and + organized private enterprise assumed large proportions. Philanthropic + societies were first in the field and date from a period anterior to + legislation, which however, stimulated their activity for many years + by affording facilities. Fourteen organizations were in operation in + London prior to 1890 and some of them on a large scale; others have + since been formed. The earliest was the Metropolitan Association for + Improving the Dwellings of the Industrial Classes, whose operations + date from 1847; it has built 1441 tenements containing 5105 rooms. The + largest of these enterprises are the Improved Industrial Dwellings + Company (1864), which has built 5421 tenements containing 19,945 + rooms; the Peabody Fund (1864) with 5469 tenements containing 12,328 + rooms; the Artisans', Labourers' and General Dwellings Company (1867), + with 1467 tenements containing 3495 rooms, and 6195 cottage dwellings; + the East-End Dwellings Company (1885) with 2096 tenements containing + 4276 rooms; the Guinness Trust (1889) with 2574 tenements containing + 5338 rooms. The Artisans' Dwellings Company alone has housed upwards + of 50,000 persons. In addition to these there are the Rowton Houses + (1892), which are hotels for working men, six in number, accommodating + 5162 persons. So far as can be estimated, private enterprise has + housed some 150,000 persons in improved dwellings in London on a + commercial basis. The early activity of the building companies was + largely due to the policy of the Metropolitan Board of Works, which + adopted extensive improvement schemes and sold the cleared sites to + the companies, who carried out the re-housing obligations imposed by + the law. Since the London County Council, which replaced the Board of + Works in 1889, adopted the policy of undertaking its own re-housing, + their activity has greatly diminished. The buildings erected by them + are nearly all in the form of blocks of tenements; the Artisans' + Dwellings Company, which has built small houses and shops in outlying + parts of London, is an exception. The tenement blocks are scattered + about London in many quarters. For instance the Peabody Fund has 18 + sets of dwellings in different situations, the Metropolitan + Association has 14; the Artisans' Dwellings Company has 10; the + Guinness Trust has 8. In 1909 an important addition to the list of + philanthropic enterprises in London was put in hand under the will of + Mr W. R. Sutton, who left nearly £2,000,000 for the purpose of + providing improved working-class dwellings. The erection of tenement + blocks containing accommodation for 300 families was begun on a site + in the City Road. In only a few provincial towns has private + enterprise contributed to improved housing in a similar manner and + that not upon a large scale; among them are Newcastle, Leeds, Hull, + Salford and Dublin. + + _Municipal Building_ has been more generally adopted. The following + details are taken from Mr W. Thompson's _Housing up to Date_, which + gives comprehensive information down to the end of 1906. The number of + local authorities which had then availed themselves of part iii. of + the Housing Act of 1890, which provides for the erection of + working-class dwellings, was 142. They were the London County Council, + 12 Metropolitan Boroughs, 69 County Boroughs and Town Councils, 49 + Urban District Councils and 12 Rural District Councils. The dwellings + erected are classified as lodging-houses, block dwellings, tenement + houses, cottage flats and cottages. Lodging-houses have been built by + 12 towns, of which 8 are in England, 3 in Scotland (Glasgow, Aberdeen + and Leith) and 1 in Ireland (Belfast). The total number of beds + provided was 6218, of which Glasgow accounts for 2414, London for + 1846, Manchester and Salford together for 648. Four other towns have + built or are building municipal lodging-houses for which no details + are available. The other municipal dwellings erected are summarized as + follows:-- + + +------------------+-----------------+-------------+ + | Kind of Dwelling.|No. of Dwellings.|No. of Rooms.| + +------------------+-----------------+-------------+ + | Blocks | 12,165 | 27,523 | + | Tenement Houses | 2,507 | 6,068 | + | Cottage flats | 2,004 | 5,747 | + | Cottages | 3,830 | 17,611 | + +------------------+-----------------+-------------+ + | Total | 20,506 | 56,949 | + +------------------+-----------------+-------------+ + + It appears from these figures that municipal building has provided for + a smaller number of persons in the whole of the United Kingdom than + private enterprise in London alone. The principal towns which have + erected dwellings in blocks are London (7786), Glasgow (2300), + Edinburgh (596), Liverpool (501), Dublin (460) and Manchester (420). + The great majority of such dwellings contain either two or three + rooms. Tenement houses have been built in Liverpool (1424), Manchester + (308), Sheffield (192), Aberdeen (128), and in seven other towns on a + small scale. Such tenements are generally somewhat larger than those + built in blocks; the proportion of three- and four-roomed dwellings is + higher and only a small number consist of a single room. Cottage flats + have been built in Dublin (528), West Ham (401), Battersea (320), + Plymouth (238), East Ham (212), and on a small scale in Liverpool, + Birmingham, Newcastle and seven other places. The majority of the + cottage flats contain three or more rooms, a considerable proportion + have four rooms. Cottages have been built in 67 places, chiefly small + towns and suburban districts. Of the large towns which have adopted + this class of dwellings Salford stands first with 633 cottages; three + London boroughs, all on the south side of the Thames, have built 234; + Manchester has 228, Sheffield 173, Huddersfield 157, Birmingham 103. + The number of rooms in municipal cottages ranges from three to eight, + but the great majority of these dwellings have four or five rooms. + + Some further details of municipal housing in particular towns are of + interest. In London, the work of the London County Council down to + March 31, 1908, not including three lodging-homes containing 1845 + cubicles, is given in the official volume of London Statistics, + published by the Council, as follows:-- + + _Buildings Erected and in Course of Erection._ + + +----------+--------+--------------+----------------+ + | No. of | No. of | Cost of Land | No. of Persons | + |Dwellings.| Rooms. | and Building.| in Occupation. | + +----------+--------+--------------+----------------+ + | 8,373 | 22,939 | £2,438,263 | 26,687 | + +----------+--------+--------------+----------------+ + + With regard to the cost, it is to be noted that the actual cost of the + land purchased for improvement schemes was very much greater than that + stated, having been written down to an arbitrary figure called + "housing valuation." The financial accounts of L.C.C. dwellings for + the year ending March 31, 1908, are thus summarized:-- + + _London County Council Dwellings, Accounts 1907-1908._ + + +--------+--------------+-------------+-----------+--------+ + | Gross |Deductions for| |Expenditure| Net | + | Rental.| Empties, &c. |Net Receipts.| including |Returns.| + | | | | Interest. | | + +--------+--------------+-------------+-----------+--------+ + |£180,169| £19,455 | £160,714 | £157,141 | £3,573 | + +--------+--------------+-------------+-----------+--------+ + + It appears from this that if the actual commercial cost of the land + were taken the housing of the Council would be run at a considerable + annual loss. The occupations of the tenants are stated in the + following proportions: labourers 789, clerks 312, policemen 251, shop + assistants 202, warehousemen 183, printers 182, charwomen 182, tailors + 155, cabinetmakers 146, canvassers 122, cigarette makers 118, widows + 116, tram drivers 110, postmen 107, packers 97, engineers 87, + dressmakers 41, coachmen 31, motormen 26, milliners 19. These + proportional figures show that though a considerable number of + labourers have been housed, the great majority of the occupants of + London municipal dwellings are of a superior class. The mean weekly + rent in London County Council dwellings is 2s. 10½d. per room against + 2s. 4d. in dwellings erected by other agencies. The most important + feature of the County Council's policy in recent years has been the + acquisition of suburban sites for the erection of cottages. There are + four such sites, two on the south, one on the north and one on the + west side of London; the total area is 349 acres, and the total + accommodation contemplated is for 66,000 persons at an estimated cost + of £3,105,840; the present accommodation is for about 8000. In + addition to the housing provided by the County Council, fourteen + London Borough Councils and the City Corporation had at the beginning + of 1909 erected or adapted 3136 dwellings containing 7999 rooms. + + In Liverpool, down to 1907, about £920,000 had been spent in clearing + insanitary areas and building new dwellings; the demolition of about + 8000 houses and purchase of land cost about £500,000; and the erection + of 2046 dwellings, containing 4961 rooms, cost about £350,000. The + size of the dwellings and the number of each class are: 1 room, 193; 2 + rooms, 965; 3 rooms, 719; 4 rooms, 167. The great majority are in + tenement houses of three storeys. The mean weekly rent is 1s. 6½d. per + room, but a large number are let at less. The net return on the total + outlay is just over 1%, on the building outlay it is 2(2/3)%. The + principal classes of persons occupying the dwellings are labourers + 675, carters 120, charwomen 103, firemen 93, porters 80, hawkers 64, + sailors 45, scavengers 40. These all belong to the poorest classes, + living by casual or irregular work. Liverpool has, in fact, succeeded + more than any other town in providing municipal dwellings in which the + really poor can afford to live. + + In Manchester 956 dwellings have been built at a total cost for + building and improvement of £451,932; of the whole number 420 are in + blocks, 308 in tenement houses and 228 in cottages. The rents are much + higher than in Liverpool; in the tenement houses the mean weekly rent + is about 6d. per room more than in Liverpool. The gross profit on the + block dwellings is 1(1/3)% on the capital outlay, on the tenement + houses 3%, on the cottages 2(2/3)%. "The total loss during the last + seven to ten years, including loan charges, has amounted to about + £54,240" (Thompson). + + In Glasgow the corporation has built under improvement schemes 2280 + new dwellings containing 4013 rooms and 241 shops. The dwellings, + which are all in blocks and centrally situated, are occupied chiefly + by artisans; only 28% have been reserved for the poorest class of + tenants. The total amount taken from the rates on this account in 30 + years is £600,000. Dwellings valued at £400,000 for building and + £300,000 for land give a net return of 3.06% on outlay; dwellings + valued at £280,000 for land and building return 3.03% on outlay; + leaving the sinking fund charges to be defrayed out of rates. + + In Edinburgh insanitary areas have been bought for £107,023 and new + dwellings containing 1032 rooms have been built for £87,970. Nearly + all the dwellings are of one or two rooms only. The rents charged + average about 2s. a week per room; actual rents received average 1s. + 4d. per room and they have to be subsidized out of the rates to the + extent of 2s. 3d. per room to meet the cost of site. + + In Dublin provision has been or was in 1909 shortly to be made for + housing 5394 families or 19,000 persons; of which 1041 families, or + about one-fifth, are housed by the Corporation, the rest by companies + and private persons. Altogether it was estimated that £500,000 would + be spent under the act of 1890. Fifteen streets, containing 1665 + houses, have been declared unhealthy areas by the medical officer, and + between 1879 and 1909 more than 3000 houses were closed as unfit for + habitation. + + _Co-operative Building._--Municipal and philanthropic housing by no + means exhaust the efforts that have been made to provide working-class + dwellings outside the ordinary building market. Their special function + has been to substitute better dwellings for pre-existing bad ones, + which is the most costly and difficult, as well as the most urgent, + part of the problem in old towns. But in the provision of new + dwellings alone they have been far surpassed by organized self-help in + different forms. Down to 1906 there had been built 46,707 houses by + 413 co-operative societies at a cost of nearly £10,000,000. They are + most numerous in the manufacturing towns and particularly in the + north-western district of England. Of the whole number 8530 were owned + by the societies which built them; 5577 had been sold to members, and + 32,600 had been built by members on money lent by the societies. These + figures do not include the particular form of co-operative building + known as co-partnership housing, which will be mentioned later on, or + the operations of the so-called building societies, which are really + companies lending money to persons on mortgage for the purpose of + building. The difference between them and the co-operative societies + which do the same thing is that the latter retain the element of + co-operation by lending only to their own members, whereas the + building societies deal in the open market. Their operations are on an + immense scale; at the end of 1908 the invested funds of the registered + building societies exceeded £72,000,000. An agency working on this + scale, which far exceeds the operations of all the others put + together, is obviously an important factor in housing. The number of + houses built must help to relieve congestion, and since they are built + to suit the owners or tenants they cannot be of the worst class. They + also represent a form of thrift, and deserve notice on that account. + + The Small Dwellings Acquisition Act of 1899, which has not previously + been mentioned, was intended to facilitate the building or purchase of + small houses by their tenants by means of loans advanced by local + authorities. Down to 1906 about £82,000 had been so advanced by 5 + county boroughs, 17 urban councils and 1 rural district council. + + _Housing by Employers._--No comprehensive information is available on + this head, but it has not been an important factor in towns, being + chiefly confined to agricultural, mining and suburban manufacturing + districts. The former two belong to the subject of Rural Housing, + which is separately discussed below; the third has an interest of its + own on account of its connexion with "model settlements." The building + of houses for their workpeople by industrial employers has never been + widely adopted in this country, but it has attracted considerable + attention at two different periods. Sir Titus Salt was a pioneer in + this direction, when he built his woollen mills at Saltaire, on the + outskirts of Bradford, and housed his workpeople on the spot. That + plan was maintained by his successors, who still own some 900 + excellent and cheap cottages, and was adopted by a few other + manufacturers in the same neighbourhood. Saltaire was a model + settlement with many institutions for the benefit of the mill-hands, + and as such it attracted much attention; but the example was not + generally followed, and the interest lapsed. Recently it has been + revived by the model settlements at Port Sunlight, near Liverpool, + started about 1888, Bournville near Birmingham (1895), and Earswick, + near York (1904), which are of a much more elaborate character. + Elsewhere, employers setting down works in some new locality where no + provision existed, have had to build houses for their workmen; but + they have done so in a plain way, and this sort of housing has not + assumed large proportions. + +_Conditions in 1909._--It has been said above that great improvements +have been effected, and of that there is no doubt at all. Both quantity +and quality are more satisfactory than they were, though both are still +defective. The conditions vary greatly in different places, and no +general indictment can be sustained. The common practice of citing some +exceptionally bad cases, and by tacit inference generalizing from them +to the whole country, is in nothing more misleading than in the matter +of housing. Local differences are due to several causes--age, +population, occupations and means of the people, public opinion and +municipal energy. The first three chiefly determine the difficulty and +extent of the problem, the last two influence its treatment. The +difficulty is greatest in towns which are old, have large populations +and a high percentage of poor. Such pre-eminently are the large +seaports, where much casual labour is employed. London, Liverpool, +Glasgow, the Tyne, Hull, Sunderland are examples. Old inland towns +having a large trading as well as an industrial element present the same +features. Such are Manchester, Birmingham, Leeds, Sheffield and +Bradford. In all these, and some others like them, the past has left a +heavy legacy of bad housing by malconstruction and dilapidation, which +has been increased by growth of population and overcrowding. They have +attacked it with varying degrees of energy according to the prevalent +local spirit and with varying results. + +_Overcrowding._--The one condition which permits of precise and +comprehensive statement is overcrowding. A standard has been officially +adopted in England based on the number of persons to a room in each +dwelling; and the facts in relation to this standard are embodied in the +census returns. It is a much better criterion than that of "density" or +number of persons per acre, which is very deceptive; for an apparently +low density may conceal much overcrowding within walls and an apparently +high one may be comparatively guiltless. The room-density is the +important thing in actual life. Some light is also thrown on this +question by the number of rooms contained in each dwelling, and that is +also given in the census. The standard of overcrowding is more than two +persons to a room. In 1901 there were in England and Wales 2,667,506 +persons or 8.2% of the population living in a state of overcrowding +according to this definition. Their distribution is extremely irregular +and capricious. In rural districts the proportion was only 5.8%, in +urban districts 8.9%; but these summary figures give no idea of the +actual state of things in different localities. In both rural districts +and in towns the proportion of overcrowding varies in different +localities from less than 1% to over 30% of the population. The towns +are the most important and we shall confine attention chiefly to them. A +list of 84 having a population of 50,000 and upwards, exclusive of +London, is given by Mr Dewsnup. The overcrowding ranges from 34.54% in +Gateshead and 32.42% in South Shields to 0.97% in Northampton and 0.62% +in Bournemouth. Of the whole number exactly one-half have less than 5%; +15 have less than 2% and 22 have 10% or more. Neither size nor character +has much to do with the variation. Bournemouth, at the bottom of the +list with 0.62%, is a residential place and health resort with a +population of about 50,000; so is Tynemouth, which is nearly at the top, +with 30.71%. The two largest towns, Liverpool and Manchester, are 26th +and 32nd on the list, with only 7.94% and 6.28% respectively, or +considerably less than the average; and on the other hand none of the +first 17 towns with the highest proportion of overcrowding are of the +largest size. Again, with regard to character, Leicester and +Northampton, which are almost at the bottom of the list, with 1.04% and +0.97% respectively, are both purely industrial towns. The most striking +facts are that the six towns, which alone have more than 20% of +overcrowding, namely Gateshead (34.5), South Shields (32.4), Tynemouth +(30.7), Newcastle (30.4), Sunderland (30.10), Plymouth (20.1) are all +old seaports, that four of them at the head of the list are on the Tyne +and the fifth on the Wear. This points strongly to special local +conditions and it is borne out by the facts with regard to rural +districts. Northumberland and Durham show a great excess of overcrowding +over other counties; and some of their rural districts even surpass any +of the towns. The highest of all is the district of Tynemouth, with +38.18% of overcrowding. The explanation lies in a special combination of +large families and small houses prevalent in this area. All the rural +districts are seats of coal-mining, and miners are the most prolific +section of the population. They also live in small houses of a +traditional and antiquated character, often of one storey only or built +back to back. Many are built by colliery proprietors. Large families +and small houses also prevail in the towns. Some of them contain +coal-pits and the rest of their industrial population is engaged chiefly +in engineering and shipbuilding works, occupations also usually +associated with a high birth-rate. The men live as near their work as +possible and the practice of living in flats or occupying part of a +house prevails extensively. + +In London the number of persons living in overcrowded conditions in 1901 +was 726,096 or 16.0% of the population. The proportion varied from 2.6% +in Lewisham to 35.2% in Finsbury, but in 23 out of the 29 boroughs into +which the county is divided it exceeded the urban mean for the whole +country, and in 9 boroughs having an aggregate population of 1,430,000 +it was more than double the mean. Conditions in London are evidently +untypical of English towns. + +In the light of the census figures it is clear that no large proportion +of the English industrial population is living under conditions of +serious overcrowding, outside the special districts mentioned and that +the expression "house famine" cannot be properly applied to England or +English towns in general. In the House of Commons, on the 16th of August +1909, the president of the Local Government Board, Mr John Burns, gave a +list of the number of unoccupied houses and tenements in each of the +London boroughs and in the eight largest provincial towns, including +Glasgow; the total was 104,107. By a further analysis of the census +returns Mr Dewsnup shows that a great deal of the overcrowding is of a +comparatively mild character and that it is due to a relatively small +excess of population. Bradford, for instance, is credited with 40,896 +overcrowded persons, representing the high percentage of 14.61 of the +population; but in the case of nearly 20,000 the excess over the +standard is very slight, and the proportion of gross overcrowding comes +down to 7.55%. Moreover, this serious overcrowding is produced by no +more than 2.79 of the population, so that its cure presents no +insuperable difficulty. The argument is confirmed by the very +substantial diminution which actually took place between 1891 and 1901. +The facts are so striking that they deserve to be presented in tabular +form:-- + + _Percentage of Population Overcrowded._ + + +------------------+--------+--------+ + | | 1891 | 1901 | + +------------------+--------+--------+ + | England and Wales| 11.23 | 8.20 | + | | | | + | Gateshead | 40.78 | 34.54 | + | Newcastle | 35.08 | 30.47 | + | Sunderland | 32.85 | 30.10 | + | Plymouth | 26.27 | 20.19 | + | Halifax | 21.31 | 14.49 | + | Bradford | 20.61 | 14.61 | + | Huddersfield | 19.89 | 12.88 | + | London | 19.70 | 16.01 | + | Leeds | 16.46 | 10.08 | + | St Helens | 15.72 | 10.86 | + | Birmingham | 14.27 | 10.32 | + | Burnley | 12.74 | 7.14 | + | Sheffield | 11.58 | 9.50 | + | Bolton | 11.22 | 6.50 | + | Liverpool | 10.96 | 7.94 | + | Oldham | 10.13 | 7.42 | + | Salford | 9.39 | 7.54 | + | West Ham | 9.34 | 9.27 | + | Wolverhampton | 9.31 | 4.67 | + | Swansea | 9.25 | 5.57 | + | Stockport | 8.50 | 4.98 | + | Manchester | 8.25 | 6.28 | + | Bristol | 8.03 | 3.55 | + | Hull | 7.86 | 6.12 | + | Blackburn | 7.05 | 3.92 | + | Birkenhead | 6.80 | 5.02 | + | Norwich | 4.91 | 3.34 | + | Brighton | 4.56 | 3.07 | + | Cardiff | 4.31 | 2.92 | + | Preston | 4.13 | 2.64 | + | Nottingham | 3.62 | 3.65 | + | Croydon | 2.76 | 2.74 | + | Derby | 2.69 | 1.18 | + | Leicester | 2.22 | 1.04 | + | Portsmouth | 1.74 | 1.19 | + +------------------+--------+--------+ + +To what is this remarkable movement due? It is far too general to be +attributed to the operation of the Housing Acts; for, though they have +helped in some cases, a great diminution has occurred in many places in +which no use has been made of them. Towns of all kinds and in all parts +of the country exhibit the same movement in some degree; those which had +little and those which had much overcrowding, the worst and the best. In +London the percentage fell by 3.7, and the number of persons overcrowded +was reduced by 103,669 in spite of an increase of population of 324,798. +In Gateshead a fall of 6.2%, in Newcastle one of 4.6% took place; while +at the other end of the scale Leicester and Derby reduced their already +very low proportions by more than one-half. Nottingham is the only +exception in the whole list. And in 28 out of the 35 towns the decrease +of overcrowding was absolute as well as relative in spite of a large +increase of population. London has been cited. The other large towns may +be tabulated with it, thus:-- + + +------------+------------+------------+ + | |Increase of | Decrease of| + | Town. | Population.| Overcrowded| + | | | Persons. | + +------------+------------+------------+ + | London | 324,898 | 103,669 | + | Liverpool | 166,978 | 2,381 | + | Manchester | 38,504 | 7,545 | + | Birmingham | 44,091 | 14,290 | + | Leeds | 61,463 | 17,252 | + | Sheffield | 56,550 | 1,388 | + | Bristol | 107,367 | 6,105 | + | Bradford | 63,406 | 3,696 | + +------------+------------+------------+ + +The very divergencies make the uniform diminution of overcrowding the +more remarkable. The large increase of population in Liverpool and +Bristol no doubt means extension of boundaries, which might have the +effect of reducing the proportions of overcrowding, but it cannot +account for the actual decrease of overcrowded persons. The change seems +to be due to three factors all of which have been in general operation +though in varying degrees. They are (1) the centrifugal movement +promoted by improved locomotive facilities, (2) the declining +birth-rate, (3) public health administration. (1) The first is the most +important and the chief element has been tramways, of which a great +extension accompanied by electrification took place in the decade. Thus +the process of urbanization has been modified by one of suburbanization. +Bristol is a prominent case; its overcrowding has been reduced by more +than one-half without any large and costly municipal interference, +mainly through the operation of ordinary economic forces. Tramways have +made the outskirts accessible and builders have utilized the +opportunity. They have built good houses, too, under supervision, and +Bristol, though an old seaport and industrial town with much poverty, +has the lowest general death-rate and the lowest infantile death-rate of +all the great towns. (2) The birth-rate and the size of families are +conditions which affect overcrowding in a very marked degree, though no +attention is paid to them in that connexion. The case of the mining +districts and the towns on the Tyne has been mentioned above; the same +thing is seen in London, where all the most overcrowded districts +(Finsbury, Stepney, Shoreditch and Bethnal Green) have high birth-rates, +ranging from 31.3 to 36.4 per 1000 in 1902-1906. The necessity imposed +on poor parents of putting several children into a cheap and therefore +small dwelling accounts for a large proportion of overcrowding, which +automatically diminishes with a falling birth-rate. The ultimate +advantage of this method of reducing overcrowding is a question on which +opinions may differ, but there is no doubt about the fact. (3) Public +health administration is the third general cause; it attracts no notice +and works very gradually, but it does work. The last annual report (for +1907) of the medical officer to the London County Council says of +overcrowding: "There is reason for thinking that in recent years greater +attention has been paid by sanitary authorities to the abatement of the +nuisance, and Dr Newman states that in Finsbury there has been an +enormous reduction in overcrowding, the reduction having been effected +mainly in the years 1901-1905." The medical officers of the metropolitan +boroughs reported in 1907 2613 dwellings overcrowded in 23 boroughs and +3216 such dwellings remedied in 27 boroughs. It should not be forgotten +that a good deal of overcrowding is voluntary. Families which have not +enough room for their own members nevertheless take in lodgers; and in +some places, of which London is the most conspicuous but not the only +example, foreigners herd together thickly in a very small space. + +The improvement shown by the statistics of overcrowding is confirmed by +those relating to the size of dwellings. Between 1891 and 1901 the +percentage of the population living in very small dwellings appreciably +diminished thus--in 1-roomed dwellings, from 2.2 to 1.6%; in 2-roomed +dwellings, from 8.3 to 6.6%; in 3-roomed dwellings, from 11.1 to 9.8%; +while the proportion living in dwellings of 5 rooms and upwards +increased from 54.9 to 60.1%. This again is referable to the suburban +movement and a higher standard of requirements. Six-roomed houses with a +bathroom tend to replace the old four-roomed type. The general report +accompanying the census says: "However the tenement figures for England +and Wales are compared it is impossible to avoid the conclusion that the +comparison affords satisfactory evidence of distinct improvement in the +housing of the people during the ten years 1891-1901." In short, the +problem of quantity is only acute in a few places and steadily becoming +less so. + + The foregoing facts apply only to England and Wales. In Scotland the + state of things is much less satisfactory. No statistics of + overcrowding are available, but the following comparative table shows + how different the housing conditions are in the two countries:-- + + _Size of Dwellings, England and Scotland, 1901._ + + +-----------------+-------------------------+ + | |Percentage of Population.| + | Dwelling. +------------+------------+ + | | England. | Scotland. | + +-----------------+------------+------------+ + | 1 room | 1.6 | 11.1 | + | 2 rooms | 6.6 | 39.5 | + | 3 rooms | 9.8 | 19.9 | + | 4 rooms | 21.9 | 9.1 | + | 5 rooms and over| 60.1 | 20.4 | + +-----------------+------------+------------+ + + Over 50% of the population of Scotland live in tenements of one or two + rooms; only 8.2% in England. A comparison of the largest towns in the + two countries gives the following result:-- + + _Percentage of Population._ + + +----------------------------+----------------------------+ + | Scotland. | England. | + +-----------+-------+--------+-----------+-------+--------+ + | Town. |1 Room.|2 Rooms.| Town. |1 Room.|2 Rooms.| + +-----------+-------+--------+-----------+-------+--------+ + | Glasgow | 16.2 | 38.9 | London | 6.7 | 15.5 | + | Edinburgh | 8.9 | 32.4 | Liverpool | 2.7 | 5.9 | + | Dundee | 11.3 | 51.7 | Manchester| 0.8 | 4.01 | + | Aberdeen | 6.1 | 33.2 | Birmingham| 0.3 | 2.4 | + | Greenock | 11.3 | 47.6 | Sheffield | 0.4 | 4.0 | + | Kilmarnock| 18.9 | 43.3 | Bristol | 1.6 | 5.7 | + +-----------+-------+--------+-----------+-------+--------+ + | Mean | 12.7 | 42.4 | Mean | 1.8 | 6.7 | + +-----------+-------+--------+-----------+-------+--------+ + + The conditions in Scottish towns where very tall tenement houses are + common, resemble those in other countries, in which overcrowding is + far greater than in England. All these matters are comparative, and + the superiority of conditions in England ought to be recognized. Yet, + in Scotland, too, great improvements have been effected. In 1861 there + were 25,959 houses without windows; in 1901 only 130. These facts + throw light on the long standing of the housing question, the change + of standard and the improvement effected. + + In Ireland there is more overcrowding than in England, though probably + less than in Scotland, with the possible exception of Dublin, which + has a larger proportion of one-roomed dwellings than any Scottish + town, namely, 24.7%. The percentage of population living in + overcrowded conditions in the principal towns is--Dublin 40.6, + Limerick 31.7, Cork 23.4, Waterford 20.6, Londonderry 16.7, Belfast + 8.2. + +_Sanitary Conditions._--With regard to the quality of existing housing +reference has already been made to the effect of the Public Health Acts +and the general improvement in sanitation. The only numerical measure is +afforded by the death-rates, which have fallen in England from 20.9 per +1000 in 1871-1875 to 15.4 per 1000 in 1903-1907 and in the United +Kingdom from 21.3 to 15.7 per 1000 in the same period. The condition of +the dwelling must be credited with a considerable share in this fall. +There have, in fact, been great changes and all in the direction of +improvement. The rise and development of sanitation, of house and main +drainage and sewage disposal, the purification of water and provision of +a constant service in the house, the removal of refuse, the segregation +of infectious illness, sanitary inspection--all these, apart from the +demolition of the worst housing and the provision of better, have raised +the general healthiness of the dwellings of the people. In face of these +facts and of the vital statistics, to say that the people are physically +deteriorating through the influence of bad housing is to talk obvious +nonsense, for all conditions have been improving for more than a +generation. If physical deterioration is going on, of which there is no +proof, either it is not caused by bad housing or there is less than +there was. Deterioration may be caused by the continued process of +urbanization and the congregating of an ever larger proportion of the +population in towns; but that is a different question. If the town has +any injurious influence it is not due to the sanitary condition of the +houses, which is in general superior to that of houses in the country, +but to the habits and occupations of the people or to the atmosphere and +the mere aggregation. But much misapprehension prevails with regard to +towns. The most distinctive and the most valuable feature of English +housing is the general predominance of the small house or cottage +occupied by a single family. Only in London and a few other towns do +blocks of large tenement houses of the continental type exist, and even +there they are comparatively few. In England and Wales 84% of the +population live in dwellings of 4 rooms and upwards, which means broadly +separate houses. Now the prevalence of small houses involves spreading +out and the covering of much ground with many little streets, which +produce a monotonous effect; a smoky atmosphere makes them grimy and +dull skies contribute to the general dinginess. The whole presents to +the eye a vast area of dreary meanness and monotony. Thus the best +feature of English national housing turns to its apparent disadvantage +and the impression is gained by superficial observers that the bulk of +our working-class populations lives in "slums." The word "slum" has no +precise meaning, but if it implies serious sanitary defects it is not +applicable to most of our town housing. There are real slums still, but +the bulk of the working class population do not live in them; they live +in small houses, often of a mean and dingy exterior but in essential +respects more sanitary than the large and often handsome blocks to be +seen in foreign towns, which are not put down as slums because they do +not look dirty. A smoky atmosphere is injurious to health, but it must +be distinguished from defects of housing. Ideal houses in a smoky place +soon look bad; inferior ones in a clean air look brighter and deceive +the eye. The worst of the old housing has disappeared; the filthy, +dilapidated, airless and sunless rookeries--the real slums--and the +underground dwellings have been swept away in most cases, and what +remains of them is not so bad as what has gone. But reform has been very +regularly applied. Some towns have done much, others little. The large +towns, in which the evil was most intense and most conspicuous in bulk, +have as a class done far more than smaller ones in which the need +perhaps was less great, but in which also a less healthy public spirit +prevailed. The worst housing conditions to-day are probably to be found +in old towns of small and medium size, in which the ratepayers have a +great disinclination to spend money on anything, and the control of +local affairs is apt to be in the hands of the owners of the most +insanitary property. Nor is this state of things altogether confined to +old places. Some of recent growth have been allowed, for the same +reason, to spring up and develop without any regard to sanitary +principles or the requirements of public health. There is therefore +abundant scope for further reform and in not a few cases urgent need of +it. On the other hand, we have a number of towns, particularly +manufacturing towns, both large and small in the midlands and the north +of England, which have already reached a good general standard of +housing in all essential requirements, and only need the regular and +steady exercise of vigilance by the public health service to remove such +defects as still remain or may reveal themselves with the lapse of time. + + _Rents._--Rent is a matter of great importance from every point of + view, and that is now being realized. A quantity of official + information on the subject has been collected and made available by an + elaborate inquiry ordered by the Board of Trade in 1905 and published + in 1908 (Cd. 3864). It relates to working class dwellings in the + principal industrial towns in the United Kingdom, 94 in all: namely, + 77 in England and Wales, 11 in Scotland and 6 in Ireland. The + following tables give in a condensed form the chief statistical + results obtained in October 1905:-- + + _Predominant Range of Weekly Rents._ + + +----------+--------------------------+------------+------------+ + | | England and Wales. | | | + | +-------------+------------+ Scotland. | Ireland. | + | | London. | Provincial | | | + | | | towns | | | + +----------+-------------+------------+------------+------------+ + | One room | .. | .. | 2/- to 2/6 | 1/6 to 2/6 | + | Two rooms| 4/6 to 7/6 | 3/- to 3/6 | 3/10 to 4/3| 2/6 to 3/6 | + | Three " | 6/- to 9/- | 3/9 to 4/6 | 5/2 to 6/5 | 4/- to 5/- | + | Four " | 7/6 to 10/6 | 4/6 to 5/6 | .. | 5/6 to 6/9 | + | Five " | 9/- to 13/- | 5/6 to 6/6 | .. | .. | + | Six " | 10/6 to 15/6| 6/6 to 7/9 | .. | .. | + +----------+-------------+------------+------------+------------+ + + Rents are lowest in Ireland and next lowest in English provincial + towns, considerably higher in Scotland and highest of all in London, + for which further special details are given. It is divided into three + zones (1) central, (2) middle, (3) outer, which have the following + mean weekly rents:-- + + _London Mean Weekly Rents._ + + +----------+---------------------------+ + | | Zone. | + | +---------+--------+--------+ + | | Central.| Middle.| Outer. | + +----------+---------+--------+--------+ + | One room | 4/6 | 3/9 | .. | + | Two rooms| 7/- | 6/- | .. | + | Three " | 8/9 | 7/6 | 6/6 | + | Four " | .. | 9/- | 7/9 | + | Five " | .. | 11/- | 9/6 | + | Six " | .. | 13/- | 11/- | + +----------+---------+--------+--------+ + + In central London--which extends to Stepney in the East, Lambeth m the + South, Islington in the North, and includes Westminster, Holborn, + Finsbury, Marylebone, Shoreditch, most of Bethnal Green, Southwark and + Bermondsey--the rent of a single room may be as high as 6s. or even + 6s. 6d. (Holborn) a week. It is here that overcrowding is greatest, + and block-tenements, philanthropic and municipal, most numerous. The + rentals of the block dwellings have not been taken into account in the + foregoing official statistics; they range as follows: 1 room, 2s. 6d. + to 5s.; 2 rooms, 5s. to 8s.; three rooms, 6s. 6d. to 11s. The lowest + rent for which a single room can be obtained in this area is 2s. 6d. a + week. In no English town are rents nearly so high as in London. If 100 + is taken as the index number for rent in London the nearest towns to + it (Croydon and Plymouth) only reach 81, and one town on the list + (Macclesfield) is as low as 32. The index number of twenty-one towns + out of the whole is 50 or under, and these include a number of + important industrial centres--Hull, Leicester, Blackburn, Northampton, + Warrington, Coventry, Crewe and others. The index numbers of the great + towns are: Liverpool 65, Manchester and Salford 62, Birmingham 59, + Leeds 56, Sheffield 55, Bristol 53, Bradford 59, Hull 48; that is to + say the level of rents in these towns is little more than half that in + London. This is one more proof of the untypical character of London, + and of the fallacy of generalizing from it to the rest of the country. + Even in the overcrowded towns on Tyneside rents do not run to + three-fourths of the London level. When the towns are divided into + geographical groups the index numbers run thus: London 100, Northern + Counties 62, Yorkshire 56, Lancashire and Cheshire 54, Midlands 51, + Eastern Counties 50, Southern Counties 61, Wales and Monmouth 60. + Rents are always highest in capitals, and Edinburgh complies with the + rule; but it is very slightly in advance of Glasgow, and in Scotland + generally the range is much smaller than in England. Dublin, on the + other hand, is differentiated from the other Irish towns as widely as + London from English ones. + + A general and progressive rise in rents has been taking place for many + years. The following index numbers for the great towns are given in + the second series of memoranda published by the Board of Trade in 1904 + (Cd. 1761):-- + + _Relative Working-Class Rents._ + + 1880 86.6 | 1890 89.9 + 1885 90.1 | 1900 100.0 + 1895 96.3 | + + The tendency to rise is attributable to increased cost of labour, due + to higher wages and less work, increased cost of materials and higher + rates. Weekly working-class rents generally include rates which are + paid by the landlord. Housing reform has contributed to the rise, both + directly and through the rates, on which it has thrown a heavy burden + in various ways. When slums are cleared away and replaced by superior + dwellings the new rents are generally higher than the old and this + fact has proved a great difficulty. Most of the improved housing is + beyond the means of those who need it most, and they seek other + quarters resembling the old ones as nearly as possible. The example of + Liverpool, which has the largest proportion of casual and ill-paid + labour of all the great towns, and has been the most successful in + providing new dwellings of a fair quality, centrally situated and not + in blocks, at really low rates, shows that the problem is not + insoluble; but as a rule too little attention is paid to the question + of rent in housing reform, especially in building undertaken by + municipalities. It is not ignored, but the importance attached to it + by the poor is not realized. To them it is the first consideration + after four walls, a roof and a fire-place; and 6d. a week makes a vast + difference in their calculations. Reform which aims at raising the + lowest classes of tenants by improving their dwellings defeats itself + when it drives them away. + +_Rural Housing._--Little has hitherto been said about rural housing. It +is of less importance than urban housing because it concerns a much +smaller proportion of the population, and because in rural life the +influence of inferior housing on health is offset by other conditions; +but it has recently attracted much attention and was made the subject of +inquiry by a Select Committee of the House of Commons in 1906. The +report laid stress chiefly on the inaction of local rural authorities +under the Public Health and Housing Acts, and on various obstacles in +the way of improving existing houses and of providing more and better +ones at rents which agricultural labourers can afford to pay. The +available facts with regard to rural housing are scrappy and +unsatisfactory. The word "rural" has no precise meaning and it includes +several very different sections of the population; for instance, the +inhabitants of suburbs, mining villages and mill villages as well as the +real agricultural population. Complaint is made of both the quantity and +the quality of rural housing. With regard to quantity it is said that in +spite of migration to the towns there is a dearth of cottages through +dilapidation and demolition without rebuilding. That may happen in +particular localities, but there is no evidence to support a general +allegation. Inquiries issued by the Board of Trade to agricultural +correspondents brought the following replies: insufficient 56, +sufficient 111, more than sufficient 32. Similar inquiries of land +agents and owners resulted thus: insufficient 9, sufficient 11, more +than sufficient 4, variable 6. From which it appears that insufficiency +exists but is not general. The official evidence with regard to +overcrowding is that it is much less acute than in the towns. The +proportion of the rural population in England living in overcrowded +conditions in 1901 was 5.8%; if the rural mining districts, the +exceptional overcrowding of which has been noted above, be eliminated, +the rest cannot be very bad. Moreover, the percentage has appreciably +diminished; in 1891 it was 8.46. The complaint of bad quality is better +founded. Some landowners take great pride in the state of their +property, and excellent cottages may be found in model villages and +elsewhere in many parts of the country; but much rural housing is of an +extremely insanitary character. A good deal of evidence on this head has +of late years been published In the reports of medical inspectors to the +Local Government Board. And local authorities are very reluctant to set +the law in motion against insanitary dwellings. On the other hand, they +have in some cases hindered and prevented building by too rigid +insistence on by-laws, framed with a view to urban housing and quite +unsuited to rural conditions. A few rural authorities have taken action +with regard to building schemes under Part III. of the Housing Act. A +list of 31 in 17 counties is given in "Housing up to Date"; 13 +applications were refused and 13 granted by the respective county +councils and others were dropped. Details are given by the same +authority of 54 houses built by 17 rural district councils. Public +action may thus be said to amount to nothing at all. Landowners, +however, have borrowed under the Improvements of Lands Acts upwards of +£1,250,000 for building labourers' cottages; and this is probably only a +fraction of the amount spent privately. + +In Ireland a special condition of affairs exists. A series of about a +dozen acts, dating from 1881 and culminating in the Labourers (Ireland) +Act of 1906, have been passed for promoting the provision of labourers' +cottages; and under them 20,634 cottages had been built and some +thousands more authorized previous to the act of 1906, which extended +the pre-existing facilities. The principle is that of the English +Housing Acts applied to rural districts, but the procedure is simpler +and quicker. The law provides that a representation may be made to the +local authority by three ratepayers or resident labourers that "the +existing house accommodation for agricultural labourers and their +families is deficient having regard to the ordinary requirements of the +district, or is unfit for human habitation owing to dilapidation, want +of air, light, ventilation or other convenience or to any other sanitary +defects," whereupon the local authority shall make an improvement +scheme. It may also initiate a scheme without representation, or the +Local Government Board may do so in default of the local authority. The +scheme is published, an inquiry held, notice given and an order made +with very much less delay and expense than under the English law. Land +is purchased by agreement, or compulsorily and the money for land and +building raised by loan. Loans amounting to about 3½ millions sterling +had been raised down to 1906. The great majority of the cottages built +are in Münster and Leinster. They must have at least 2 bedrooms and a +kitchen, and the habitable rooms must be 8 ft. high. One of the most +remarkable features is the low cost--about £150--at which these cottages +have been built, including land and the expenses of procedure. + +_Recent Developments._--It is clear from a general review of the subject +that the problem of housing the working classes in a satisfactory manner +has proved more complex than was at one time realized. Experience has +falsified hopes and led to a change of attitude. It is seen that there +are limits to drastic interference with the normal play of economic +forces and to municipal action on a large and ambitious scale. A +reaction has set in against it. At the same time the problem is being +attacked on other sides and from new points of departure. The tendency +now is towards the more effectual application of gradual methods of +improvement, the utilization of other means and the exercise of +prevention in preference to cure. Under each of these heads certain +movements may be noted. + +The most troublesome problem is the treatment of existing bad housing. +In regard to this the policy of large improvement schemes under which +extensive areas are bought up and demolished has had its day, and is not +likely to be revived to any considerable extent. That is not only +because it is extremely costly but also because it has in the main done +its work. It has done what could not have been done otherwise, and has +swept away the worst of the old housing _en masse_. To call it a failure +because it is costly and of limited application would be as great a +mistake as to regard it as a panacea. The procedure which seems to be +coming into favour in place of it is that adopted in Birmingham and +advocated by Mr J. S. Nettlefold (_Practical Housing_) coupled with a +more general and effective use of the Public Health Acts. The principle +is improvement in detail effected by pressure brought to bear on owners +by public authority. The embodiment of this principle forms an important +part of the Housing and Town Planning Bill introduced by the Local +Government Board in 1908, which contained clauses empowering the central +authority to compel apathetic local authorities to do their duty in +regard to the closing of unfit houses, and authorizing local authorities +both to issue closing orders and to serve notices on landlords requiring +them "to execute such works as the local authority may specify as being +necessary to make the house in all respects reasonably fit for human +habitation." + +Among the other and less direct means to which attention is being turned +is the policy of getting people away from the towns. The effect of +improved travelling facilities in reducing urban overcrowding has been +noted above. That object was not specifically contemplated in the +building and electrification of tramways, and in the development of +other means of cheap local travel, but the beneficial effect has caused +them to be recognized as an important factor in relation to housing and +to be more systematically applied in that connexion. A newer departure, +however, is to encourage migration not to the outskirts of towns but +altogether into the country by facilitating the acquisition of small +holdings of land. This has been done by private landowners in an +experimental way for some years, and in 1907 the policy was embodied in +the Small Holdings Act, which gives county and borough councils power to +purchase or hire land compulsorily and let it in holdings of not more +than 50 acres or £50 annual value. Failing action on their part the +Board of Agriculture may frame schemes. Power is also conferred on the +Board and on County Councils to establish co-operative agricultural +societies and credit banks. These measures have been adopted from +foreign countries, and particularly from Denmark and Germany. A very +large number of applications for holdings have been made under this act, +but it is too early to state the effects. They will depend on the +success of tenants in earning a livelihood by agricultural produce. + +Another new and quite different departure is the attempt to establish a +novel kind of town, called a "Garden City," which shall combine the +advantages of the town and the country. The principal points are the +choice of a site, which must be sufficiently convenient to enable +industries to be carried on, yet with rural surroundings, the laying out +of the ground in such a way as to ensure plenty of open space and +variety, the insistence on building of a certain standard and the +limitation of size. One has been established at Letchworth in +Hertfordshire, 34 m. from London, and so far seems to be prospering. It +consists of an area of 3800 acres, bought from the previous owners by a +company registered in 1903 and entitled First Garden City Ltd., with a +capital of £300,000 in £5 shares. The interest is limited to a dividend +of 5%, all further profits to be devoted to the benefit of the town. The +estate is divided into a central urban area of 1200 and a surrounding +agricultural belt of 2600 acres. The town is planned for an eventual +population of 30,000 and at present (1909) has about 5000. Some London +printing works and other small industrial establishments have been +planted there, and a number of model cottages have been built. In this +connexion another recent novelty has appeared in the shape of an +exhibition of cottages. The idea, originated by Mr St Loe Strachey, was +to encourage the art of designing and building cheap but good and +convenient cottages, especially for the country. Two exhibitions have +been held at Letchworth in 1905 and 1907, and others at Sheffield (1907) +and Newcastle (1908). The two latter were held on municipal land, and it +is proposed by the National Housing Reform Council to hold one every +year. + +The "Garden City" has led to the "Garden Suburb," an adaptation of the +same idea to suburban areas. One was opened near Hampstead Heath in +1907: it consists of 240 acres, of which 72 have been reserved for +working-class cottages with gardens. These developments, with which may +be associated the model industrial villages, mentioned above, at +Bournville, Port Sunlight and Earswick, represent an aspiration towards +a higher standard of housing for families belonging to the upper ranks +of the working classes; and the same movement is demonstrated in a still +more interesting fashion by a particular form of co-operative activity +known as Co-partnership Housing. The first complete example of this +method of organization was the Ealing Tenants Limited, a society +registered under the Industrial and Provident Societies Act in 1901, +though the Tenant Co-operators Limited, formed in 1888, was a precursor +on very nearly the same lines. The essential principle is self-help +applied by combination to the provision of superior homes, and the +chief material feature is the building of houses which are not only of +good design and workmanship, but disposed on a systematic plan so as to +utilize the ground to the best advantage. Land is bought and houses are +built with combined capital to which each tenant contributes a +substantial share; the houses are let at rents which will return 5% on +share capital and 4% on loan capital after defraying all expenses, and +the surplus profits are divided among the tenant members in proportion +to the rents paid by them. Each tenant's share of profits is credited to +him in shares until his share capital equals the value of the house he +occupies, after which it is paid in cash. There is thus common ownership +of the whole group, which forms a little community. This system has +caught on in a remarkable way and has spread with great rapidity. In +1905 a central organizing body was formed called the Co-partnership +Housing Council, for the purpose of promoting the formation of societies +and assisting them with advice; it is supported by voluntary +contributions. In 1909 twelve societies, including the original Tenant +Co-operators, had been formed with a total investment of £536,300. They +are situated at Ealing, Letchworth, Seven-oaks, Leicester, Manchester, +Hampstead (two), Harborne near Birmingham, Fallings Park, +Stoke-on-Trent, Wayford and Derwentwater. The rapidity with which the +movement has developed and spread since the establishment of the +Co-partnership Housing Council indicates great vitality, and since it is +based on thoroughly sound lines it has probably a large future. It is +the most interesting and in many respects the best of all recent +developments. The Report of the Select Committee on Rural Housing +mentioned above suggested that a Co-partnership Housing Society should +be formed in every county in England. + +All the enterprises just described have one feature in common, namely, +the laying out of sites on a plan which takes cognizance of the future, +secures a due proportion of open space, variety in the arrangement of +streets and the most advantageous disposition of the houses and other +buildings. They go beyond sanitary requirements and take account of +higher needs. They have lent force to the advocacy of municipal +"town-planning," as practised by several towns in Germany; and provision +was made for this procedure in the Housing and Town Planning Act of +1909. The act contains clauses giving local authorities power to prepare +plans with reference to any land which appears likely to be used for +building purposes within or near their own boundaries; and also to +purchase land comprised in a town-planning scheme and either build on it +themselves or let plots for building in accordance with the plan. The +chief object is to safeguard the future, prevent the repetition of past +defects and encourage a higher standard of housing. + +These new developments represent an upward movement at the higher end of +the scale. They cater for the superior ranks of working classes, those +who attach some importance to the aesthetic and moral influence of +pleasant and wholesome surroundings, and are willing to sacrifice +immediate gratifications to a higher end. They embody an aspiration, set +an example and exercise an educative influence. But they have nothing to +do with the housing of the really poor, which is the great difficulty; +and their very attractiveness seems in some danger of drawing attention +from it. Garden cities and suburbs will never house the poor or even the +bulk of our working class population, and it would be a pity if the +somewhat sentimental popularity of romantic schemes led to a distaste +for the plodding effort which alone can effect a real cure of +deep-seated social evils of long standing. All the new schemes and +legislative proposals leave untouched the greatest difficulty of all, +which lies not in the dwelling but in the tenant. It is comparatively +easy to afford better opportunities to those who are willing to take +advantage of them, but how to raise those who are not? The lesson taught +by Miss Octavia Hill's classical experiment is, if not forgotten, +certainly neglected in the presence of more showy efforts. Or perhaps it +would be more true to say that half of it is neglected. Miss Hill was +one of the pioneers in the comparatively modest method of improving and +reconstructing bad houses, which, as we have noted, is now being more +generally recognized and pursued; but that was only half her work. She +improved bad dwellings and made them decent, but she also managed them +on business lines, by a system of inspection and rent collection which +combined a judicious discipline with the stimulus of reward. This was +done by means of personal service, which is the secret of all really +effective work among the poor. Her words written years ago remain true +to-day: "The people's homes are bad partly because they are badly built +and arranged; they are tenfold worse because the tenants' habits and +lives are what they are. Transplant them to-morrow to healthy and +commodious homes and they will pollute and destroy them." + + The following is a list of the principal associations formed for the + promotion of housing reform: Mansion House Council on the Dwellings of + the Poor, Rural Housing and Sanitation Association, Workmen's National + Housing Council, National Housing Reform Council, Co-partnership + Tenants Housing Council. They are all of recent date, except the + first. There are also local associations at Liverpool, Oldham, + Rochdale, York, Plymouth, and elsewhere. + + +OTHER COUNTRIES + +At the International Housing Congress organized by the National Housing +Reform Council and held in London in 1907 representatives were present +from a number of foreign countries and a good deal of information was +collected and published in the report of the Congress. Further detailed +data have been supplied by foreign correspondents to Mr W. Thompson and +published in _Housing up to Date_. The more important facts relating to +the principal industrial countries are here condensed from this and +other sources of information. + + _Austria._--An act for encouraging the building of cheap working-class + dwellings was passed in 1902; it provides for exemption from taxes for + 24 years of working-class dwellings which fulfil certain conditions + including sanitary requirements, a minimum area per room, minimum + height, minimum door and window spaces, thickness of walls, a maximum + number of inhabitants (one to 4 sq. metres in sleeping rooms), + prohibition of lodgers, fixed rent and maximum profit. The + municipalities are the authority for administering sanitary and + housing laws; they have no power of compulsory purchase of land + without a special law. There is excessive overcrowding in the large + towns; in Vienna (1900) 43% of the population live in dwellings of 1 + room or 1 room and a kitchen; in 60 provincial towns the proportion is + 63%. Overcrowding is reckoned at more than 5 persons to a room and + more than 9 to two rooms; the proportion of overcrowded on this basis + is nearly one-fifth in Vienna and one-fourth in the provincial towns + (Thompson). + + _Belgium._--An act was passed in 1889 instituting _Comités de + Patronage_; since then other Acts relating to loan societies, and to + inheritance and succession in the case of small properties. Comités de + Patronage are semi-official bodies, but without legal power, whose + function it is to study the subject of housing, to report to local + authorities on existing conditions, to advise, to collect funds and + promote the provision of good houses by any means in their power. They + influence public opinion and stimulate the activity of local + authorities which have the power to compel improvements and close + dwellings unfit for habitation; they have led to the formation of + numerous societies for erecting working-class dwellings. The latter + are encouraged by the law in various ways; they are exempt from the + payment of some government duties and partly exempt from others. + Working men buying or building houses liable to registration fees up + to from 72 to 171 francs are exempted from personal, provincial and + communal taxes. The National Savings Bank of Belgium is empowered to + lend money to working men for buying or building houses and to insure + the lives of those doing so, to preserve the home for the family. In + 1904 the number of workmen's homes exempted from taxation was 164,387, + and the amount of taxation remitted considerably exceeded 3 million + francs; workmen had acquired lands and houses valued at nearly + £4,000,000; there were 161 societies for building working-class + dwellings; 30,000 workmen representing a population of 150,000 had + become owners of property; and 70,000 representing a population of + 350,000 had availed themselves of the law in obtaining exemptions and + loans (O. Velghe). The foregoing results effected in 15 years are + remarkable and indicate a great capacity for self-help on the part of + Belgian workmen with suitable and well-considered assistance. But this + movement, in common with those of a similar character in other + countries, does not touch the problem of housing the very poor. No + statistics of overcrowding are available, but the average number of + persons to a dwelling is over 5 for the whole country and nearly 9 in + Brussels. The communal administrations are the authorities for health + and housing; they have power to abate nuisances but not to compel + landowners to sell land for building, though they have the right to + dispossession for "public purposes." No town has constructed quarters + devoted entirely to working-class dwellings and only one commune (St + Giles) has built any. In towns the height of buildings is regulated by + the width of streets; generally it is the width plus 6 metres. The + height of rooms and thickness of walls are prescribed by local + regulations but not the area of rooms. The housing difficulty has been + lessened in a notable degree by cheap transport facilities, including + railroads, light railroads and tramways; a large proportion of the + workpeople travel long distances to and from work. One-quarter travel + on the State railways alone; fares are 1s. 6d. a week for a daily + double journey of 20 m., 2s. for 44 m. and 2s. 6d. for 66 m. The area + of the labour market of Liége extends nearly to Ostend and out of 5830 + workmen travelling over 1000 live more than 50 kilometres from Liége. + Some journeys last 3 hours. + + _France._--The question of housing was publicly raised in France quite + as early as in England on grounds of public health in connexion with + the first visitation of cholera, and building societies were formed as + early as 1851, but little was done until after 1889, when the _Société + Française des Habitations à Bon Marché_ was founded under the + inspiration of M. Siegfried. This led to the formation of several + societies, which increased rapidly after the passage of _la loi + Siegfried_ in 1894, for promoting the provision of working-class + dwellings. In 1902 a Public Health Act and in 1906 a Housing of the + Working Classes Act were passed, and these three enactments with + regulations made in 1907 govern the procedure. The act of 1906 + embodies the Belgian system of Comités de Patronage, of which at least + one was to be established in each department with grants in aid, and + exemptions from certain taxes of working-class dwellings fulfilling + specified conditions as to sanitation and rent. The law promotes the + formation of Housing Societies by granting various facilities for the + investment of money in building by public bodies and benevolent + institutions by taking shares or by loans. Down to the end of 1906 + there had been lent for this purpose £233,000 by savings banks, + £258,000 by the Caisse des Dépôts, and £14,000 by charitable + institutions. The law does not authorize municipalities to build + houses and none of the communes have acquired land for this purpose. + Under the Public Health Act of 1902 towns can purchase land + compulsorily in connexion with unhealthy areas. The Public Health and + Housing Acts are administered by the local authority, which makes + regulations for building and for laying out building land. A minimum + height of 2.6 metres and a minimum cubical content of 25 cubic metres + are prescribed for rooms; there are no regulations for thickness of + walls. Housing societies are under the Ministry of Works and a + Superior Housing Council, which is a central advisory body. These + societies are now numerous; there are 46 in Paris alone, but their + operations are not on a large scale. One of them deserves special + notice on account of its special object. It is called the _Société de + logements pour familles nombreuses_ and it builds special flats called + _maisons des enfants_ which are let at low rents only to persons with + large families. In 1907 it had housed 168 families, averaging 6.8 + persons, in two blocks at Belleville and Montmartre. The great defect + in France is the large quantity of old, bad, insanitary housing. Real + slums exist in all the old towns and in some of them, such as + Marseilles and Lyons, on an extensive scale. Very little has hitherto + been done to grapple with this difficulty. The standard of sanitation + is altogether lower in France than in England, as is shown by the + death-rates, and this holds good of the housing. But conditions vary + widely in different parts of the country. They are better, generally + speaking, in the industrial towns of the north, which are largely + Flemish and distinguished by the prevalence of small houses after the + English fashion, than in the central or southern districts where tall + old tenement houses of six and seven storeys abound. There are no + statistics and no standard of overcrowding; but the careful inquiry + carried out by the Board of Trade and published in 1909 shows the + extraordinary prevalence of tenements consisting of 1, 2 or 3 rooms. + In 16 towns for which information was obtained the average proportion + of dwellings containing less than 4 rooms was 75% of the whole; in + some it was as high as 89% and in none lower than 61%. In 8 towns, + including Paris, the number of one-roomed dwellings was more than a + quarter of the whole, and in two towns (Brest and Fougères) it was + more than half. Some corresponding statistics for English and German + towns are given below in the section on Germany. According to the same + report, the general accuracy of which has been confirmed by personal + inquiries, made in 1909 by the writer in a number of towns, rents are + decidedly lower in France. If the London level be taken as 100 that of + Paris is only 78 and the other French towns are considerably lower, 21 + out of 29 being less than half the London standard. A general + comparison between a number of English and French towns shows the + average level of French rents to be less than three-fourths of English + ones. A noticeable feature of housing in France is the large number of + dwellings built by employers in recent years. The mining companies, + particularly in the Pas de Calais, have built whole groups of + villages; the railway companies and various manufacturers have also + done a great deal, chiefly in rural areas. Among the manufacturers MM. + Schneider at Le Creusot and the textile mill-owners in the Vosges are + noticeable. The houses provided are of a charming type, white with red + roofs; the rooms are of good size, the rents low, and a large garden + is usually attached to every house. + + _Germany._--In no country is the problem of housing more acute than + in Germany, where the increase of population, the growth of + manufacturing industry and the urbanization of the people have + proceeded at an exceptionally rapid pace in recent years and have + combined with increasing wealth and a rising standard of living to + force the question into prominence. Up to 1909 no uniform legislation + for the empire had been framed and no central authority existed for + dealing with housing; but the several states have their own public + health and housing laws, and great activity has been developed in + various directions. The most general difficulty is deficiency of + quantity consequent on the rapid change in the distribution of the + population. The proportion of the whole population living in the great + towns increased from 7.2% to 16.2%, or more than doubled between 1890 + and 1900; in England it only increased by about one-tenth. Slums are a + much less conspicuous feature than in England because of the + comparatively recent development of German towns, but where old + quarters exist on a large scale, as in Hamburg, the conditions are + quite as bad as anything in English towns, and call for similar + measures. Public sanitation in Germany is still as a whole less + advanced than in England; but in some cases it is superior and in + general it is coming up rapidly; the administration of sanitary laws, + as of others, is more effective and uniform, and less subject to + evasion. This also contributes to the comparative absence of slums. + And there is a third factor which has perhaps the greatest influence + of all, and that is the superior manner in which German homes are + kept. But the pressure of inadequate quantity is urgent; it has caused + high rents, overcrowding, and the development of large barrack or + block dwellings which are becoming the prevailing type. At the same + time it has led to many and varied efforts to meet the difficulty. + Isolated attempts go back to an early date. For instance a building + society was formed in Berlin in 1849, Alfred Krupp began to build his + "colonies" at Essen in 1863, Barmen started a society in 1871 and + there were other cases; but general attention seems first to have been + drawn to the subject by the reforming efforts of Pastor Bodelschwingh + at Bielefeld about 1884 in connexion with his _Arbeiterheim_. In short + housing reform in Germany is really a matter of the last 20 years. The + first efficient by-laws for regulating building in Berlin were not + adopted till 1887; the previous regulations dating from 1853 permitted + many abuses and under them a great deal of bad housing was + constructed, especially after the establishment of the empire and the + beginning of the great development of the capital. + + The worst feature is the general prevalence of dwellings containing a + very small number of rooms--from 1 to 3--and consequent overcrowding. + The following figures are extracted from the Report to the Board of + Trade on Rents, Housing, &c., in Germany (1908, Cd. 4032). They + indicate the proportion of dwellings containing 1, 2 or 3 rooms, or + (in a few cases) the proportion of the population living in such + dwellings. The towns are those for which the information is given. + They are not selected as particularly bad specimens but as + representative, and they include most of the capitals and chief + industrial centres. The figures relate to the year 1900, except in a + few cases, in which they are taken from a municipal house census in + 1905. + + _Percentage of Dwellings or Population living in Dwellings + containing_ + + +-------------------+--------+--------+--------+-----------+ + | Town. |1 Room. |2 Rooms.|3 Rooms.|Total under| + | | | | | 4 Rooms. | + +-------------------+--------+--------+--------+-----------+ + | Berlin | 8.0 | 37.2 | 30.6 | 75.8 | + | Aachen | 13.7 | 32.0 | 21.9 | 67.6 | + | Barmen (pop.) | 1.5 | 24.3 | 28.8 | 54.6 | + | Bremen | 3.8(?)| 26.8 | 26.1 | 56.7(?) | + | Breslau (pop.) | 3.9 | 46.0 | 24.4 | 74.3 | + | Chemnitz (pop.) | 1.7 | 34.8 | 29.9 | 66.4 | + | Dantzig | 3.3 | 45.0 | 29.9 | 78.2 | + | Dortmund | 4.7 | 45.5 | 30.0 | 80.2 | + | Dresden | 0.8 | 3.5 | 27.8 | 32.1 | + | Düsseldorf | 5.0 | 26.4 | 22.7 | 54.1 | + | Elberfeld | 8.4(?)| 36.9 | 21.7 | 67.0(?) | + | Essen | 2.9 | 35.4 | 30.0 | 68.3 | + | Hamburg | 1.0 | 3.9 | 24.7 | 29.6 | + | Königshütte (pop.)| 10.0 | 60.4 | 16.8 | 87.2 | + | Leipzig (pop.) | 0.4 | 1.7 | 14.5 | 16.6 | + | Mannheim | 3.1 | 22.1 | 40.4 | 65.6 | + | Munich (pop.) | 4.6 | 24.1 | 28.4 | 57.1 | + | Plauen (pop.) | 1.3 | 14.2 | 21.8 | 36.3 | + +-------------------+--------+--------+--------+-----------+ + + The figures must be read with a certain amount of caution, as they are + not in every case compiled on a precisely uniform method with regard + to inclusion of kitchens and attics. For this reason the position of + Bremen and Elberfeld is probably more unfavourable than it ought to + be. But broadly the table shows that in most of the large towns in + Germany more than half, and in some cases more than three-quarters of + the dwellings have less than 4 rooms. Leipzig is the most striking + exception. If working-class quarters alone are taken it is found that + dwellings of more than 3 rooms are so few as to be negligible. In + Stuttgart, where housing is very dear, the percentages for + working-class quarters are--1 room 21.0, 2 rooms 51.8, 3 rooms 26.9; + total under 4 rooms 98.7. Königshütte, the chief coal and iron centre + in Silesia and a purely working-class town, shows the same state of + things; 60% of the whole population live in dwellings of 2 rooms and + 87% in less than four. It is interesting to compare English towns. The + proportion of dwellings containing less than 4 rooms in London was + (1901) 52.2%, in Berlin 75.8%; the proportion of the population living + in such dwellings was--London 38.7%, Berlin 71.5%. Not only is the + proportion of small dwellings very much higher in Berlin but the + proportion of the population living in them shows a far greater + discrepancy. This indicates a much higher degree of overcrowding. The + only point in which Berlin has the advantage is the smaller number of + single-room dwellings. The proportions are London 14.7%, Berlin 8.0%. + But it is to be observed that overcrowding is not so common in 1-room + dwellings, which are often occupied by a single person, as in those + with 2 or 3 rooms, which are occupied by families, though probably the + most extreme cases of overcrowding occur in particular 1-room + dwellings. In the English county boroughs the proportion of dwellings + with less than 4 rooms was 24.0%, in other urban districts 17.4, and + in all urban areas including London 26.4%. When all allowance is made + for minor errors and discrepancies it may be broadly concluded that + the proportion of small dwellings containing less than 4 rooms is at + least twice as great in German as in English towns, and that the + conditions as to accommodation which in England prevail only in London + are general in urban Germany. As a set-off German rooms are generally + larger than English ones and in block dwellings there is often a + little ante-room or landing which does not count but really increases + the space. + + The German census does not take cognisance of overcrowding and there + is no general official standard; but some towns have adopted a + standard of their own, namely, six or more persons to 1 room and ten + or more to 2 rooms. In Breslau, which is one of the worst towns, 17.5% + of the population (53,000) of the "city" or inner ring were + overcrowded on this basis in 1900. In Barmen, which is not one of the + worst, 20% of the 2-roomed and 17% of the 3-roomed dwellings (together + housing more than half the population) were overcrowded according to + the English standard. Overcrowding and other bad conditions are worst + in the basement or cellar dwellings, of which some towns have a very + large number. In Breslau 15,000 persons were living in 3853 such + dwellings in 1900; in Berlin 91,426 persons were living in 24,088 + basements. Some of these are free from objection, but 11,147, housing + 38,663 persons, were situated in back buildings and unfit for + habitation on account of darkness, damp, dilapidation and the like. + "Back" houses are a feature of old towns; they are houses which do not + give on the street but lie behind and are approached by a passage; + they are what we call courts and quite as insanitary as anything of + the kind in English towns. + + With regard to rents the Board of Trade (London) Report gives the + following figures for Berlin and a number of other towns:-- + + +-------------+-----------------------------------+ + |No. of Rooms | Predominant Range of Weekly Rents.| + |per Dwelling.+----------------+------------------+ + | | Berlin. | Other Towns. | + +-------------+----------------+------------------+ + | 2 rooms | 5/- to 6/- | 2/8 to 3/6 | + | 3 rooms | 7/- to 9/3 | 3/6 to 4/9 | + | 4 rooms | .. | 4/3 to 6/- | + +-------------+----------------+------------------+ + + Rents are higher in Berlin than in any other town, though Stuttgart + comes very near it. The following table of index numbers shows the + relations of 32 towns to Berlin:-- + + +--------------+-------++---------------+-------+ + | Town. | Index || Town. | Index | + | |Number.|| |Number.| + +--------------+-------++---------------+-------+ + | Berlin | 100 || Nuremberg | 53 | + | Stuttgart | 97 || Aachen | 53 | + | Düsseldorf | 79 || Crefeld | 52 | + | Dortmund | 68 || Bremen | 52 | + | Anchaffenburg| 67 || Plauen | 52 | + | Hamburg | 66 || Leipzig | 51 | + | Mannheim | 64 || Dantzig | 49 | + | Königsberg | 62 || Mülhausen | 48 | + | Munich | 63 || Königshütte | 47 | + | Essen | 62 || Stettin | 46 | + | Solingen | 61 || Magdeburg | 43 | + | Bochum | 57 || Chemnitz | 40 | + | Elberfeld | 57 || Zwickau | 38 | + | Barmen | 57 || Brunswick | 37 | + | Remscheid | 56 || Stassfurt | 33 | + | Breslau | 56 || Oschersleben | 28 | + | Dresden | 54 || | | + +--------------+-------++---------------+-------+ + + Comparing rents in Germany and England, the Board of Trade Report + gives the following table, to which the corresponding ratio of French + towns has been added. + + +-------------+-------------------------+-------------+-------------+ + | |Predominant Weekly Rents.| Ratio of | Ratio of | + |No. of rooms.+-----------+-------------+ German to | French to | + | | England. | Germany. |English (100)|English (100)| + +-------------+-----------+-------------+-------------+-------------+ + | 2 rooms |3/- to 3/6 | 2/8 to 3/6 | 95 | 79 | + | 3 rooms |3/9 to 4/6 | 3/6 to 4/9 | 100 | 86 | + | 4 rooms |4/6 to 5/6 | 4/3 to 6/- | 102 | 78 | + +-------------+-----------+-------------+-------------+-------------+ + + If the mean of the English and German figures be taken it shows a very + slight difference in favour of Germany; the mean weekly rent per room + being 1s. 5d. in England and 1s. 4¾d. in Germany. But in England rent + usually includes local taxation (rates) whereas in Germany it does + not; if this be added German rents are to English as 123 to 100, or + nearly one-fourth more. + + The statistics given above indicate a wide range of variation in the + conditions prevailing in different towns in Germany; and that holds + good with regard to improvements. The administration of the laws + relating to public health and housing is in the hands of the local + authorities. The public health service is generally efficient and + sometimes very good. Increasing attention has been paid in recent + years to the sanitary inspection of houses and in some towns it is now + thorough and systematic, but active efforts to deal with old and + insanitary quarters _en masse_ are isolated and exceptional. Hamburg + is an instance; scared by the visitation of cholera in 1892 the + authorities put in hand an extensive improvement scheme on the English + plan at a cost of half a million sterling. But demolition is + exceptional; slums are usually subjected to supervision and are not + allowed to be in a state of dilapidation, and sometimes, as at + Mannheim, notices are served to abate overcrowding. In Munich a policy + of gradually buying up insanitary houses has been adopted. But + improvement has principally been promoted by new building and the + reduction of the population in old insanitary quarters, to which cheap + locomotive facilities have greatly contributed. The great bulk of + urban Germany is new, and the most valuable contribution made by it to + the housing question is the more effective control of new building and + particularly the principle of town-planning, coupled with the purchase + of neighbouring ground with a view to future extension. This policy is + comparatively recent and still very partially applied, but it is now + rapidly extending. A general act providing for the planning of streets + was passed in Prussia in 1875 and still forms the basis of building + legislation; but as noted above no effective by-laws were adopted even + in Berlin until after 1887, and consequently a very faulty style of + building was adopted, especially in large blocks which conceal grave + defects behind an imposing exterior. The Saxon towns have been + conspicuously successful in regard to housing. Leipzig stands alone + among German towns in having 83.4% of its population living in + dwellings of 4 rooms and upwards. Yet it is a great commercial city, + the fifth in the empire, with a population of upwards of half a + million. It also comes low on the rent table, having an index number + little more than half that of Berlin. All the Saxon towns are low, + Chemnitz and Zwickau particularly so, and the position of Dresden, + being a capital, is remarkable. More than two-thirds of the population + live in dwellings of 4 rooms or more, and the rent index number is + only 54. In Saxony a general Building Act, especially providing for + town planning, was passed in 1900; and the Grand Duchy of Hesse, which + alone among the German states has a government Housing Department, + adopted a Housing of the Working Classes Act in 1902. Other states + have followed or are following and the air is full of movement. The + distinctive features of urban housing reform in Germany are (1) the + systematic planning of extensions, (2) purchase of ground by + municipalities, (3) letting or sale of municipal land for building + under prescribed conditions. Many of the great towns, including + Berlin, Munich, Dresden, Leipzig, Cologne, Frankfort and Düsseldorf, + are owners of land to a variable but sometimes large extent. This + policy seems to have been originally adopted on economic grounds and + those municipalities which bought or otherwise came into possession of + town land at an early date derive a substantial revenue from it now, + besides being in a position to promote housing improvement. There is + comparatively little municipal building, and that as a rule only or + principally for municipal servants, as at Düsseldorf, Mannheim and + Nuremberg; but there seems to be a tendency to venture further in this + direction and some towns have built houses for letting. The + municipalities generally sell or let their land, and the building + agencies which enjoy most official favour are the societies "of public + utility"; they are encouraged in every way and have greatly developed, + particularly in the Rhine province. Some are co-operative, others + semi-philanthropic in that they aim at building good houses and limit + their profits. In 1901 the Prussian Government issued an order urging + municipalities to support these societies by remitting the cost of + constructing streets and sewers, placing the assistance of building + officials at their disposal, taking their shares, lending them money + and becoming security for them. A great deal of public money has been + advanced to building societies, and one very important source of + supply has been developed, since the Old Age and Infirmity Insurance + Act of 1889, in the National Insurance Funds which invest their + surplus capital in this way. Down to 1906 the Boards of insurance had + lent £8,650,000 to societies for building; the Imperial Government + had lent £1,250,000, the Prussian Government £1,825,000, and the other + states further large sums in addition to the municipalities. Money + lent by the state is usually limited to building houses for state + employees and Insurance Boards lend on condition that the houses are + let to persons who come under the insurance laws. The development of + building societies has been promoted by the formation of general + building associations of which the earliest was established in + Düsseldorf in 1897 for the Rhine provinces; under its influence + one-fifth of the new housing provided in 1901 was erected by the + societies. The example was followed at Frankfort, Münster and + Wiesbaden. Housing by employers has also been carried out on a large + scale in Germany. States and municipalities have to some extent built + houses as employers, the former chiefly for railwaymen, besides + lending money to societies for the purpose; but most housing of this + kind has been done by private employers. Krupps, who had built 4274 + dwellings housing nearly 27,000 persons down to 1901, are the most + famous example; but they are only one among many. In Rhineland and + Westphalia employers had in 1902 provided 22,269 houses containing + 62,539 dwellings at a cost of £10,500,000; more than half the families + so housed belonged to the mining industry, the rest to various + manufactures. These two provinces, in which industrial development has + been extremely rapid, are exceptional; but housing by employers is not + confined to them. At Mannheim for instance over 1000 working-class + households have been so provided. At Nuremberg the Siemens Schuckert + Company have encouraged an interesting system of collective building + among their employees, by which 722 dwellings have been provided. + + _Holland._--In 1901 a Public Health and a Housing Act were passed, and + these two embody most of the features of housing reform adopted in + other countries. The first provides for a general sanitary service + under the Ministry of the Interior. The second ordains that local + authorities shall frame by-laws for building and for the maintenance + and proper use of dwellings; that they shall inspect existing + dwellings, order improvements or repairs or demolition; empowers them + to take land compulsorily for the purposes of the act, to prohibit + building or rebuilding on sites reserved for public purposes and to + make grants or loans to societies or companies operating exclusively + for the improvement of working-class dwellings. If they fail to make + by-laws the provincial authorities may take action. Land buying with a + view to extensions has been adopted by a number of municipalities + including Amsterdam, Rotterdam, Utrecht and other important towns, and + the practice is increasing. Amsterdam has also begun the systematic + planning of extensions. There has been a little municipal building in + some small places, but it is on an insignificant scale; the tendency + is rather to favour societies of public utility as in France, Germany + and Belgium. The new laws are too recent to have had much effect and + housing reform is as yet in an early stage. Rents are high in the + large towns, namely, 1 room 1s. 8d. to 3s.; 2 rooms 2s. 6d. to 5s.; 3 + rooms 3s. 6d. to 6s; 4 rooms 4s. 2d. to 7s. + + _Italy._--A Housing of the Working Classes Act was passed in 1903, to + promote the improvement and provision of workmen's dwellings. + Municipalities have the power to purchase land compulsorily for + housing purposes and also to build workmen's dwellings. A few towns, + of which Milan is one, have done so. There are building regulations + relating to the area and height of rooms and the thickness of walls. + The antiquity of the Italian towns and the great quantity of old and + insanitary building make housing improvement a very difficult matter. + _La Società Umanitaria_, a benevolent trust founded by Prosper Loria + of Milan in 1902, has taken up this subject among others and has built + two model tenements, housing 2000 persons. + + _United States._--Interest in the housing question in the United + States is confined to a few of the largest cities and can only be said + to be acute in New York, though there have been investigations by + commissions elsewhere and Miss Octavia Hill's work in London has found + admirers and imitators in Philadelphia and Boston as well as in New + York. The evils of housing in New York have been the subject of much + sensational writing which has elevated them to the position of a + world-wide scandal. It is not necessary to accept all the allegations + made in order to see that several circumstances have combined to + produce an exceptional state of things in this great city. The limited + space--the island or peninsula of Manhattan--in which central New York + is built has compelled the erection of large tenement blocks, + otherwise rare in American towns; the incessant inrush of immigrants + from the poorest parts of Europe has filled these tenements with + immense numbers of persons of many nationalities accustomed to a low + standard of living; the generally backward state of public sanitation + in America, and the absence or evasion of regulations and supervision, + have permitted the erection of bad dwellings, their deterioration into + worse, and their misuse by excessive overcrowding. Other large cities + in which bad housing conditions are known to exist are Chicago, + Philadelphia, Boston, Baltimore, Cincinnati, Pittsburg, Jersey City. + There are doubtless many others, but bad housing conditions are not so + general in the United States as in Europe. Outside the very large + cities there is more space, more light and air, less crowding + together, less darkness, dirt and dilapidation. Large houses, occupied + by two or perhaps three families, are common, but they have more room + space than is usual in Europe. The 18th annual report (1903) of the + Commissioner of Labour gives the result of a special inquiry embracing + 23,447 families distributed in 33 states. The average number of rooms + was 4.95 per family and 1.04 per individual. It is a fair inference + that overcrowding is confined to a comparatively small number of + exceptional places. A large number of the schedules were furnished by + the eminently urbanized and manufacturing states of New York, + Pennsylvania, Massachusetts, Ohio and Illinois; and in all these the + average number of rooms to a family exceeded 4, ranging from 4.2 in + Ohio to 5.5 in Massachusetts. The condition of homes as to sanitation + and cleanliness was statistically stated thus: Sanitary + condition--good 61.46%, fair 32,59%, bad 5.95%; Cleanliness--good + 79.63%, fair 14.66 bad 5.71%. Other special inquiries have been + carried out in particular towns. In 1891-1892 the tenements in Boston + were investigated for the Massachusetts Labour Bureau, which found + 3657 sleeping rooms without outside windows and about 8% of the + population living in conditions objectionable from one cause or + another. In 1892 Congress authorized a special inquiry into the slum + population of New York, Chicago, Philadelphia and Baltimore, the + results of which were published in the seventh special report (1894) + of the United States Commissioner of Labour. It was estimated that the + total "slum population" (presumably those living in unhealthy + conditions) was--New York 360,000, Chicago 162,000, Philadelphia + 35,000, Baltimore 25,000. In Baltimore 530 families, consisting of + 1648 persons, were living in single rooms with an average of 3.15 + persons to a room; in Philadelphia 401 families were so living with an + average of 3.11 persons to a room. The proportion of 1-room dwellings + was less in New York and Chicago. In New York 44.55% or nearly half + the families investigated were found living in 2-roomed dwellings, in + Baltimore 27.88%, in Philadelphia 19.41% and in Chicago 19.14%. These + figures conclusively prove that European conditions reproduce + themselves in American cities. Poverty was not the cause, as the + average earnings per family ranged from £3, 4s. a week in Baltimore to + £4, 6s. a week in Chicago. Another official investigation in New York + was carried out in 1895 by the Tenement House Commission appointed by + the State of New York. It reported "many houses in the city in an + insanitary condition which absolutely unfits them for habitation." + Further details have been compiled from the census by the New York + Federation of Churches, chiefly relating to density of population in + the city. In 1900, out of a total of nearly 250,000 dwellings, 95,433 + (38.2%) contained from 2 to 6 persons, 60,672 (24.2%) from 7 to 10 + persons and 89,654 (35.9%) 11 persons or more. The density of + population for the whole city as now constituted was 19 persons to the + acre, in Manhattan 149; in the south-eastern district of Manhattan 382 + and in one ward 735. Between 1900 and 1905 the density increased in + every district, and in the latter year there were 12 blocks with from + 1000 to 1400 persons to the acre. The number of persons to the acre in + London (1901) is 60.6; in the most densely populated borough 182, and + in the most densely populated district (a very small one) 396. This + will give a measure of comparison. The large tenement blocks in New + York have been constructed with far less regard to health than those + in Berlin, and reproduce in an aggravated form the same evil of + insufficient light and air. In place of the inadequate courts round + which many are built in Berlin, the New York tenements have merely + narrow air shafts. In 1904 there were reported to be 362,000 dark + interior rooms, that is with no outside windows. + + If American cities have nothing to learn from other countries in + regard to bad housing, they have nothing to teach in the way of + reform. They are following Europe slowly and a long distance behind. + There is no serious attempt to deal with insanitary areas as they have + been dealt with in England, or to prevent the creation of new ones by + regulation and planning of extensions as in Germany, or to promote the + provision of superior houses by organized public effort as in several + countries. A little has been done in New York to improve the worst + housing. A Tenement House Act was passed after the report of the + Commission of 1895 and a Department formed to give effect to it. Some + cleansing and repairing and insertion of windows is carried out every + year, but more attention seems to be paid to fire escapes. Societies + for providing improved dwellings exist in New York, Boston, Chicago + and Philadelphia. The oldest is one formed in Boston in 1871, called + the Co-operative Building Company; it was followed in 1876 by an + Improved Dwellings Company in Brooklyn, and in 1879 by a similar + society in Manhattan, and in 1885 by another in Boston. The largest + concern of the kind is the City and Suburban Houses Company in New + York, formed in 1896 under the guidance of Dr E. R. L. Gould; it has + built four groups of tenements housing 1238 families in the city and + 112 houses on a suburban estate at Brooklyn; in all it has housed some + 6000 persons. More recently Mr Henry Phipps has given £200,000 for the + provision of model dwellings in New York, and a building has been + erected on the plan of the Maison des Enfants in Paris. In Chicago the + City Houses Association works at housing reforms in various ways. + There are some other institutions of a like kind, but the aggregate + results are inconsiderable. Two other building agencies have done far + more in the United States than philanthropic societies; these are the + building and loan associations and private employers. The former are + co-operative provident societies; they are widely diffused throughout + the United States and their operations are on a very large scale. They + date from 1831, when the Oxford Provident Building Association was + formed at Frankfort, near Philadelphia. Pennsylvania has still the + largest number of associations, but from 1843 onwards the movement + spread rapidly and continuously in other states. The high-water mark + appears to have been reached in 1897, when the total assets of the + associations amounted to about £133,000,000. In 1905 there were 5326 + associations with an aggregate membership of 1,686,611 and assets of + about £130,000,000. The states of Pennsylvania and Ohio head the list, + but the movement is very strong in many others. It accounts for the + comparatively large number of houses owned by working-class families + in the United States. With regard to housing by employers, no + comprehensive information is available, but the total amount is + certainly considerable though probably not so large as in Germany or + in France. Some of the better-known instances are the Pelzer + Manufacturing Company at Pelzer in South Carolina, which has built + about 1000 dwellings; the Maryland Steel Company at Sparrows Point, + Maryland, 800 dwellings; Ludlow Manufacturing Associates at Ludlow, + Mass., 500 dwellings; Whitin Machine Works at Whitinsville, Mass., 600 + dwellings; Westinghouse Air Brake Co. at Wilmerding, Penn., 360 + dwellings; Draper Co., Hopedale, Mass., 250 dwellings. These are all + more or less "model" settlements, not in cities, but in outlying or + country places, where works have been established, and that is + generally true of housing by employers in the United States, whereas + in Germany much has been provided by them in the large towns. Rents + are very much higher in American cities than in European towns of + comparable size and character. + + AUTHORITIES.--Board of Trade _Reports_--"Cost of Living of the Working + Classes (England)" (1908); "Cost of Living in German Towns" (1908); + "Cost of Living in French Towns" (1909). _Proceedings of International + Housing Congress_ (London, 1907); _The New Encyclopaedia of Social + Reform_; E. R. Dewsnup, _The Housing Problem in England_; T. C. + Horsfall, _The Example of Germany_; J. S. Nettlefold, _Practical + Housing Reform_; A. Shadwell, _Industrial Efficiency_, ch. xi. on + "Housing"; W. Thompson, _The Housing Handbook, Housing up to Date_. + (A. Sl.) + + + + +HOUSMAN, LAURENCE (1867- ), English writer and artist, was born on the +18th of June 1867. Having studied at South Kensington, he first made a +reputation as a book-illustrator. Some of his best pictorial work may be +seen in the editions of Meredith's _Jump to Glory Jane_ (1892), the +_Weird Tales of Jonas Lie_ (1892), Jane Barlow's _Land of Elfintoun_ +(1894), Christina Rossetti's _Goblin Market_ (1893), _Werewolf_ (1896), +by his sister, Miss Clemence Housman, Shelley's _Sensitive Plant_ +(1898), and his own _Farm in Fairyland_ (1894). His designs were +engraved on wood by Miss Housman. His volumes of verse include _Green +Arras_ (1896), _Rue_ (1899), _Spikenard_ (1898) and _Mendicant Rhymes_ +(1906); and the mysticism which characterizes the devotional poems in +_Spikenard_ recurs in his half-allegorical tales, _All Fellows_ (1896), +_The Blue Moon_ (1904) and _The Cloak of Friendship_ (1906). His +nativity play, _Bethlehem_, was presented in the Great Hall of London +University at South Kensington for a week in December 1902. In 1900 he +published anonymously _An Englishwoman's Love Letters_, which created a +temporary sensation; and he followed this essay in popular fiction by +the novels _A Modem Antaeus_ (1901) and _Sabrina Warham_ (1904). On the +23rd of December 1904 his fantastic play _Prunella_, written in +collaboration with Mr Granville Barker, was produced at the Court +Theatre. + +His brother, Alfred Edward Housman (b. 1859), an accomplished scholar, +professor of Latin at University College, London, is known as a poet by +his striking lyrical series, _A Shropshire Lad_ (1896). + + + + +HOUSSAYE, ARSÈNE (1815-1896), French novelist, poet and man of letters, +was born at Bruyères (Aisne), near Laon, on the 28th of March 1815. His +real surname was Housset. In 1832 he found his way to Paris, and in 1836 +he published two novels, _La Couronne de bluets_ and _La Pécheresse_. He +had many friends in Paris, among them Jules Janin and Théophile Gautier, +and he wrote in collaboration with Jules Sandeau. He produced art +criticism in _L'Histoire de la peinture flamande et hollandaise_ (1846); +semi-historical sketches In _Mlle de la Vallière et Mme de Montespan_ +(1860) and _Galerie de portraits du XVII^e siècle_ (1844); literary +criticism in _Le Roi Voltaire_ (1858) and his famous satirical _Histoire +du quarante et unième fauteuil de l'académie française_ (1855); drama in +his _Comédiennes_ (1857); poetry in his _Symphonie des vingt ans_ +(1867), _Cent et un sonnets_ (1873), &c.; and novels, _Les Filles +d'Ève_ (1852) and many others. In 1849, through the influence of Rachel, +he was entrusted with the administration of the Théâtre Français, a +position he filled with unfailing tact and success until 1859, when he +was made inspector-general of works of art. He died on the 26th of +February 1896. + + His _Confessions, souvenir; d'un démi-siècle_ appeared in 1885-1891. + See also J. Lemaître, _Arsène Houssaye_ (1897), with a bibliography. + +His son, HENRY HOUSSAYE (1848- ), the historian, was born in Paris. His +early writings were devoted to classical antiquity, studied not only in +books but on the actual Greek sites which he visited in 1868. He +published successively _Histoire d'Apelles_ (1867), a study on Greek +art; _L'Armée dans la Grèce antique_ (1867); _Histoire d'Alcibiade et de +la république athénienne depuis la mort de Périclès jusqu'à l'avènement +des trente tyrans_ (1873); Papers on _Le Nombre des citoyens d'Athènes +au V^ème siècle avant l'ère chrétienne_ (1882); _La Loi agraire à +Sparte_ (1884); _Le Premier Siège de Paris en 52 av. J.-C._ (1876); and +two volumes of miscellanies, _Athènes, Rome, Paris, l'histoire et les +moeurs_ (1879), and _Aspasie, Cléopatre, Théodora_ (6th ed. 1889). The +military history of Napoleon I. then attracted him. His first volume on +this subject, called _1814_ (1888), went through no fewer than forty-six +editions. It was followed by _1815_, the first part of which comprises +the first Restoration, the return from Elba and the Hundred Days (1893); +the second part, Waterloo (1899); and the third part, the second +abdication and the White Terror (1905). He was elected a member of the +French Academy in 1895. + + + + +HOUSTON, SAM, or SAMUEL (1793-1863), American general and statesman, of +Scotch-Irish descent, was born near Lexington, Virginia, on the 2nd of +March 1793. His father, who had fought in the War of Independence, died +in 1806, and soon afterward Samuel removed with his mother to the +frontier in Blount county, Tennessee. When he was about fifteen his +elder brothers obtained for him a place as clerk in a trader's store, +but he ran away and lived with the Cherokee Indians of East Tennessee +for nearly three years. On his return he opened a country school, and +later attended a session or two of the Academy at Maryville. During the +War of 1812 he served under Andrew Jackson against the Creek Indians, +and his bravery at the battle of Tohopeka, in which he was disabled by +several wounds, won promotion to a lieutenancy. In 1817 he was appointed +sub-agent in managing the business relating to the removal of the +Cherokees from East Tennessee to a reservation in what is now Arkansas, +but he was offended at a rebuke from John C. Calhoun, then secretary of +war, for appearing before him in Indian garments, as well as at an +inquiry into charges affecting his official integrity, and he resigned +in 1818. He entered a law office in Nashville, and was admitted to the +bar, and was soon elected a district attorney. From 1823 to 1827 Houston +represented the ninth district of Tennessee in Congress, and in 1827 was +elected governor of the state by the Jackson Democrats. He married Eliza +Allen in January 1829; his wife left him three months later, and he +resigned his office of governor, again took up his residence among the +Cherokees, who were at this time about to remove to Indian Territory, +and was formally adopted a member of their nation. + +In 1830 and again in 1832 he visited Washington to expose the frauds +practised upon the Cherokees by government agents, and attracted +national attention by an encounter on the 13th of April 1832 with +William Stanberry, a Congressman from Ohio, who intimated that Houston +himself was seeking to defraud them. Commissioned by President Jackson, +Houston went to Texas in December 1832 to negotiate treaties with the +Indian tribes there for the protection of American traders on the +border. He decided to remain in Texas, and was elected a delegate to the +constitutional convention which met at San Felipe on the 1st of April +1833 to draw up a memorial to the Mexican Congress asking for the +separation of Texas from Coahuila, in which the anti-American party was +in control, as well as to frame a constitution for the commonwealth as a +new member of the Mexican Republic, and he served as chairman of the +drafting committee, and took a prominent part in the preparations for +war when next year the petition was refused. In October 1835, soon after +the outbreak of the War for Texan Independence, the committees of the +township of Nacogdoches chose Houston as commander-in-chief of the +forces in eastern Texas, and after the San Felipe convention in November +he was chosen commander-in-chief of the Texan army. On the 21st of April +1836, while in command of 743 raw troops, he met on the bank of the San +Jacinto about 1600 Mexican veterans led by Santa Anna and completely +routed them; on the next day Santa Anna was taken prisoner. + +Texan independence was won by this victory (although the Mexican +government repudiated the treaty negotiated by Santa Anna), and Houston +was elected president of Texas (1st of September) and was inaugurated on +the 22nd of October. His term expired in December 1838; he was elected +again in 1841 and served until 1844. During his first term a newly +founded city was named in his honour and this was the seat of government +in 1837-39 and in 1842-45. Texas having been admitted as a state of the +American Union in 1845, Houston was elected one of its first two United +States senators. He served as a stalwart Union Democrat from March 1846 +until 1859; he opposed the Kansas-Nebraska bill in an able speech (3rd +March 1854), and spoke frequently in defence of the rights of the +Indians. In 1859 he was elected governor of Texas and tried to prevent +the secession of his state; upon his refusal, in March 1861, to swear +allegiance to the Confederacy he was declared deposed. He died at +Huntsville, Texas, on the 26th of July 1863. Houston was an able +soldier, wary, intrepid and resolute; and was a legislator of rare +foresight, cool discrimination and fearless candour. + + See A. M. Williams, _Sam Houston and the War of Independence in Texas_ + (Boston, 1893); Henry Bruce, _Life of General Houston_ (New York, + 1891); and W. C. Crane, _Life and Select Literary Remains of Sam + Houston_ (Philadelphia, 1884). + + + + +HOUSTON, a city and the county-seat of Harris county, Texas, U.S.A., at +the head of deep-sea navigation on Buffalo Bayou, a tributary of +Galveston Bay, 50 m. N.W. of Galveston, and about 325 m. W. of New +Orleans. Pop. (1880) 16,513; (1890) 27,557; (1900) 44,633, of whom 4415 +were foreign-born and 14,608 were negroes; (1910 census) 78,800. The +land area in 1906 was 16.02 sq. m.; in 1908, about 20 sq. m. It is +served by the Galveston, Harrisburg & San Antonio (Southern Pacific), +the Galveston, Houston & Henderson, the Gulf, Colorado & Santa Fe, the +Houston & Texas Central (Southern Pacific), the Houston, East & West +Texas, the International & Great Northern, the Missouri, Kansas & Texas, +the San Antonio & Aransas Pass, the Trinity & Brazos Valley, the St +Louis, Brownsville & Mexico, the Texas & New Orleans, and the Houston +Belt & Terminal railways, several of which have their headquarters at +Houston. The Federal government has greatly improved the natural channel +from the city to the Gulf of Mexico, straightening, widening and +deepening it to a depth of 25 ft. for the entire distance from the +Galveston jetties to the Houston turning basin--where the municipality +has constructed free municipal wharves. The city occupies an unusually +fine site on both sides of the Buffalo Bayou. Among the principal +buildings are a Carnegie library, the Houston Lyceum, the Federal +building, the Masonic temple, the city high school, the city hall and +market house, the Harris County Court House, the Cotton Exchange, and +the First and Commercial National banks. Houston is the seat of the +Texas Dental College, of St Thomas College (1903), and of the Houston, +Annunciation and St Agnes academies; and the will (1901) of William +Marsh Rice provided an endowment (valued in 1908 at about $7,000,000) +for the William M. Rice Institute for the Advancement of Literature, +Science and Art, of which Dr Edgar Odell Lovett, formerly professor of +mathematics (1900-1905) and of astronomy (1905-1908) in Princeton +University, was made president in 1908. The city is the most important +railway and shipping centre of South Texas, and has a large trade in +cotton (the receipts for the year ending Aug. 31, 1907 being 2,967,535 +bales), cotton-seed oil, sugar, rice,[1] lumber and citrus fruits. +Houston is important also as a manufacturing centre, its factory product +being valued at $13,564,019 in 1905, an increase of 81% over the factory +product in 1900. There are extensive railway car-shops, cotton-seed oil, +petroleum and sugar refineries, cotton gins and compresses, steel +rolling mills, car-wheel factories, boiler, pump and engine works, flour +mills, rice mills and a rice elevator, breweries, planing and saw-mills, +pencil factories, and brick and tile factories. Its proximity to the +Texas oil fields gives the city a cheap factory fuel. The assessed +valuation of taxable property in the city increased from $27,480,898 in +1900 to $51,513,615 in 1908. The No-Tsu Oh Carnival week each November +is a distinctive feature of the city. Houston, like Galveston, adopted +in 1905 a very successful system of municipal government by commission, +a commission of five (one of whom acts as mayor) being elected +biennially and having both executive and legislative powers. The +waterworks are owned and operated by the municipality, which greatly +improved them from the city's surplus under the first two years of +government by commission. In 1908 extensive improvements in paving, +drainage and sewerage were undertaken by the city. The payment of an +annual poll-tax of $2.50 is a prerequisite to voting. Houston was +settled and laid out in 1836, and was named in honour of General Sam +Houston, whose home in Caroline Street was standing in 1908. In +1837-1839 and in 1842-1845 Houston was the capital of the Republic of +Texas. About 15 m. E.S.E. of the city is the battleground of San +Jacinto, which was bought by the state in 1906 for a public memorial +park. + + +FOOTNOTE: + + [1] Much rice is cultivated in the vicinity of Houston by Japanese + farmers. + + + + +HOUWALD, CHRISTOPH ERNST, FREIHERR VON (1778-1845), German dramatist and +author, was born at Straupitz in Lower Lusatia, a son of the president +of the district court of justice, on the 28th of November 1778. He +studied law at the university of Halle, and on completion of his +academic studies returned home, married, and managed the family estates. +In 1816 he afforded a home to his friend K. W. S. Contessa (1777-1825), +himself a poet, who had met with serious reverses of fortune; Contessa +lived with Houwald, assisting and stimulating him in his literary work, +for eight years. In 1821 Houwald was unanimously elected syndic for +Lower Lusatia, an office which placed him at the head of the +administration of the province. He died at Neuhaus, near Lübben, on the +28th of January 1845. + + Houwald is remembered as the author of several so-called "Fate + tragedies" (see GERMAN LITERATURE), of which the best known are _Das + Bild_, _Der Leuchtturm_, _Die Heimkehr_, _Fluch und Segen_ (all + published in 1821). They have, however, small literary value, and + Houwald is seen to better advantage in his narratives and books for + juvenile readers, such as _Romantische Akkorde_ (publ. by W. Contessa, + Berlin, 1817); _Buch für Kinder gebildeter Stände_ (1819-1824); and + _Jakob Thau, der Hofnarr_ (1821). Houwald's collected works, + _Sämtliche Werke_, were published in five volumes (Leipzig, 1851; 2nd + ed., 1858-1859). See J. Minor, _Die Schicksalstragödie in ihren + Hauptvertretern_ (Frankfurt, 1883), and _Das Schicksalsdrama_ in + Kürschner's _Deutsche Nationalliteratur_; vol. cli. (Stuttgart, 1884); + O. Schmidtborn, _C. E. von Houwald als Dramatiker_ (1909). + + + + +HÒVA, the name originally applied to the middle-class Malayo-Indonesian +natives of Madagascar (q.v.), as distinct from the noble class +_Andrìana_ and the slave class _Andèvo_. Hòva has now come to mean the +most numerous and powerful of the tribes which form the native +population of Madagascar. The Hòva, who occupy the province of Imérina, +the central plateau of the island, are of Malayo-Indonesian origin. The +period at which the Hòva arrived in Madagascar is still a subject of +dispute. Some think that the immigration took place in very early times, +before Hinduism reached the Malay Archipelago, since no trace of +Sanskrit is found in Malagasy. Others believe that the Hòva did not +reach the island until the 12th or 13th century. At the French conquest +of Madagascar (1895), the Hòva were the most powerful and, politically, +the dominant people; but were far from having subjected the whole of the +island to their rule. The Hòva are short and slim, with a complexion of +a yellowish olive, many being fairer than the average of southern +Europeans. Their hair is long, black and smooth but coarse. Their heads +are round, with flat straight foreheads, flat faces, prominent +cheekbones, small straight noses, fairly wide nostrils, and small black +and slightly oblique eyes. The physical contrast to the negro is usually +very obvious, but, especially among the lower classes, there is a +tendency to thick lips, kinky hair and dark skin. In many of their +customs, such as taboo, infanticide, marriage and funeral rites, they +show their Indonesian origin. Most of them now profess Christianity. + + + + +HOVE, a municipal borough of Sussex, England, adjoining the +watering-place of Brighton on the west, on the London, Brighton, & South +Coast railway. Pop. (1901) 36,535. The great seawall of Brighton +continues along the front at Hove, forming a pleasant promenade. Here is +the Sussex county cricket ground. The municipal borough, incorporated in +1898, includes the parishes of Hove and Aldrington, of which the first +is within the parliamentary borough of Brighton, but the second is in +the Lewes division of the county. The corporation consists of a mayor, +10 aldermen and 30 councillors. Area, 1521 acres. + + + + +HOVENDEN, THOMAS (1840-1895), American artist, was born in Dunmanway, +Co. Cork, Ireland, on the 28th of December 1840. He was a pupil of the +South Kensington Art Schools and those of the National Academy of +Design, New York, whither he had removed in 1863. Subsequently he went +to Paris and studied in the École des Beaux Arts under Cabanel, but +passed most of his time with the American colony in Brittany, at +Pont-Aven, where he painted many pictures of the peasantry. Returning to +America in 1880, he became an academician in 1882, and attracted +attention by an important canvas of "The Last Moments of John Brown" +(now in the Metropolitan Museum of Art). His "Breaking Home Ties," a +picture of American farm life, was engraved with considerable popular +success. Hovenden was mortally injured in a heroic effort to save a +child from a railroad train in the station at Germantown, near +Philadelphia, and died at Norristown, Pennsylvania, on the 14th of +August 1895. Among his principal works are:--"News from the Conscript" +(1877), "Loyalist Peasant Soldier of La Vendée" (1879). "A Breton +Interior," "Image Seller" and "Jerusalem the Golden" (in the +Metropolitan Museum of Art). + + + + +HOW, WILLIAM WALSHAM (1823-1897), English divine, son of a Shrewsbury +solicitor, was born on the 13th of December 1823, and was educated at +Shrewsbury school and Wadham College, Oxford. He was ordained in 1846, +and for upwards of thirty years was actively engaged in parish work at +Whittington in Shropshire and Oswestry (rural dean, 1860). He refused +preferment on several occasions, but his energy and success made him +well known, and in 1879 he became a suffragan bishop in London, under +the title of bishop of Bedford, his province being the East End. There +he became the inspiring influence of a revival of church work. He +founded the East London Church Fund, and enlisted a large band of +enthusiastic helpers, his popularity among all classes being immense. He +was particularly fond of children, and was commonly called "the +children's bishop." In 1888 he was made bishop of Wakefield, and in the +north of England he continued to do valuable work. His sermons were +straightforward, earnest and attractive; and besides publishing several +volumes of these, he wrote a good deal of verse, including such +well-known hymns as "Who is this so weak and helpless," "Lord, Thy +children guide and keep." In 1863-1868 he brought out a _Commentary on +the Four Gospels_; and he also wrote a _Manual for the Holy Communion_. +In the movement for infusing new spiritual life into the church +services, especially among the poor, How was a great force. He died on +the 10th of August 1897. He was much helped in his earlier work by his +wife. Frances A. Douglas (d. 1887). + + See his _Life_ by his son, F. D. How (1898). + + + + +HOWARD (FAMILY). Among English families, the house of Howard has long +held the first place. Its head, the duke of Norfolk, is the first of the +dukes and the hereditary earl marshal of England, while the earls of +Suffolk, Carlisle and Effingham and the Lord Howard of Glossop represent +in the peerage its younger lines. + +Its founder was a Norfolk lawyer, William Howard or Haward, who was +summoned to parliament as a justice in 1295, being appointed a justice +of the common pleas in 1297. Over the parentage of this man genealogists +have disputed for centuries. The pedigree-makers have hailed him in turn +as the descendant of a Norman "Auber, earl of Passy" and as the heir of +Hereward, "the last of the English." But out of the copies of Norfolk +deeds and records collected for Thomas, earl of Arundel, in the early +part of the 17th century, it seems clear enough that he sprang from a +Norfolk family, several of whose members held lands at Wiggenhall near +Lynn. These notes from deeds, evidently collected by an honest inquirer, +make no extravagant claims of ancient ancestry or illustrious origin for +the Howards, although the facts contained in them were recklessly +manipulated by subservient genealogists. Doubtless the judge was the son +of John Howard of Wiggenhall, living about 1260, whose widow Lucy, +called by the genealogists the daughter of John Germund, was probably +the wife of John Germund by her second marriage. William Howard was +employed as counsel by the corporation of Lynn, and it is worthy of note +that the "crosslets fitchy" in his shield of arms suggest the cross with +which the dragon was discomfited by St Margaret, the patroness of Lynn. +Prospering by the law, William Howard of Wiggenhall rose to knight's +rank and acquired by purchase Grancourt's manor in East Winch, near +Lynn, where he had his seat in a moated house whose ruins remain. He was +probably dead and buried in his chapel at East Winch before November 27, +1308, the date of the patent by which Henry Scrope succeeded him as a +commissioner of trailbaston. His two wives, Alice Ufford and Alice +Fitton--heir of Fitton's manor in Wiggenhall--were both daughters of +knightly houses. Before his death his eldest son, John Howard, was a +knight and already advanced by his marriage with Joan of Cornwall, one +of the bastard line founded by Richard of Cornwall, king of the Romans. + +Sir John Howard served in Edward II.'s wars in Scotland and Gascony, was +sheriff of Norfolk and Suffolk and governor of Norwich Castle. When he +died in 1331 he was seised of many Norfolk manors. His son and heir, +another Sir John, admiral of the king's navy in the north, was a +banneret who displayed his banner in the army that laid siege to Calais. +By the admiral's wife Alice, sister and heir of Sir Robert de Boys, the +Howards had the Boys manor of Fersfield, near Diss, which is still among +the possessions of the dukes of Norfolk. His son Sir Robert Howard, who +had married a daughter of Sir Robert Scales (Lord Scales), died in 1388. +From Sir John Howard, the only son of Sir Robert, two branches of the +house of Howard spring. The elder line was soon extinct. By his first +wife, Margaret, daughter and heir of Sir John Plays, Sir John Howard had +a son who died before him, leaving a daughter through whom descended to +her issue, the Veres, earls of Oxford, the ancient Norfolk estates of +the Howards at East Winch and elsewhere, with the lands of the houses of +Scales, Plays and Walton, brought in by the brides of her forefathers. +After the death of Margaret Plays, her widower found, with the peculiar +instinct of his race, a second well-endowed wife. By her, the heir of +the Tendrings of Tendring, he had a second son, Sir Robert Howard, a +knight who fought under Henry V. in France, and died, like his +half-brother, before the old knight's career ended in 1436. + +It is to the marriage of this young knight that the house of Howard owes +the tragedy of its greatness. He was a younger son, although he had some +of his mother's inheritance. Had he married the landless daughter of a +neighbour he might have been the ancestor of a line of Essex squires, +whose careers would have had the parish topographer for chronicler. But +his bride was Margaret Mowbray, daughter of the banished duke of +Norfolk. Although this was a noble alliance, it is probable that the +lady had no great portion. The head of her elder brother, the boy earl +marshal, had been stricken off in the cornfield under the walls of York, +but her younger brother's right to his father's dukedom was allowed by +parliament in 1425. + +Sir John Howard, only son of the match between Howard and Mowbray, took +service with his cousin the third duke of Norfolk, who had him returned +as knight of the shire for Norfolk, where, according to the _Paston +Letters_, this Howard of the Essex branch was regarded by the gentry as +a strange man. He followed the White Rose and was knighted at the +crowning of King Edward IV., who pricked him for sheriff of Norfolk and +Suffolk. In the duke's quarrel he brawled with the Pastons, his wife +boasting that, should her husband's men meet with John Paston "there +should go no penny for his life." "And Howard," writes Clement Paston, +"hath with the king a great fellowship." Offices and lands came to John +Howard by reason of that fellowship. Henry VI., when restored, summoned +him to parliament in 1470 as Lord Howard, a summons which may have been +meant to lure him to London into Warwick's power, but he proclaimed the +Yorkist sovereign on his return and fought at Barnet and Tewkesbury. +When peace was made, Edward summoned him again as a baron and gave him +the Garter and the treasurership of his household. After Edward's +burial, at which he bore the king's banner, Howard, an enemy of the +Wydviles, linked his fortunes with those of the duke of Gloucester. At +this time came his sudden lifting to the highest rank in the peerage. +The last of the dukes of Norfolk had left a child heir, Anne Mowbray, +married to the infant duke of York, the younger of the princes doomed by +Richard in the Tower. By the death of this little girl, John Howard +became one of the coheirs of her illustrious house, which was now +represented by the issue of Margaret Mowbray, his mother, and of her +sister Isabel, who had married James, Lord Berkeley. A lion's share of +the Mowbray estates, swollen by the great alliances of the house, heir +of Breouse and Segrave, and, through Segrave, of Thomas of Brotherton, +son of Edward I., fell to Howard, who, by a patent of June 28, 1483, was +created duke of Norfolk and earl marshal of England with a remainder to +the heirs male of his body. On the same day the lord Berkeley, the other +coheir, was made earl of Nottingham. High steward at Richard's crowning, +the duke bore the crown and rode as marshal into Westminster Hall. For +the rest of his life he was Richard's man, and though warned by the +famous couplet that "Dykon his master" was bought and sold, "Jack of +Norfolk" led the archer vanguard at Bosworth and died in the fight, from +which his son the earl of Surrey was carried away a wounded prisoner. An +attainder by the first parliament of Henry VII. extinguished the honours +of the father with those of the son, who had been created an earl when +the lord Howard was raised to the dukedom. Their estates were forfeit. + +Thomas Howard, a politic mind, loyal to the powers that be, was released +from the Tower of London in 1489, his earldom of Surrey and his Garter +restored. Accepting the position in which the Tudor king would have his +great nobles, he became the faithful soldier, diplomatist and official +of the new power. In his seventieth year, as lieutenant-general of the +North, he led the English host on the great day of Flodden, earning a +patent of the dukedom of Norfolk, dated 1 February 1513/4, and that +strange patent which granted to him and his heirs that they should bear +in the midst of the silver bend of their Howard shield a demi-lion +stricken in the mouth with an arrow, in the right colours of the arms of +the king of Scotland. This augmentation has been interpreted as a golden +scocheon with the demi-lion within the Scottish tressure. Thus charged +on the silver bend, it makes bad armory and it is worthy of note that, +although the grant of it is clearly to the duke and his heirs in fee +simple, Howards of all branches descending from the duke bear it in +their shields, even though all right to it has long passed from the +house to the duke's heirs general, the Stourtons and Petres. + +The victor of Flodden is the common ancestor of all living Howards that +can show a descent from the main stock. The second duke, twice married, +was father of at least eleven sons and six daughters, the sons including +Edward the lord high admiral, killed in boarding Prégent's galleys at +Brest, Edmund the knight marshal of the army at Flodden, and William the +first Lord Howard of Effingham. The eldest son, Thomas, succeeded as the +third duke of his name, although the second under the patent of 1514. He +had fought as captain of the vanguard at Flodden and after the victory +was created earl of Surrey. When Richard III. was allying himself with +the Howards, Thomas Howard, a boy of eleven, had been betrothed to Anne, +daughter of the late King Edward IV., and Henry VII. allowed the +marriage with his queen's sister to take place in 1495. This royal bride +died of consumption, leaving no living child, and her husband took in +1513, as his second wife, Elizabeth Stafford, daughter of that duke of +Buckingham upon whom the old duke of Norfolk, the tears upon his cheeks, +was forced to pass sentence of death. Succeeding his father in 1524, +Norfolk was created earl marshal in 1533. An unsuccessful diplomatist, +his chief services in arms were the butchery in the north after the +Pilgrimage of Grace and the raid into Scotland which ended with the rout +of Solway Moss. He left his wife for a mistress, Elizabeth Holland, was +in discord with his family, and lived to see his two nieces, Anne Boleyn +and Catherine Howard, and his son Surrey, the fiery-tempered poet, go in +turn to the block. He himself was attainted and was lying a prisoner in +the Tower, doomed to die in the morning, on the night of the death of +Henry VIII. He was not released until the accession of Mary, parliament +restoring his dukedom on his petition for reversal of the attainder. His +grandson Thomas succeeded him in 1554, and in 1556 made the second of +those marriages which have given the Howards their high place among the +English nobility. The bride was Mary, sole heir in her issue of her +father Henry, the last of the Fitzalan earls of Arundel. Her father's +line and the royal Stewards of Scotland sprang from one forefather, +Alan, son of Flaald the Breton. The Mowbray match had already brought to +the Howards the representation of an elder line of the Fitzalan earls, +who sat in the seats of their ancestors, the Aubignys and Warennes, +great earls near akin to their sovereigns. And now the younger line, +earls of Arundel and Lords Mautravers, were also to have a Howard to +represent them. From this time the spreading genealogy of the Howards +drew its origins from most of the illustrious names of the houses +founded after the Norman Conquest. + +The young duchess died in her seventeenth year after giving birth to a +son, and the duke took a second wife from a humble stock, newly enriched +and honoured, the daughter of Henry VIII.'s subservient chancellor, the +Lord Audley of Walden. Within ten years he married a third time, the +lady being Elizabeth Leybourne, the widow of Lord Dacre of Gilsland. She +survived her marriage but a few months and her husband then obtained the +wardship of her Dacre offspring, a son who died young, and three +daughters whom the duke, with the true Howard eye for a rich +inheritance, gave as brides to three of his sons. After three such good +fortunes by marriage Norfolk in his folly looked for a crown with a +fourth match, listening to the laird of Lethington when he set forth the +scheme by which the duke was to marry a restored queen of Scots and rule +Scotland with her who should be recognized as Elizabeth's successor. Ten +months in the Tower under strong suspicion would have warned another +man, but Norfolk was unstable and false. After promising fidelity and +the abandonment of the Scots marriage scheme, Cecil took him +corresponding with Mary and tampering with the Ridolfi plot. He died on +Tower Hill in 1572 for an example to the disloyal counties, protesting +innocence and repentance, warning his children in a last letter to +discredit all "false bruits" that he was a papist. + +By his attainder the Norfolk titles were once more forfeited. But Philip +Howard, the son and heir, succeeded to the ancient earldom of Arundel in +1580, on the death of his maternal grandfather, while the Lord Lumley, +his uncle by marriage, surrendered to him his life interest in the +castle and honour of Arundel. The next year an act of parliament +restored the earl in blood. After a profligate youth at court, he +followed his wife in professing the Roman faith, and in 1585 made an +attempt to leave England to seek safety from the penal laws. But his +ship was boarded in the Channel and the earl, condemned by the +Star-Chamber to a heavy fine and to imprisonment during the queen's +pleasure, suffered a harsh captivity in the Tower. After the defeat of +the Armada he had been condemned to death on a charge of high treason, +founded on the tale drawn by torture from a priest, that Arundel had +urged him to say a mass for the success of the Spaniards. But he was +allowed to linger in his prison until 1595 when he died, the sight of +his wife and children being cruelly refused to the dying man. Thus it +befell that, of the chiefs of the Howards born since the great Mowbray +alliance, two had died by the axe and one in the prison from which a +fourth had hardly escaped. A fifth had fallen in a lost battle, and only +one had died in peace in his own house. + +The ill fate of the Howards seemed to be appeased by the death of +Philip, earl of Arundel. Tudor policy did its work well, and noblemen, +however illustrious their pedigrees, could no longer be counted as +menaces by the Crown, which was, indeed, finding another rival to its +power. In the first year of James I., Thomas, the young son of Earl +Philip, was restored in blood and given the titles of Arundel and +Surrey. But the lands belonging to these titles remained with the Crown +and he had to repair his fortunes by one of those marriages which never +failed his house, his wife being Alathea Talbot, who was at last the +heir of Gilbert, earl of Shrewsbury. To the grief of his mother he left +the Roman church. A knight of the Garter, he was in 1621 created earl +marshal for life, and revived the jurisdiction belonging to the office. +An act of 1627, one of several such aimed at aggrandizing families by +diverting the descent of dignities in fee from heirs general, entailed +the earldom and castle of Arundel upon Thomas, earl of Arundel and +Surrey and the heirs male of his body "and for default of such issue, to +the heirs of his body." His pride and austerity made him unpopular at +court and he left the country in 1642, settling at last in Padua, where +he died in 1646, impoverished by the sequestrations of the parliament, +whose forces had taken and retaken his castle of Arundel. In answer to +his petition for the dukedom, the king had, on the 6th of June 1644, +given him a patent of the earldom of Norfolk, in order, as it would +seem, to flatter him by suggesting that the title of Norfolk would at +least be refused to any other family. He is celebrated as a collector of +paintings, books, gems and sculptures, his "Arundel marbles" being given +by his grandson in 1667 to the University of Oxford. The dukedom for +which Arundel had petitioned Charles I. in vain was restored by act of +the first parliament of Charles II. to his grandson Thomas, a lunatic +living at Padua, on whose death in 1677 it passed to this Thomas's +brother, Henry Frederick, who had been created earl of Norwich and +hereditary earl marshal of England in 1672. In 1777 Edward, the ninth of +the Howard dukes, died childless in his ninety-second year. With him +ended the earldom of Norwich, while the representation of the Mowbrays +and Segraves passed to his nieces, the Ladies Stourton and Petre, the +abeyance of the two baronies being determined in 1878 in favour of Lord +Stourton. Under the act of 1627 the earldom of Arundel and the castle +passed with the dukedom to a second cousin, Charles Howard of Greystock +(d. 1786), an eccentric recluse. At his death in 1786 he was succeeded +by his son Charles, the notorious "Jockey of Norfolk," the big, coarse, +generous, slovenly, hard-drinking Whig of whom all the memoir-writers of +his age have their anecdotes. He conformed to the Church of England and +spent a vast sum in restoring Arundel Castle. A third cousin succeeded +him in 1815, Bernard Edward Howard, who, although a Roman Catholic, was +enabled, by the act of 1824, to act as earl marshal. This was the +grandfather of the fifteenth duke, earl of Arundel, Surrey and Norfolk, +and hereditary earl marshal of England. + + The eldest of the cadet branches of the ducal house has its origin in + William (c. 1510-1573), eldest son of the victor of Flodden by his + second marriage. He survived the reign of Henry VIII., that perilous + age for the Howards, with no worse misadventure than the conviction of + himself and his wife of misprision of treason in concealing the + offences of his niece, Queen Catherine. But both were pardoned. In + 1553 he had the office of lord admiral of England, and in the next + year the Garter. For his services against Sir Thomas Wyat he was + created (March 11, 1553/4) Lord Howard of Effingham, the title being + taken from a Surrey manor granted him by Edward VI. Queen Elizabeth + continued his employment in diplomacy, and had he been richer he might + have had an earldom. His eldest son Charles (1536-1624), lord admiral + of England in 1585, sailed as commander in chief against the Spanish + Armada, and, although giving due weight to the counsel of Drake and + his other officers, showed himself a leader as prudent as courageous. + He was created earl of Nottingham in 1596 and died in 1624. The legend + that the admiral was a Roman Catholic has no authority. Two of his + sons succeeded in turn to the earldom of Nottingham, extinct on the + death of Charles, the third earl in 1681. Sir William Howard of + Lingfield, younger brother of the great admiral, carried on the + Effingham line, his great-grandson succeeding to the barony on the + extinction of the earldom. Francis, seventh Lord Howard of Effingham, + was created earl of Effingham in 1731, a title extinct in 1816 with + the fourth earl, but revived again in 1837 for the eleventh baron, who + had served as a general officer in the Peninsular campaign, the + great-grandfather of the present peer. + + A patent of 1604 created Henry Howard (1540-1614), younger son of + Surrey the poet, earl of Northampton, a peerage which ended with the + death of this, the most unprincipled of his house. + + Thomas, son of the fourth duke of Norfolk's marriage with the daughter + and heir of Thomas, Lord Audley of Walden, founded the line of the + present earls of Suffolk and Berkshire and of the extinct Lords Howard + of Escrick. His barony of Howard of Walden has descended to his heirs + general. Lord William Howard (1563-1640), the "belted Will" of Scott's + Lay and the "bauld Willie" of more authentic legend, was another of + the sons of the fourth duke and Margaret Audley. Married in 1577 to + one of the three co-heirs of the Lord Dacre of Gilsland he suffered + under Elizabeth more than one imprisonment with his brother the + unfortunate earl of Arundel. But in 1603 he was able, on the partition + of the Dacre lands, to make his home at Naworth Castle, where he + lived, a border patriarch, cultivating his estates and serving as a + commissioner of the borders. His great-grandson Charles Howard, + although fledged in a nest of cavaliers, changed sides and fought at + Worcester for the parliament. The Protector summoned him in 1657 to + his House of Lords, but he was imprisoned in 1659 on suspicion of a + share in Booth's insurrection and, after the Restoration, was created, + in 1661, earl of Carlisle, Viscount Morpeth and Lord Dacre of + Gilsland, titles which are still held by his descendants. From Sir + Francis Howard, a cavalier colonel and a younger son of "bauld + Willie," come the Howards of Corby Castle in Cumberland, a branch + without a hereditary title. + + William Howard, Viscount Stafford, was the fifth son of Thomas, earl + of Arundel, and grandson of Philip the prisoner. Marrying the sister + and heir of the fifth Lord Stafford, who died in 1637, he and his wife + were created Baron and Baroness Stafford by a patent of 1640, with + remainder, in default of heirs male, to heirs female. A grant of the + precedence enjoyed by the bride's father being held illegal, her + husband was in the same year created Viscount Stafford. Roger + Stafford, the impoverished heir male of the ancient Staffords, had + been forced to surrender his barony to the king by a deed dated in the + preceding year, a piece of injustice which is in the teeth of all + modern conceptions of peerage law. The Viscount Stafford was one of + the "five Popish lords" committed to the Tower in 1678 as a result of + the slanders of Titus Oates and he died by the axe in 1680 upon + testimony which, as the diarist Evelyn protested, "should not be taken + against the life of a dog." But three earls of his own + house--Carlisle, Suffolk and Berkshire--and the Lord Howard of + Escrick, an ex-trooper of Cromwell's guard and an anabaptist sectary, + gave their votes against him, his nephew Mowbray being the only peer + of his name in the minority for acquittal. In 1688 his widow was + created countess of Stafford for life, and his eldest son, Henry, had + the earldom of Stafford, with special remainder to his brothers. This + earldom ended in 1762, but the attainder was reversed by an act of + 1824 and in the following year Sir George Jerningham, the heir + general, established his claim to the Stafford barony of 1640. + + AUTHORITIES.--State papers; patent, close and plea rolls. Tierney, + _History of Arundel_; G. E. C., _Complete Peerage_; J. H. Round, + _Peerage Studies_; Howard of Corby, _Memorials of the Family of + Howard_; Brenan and Statham, _House of Howard_; Howard, _Historical + Anecdotes of the Howard Family_; Morant, _Essex_; Blomefield, + _Norfolk_. (O. Ba.) + + + + +HOWARD, CATHERINE (d. 1542), the fifth queen of Henry VIII., was a +daughter of Lord Edmund Howard and a granddaughter of Thomas Howard, 2nd +duke of Norfolk (d. 1524). Her father was very poor, and Catherine lived +mainly with Agnes, widow of the 2nd duke of Norfolk, meeting the king at +the house of Stephen Gardiner, bishop of Winchester. Henry was evidently +charmed by her; the Roman Catholic party, who disliked the marriage with +Anne of Cleves, encouraged his attentions; and after Anne's divorce he +was privately married to Catherine at Oatlands in July 1540. Soon +afterwards she was publicly acknowledged as queen. Before her marriage +Catherine had had several lovers, among them being a musician, Henry +Mannock, or Manox; her cousin, Thomas Culpepper; and Francis Dereham, to +whom she had certainly been betrothed. After becoming queen she +occasionally met Dereham and Culpepper, and in November 1541 Archbishop +Cranmer informed Henry that his queen's past life had not been +stainless. Cranmer had obtained his knowledge indirectly from an old +servant of the duchess of Norfolk. Dereham confessed to his relations +with Catherine, and after some denials the queen herself admitted that +this was true; but denied that she had ever been betrothed to Dereham, +or that she had misconducted herself since her marriage. Dereham and +Culpepper were executed in December 1541 and their accomplices were +punished, but Catherine was released from prison. Some fresh +information, however, very soon came to light showing that she had been +unchaste since her marriage; a bill of attainder was passed through +parliament, and on the 13th of February 1542 the queen was beheaded. + + See A. Strickland, _Lives of the Queens of England_ (vol. iii. 1877). + + + + +HOWARD, JOHN (1726-1790), English philanthropist and prison reformer, +was born at Hackney, probably on the 2nd of September 1726. His +childhood was passed at Cardington, near Bedford, where his father, a +retired merchant of independent means, had a small estate. He was +apprenticed to a firm of grocers in the city of London, but on the death +of his father in 1742, by which he inherited considerable property, he +bought up his indenture, and devoted more than a year to foreign travel. +Never constitutionally strong, he became, on his return to England, a +confirmed invalid. Having been nursed through an acute illness by an +attentive landlady, a widow of some fifty-three years of age, Howard, in +return for her kindness, offered her marriage and they were united in +1752. Becoming a widower in less than three years, he determined to go +abroad again, Portugal being his destination. The ship, however, in +which he sailed was taken by a French privateer, the crew and passengers +being carried to Brest, where they were treated with great severity. +Howard was permitted to return to England on parole to negotiate an +exchange, which he accomplished, as well as successfully representing +the case of his fellow-captives. He now settled down on his Cardington +property, interesting himself in meteorological observations. He was +admitted a member of the Royal Society in 1756. In 1758 he married +Henrietta, daughter of Edward Leeds, of Croxton, Cambridgeshire. He +continued to lead a secluded life at Cardington and at Watcombe, +Hampshire, busying himself in the construction of model cottages and the +erection of schools. In 1765 his second wife died after giving birth to +a son. In the following year Howard went for a prolonged foreign tour, +from which he returned in 1770. + +In 1773 the characteristic work of his life may be said to have begun by +his acceptance of the office of high sheriff of Bedford. When the +assizes were held he did not content himself with sitting out the trials +in open court, his inquisitiveness and his benevolence alike impelled +him to visit the gaol. Howard found it, like all the prisons of the +time, wretchedly defective in its arrangements; but what chiefly shocked +him was the circumstance that neither the gaoler nor his subordinates +were salaried officers, but were dependent for their livelihood on fees +from the prisoners. He found that some whom the juries had declared not +guilty, others in whom the grand jury had not found even such appearance +of guilt as would warrant a trial, others whose prosecutors had failed +to appear, were frequently detained in prison for months after they had +ceased to be in the position of accused parties, until they should have +paid the fees of gaol delivery (see Introduction to _The State of the +Prisons of England and Wales_). His prompt application to the justices +of the county for a salary to the gaoler in lieu of his fees was met by +a demand for a precedent in charging the county with an expense. This he +undertook to find if such a thing existed. He went accordingly from +county to county, and though he could find no precedent for charging the +county with the wages of its servants he did find so many abuses in +prison management that he determined to devote himself to their reform. + +In 1774 he gave evidence before a committee of the House of Commons, and +received the thanks of the house for "the humanity and zeal which have +led him to visit the several gaols of this kingdom, and to communicate +to the House the interesting observations which he has made on that +subject." Almost immediately an act was passed which provided for the +liberation, free of all charges, of every prisoner against whom the +grand jury failed to find a true bill, giving the gaoler a sum from the +county rate in lieu of the abolished fees. This was followed in June by +another requiring justices of the peace to see that the walls and +ceilings of all prisons within their jurisdiction were scraped and +whitewashed once a year at least; that the rooms were regularly cleaned +and ventilated; that infirmaries were provided for the sick, and proper +care taken to get them medical advice; that the naked should be clothed; +that underground dungeons should be used as little as could be; and +generally that such courses should be taken as would tend to restore and +preserve the health of the prisoners. It was highly characteristic of +the man that, having caused the provisions of the new legislation to be +printed at his own private cost in large type, he sent a copy to every +gaoler and warder in the kingdom, that no one should be able to plead +ignorance of the law if detected in the violation of its provisions. He +then set out upon a new tour of inspection, from which, however, he was +brought home by the approach of a general election in September 1774. +Standing as one of the anti-ministerial candidates for Bedford, he was +returned by a narrow majority but was unseated after a scrutiny. + +After a tour in Scotland and Ireland, he set out in April 1775 upon an +extended tour through France, the Low Countries and Germany. At Paris he +was at first denied access to the prisons; but, by recourse to an old +and almost obsolete law of 1717, according to which any person wishing +to distribute alms to the prisoners was to be admitted, he succeeded in +inspecting the Bicêtre, the Force l'Évêque and most of the other places +of confinement, the only important exception being the Bastille. Even in +that case he succeeded in obtaining possession of a suppressed pamphlet, +which he afterwards translated and published in English, to the +unconcealed chagrin of the French authorities. At Ghent he examined with +special interest the great Maison de Force, then recently erected, with +its distinctive features--useful labour, in the profits of which the +prisoners had a share, and complete separation of the inmates by night. +At Amsterdam, as in Holland generally, he was much struck with the +comparative absence of crime, a phenomenon which he attributed to the +industrial and reformatory treatment there adopted. In Germany he found +little that was useful and much that was repulsive; in Hanover and +Osnabrück, under the rule of a British sovereign, he even found traces +of torture. After a short tour in England (Nov. 1775 to May 1776), he +again went abroad, extending his tour to several of the Swiss cantons. +In 1777 appeared _The State of the Prisons in England and Wales, with +Preliminary Observations, and an Account of some Foreign Prisons_. One +of the immediate results was the drafting a bill for the establishment +of penitentiary houses, where by means of solitary imprisonment, +accompanied by well-regulated labour and religious instruction, the +object of reforming the criminal and inuring him to habits of industry +might be pursued. New buildings were manifestly necessary; and Howard +volunteered to go abroad again and collect plans. He first went to +Amsterdam (April 1778), and carefully examined the "spin-houses" and +"rasp-houses"[1] for which that city was famous; next he traversed +Prussia, Saxony, Bohemia, Austria and Italy, everywhere inspecting +prisons, hospitals and workhouses, and carefully recording the merits +and defects of each. The information he thus obtained having been placed +at the service of parliament, a bill was passed for building two +penitentiary houses, and Howard was appointed first supervisor, but he +resigned the post before anything practical had been achieved. In 1780 +he had published a quarto volume as an appendix (the first) to his +_State of Prisons_; about the same time also he caused to be printed his +translation of the suppressed French pamphlet on the Bastille; but on +obtaining release from his employments at home his passion for +accumulating statistics urged him to new and more extended continental +tours, as far as to Denmark, Sweden and Russia in 1781, and to Spain and +Portugal in 1783. The results of these journeys were embodied in 1784 in +a second appendix, with the publication of which his direct labours in +connexion with the subject of prison reform may be said to have ceased. + +The five remaining years of his life were chiefly devoted to researches +on the means for prevention of the plague, and for guarding against the +propagation of contagious distempers in general. After an extended tour +on the continent his researches seemed to be complete; and with a great +accumulation of papers and memoranda, he was preparing to return +homewards from Constantinople by Vienna, when it occurred to his +scrupulous mind that he still lacked any personal experience of +quarantine discipline. He returned to Smyrna, and, deliberately choosing +a foul ship, took a passage to Venice. A protracted voyage of sixty +days, during which an attack by pirates gave Howard an opportunity of +manifesting his personal bravery, was followed by a weary term of +confinement which enabled him to gain the experience he had desired. +While imprisoned in the Venetian lazaretto he received the information +that his only son, a youth of twenty-two years of age, had lost his +reason and had been put under restraint. Returning hastily by Trieste +and Vienna (where he had a long and singular interview with the emperor +Joseph II.), he reached England in February 1787. His first care related +to his domestic concerns; he then set out upon another journey of +inspection of the prisons of the United Kingdom, at the same time +busying himself in preparing for the press the results of his recent +tour. The somewhat rambling work containing them was published in 1798 +at Warrington, under the title _An Account of the Principal Lazarettos +in Europe: with various Papers relative to the Plague, together with +further Observations on some Foreign Prisons and Hospitals, and +additional Remarks on the present State of those in Great Britain and +Ireland_. + +In July 1789 he embarked on what proved to be his last journey. +Travelling overland to St Petersburg and Moscow, and so southwards, and +visiting the principal military hospitals that lay on his route, he +reached Kherson in November. In the hospitals of this place and of the +immediate neighbourhood he found more than enough to occupy his +attention while he awaited the means of transit to Constantinople. +Towards the end of the year his medical advice was asked in the case of +a young lady who was suffering under the camp fever then prevalent, and +in attending her he himself took the disease, which terminated fatally +on the 20th of January 1790. He was buried near the village of Dauphigny +on the road to St Nicholas. There is a statue by Bacon to his memory in +St Paul's, London, and one at Bedford by A. Gilbert. In personal +appearance Howard is described as having been short, thin and +sallow--unprepossessing apart from the attraction of a penetrating eye +and a benevolent smile. + + AUTHORITIES.--_Anecdotes of the Life and Character of John Howard, + written by a Gentleman_ (1790); Aikin, _View of the Character and + Public Services of the late John Howard_. (1792); _Memoirs_ by J. + Baldwin Brown (1818); T. Taylor (1836), Hepworth Dixon (1849), J. + Field (1850), and J. Stoughton, _Howard the Philanthropist_ (1884). + + +FOOTNOTE: + + [1] The spinhouses were for women prisoners, who were set to spinning + or other useful work; in the rasp-houses, the prisoners were employed + in rasping wood. + + + + +HOWARD, OLIVER OTIS (1830-1909), American soldier, was born in Leeds, +Maine, on the 8th of November 1830. He graduated at Bowdoin College in +1850, and at the U.S. Military Academy in 1854. In 1857 he served in +Florida against the Seminole Indians, and from 1857 to 1861 he was +assistant professor of mathematics at West Point. At the beginning of +the Civil War he resigned to become colonel of the 3rd Maine volunteer +regiment, and at the first battle of Bull Run was in command of a +brigade. In September he was promoted brigadier-general of volunteers. +He served in the Peninsular Campaign, and at the battle of Seven Pines +(Fair Oaks) he was twice wounded, losing his right arm. On his return to +active service in August 1862 he took part in the Virginian campaigns of +1862-63; at Antietam he succeeded Sedgwick in command of a division, +and he became major-general of volunteers in March 1863. In the campaign +of Chancellorsville (see WILDERNESS) he commanded the XI. corps, which +was routed by "Stonewall" Jackson, and in the first day's battle at +Gettysburg he was for some hours (succeeding Doubleday after Reynolds's +death) in command of the Union troops. The XI. corps was transferred to +Tennessee after Rosecrans's defeat at Chickamauga, and formed part of +Hooker's command in the great victory of Chattanooga. When Sherman +prepared to invade Georgia in the spring of 1864 the XI. corps was +merged with the XII. into the new XX., commanded by Hooker, and Howard +was then placed, in command of the new IV. corps, which he led in all +the actions of the Atlanta campaign, receiving another wound at +Pickett's Mills. On the death in action of General M'Pherson, Howard, in +July 1864, was selected to command the Army of the Tennessee. In this +position he took part in the "March to the Sea" and the Carolinas +campaign. In March 1865 he was breveted major-general U.S.A. "for +gallant and meritorious service in the battle of Ezra Church and during +the campaign against Atlanta," and in 1893 received a Congressional +medal of honour for bravery at Fair Oaks. After the peace he served as +commissioner of the Bureau of Refugees, Freedmen and Abandoned Lands +from 1865 until 1874; in 1872 he was special commissioner to the hostile +Apaches of New Mexico and Arizona; in 1874-1881 was in command of the +Department of the Columbia and conducted the campaign against Chief +Joseph in 1877 and that against the Bannocks and Piutes in 1878. In +1881-1882 he was superintendent of West Point; and in 1882-1886 he +commanded the Department of the Platte, in 1886-1888 the Department of +the Pacific, and in 1888-1894 the Department of the East. In 1886 he was +promoted major-general and in 1894 he retired. He died at Burlington, +Vermont, on the 26th of October 1909. + +Howard was deeply interested, in the welfare of the negroes; and the +establishment by the U.S. Government in 1867 of Howard University, at +Washington, especially for their education, was largely due to him; it +was named in his honour, and from 1869 to 1873 he presided over it. In +1895 he founded for the education of the "mountain whites" the Lincoln +Memorial University at Cumberland Gap, Tenn. (see CUMBERLAND MOUNTAINS), +and became president of its board. He held honorary degrees of various +universities, and was a chevalier of the Legion of Honour. He wrote, +amongst other works, _Donald's Schooldays_ (1877); _Chief Joseph_ +(1881); a life of General Zachary Taylor (1892) in the "Great +Commanders" series; _Isabella of Castile_ (1894); _Fighting for +Humanity_ (1898); _Henry in the War_ (1898); papers in the "Battles and +Leaders" collection on the Atlanta campaign; _My Life and Experience +among our Hostile Indians_ (1907); and _Autobiography of O. O. Howard_ +(2 vols., New York, 1907). + + + + +HOWARD, SIR ROBERT (1626-1698), English dramatist, sixth son of Thomas +Howard, 1st earl of Berkshire, was born in 1626. He was knighted at the +second battle of Newbury (1644) for his signal courage on the Royalist +side. Imprisoned in Windsor Castle under the Commonwealth, his loyalty +was rewarded at the Restoration, and he eventually became auditor of the +exchequer. His best play is a comedy, _The Committee, or the Faithful +Irishman_ (1663; printed 1665), which kept the stage, long after its +interest as a political satire was exhausted, for the character of +Teague, said to have been drawn from one of his own servants. He was an +early patron of Dryden, who married his sister, Lady Elizabeth Howard, +and in the _Indian Queen_, a tragedy in heroic verse (1664; pr. 1665) +Howard had assistance from Dryden, although the fact was not made public +until the production of Dryden's _Indian Emperor_. The magnificence of +the spectacle, and the novelty of the costume of feathers, presented by +Mrs. Aphra Behn, that was worn by Zempoalla, the Indian queen, made a +great sensation. The scenery and accessories were unusually brilliant, +the richest ever seen in England, according to Evelyn. In 1665 Howard +published _Foure New Plays_, in the preface to which he opposed the view +maintained by Dryden in the dedicatory epistle to _The Rival Ladies_, +that rhyme was better suited to the heroic tragedy than blank verse. +Howard made an exception in favour of the rhyme of Lord Orrery, but by +his silence concerning Dryden implicated him in the general censure. +Dryden answered by placing Howard's sentiments in the mouth of Crites in +his own _Essay on Dramatic Poesy_ (1668). The controversy did not end +here, but Dryden completely worsted his adversary in the 1668 edition of +_The Indian Emperor_. Howard died on the 3rd of September 1698. + +His brother, James Howard, wrote two comedies, _All Mistaken, or the Mad +Couple_, a comedy (1667; pr. 1672), and _The English Mounsieur_ (1666; +pr. 1674), the success of which seems to have been partly due to the +acting of Nell Gwynn. + + + + +HOWARD, LORD WILLIAM (1563-1640), known as "Belted, or Bauld (bold) +Will," 3rd son of Thomas Howard, 4th duke of Norfolk (executed in 1572), +and of his second wife Margaret, daughter of Lord Audley, was born at +Audley End in Essex on the 19th of December 1563. He married on the 28th +of October 1577 Elizabeth, daughter of Thomas, Lord Dacre, and proceeded +subsequently to the University of Cambridge. Being suspected of +treasonable intentions together with his elder brother, Philip, earl of +Arundel, he was imprisoned in 1583, 1585 and 1589. He joined the church +of Rome in 1584, both brothers being dispossessed by the queen of a +portion of their Dacre estates, which were, however, restored in 1601 +for a payment of £10,000. Howard then took up his residence with his +children and grandchildren at Naworth Castle in Cumberland, restored the +castle, improved the estate and established order in that part of the +country. In 1603, on the accession of James, he had been restored in +blood. In 1618 he was made one of the commissioners for the border, and +performed great services in upholding the law and suppressing marauders. +Lord William was a learned and accomplished scholar, praised by Camden, +to whom he sent inscriptions and drawings from relics collected by him +from the Roman wall, as "a singular lover of valuable antiquity and +learned withal." He collected a valuable library, of which most of the +printed works remain still at Naworth, though the MSS. have been +dispersed, a portion being now in the Arundel MSS. in the Royal College +of Arms; he corresponded with Ussher and was intimate with Camden, +Spelman, and Cotton, whose eldest son married his daughter. He +published, in 1592 an edition of Florence of Worcester's _Chronicon ex +Chronicis_, dedicated to Lord Burghley, and drew up a genealogy of his +family, now among the duke of Norfolk's MSS. at Norfolk House. He died +in October 1640 at Greystock, to which place he had been removed when +failing in health to escape the Scots who were threatening an advance on +Naworth. He had a large family of children, of whom Philip, his heir, +was the grandfather of Charles, 1st earl of Carlisle, and Francis was +the ancestor of the Howards of Corby. + + + + +HOWARD OF EFFINGHAM, WILLIAM HOWARD, 1st BARON (c. 1510-1573), English +lord high admiral, was the son of the 2nd duke of Norfolk. He was +popular with Henry VIII., and at Anne Boleyn's coronation was deputy +earl marshal; and he was sent on missions to Scotland and France; but in +1541 he was charged with abetting his relative Queen Catherine Howard, +and was convicted of misprision of treason, but pardoned. In 1552 he was +made governor of Calais, and in 1553 lord high admiral, being created +Baron Howard of Effingham in 1554 for his defence of London in Sir +Thomas Wyat's rebellion against Queen Mary. He befriended the princess +Elizabeth, but his popularity with the navy saved him from Mary's +resentment; and when Elizabeth became queen he had great influence with +her and filled several important posts. His son, the second baron, who +is famous in English naval history, was created earl of Nottingham +(q.v.); and from a younger son the later earls of Effingham were +descended. William's descendant, Francis (d. 1695), inherited the barony +of Howard of Effingham on the death of his cousin, Charles, in 1681; and +Francis's son, Francis (1683-1743), was created earl of Effingham in +1731. This earldom became extinct on the death of Richard, the fourth +holder, in 1816; but it was created again in 1837 in favour of Kenneth +Alexander (1767-1845), another of William Howard's descendants, who had +succeeded to the barony of Howard of Effingham in 1816. + + + + +HOWE, ELIAS (1819-1867), American sewing-machine inventor, was born in +Spencer, Massachusetts, on the 9th of July 1819. His early years were +spent on his father's farm. In 1835 he entered the factory of a +manufacturer of cotton-machinery at Lowell, Massachusetts, where he +learned the machinist's trade. Subsequently, while employed in a machine +shop at Cambridge, Mass., he conceived the idea of a sewing machine, and +for five years spent all his spare time in its development. In September +1846 a patent for a practical sewing machine was granted to him; and +Howe spent the following two years (1847-1849) in London, employed by +William Thomas, a corset manufacturer, to whom he had sold the English +rights for £250. Years of disappointment and discouragement followed +before he was successful in introducing his invention, and several +imitations which infringed his patent, particularly that of Isaac +Merritt Singer (1811-1875), had already been successfully introduced and +were widely used. His rights were established after much litigation in +1854, and by the date of expiration of his patent (1867) he had realized +something over $2,000,000 out of his invention. He died in Brooklyn, New +York, on the 3rd of October 1867. + + See _History of the Sewing Machine and of Elias Howe, Jr., the + Inventor_ (Detroit, 1867); P. G. Hubert, Jr., _Inventors_, in "Men of + Achievement" series (New York, 1893). + + + + +HOWE, JOHN (1630-1706), English Puritan divine, was born on the 17th of +May 1630 at Loughborough, Leicestershire, where his father was vicar. On +the 19th of May 1647 he entered Christ's College, Cambridge, as a sizar, +and in the following year took his degree of B.A. During his residence +at the university he made the acquaintance of Ralph Cudworth, Henry More +and John Smith, from intercourse with whom, as well as from direct +acquaintance with the _Dialogues_ themselves, his mind received that +"Platonic tinge" so perceptible in his writings. Immediately after +graduation at Cambridge, he migrated to Oxford, where he became fellow +and chaplain of Magdalen College, proceeding M.A. in 1652. He was then +ordained by Charles Herle (1598-1659), the Puritan rector of Winwick, +and in 1654 went as perpetual curate to Great Torrington in Devon, where +he preached the discourses which later took shape in his treatises on +_The Blessedness of the Righteous_ and on _Delighting in God_. In the +beginning of 1657 a journey to London accidentally brought Howe under +the notice of Cromwell, who made him his domestic chaplain. In this +position his conduct was such as to win the praise of even the bitterest +enemies of his party. Without overlooking his fellow-Puritans, he was +always ready to help pious and learned men of other schools. Seth Ward +(afterwards bishop of Exeter) and Thomas Fuller were among those who +profited by Howe's kindness, and were not ashamed subsequently to +express their gratitude for it. On the resignation of Richard Cromwell, +Howe returned to Great Torrington, to leave it again in 1662 on the +passing of the Act of Uniformity. For several years he led a wandering +and uncertain life, preaching in secret as occasion offered to handfuls +of trusted hearers. Being in straits he published in 1668 _The +Blessedness of the Righteous_; the reputation which he thus acquired +procured him an invitation from Lord Massereene, of Antrim Castle, +Ireland, with whom he lived for five or six years as domestic chaplain, +frequently preaching in public, with the approval of the bishop of the +diocese. Here too he produced the most eloquent of his shorter +treatises, _The Vanity of Man as Mortal_, and _On Delighting in God_, +and planned his best work, _The Living Temple_. In the beginning of 1676 +he accepted an invitation to become joint-pastor of a nonconformist +congregation at Haberdashers' Hall, London; and in the same year he +published the first part of _The Living Temple_ entitled _Concerning +God's Existence and his Conversableness with Man: Against Atheism or the +Epicurean Deism_. In 1677 appeared his tractate _On the +Reconcileableness of God's Prescience of the Sins of Men with the Wisdom +and Sincerity of His Counsels, Exhortations and whatsoever means He uses +to prevent them_, which was attacked from various quarters, and had +Andrew Marvell for one of its defenders. _On Thoughtfulness for the +Morrow_ followed in 1681; _Self-Dedication_ and _Union among +Protestants_ in 1682, and _The Redeemer's Tears wept over Lost Souls_ in +1684. + +For five years after his settlement in London Howe enjoyed comparative +freedom, and was on not unfriendly terms with many eminent Anglicans, +such as Stillingfleet, Tillotson, John Sharp and Richard Kidder; but the +greater severity which began to be exercised towards nonconformists in +1681 so interfered with his liberty that in 1685 he gladly accepted the +invitation of Philip, Lord Wharton, to travel abroad with him. In 1686 +he determined to settle for a time at Utrecht, where he officiated in +the English chapel. Among his friends there was Gilbert Burnet, by whose +influence he obtained several confidential interviews with William of +Orange. In 1687 Howe availed himself of the declaration for liberty of +conscience to return to England, and in the following year he headed the +deputation of nonconformist ministers who went to congratulate William +on his accession to the English throne. The remainder of his life was +uneventful. His influence was always on the side of mutual forbearance, +between conformists and dissenters in 1689, and between +Congregationalists and Presbyterians in 1690. In 1693 he published three +discourses _On the Carnality of Religious Contention_, suggested by the +disputes that became rife among nonconformists as soon as liberty of +doctrine and worship had been granted. In 1694 and 1695 he published +various treatises on the subject of the Trinity, the principal being _A +Calm and Solemn Inquiry concerning the Possibility of a Trinity in the +Godhead_. The second part of _The Living Temple_, entitled +_Animadversions on Spinosa and a French Writer pretending to confute +him, with a recapitulation of the former part and an account of the +destitution and restitution of God's Temple among Men_, appeared in +1702. In 1701 he had some controversy with Daniel Defoe on the question +of occasional conformity. In 1705 he published a discourse _On Patience +in the Expectation of Future Blessedness_, but his health had begun to +fail, and he died in London on the 2nd of April 1706. Richard Cromwell +visited him in his last illness. + +Though excelled by Baxter as a pulpit orator, and by Owen in exegetical +ingenuity and in almost every department of theological learning, Howe +compares favourably with either as a sagacious and profound thinker, +while he was much more successful in combining religious earnestness and +fervour of conviction with large-hearted tolerance and cultured breadth +of view. He was a man of high principle and fine presence, and it was +said of him "that he never made an enemy and never lost a friend." + + The works published in his lifetime, including a number of sermons, + were collected into 2 vols. fol. in 1724, and again reprinted in 3 + vols. 8vo. in 1848. A complete edition of the _Whole Works_, including + much posthumous and additional matter, appeared with a memoir in 8 + vols, in 1822; this was reprinted in 1 vol. in 1838 and in 6 vols. in + 1862-1863. E. Calamy's _Life_ (1724) forms the basis of _The Life and + Character of Howe, with an Analysis of his Writings_, by Henry Rogers + (1836, new ed. 1863). See also a sketch by R. F. Horton (1896). + + + + +HOWE, JOSEPH (1804-1873), Canadian statesman, was born at Halifax, Nova +Scotia, on the 13th of December 1804, the son of John Howe (1752-1835), +a United Empire Loyalist who was for many years king's printer and +postmaster-general for the Maritime Provinces and the Bermudas. He +received little regular education, and at the age of 13 entered his +father's office. In 1827 he started the _Acadian_, a weekly +non-political journal, but soon sold it, and in 1828 purchased the _Nova +Scotian_, which later became amalgamated with the _Morning Chronicle_. +From this date he devoted increasing attention to political affairs, and +in 1835 was prosecuted for libelling the magistrates of Halifax. Being +unable to find a lawyer willing to undertake his case, he pleaded it +himself, and won his acquittal by a speech of over six hours, which +secured for Nova Scotia the freedom of the press and for himself the +reputation of an orator. In 1836 he was elected member for Halifax in +the provincial assembly, and during the next twelve years devoted +himself to attaining responsible government for Nova Scotia. This +brought him into fierce conflict with the reigning oligarchy and with +the lieutenant-governor, Lord Falkland (1803-1884), whom he forced to +resign. Largely owing to Howe's statesmanship responsible government was +finally conceded in 1848 by the imperial authorities, and was thus +gained without the bloodshed and confusion which marked its acquisition +in Ontario and Quebec. In 1850 he was appointed a delegate to England on +behalf of the Intercolonial railway, for which he obtained a large +imperial guarantee. In 1854 he resigned from the cabinet, and was +appointed chief commissioner of railways. In 1855 he was sent by the +imperial government to the United States in connexion with the Foreign +Enlistment Act, to raise soldiers for the war in the Crimea. Through the +rashness of others he got into difficulties, and was attacked in the +British House of Commons by Mr Gladstone, whom he compelled to +apologize. + +In 1855 he was defeated by Mr (afterwards Sir Charles) Tupper, but was +elected by acclamation in the next year in Hants county, and was from +1860 to 1863 premier of Nova Scotia. In the latter years he was +appointed by the imperial government fishery commissioner to the United +States, and thus took no part in the negotiations for confederation. +Though his eloquence had done more than anything else to make +practicable a union of the British North American provinces, he opposed +confederation, largely owing to wounded vanity; but on finding it +impossible to obtain from the imperial authorities the repeal of the +British North America Act, he refused to join his associates in the +extreme measures which were advocated, and on the promise from the +Canadian government of better financial terms to his native province, +entered (on the 30th of January 1869) the cabinet of Sir John Macdonald +as president of the council. This brought upon him a storm of obloquy, +under which his health gradually gave way. In May 1873 he was appointed +lieutenant-governor of Nova Scotia, but died suddenly on the 1st of June +of the same year. + +Howe's eloquence, and still more his unfailing wit and high spirits, +made him for many years the idol of his province. He is the finest +orator whom Canada has produced, and also wrote poetry, which shows in +places high merit. Many of his sayings are still current in Nova Scotia. +In 1904 a statue in his honour was erected in Halifax. + + His _Letters and Speeches_ were published in 1858 in Boston, Mass., in + 2 vols., edited nominally by William Annand, really by himself. See + also _Public Letters and Speeches of Joseph Howe_ (Halifax, 1909). The + _Life and Times_ by G. E. Fenety (1896) is poor. The _Life_ by the + Hon. James W. Longley (Toronto, 1904) is dispassionate, but otherwise + mediocre. _Joseph Howe_, by George Monro Grant (reprinted Halifax, + 1904), is a brilliant sketch. (W. L. G.) + + + + +HOWE, JULIA WARD (1819-1910), American author and reformer, was born in +New York City on the 27th of May 1819. Her father, Samuel Ward, was a +banker; her mother, Julia Rush [Cutler] (1796-1824), a poet of some +ability. When only sixteen years old she had begun to contribute poems +to New York periodicals. In 1843 she married Dr Samuel Gridley Howe +(q.v.), with whom she spent the next year in England, France, Germany +and Italy. She assisted Dr Howe in editing the _Commonwealth_ in +1851-1853. The results of her study of German philosophy were seen in +philosophical essays; in lectures on "Doubt and Belief," "The Duality of +Character," &c., delivered in 1860-1861 in her home in Boston, and later +in Washington; and in addresses before the Boston Radical Club and the +Concord school of philosophy. Samuel Longfellow, his brother Henry, +Wendell Phillips, W. L. Garrison, Charles Sumner, Theodore Parker and +James Freeman Clarke were among her friends; she advocated abolition, +and preached occasionally from Unitarian pulpits. She was one of the +organizers of the American Woman-Suffrage Association and of the +Association for the Advancement of Women (1869), and in 1870 became one +of the editors of the _Woman's Journal_, and in 1872 president of the +New England Women's Club. In the same year she was a delegate to the +Prison Reform Congress in London, and founded there the Woman's Peace +Association, one of the many ways in which she expressed her opposition +to war. She wrote _The World's Own_ (unsuccessfully played at +Wallack's, New York, in 1855, published 1857), and in 1858, for Edwin +Booth, _Hippolytus_, never acted or published. Her lyric poetry, thanks +to her temperament, and possibly to her musical training, was her +highest literary form: she published _Passion Flowers_ (anonymously, +1854), _Words for the Hour_ (1856), _Later Lyrics_ (1866), and _From +Sunset Ridge: Poems Old and New_ (1898); her most popular poem is _The +Battle Hymn of the Republic_, written to the old folk-tune associated +with the song of "John Brown's Body," when Mrs Howe was at the front in +1861, and published (Feb. 1862) in the _Atlantic Monthly_, to which she +frequently contributed. She edited _Sex and Education_ (1874), an answer +to _Sex in Education_ (1873) by Edward Hammond Clarke (1820-1877); and +wrote several books of travel, _Modern Society_ (1880) and _Is Polite +Society Polite?_ (1895), collections of addresses, each taking its title +from a lecture criticizing the shallowness and falseness of society, the +power of money, &c., _A Memoir of Dr Samuel G. Howe_ (1876), _Life of +Margaret Fuller_ (1883), in the "Famous Women" series. _Sketches of +Representative Women of New England_ (1905) and her own _Reminiscences_ +(Boston, 1899). Her children were: Julia Romana Anagnos (1844-1886), +who, like her mother, wrote verse and studied philosophy, and who taught +in the Perkins Institution, in the charge of which her husband, Michael +Anagnos (1837-1906), whose family name had been Anagnostopoulos, +succeeded her father; Henry Marion Howe (b. 1848), the eminent +metallurgist, and professor in Columbia University; Laura Elizabeth +Richards (b. 1850), and Maud Howe Elliott (b. 1855), wife of John +Elliott, the painter of a fine ceiling in the Boston library,--both +these daughters being contributors to literature. Mrs Howe died on the +17th of October 1910. + + + + +HOWE, RICHARD HOWE, EARL (1726-1799), British admiral, was born in +London on the 8th of March 1726. He was the second son of Emmanuel +Scrope Howe, 2nd Viscount Howe, who died governor of Barbadoes in March +1735, and of Mary Sophia Charlotte, a daughter of the baroness +Kilmansegge, afterwards countess of Darlington, the mistress of George +I.--a relationship which does much to explain his early rise in the +navy. Richard Howe entered the navy in the "Severn," one of the squadron +sent into the south seas with Anson in 1740. The "Severn" failed to +round the Horn and returned home. Howe next served in the West Indies in +the "Burford," and was present in her when she was very severely +damaged, in the unsuccessful attack on La Guayra on the 18th of February +1742. He was made acting-lieutenant in the West Indies in the same year, +and the rank was confirmed in 1744. During the Jacobite rising of 1745 +he commanded the "Baltimore" sloop in the North Sea, and was dangerously +wounded in the head while co-operating with a frigate in an engagement +with two strong French privateers. In 1746 he became post-captain, and +commanded the "Triton" (24) in the West Indies. As captain of the +"Cornwall" (80), the flagship of Sir Charles Knowles, he was in the +battle with the Spaniards off Havana on the 2nd of October 1748. While +the peace between the War of the Austrian Succession and the Seven +Years' War lasted, Howe held commands at home and on the west coast of +Africa. In 1755 he went with Boscawen to North America as captain of the +"Dunkirk" (60), and his seizure of the French "Alcide" (64) was the +first shot fired in the war. From this date till the peace of 1763 he +served in the Channel in various more or less futile expeditions against +the coast of France, with a steady increase of reputation as a firm and +skilful officer. On the 20th of November 1759 he led Hawke's fleet as +captain of the "Magnanime" (64) in the magnificent victory of Quiberon. + +By the death of his elder brother, killed near Ticonderoga on the 6th of +July 1758, he became Viscount Howe--an Irish peerage. In 1762 he was +elected M.P. for Dartmouth, and held the seat till he received a title +of Great Britain. During 1763 and 1765 he was a member of the Admiralty +board, and from 1765 to 1770 was treasurer of the navy. In that year he +was promoted rear-admiral, and in 1775 vice-admiral. In 1776 he was +appointed to the command of the North American station. The rebellion +of the colonies was making rapid progress, and Howe was known to be in +sympathy with the colonists. He had sought the acquaintance of Benjamin +Franklin, who was a friend of his sister Miss Howe, a clever eccentric +woman well known in London society, and had already tried to act as a +peacemaker. It was doubtless because of his known sentiments that he was +selected to command in America, and was joined in commission with his +brother Sir William Howe, the general at the head of the land forces, to +make a conciliatory arrangement. A committee appointed by the +Continental Congress conferred with the Howes in September 1776 but +nothing was accomplished. The appointment of a new peace commission in +1778 offended the admiral deeply, and he sent in a resignation of his +command. It was reluctantly accepted by Lord Sandwich, then First Lord, +but before it could take effect France declared war, and a powerful +French squadron was sent to America under the count d'Estaing. Being +greatly outnumbered, Howe had to stand on the defensive, but he baffled +the French admiral at Sandy Hook, and defeated his attempt to take +Newport in Rhode Island by a fine combination of caution and calculated +daring. On the arrival of Admiral John Byron from England with +reinforcements, Howe left the station in September. Until the fall of +Lord North's ministry in 1782 he refused to serve, assigning as his +reason that he could not trust Lord Sandwich. He considered that he had +not been properly supported in America, and was embittered both by the +supersession of himself and his brother as peace commissioners, and by +attacks made on him by the ministerial writers in the press. + +On the change of ministry in March 1782 he was selected to command in +the Channel, and in the autumn of that year, September, October and +November, he carried out the final relief of Gibraltar. It was a +difficult operation, for the French and Spaniards had in all 46 +line-of-battle ships to his 33, and in the exhausted state of the +country it was impossible to fit his ships properly or to supply them +with good crews. He was, moreover, hampered by a great convoy carrying +stores. But Howe was eminent in the handling of a great multitude of +ships, the enemy was awkward and unenterprising, and the operation was +brilliantly carried out. From the 28th of January to the 16th of April +1783 he was First Lord of the Admiralty, and he held that post from +December 1783 till August 1788, in Pitt's first ministry. The task was +no pleasant one, for he had to agree to economies where he considered +that more outlay was needed, and he had to disappoint the hopes of the +many officers who were left unemployed by the peace. On the outbreak of +the Revolutionary war in 1793 he was again named to the command of the +Channel fleet. His services in 1794 form the most glorious period of his +life, for in it he won the epoch-making victory of the 1st of June (see +FIRST OF JUNE, BATTLE OF). Though Howe was now nearly seventy, and had +been trained in the old school, he displayed an originality not usual +with veterans, and not excelled by any of his successors in the war, not +even by Nelson, since they had his example to follow and were served by +more highly trained squadrons than his. He continued to hold the nominal +command by the wish of the king, but his active service was now over. In +1797 he was called on to pacify the mutineers at Spithead, and his great +influence with the seamen who trusted him was conspicuously shown. He +died on the 5th of August 1799, and was buried in his family vault at +Langar. His monument by Flaxman is in St Paul's Cathedral. In 1782 he +was created Viscount Howe of Langar, and in 1788 Baron and Earl Howe. In +June 1797 he was made a knight of the Garter. With the sailors he was +always popular, though he was no popularity hunter, for they knew him to +be just. His nickname of Black Dick was given on account of his swarthy +complexion, and the well-known portrait by Gainsborough shows that it +was apt. + +Lord Howe married, on the 10th of March 1758, Mary Hartop, the daughter +of Colonel Chiverton Hartop of Welby in Leicestershire, and had issue +two daughters. His Irish title descended to his brother William, the +general, who died childless in 1814. The earldom, and the viscounty of +the United Kingdom, being limited to heirs male, became extinct, but +the barony, being to heirs general, passed to his daughter, Sophia +Charlotte (1762-1835), who married the Hon. Penn Assheton Curzon. Their +son, Richard William Curzon (1796-1870), who succeeded his paternal +grandfather as Viscount Curzon in 1820, was created Earl Howe in 1821; +he was succeeded by his son, George Augustus (1821-1876), and then by +another son, Richard William (1822-1900), whose son Richard George Penn +Curzon-Howe (b. 1861) became 4th Earl Howe in 1900. + + The standard _Life_ is by Sir John Barrow (1838). Interesting + reminiscences will be found in the _Life of Codrington_, by Lady + Bourchier. Accounts of his professional services are in Charnock's + _Biographia Navalis_, v. 457, and in Ralf's _Naval Biographies_, i. + 83. See also Beatson's _Naval and Military Annals_, James's _Naval + History_, and Chevalier's _Histoire de la Marine française_, vols. i. + and ii. (D. H.) + + + + +HOWE, SAMUEL GRIDLEY (1801-1876), American philanthropist, was born at +Boston, Massachusetts, on the 10th of November 1801. His father, Joseph +N. Howe, was a ship-owner and cordage manufacturer; and his mother, +Patty Gridley, was one of the most beautiful women of her day. Young +Howe was educated at Boston and at Brown University, Providence, and in +1821 began to study medicine in Boston. But fired by enthusiasm for the +Greek revolution and by Byron's example, he was no sooner qualified and +admitted to practice than he abandoned these prospects and took ship for +Greece, where he joined the army and spent six years of hardship amid +scenes of warfare. Then, to raise funds for the cause, he returned to +America; his fervid appeals enabled him to collect about $60,000, which +he spent on provisions and clothing, and he established a relief depot +near Aegina, where he started works for the refugees, the existing quay, +or American Mole, being built in this way. He formed another colony of +exiles on the Isthmus of Corinth. He wrote a _History of the Greek +Revolution_, which was published in 1828, and in 1831 he returned to +America. Here a new object of interest engaged him. Through his friend +Dr John D. Fisher (d. 1850), a Boston physician who had started a +movement there as early as 1826 for establishing a school for the blind, +he had learnt of the similar school founded in Paris by Valentin Haüy, +and it was proposed to Howe by a committee organized by Fisher that he +should direct the establishment of a "New England Asylum for the Blind" +at Boston. He took up the project with characteristic ardour, and set +out at once for Europe to investigate the problem. There he was +temporarily diverted from his task by becoming mixed up with the Polish +revolt, and, in pursuit of a mission to carry American contributions +across the Prussian frontier, he was arrested and imprisoned at Berlin, +but was at last released through the intervention of the American +minister at Paris. Returning to Boston in July 1832, he began receiving +a few blind children at his father's house in Pleasant Street, and thus +sowed the seed which grew into the famous Perkins Institution. In +January 1833 the funds available were all spent, but so much progress +had been shown that the legislature voted $6000, later increased to +$30,000 a year, to the institution on condition that it should educate +gratuitously twenty poor blind from the state; money was also +contributed from Salem, and from Boston, and Colonel Thomas H. Perkins, +a prominent Bostonian, presented his mansion and grounds in Pearl Street +for the school to be held there in perpetuity. This building being later +found unsuitable, Colonel Perkins consented to its sale, and in 1839 the +institution was moved to South Boston, to a large building which had +previously been an hotel. It was henceforth known as the "Perkins +Institution and Massachusetts Asylum (or, since 1877, School) for the +Blind." Howe was director, and the life and soul of the school; he +opened a printing-office and organized a fund for printing for the +blind--the first done in America; and he was unwearied in calling public +attention to the work. The Institution, through him, became one of the +intellectual centres of American philanthropy, and by degrees obtained +more and more financial support. In 1837 Dr Howe went still further and +brought the famous blind deaf-mute, Laura Bridgman (q.v.) to the +school. + +It must suffice here to chronicle the remaining more important facts in +Dr Howe's life, outside his regular work. In 1843 he married Julia Ward +(see above), daughter of a New York banker, and they made a prolonged +European trip, on which Dr Howe spent much time in visiting those public +institutions which carried out the objects specially interesting to him. +In Rome, in 1844, his eldest daughter, Julia Romana (afterwards the wife +of Michael Anagnos, Dr Howe's assistant and successor), was born, and in +September the travellers returned to America, and Dr Howe resumed his +activities. In 1846 he became interested in the condition and treatment +of idiots, and particularly in the experiments of Dr Guggenbühl on the +cretins of Switzerland. He became chairman of a state commission of +inquiry into the number and condition of idiots in Massachusetts, and +the report of this commission, presented in 1848, caused a profound +sensation. An appropriation of $2500 per annum was made for training ten +idiot children under Dr Howe's supervision, and by degrees the value of +his School for Idiotic and Feeble-minded Youths, which, starting in +South Boston, was in 1890 removed to Waltham, was generally appreciated. +It was the first of its kind in the United States. An enthusiastic +humanitarian on all subjects, Dr Howe was an ardent abolitionist and a +member of the Free Soil party, and had played a leading part at Boston +in the movements which culminated in the Civil War. When it broke out he +was an active member of the sanitary commission. In 1871 he was sent to +Santo Domingo as a member of the commission appointed by President Grant +to examine the condition of the island, the government of which desired +annexation; and when that scheme was defeated through Sumner's +opposition he returned (1872) as the representative of the Samana Bay +Company, which proposed to take a lease of the Samana peninsula; but +though in 1874 he revisited the island, it was only to see the flag of +the company hauled down. His health was then breaking and began soon +after to fail rapidly, and on the 9th of January 1876 he died at Boston. +The governor of the state sent a special message of grief to the +legislature on his death, eulogies were delivered in the two houses, and +a public memorial service was held, at which Dr O. W. Holmes read a +poem. Whittier had in his lifetime commemorated him in his poem "The +Hero," in which he called him "the Cadmus of the blind"; and in 1901 a +centennial celebration of his birth was held at Boston, at which, among +other notable tributes, Senator Hoar spoke of Howe as "one of the great +figures of American history." + + A _Memoir_ of Dr Howe by his wife appeared in 1876. See also the + _Letters and Journals of S. G. Howe_, edited by Laura E. Richards + (1910). (H. Ch.) + + + + +HOWE, WILLIAM HOWE, 5TH VISCOUNT (1729-1814), British general, was the +younger brother of George Augustus, 3rd viscount, killed in the +Ticonderoga expedition of 1758, and of Richard, 4th viscount and +afterwards Earl Howe, the admiral. He entered the cavalry in 1746, +becoming lieutenant a year later. On the disbanding of his regiment in +1749 he was made captain-lieutenant and shortly afterwards captain in +Lord Bury's (20th) regiment, in which Wolfe was then a field officer. +Howe became major in 1756 and lieutenant-colonel in 1757 of the 58th +(now Northampton) regiment, which he commanded at the capture of +Louisburg. In Wolfe's expedition to Quebec he distinguished himself +greatly at the head of a composite light battalion. He led the advanced +party in the landing at Wolfe's Cove and took part in the battle of the +Plains of Abraham which followed. He commanded his own regiment in the +defence of Quebec in 1759-1760, led a brigade in the advance on Montreal +and took part on his return to Europe in the siege of Belleisle (1761). +He was adjutant-general of the force which besieged and took Havana in +1762, and at the close of the war had acquired the reputation of being +one of the most brilliant of the junior officers of the army. He was +made colonel of the 46th foot in 1764 and lieutenant-governor of the +Isle of Wight four years later. From 1758 to 1780 he was M.P. for +Nottingham. In 1772 he became major-general, and in 1774 he was +entrusted with the training of light infantry companies on a new system, +the training-ground being Salisbury Plain. + +Shortly after this he was sent out to North America. He did not agree +with the policy of the government towards the colonists, and regretted +in particular that he was sent to Boston, where the memory of his eldest +brother was still cherished by the inhabitants, and General Gage, in +whom he had no confidence, commanded in chief. He was the senior officer +after Gage, and led the troops actively engaged in the storming of +Bunker Hill, he himself being in the thickest of the fighting. In the +same year Howe was made a K.B. and a lieutenant-general, and appointed, +with the local rank of general, to the chief command in the seat of war. +For the events of his command see AMERICAN WAR OF INDEPENDENCE. He +retained it until May 1778--on the whole with success. The cause of his +resignation was his feeling that the home government had not afforded +the proper support, and after his return to England, he and his brother +engaged in a heated but fruitless controversy with the ministers. Howe's +own defence is embodied in _Narrative of Sir William Howe before a +Committee of the House of Commons_ (London, 1780). In 1782 Howe was made +lieutenant-general of the ordnance; in 1790 he was placed in command of +the forces organized for action against Spain, and in 1793 he was made a +full general. He held various home commands in the early part of the +French revolutionary war, in particular that of the eastern district at +the critical moment when the French established their forces on the +Dutch coast. When Earl Howe died in 1799, Sir William succeeded to the +Irish viscounty. He had been made governor of Berwick-on-Tweed in 1795, +and in 1805 he became governor of Plymouth, where he died on the 12th of +July 1814. With his death the Irish peerage became extinct. + + + + +HOWEL DDA ("the Good") (d. 950), prince of Deheubarth (South Central +Wales) from before 915, and king of Wales from 943 to 950, was the +grandson of Rhodri Mawr (the Great), who had united practically the +whole of Wales under his supremacy. As Idwal Voel succeeded his father +Anarawd, the elder son of Rhodri, as lord of Gwynedd in 915, so Howel at +some time before that date succeeded Rhodri's younger son Cadell as +prince of Deheubarth. Howel married Elen, daughter of the last king of +Dyfed, and also added Kidweli and Gwyr to his dominions, while on the +death of Idwal, who was slain by the English in 943, he took possession +of Gwynedd. Both these princes had done homage to the English kings, +Edward the Elder and Aethelstan, in 922 and 926, and we find that Howel +attended the witans of the English kingdom and witnessed about ten +charters between the years 931 and 949. He was secure, therefore, from +attack on the eastern side of his kingdom, and it is not certain whether +he was engaged in any of the battles recorded during these years in +Wales, either in Môn 914, at Dinas Newydd 919 or at Brun 935. To the +peaceful character of his reign is probably due the high place which he +holds among the Welsh princes. From 943 to 950 Howel Dda was probably +ruler of all Wales except Powys (apparently dependent on Mercia), +Brecheiniog, Buallt, Gwent and Morgannwg. With Morgan Hen, king of +Morgannwg, Howel had a dispute which was eventually settled in favour of +the former at the court of the English king. Howel died in 950, and such +unity as he had preserved at once disappeared in a war between his sons +and those of Idwal Voel. The code of laws attributed to this prince is +perhaps his chief claim to fame. He is said to have summoned four men +from each cantref in his dominions to the Ty Gwyn (perhaps Whitland in +Caermarthenshire) to codify existing custom. Three codes, accordingly +called Venedotian, Demetian and Gwentian, are said to have been written +down by Bleggwryd, archdeacon of Llandaff (see Welsh Laws). + + See Sir John Rhys and Brynmor-Jones, _The Welsh People_ (London, + 1900); and Aneurin Owen, _Ancient Laws and Institutions of Wales_ + (London, 1841). + + + + +HOWELL, JAMES (c. 1594-1666), British author, who came of an old Welsh +family, was born probably at Abernant, in Carmarthenshire, where his +father was rector. From the free grammar school at Hereford he went to +Jesus College, Oxford, and took his degree of B.A. in 1613. About 1616 +he was steward in Sir Robert Mansell's glass-works in Broad Street, and +was commissioned to go abroad to procure the services of expert +workmen. It was not till 1622 that he returned, having visited Holland, +France, Spain and Italy. With the intention of utilizing to better +purpose his knowledge of continental languages and methods, he left the +glass business and applied for a diplomatic post. Failing to obtain +this, he was for a short time tutor in a nobleman's family. At the close +of 1622 he was sent on a special mission to Madrid to obtain redress for +the seizure of an English vessel, but, owing to the presence at the +Spanish court of Prince Charles and the duke of Buckingham to arrange a +marriage between the prince and the infanta of Spain, the negotiations +had to be broken off. He made many friends among the prince's retinue, +and, after his return in 1624, applied for employment to the duke of +Buckingham, but without success. In 1626 he became secretary to Lord +Scrope, Lord President of the North at York, and retained the office +under Scrope's successor, Thomas Wentworth. In 1627 he was elected M.P. +for Richmond; in 1632 he was sent as secretary to the embassy of the +earl of Leicester to Denmark; and in 1642 the king appointed him one of +the clerks of the privy council. In 1643 he was committed to the Fleet +prison by the parliament, according to his own account, on suspicion of +royalist leanings, or, as Anthony à Wood says, for debt. Whatever the +reason, he remained in prison until 1651. He had acquired considerable +fame by his allegorical [Greek: Dendrologia]: _Dodona's Grove, or the +Vocall Forest_, published in 1640, and his _Instructions for Forreine +Travell_ (1642), which has been described as the first continental +handbook; and now he was driven to maintain himself by his pen. He +edited and supplemented (1650) Cotgrave's French and English dictionary, +compiled _Lexicon Tetraglotton, or an English, French, Italian and +Spanish Dictionary_ (London, 1660), translated various works from +Italian and Spanish, wrote a life of Louis XIII. and issued a number of +political pamphlets, varying the point of view somewhat to suit the +changes of the time. Among these tracts may be mentioned a rather +malicious _Perfect Description of the People and Country of Scotland_, +which was revived by John Wilkes and printed in the _North Briton_ +during the agitation directed against Lord Bute. In 1660 he asked for +the place of clerk of the privy council; and, though this was not +granted him, the post of historiographer royal was created for him. In +1661 he applied for the office of tutor in foreign languages to the +infanta Catherine of Braganza, and in 1662 published an _English Grammar +translated into Spanish_. He was buried in the Temple Church on the 3rd +of November 1666, having realized to the last his favourite motto, +"Senesco non segnesco." + +All Howell's writings are imbued with a certain simplicity and +quaintness. His elaborate allegories are forgotten; his linguistic +labours, of value in their time, are now superseded; but his _Letters_, +the _Epistolae Ho-elianae_ (four volumes issued in 1645, 1647, 1650 and +1655), are still models of their kind. Their dates are often fictitious, +and they are, in nearly every case, evidently written for publication. +Thackeray said that the _Letters_ was one of his bedside books. He +classes it with Montaigne and says he scarcely ever tired of "the +artless prattle" of the "priggish little clerk of King Charles's +council." + + The _Epistolae_ have been frequently edited, notably by J. Jacobs in + 1890, with a commentary (1891), and Agnes Repplier (1907). + + + + +HOWELLS, WILLIAM DEAN (1837- ), American novelist, was born at Martin's +Ferry, Ohio, on the 1st of March 1837. His father, William Cooper +Howells, a printer-journalist, moved in 1840 to Hamilton, Ohio, and here +the boy's early life was spent successively as type-setter, reporter and +editor in the offices of various newspapers. In the midst of routine +work he contrived to familiarize himself with a wide range of authors in +several modern tongues, and to drill himself thoroughly in the use of +good English. In 1860, as assistant editor of the leading Republican +newspaper in Ohio, he wrote--in connexion with the Presidential +contest--the campaign life of Lincoln; and in the same year he was +appointed consul at Venice, where he remained till 1865. On his return +to America he joined the staff of the _Atlantic Monthly_, and from 1872 +to 1881 he was its editor-in-chief. Since 1885 he has lived in New York. +For a time he conducted for _Harper's Magazine_ the department called +"The Editor's Study," and in December 1900 he revived for the same +periodical the department of "The Easy Chair," which had lapsed with the +death of George William Curtis. Of Mr Howells's many novels, the +following may be mentioned as specially noteworthy: _Their Wedding +Journey_ (1872); _The Lady of the Aroostook_ (1879); _A Modern Instance_ +(1882); _The Rise of Silas Lapham_ (1885); _The Minister's Charge_ +(1886); _A Hazard of New Fortunes_ (1889); _The Quality of Mercy_ +(1892); _The Landlord at Lion's Head_ (1897). He also published _Poems_ +(1873 and 1886); _Stops of Various Quills_ (1895), a book of verse; +books of travel; several amusing farces; and volumes of essays and +literary criticism, among others, _Literary Friends and Acquaintance_ +(1901), which contains much autobiographical matter, _Literature and +Life_ (1902), and _English Films_ (1905). + +Howells is by general consent the foremost representative of the +realistic school of indigenous American fiction. From the outset his aim +was to portray life with entire fidelity in all its commonplaceness, and +yet to charm the reader into a liking for this commonplaceness and into +reverence for what it conceals. Though in his earliest novels his method +was not consistently realistic--he is at times almost as personal and as +whimsical as Thackeray--yet his vivid impressionism and his choice of +subjects, as well as an occasional explicit protest that "dulness is +dear to him," already revealed unmistakably his realistic bias. In _A +Modern Instance_ (1882) he gained complete command of his method, and +began a series of studies of American life that are remarkable for their +loyalty to fact, their truth of tone, and their power to reveal, despite +their strictly objective method, both the inner springs of American +character and the sociological forces that are shaping American +civilization. He refuses to over-sophisticate or to over-intellectualize +his characters, and he is very sparing in his use of psychological +analysis. He insists on seeing and portraying American life as it exists +in and for itself, under its own skies and with its own atmosphere; he +does not scrutinize it with foreign comparisons in mind, and thus try to +find and to throw into relief unsuspected configurations of surface. He +keeps his dialogue toned down to almost the pitch of everyday +conversation, although he has shown in his comedy sketches how easy a +master he is of adroit and witty talk. + + See also J. M. Robertson, _Essays towards a Critical Method_ (London, + 1889); H. C. Vedder, _American Writers_ (Boston, 1894). + + + + +HOWITT WILLIAM, (1792-1879), English author, was born on the 18th of +December 1792 at Heanor, Derbyshire. His parents were Quakers, and he +was educated at the Friends' public school at Ackworth, Yorkshire. In +1814 he published a poem on the "Influence of Nature and Poetry on +National Spirit." He married, in 1821, Mary Botham (1799-1888), like +himself a Quaker and a poet. William and Mary Howitt collaborated +throughout a long literary career, the first of their joint productions +being _The Forest Minstrels and other Poems_ (1821). In 1831 William +Howitt produced a work for which his habits of observation and his +genuine love of nature peculiarly fitted him. It was a history of the +changes in the face of the outside world in the different months of the +year, and was entitled _The Book of the Seasons, or the Calendar of +Nature_ (1831). His _Popular History of Priestcraft_ (1833) won for him +the favour of active Liberals and the office of alderman in Nottingham, +where the Howitts had made their home. They removed in 1837 to Esher, +and in 1840 they went to Heidelberg, primarily for the education of +their children, remaining in Germany for two years. In 1841 William +Howitt produced, under the pseudonym of "Dr Cornelius," _The Student +Life of Germany_, the first of a series of works on German social life +and institutions. Mary Howitt devoted herself to Scandinavian +literature, and between 1842 and 1863 she translated the novels of +Frederika Bremer and many of the stories of Hans Andersen. With her +husband she wrote in 1852 _The Literature and Romance of Northern +Europe_. In June of that year William Howitt, with two of his sons, set +sail for Australia, where he spent two years in the goldfields. The +results of his travels appeared in _A Boy's Adventures in the Wilds +of Australia_ (1854), _Land, Labour and Gold; or, Two Years in Victoria_ +(1855) and _Tallangetta, the Squatter's Home_ (1857). On his return to +England Howitt had settled at Highgate and resumed his indefatigable +book-making. From 1856 to 1862 he was engaged on Cassell's _Illustrated +History of England_, and from 1861 to 1864 he and his wife worked at the +_Ruined Abbeys and Castles of Great Britain_. The Howitts had left the +Society of Friends in 1847, and became interested in spiritualism. In +1863 appeared _The History of the Supernatural in all Ages and Nations, +and in all Churches, Christian and Pagan, demonstrating a Universal +Faith_, by William Howitt. He added "his own conclusions from a +practical examination of the higher phenomena through a course of seven +years." From 1870 onwards Howitt spent the summers in Tirol and the +winters in Rome, where he died on the 3rd of March 1879. Mary Howitt was +much affected by his death, and in 1882 she joined the Roman Catholic +Church, towards which she had been gradually moving during her connexion +with spiritualism. She died at Rome on the 30th of January 1888. The +Howitts are remembered for their untiring efforts to provide wholesome +and instructive literature. Their son, Alfred William Howitt, made +himself a name by his explorations in Australia. Anna Mary Howitt +married Alaric Alfred Watts, and was the author of _Pioneers of the +Spiritual Reformation_ (1883). + + Mary Howitt's autobiography was edited by her daughter, Margaret + Howitt, in 1889. William Howitt wrote some fifty books, and his wife's + publications, inclusive of translations, number over a hundred. + + + + +HOWITZER (derived, through an earlier form _howitz_, and the Ger. +_Haubitz_, from the Bohemian _houfnice_ = catapult, from which come +also, through the Ital. _obiza_ or _obice_, the French forms _obus_ = +shell and _obusier_ = howitzer), a form of mobile ordnance in use from +the 16th century up to the present day. It is a short and therefore +comparatively light gun, which fires a heavy projectile at low velocity. +A high angle of elevation is always given and the angle of descent of +the projectile is consequently steep (up to 70°). On this fact is based +the tactical use of the modern howitzer. The field howitzer is of the +greatest value for "searching" trenches, folds of ground, localities, +&c., which are invulnerable to direct fire, while the more powerful +siege howitzer has, since the introduction of modern artillery and, +above all, of modern projectiles, taken the foremost place amongst the +weapons used in siege warfare. + + See ARTILLERY, ORDNANCE and FORTIFICATION AND SIEGECRAFT. + + + + +HOWLER, a name applied to the members of a group of tropical American +monkeys, now known scientifically as _Alouata_, although formerly +designated _Mycetes_. These monkeys, which are of large size, with thick +fur, sometimes red and sometimes black in colour, are characterized by +the inflation of the hyoid-bone (which supports the roof of the tongue) +into a large shell-like organ communicating with the wind-pipe, and +giving the peculiar resonance to the voice from which they take their +title. To allow space for the hyoid, the sides of the lower jaw are very +deep and expanded. The muzzle is projecting, and the profile of the face +slopes regularly backwards from the muzzle to the crown. The long tail +is highly prehensile, thickly furred, with the under surface of the +extremity naked. Howlers dwell in large companies, and in the early +morning, and again in the evening, make the woods resound with their +cries, which are often continued throughout the night. They feed on +leaves, and are in the habit of sitting on the topmost branches of +trees. When active, they progress in regular order, led by an old male. + (R. L.*) + + + + +HOWRAH, a city and district of British India, in the Burdwan division of +Bengal. The city is situated opposite Calcutta, with which it is +connected by a floating bridge. The municipal area is about 11 sq. m.; +pop. (1901) 157,594, showing an increase of 35% in the decade. Since +1872 the population has almost doubled, owing to the great industrial +development that has taken place. Howrah is the terminus of the East +Indian railway, and also of the Bengal-Nagpur and East Coast lines. It +is also the centre of two light railways which run to Amta and +Sheakhala. Further, it is the headquarters of the jute-manufacturing +industry, with many steam mills, steam presses, also cotton mills, oil +mills, rope-works, iron-works and engineering works. Sibpur Engineering +College lies on the outskirts of the town. There is a hospital, with a +department for Europeans, and Howrah forms a suburban residence for many +people who have their place of business in Calcutta. + +The DISTRICT OF HOWRAH extends southwards down the right bank of the +Hugli to the confluence of the river Damodar. For revenue purposes it is +included within the district of Hugli Its area is 510 sq. m.; pop. +(1901) 850,514, showing an increase of 11% in the decade. In addition to +the two steam tramways and the East Indian railway, the district is +crossed by the high-level canal to Midnapore, which communicates with +the Hugli at Ulubaria. The manufacturing industries of Howrah extend +beyond the city into the district. One or two systems of draining +low-lying lands are maintained by the government. + + + + +HOWSON, JOHN SAUL (1816-1885), English divine, was born at +Giggleswick-in-Craven, Yorkshire, on the 5th of May 1816. After +receiving his early education at Giggleswick school, of which his father +was head-master, he went to Trinity College, Cambridge, and there became +tutor successively to the marquis of Sligo and the marquis of Lorne. In +1845 Howson, having taken orders, accepted the post of senior classical +master at the Liverpool College under his friend W. J. Conybeare, whom +he succeeded as principal in 1849. This post he held until 1865, and it +was largely due to his influence that a similar college for girls was +established at Liverpool. In 1866 he left Liverpool for the vicarage of +Wisbech, and in 1867 he was appointed dean of Chester Cathedral, where +he gave himself vigorously to the work of restoring the crumbling +fabric, collecting nearly £100,000 in five years for this purpose. His +sympathies were with the evangelical party, and he stoutly opposed the +"Eastward position," but he was by no means narrow. He did much to +reintroduce the ministry of women as deaconesses. The building of the +King's School for boys, and the Queen's School for girls (both in +Chester), was due in a great measure to the active interest which he +took in educational matters. He died at Bournemouth on the 15th of +December 1885, and was buried in the cloister garth of Chester. Howson's +chief literary production was _The Life and Epistles of St Paul_ (1852) +in which he collaborated with Conybeare. + + The book is still of interest, especially for its descriptive + passages, which were mostly done by Howson; but later researches (such + as those of Sir W. M. Ramsay) have made the geographical and + historical sections obsolete, and the same may be said of the + treatment of the Pauline theology. + + + + +HOWTH [pronounced _Hoth_], a seaside town of Co. Dublin, Ireland, on the +rocky hill of Howth, which forms the northern horn of Dublin Bay, 9 m. +N.E. by N. of Dublin by the Great Northern railway. Pop. (1901) 1166. It +is frequented by the residents of the capital as a watering-place. The +artificial harbour was formed (1807-1832) between the mainland and the +picturesque island of Ireland's Eye, and preceded Kingstown as the +station for the mail-packets from Great Britain, but was found after its +construction to be liable to silt, and is now chiefly used by +fishing-boats and yachts. The collegiate church, standing picturesquely +on a cliff above the sea, was founded about 1235, and has a monastic +building attached to it. The embattled castle contains the two-handed +sword of Sir Almeric Tristram, the Anglo-Norman conqueror of the hill of +Howth, and a portrait of Dean Swift holding one of the Drapier letters, +with Wood, the coiner against whom he directed these attacks, prostrate +before him. The view of Dublin Bay from the hill of Howth is of great +beauty. Howth is connected with the capital by electric tramway, besides +the railway, and another tramway encircles the hill. + + + + +HÖXTER, a town of Germany, in the Prussian province of Westphalia, +prettily situated on the left bank of the Weser, and on the Prussian +state railways Börssum-Soest and Scherfede-Holzminden, 32 m. N. of +Cassel. Pop. (1905) 7699. It has a medieval town hall, and interesting +houses with high gables and wood-carved façades of the 15th and 16th +centuries. The most interesting of the churches is the Protestant church +of St Kilian, with a pulpit dating from 1595 and a font dating from +1631. There are a gymnasium, a school of architecture and a monument to +Hoffmann von Fallersleben in the town. The Weser is crossed here by a +stone bridge about 500 ft. in length, erected in 1833. On the Brunsberg +adjoining the town there is an old watch-tower, said to be the remains +of a fortress built by Bruno, brother of Widukind. Near Höxter is the +castle, formerly the Benedictine monastery, of Corvey. The principal +manufactures of the town are linen, cotton, cement and gutta-percha, and +there is also a considerable shipping trade. Höxter (Lat. _Huxaria_) in +the time of Charlemagne was a _villa regia_, and was the scene of a +battle between him and the Saxons. Under the protection of the monastery +of Corvey it gradually increased in prosperity, and became the chief +town of the principality of Corvey. Later it asserted its independence +and joined the Hanseatic League. It suffered severely during the Thirty +Years' War. After the peace of Westphalia in 1648 it was united to +Brunswick; in 1802 it was transferred to Nassau; and in 1807 to the +kingdom of Westphalia, after the dismemberment of which, in 1814, it +came into the possession of Prussia. + + See Kampschulte, _Chronik der Stadt Höxter_ (Höxter, 1872). + + + + +HOY (Norse _Haey_, "high island"), the second largest island of the +Orkneys, county of Orkney, Scotland. Pop. (1901) 1216. It has an extreme +length from N.W. to S.E. of 13(1/3) m., its greatest breadth from E. to +W. is 8 m., and its area occupies 53 sq. m. It is situated 2 m. S.W. of +Pomona, from which it is separated by Hoy Sound. As seen from the west +it rises abruptly from the sea, presenting in this respect a marked +contrast to the rest of the isles of the Orcadian group, which as a +whole are low-lying. Its eastern and southern shores are indented by +numerous bays, one of which, Long Hope, forms a natural harbour 4 m. +long, with a breadth varying from ¼ m. to more than 1 m., affording to +any number of vessels a haven of refuge from the roughest weather of the +Pentland Firth. Off the eastern coast lie the islands of Graemsay, Cava, +Risa, Fara, Flotta and Switha, while the peninsula of South Walls, +forming the southern side of the harbour of Long Hope, is an island in +all but name. Red and yellow sandstone cliffs, sometimes over 1000 ft. +in height, stretch for 10 to 12 m. on the Atlantic front. The detached +pillar or stack called the Old Man of Hoy (450 ft.) is a well-known +landmark to sailors. The only break in this remarkable run of rocky +coast is at Rackwick in the bight below the head of Rora. In the +interior, Ward Hill (1564 ft.) is the loftiest summit in either the +Orkneys or Shetlands. In the valley between Ward Hill and the ridge of +the Hamars to the south-east is situated the famous Dwarfie Stone, an +enormous block of sandstone measuring 28 ft. long, from 11 ft. to 14½ +ft. broad, and 6½ ft. high at one end and 2 ft. high at the other, in +which two rooms have been artificially hollowed out, traditionally +believed to be the bed-chambers of Trolld, the dwarf of the sagas, and +his wife. A boulder lying at the narrow end was supposed to be used to +close the entrance. The generally accepted theory is that it was a pagan +altar which some hermit afterwards converted into a cell. Other hills in +the island are the Cuilags (1420 ft.) and the Knap of Trewieglen (1308 +ft.), besides several peaks exceeding 1000 ft. in height. Hoy is +commonly approached from Stromness, there being piers at Linksness, the +nearest point to Graemsay, and at Hackness, South Ness and North Bay, +the last three all on the harbour of Long Hope. + + + + +HOYLAKE, a watering-place in the Wirral parliamentary division of +Cheshire, England, 8 m. W. of Birkenhead, on the Wirral railway. With +West Kirby to the south, at the mouth of the estuary of the Dee, it +forms the urban district of Hoylake and West Kirby. Pop. (1901) 10,911. +The well-known links of the Royal Liverpool Golf Club are at Hoylake. +The town has a considerable population of fishermen. + + + + +HOYLAND NETHER, an urban district in the Hallamshire parliamentary +division of the West Riding of Yorkshire, England, 5½ m. S.S.E. of +Barnsley, on the Midland railway. Collieries and brickworks employ the +large industrial population. Pop. (1901) 12,464. + + + + +HOYLE, EDMUND, or EDMOND (1672-1769), the first systematizer of the laws +of whist, and author of a book on games, was born in 1672. His parentage +and place of birth are unknown, and few details of his life are +recorded. For some time he was resident in London, and partially +supported himself by giving instruction in the game of whist. For the +use of his pupils he drew up a _Short Treatise_ on the game, which after +circulating for some time in manuscript was printed by him and entered +at Stationers' Hall in November 1742. The laws of Hoyle continued to be +regarded as authoritative until 1864, since which time they have been +gradually superseded by the new rules adopted by the Arlington and +Portland clubs in that year (see Whist). He also published rules for +various other games, and his book on games, which includes the _Short +Treatise_, has passed into many editions. The weight of his authority is +indicated by the phrase "according to Hoyle," which, doubtless first +applied with reference to whist, has gained currency as a general +proverb. Hoyle died in London on the 29th of August 1769. + + + + +HOZIER, PIERRE D', SEIGNEUR DE LA GARDE (1592-1660), French genealogist, +was born at Marseilles on the 10th of July 1592. In 1616 he entered upon +some very extensive researches into the genealogy of the noble families +of the kingdom, in which work he was aided by his prodigious memory for +dates, names and family relationships, as well as by his profound +knowledge of heraldry. In 1634 he was appointed historiographer and +genealogist of France, and in 1641 _juge d'armes_ of France, an officer +corresponding nearly to the Garter king-of-arms in England. In 1643 he +was employed to verify the claims to nobility of the pages and equerries +of the king's household. He accumulated a large number of documents, but +published comparatively little, his principal works being _Recueil +armorial des anciennes maisons de Bretagne_ (1638); _Les noms, surnoms, +qualitez, armes et blasons des chevaliers et officiers de l'ordre du +Saint-Esprit_ (1634); and the genealogies of the houses of La +Rochefoucauld (1654), Bournonville (1657) and Amanzé (1659). He was +renowned as much for his uprightness as for his knowledge, no slight +praise in a profession exposed to so many temptations to fraud. He died +in Paris on the 1st of December 1660. At his death his collections +comprised more than 150 volumes or portfolios of documents and papers +relating to the genealogy of the principal families in France. Of his +six sons, only two survived him. His eldest son, Louis Roger d'Hozier +(1634-1708), succeeded him as _juge d'armes_, but became blind in 1675, +and was obliged to surrender his office to his brother. + +CHARLES RENÉ D'HOZIER (1640-1732), younger son of Pierre, was the true +continuator of his father. In addition to his commentary appended to +Antoine Varillas's history of King Charles IX. (1686 ed.), he published +_Recherches sur la noblesse de Champagne_ (1673). On the promulgation in +1696 of an edict directing all who had armorial bearings to register +them on payment of 20 livres, he was employed to collect the +declarations returned in the various _généralités_, and established the +_Armorial général de France_. This work, which contained not only the +armorial bearings of noble families, but also of those commoners who +were entitled to bear arms, is not complete, inasmuch as many refused to +register their arms, either from vanity or from a desire to evade the +fee. + + The collection (now in the Bibliothèque Nationale) consists of 34 + volumes of text and 35 of coloured armorial bearings, and in spite of + its deficiencies is a useful store of information for the history of + the old French families. It contains 60,000 names, grouped according + to provinces and provincial subdivisions. The sections relating to + Burgundy and Franche-Comté were published by Henri Bouchot + (1875-1876): those relating to the _généralité_ of Limoges, by Moreau + de Pravieux (1895); and those for the _élection_ of Reims, by P. + Gosset (1903). + +In 1717, in consequence of a quarrel with his nephew Louis Pierre, son +of Louis Roger, Charles sold his collection to the king. It then +comprised 160 portfolios of genealogical papers arranged alphabetically, +175 volumes of documents, and numerous printed books profusely +annotated. In 1720 it was inventoried by P. de Clairambault, who added a +certain number of genealogies taken from the papers of F. R. de +Gaignières, increasing the total to 217 boxes and portfolios. Thus +originated the _Cabinet des titres_ of the Bibliothèque Nationale. +Charles subsequently became reconciled to his nephew, to whom he left +all the papers he had accumulated from the date of the quarrel until his +death, which occurred in Paris on the 13th of February 1732. + +LOUIS PIERRE D'HOZIER (1685-1767), son of Louis Roger, succeeded his +uncle Charles as _juge d'armes_. He published the _Armorial général, ou +registre de la noblesse de France_ (10 vols., 1738-1768), which must not +be confounded with the publication mentioned above, inasmuch as it +related solely to noble families and was not an official collection. +Complete copies of this work, which should contain six _registres_, are +comparatively rare. A seventh _registre_, forming vol. xi., prepared by +Ambroise Louis Marie, nephew of Louis Pierre, was published in 1847 by +comte Charles d'Hozier. Louis Pierre died on the 25th of September 1767. +His eldest son, Antoine Marie d'Hozier de Sérigny (1721-c. 1810), was +his father's collaborator and continuator; and his fourth son, Jean +François Louis, wrote an account of the knights of St Michael in the +province of Poitou, which was published in 1896 by the vicomte P. de +Chabot. + +His nephew, AMBROISE LOUIS MARIE D'HOZIER (1764-1846), was the last of +the _juges d'armes_ of France. He held the position of president of the +_cour des comptes, aides et finances_ of Normandy, and was therefore +generally known as President d'Hozier, to distinguish him from the other +members of the family. After the Restoration he was employed to verify +French armorial bearings for the _conseil du sceau des titres_. He died +in obscurity. His collection, which was purchased in 1851 by the +Bibliothèque Nationale, comprised 136 volumes, 165 portfolios of +documents and 200 packets of extracts from title-deeds, known as the +_Carrés d'Hozier_. + +ABRAHAM CHARLES AUGUSTE D'HOZIER (1775-1846), who also belonged to his +family, was implicated in the conspiracy of Georges Cadoudal, and was +condemned to death, but Bonaparte spared his life. He did not, however, +recover his liberty until after the fall of the emperor, and died at +Versailles on the 24th of August 1846. (C. B.*) + + + + +HRABANUS MAURUS MAGNENTIUS (c. 776-856), archbishop of Mainz, and one of +the most prominent teachers and writers of the Carolingian age, was born +of noble parents at Mainz. Less correct forms of his name are Rabanus +and Rhabanus. The date of his birth is uncertain, but in 801 he received +deacon's orders at Fulda, where he had been sent to school; in the +following year, at the instance of Ratgar, his abbot, he went together +with Haimon (afterwards of Halberstadt) to complete his studies at Tours +under Alcuin, who in recognition of his diligence and purity gave him +the surname of Maurus, after St Maur the favourite disciple of Benedict. +Returning after the lapse of two years to Fulda, he was entrusted with +the principal charge of the school, which under his direction rose into +a state of great efficiency for that age, and sent forth such pupils as +Walafrid Strabo, Servatus Lupus of Ferières and Otfrid of Weissenburg. +At this period it is most probable that his _Excerptio_ from the grammar +of Priscian, long so popular as a text-book during the middle ages, was +compiled. In 814 he was ordained a priest; but shortly afterwards, +apparently on account of disagreement with Ratgar, he was compelled to +withdraw for a time from Fulda. This "banishment" is understood to have +occasioned the pilgrimage to Palestine to which he alludes in his +commentary on Joshua. He returned to Fulda on the election of a new +abbot (Eigil) in 817, upon whose death in 822 he himself became abbot. +The duties of this office he discharged with efficiency and success +until 842, when, in order to secure greater leisure for literature and +for devotion, he resigned and retired to the neighbouring cloister of St +Peter's. In 847 he was again constrained to enter public life by his +election to succeed Otgar in the archbishopric of Mainz, which see he +occupied for upwards of eight years. The principal incidents of +historical interest belonging to this period of his life were those +which arose out of his relations to Gottschalk (q.v.): they may be +regarded as thoroughly typical of that cruel intolerance which he shared +with all his contemporaries, and also of that ardent zeal which was +peculiar to himself; but they hardly do justice to the spirit of kindly +benevolence which in less trying circumstances he was ever ready to +display. He died at Winkel on the Rhine, on the 4th of February 856. He +is frequently referred to as St Rabanus, but incorrectly. + + His voluminous works, many of which remain unpublished, comprise + commentaries on a considerable number of the books both of canonical + and of apocryphal Scripture (Genesis to Judges, Ruth, Kings, + Chronicles, Judith, Esther, Canticles, Proverbs, Wisdom, + Ecclesiasticus, Jeremiah, Lamentations, Ezekiel, Maccabees, Matthew, + the Epistles of St Paul, including Hebrews); and various treatises + relating to doctrinal and practical subjects, including more than one + series of Homilies. Perhaps the most important is that _De + institutione clericorum_, in three books, by which he did much to + bring into prominence the views of Augustine and Gregory the Great as + to the training which was requisite for a right discharge of the + clerical function; the most popular has been a comparatively worthless + tract _De laudibus sanctae crucis_. Among the others may be mentioned + the _De universo libri xxii., sive etymologiarum opus_, a kind of + dictionary or encyclopaedia, designed as a help towards the historical + and mystical interpretation of Scripture, the _De sacris ordinibus_, + the _De disciplina ecclesiastica_ and the _Martyrologium_. All of them + are characterized by erudition (he knew even some Greek and Hebrew) + rather than by originality of thought. The poems are of singularly + little interest or value, except as including one form of the "Veni + Creator." In the annals of German philology a special interest + attaches to the _Glossaria Latino-Theodisca_. A commentary, _Super + Porphyrium_, printed by Cousin in 1836 among the _Ouvrages inédits + d'Abélard_, and assigned both by that editor and by Hauréau to + Hrabanus Maurus, is now generally believed to have been the work of a + disciple. + + The first nominally complete edition of the works of Hrabanus Maurus + was that of Colvener (Cologne, 6 vols. fol., 1627). The _Opera omnia_ + form vols. cvii.-cxii. of Migne's _Patrologiae cursus completus_. The + _De universo_ is the subject of _Compendium der Naturwissenschaften an + der Schule zu Fulda im IX. Jahrhundert_ (Berlin, 1880). Maurus is the + subject of monographs by Schwarz (_De Rhabano Mauro primo Germaniae + praeceptore_, 1811), Kunstmann (_Historische Monographie über Hrabanus + Magnentius Maurus_, 1841), Spengler (_Leben des heil. Rhabanus + Maurus_, 1856) and Köhler (_Rhabanus Maurus u. die Schule zu Fulda_, + 1870). _Lives_ by his disciple Rudolphus and by Joannes Trithemius are + printed in the Cologne edition of the _Opera_. See also Pertz, _Monum. + Germ. Hist._ (i. and ii.); Bähr, _Gesch. d. römischen Literatur im + Karoling. Zeitalter_ (1840), and Hauck's article in the Herzog-Hauck + _Realencyklopädie_, ed. 3. + + + + +HRÓLFR KRAKI, perhaps the most famous of the Danish kings of the heroic +age. In _Beowulf_, where he is called Hrothwulf, he is represented as +reigning over Denmark in conjunction with his uncle Hrothgar, one of the +three sons of an earlier king called Healfdene. In the Old Norse sagas +Hrólfe is the son of Helgi (Halga), the son of Halfdan (Healfdene). He +is represented as a wealthy and peace-loving monarch similar to Hrothgar +in _Beowulf_, but the latter (Hróarr, or Roe) is quite overshadowed by +his nephew in the Northern authorities. The chief incidents in Hrólfr's +career are the visit which he paid to the Swedish king Aðils (Beowulf's +Eadgils), of which several different explanations are given, and the +war, in which he eventually lost his life, against his brother-in-law +Hiörvarðr. The name Kraki (pole-ladder) is said to have been given to +him on account of his great height by a young knight named Vöggr, whom +he handsomely rewarded and who eventually avenged his death on +Hiörvarðr. There is no reason to doubt that Hrólfr was an historical +person and that he reigned in Denmark during the early years of the 6th +century, but the statement found in all the sagas that he was the +stepson of Aðils seems hardly compatible with the evidence of _Beowulf_, +which is a much earlier authority. + + See Saxo Grammaticus, _Gesta Danorum_, pp. 52-68, ed. A. Holder + (Strassburg, 1886); and A. Olrik, _Danmarks Hettedigtning_ + (Copenhagen, 1903). + + + + +HROSVITHA (frequently ROSWITHA, and properly HROTSUIT), early medieval +dramatist and chronicler, occupies a very notable position in the +history of modern European literature. Her endeavours formed part of the +literary activity by which the age of the emperor Otto the Great sought +to emulate that of Charles the Great. The famous nun of Gandersheim has +occasionally been confounded with her namesake, a learned abbess of the +same convent, who must have died at least half a century earlier. The +younger Hrosvitha was born in all probability about the year 935; and, +if the statement be correct that she sang the praises of the three +Ottos, she must have lived to near the close of the century. Some time +before the year 959 she entered the Benedictine nunnery of Gandersheim, +a foundation which was confined to ladies of German birth, and was +highly favoured by the Saxon dynasty. In 959 Gerberga, daughter of Duke +Henry of Bavaria and niece of the emperor Otto I., was consecrated +abbess of Gandersheim; and the earlier literary efforts of the youthful +Hrosvitha (whose own connexion with the royal family appears to be an +unauthenticated tradition) were encouraged by the still more youthful +abbess, and by a nun of the name of Richarda. + +The literary works of Hrosvitha, all of which were as a matter of course +in Latin, divide themselves into three groups. Of these the first and +least important comprises eight narrative religious poems, in leonine +hexameters or distichs. Their subjects are the Nativity of the Virgin +(from the apocryphal gospel of St James, the brother of our Lord), the +Ascension and a series of legends of saints (Gandolph, Pelagius, +Theophilus, Basil, Denis, Agnes). Like these narrative poems, the dramas +to which above all Hrosvitha owes her fame seem to have been designed +for reading aloud or recitation by sisters of the convent. For though +there are indications that the idea of their representation was at least +present to the mind of the authoress, the fact of such a representation +appears to be an unwarrantable assumption. The comedies of Hrosvitha are +six in number, being doubtless in this respect also intended to recall +their nominal model, the comedies of Terence. They were devised on the +simple principle that the world, the flesh and the devil should not have +all the good plays to themselves. The experiment upon which the young +Christian dramatist ventured was accordingly, although not absolutely +novel, audacious enough. In form the dramas of "the strong voice of +Gandersheim," as Hrosvitha (possibly alluding to a supposed etymology of +her name) calls herself, are by no means Terentian. They are written in +prose, with an element of something like rhythm, and an occasional +admixture of rhyme. In their themes, and in the treatment of these, they +are what they were intended to be, the direct opposites of the lightsome +adapter of Menander. They are founded upon legends of the saints, +selected with a view to a glorification of religion in its supremest +efforts and most transcendental aspects. The emperor Constantine's +daughter, for example, Constantia, gives her hand in marriage to +_Gallicanus_, just before he starts on a Scythian campaign, though she +has already taken a vow of perpetual maidenhood. In the hour of battle +he is himself converted, and, having on his return like his virgin bride +chosen the more blessed unmarried state, dies as a Christian martyr in +exile. The three holy maidens, Agape, Chionia and Irene, are preserved +by a humorous miracle from the evil designs of _Dulcitius_, to offer up +their pure lives as a sacrifice under Diocletian's persecutions. +_Callimachus_, who has Romeo-like carried his earthly passion for the +saintly Drusiana into her tomb, and among its horrors has met with his +own death, is by the mediation of St John raised with her from the dead +to a Christian life. All these themes are treated with both spirit and +skill, often with instinctive knowledge of dramatic effect--often with +genuine touches of pathos and undeniable felicities of expression. In +_Dulcitius_ there is also an element of comedy, or rather of farce. How +far Hrosvitha's comedies were an isolated phenomenon of their age in +Germany must remain undecided; in the general history of the drama they +form the visible bridge between the few earlier attempts at utilizing +the forms of the classical drama for Christian purposes and the miracle +plays. They are in any case the productions of genius; nor has Hrosvitha +missed the usual tribute of the supposition that Shakespeare has +borrowed from her writings. + +The third and last group of the writings of Hrosvitha is that of her +versified historical chronicles. At the request of the abbess Gerberga, +she composed her _Carmen de gestis Oddonis_, an epic attempting in some +degree to follow the great Roman model. It was completed by the year +968, and presented by the authoress to both the old emperor and his son +(then already crowned as) Otto II. This poem so closely adheres to the +materials supplied to the authoress by members of the imperial family +that, notwithstanding its courtly omissions, it is regarded as an +historical authority. Unfortunately only half of it remains; the part +treating of the period from 953 to 962 is lost with the exception of a +few fragments, and the period from 962 to 967 is summarized only. +Subsequently, in a poem (of 837 hexameters) _De primordiis et +fundatoribus coenobii Gandersheimensis_, Hrosvitha narrated the +beginnings of her own convent, and its history up to the year 919. + + The Munich MS., which contains all the works enumerated above except + the _Chronicle of Gandersheim_, was edited by the great Vienna + humanist, Conrad Celtes, in 1501. The edition of Celtes was published + at Nuremberg, with eight wood-cuts by Albrecht Dürer. It was re-edited + by H. L. Schurzfleisch and published at Wittenberg in 1707. The + comedies have been edited and translated into German by J. Bendixen + (Lübeck, 1857), and into French by C. Magnin (Paris, 1845), whose + introduction gives a full account of the authoress and her works. See + also her _Poésies latines_, with a translation into French verse by V. + Rétif de la Bretonne (Paris, 1854). A copious analysis of her plays + will be found in Klein, _Geschichte des Dramas_, iii. 665-754. See + also W. Creizenach, _Geschichte des neueren Dramas_, i. 17 sqq. + (Halle, 1893), and A. W. Ward, _History of English Dramatic + Literature_, i. 6 sqq. (Cambridge, 1899). Gustav Freytag wrote a + dissertation, _De Rosuitha poëtria_ (Breslau, 1839), to qualify + himself as an academical teacher, which, as he records (_Erinnerungen + aus meinem Leben_, Leipzig, 1887, p. 1839), showed "how impossible it + was to the German, a thousand years since, to compose dramatically"; + and at the beginning of Albert Cohn's _Shakespeare in Germany_ + (Berlin, 1865) Shakespearean parallels are suggested to certain + passages in Hrosvitha's dramas. Her two chronicles in verse were + edited by Z. H. Pertz in the _Monumenta Germaniae_, iv. 306-335 + (Hanover, 1841). See also J. P. Migne, _Patrologiae curs. compl._ + (Paris, 1853, vol. 137). The _Carmen_ was included by Leibnitz in his + _Scriptores rer. Brunsvic._ (Hanover, 1707-1711). For other early + editions of these see A. Potthast, _Bibliotheca historica medii aevi_ + (supplement, Berlin, 1862-1868); and for an appreciation of them see + Wattenbach, _Geschichtsquellen_, pp. 214-216, and Giesebrecht, + _Deutsche Kaiserzeit_, i. 780, who mentions a German translation by + Pfund (1860). There is a complete edition of the works of Hrosvitha by + K. A. Barack (Nürnberg, 1858). J. Aschbach (1867) attempted to prove + that Celtes had forged the productions which he published under the + name of Hrosvitha, but he was refuted by R. Köpke (Berlin, 1869). + Anatole France, _La Vie littéraire_ (3^ème série, Paris, 1891), cited + by Creienach, mentions a curious recent experiment, the performance of + Hrosvitha's comedies in the Théâtre des Marionettes at Paris. + (A. W. W.) + + + + +HSÜAN TSANG (HIOUEN THSANG, HIWEN T'SANG, YÜAN TSANG, YUAN-CHWANG), the +most eminent representative of a remarkable and valuable branch of +Chinese literature, consisting of the narratives of Chinese Buddhists +who travelled to India, whilst their religion flourished there, with the +view of visiting the sites consecrated by the history of Sakya Muni, of +studying at the great convents which then existed in India, and of +collecting books, relics and other sacred objects. + + The importance of these writings as throwing light on the geography + and history of India and adjoining countries, during a very dark + period, is great, and they have been the subject of elaborate + commentaries by modern students. Several Chinese memoirs of this kind + appear to have perished; and especially to be regretted is a great + collection of the works of travellers to India, religious and secular, + in sixty books, with forty more of maps and illustrations, published + at the expense of the emperor Kao-Tsung of the T'ang dynasty, A.D. + 666, with a preface from the imperial hand. We will mention the + clerical travellers of this description who are known to us by name. + + 1. _Shi-tao-'an_ (d. 385) wrote a work on his travels to the "western + lands" (an expression applying often to India), which is supposed to + be lost. 2. _Fa-hien_ travelled to India in 399, and returned by sea + in 414. His work, called _Fo-Kwo-Ki, or Memoirs on the Buddha Realms_, + has been translated by Abel-Rémusat and Landresse, and again into + English by the Rev. S. Beale; Mr Laidlay of Calcutta also published a + translation from the French, with interesting notes. 3. _Hwai Seng_ + and _Sung-Yun_, monks, travelled to India to collect books and + reliques, 518-521. Their short narrative has been translated by Karl + Fried. Neumann, and also by Mr Beale (along with Fa-hien). 4. _Hsüan + Tsang_, the subject of this notice. In relation to his travels there + are two Chinese works, both of which have been translated with an + immense appliance of labour and learning by M. Stanislas Julien, viz. + (a) the _Ta-T'ang-Si-Yu-Ki, or Memoirs on Western Countries issued by + the T'ang Dynasty_, which was compiled under the traveller's own + supervision, by order of the great emperor Tai-Tsung; and (b) a + _Biography of Hsüan Tsang_ by two of his contemporaries. 5. _The + Itinerary of Fifty-six Religious Travellers_, compiled and published + under imperial authority, 730. 6. _The Itinerary of Khi-Nie_, who + travelled (964-976) at the head of a large body of monks to collect + books, &c. Neither of the last two has been translated. + +Hsüan Tsang was born in the district of Keu-Shi, near Honan-Fu, about +605, a period at which Buddhism appears to have had a powerful influence +upon a large body of educated Chinese. From childhood grave and +studious, he was taken in charge by an elder brother who had adopted the +monastic life, in a convent at the royal city of Loyang in Honan. Hsüan +Tsang soon followed his brother's example. For some years he travelled +over China, teaching and learning, and eventually settled for a time at +the capital Chang-gan (now Si-gan-fu in Shensi), where his fame for +learning became great. The desire which he entertained to visit India, +in order to penetrate all the doctrines of the Buddhist philosophy, and +to perfect the collections of Indian books which existed in China, grew +irresistible, and in August 629 he started upon his solitary journey, +eluding with difficulty the strict prohibition which was in force +against crossing the frontier. + +The "master of the law," as his biographers call him, plunged alone into +the terrible desert of the Gobi, then known as the Sha-mo or "Sand +River," between Kwa-chow and Igu (now Hami or Kamil). At long intervals +he found help from the small garrisons of the towers that dotted the +desert track. Very striking is the description, like that given six +centuries later by Marco Polo, of the quasi-supernatural horrors that +beset the lonely traveller in the wilderness--the visions of armies and +banners; and the manner in which they are dissipated singularly recalls +passages in Bunyan's _Pilgrim's Progress_. After great suffering Hsüan +Tsang reached Igu, the seat of a Turkish principality, and pursued his +way along the southern foot of the T'ian-shan, which he crossed by a +glacier pass (vividly described) in the longitude of Lake Issyk-kul. In +the valley of the Talas river he encounters the great khan of the Turks +on a hunting party,--a rencontre which it is interesting to compare with +the visit of Zemarchus to the great khan Dizabul, sixty years before, in +the same region. Passing by the present Tashkend, and by Samarkand, then +inhabited by fire worshippers, he reached the basin of the Upper Oxus, +which had recently been the seat of the powerful dominion of the +Haiathelah, Ephthalites or White Huns, known in earlier days to the +Greeks as _Tochari_, and to Hsüan Tsang (by the same name) as _Tuholo_ +or Tukhara. His account of the many small states into which the Tukhara +empire had broken up is of great interest, as many of them are identical +in name and topography with the high valley states and districts on the +Upper Oxus, which are at this day the object of so much geographical and +political interest. + +Passing by Bamian, where he speaks of the great idols still so famous, +he crosses Hindu-Kush, and descends the valley of the Kabul river to +Nagarahara, the site of which, still known as Nagara, adjoining +Jalalabad, has been explored by Mr W. Simpson. Travelling thence to +Peshawar (_Purushapura_), the capital of Gandhara, he made a digression, +through the now inaccessible valley of Swat and the Dard states, to the +Upper Indus, returning to Peshawar, and then crossing the Indus +(_Sintu_) into the decayed kingdom of _Taxila_ (Ta-cha-si-lo, +Takshasila), then subject to Kashmir. In the latter valley he spent two +whole years (631-633) studying in the convents, and visiting the many +monuments of his faith. In his further travels he visited Mathura +(_Mot'ulo_, Muttra), whence he turned north to Thanesar and the upper +Jumna and Ganges, returning south down the valley of the latter to +Kanyakubja or Kanauj, then one of the great capitals of India. The +pilgrim next entered on a circuit of the most famous sites of Buddhist +and of ancient Indian history, such as Ajodhya, Prayaga (Allahabad), +Kausambhi, Sravasti, Kapilavastu, the birth-place of Sakya, Kusinagara, +his death-place, Pataliputra (Patna, the _Palibothra_ of the Greeks), +Gaya, Rajagriha and Nalanda, the most famous and learned monastery and +college in India, adorned by the gifts of successive kings, of the +splendour of which he gives a vivid description, and of which traces +have recently been recovered. There he again spent nearly two years in +mastering Sanskrit and the depths of Buddhist philosophy. Again, +proceeding down the banks of the Ganges, he diverged eastward to +Kamarupa (Assam), and then passed by the great ports of Tamralipti +(Tamluk, the misplaced _Tamalitis_ of Ptolemy), and through Orissa to +Kanchipara (Conjeeveram), about 640. Thence he went northward across the +Carnatic and Maharashtra to Barakacheva (Broach of our day, _Barygaza_ +of the Greeks). After this he visited Malwa, Cutch, Surashtra +(peninsular Gujarat, _Syrastrene_ of the Greeks), Sind, Multan and +Ghazni, whence he rejoined his former course in the basin of the Kabul +river. + +This time, however, he crosses Pamir, of which he gives a remarkable +account, and passes by Kashgar, Khotan (_Kustana_), and the vicinity of +Lop-nor across the desert to Kwa-chow, whence he had made his venturous +and lonely plunge into the waste fifteen years before. He carried with +him great collections of books, precious images and reliques, and was +received (April 645) with public and imperial enthusiasm. The emperor +T'ai-Tsung desired him to commit his journey to writing, and also that +he should abandon the eremitic rule and serve the state. This last he +declined, and devoted himself to the compilation of his narrative and +the translation of the books he had brought with him from India. The +former was completed A.D. 648. In 664 Hsüan Tsang died in a convent at +Chang-gan. Some things in the history of his last days, and in the +indications of beatitude recorded, strongly recall the parallel history +of the saints of the Roman calendar. But on the other hand we find the +Chinese saint, on the approach of death, causing one of his disciples to +frame a catalogue of his good works, of the books that he had translated +or caused to be transcribed, of the sacred pictures executed at his +cost, of the alms that he had given, of the living creatures that he had +ransomed from death. "When Kia-shang had ended writing this list, the +master ordered him to read it aloud. After hearing it the devotees +clasped their hands, and showered their felicitations on him." Thus the +"well-done, good and faithful" comes from the servant himself in +self-applause. + +The book of the biography, by the disciples Hwai-li and Yen-t'sung, as +rendered with judicious omissions by Stan. Julien, is exceedingly +interesting; its Chinese style receives high praise from the translator, +who says he has often had to regret his inability to reproduce its +grace, elegance and vivacity. + + AUTHORITIES.--_Fo-Koue-Ki_, trad. du Chinois, par Abel-Rémusat, revu + et complété par Klaproth et Landresse (Paris, 1836); _H. de la vie de + Hiouen-Thsang, &c._, trad. du Chinois par Stanislas Julien (Paris, + 1853); _Mémoires sur les contrées occidentales ..._ trad. du Chinois + en Français (par le même) (2 vols., Paris, 1857-1858); _Mémoire + analytique_, &c., attached to the last work, by L. Vivien de St + Martin; "Attempt to identify some of the Places mentioned in the + Itinerary of Hiuan Thsang," by Major Wm. Anderson, C.B., in _Journ. + As. Soc. Bengal_, vol. xvi. pt. 2, p. 1183 (the enunciation of a + singularly perverse theory); "Verification of the Itinerary of Hwan + Thsang, &c.," by Captain Alex. Cunningham, Bengal Engineers, ibid. + vol. xvii. pt. 1, p. 476; _Travels of Fah-hian and Sung-Yan, Buddhist + Pilgrims, &c._, by Sam. Beal (1869); _The Ancient Geography of India_, + by Major-General Alex. Cunningham, R.E. (1871); "Notes on Hwen + Thsang's Account of the Principalities of Tokharistan," by Colonel H. + Yule, C.B., in _Journ. Roy. As. Soc._, new ser., vol. vi. p. 82; "On + Hiouen Thsang's Journey from Patna to Ballabhi," by James Fergusson, + D.C.L., ibid. p. 213. (H. Y.; R. K. D.) + + + + +HUAMBISAS, a tribe of South American Indians on the upper Marañon and +Santiago rivers, Peru. In 1841 they drove all the civilized Indians from +the neighbouring missions. In 1843 they killed all the inhabitants of +the village of Santa Teresa, between the mouths of the Santiago and +Morona. They are fair-skinned and bearded, sharing with the Jeveros a +descent from the Spanish women captured by their Indian ancestors at the +sack of Sevilla del Oro in 1599. + + + + +HUANCAVELICA, a city of central Peru and capital of a department, 160 m. +S.E. of Lima. The city stands in a deep ravine of the Andes at an +elevation of about 12,400 ft. above the sea, the ravine having an +average width of 1 m. Pop. (1906 estimate) 6000. The city is solidly and +regularly built, the houses being of stone and the stream that flows +through the town being spanned by several stone bridges. Near +Huancavelica is the famous quicksilver mine of Santa Barbara, with its +subterranean church of San Rosario, hewn from the native +cinnabar-bearing rock. Huancavelica was founded by Viceroy Francisco de +Toledo in 1572 as a mining town, and mining continues to be the +principal occupation of its inhabitants. The department is traversed by +the Cordillera Occidental, and is bounded N., E. and S. by Junin and +Ayacucho. Pop. (1906 official estimate) 167,840; area, 9254 sq. m. The +principal industry is mining for silver and quicksilver. The best-known +silver mines are the Castrovirreyna. + + + + +HUÁNUCO, a city of central Peru, capital of a department, 170 m. N.N.E. +of Lima in a beautiful valley on the left bank of the Huallaga river, +nearly 6000 ft. above sea-level. Pop. (1906 estimate) about 6000. The +town was founded in 1539 by Gomez Alvarado. Huánuco is celebrated for +its fruits and sweetmeats, the "chirimoya" (_Anona chirimolia_) of this +region being the largest and most delicious of its kind. Mining is one +of the city's industries. Huánuco was the scene of one of the +bloodthirsty massacres of which the Chileans were guilty during their +occupation of Peruvian territory in 1881-1883. The department of Huánuco +lies immediately N. of Junin, with Ancachs on the W. and San Martin and +Loreto on the N. and E. Pop. (1906 estimate) 108,980; area, 14,028 sq. +m. It lies wholly in the Cordillera region, and is traversed from S. to +N. by the Marañon and Huallaga rivers. + + + + +HUARAZ, a city of northern Peru and capital o£ the department of +Ancachs, on the left bank of the Huaraz, or Santa river, about 190 m. +N.N.W. of Lima and 58 m. from the coast. Pop. (1876) 4851, (1906 +estimate) 6000. Huaraz is situated in a narrow fertile valley of the +Western Cordillera, at a considerable elevation above sea-level, and has +a mild climate. A railway projected to connect Huaraz with the port of +Chimbote, on the Bay of Chimbote, a few miles S. of the mouth of the +Santa river, was completed from Chimbote to Suchimán (33 m.) in 1872, +when work was suspended for want of money. In the valley of the Huaraz +cattle are raised, and wheat, sugar and fruit, gold, silver, copper and +coal are produced. Alfalfa is grown by stock-raisers, and the cattle +raised here are among the best in the Peruvian market. In the vicinity +of Huaraz are megalithic ruins similar to those of Tiahunaco and Cuzco, +showing that the aboriginal empire preceding the Incas extended into +northern Peru. + + + + +HUARTE DE SAN JUAN, or HUARTE Y NAVARRO, JUAN (c. 1530-1592), Spanish +physician and psychologist, was born at Saint-Jean-Pied-de-Port (Lower +Navarre) about 1530, was educated at the university of Huesca, where he +graduated in medicine, and, though it appears doubtful whether he +practised as a physician at Huesca, distinguished himself by his +professional skill and heroic zeal during the plague which devastated +Baeza in 1566. He died in 1592. His _Examen de ingenios para las +ciencias_ (1575) won him a European reputation, and was translated by +Lessing. Though now superseded, Huarte's treatise is historically +interesting as the first attempt to show the connexion between +psychology and physiology, and its acute ingenuity is as remarkable as +the boldness of its views. + + + + +HUASTECS, a tribe of North American Indians of Mayan stock, living to +the north of Vera Cruz. They are of interest to the ethnologist as being +so entirely detached from the other Mayan tribes of Central America. The +theory is that the Mayas came from the north and that the Huastecs were +left behind in the migration southward. + + + + +HUBER, FRANÇOIS (1750-1831), Swiss naturalist, was born at Geneva on the +2nd of July 1750. He belonged to a family which had already made its +mark in the literary and scientific world: his great-aunt, Marie Huber +(1695-1753), was known as a voluminous writer on religious and +theological subjects, and as the translator and epitomizer of the +_Spectator_ (Amsterdam, 3 vols., 1753); and his father Jean Huber +(1721-1786), who had served for many years as a soldier, was a prominent +member of the coterie at Ferney, distinguishing himself by his +_Observations sur le vol des oiseaux_ (Geneva, 1784). François Huber was +only fifteen years old when he began to suffer from an affection of the +eyes which gradually resulted in total blindness; but, with the aid of +his wife, Marie Aimée Lullin, and of his servant, François Burnens, he +was able to carry out investigations that laid the foundations of our +scientific knowledge of the life history of the honey-bee. His +_Nouvelles Observations sur les abeilles_ was published at Geneva in +1792 (Eng. trans., 1806). He assisted Jean Senebier in his _Mém. sur +l'influence de l'air, &c., dans la germination_ (Geneva, 1800); and he +also wrote "Mém. sur l'origine de la cire" (_Bibliothèque britannique_, +tome xxv.), a "Lettre à M. Pictet sur certains dangers que courent les +abeilles" (_Bib. brit_. xxvii), and "Nouvelles Observ. rel. au sphinx +Atropos" (_Bib. brit_. xxvii). He died at Lausanne on the 22nd of +December 1831. De Candolle gave his name to a genus of Brazilian +trees--_Huberia laurina_. + +PIERRE HUBER (1777-1840) followed in his father's footsteps. His +best-known work is _Recherches sur les moeurs des fourmis indigènes_ +(Geneva and Paris, 1810; new ed., Geneva, 1861), and he also wrote +various papers on entomological subjects. + + See the account of François Huber, by De Candolle, in _Bibl. + universelle_ (1832); and the notice of Pierre in _Bibl. univ._ (1886); + also Haag, _La France protestante_. + + + + +HUBER, JOHANN NEPOMUK (1830-1879), German philosophical and theological +writer, a leader of the Old Catholics, was born at Munich on the 18th of +August 1830. Originally destined for the priesthood, he early began the +study of theology. By the writings of Spinoza and Oken, however, he was +strongly drawn to philosophical pursuits, and it was in philosophy that +he "habilitated" (1854) in the university of his native place, where he +ultimately became professor (extraordinarius, 1859; ordinarius, 1864). +With Döllinger and others he attracted a large amount of public +attention in 1869 by the challenge to the Ultramontane promoters of the +Vatican council in the treatise _Der Papst und das Koncil_, which +appeared under the pseudonym of "Janus," and also in 1870 by a series of +letters (_Römische Briefe_, a redaction of secret reports sent from Rome +during the sitting of the council), which were published over the +pseudonym Quirinus in the _Allgemeine Zeitung_. He died suddenly of +heart disease at Munich on the 20th of March 1879. + +WORKS.--The treatise _Über die Willensfreiheit_ (1858), followed in 1859 +by _Die Philosophie der Kirchenväter_, which was promptly placed upon +the _Index_, and led to the prohibition of all Catholic students from +attending his lectures; _Johannes Scotus Erigena_ (1861); _Die Idee der +Unsterblichkeit_ (1864); _Studien_ (1867); _Der Proletarier; zur +Orientirung in der sozialen Frage_ (1865); _Der Jesuitenorden nach +seiner Verfassung und Doctrin, Wirksamkeit und Geschichte_ (1873), also +placed upon the _Index_; _Der Pessimismus_ (1876); _Die Forschung nach +der Materie_ (1877); _Zur Philosophie der Astronomie_ (1878); _Das +Gedächtnis_ (1878). He also published adverse criticisms of Darwin, +Strauss, Hartmann and Häckel; pamphlets on _Das Papsttum und der Staat_ +(1870), and on _Die Freiheiten der französischen Kirche_ (1871); and a +volume of _Kleine Schriften_ (1871). + +See E. Zirngiebl, _Johannes Huber_ (1881); and M. Carrière in +_Allgemeine deutsche Biographie_, xiii. (1881), and in _Nord und Süd_ +(1879). + + + + +HUBER, LUDWIG FERDINAND (1764-1804), German author, was born in Paris on +the 14th of September 1764, the son of Michael Huber (1727-1804), who +did much to promote the study of German literature in France. In his +infancy young Huber removed with his parents to Leipzig, where he was +carefully instructed in modern languages and literature, and showed a +particular inclination for those of France and England. In Leipzig he +became intimate with Christian Gottfried Körner, father of the poet; in +Dresden Huber became engaged to Dora Stock, sister of Körner's +betrothed, and associated with Schiller, who was one of Körner's +stanchest friends. In 1787 he was appointed secretary to the Saxon +legation in Mainz, where he remained until the French occupation of +1792. While here he interested himself for the welfare of the family of +his friend Georg Forster, who, favouring republican views, had gone to +Paris, leaving his wife Therese Forster (1764-1829) and family in +destitute circumstances. Huber, enamoured of the talented young wife, +gave up his diplomatic post, broke off his engagement to Dora Stock, +removed with the Forster family to Switzerland, and on the death of her +husband in 1794 married Therese Forster. In 1798 Huber took over the +editorship of the _Allgemeine Zeitung_ in Stuttgart. The newspaper +having been prohibited in Württemberg, Huber continued its editorship in +Ulm in 1803. He was created "counsellor of education" for the new +Bavarian province of Swabia in the following year, but had hardly +entered upon the functions of his new office when he died on the 24th of +December 1804. + +Huber was well versed in English literature, and in 1785 he published +the drama _Ethelwolf_, with notes on Beaumont and Fletcher and the old +English stage. He also wrote many dramas, comedies and tragedies, most +of which are now forgotten, and among them only _Das heimliche Gericht_ +(1790, new ed. 1795) enjoyed any degree of popularity. As a critic he is +seen to advantage in the _Vermischte Schriften von dem Verfasser des +heimlichen Gerichts_ (2 vols., 1793). As a publicist he made his name in +the historical-political periodicals _Friedenspräliminarien_ (1794-1796, +10 vols.) and _Klio_ (1795-1798, 1819). + + His collected works, _Sämtliche Werke seit dem Jahre 1802_ (4 vols., + 1807-1819), were published with a biography by his wife Therese Huber. + See L. Speidel and H. Wittmann, _Bilder aus der Schiller-Zeit_ (1884). + + + + +HUBERT (HUCBERTUS, HUGBERTUS), ST (d. 727), bishop of Liége, whose +festival is celebrated on the 3rd of November. The Bollandists have +published seven different lives of the saint. The first is the only one +of any value, and is the work of a contemporary. Unfortunately, it is +very sparing of details. In it we see that Hubert in 708 succeeded +Lambert in the see of Maestricht (Tongres), and that he erected a +basilica to his memory. In 825 Hubert's remains were removed to a +Benedictine cloister in the Ardennes, which thenceforth bore his name +(St Hubert, province of Luxemburg, Belgium), and ultimately became a +considerable resort of pilgrims. The later legends (_Bibliotheca +hagiographica latina_, nos. 3994-4002) are devoid of authority. One of +them relates, probably following the legend of St Eustace, the miracle +of the conversion of St Hubert. This conversion, represented as having +been brought about while he was hunting on Good Friday by a miraculous +appearance of a stag bearing between his horns a cross or crucifix +surrounded with rays of light, has frequently been made the subject of +artistic treatment. He is the patron of hunters, and is also invoked in +cases of hydrophobia. Several orders of knighthood have been under his +protection; among these may be mentioned the Bavarian, the Bohemian and +that of the electorate of Cologne. + + See _Acta Sanctorum_, Novembris, i. 759-930; G. Kurth, _Chartes de + l'abbaye de St Hubert en Ardenne_ (Brussels, 1903); Anna Jameson, + _Sacred and Legendary Art_, i. 732-737 (London, 1896); Cahier, + _Caractéristiques des saints_, pp. 183, 775, &c. (Paris, 1867). + (H. De.) + + + + +HUBERTUSBURG, a château in the kingdom of Saxony, near the village of +Wermsdorf and midway 6 m. between the towns Oschatz and Grimma. It was +built in 1721-1724 by Frederick Augustus II., elector of Saxony, +subsequently King Augustus III. of Poland, as a hunting box, and was +often the scene of brilliant festivities. It is famous for the peace +signed here on the 15th of February 1763, which ended the Seven Years' +War. After undergoing various vicissitudes, it now serves the purpose of +a lunatic asylum and a training school for nursing sisters. + + See Riemer, _Das Schloss Hubertusburg, sonst und jetzt_ (Oschatz, + 1881). + + + + +HUBLI, a town of British India, in the Dharwar district of Bombay, 15 m. +S.E. of Dharwar town. Pop. (1901) 60,214. It is a railway junction on +the Southern Mahratta system, where the lines to Bangalore and Bezwada +branch off south and west. It is an important centre of trade and of +cotton and silk weaving, and has two cotton mills and several factories +for ginning and pressing cotton. Hubli was in early times the seat of an +English factory, which, with the rest of the town, was plundered in 1673 +by Sivaji, the Mahratta leader. + + + + +HÜBNER, EMIL (1834-1901), German classical scholar, son of the +historical painter Julius Hübner (1806-1882), was born at Düsseldorf on +the 7th of July 1834. After studying at Berlin and Bonn, he travelled +extensively with a view to antiquarian and epigraphical researches. The +results of these travels were embodied in several important works: +_Inscriptiones Hispaniae Latinae_ (1869, supplement 1892), _I. H. +Christianae_ (1871, supplement 1900); _Inscriptiones Britanniae Latinae_ +(1873), _I. B. Christianae_ (1876); _La Arqueologia de España_ (1888); +_Monumenta linguae Hibericae_ (1893). Hübner was also the author of two +books of the greatest utility to the classical student: _Grundriss zu +Vorlesungen über die römische Literaturgeschichte_ (4th ed. 1878, +edited, with large additions, by J. E. B. Mayor as _Bibliographical Clue +to Latin Literature_, 1875), and _Bibliographie der classischen +Altertumswissenschaft_ (2nd ed., 1889); mention may also be made of +_Römische Epigraphik_ (2nd ed., 1892); _Exempla Scripturae Epigraphicae +Latinae_ (1885); and _Römische Herrschaft in Westeuropa_ (1890). In 1870 +Hübner was appointed professor of Classical Philology in the university +of Berlin, where he died on the 21st of February 1901. + + + + +HÜBNER, JOSEPH ALEXANDER, COUNT (1811-1892), Austrian diplomatist, was +born in Vienna on the 26th of November 1811. His real name was +Hafenbredl, which he afterwards changed to Hübner. He began his public +career in 1833 under Metternich, whose confidence he soon gained, and +who sent him in 1837 as attaché to Paris. In 1841 he became secretary of +embassy at Lisbon, and in 1844 Austrian consul-general at Leipzig. In +1848 he was sent to Milan to conduct the diplomatic correspondence of +Archduke Rainer, viceroy of Lombardy. On the outbreak of the revolution +he was seized as a hostage, and remained a prisoner for some months. +Returning to Austria, he was entrusted with the compilation of the +documents and proclamations relating to the abdication of the Emperor +Ferdinand and the accession of Francis Joseph. His journal, an +invaluable clue to the complicated intrigues of this period, was +published in 1891 in French and German, under the title of _Une Année de +ma vie, 1848-1849_. In March 1849 he was sent on a special mission to +Paris, and later in the same year was appointed ambassador to France. To +his influence was in large measure due the friendly attitude of Austria +to the Allies in the Crimean War, at the close of which he represented +Austria at the congress of Paris in 1856. He allowed himself, however, +to be taken by surprise by Napoleon's intervention on behalf of Italian +unity, of which the first public intimation was given by the French +emperor's cold reception of Hübner on New Year's Day, 1859, with the +famous words: "I regret that our relations with your Government are not +so good as they have hitherto been." He did not return to Paris after +the war, and after holding the ministry of police in the Goluchowski +cabinet from August to October 1859, lived in retirement till 1865, when +he became ambassador at Rome. Quitting this post in 1867, he undertook +extensive travels, his descriptions of which appeared as _Promenade +autour du monde, 1871_ (1873; English translation by Lady Herbert, 1874) +and _Through the British Empire_ (1886). Written in a bright and +entertaining style, and characterized by shrewd observation, they +achieved considerable popularity in their time. A more serious effort +was his _Sixte-Quint_ (1870, translated into English by H. E. H. +Jerningham under the title of _The Life and Times of Sixtus the Fifth_, +1872), an original contribution to the history of the period, based on +unpublished documents at the Vatican, Simancas and Venice. In 1879 he +was made a life-member of the Austrian Upper House, where he sat as a +Clerical and Conservative. He had received the rank of Baron (Freiherr) +in 1854, and in 1888 was raised to the higher rank of Count (Graf). He +died at Vienna on the 30th of July 1892. Though himself of middle-class +origin, he was a profound admirer of the old aristocratic régime, and +found his political ideals in his former chiefs, Metternich and +Schwarzenberg. As the last survivor of the Metternich school, he became +towards the close of his life more and more out of touch with the trend +of modern politics, but remained a conspicuous figure in the Upper House +and at the annual delegations. That he possessed the breadth of mind to +appreciate the working of a system at total variance with his own school +of thought was shown by his grasp of British colonial questions. It is +interesting, in view of subsequent events, to note his emphatic belief +in the loyalty of the British colonies--a belief not shared at that time +by many statesmen with far greater experience of democratic +institutions. + + See Sir Ernest Satow, _An Austrian Diplomatist in the Fifties_ (1908). + + + + +HUC, ÉVARISTE RÉGIS (1813-1860), French missionary-traveller, was born +at Toulouse, on the 1st of August 1813. In his twenty-fourth year he +entered the congregation of the Lazarists at Paris, and shortly after +receiving holy orders in 1839 went out to China. At Macao he spent some +eighteen months in the Lazarist seminary, preparing himself for the +regular work of a missionary. Having acquired some command of the +Chinese tongue, and modified his personal appearance and dress in +accordance with Chinese taste, he started from Canton. He at first +superintended a Christian mission in the southern provinces, and then +passing to Peking, where he perfected his knowledge of the language, +eventually settled in the Valley of Black Waters or He Shuy, a little to +the north of the capital, and just within the borders of Mongolia. +There, beyond the Great Wall, a large but scattered population of native +Christians had found a refuge from the persecutions of Kia-King, to be +united half a century later in a vast but vague apostolic vicariate. The +assiduity with which Huc devoted himself to the study of the dialects +and customs of the Tatars, for whom at the cost of much labour he +translated various religious works, was an admirable preparation for +undertaking in 1844, at the instigation of the vicar apostolic of +Mongolia, an expedition whose object was to dissipate the obscurity +which hung over the country and habits of the Tibetans. September of +that year found the missionary at Dolon Nor occupied with the final +arrangements for his journey, and shortly afterwards, accompanied by his +fellow-Lazarist, Joseph Gabet, and a young Tibetan priest who had +embraced Christianity, he set out. To escape attention the little party +assumed the dress of lamas or priests. Crossing the Hwang-ho, they +advanced into the terrible sandy tract known as the Ordos Desert. After +suffering dreadfully from want of water and fuel they entered Kansu, +having recrossed the flooded Hwang-ho, but it was not till January 1845 +that they reached Tang-Kiul on the boundary. Rather than encounter alone +the horrors of a four months' journey to Lhasa they resolved to wait for +eight months till the arrival of a Tibetan embassy on its return from +Peking. Under an intelligent teacher they meanwhile studied the Tibetan +language and Buddhist literature, and during three months of their stay +they resided in the famous Kunbum Lamasery, which was reported to +accommodate 4000 persons. Towards the end of September they joined the +returning embassy, which comprised 2000 men and 3700 animals. Crossing +the deserts of Koko Nor, they passed the great lake of that name, with +its island of contemplative lamas, and, following a difficult and +tortuous track across snow-covered mountains, they at last entered Lhasa +on the 29th of January 1846. Favourably received by the regent, they +opened a little chapel, and were in a fair way to establish an important +mission, when the Chinese ambassador interfered and had the two +missionaries conveyed back to Canton, where they arrived in October of +the same year. For nearly three years Huc remained at Canton, but Gabet, +returning to Europe, proceeded thence to Rio de Janeiro, and died there +shortly afterwards. Huc returned to Europe in shattered health in 1852, +visiting India, Egypt and Palestine on his way, and, after a prolonged +residence in Paris, died on the 31st of March 1860. + + His writings comprise, besides numerous letters and memoirs in the + _Annales de la propagation de la foi_, the famous _Souvenirs d'un + voyage dans la Tartarie, le Thibet, et la Chine pendant les années + 1844-1846_ (2 vols., Paris, 1850; Eng. trans. by W. Hazlitt, 1851, + abbreviated by M. Jones, London, 1867); its supplement, crowned by the + Academy, entitled _L'Empire chinois_ (2 vols., Paris, 1854; Eng. + trans., London, 1859); and an elaborate historical work, _Le + Christianisme en Chine, &c._ (4 vols., Paris, 1857-1858; Eng. trans., + London, 1857-1858). These works are written in a lucid, racy, + picturesque style, which secured for them an unusual degree of + popularity. The _Souvenirs_ is a narrative of a remarkable feat of + travel, and contains passages of so singular a character as in the + absence of corroborative testimony to stir up a feeling of + incredulity. That Huc was suspected unjustly was amply proved by later + research. But he was by no means a practical geographer, and the + record of his travels loses greatly in value from the want of precise + scientific data. + + See, for information specially relating to the whole subject, the Abbé + Desgodin's _Mission du Thibet de 1855 à 1870_ (Verdun, 1872); and + "Account of the Pundit's Journey in Great Tibet," in the _Royal + Geographical Society's Journal_ for 1877. + + + + +HUCBALD (HUGBALDUS, HUBALDUS), Benedictine monk, and writer on music, +was born at the monastery of Saint Amand near Tournai, in or about 840, +if we may believe the statement of his biographers to the effect that he +died in 930, aged 90. He studied at the monastery, where his uncle Milo +occupied an important position. Hucbald made rapid progress in the +acquirement of various sciences and arts, including that of music, and +at an early age composed a hymn in honour of St Andrew, which met with +such success as to excite the jealousy of his uncle. It is said that +Hucbald in consequence was compelled to leave St Amand, and started an +independent school of music and other arts at Nevers. In 860, however, +he was at St Germain d'Auxerre, bent upon completing his studies, and in +872 he was back again at St Amand as the successor in the headmastership +of the convent school of his uncle, to whom he had been reconciled in +the meantime. Between 883 and 900 Hucbald went on several missions of +reforming and reconstructing various schools of music, including that of +Rheims, but in the latter year he returned to St Amand, where he +remained to the day of his death on the 25th of June 930, or, according +to other chroniclers, on the 20th of June 932. The only work which can +positively be ascribed to him is his _Harmonica Institutio_. The _Musica +Enchiriadis_, published with other writings of minor importance in +Gerbert's _Scriptores de Musica_, and containing a complete system of +musical science as well as instructions regarding notation, has now been +proved to have originated about half a century later than the death of +the monk Hucbald, and to have been the work of an unknown writer +belonging to the close of the 10th century and possibly also bearing the +name of Hucbald. This work is celebrated chiefly for an essay on a new +form of notation described in the present day as _Dasia Notation_. The +author of the _Harmonica Institutio_ wrote numerous lives of the saints +and a curious poem on bald men, dedicated to Charles the Bald. + + AUTHORITIES.--Sir John Hawkins, _General History of the Science and + Practice of Music_ (i. 153); _Histoire littéraire de la France_ (vi. + 216 et seq.); Coussemaker, _Mémoire sur Hucbald_ (Paris, 1841); Hans + Müller, _Hucbald's echte und unechte Schriften über Musik_ (Leipzig, + 1884); Spitta, _Die Musica Enchiriadis und seine Zeitalter_ + (_Vierteljahresschrift für Musikwissenschaft_, 1889, 5th year). + + + + +HU-CHOW-FU, a city of China, in the province of Cheh-Kiang (30° 48´ N., +120° 3´ E.), a little S. of Tai-hu Lake, in the midst of the central +silk district. According to Chinese authorities it is 6 m. in +circumference, and contains about 100,000 families. A broad stream or +canal crosses the city from south to north, and forms the principal +highway for boat traffic. The main trade of the place is in raw silk, +but some silk fabrics, such as flowered crape (_chousha_), are also +manufactured. Silk is largely worn even by the lowest classes of the +inhabitants. + + + + +HUCHOWN, "of the Awle Ryale" (fl. 14th century), Scottish poet, is +referred to by Wyntoun in his _Chronicle_ in these words:-- + + "Hucheon, + þat cunnande was in littratur. + He made a gret Gest of Arthure, + And þe Awntyr of Gawane, + Þe Pistil als of Suet Susane. + He was curyousse in his stille, + Fayr of facunde and subtile, + And ay to pleyssance hade delyte, + Mad in metyr meit his dyte + Litil or noucht neuir þe lesse + Wauerande fra þe suythfastnes." + (Cott. MS. bk. v. II, 4308-4318). + +Much critical ingenuity has been spent in endeavouring to identify (a) +the poet and (b) the works named in the foregoing passage. It has been +assumed that "Huchown," or "Hucheon," represents the "gude Sir Hew of +Eglyntoun" named by Dunbar (q.v.) in his _Lament for the Makaris_ (i. +53). The only known Sir Hugh of Eglintoun of the century is frequently +mentioned in the public records from the middle of the century onwards, +as an auditor of accounts and as witness to several charters. By 1360 he +had married Dame Egidia, widow of Sir James Lindsay and half-sister of +Robert the Steward. His public office and association with the Steward +sorts well with the designation "of the Awle Ryale," if that be +interpreted as "Aula Regalis" or "Royal Palace." He appears to have died +late in 1376 or early in 1377. + +The first of the poems named above, the _Gest of Arthure_ or _Gest +Historyalle_ (_ib._ i. 4288), has been identified by Dr Trautmann, +"Anglia," _Der Dichter Huchown_ (1877), with the alliterative _Morte +Arthure_ in the Thornton MS. at Lincoln, printed by the E.E.T.S. (ed. +Brock, 1865). The problem of the second (_The Awntyr of Gawane_) is +still in dispute. There are difficulties in the way of accepting the +conjecture that the poem is the "Awntyres of Arthure at the Tern +Wathelyne" (see S.T.S., _Scottish Alliterative Poems_, 1897, and +Introduction, pp. 11 et seq.), and little direct evidence in favour of +the view that the reference is to the greatest of middle English +romances, _Sir Gawain and the Grene Knight_. The third may be safely +accepted as the well-known _Pistil_ [Epistle] _of Swete Susan_, printed +by Laing (_Select Remains_, 1822) and by the S.T.S. (_Scottish +Alliterative Poems, u.s._). + + See, in addition to the works named, above, G. Neilson's _Sir Hew of + Eglintoun and Huchown of the Awle Ryale_ (Glasgow, 1901), which + contains a full record of references to the historical Sir Hew of + Eglintoun; _Huchown of the Awle Ryale, the Alliterative Poet_ + (Glasgow, 1902) by the same; J. T. T. Brown's _Huchown of the Awle + Ryale and his Poems_ (Glasgow, 1902), in answer to the foregoing. See + also the correspondence in the _Athenaeum_, 1900-1901, and the review + of Mr Neilson's pamphlets, ib. (Nov. 22, 1902); and J. H. Millar's + _Literary History of Scotland_ (1903), pp. 8-14. + + + + +HUCHTENBURG, the name of two brothers who were Dutch painters in the +second half of the 17th century. Both were natives of Haarlem. Jacob, +the elder, of whom very little is known, studied under Berghem, and went +early to Italy, where he died young about 1667. His pictures are +probably confounded with those of his brother. In Copenhagen, where +alone they are catalogued, they illustrate the style of a Dutchman who +transfers Berghem's cattle and flocks to Italian landscapes and +marketplaces. + +John van Huchtenburg (1646-1733), born at Haarlem it is said in 1646, +was first taught by Thomas Wyk, and afterwards induced to visit the +chief cities of Italy, where, penetrating as far as Rome, he met and +dwelt with his brother Jacob. After the death of the latter he wandered +homewards, taking Paris on his way, and served under Van der Meulen, +then employed in illustrating for Louis XIV. the campaign of 1667-1668 +in the Low Countries. In 1670 he settled at Haarlem, where he married, +practised and kept a dealer's shop. His style had now merged into an +imitation of Philip Wouvermans and Van der Meulen, which could not fail +to produce pretty pictures of hunts and robber camps, the faculty of +painting horses and men in action and varied dress being the chief point +of attraction. Later Huchtenburg ventured on cavalry skirmishes and +engagements of regular troops generally, and these were admired by +Prince Eugene and William III., who gave the painter sittings, and +commissioned him to throw upon canvas the chief incidents of the battles +they fought upon the continent of Europe. When he died at Amsterdam in +1733, Huchtenburg had done much by his pictures and prints to make +Prince Eugene, King William and Marlborough popular. Though clever in +depicting a _mêlée_ or a skirmish of dragoons, he remained second to +Philip Wouvermans in accuracy of drawing, and inferior to Van der Meulen +in the production of landscapes. But, nevertheless, he was a clever and +spirited master, with great facility of hand and considerable natural +powers of observation. + + The earliest date on his pictures is 1674, when he executed the + "Stag-Hunt" in the Museum of Berlin, and the "Fight with Robbers" in + the Lichtenstein collection at Vienna. A "Skirmish at Fleurus" (1690) + in the Brussels gallery seems but the precursor of larger and more + powerful works, such as the "Siege of Namur" (1695) in the Belvedere + at Vienna, where William III. is seen in the foreground accompanied by + Max Emmanuel, the Bavarian elector. Three years before, Huchtenburg + had had sittings from Prince Eugene (Hague museum) and William III. + (Amsterdam Trippenhuis). After 1696 he regularly served as court + painter to Prince Eugene, and we have at Turin (gallery) a series of + eleven canvases all of the same size depicting the various battles of + the great hero, commencing with the fight of Zentha against the Turks + in 1697, and concluding with the capture of Belgrade in 1717. Had the + duke of Marlborough been fond of art he would doubtless have possessed + many works of our artist. All that remains at Blenheim, however, is a + couple of sketches of battles, which were probably sent to Churchill + by his great contemporary. The pictures of Huchtenburg are not very + numerous now in public galleries. There is one in the National + Gallery, London, another at the Louvre. But Copenhagen has four, + Dresden six, Gotha two, and Munich has the well-known composition of + "Tallart taken Prisoner at Blenheim in 1704." + + + + +HUCKABACK,[1] the name given to a type of cloth used for towels. For +this purpose it has perhaps been more extensively used in the linen +trade than any other weave. One of the chief merits of a towel is its +capacity for absorbing moisture; plain and other flat-surfaced cloths do +not perform this function satisfactorily, but cloths made with +huckaback, as well as those made with the honeycomb and similar weaves, +are particularly well adapted for this purpose. The body or foundation +of the cloth is plain and therefore sound in structure (see designs A +and B in figure), but at fixed intervals some of the warp threads float +on the surface of the cloth, while at the same time a number of weft +threads float on the back. Thus the cloth has a somewhat similar +appearance on both sides. Weave A is the ordinary and most used huck or +huckaback, while weave B, which is usually woven with double weft, is +termed the Devon or medical huck. The cloths made by the use of these +weaves were originally all linen, but are too often adulterated with +inferior fibres. + +[Illustration] + + +FOOTNOTE: + + [1] Skeat, _Etym. Dict._ (1898), says, "The word bears so remarkable + resemblance to Low Ger. _hukkebak_, Ger. _huckeback_, pick-a-back, + that it seems reasonable to suppose that it at first meant 'peddler's + ware.'" The _New English Dictionary_ does not consider that the + connexion can at present be assumed. + + + + +HUCKLEBERRY, in botany, the popular name in the north-eastern United +States of the genus _Gaylussacia_, small branching shrubs resembling in +habit the English bilberry (_Vaccinium_), to which it is closely allied, +and bearing a similar fruit. The common huckleberry of the northern +states is _G. resinosa_; while _G. brachycera_ and _G. dumosa_ are known +respectively as box and dwarf huckleberry. The name _Gaylussacia_ +commemorates the famous French chemist Gay-Lussac. + + + + +HUCKNALL TORKARD, a town in the Rushcliffe parliamentary division of +Nottinghamshire, England; 132 m. N.N.W. from London by the Great Central +railway, served also by the Great Northern and Midland railways. Pop. +(1901) 15,250. The church of St Mary Magdalene contains the tomb of Lord +Byron. There are extensive collieries in the vicinity, and the town has +tobacco and hosiery works. Small traces are found of Beauvale Abbey, a +Carthusian foundation of the 14th century, in the hilly, wooded district +W. of Hucknall; and 3 m. N. is Newstead Abbey, in a beautiful situation +on the border of Sherwood Forest. This Augustinian foundation owed its +origin to Henry II. It came into the hands of the Byron family in 1540, +and the poet Byron resided in it at various times until 1818. There +remain the Early English west front of the church, a Perpendicular +cloister and the chapter-house; while in the mansion, wholly restored +since Byron's time, and in the demesne, many relics of the poet are +preserved. To the S. of Hucknall are traces of Gresley Castle, of the +14th century. + + + + +HUCKSTER, a dealer or retailer of goods in a small way. The word, in +various forms, is common to many Teutonic languages. In Early English it +is found as _howkester_, _hokester_, _huxter_; in early modern Dutch as +_heuker_, and Medieval Low German as _hoker_; but the ultimate origin is +unknown. Huckster apparently belongs to that series of words formed from +a verb,--as brew, brewer; but the noun "huckster" is found in use before +the verb to huck. Hawker and pedlar are nearly synonymous in meaning, +but "huckster" may include a person in a small way of trade in a settled +habitation, while a hawker or pedlar invariably travels from place to +place offering his wares. In a contemptuous sense, huckster is used of +any one who barters, or makes gain or profit in underhand or mean ways, +or who over-reaches another, to get advantage for himself. + + + + +HUDDERSFIELD, a municipal, county and parliamentary borough in the West +Riding of Yorkshire, England, 190 m. N.N.W. from London. Pop. (1901) +95,047. It is served by the Lancashire & Yorkshire and London & North +Western railways, and has connexion with all the important railway +systems of the West Riding, and with the extensive canal system of +Lancashire and Yorkshire. It is well situated on a slope above the river +Colne, a tributary of the Calder. It is built principally of stone, and +contains several handsome streets with numerous great warehouses and +business premises, many of which are of high architectural merit. Of the +numerous churches and chapels all are modern, and some of considerable +beauty. The parish church of St Peter, however, though rebuilt in 1837, +occupies a site which is believed to have carried a church since the +11th century. The town hall (1880) and the corporation offices (1877) +are handsome classic buildings; the Ramsden Estate buildings are a very +fine block of the mixed Italian order. The market hall (1880) surmounted +by a clock-tower is in geometrical Decorated style. The cloth-hall dates +from 1784, when it was erected as a clothiers' emporium. It is no longer +used for any such purpose, but serves as an exchange news-room. The +Armoury, erected as a riding-school, was the headquarters of a volunteer +corps, and is also used for concerts and public meetings. The chief +educational establishments are the Huddersfield College (1838), a +higher-grade school, the technical school and several grammar-schools, +of which Longwood school was founded in 1731. The Literary and +Scientific Society possesses a museum. Of the numerous charitable +institutions, the Infirmary, erected in 1831, is housed in a building of +the Doric order. The chief open spaces are Greenhead and Beaumont parks, +the last named presented to the town by Mr H. F. Beaumont in 1880. There +is a sulphurous spa in the district of Lockwood. + +Huddersfield is the principal seat of the fancy woollen trade in +England, and fancy goods in silk and cotton are also produced in great +variety. Plain cloth and worsteds are also manufactured. There are silk +and cotton spinning-mills, iron foundries and engineering works. Coal is +abundant in the vicinity. The parliamentary borough returns one member. +The county borough was created in 1888. The municipal borough is under a +mayor, 15 aldermen and 45 councillors. Area, 11,859 acres. + +Huddersfield (_Oderesfelte_) only rose to importance after the +introduction of the woollen trade in the 17th century. After the +Conquest William I. granted the manor to Ilbert de Laci, of whom the +Saxon tenant Godwin was holding as underlord at the time of the Domesday +Survey. In Saxon times it had been worth l00s., but after being laid +waste by the Normans was still of no value in 1086. From the Lacys the +manor passed to Thomas Plantagenet, duke of Lancaster, through his +marriage with Alice de Lacy, and so came to the crown on the accession +of Henry IV. In 1599 Queen Elizabeth sold it to William Ramsden, whose +descendants still own it. Charles II. in 1670 granted to John Ramsden a +market in Huddersfield every Wednesday with the toll and other profits +belonging. By the beginning of the 18th century Huddersfield had become +a "considerable town," chiefly owing to the manufacture of woollen +kersies, and towards the end of the same century the trade was increased +by two events--the opening of navigation on the Calder in 1780, and in +1784 that of the cloth-hall or piece-hall, built and given to the town +by Sir John Ramsden, baronet. Since 1832 the burgesses have returned +members to parliament. The town possesses no charter before 1868, when +it was created a municipal borough. + + + + +HUDSON, GEORGE (1800-1871), English railway financier, known as the +"railway king," was born in York in March 1800. Apprenticed to a firm of +linendrapers in that city, he soon became a successful merchant, and in +1837 was elected lord mayor of York. Having inherited, in 1827, a sum of +£30,000, he invested it in North Midland Railway shares, and was shortly +afterwards appointed a director. In 1833 he had founded and for some +time acted as manager of the York Banking Company. He had for long been +impressed with the necessity of getting the railway to York, and he took +an active part in securing the passing of the York and North Midland +Bill, and was elected chairman of the new company--the line being opened +in 1839. From this time he turned his undivided attention to the +projection of railways. In 1841 he initiated the Newcastle and +Darlington line. With George Stephenson he planned and carried out the +extension of the Midland to Newcastle, and by 1844 had over a thousand +miles of railway under his control. In this year the mania for railway +speculation was at its height, and no man was more courted than the +"railway king." All classes delighted to honour him, and, as if a +colossal fortune were an insufficient reward for his public services, +the richest men in England presented him with a tribute of £20,000. +Deputy-lieutenant for Durham, and thrice lord mayor of York, he was +returned in the Conservative interest for Sunderland in 1845, the event +being judged of such public interest that the news was conveyed to +London by a special train, which travelled part of the way at the rate +of 75 m. an hour. Full of rewards and honours, he was suddenly ruined by +the disclosure of the Eastern Railway frauds. Sunderland clung to her +generous representative till 1859, but on the bursting of the bubble he +had lost influence and fortune at a single stroke. His later life was +chiefly spent on the continent, where he benefited little by a display +of unabated energy and enterprise. Some friends gave him a small annuity +a short time before his death, which took place in London, on the 14th +of December 1871. His name has long been used to point the moral of +vaulting ambition and unstable fortune. The "big swollen gambler," as +Carlyle calls him in one of the _Latter-Day Pamphlets_, was savagely and +excessively reprobated by the world which had blindly believed in his +golden prophecies. He certainly ruined scrip-holders, and disturbed the +great centres of industry; but he had an honest faith in his own +schemes, and, while he beggared himself in their promotion, he succeeded +in overcoming the powerful landed interest which delayed the adoption of +railways in England long after the date of their regular introduction +into America. + + + + +HUDSON, HENRY, English navigator and explorer. Nothing is known of his +personal history excepting such as falls within the period of the four +voyages on which his fame rests. The first of these voyages in quest of +new trade and a short route to China by way of the North Pole, in +accordance with the suggestion of Robert Thorne (d. 1527), was made for +the Muscovy Company with ten men and a boy in 1607. Hudson first coasted +the east side of Greenland, and being prevented from proceeding +northwards by the great ice barrier which stretches thence to +Spitzbergen sailed along it until he reached "Newland," as Spitzbergen +was then called, and followed its northern coast to beyond 80° N. lat. +On the homeward voyage he accidentally discovered an island in lat. 71° +which he named Hudson's Touches, and which has since been identified +with Jan Mayen Island. Molineux's chart, published by Hakluyt about +1600, was Hudson's blind guide in this voyage, and the polar map of 1611 +by Pontanus illustrates well what he attempted, and the valuable results +both negative and positive which he reached. He investigated the trade +prospects at Bear Island, and recommended his patrons to seek higher +game in Newland; hence he may be called the father of the English +whale-fisheries at Spitzbergen. + +Next year Hudson was again sent by the Muscovy Company to open a passage +to China, this time by the north-east route between Spitzbergen and +Novaya Zemlya, which had been attempted by his predecessors and +especially by the Dutch navigator William Barents. This voyage lasted +from the 22nd of April to the 26th of August 1608. He raked the Barents +Sea in vain between 75° 30´ N.W. and 71° 15´ S.E. for an opening through +the ice, and on the 6th of July, "voide of hope of a north-east passage +(except by the Waygats, for which I was not fitted to trie or prove)," +he resolved to sail to the north-west, and if time and means permitted +to run a hundred leagues up Lumley's Inlet (Frobisher Strait) or Davis's +"overfall" (Hudson Strait). But his voyage being delayed by contrary +winds he was finally compelled to return without accomplishing his wish. +The failure of this second attempt satisfied the Muscovy Company, which +thenceforward directed all its energies to the profitable Spitzbergen +trade. + +Towards the end of 1608 Hudson "had a call" to Amsterdam, where he saw +the celebrated cosmographer the Rev. Peter Plancius and the cartographer +Hondius, and after some delay, due to the rivalry which was exhibited in +the attempt to secure his services, he undertook for the Dutch East +India Company his important third voyage to find a passage to China +either by the north-east or north-west route. With a mixed crew of +eighteen or twenty men he left the Texel in the "Half-Moon" on the 6th +of April, and by the 5th of May was in the Barents Sea, and soon +afterwards among the ice near Novaya Zemlya, where he had been the year +before. Some of his men becoming disheartened and mutinous (it is now +supposed that he had arrived two or three months too early), he lost +hope of effecting anything by that route, and submitted to his men, as +alternative proposals, either to go to Lumley's Inlet and follow up +Waymouth's light, or to make for North Virginia and seek the passage in +about 40° lat., according to the letter and map sent him by his friend +Captain John Smith. The latter plan was adopted, and on the 14th of May +Hudson set his face towards the Chesapeake and China. He touched at +Stromo in the Faroe Islands for water, and on the 15th of June off +Newfoundland the "Half-Moon" "spent overboard her foremast." This +accident compelled him to put into the Kennebec river, where a mast was +procured, and some communication and an unnecessary encounter with the +Indians took place. Sailing again on the 26th of July, he began on the +28th of August the survey where Smith left off, at 37° 36´ according to +his map, and coasted northwards. On the 3rd of September, in 40° 30´, he +entered the fine bay of New York, and after having gone 150 m. up the +river which now bears his name to near the position of the present +Albany, treating with the Indians, surveying the country, and trying the +stream above tide-water, he became satisfied that this course did not +lead to the South Sea or China, a conclusion in harmony with that of +Champlain, who the same summer had been making his way south through +Lake Champlain and Lake St Sacrement (now Lake George). The two +explorers by opposite routes approached within 20 leagues of each other. +On the 4th of October the "Half-Moon" weighed for the Texel, and on the +7th of November arrived at Dartmouth, where she was seized and detained +by the English government, Hudson and the other Englishmen of the ship +being commanded not to leave England, but rather to serve their own +country. The voyage had fallen short of Hudson's expectations, but it +served many purposes perhaps as important to the world. Among other +results it exploded Hakluyt's myth, which from the publication of Lok's +map in 1582 to the 2nd charter of Virginia in May 1609 he had lost no +opportunity of promulgating, that near 40° lat. there was a narrow +isthmus, formed by the sea of Verrazano, like that of Tehuantepec or +Panama. + +Hudson's confidence in the existence of a North-West Passage had not +been diminished by his three failures, and a new company was formed to +support him in a fourth attempt, the principal promoters being Sir +Thomas Smith (or Smythe), Sir Dudley Digges and John (afterwards Sir +John) Wolstenholme. He determined this time to carry out his old plan of +searching for a passage up Davis's "overfall"--so-called in allusion to +the overfall of the tide which Davis had observed rushing through the +strait. Hudson sailed from London in the little ship "Discovery" of 55 +tons, on the 17th of April 1610, and entered the strait which now bears +his name about the middle of June. Sailing steadily westward he entered +Hudson Bay on the 3rd of August, and passing southward spent the next +three months examining the eastern shore of the bay. On the 1st of +November the "Discovery" went into winter quarters in the S.W. corner of +James Bay, being frozen in a few days later, and during the long winter +months which were passed there only a scanty supply of game was secured +to eke out the ship's provisions. Discontent became rife, and on the +ship breaking out of the ice in the spring Hudson had a violent quarrel +with a dissolute young fellow named Henry Greene, whom he had befriended +by taking him on board, and who now retaliated by inciting the +discontented part of the crew to put Hudson and eight others (including +the sick men) out of the ship. This happened on the 22nd of June 1611. +Robert Bylot was elected master and brought the ship back to England. +During the voyage home Greene and several others were killed in a fight +with the Eskimo, while others again died of starvation, and the feeble +remnant which reached England in September were thrown into prison. No +more tidings were ever received of the deserted men. + +Although it is certain that the four great geographical landmarks which +to-day serve to keep Hudson's memory alive, namely the Hudson Bay, +Strait, Territory and River, had repeatedly been visited and even drawn +on maps and charts before he set out on his voyages, yet he deserves to +take a very high rank among northern navigators for the mere extent of +his discoveries and the success with which he pushed them beyond the +limits of his predecessors. The rich fisheries of Spitzbergen and the +fur industry of the Hudson Bay Territory were the immediate fruit of his +labours. + + See _Henry Hudson, the Navigator_ (Hakluyt Society, 1860); and T. A. + Janvier, _Henry Hudson_ (1909). In 1909 a great celebration of the + tercentenary was held in the United States. + + + + +HUDSON, JOHN (1662-1719), English classical scholar, was born at Wythop +in Cumberland. He was educated at Oxford, where the remainder of his +life was spent. In 1701 he was appointed Bodley's librarian, and in 1711 +principal of St Mary's Hall. His political views stood in the way of his +preferment in the church and university. He died on the 26th of November +1719. As an editor and commentator he enjoyed a high reputation both at +home and abroad. His works, chiefly editions of classical authors, +include the following: Velleius Paterculus (1693); Thucydides (1696); +_Geographiae Veteris Scriptores Graeci minores_ (1698-1712) containing +the works and fragments of 21 authors and the learned, though diffuse, +dissertations of H. Dodwell--a rare and valuable work, which in spite of +its faulty text was not superseded until the appearance of C. W. +Müller's edition in the Didot series: the editio princeps of Moeris, _De +Vocibus Atticis et Hellenicis_ (1712); Josephus (1720, published +posthumously by his friend Anthony Hall, the antiquary), a correct and +beautifully printed edition, with variorum notes and translation. + + See Wood, _Athenae Oxonienses_, iv.; introduction to the edition of + Josephus; W. Hutchinson, _History of Cumberland_ (1794). + + + + +HUDSON, a city and the county-seat of Columbia county, New York, U.S.A., +on the E. side of the Hudson river, about 114 m. N. of New York City and +about 28 m. S. of Albany. Pop. (1890) 9970; (1900) 9528, of whom 1155 +were foreign-born; (1910 census) 11,417. It is served by the Boston & +Albany, the New York Central & Hudson River and the (electric) Albany & +Hudson railways, by river steamboats, and by a steam ferry to Athens and +Catskill across the river. The city is picturesquely situated on the +slope of Prospect Hill; and Promenade Park, on a bluff above the +steamboat landing, commands a fine view of the river and of the Catskill +Mountains. Among the public buildings and institutions are a fine city +hall, the Columbia County Court House, a public library, a Federal +building, a State Training School for Girls, a State Firemen's Home, an +Orphan Asylum, a Home for the Aged and a hospital. The city's +manufactures include hosiery and knit goods, Portland cement (one of the +largest manufactories of that product in the United States being here), +foundry and machine shop products, car wheels, ice tools and machinery, +ale, beer, bricks and tiles and furniture. The value of the factory +products in 1905 was $4,115,525, an increase of 58.1% over that in 1900. +The municipality owns and operates the water-works. Hudson, which was +originally known as Claverack Landing, was for many years merely a +landing with two rude wharfs and two small storehouses, to which farmers +in the neighbourhood brought their produce for shipment on the river. +Late in 1783 the place was settled by an association of merchants and +fishermen from Rhode Island, Nantucket and Martha's Vineyard. The +present name was adopted in 1784, and the city was chartered in 1785. +For many years Hudson had a considerable foreign commerce and whaling +interests, but these were practically destroyed by the war of 1812. + + + + +HUDSON BAY (less often, but more correctly, Hudson's Bay), an inland sea +in the N.E. of Canada, extending from 78° to 95° W. and from 51° to 70° +N. On the east it is connected with the Atlantic Ocean by Hudson Strait, +and on the north with the Arctic Ocean by Fox Channel and Fury and Hecla +Strait. Its southern extremity between 55° and 51° N. is known as James +Bay. It is 590 m. in width, and 1300 from S. to N., including James Bay +(350 m.) and Fox Channel (350 m.). The customary use of the term +includes James Bay, but not Fox Channel. The average depth of water is +about 70 fathoms, deepening at the entrance of Hudson Strait to 100 +fathoms. James Bay is much shallower, and unfit for shipping save for a +central channel leading to the mouth of the Moose river. The centre and +west of the main bay are absolutely free from shoals, rocks or islands, +but down its east coast extend two lines of small islands, one close to +shore, the other at 70 to 100 m. distance, and comprising a number of +scattered groups (the Ottawa Islands, the Sleepers, the Belchers, &c.). + +Into Hudson and James Bays flow numerous important rivers, so much so +that the water of the latter is rather brackish than salt. Beginning at +the north-west, the chief of these are Churchill, Nelson (draining Lake +Winnipeg, and the numerous inland rivers of which it is the basin), +Hayes (the old boat route of the _voyageurs_ to Winnipeg), Severn, +Albany, Moose, Rupert river (draining Lake Mistassini), Nottaway, East +Main, Great Whale and Little Whale. + +Save for some high bluffs on the east and north-east, the shores of the +bay are low. Around much of James Bay extend marshes and swampy ground. +Geologically the greater part of the Hudson Bay district belongs to the +Laurentian system, though there are numerous outcrops of later +formation; Cambro-Silurian on the south and west, and to the north of +Cape Jones (the north-eastern extremity of James Bay) a narrow belt of +Cambrian rocks, of which the islands are composed. Coal, plumbago, iron +and other minerals have been found in various districts near the coast. +The climate is harsh, though vegetables and certain root crops ripen in +the open air as far north as Fort Churchill; cattle flourish, and are +fed chiefly on the native grasses; spruce, balsam and poplar grow to a +fair size as far as the northern limit of James Bay. Caribou, musk ox +and other animals are still found in large numbers, and there is an +abundance of feathered game--ducks, geese, loons and ptarmigan; hunting +and fishing form the chief occupations of the Indians and Eskimo who +live in scattered bands near the shore. The bay abounds with fish, of +which the chief are cod, salmon, porpoise and whales. The last have long +been pursued by American whalers, whose destructive methods have so +greatly depleted the supply that the government of Canada is anxious to +declare the bay a _mare clausum_. + +Hudson Strait is about 450 m. long with an average breadth of 100 m., +narrowing at one point to 45. Its shores are high and bold, rarely less +in height than 1000 ft., save on the coast of Ungava Bay, a deep +indentation on the south-east. No islands or rocks impede navigation. +Its depth is from 100 to 200 fathoms. Owing to the violence of the +tides, which rise to a height of 35 ft., it never absolutely freezes +over. + + After three centuries of exploration, the navigability of Hudson Bay + and Strait remains a vexed question. To Canada it is one of great + commercial interest, and numerous expeditions have been made and + reports issued by the Geological Survey. From Winnipeg to Liverpool + via Churchill is over 500 m. less than via Montreal, and from Edmonton + to Liverpool almost 1000 m. less. Were navigation open for a + sufficient time, such a route for the grain of the Canadian and + American west would be of enormous advantage. But the inlet from the + Arctic sends down masses of heavy ice, which drift about in the bay + and the strait. Past the mouth of the strait flows a stream often over + 100 m. wide, of berg and floe ice, carried by the Arctic current. + Owing to the proximity of the Magnetic Pole (in Boothia) the compass + often refuses to work. For sailing ships, such as the Hudson's Bay + Company has long employed, the season for safe navigation is from the + 15th of July to the 1st of October. In over 200 years very few serious + accidents have occurred to the company's ships within these limits. It + is claimed that specially built and protected steamers would be safe + from the 15th of June till the 1st of November, and the problem may be + solved by ice-breaking vessels of great power. The only good harbour + available is Fort Churchill, at the mouth of the Churchill river, + which is large and easy of access. Moose Factory (at the foot of James + Bay) and York Factory (at the mouth of the Nelson) are mere + roadsteads. Marble Island, south of Chesterfield Inlet, where the + whalers winter, is too far north for regular shipping. + + The Cabots entered the strait in 1498, and during the next century a + series of Elizabethan mariners; but the bay was not explored until + 1610, when Henry Hudson pushed through the ice and explored to the + southern limit of James Bay. + + See Lieutenant Gordon, R.N., _Reports on the Hudson's Bay Expeditions_ + (1884, 5, 6); William Ogilvie, _Exploratory Survey to Hudson's Bay in + 1890_ (Ottawa, 1891); R. F. Stupart, _The Navigation of Hudson's Bay + and Straits_ (Toronto, 1904). + + + + + + +End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th +Edition, Volume 13, Slice 7, by Various + +*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA *** + +***** This file should be named 39029-8.txt or 39029-8.zip ***** +This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: + http://www.gutenberg.org/3/9/0/2/39029/ + +Produced by Marius Masi, Don Kretz and the Online +Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net + + +Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions +will be renamed. + +Creating the works from public domain print editions means that no +one owns a United States copyright in these works, so the Foundation +(and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United States without +permission and without paying copyright royalties. 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