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+The Project Gutenberg EBook of Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th Edition,
+Volume 13, Slice 7, by Various
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th Edition, Volume 13, Slice 7
+       "Horticulture" to "Hudson Bay"
+
+Author: Various
+
+Release Date: March 2, 2012 [EBook #39029]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Marius Masi, Don Kretz and the Online
+Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+Transcriber's notes:
+
+(1) Numbers following letters (without space) like C2 were originally
+      printed in subscript. Letter subscripts are preceded by an
+      underscore, like C_n.
+
+(2) Characters following a carat (^) were printed in superscript.
+
+(3) Side-notes were relocated to function as titles of their respective
+      paragraphs.
+
+(4) Macrons and breves above letters and dots below letters were not
+      inserted.
+
+(5) [root] stands for the root symbol; [alpha], [beta], etc. for greek
+      letters.
+
+(6) The following typographical errors have been corrected:
+
+    ARTICLE HORTICULTURE: "Portable boilers are convenient for heating
+      small areas, and are less expensive to install than those described
+      above." 'install' amended from 'instal'.
+
+    ARTICLE HOUSE: "The end walls were closed with wooden studs and
+      wattle-and-daub filling. The pairs of trees were known as forks or
+      crucks." 'daub' amended from 'dab'.
+
+    ARTICLE HOUSING: "The argument is confirmed by the very substantial
+      diminution which actually took place between 1891 and 1901."
+      'between' amended from 'betweeen'.
+
+    ARTICLE HOUSING: "In London the percentage fell by 3.7, and the
+      number of persons overcrowded was reduced by 103,669 in spite of an
+      increase of population of 324,798." 'percentage' amended from
+      'precentage'.
+
+    ARTICLE HOWARD: "His grandson Thomas succeeded him in 1554, and in
+      1556 made the second of those marriages which have given the
+      Howards their high place among the English nobility." 'marriages'
+      amended from 'marraiges'.
+
+    ARTICLE HRABANUS MAURUS MAGNENTIUS: "Returning after the lapse of
+      two years to Fulda, he was entrusted with the principal charge of
+      the school, which under his direction rose into a state of great
+      efficiency for that age, and sent forth such pupils as Walafrid
+      Strabo, Servatus Lupus of Ferières and Otfrid of Weissenburg." 'as'
+      amended from 'at'.
+
+
+
+
+          ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA
+
+  A DICTIONARY OF ARTS, SCIENCES, LITERATURE
+           AND GENERAL INFORMATION
+
+              ELEVENTH EDITION
+
+
+           VOLUME XIII, SLICE VII
+
+         Horticulture to Hudson Bay
+
+
+
+
+ARTICLES IN THIS SLICE:
+
+
+  HORTICULTURE                       HOVE
+  HORTON, CHRISTIANA                 HOVENDEN, THOMAS
+  HORTON, ROBERT FORMAN              HOW, WILLIAM WALSHAM
+  HORTON, SAMUEL DANA                HOWARD (family)
+  HORUS                              HOWARD, CATHERINE
+  HORWICH                            HOWARD, JOHN
+  HOSANNA                            HOWARD, OLIVER OTIS
+  HOSE                               HOWARD, SIR ROBERT
+  HOSEA                              HOWARD, LORD WILLIAM
+  HOSE-PIPE                          HOWARD OF EFFINGHAM, WILLIAM HOWARD
+  HOSHANGABAD                        HOWE, ELIAS
+  HOSHEA                             HOWE, JOHN
+  HOSHIARPUR                         HOWE, JOSEPH
+  HOSIERY                            HOWE, JULIA WARD
+  HOSIUS                             HOWE, RICHARD HOWE
+  HOSIUS, STANISLAUS                 HOWE, SAMUEL GRIDLEY
+  HOSKINS, JOHN                      HOWE, WILLIAM HOWE
+  HOSMER, HARRIET GOODHUE            HOWEL DDA
+  HOSPICE                            HOWELL, JAMES
+  HOSPITAL                           HOWELLS, WILLIAM DEAN
+  HOSPITIUM                          HOWITT WILLIAM
+  HOSPODAR                           HOWITZER
+  HOST                               HOWLER
+  HOSTAGE                            HOWRAH
+  HOSTE, SIR WILLIAM                 HOWSON, JOHN SAUL
+  HOSTEL                             HOWTH
+  HOSTIUS                            HÖXTER
+  HOSUR                              HOY
+  HOTCH-POT                          HOYLAKE
+  HÔTEL-DE-VILLE                     HOYLAND NETHER
+  HÔTEL-DIEU                         HOYLE, EDMUND
+  HOTHAM, SIR JOHN                   HOZIER, PIERRE D'
+  HOTHAM, WILLIAM HOTHAM             HRABANUS MAURUS MAGNENTIUS
+  HOTHO, HEINRICH GUSTAV             HRÓLFR KRAKI
+  HOTI-MARDAN                        HROSVITHA
+  HOTMAN, FRANÇOIS                   HSÜAN TSANG
+  HOT SPRINGS (Arkansas, U.S.A.)     HUAMBISAS
+  HOT SPRINGS (Virginia, U.S.A.)     HUANCAVELICA
+  HOTTENTOTS                         HUÁNUCO
+  HOTTINGER, JOHANN HEINRICH         HUARAZ
+  HOUBRAKEN, JACOBUS                 HUARTE DE SAN JUAN
+  HOUDENC, RAOUL DE                  HUASTECS
+  HOUDETOT                           HUBER, FRANÇOIS
+  HOUDETOT, ELISABETH DE BELLEGARDE  HUBER, JOHANN NEPOMUK
+  HOUDON, JEAN ANTOINE               HUBER, LUDWIG FERDINAND
+  HOUFFALIZE                         HUBERT, ST
+  HOUGHTON, RICHARD MONCKTON MILNES  HUBERTUSBURG
+  HOUGHTON-LE-SPRING                 HUBLI
+  HOUND                              HÜBNER, EMIL
+  HOUNSLOW                           HÜBNER, JOSEPH ALEXANDER
+  HOUR                               HUC, ÉVARISTE RÉGIS
+  HOUR ANGLE                         HUCBALD
+  HOUR-GLASS                         HU-CHOW-FU
+  HOURI                              HUCHOWN
+  HOURS, CANONICAL                   HUCHTENBURG
+  HOUSE                              HUCKABACK
+  HOUSEHOLD, ROYAL                   HUCKLEBERRY
+  HOUSEL                             HUCKNALL TORKARD
+  HOUSELEEK                          HUCKSTER
+  HOUSING                            HUDDERSFIELD
+  HOUSMAN, LAURENCE                  HUDSON, GEORGE
+  HOUSSAYE, ARSÈNE                   HUDSON, HENRY
+  HOUSTON, SAM                       HUDSON, JOHN
+  HOUSTON                            HUDSON
+  HOUWALD, CHRISTOPH ERNST           HUDSON BAY
+  HÒVA
+
+
+
+
+HORTICULTURE (Lat. _hortus_, a garden), the art and science of the
+cultivation of garden plants, whether for utilitarian or for decorative
+purposes. The subject naturally divides itself into two sections, which
+we here propose to treat separately, commencing with the science, and
+passing on to the practice of the cultivation of flowers, fruits and
+vegetables as applicable to the home garden. The point of view taken is
+necessarily, as a rule, that of a British gardener.
+
+
+PART I.--PRINCIPLES OR SCIENCE OF HORTICULTURE
+
+Horticulture, apart from the mechanical details connected with the
+maintenance of a garden and its appurtenances, may be considered as the
+application of the principles of plant physiology to the cultivation of
+plants from all parts of the globe, and from various altitudes, soils
+and situations. The lessons derived from the abstract principles
+enunciated by the physiologist, the chemist and the physicist require,
+however, to be modified to suit the special circumstances of plants
+under cultivation. The necessity for this modification arises from the
+fact that such plants are subjected to conditions more or less unnatural
+to them, and that they are grown for special purposes which are at
+variance, in degree at any rate, with their natural requirements.
+
+The life of the plant (see PLANTS) makes itself manifest in the
+processes of growth, development and reproduction. By growth is here
+meant mere increase in bulk, and by development the series of gradual
+modifications by which a plant, originally simple in its structure and
+conformation, becomes eventually complicated, and endowed with distinct
+parts or organs. The reproduction of the higher plants takes place
+either asexually by the formation of buds or organs answering thereto,
+or sexually by the production of an embryo plant within the seed. The
+conditions requisite for the growth, development and reproduction of
+plants are, in general terms, exposure, at the proper time, to suitable
+amounts of light, heat and moisture, and a due supply of appropriate
+food. The various amounts of these needed in different cases have to be
+adjusted by the gardener, according to the nature of the plant, its
+"habit" or general mode of growth in its native country, and the
+influence to which it is there subjected, as also in accordance with the
+purposes for which it is to be cultivated, &c. It is but rarely that
+direct information on all these points can be obtained; but inference
+from previous experience, especially with regard to allied forms, will
+go far to supply such deficiencies. Moreover, it must be remembered that
+the conditions most favourable to plants are not always those to which
+they are subjected in nature, for, owing to the competition of other
+forms in the struggle for existence, liability to injury from insects,
+and other adverse circumstances, plants may actually be excluded from
+the localities best suited for their development. The gardener therefore
+may, and does, by modifying, improve upon the conditions under which a
+plant naturally exists. Thus it frequently happens that in our gardens
+flowers have a beauty and a fragrance, and fruits a size and savour
+denied to them in their native haunts. It behooves the judicious
+gardener, then, not to be too slavish in his attempts to imitate natural
+conditions, and to bear in mind that such attempts sometimes end in
+failure. The most successful gardening is that which turns to the best
+account the plastic organization of the plant, and enables it to develop
+and multiply as perfectly as possible. Experience, coupled with
+observation and reflection, as well as the more indirect teachings of
+tradition, are therefore of primary importance to the practical
+gardener.
+
+We propose here to notice briefly the several parts of a flowering
+plant, and to point out the rationale of the cultural procedures
+connected with them (see the references to separate articles at the end
+of article on BOTANY).
+
+  _The Root._--The root, though not precluded from access of air, is not
+  directly dependent for its growth on the agency of light. The
+  efficiency of drainage, digging, hoeing and like operations is
+  accounted for by the manner in which they promote aeration of the
+  soil, raise its temperature and remove its stagnant water. Owing to
+  their growth in length at, or rather in the immediate vicinity of,
+  their tips, roots are enabled to traverse long distances by
+  surmounting some obstacles, penetrating others, and insinuating
+  themselves into narrow crevices. As they have no power of absorbing
+  solid materials, their food must be of a liquid or gaseous character.
+  It is taken up from the interstices between the particles of soil
+  exclusively by the finest subdivisions of the fibrils, and in many
+  cases by the extremely delicate thread-like cells which project from
+  them and which are known as root-hairs. The importance of the
+  root-fibres, or "feeding roots" justifies the care which is taken by
+  every good gardener to secure their fullest development, and to
+  prevent as far as possible any injury to them in digging, potting and
+  transplanting, such operations being therefore least prejudicial at
+  seasons when the plant is in a state of comparative rest.
+
+  _Root-Pruning and Lifting._--In apparent disregard of the general rule
+  just enunciated is the practice of root-pruning fruit trees, when,
+  from the formation of wood being more active than that of fruit, they
+  bear badly. The contrariety is more apparent than real, as the
+  operation consists in the removal of the coarser roots, a process
+  which results in the development of a mass of fine feeding roots.
+  Moreover, there is a generally recognised quasi-antagonism between the
+  vegetative and reproductive processes, so that, other things being
+  equal, anything that checks the one helps forward the other.
+
+  _Watering._--So far as practical gardening is concerned, feeding by
+  the roots after they have been placed in suitable soil is confined
+  principally to the administration of water and, under certain
+  circumstances, of liquid or chemical manure; and no operations demand
+  more judicious management. The amount of water required, and the times
+  when it should be applied, vary greatly according to the kind of plant
+  and the object for which it is grown, the season, the supply of heat
+  and light, and numerous other conditions, the influence of which is to
+  be learnt by experience only. The same may be said with respect to the
+  application of manures. The watering of pot-plants requires especial
+  care. Water should as a rule be used at a temperature not lower than
+  that of the surrounding atmosphere, and preferably after exposure for
+  some time to the air.
+
+  _Bottom-Heat._--The "optimum" temperature, or that best suited to
+  promote the general activity of roots, and indeed of all vegetable
+  organs, necessarily varies very much with the nature of the plant, and
+  the circumstances in which it is placed, and is ascertained by
+  practical experience. Artificial heat applied to the roots, called by
+  gardeners "bottom-heat," is supplied by fermenting materials such as
+  stable manure, leaves, &c., or by hot-water pipes. In winter the
+  temperature of the soil, out of doors, beyond a certain depth is
+  usually higher than that of the atmosphere, so that the roots are in a
+  warmer and more uniform medium than are the upper parts of the plant.
+  Often the escape of heat from the soil is prevented by "mulching,"
+  i.e. by depositing on it a layer of litter, straw, dead leaves and the
+  like.
+
+  The _Stem_ and its subdivisions or branches raise to the light and air
+  the leaves and flowers, serve as channels for the passage to them of
+  fluids from the roots, and act as reservoirs for nutritive substances.
+  Their functions in annual, biennial and herbaceous perennial plants
+  cease after the ripening of the seed, whilst in plants of longer
+  duration layer after layer of strong woody tissue is formed, which
+  enables them to bear the strains which the weight of foliage and the
+  exposure to wind entail. The gardener aims usually at producing stout,
+  robust, short-jointed stems, instead of long lanky growths defective
+  in woody tissue. To secure these conditions free exposure to light and
+  air is requisite; but in the case of coppices and woods, or where long
+  straight spars are needed by the forester, plants are allowed to grow
+  thickly so as to ensure development in an upward rather than in a
+  lateral direction. This and like matters will, however, be more fitly
+  considered in dealing hereafter with the buds and their treatment.
+
+  _Leaves._--The work of the leaves may briefly be stated to consist of
+  the processes of nutrition, respiration and transpiration. Nutri tion
+  (assimilation) by the leaves includes the inhalation of air, and the
+  interaction under the influence of light and in the presence of
+  chlorophyll of the carbon dioxide of the air with the water received
+  from the root, to form carbonaceous food. Respiration in plants, as in
+  other organisms, is a process that goes on by night as well as by day
+  and consists in plants in the breaking up of the complex carbonaceous
+  substances formed by assimilation into less complex and more
+  transportable substances. This process, which is as yet imperfectly
+  understood, is attended by the consumption of oxygen, the liberation
+  of energy in the form of heat, and the exhalation of carbon dioxide
+  and water vapour. Transpiration is loss of water by the plant by
+  evaporation, chiefly from the minute pores or stomata on the leaves.
+  In xerophytic plants (_e.g._ cacti, euphorbias, &c.) from hot, dry and
+  almost waterless regions where evaporation would be excessive, the
+  leaf surface, and consequently the number of stomata, are reduced to a
+  minimum, as it would be fatal to such plants to exhale vapour as
+  freely in those regions as the broad-leaved plants that grow in places
+  where there is abundance of moisture. Although transpiration is a
+  necessary accompaniment of nutrition, it may easily become excessive,
+  especially where the plant cannot readily recoup itself. In these
+  circumstances "syringing" and "damping down" are of value in cooling
+  the temperature of the air in hothouses and greenhouses and increasing
+  its humidity, thereby checking excessive transpiration. Shading the
+  glass with canvas or washes during the summer months has the same
+  object in view. Syringing is also beneficial in washing away dirt and
+  insects.
+
+  _Buds._--The recognition of the various forms of buds and their modes
+  of disposition in different plants is a matter of the first
+  consequence in the operations of pruning and training. Flower-buds are
+  produced either on the old wood, _i.e._ the shoots of the past year's
+  growth, or on a shoot of the present year. The peach, horse-chestnut,
+  lilac, morello cherry, black currant, rhododendron and many other
+  trees and shrubs develop flower-buds for the next season speedily
+  after blossoming, and these may be stimulated into premature growth.
+  The peculiar short, stunted branches or "spurs" which bear the
+  flower-buds of the pear, apple, plum, sweet cherry, red currant,
+  laburnum, &c., deserve special attention. In the rose, passion-flower,
+  clematis, honeysuckle, &c., in which the flower-buds are developed at
+  the ends of the young shoot of the year, we have examples of plants
+  destitute of flower-buds during the winter.
+
+  _Propagation by Buds._--The detached leaf-buds (_gemmae_ or
+  _bulbils_), of some plants are capable under favourable conditions of
+  forming new plants. The edges of the leaves of _Bryophyllum calycinum_
+  and of _Cardamine pratensis_, and the growths in the axils of the
+  leaves of _Lilium bulbiferum_, as well as the fronds of certain ferns
+  (e.g. _Asplenium bulbiferum_), produce buds of this character. It is
+  a matter of familiar observation that the ends of the shoots of
+  brambles take root when bent down to the ground. In some instances
+  buds form on the roots, and may be used for purposes of propagation,
+  as in the Japan quince, the globe thistle, the sea holly, some sea
+  lavenders, _Bocconia_, _Acanthus_, &c. Of the tendency in buds to
+  assume an independent existence gardeners avail themselves in the
+  operations of striking "cuttings," and making "layers" and "pipings,"
+  as also in budding and grafting. In taking a slip or cutting the
+  gardener removes from the parent plant a shoot having one or more buds
+  or "eyes," in the case of the vine one only, and places it in a moist
+  and sufficiently warm situation, where, as previously mentioned, undue
+  evaporation from the surface is prevented. For some cuttings, pots
+  filled with light soil, with the protection of the propagating-house
+  and of bell-glasses, are requisite; but for many of our hardy
+  deciduous trees and shrubs no such precautions are necessary, and the
+  insertion of a short shoot about half its length into moist and gritty
+  ground at the proper season suffices to ensure its growth. In the case
+  of the more delicate plants, the formation of roots is preceded by the
+  production from the cambium of the cuttings of a succulent mass of
+  tissue, the _callus_. It is important in some cases, _e.g._ zonal
+  pelargoniums, fuchsias, shrubby calceolarias, dahlias, carnations,
+  &c., to retain on the cutting some of its leaves, so as to supply the
+  requisite food for storage in the callus. In other cases, where the
+  buds themselves contain a sufficiency of nutritive matter for the
+  young growths, the retention of leaves is not necessary. The most
+  successful mode of forming roots is to place the cuttings in a mild
+  bottom-heat, which expedites their growth, even in the case of many
+  hardy plants whose cuttings strike roots in the open soil. With some
+  hard-wooded trees, as the common white-thorn, roots cannot be obtained
+  without bottom-heat. It is a general rule throughout plant culture
+  that the activity of the roots shall be in advance of that of the
+  leaves. Cuttings of deciduous trees and shrubs succeed best if planted
+  early in autumn while the soil still retains the solar heat absorbed
+  during summer. For evergreens August or September, and for greenhouse
+  and stove-plants the spring and summer months, are the times most
+  suitable for propagation by cuttings.
+
+  _Layering_ consists simply in bending down a branch and keeping it in
+  contact with or buried to a small depth in the soil until roots are
+  formed; the connexion with the parent plant may then be severed. Many
+  plants can be far more easily propagated thus than by cuttings.
+
+  _Grafting_ or "_working_" consists in the transfer of a branch, the
+  "graft" or "scion," from one plant to another, which latter is termed
+  the "stock." The operation must be so performed that the growing
+  tissues, or cambium-layer of the scion, may fit accurately to the
+  corresponding layer of the stock. In _budding_, as with roses and
+  peaches, a single bud only is implanted. _Inarching_ is essentially
+  the promotion of the union of a shoot of one plant to that of another
+  of the same or allied species or variety. The outer bark of each being
+  removed, the two shoots are kept in contact by ligature until union is
+  established, when the scion is completely severed from its original
+  attachments. This operation is varied in detail according to the kind
+  of plant to be propagated, but it is essential in all cases that the
+  affinity between the two plants be near, that the union be neatly
+  effected, and that the ratio as well as the season of growth of stock
+  and scion be similar.
+
+  The selection of suitable stocks is a matter still requiring much
+  scientific experiment. The object of grafting is to expedite and
+  increase the formation of flowers and fruit. Strong-growing pears, for
+  instance, are grafted on the quince stock in order to restrict their
+  tendency to form "gross" shoots and a superabundance of wood in place
+  of flowers and fruit. Apples, for the same reason, are "worked" on the
+  "paradise" or "doucin" stocks, which from their influence on the scion
+  are known as dwarfing stocks. Scions from a tree which is weakly, or
+  liable to injury by frosts, are strengthened by engrafting on robust
+  stocks. Lindley has pointed out that, while in Persia, its native
+  country, the peach is probably best grafted on the peach, or on its
+  wild type the almond, in England, where the summer temperature of the
+  soil is much lower than that of Persia, it might be expected, as
+  experience has proved, to be most successful on stocks of the native
+  plum.
+
+  The soil in which the stock grows is a point demanding attention. From
+  a careful series of experiments made in the Horticultural Society's
+  Garden at Chiswick, it was found that where the soil is loamy, or
+  light and slightly enriched with decayed vegetable matter, the apple
+  succeeds best on the doucin stock, and the pear on the quince; and
+  where it is chalky it is preferable to graft the apple on the crab,
+  and the pear on the wild pear. For the plum on loamy soils the plum,
+  and on chalky and light soils the almond, are the most desirable
+  stocks, and for the cherry on loamy or light rich soils the wild
+  cherry, and on chalk the "mahaleb" stock.
+
+  The form and especially the quality of fruit is more or less affected
+  by the stock upon which it is grown. The Stanwick nectarine, so apt to
+  crack and not to ripen when worked in the ordinary way, is said to be
+  cured of these propensities by being first budded close to the ground,
+  on a very strong-growing Magnum Bonum plum, worked on a Brussels
+  stock, and by then budding the nectarine on the Magnum Bonum about a
+  foot from the ground. The fruit of the pear is of a higher colour and
+  smaller on the quince stock than on the wild pear; still more so on
+  the medlar. On the mountain ash the pear becomes earlier.
+
+  The effects produced by stock on scion, and more particularly by scion
+  on stock, are as a rule with difficulty appreciable. Nevertheless, in
+  exceptional cases modified growths, termed "graft-hybrids," have been
+  obtained which have been attributed to the commingling of the
+  characteristics of stock and scion (see HYBRIDISM). Of these the most
+  remarkable example is _Cytisus Adami_, a tree which year after year
+  produces some shoots, foliage and flowers like those of the common
+  laburnum, others like those of the very different looking dwarf shrub
+  _C. purpureus_, and others again intermediate between these. We may
+  hence infer that _C. purpureus_ was grafted or budded on the common
+  laburnum, and that the intermediate forms are the result of
+  graft-hybridization. Numerous similar facts have been recorded. Among
+  gardeners the general opinion is against the possibility of
+  graft-hybridization. The wonder, however, seems to be that it does not
+  occur more frequently, seeing that fluids must pass from stock to
+  scion, and matter elaborated in the leaves of the scion must certainly
+  to some extent enter the stock. It is clear, nevertheless, from
+  examination that as a rule the wood of the stock and the wood of the
+  scion retain their external characters year by year without change.
+  Still, as in the laburnum just mentioned, in the variegated jasmine
+  and in _Abutilon Darwinii_, in the copper beech and in the
+  horse-chestnut, the influence of a variegated scion has occasionally
+  shown itself in the production from the stock of variegated shoots. At
+  a meeting of the Scottish Horticultural Association (see _Gard.
+  Chron._, Jan. 10, 1880, figs. 12-14) specimens of a small roundish
+  pear, the "Aston Town," and of the elongated kind known as "Beurré
+  Clairgeau," were exhibited. Two more dissimilar pears hardly exist.
+  The result of working the Beurré Clairgeau upon the Aston Town was the
+  production of fruits precisely intermediate in size, form, colour,
+  speckling of rind and other characteristics. Similar, though less
+  marked, intermediate characters were obvious in the foliage and
+  flowers.
+
+  Double grafting (French, _greffe sur greffe_) is sufficiently
+  explained by its name. By means of it a variety may often be
+  propagated, or its fruit improved in a way not found practicable under
+  ordinary circumstances. For its successful prosecution prolonged
+  experiments in different localities and in gardens devoted to the
+  purpose are requisite.
+
+  _Planting._--By removal from one place to another the growth of every
+  plant receives a check. How this check can be obviated or reduced,
+  with regard to the season, the state of atmosphere, and the condition
+  and circumstances of the plant generally, is a matter to be considered
+  by the practical gardener.
+
+  As to season, it is now admitted with respect to deciduous trees and
+  shrubs that the earlier in autumn planting is performed the better;
+  although some extend it from the period when the leaves fall to the
+  first part of spring, before the sap begins to move. If feasible, the
+  operation should be completed by the end of November, whilst the soil
+  is still warm with the heat absorbed during summer. Attention to this
+  rule is specially important in the case of rare and delicate plants.
+  Early autumn planting enables wounded parts of roots to be healed
+  over, and to form fibrils, which will be ready in spring, when it is
+  most required, to collect food for the plant. Planting late in spring
+  should, as far as possible, be avoided, for the buds then begin to
+  awaken into active life, and the draught upon the roots becomes great.
+  It has been supposed that because the surface of the young leaves is
+  small transpiration is correspondingly feeble; but it must be
+  remembered, not only that their newly-formed tissue is unable without
+  an abundant supply of sap from the roots to resist the excessive
+  drying action of the atmosphere, but that, in spring, the lowness of
+  the temperature at that season in Great Britain prevents the free
+  circulation of the sap. The comparative dryness of the atmosphere in
+  spring also causes a greater amount of transpiration then than in
+  autumn and winter. Another fact in favour of autumnal planting is the
+  production of roots in winter.
+
+  The best way of performing transplantation depends greatly on the size
+  of the trees, the soil in which they grow, and the mechanical
+  appliances made use of in lifting and transporting them. The smaller
+  the tree the more successfully can it be removed. The more
+  argillaceous and the less siliceous the soil the more readily can
+  balls of earth be retained about the roots. All planters lay great
+  stress on the preservation of the fibrils; the point principally
+  disputed is to what extent they can with safety be allowed to be cut
+  off in transplantation. Trees and shrubs in thick plantations, or in
+  sheltered warm places, are ill fitted for planting in bleak and cold
+  situations. During their removal it is important that the roots be
+  covered, if only to prevent desiccation by the air. Damp days are
+  therefore the best for the operation; the dryest months are the most
+  unfavourable. Though success in transplanting depends much on the
+  humidity of the atmosphere, the most important requisite is warmth in
+  the soil; humidity can be supplied artificially, but heat cannot.
+
+  _Pruning_, or the removal of superfluous growths, is practised in
+  order to equalize the development of the different parts of trees, or
+  to promote it in particular directions so as to secure a certain form,
+  and, by checking undue luxuriance, to promote enhanced fertility. In
+  the rose-bush, for instance, in which, as we have seen, the
+  flower-buds are formed on the new wood of the year, pruning causes the
+  old wood to "break," i.e. to put forth a number of new buds, some of
+  which will produce flowers at their extremities. The manner and the
+  time in which pruning should be accomplished, and its extent, vary
+  with the plant, the objects of the operation, i.e. whether for the
+  production of timber or fruit, the season and various other
+  circumstances. So much judgment and experience does the operation call
+  for that it is a truism to say that bad pruning is worse than none.
+  The removal of weakly, sickly, overcrowded and gross infertile shoots
+  is usually, however, a matter about which there can be few mistakes
+  when once the habit of growth and the form and arrangement of the buds
+  are known. Winter pruning is effected when the tree is comparatively
+  at rest, and is therefore less liable to "bleeding" or outpouring of
+  sap. Summer pruning or pinching off the tips of such of the younger
+  shoots as are not required for the extension of the tree, when not
+  carried to too great an extent, is preferable to the coarser more
+  reckless style of pruning. The injury inflicted is less and not so
+  concentrated; the wounds are smaller, and have time to heal before
+  winter sets in. The effects of badly-executed pruning, or rather
+  hacking, are most noticeable in the case of forest trees, the
+  mutilation of which often results in rotting, canker and other
+  diseases. Judicious and timely thinning so as to allow the trees room
+  to grow, and to give them sufficiency of light and air, will generally
+  obviate the need of the pruning-saw, except to a relatively small
+  extent.
+
+  _Training_ is a procedure adopted when it is required to grow plants
+  in a limited area, or in a particular shape, as in the case of many
+  plants of trailing habit. Judicious training also may be of importance
+  as encouraging the formation of flowers and fruit. Growth in length is
+  mainly in a vertical direction, or at least at the ends of the shoots;
+  and this should be encouraged, in the case of a timber tree, or of a
+  climbing plant which it is desired should cover a wall quickly; but
+  where flowers or fruit are specially desired, then, when the wood
+  required is formed, the lateral shoots may often be trained more or
+  less downward to induce fertility. The refinements of training, as of
+  pruning, may, however, be carried too far; and not unfrequently the
+  symmetrically trained trees of the French excite admiration in every
+  respect save fertility.
+
+  _Sports or Bud Variations._--Here we may conveniently mention certain
+  variations from the normal condition in the size, form or disposition
+  of buds or shoots on a given plant. An inferior variety of pear, for
+  instance, may suddenly produce a shoot bearing fruit of superior
+  quality; a beech tree, without obvious cause, a shoot with finely
+  divided foliage; or a camellia an unwontedly fine flower. When removed
+  from the plant and treated as cuttings or grafts, such sports may be
+  perpetuated. Many garden varieties of flowers and fruits have thus
+  originated. The cause of their production is very obscure.
+
+  _Formation of Flowers._--Flowers, whether for their own sake or as the
+  necessary precursors of the fruit and seed, are objects of the
+  greatest concern to the gardener. As a rule they are not formed until
+  the plant has arrived at a certain degree of vigour, or until a
+  sufficient supply of nourishment has been stored in the tissues of the
+  plant. The reproductive process of which the formation of the flower
+  is the first stage being an exhaustive one, it is necessary that the
+  plant, as gardeners say, should get "established" before it flowers.
+  Moreover, although the green portions of the flower do indeed perform
+  the same office as the leaves, the more highly coloured and more
+  specialized portions, which are further removed from the typical
+  leaf-form, do not carry on those processes for which the presence of
+  chlorophyll is essential; and the floral organs may, therefore, in a
+  rough sense, be said to be parasitic upon the green parts. A check or
+  arrest of growth in the vegetative organs seems to be a necessary
+  preliminary to the development of the flower.
+
+  A diminished supply of water at the root is requisite, so as to check
+  energy of growth, or rather to divert it from leaf-making. Partial
+  starvation will sometimes effect this; hence the grafting of
+  free-growing fruit trees upon dwarfing stocks, as before alluded to,
+  and also the "ringing" or girdling of fruit trees, i.e. the removal
+  from the branch of a ring of bark, or the application of a tight
+  cincture, in consequence of which the growth of the fruits above the
+  wound or the obstruction is enhanced. On the same principle the use of
+  small pots to confine the roots, root-pruning and lifting the roots,
+  and exposing them to the sun, as is done in the case of the vine in
+  some countries, are resorted to. A higher temperature, especially with
+  deficiency of moisture, will tend to throw a plant into a flowering
+  condition. This is exemplified by the fact that the temperature of the
+  climate of Great Britain is too low for the flowering, though
+  sufficiently high for the growth of many plants. Thus the Jerusalem
+  artichoke, though able to produce stems and tubers abundantly, only
+  flowers in exceptionally hot seasons.
+
+  _Forcing._--The operation of forcing is based upon the facts just
+  mentioned. By subjecting a plant to a gradually increasing
+  temperature, and supplying water in proportion, its growth may be
+  accelerated; its season of development may be, as it were,
+  anticipated; it is roused from a dormant to an active state. Forcing
+  therefore demands the most careful adjustment of temperature and
+  supplies of moisture and light.
+
+  Deficiency of light is less injurious than might at first be expected,
+  because the plant to be forced has stored up in its tissues, and
+  available for use, a reserve stock of material formed through the
+  agency of light in former seasons. The intensity of the colour of
+  flowers and the richness of flavour of fruit are, however, deficient
+  where there is feebleness of light. Recent experiments show that the
+  influence of electric light on chlorophyll is similar to that of
+  sunlight, and that deficiencies of natural light may to some extent be
+  made good by its use. The employment of that light for forcing
+  purposes would seem to be in part a question of expense. The advantage
+  hitherto obtained from its use has consisted in the rapidity with
+  which flowers have been formed and fruits ripened under its influence,
+  circumstances which go towards compensating for the extra cost of
+  production.
+
+  _Retardation._--The art of retarding the period of flowering in
+  certain plants consists, in principle, in the artificial application
+  of cold temperatures whereby the resting condition induced by low
+  winter temperature is prolonged. For commercial purposes, crowns of
+  lily of the valley, tulip and other bulbs, and such deciduous woody
+  plants as lilac and deciduous species of rhododendron, while in a
+  state of rest, are packed in wet moss and introduced into cold-storage
+  chambers, where they may be kept in a state of quiescence, it desired,
+  throughout the following summer. The temperature of the cold chamber
+  is varied from the freezing-point of water, to a few degrees lower,
+  according to the needs of the plants under treatment. When required
+  for use they are removed to cool sheds to thaw, and are then gradually
+  inured to higher temperatures. The chief advantages of retarded plants
+  are:--(a) they may be flowered almost at will; (b) they are readily
+  induced to flower at those times when unretarded plants refuse to
+  respond to forcing. Cold-storage chambers form a part of the equipment
+  of most of the leading establishments where flowers are grown for
+  market.
+
+  _Double Flowers._--The taste of the day demands that "double flowers"
+  should be largely grown. Though in many instances, as in hyacinths,
+  they are less beautiful than single ones, they always present the
+  advantage of being less evanescent. Under the vague term "double" many
+  very different morphological changes are included. The flower of a
+  double dahlia, e.g. offers a totally different condition of structure
+  from that of a rose or a hyacinth. The double poinsettia, again, owes
+  its so-called double condition merely to the increased number of its
+  scarlet involucral leaves, which are not parts of the flower at all.
+  It is reasonable, therefore, to infer that the causes leading to the
+  production of double flowers are varied. A good deal of difference of
+  opinion exists as to whether they are the result of arrested growth or
+  of exuberant development, and accordingly whether restricted food or
+  abundant supplies of nourishment are the more necessary for their
+  production. It must suffice here to say that double flowers are most
+  commonly the result of the substitution of brightly-coloured petals
+  for stamens or pistils or both, and that a perfectly double flower
+  where all the stamens and pistils are thus metamorphosed is
+  necessarily barren. Such a plant must needs be propagated by cuttings.
+  It rarely happens, however, that the change is quite complete
+  throughout the flower, and so a few seeds may be formed, some of which
+  may be expected to reproduce the double-blossomed plants. By
+  continuous selection of seed from the best varieties, and "roguing" or
+  eliminating plants of the ordinary type, a "strain" or race of double
+  flowers is gradually produced.
+
+  _Formation of Seed--Fertilization._--In fertilization--the influence
+  in flowering plants of the male-cell in the pollen tube upon the
+  egg-cell in the ovule (see BOTANY)--there are many circumstances of
+  importance horticulturally, to which, therefore, brief reference must
+  be made. Flowers, generally speaking, are either self-fertilized,
+  cross-fertilized or hybridized. Self-fertilization occurs when the
+  pollen of a given flower affects the egg-cell of the same individual
+  flower. Cross-fertilization varies both in manner and degree. In the
+  simplest instances the pollen of one flower fertilizes the ovules of
+  another on the same plant, owing to the stamens arriving at maturity
+  in any one flower earlier or later than the pistils.
+
+  Cross-fertilization must of necessity occur when the flowers are
+  structurally unisexual, as in the hazel, in which the male and female
+  flowers are monoecious, or separate on the same plant, and in the
+  willow, in which they are dioecious, or on different plants. A
+  conspicuous example of a dioecious plant is the common aucuba, of
+  which for years only the female plant was known in Britain. When,
+  through the introduction of the male plant from Japan, its
+  fertilization was rendered possible, ripe berries, before unknown,
+  became common ornaments of the shrub.
+
+  The conveyance of pollen from one flower to another in
+  cross-fertilization is effected naturally by the wind, or by the
+  agency of insects and other creatures. Flowers that require the aid of
+  insects usually offer some attraction to their visitors in the shape
+  of bright colour, fragrance or sweet juices. The colour and markings
+  of a flower often serve to guide the insects to the honey, in the
+  obtaining of which they are compelled either to remove or to deposit
+  pollen. The reciprocal adaptations of insects and flowers demand
+  attentive observation on the part of the gardener concerned with the
+  growing of grapes, cucumbers, melons and strawberries, or with the
+  raising of new and improved varieties of plants. In wind-fertilized
+  plants the flowers are comparatively inconspicuous and devoid of much
+  attraction for insects; and their pollen is smoother and smaller, and
+  better adapted for transport by the wind, than that of
+  insect-fertilized plants, the roughness of which adapts it for
+  attachment to the bodies of insects.
+
+  It is very probable that the same flower at certain times and seasons
+  is self-fertilizing, and at others not so. The defects which cause
+  gardeners to speak of certain vines as "shy setters," and of certain
+  strawberries as "blind," may be due either to unsuitable conditions of
+  external temperature, or to the non-accomplishment, from some cause or
+  other, of cross-fertilization. In a vinery, tomato-house or a
+  peach-house it is often good practice at the time of flowering to tap
+  the branches smartly with a stick so as to ensure the dispersal of the
+  pollen. Sometimes more delicate and direct manipulation is required,
+  and the gardener has himself to convey the pollen from one flower to
+  another, for which purpose a small camel's-hair pencil is generally
+  suitable. The degree of fertility varies greatly according to external
+  conditions, the structural and functional arrangements just alluded
+  to, and other causes which may roughly be called constitutional. Thus,
+  it often happens that an apparently very slight change in climate
+  alters the degree of fertility. In a particular country or at certain
+  seasons one flower will be self-sterile or nearly so, and another just
+  the opposite.
+
+  _Hybridization._--Some of the most interesting results and many of the
+  gardener's greatest triumphs have been obtained by hybridization, i.e.
+  the crossing of two individuals not of the same but of two distinct
+  species of plants, as, for instance, two species of rhododendron or
+  two species of orchid (see HYBRIDISM). It is obvious that
+  hybridization differs more in degree than in kind from
+  cross-fertilization. The occurrence of hybrids in nature explains the
+  difficulty experienced by botanists in deciding on what is a species,
+  and the widely different limitations of the term adopted by different
+  observers in the case of willows, roses, brambles, &c. The artificial
+  process is practically the same in hybridization as in
+  cross-fertilization, but usually requires more care. To prevent
+  self-fertilization, or the access of insects, it is advisable to
+  remove the stamens and even the corolla from the flower to be
+  impregnated, as its own pollen or that of a flower of the same species
+  is often found to be "prepotent." There are, however, cases, e.g. some
+  passion-flowers and rhododendrons, in which a flower is more or less
+  sterile with its own, but fertile with foreign pollen, even when this
+  is from a distinct species. It is a singular circumstance that
+  reciprocal crosses are not always or even often possible; thus, one
+  rhododendron may afford pollen perfectly potent on the stigma of
+  another kind, by the pollen of which latter its own stigma is
+  unaffected.
+
+  The object of the hybridizer is to obtain varieties exhibiting
+  improvements in hardihood, vigour, size, shape, colour, fruitfulness,
+  resistance to disease or other attributes. His success depends not
+  alone on skill and judgment, for some seasons, or days even, are found
+  more propitious than others. Although promiscuous and hap-hazard
+  procedures no doubt meet with a measure of success, the best results
+  are those which are attained by systematic work with a definite aim.
+
+  Hybrids are sometimes less fertile than pure-bred species, and are
+  occasionally quite sterile. Some hybrids, however, are as fertile as
+  pure-bred plants. Hybrid plants may be again crossed, or even
+  re-hybridized, so as to produce a progeny of very mixed parentage.
+  This is the case with many of our roses, dahlias, begonias,
+  pelargoniums, orchids and other long or widely cultivated garden
+  plants.
+
+  _Reversion._--In modified forms of plants there is frequently a
+  tendency to "sport" or revert to parental or ancestral
+  characteristics. So markedly is this the case with hybrids that in a
+  few generations all traces of a hybrid origin may disappear. The
+  dissociation of the hybrid element in a plant must be obviated by
+  careful selection. The researches of Gregor Johann Mendel (1822-1884),
+  abbot of the Augustinian monastery at Brünn, in connexion with peas
+  and other plants, apparently indicate that there is a definite natural
+  law at work in the production of hybrids. Having crossed yellow and
+  green seeded peas both ways, he found that the progeny resulted in
+  _all yellow_ coloured seeds. These gave rise in due course to a second
+  generation in which there were three yellows to one green. In the
+  third generation the yellows from the second generation gave the
+  proportion of one pure yellow, two impure yellows, and one green;
+  while the green seed of the second generation threw only green seeds
+  in the third, fourth and fifth generations. The pure yellow in the
+  third generation also threw pure yellows in the fourth and fifth and
+  succeeding generations. The impure yellows, however, in the next
+  generation gave rise to one pure yellow, one pure green, to two impure
+  yellows, and so on from generation to generation. Accordingly as the
+  green or the yellow predominated in the progeny it was termed
+  "dominant," while the colour that disappeared was called "recessive."
+  It happened, however, that a recessive colour in one generation
+  becomes the dominant in a succeeding one.
+
+  _Germination._--The length of the period during which seeds remain
+  dormant after their formation is very variable. The conditions for
+  germination are much the same as for growth in general. Access to
+  light is not required, because the seed contains a sufficiency of
+  stored-up food. The temperature necessary varies according to the
+  nature and source of the seed. Some seeds require prolonged immersion
+  in water to soften their shells; others are of so delicate a texture
+  that they would dry up and perish if not kept constantly in a moist
+  atmosphere. Seeds buried too deeply receive a deficient supply of air.
+  As a rule, seeds require to be sown more deeply in proportion to their
+  size and the lightness of the soil.
+
+  The time required for germination in the most favourable circumstances
+  varies very greatly, even in the same species, and in seeds taken from
+  one pod. Thus the seeds of _Primula japonica_, though sown under
+  precisely similar conditions, yet come up at very irregular intervals
+  of time. Germination is often slower where there is a store of
+  available food in the perisperm, or in the endosperm, or in the embryo
+  itself, than where this is scanty or wanting. In the latter case the
+  seedling has early to shift for itself, and to form roots and leaves
+  for the supply of its needs.
+
+  _Selection._--Supposing seedlings to have been developed, it is found
+  that a large number of them present considerable variations, some
+  being especially robust, others peculiar in size or form. Those most
+  suitable for the purpose of the gardener are carefully selected for
+  propagation, while others not so desirable are destroyed; and thus
+  after a few generations a fixed variety, race or strain superior to
+  the original form is obtained. Many garden plants have originated
+  solely by selection; and much has been done to improve our breeds of
+  vegetables, flowers and fruit by systematic selection.
+
+  Large and well-formed seeds are to be preferred for harvesting. The
+  seeds should be kept in sacks or bags in a dry place, and if from
+  plants which are rare, or liable to lose their vitality, they are
+  advantageously packed for transmission to a distance in hermetically
+  sealed bottles or jars filled with earth or moss, without the addition
+  of moisture.
+
+  It will have been gathered from what has been said that seeds cannot
+  always be depended on to reproduce exactly the characteristics of the
+  plant which yielded them; for instance, seeds of the greengage plum or
+  of the Ribston pippin will produce a plum or an apple, but not these
+  particular varieties, to perpetuate which grafts or buds must be
+  employed.     (M. T. M.; W. R. W.)
+
+
+PART II.--THE PRACTICE OF HORTICULTURE
+
+The details of horticultural practice naturally range under the three
+heads of flowers, fruits and vegetables (see also FRUIT AND FLOWER
+FARMING). There are, however, certain general aspects of the subject
+which will be more conveniently noticed apart, since they apply alike to
+each department. We shall therefore first treat of these under four
+headings: formation and preparation of the garden, garden structures and
+edifices, garden materials and appliances, and garden operations.
+
+
+I. _Formation and Preparation of the Garden._
+
+_Site._--The site chosen for the mansion will more or less determine
+that of the garden, the pleasure grounds and flower garden being placed
+so as to surround or lie contiguous to it, while the fruit and vegetable
+gardens, either together or separate, should be placed on one side or in
+the rear, according to fitness as regards the nature of the soil and
+subsoil, the slope of the surface or the general features of the park
+scenery. In the case of villa gardens there is usually little choice:
+the land to be occupied is cut up into plots, usually rectangular, and
+of greater or less breadth, and in laying out these plots there is
+generally a smaller space left in the front of the villa residence and a
+larger one behind, the front plot being usually devoted to approaches,
+shrubbery and plantations, flower beds being added if space permits,
+while the back or more private plot has a piece of lawn grass with
+flower beds next the house, and a space for vegetables and fruit trees
+at the far end, this latter being shut off from the lawn by an
+intervening screen of evergreens or other plants. Between these two
+classes of gardens there are many gradations, but our remarks will
+chiefly apply to those of larger extent.
+
+The almost universal practice is to have the fruit and vegetable gardens
+combined; and the flower garden may sometimes be conveniently placed in
+juxtaposition with them. When the fruit and vegetable gardens are
+combined, the smaller and choicer fruit trees only should be admitted,
+such larger-growing hardy fruits as apples, pears, plums, cherries, &c.,
+being relegated to the orchard.
+
+Ground possessing a gentle inclination towards the south is desirable
+for a garden. On such a slope effectual draining is easily accomplished,
+and the greatest possible benefit is derived from the sun's rays. It is
+well also to have an open exposure towards the east and west, so that
+the garden may enjoy the full benefit of the morning and evening sun,
+especially the latter; but shelter is desirable on the north and
+north-east, or in any direction in which the particular locality may
+happen to be exposed. In some places the south-western gales are so
+severe that a belt of trees is useful as a break wind and shelter.
+
+_Soil and Subsoil._--A hazel-coloured loam, moderately light in texture,
+is well adapted for most garden crops, whether of fruits or vegetables,
+especially a good warm deep loam resting upon chalk; and if such a soil
+occurs naturally in the selected site, but little will be required in
+the way of preparation. If the soil is not moderately good and of fair
+depth, it is not so favourable for gardening purposes. Wherever the soil
+is not quite suitable, but is capable of being made so, it is best to
+remedy the defect at the outset by trenching it all over to a depth of 2
+or 3 ft., incorporating plenty of manure with it. A heavy soil, although
+at first requiring more labour, generally gives far better results when
+worked than a light soil. The latter is not sufficiently retentive of
+moisture and gets too hot in summer and requires large quantities of
+organic manures to keep it in good condition. It is advantageous to
+possess a variety of soils; and if the garden be on a slope it will
+often be practicable to render the upper part light and dry, while the
+lower remains of a heavier and damper nature.
+
+Natural soils consist of substances derived from the decomposition of
+various kinds of rocks, the bulk consisting of clay, silica and lime, in
+various proportions. As regards preparation, draining is of course of
+the utmost importance. The ground should also be trenched to the depth
+of 3 ft. at least, and the deeper the better so as to bring up the
+subsoil--whether it be clay, sand, gravel, marl, &c.--for exposure to
+the weather and thus convert it from a sterile mass into a living soil
+teeming with bacteria. In this operation all stones larger than a man's
+fist must be taken out, and all roots of trees and of perennial weeds
+carefully cleared away. When the whole ground has been thus treated, a
+moderate liming will, in general, be useful, especially on heavy clay
+soils. After this, supposing the work to have occupied most of the
+summer, the whole may be laid up in ridges, to expose as great a surface
+as possible to the action of the winter's frost.
+
+  Argillaceous or clay soils are those which contain a large percentage
+  (45-50) of clay, and a small percentage (5 or less) of lime. These are
+  unfitted for garden purposes until improved by draining, liming,
+  trenching and the addition of porous materials, such as ashes, burnt
+  ballast or sand, but when thoroughly improved they are very fertile
+  and less liable to become exhausted than most other soils. Loamy soils
+  contain a considerable quantity (30-45%) of clay, and smaller
+  quantities of lime, humus and sand. Such soils properly drained and
+  prepared are very suitable for orchards, and when the proportion of
+  clay is smaller (20-30%) they form excellent garden soils, in which
+  the better sort of fruit trees luxuriate. Marly soils are those which
+  contain a considerable percentage (10-20) of lime, and are called clay
+  marls, loamy marls and sandy marls, according as these several
+  ingredients preponderate. The clay marls are, like clay soils, too
+  stiff for garden purposes until well worked and heavily manured; but
+  loamy marls are fertile and well suited to fruit trees, and sandy
+  marls are adapted for producing early crops. Calcareous soils, which
+  may also be heavy, intermediate or light, are those which contain more
+  than 20% of lime, their fertility depending on the proportions of clay
+  and sand which enter into their composition; they are generally cold
+  and wet. Vegetable soils or moulds, or humus soils, contain a
+  considerable percentage (more than 5) of humus, and embrace both the
+  rich productive garden moulds and those known as peaty soils.
+
+The nature of the subsoil is of scarcely less importance than that of
+the surface soil. Many gardeners are still afraid to disturb an
+unsuitable subsoil, but experienced growers have proved that by bringing
+it up to the surface and placing plenty of manure in the bottoms of the
+various trenches, the very best results are attained in the course of a
+season or so. An uneven subsoil, especially if retentive, is most
+undesirable, as water is apt to collect in the hollows, and thus affect
+the upper soil. The remedy is to make the plane of its surface agree
+with that of the ground. When there is a hard pan this should be broken
+up with the spade or the fork, and have plenty of manure mixed with it.
+When there is an injurious preponderance of metallic oxides or other
+deleterious substances, the roots of trees would be affected by them,
+and they must therefore be removed. When the subsoil is too compact to
+be pervious to water, effectual drainage must be resorted to; when it is
+very loose, so that it drains away the fertile ingredients of the soil
+as well as those which are artificially supplied, the compactness of the
+stratum should be increased by the addition of clay, marl or loam. The
+best of all subsoils is a dry bed of clay overlying sandstone.
+
+_Plan._--In laying out the garden, the plan should be prepared in minute
+detail before commencing operations. The form of the kitchen and fruit
+garden should be square or oblong, rather than curvilinear, since the
+working and cropping of the ground can thus be more easily carried out.
+The whole should be compactly arranged, so as to facilitate working, and
+to afford convenient access for the carting of the heavy materials. This
+access is especially desirable as regards the store-yards and framing
+ground, where fermenting manures and tree leaves for making up hot beds,
+coals or wood for fuel and ingredients for composts, together with
+flower-pots and the many necessaries of garden culture, have to be
+accommodated. In the case of villas or picturesque residences, gardens
+of irregular form may be permitted; when adapted to the conditions of
+the locality, they associate better with surrounding objects, but in
+such gardens wall space is usually limited.
+
+The distribution of paths must be governed by circumstances. Generally
+speaking, the main paths for cartage should be 8 ft. wide, made up of 9
+in. hard core covered by 4 in. of gravel or ash, with a gentle rise to
+centre to throw off surface water. The smaller paths, not intended for
+cartage, should be 4 ft. to 6 ft. wide, according to circumstances, made
+up of 6 in. hard core and 3 in. of gravel or ash, and should be slightly
+raised at centre.
+
+A considerable portion of the north wall is usually covered in front
+with the glazed structures called forcing-houses, and to these the
+houses for ornamental plants are sometimes attached; but a more
+appropriate site for the latter is the flower garden, when that forms a
+separate department. It is well, however, that everything connected with
+the forcing of fruits or flowers should be concentrated in one place.
+The frame ground, including melon and pine pits, should occupy some
+well-sheltered spot in the slips, or on one side of the garden, and
+adjoining to this may be found a suitable site for the compost ground,
+in which the various kinds of soils are kept in store, and in which also
+composts may be prepared.
+
+As walls afford valuable space for the growth of the choicer kinds of
+hardy fruits, the direction in which they are built is of considerable
+importance. In the warmer parts of the country the wall on the north
+side of the garden should be so placed as to face the sun at about an
+hour before noon, or a little to the east of south; in less favoured
+localities it should be made to face direct south, and in still more
+unfavourable districts it should face the sun an hour after noon, or a
+little west of south. The east and west walls should run parallel to
+each other, and at right angles to that on the north side, in all the
+most favoured localities; but in colder or later ones, though parallel,
+they should be so far removed from a right angle as to get the sun by
+eleven o'clock. On the whole, the form of a parallelogram with its
+longest sides in the proportion of about five to three of the shorter,
+and running east and west, may be considered the best form, since it
+affords a greater extent of south wall than any other.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 1.--Plan of Garden an acre in area.]
+
+  Fig. 1 represents a garden of one acre and admits of nearly double the
+  number of trees on the south aspect as compared with the east and
+  west; it allows a greater number of espalier or pyramid trees to face
+  the south; and it admits of being divided into equal principal
+  compartments, each of which forms nearly a square. The size of course
+  can be increased to any requisite extent. That of the royal gardens at
+  Frogmore, 760 ft. from east to west and 440 ft. from north to south,
+  is nearly of the same proportions.
+
+The spaces between the walls and the outer fence are called "slips." A
+considerable extent is sometimes thus enclosed, and utilized for the
+growth of such vegetables as potatoes, winter greens and sea-kale, for
+the small bush fruits, and for strawberries. The slips are also
+convenient as affording a variety of aspects, and thus helping to
+prolong the season of particular vegetable crops.
+
+_Shelter._--A screen of some kind to temper the fury of the blast is
+absolutely necessary. If the situation is not naturally well sheltered,
+the defect may be remedied by masses of forest trees disposed at a
+considerable distance so as not to shade the walls or fruit trees. They
+should not be nearer than, say, 50 yds., and may vary from that to 100
+or 150 yds. distance according to circumstances, regard being had
+especially to peculiarities occasioned by the configuration of the
+country, as for instance to aerial currents from adjacent eminences.
+Care should be taken, however, not to hem in the garden by crowded
+plantations, shelter from the prevailing strong winds being all that is
+required, while the more open it is in other directions the better. The
+trees employed for screens should include both those of deciduous and of
+evergreen habit, and should suit the peculiarities of local soil and
+climate. Of deciduous trees the sycamore, wych-elm, horse-chestnut,
+beech, lime, plane and poplar may be used,--the abele or white poplar,
+_Populus alba_, being one of the most rapid-growing of all trees, and,
+like other poplars, well suited for nursing other choicer subjects;
+while of evergreens, the holm oak, holly, laurel (both common and
+Portugal), and such conifers as the Scotch, Weymouth and Austrian pines,
+with spruce and silver firs and yews, are suitable. The conifers make
+the most effective screens.
+
+Extensive gardens in exposed situations are often divided into
+compartments by hedges, so disposed as to break the force of high winds.
+Where these are required to be narrow as well as lofty, holly, yew or
+beech is to be preferred; but, if there is sufficient space, the
+beautiful laurel and the bay may be employed where they will thrive.
+Smaller hedges may be formed of evergreen privet or of tree-box. These
+subordinate divisions furnish, not only shelter but also shade, which,
+at certain seasons, is peculiarly valuable.
+
+Belts of shrubbery may be placed round the slips outside the walls; and
+these may in many cases, or in certain parts, be of sufficient breadth
+to furnish pleasant retired promenades, at the same time that they serve
+to mask the formality of the walled gardens, and are made to harmonize
+with the picturesque scenery of the pleasure ground.
+
+_Water Supply._--Although water is one of the most important elements in
+plant life, we do not find one garden in twenty where even ordinary
+precautions have been taken to secure a competent supply. Rain-water is
+the best, next to that river or pond water, and last of all that from
+springs; but a chemical analysis should be made of the last before
+introducing it, as some spring waters contain mineral ingredients
+injurious to vegetation. Iron pipes are the best conductors; they should
+lead to a capacious open reservoir placed outside the garden, and at the
+highest convenient level, in order to secure sufficient pressure for
+effective distribution, and so that the wall trees also may be
+effectually washed. Stand-pipes should be placed at intervals beside the
+walks and in other convenient places, from which water may at all times
+be drawn; and to which a garden hose can be attached, so as to permit of
+the whole garden being readily watered. The mains should be placed under
+the walks for safety, and also that they may be easily reached when
+repairs are required. Pipes should also be laid having a connexion with
+all the various greenhouses and forcing-houses, each of which should be
+provided with a cistern for aerating the daily supplies. In fact, every
+part of the garden, including the working sheds and offices, should have
+water supplied without stint.
+
+_Fence._--Gardens of large extent should be encircled by an outer
+boundary, which is often formed by a sunk wall or ha-ha surrounded by an
+invisible wire fence to exclude ground game, or consists of a hedge with
+low wire fence on its inner side. Occasionally this sunk wall is placed
+on the exterior of the screen plantations, and walks lead through the
+trees, so that views are obtained of the adjacent country. Although the
+interior garden receives its form from the walls, the ring fence and
+plantations may be adapted to the shape and surface of the ground. In
+smaller country gardens the enclosure or outer fence is often a hedge,
+and there is possibly no space enclosed by walls, but some divisional
+wall having a suitable aspect is utilized for the growth of peaches,
+apricots, &c., and the hedge merely separates the garden from a paddock
+used for grazing. The still smaller gardens of villas are generally
+bounded by a wall or wood fence, the inner side of which is appropriated
+to fruit trees. For the latter walls are much more convenient and
+suitable than a boarded fence, but in general these are too low to be of
+much value as aids to cultivation, and they are best covered with bush
+fruits or with ornamental plants of limited growth.
+
+_Walks._--The best material for the construction of garden walks is good
+binding gravel. The ground should be excavated to the depth of a foot or
+more--the bottom being made firm and slightly concave, so that it may
+slope to the centre, where a drain should be introduced; or the bottom
+may be made convex and the water allowed to drain away at the sides. The
+bottom 9 in. should be filled in compactly with hard, coarse materials,
+such as stones, brickbats, clinkers, burned clay, &c., on which should
+be laid 2 or 3 in. of coarse gravel, and then 1 or 2 in. of firm binding
+gravel on the surface. The surface of the walks should be kept well
+rolled, for nothing contributes more to their elegance and durability.
+
+All the principal lines of walk should be broad enough to allow at least
+three persons to walk abreast; the others may be narrower, but a
+multitude of narrow walks has a puny effect. Much of the neatness of
+walks depends upon the material of which they are made. Gravel from an
+inland pit is to be preferred; though occasionally very excellent
+varieties are found upon the sea-coast. Gravel walks must be kept free
+from weeds, either by hand weeding, or by the use of one of the many
+weed killers now on the market. In some parts of the country the
+available material does not bind to form a close, even surface, and such
+walks are kept clean by hoeing.
+
+Grass walks were common in English gardens during the prevalence of the
+Dutch taste, but, owing to the frequent humidity of the climate, they
+have in a great measure been discarded. Grass walks are made in the same
+way as grass lawns. When the space to be thus occupied is prepared, a
+thin layer of sand or poor earth is laid upon the surface and over this
+a similar layer of good soil. This arrangement is adopted in order to
+prevent excessive luxuriance in the grass. In many modern gardens
+pathways made of old paving stones lead from the house to different
+parts. They give an old-fashioned and restful appearance to a garden,
+and in the interstices charming little plants like thyme, _Ionopsidium
+acaule_, &c., are allowed to grow.
+
+_Edgings._--Walks are separated from the adjoining beds and borders in a
+variety of ways. If a living edging is adopted, by far the best is
+afforded by the dwarf box planted closely in line. It is of extremely
+neat growth, and when annually clipped will remain in good order for
+many years. Very good edgings, but of a less durable character, are
+formed by thrift (_Armeria vulgaris_), double daisy (_Bellis perennis_),
+gentianella (_Gentiana acaulis_) and London pride (_Saxifraga umbrosa_),
+_Cerastium tomentosum_, _Stachys lavata_ and the beautiful evergreen
+_Veronica rupestris_ with sheets of bright blue flowers close to the
+ground, or by some of the finer grasses very carefully selected, such as
+the sheep's fescue (_Festuca ovina_) or its glaucous-leaved variety.
+Indeed, any low-growing herbaceous plant, susceptible of minute
+division, is suitable for an edging. Amongst shrubby plants suitable for
+edgings are the evergreen candytuft (_Iberis sempervirens_), _Euonymus
+radicans variegata_, ivy, and _Euonymus microphyllus_--a charming little
+evergreen with small serrated leaves. Edgings may also be formed of
+narrow slips of sandstone flag, slate, tiles or bricks. One advantage of
+using edgings of this kind, especially in kitchen gardens, is that they
+do not harbour slugs and similar vermin, which all live edgings do, and
+often to a serious extent, if they are left to grow large. In
+shrubberies and large flower-plots, verges of grass-turf, from 1 to 3
+ft. in breadth, according to the size of the border and width of the
+walk, make a very handsome edging, but they should not be allowed to
+rise more than an inch and a half above the gravel, the grass being kept
+short by repeated mowings, and the edges kept trim and well-defined by
+frequently clipping with shears and cutting once or twice a year with an
+edging iron.
+
+
+II. _Garden Structures._
+
+_Walls._--The position to be given to the garden walls has been already
+referred to. The shelter afforded by a wall, and the increased
+temperature secured by its presence, are indispensable in the climate of
+Great Britain, for the production of all the finer kinds of outdoor
+fruits; and hence the inner side of a north wall, having a southern
+aspect, is appropriated to the more tender kinds. It is, indeed,
+estimated that such positions enjoy an increased temperature equal to 7°
+of latitude--that is to say, the mean temperature within a few inches of
+the wall is equal to the mean temperature of the open plain 7° farther
+south. The eastern and western aspects are set apart for fruits of a
+somewhat hardier character.
+
+Where the inclination of the ground is considerable, and the presence of
+high walls would be objectionable, the latter may be replaced by sunk
+walls. These should not rise more than 3 ft. above the level of the
+ground behind them. As dryness is favourable to an increase of heat,
+such walls should be either built hollow or packed behind to the
+thickness of 3 or 4 ft. with rubble stones, flints, brickbats or similar
+material, thoroughly drained at bottom. For mere purposes of shelter a
+height of 6 or 7 ft. will generally be sufficient for the walls of a
+garden, but for the training of fruit trees it is found that an average
+height of 12 ft. is more suitable. In gardens of large size the northern
+or principal wall may be 14 ft., and the side walls 12 ft. in height;
+while smaller areas of an acre or so should have the principal walls 12
+and the side walls 10 ft. in height. As brick is more easily built
+hollow than stone, it is to be preferred for garden walls. A 14-in.
+hollow wall will take in its construction 12,800 bricks, while a solid
+9-in. one, with piers, will take 11,000; but the hollow wall, while thus
+only a little more costly, will be greatly superior, being drier and
+warmer, as well as more substantial. Bricks cannot be too well burnt for
+garden walls; the harder they are the less moisture will they absorb.
+Many excellent walls are built of stone. The best is dark-coloured
+whinstone, because it absorbs very little moisture, or in Scotland
+Caithness pavement 4 in. thick. The stones can be cut (in the quarries)
+to any required length, and built in regular courses. Stone walls should
+always be built with thin courses for convenience of training over their
+surface. Concrete walls, properly coped and provided with a trellis, may
+in some places be cheapest, and they are very durable. Common rubble
+walls are the worst of all.
+
+The coping of garden walls is important, both for the preservation of
+the walls and for throwing the rain-water off their surfaces. It should
+not project less than from 2 to 2½ in., but in wet districts may be
+extended to 6 in. Stone copings are best, but they are costly, and
+Portland cement is sometimes substituted. Temporary copings of wood,
+which may be fixed by means of permanent iron brackets just below the
+stone coping, are extremely useful in spring for the protection of the
+blossoms of fruit trees. They should be 9 in. or 1 ft. wide, and should
+be put on during spring before the blossom buds begin to expand; they
+should have attached to them scrim cloth (a sort of thin canvas), which
+admits light pretty freely, yet is sufficient to ward off ordinary
+frosts; this canvas is to be let down towards evening and drawn up again
+in the morning. These copings should be removed when they are of no
+further utility as protectors, so that the foliage may have the full
+benefit of rain and dew. Any contrivance that serves to interrupt
+radiation, though it may not keep the temperature much above freezing,
+will be found sufficient. Standard fruit trees must be left to take
+their chance; and, indeed from the lateness of their flowering, they are
+generally more injured by blight, and by drenching rains, which wash
+away the pollen of the flowers, than by the direct effects of cold.
+
+_Espalier Rails._--Subsidiary to walls as a means of training fruit
+trees, espalier rails were formerly much employed, and are still used in
+many gardens. In their simplest form, they are merely a row of slender
+stakes of larch or other wood driven into the ground, and connected by a
+slight rod or fillet at top. The use of iron rails has now been almost
+wholly discontinued on account of metallic substances acting as powerful
+conductors of both heat and cold in equal extremes. Standards from which
+galvanized wire is tightly strained from one end to the other are
+preferable and very convenient. Trees trained to them are easily got at
+for all cultural operations, space is saved, and the fruit, while freely
+exposed to sun and air, is tolerably secure against wind. They form,
+moreover, neat enclosures for the vegetable quarters, and, provided
+excess of growth from the centre is successfully grappled with, they are
+productive in soils and situations which are suitable.
+
+_Plant Houses._--These include all those structures which are more
+intimately associated with the growth of ornamental plants and flowers,
+and comprise conservatory, plant stove, greenhouse and the subsidiary
+pits and frames. They should be so erected as to present the smallest
+extent of opaque surface consistent with stability. With this object in
+view, the early improvers of hot-house architecture substituted metal
+for wood in the construction of the roofs, and for the most part
+dispensed with back walls; but the conducting power of the metal caused
+a great irregularity of temperature, which it was found difficult to
+control; and, notwithstanding the elegance of metallic houses, this
+circumstance, together with their greater cost, has induced most recent
+authorities to give the preference to wood. The combination of the two,
+however, shows clearly that, without much variation of heat or loss of
+light, any extent of space may be covered, and houses of any altitude
+constructed.
+
+  The earliest notice we have of such structures is given in the Latin
+  writers of the 1st century (Mart. _Epigr._ viii. 14 and 68); the
+  [Greek: Adônidos kêpoi], to which allusion is made by various Greek
+  authors, have no claim to be mentioned in this connexion. Columella
+  (xi. 3, 51, 52) and Pliny (_H.N._ xix. 23) both refer to their use in
+  Italy for the cultivation of the rarer and more delicate sorts of
+  plants and trees. Seneca has given us a description of the application
+  of hot water for securing the necessary temperature. The botanist
+  Jungermann had plant houses at Altdorf in Switzerland; those of
+  Loader, a London merchant, and the conservatory in the Apothecaries'
+  Botanic Garden at Chelsea, were among the first structures of the kind
+  erected in British gardens. These were, however, ill adapted for the
+  growth of plants, as they consisted of little else than a huge chamber
+  of masonry, having large windows in front, with the roof invariably
+  opaque. The next step was taken when it became fashionable to have
+  conservatories attached to mansions, instead of having them in the
+  pleasure grounds. This arrangement brought them within the province of
+  architects, and for nearly a century utility and fitness for the
+  cultivation of plants were sacrificed, as still is often the case, to
+  the unity of architectural expression between the conservatory and the
+  mansion.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 2.--Lean-to Plant House.]
+
+Plant houses must be as far as possible impervious to wet and cold air
+from the exterior, provision at the same time being made for
+ventilation, while the escape of warm air from the interior must also be
+under control. The most important part of the enclosing material is
+necessarily glass. But as the rays of light, even in passing through
+transparent glass, lose much of their energy, which is further weakened
+in proportion to the distance it has to travel, the nearer the plant can
+be placed to the glass the more perfectly will its functions be
+performed; hence the importance of constructing the roofs at such an
+angle as will admit the most light, especially sunlight, at the time it
+is most required. Plants in glass houses require for their fullest
+development more solar light probably than even our best hot-houses
+transmit--certainly much more than is transmitted through the roofs of
+houses as generally constructed.
+
+Plant houses constructed of the best Baltic pine timber are very
+durable, but the whole of the parts should be kept as light as possible.
+In many houses, especially those where ornament is of no consequence,
+the rafters are now omitted, or only used at wide intervals, somewhat
+stouter sash-bars being adopted, and stout panes of glass (usually
+called 21-oz.) 12 to 18 in. wide, made use of. Such houses are very
+light; being also very close, they require careful ventilation. The
+glass roof is commonly designed so as to form a uniform plane or slope
+from back to front in lean-to houses (fig. 2), and from centre to sides
+in span-roofed houses. To secure the greatest possible influx of light,
+some horticulturists recommend curvilinear roofs; but the superiority of
+these is largely due to the absence of rafters, which may also be
+dispensed with in plain roofs. They are very expensive to build and
+maintain. Span and ridge-and-furrow roofs, the forms now mostly
+preferred, are exceedingly well adapted for the admission of light,
+especially when they are glazed to within a few inches of the ground.
+They can be made, too, to cover in any extent of area without sustaining
+walls. Indeed, it has been proposed to support such roofs to a great
+extent upon suspension principles, the internal columns of support being
+utilized for conducting the rain-water off the roof to underground
+drains or reservoirs. The lean-to is the least desirable form, since it
+scarcely admits of elegance of design, but it is necessarily adopted in
+many cases.
+
+In glazing, the greater the surface of glass, and the less space
+occupied by rafters and astragals as well as overlaps, the greater the
+admission of light. Some prefer that the sash-bars should be grooved
+instead of rebated, and this plan exposes less putty to the action of
+the weather. The simple bedding of the glass, without the use of over
+putty, seems to be widely approved; but the glass may be fixed in a
+variety of other ways, some of which are patented.
+
+  The _Conservatory_ is often built in connexion with the mansion, so as
+  to be entered from the drawing-room or boudoir. But when so situated
+  it is apt to suffer from the shade of the building, and is
+  objectionable on account of admitting damp to the drawing-room. Where
+  circumstances will admit, it is better to place it at some distance
+  from the house, and to form a connexion by means of a glass corridor.
+  In order that the conservatory may be kept gay with flowers, there
+  should be a subsidiary structure to receive the plants as they go out
+  of bloom. The conservatory may also with great propriety be placed in
+  the flower garden, where it may occupy an elevated terrace, and form
+  the termination of one of the more important walks.
+
+  Great variety of design is admissible in the conservatory, but it
+  ought always to be adapted to the style of the mansion of which it is
+  a prominent appendage. Some very pleasing examples are to be met with
+  which have the form of a parallelogram with a lightly-rounded roof;
+  others of appropriate character are square or nearly so, with a
+  ridge-and-furrow roof. Whatever the form, there must be light in
+  abundance; and the shade both of buildings and of trees must be
+  avoided. A southern aspect, or one varying to south-east or
+  south-west, is preferable; if these aspects cannot be secured, the
+  plants selected must be adapted to the position. The central part of
+  the house may be devoted to permanent plants; the side stages and open
+  spaces in the permanent beds should be reserved for the temporary
+  plants.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 3.--Section of Greenhouse.]
+
+  The _Greenhouse_ is a structure designed for the growth of such exotic
+  plants as require to be kept during winter in a temperature
+  considerably above the freezing-point. The best form is the
+  span-roofed, a single span being better even than a series of spans
+  such as form the ridge-and-furrow roof. For plant culture, houses at a
+  comparatively low pitch are better than higher ones where the plants
+  have to stand at a greater distance from the glass, and therefore in
+  greater gloom. Fig. 3 represents a convenient form of greenhouse. It
+  is 20 ft. wide and 12 ft. high, and may be of any convenient length.
+  The side walls are surmounted by short upright sashes which open
+  outwards by machinery a, and the roof is provided with sliding upper
+  sashes for top ventilation. The upper sashes may also be made to lift,
+  and are in many respects more convenient to operate. In the centre is
+  a two-tier stage 6 ft. wide, for plants, with a pathway on each side 3
+  ft. wide, and a side stage 4 ft. wide, the side stages being flat, and
+  the centre stage having the middle portion one-third of the width
+  elevated 1 ft. above the rest so as to lift up the middle row of
+  plants nearer the light. Span-roofed houses of this character should
+  run north and south so as to secure an equalization of light, and
+  should be warmed by two flow, and one or two return 4-in. hot-water
+  pipes, carried under the side stages along each side and across each
+  end. Where it is desired to cultivate a large number of plants, it is
+  much better to increase the number of such houses than to provide
+  larger structures. The smaller houses are far better for cultural
+  purposes, while the plants can be classified, and the little details
+  of management more conveniently attended to. Pelargoniums, cinerarias,
+  calceolarias, cyclamens, camellias, heaths, roses and other
+  specialities might thus have to themselves either a whole house or
+  part of a house, the conditions of which could then be more accurately
+  fitted to the wants of the inmates.
+
+  The lean-to house is in most respects inferior to the span-roofed; one
+  of the latter could be converted into two of the former of opposite
+  aspects by a divisional wall along the centre. Except where space does
+  not permit a span-roofed building to be introduced, a lean-to is not
+  to be recommended; but a house of this class may often be greatly
+  improved by adopting a half-span or hipped roof--that is, one with a
+  short slope behind and a longer in front.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 4.--Section of Plant Stove.]
+
+  Where the cultivation of large specimens has to be carried on, a
+  span-roofed house of greater height and larger dimensions may
+  sometimes prove useful; but space for this class of plants may
+  generally be secured in a house of the smaller elevation, simply by
+  lowering or removing altogether the staging erected for smaller
+  plants, and allowing the larger ones to stand on or nearer the floor.
+  The _Plant Stove_ differs in no respect from the greenhouse except in
+  having a greater extent of hot-water pipes for the purpose of securing
+  a greater degree of heat, although, as the plants in stove houses
+  often attain a larger size, and many of them require a bed of coco-nut
+  fibre, tan or leaf mould to supply them with bottom heat, a somewhat
+  greater elevation may perhaps be occasionally required in some of the
+  houses. For the smaller plants, and for all choicer subjects, the
+  smaller size of house already recommended for greenhouses, namely 20
+  ft. wide and 12 ft. high, with a side table of 4 ft. on each side, a
+  pathway of 3 ft. and a central stage on two levels of 6 ft. wide, will
+  be preferable, because more easily managed as to the supply of heat
+  and moisture. It will be seen (fig. 4) that along the ridge of the
+  roof a raised portion or lantern light b, b is introduced, which
+  permits of the fixing of two continuous ventilators, one along each
+  side, for the egress of heated and foul air, openings a, a being also
+  provided in the side walls opposite the hot-water pipes for the
+  admission of pure cold air. This type of house is also very suitable
+  for greenhouse plants, but would not need so much heating apparatus.
+  Three or four rows of flow and return pipes respectively will be
+  required on each side, according to the heat proposed to be
+  maintained.
+
+  In their interior fittings plant stoves require more care than
+  greenhouses, which are much drier, and in which consequently the
+  staging does not so soon decay. In stoves the stages should be of
+  slate or stone where practicable, and the supports of iron. These
+  should be covered with a layer of 2 or 3 in. of some coarse gritty
+  material, such as pounded spar, or the shell sand obtained on the
+  sea-coast, on which the pots are to stand; its use is to absorb
+  moisture and gradually give it out for the benefit of the plants. The
+  pathways should be paved with tiles, brick or stone, or made of
+  concrete and cement, and the surface should be gently rounded so that
+  the water required for evaporation may drain to the sides while the
+  centre is sufficiently dry to walk upon; they should also have brick
+  or stone edgings to prevent the water so applied soaking away at the
+  sides and thus being wasted.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 5.--Lean-to Vinery.]
+
+_Fruit Houses._--The principal of these are the vinery, peach house,
+cucumber and melon house and orchard house. These, or a portion of them,
+especially the vineries and peacheries, are frequently brought together
+into a range along the principal interior or south wall of the garden,
+where they are well exposed to sun and light, an ornamental plant house
+being sometimes introduced into the centre of the range in order to give
+effect to the outline of the buildings. When thus associated, the houses
+are usually of the lean-to class, which have the advantage of being more
+easily warmed and kept warm than buildings having glass on both sides, a
+matter of great importance for forcing purposes.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 6.--Hip-Roofed Vinery.]
+
+  The _Vinery_ is a house devoted to the culture of the grape-vine,
+  which is by far the most important exotic fruit cultivated in English
+  gardens. When forming part of a range a vinery would in most cases be
+  a lean-to structure, with a sharp pitch (45-50°) if intended for early
+  forcing, and a flatter roof (40°) with longer rafters if designed for
+  the main and late crops. (1) The _lean-to_ (fig. 5) is the simplest
+  form, often erected against some existing wall, and the best for early
+  forcing, being warmer on account of the shelter afforded by the back
+  wall. In this house the principal part of the roof is a fixture,
+  ventilation being provided for by small lifting sashes against the
+  back wall, and by the upright front sashes being hung on a pivot so as
+  to swing outwards on the lower side. The necessary heat is provided by
+  four 4-in. hot-water pipes, which would perhaps be best placed if all
+  laid side by side, while the vines are planted in front and trained
+  upwards under the roof. A second set of vines may be planted against
+  the back wall, and will thrive there until the shade of the roof
+  becomes too dense. (2) The _hip-roofed_ or three-quarter span (fig. 6)
+  is a combination of the lean-to and the span-roofed, uniting to a
+  great degree the advantages of both, being warmer than the span and
+  lighter than the lean-to. The heating and ventilating arrangements are
+  much the same as in the lean-to, only the top sashes which open are on
+  the back slope, and therefore do not interfere so much with the vines
+  on the front slope. In both this and the lean-to the aspect should be
+  as nearly due south as possible. Houses of this form are excellent for
+  general purposes, and they are well adapted both for muscats, which
+  require a high temperature, and for late-keeping grapes. (3) The
+  _span-roofed_ (fig. 7), the most elegant and ornamental form, is
+  especially adapted for isolated positions; indeed, no other form
+  affords so much roof space for the development of the vines. The
+  amount of light admitted being very great, these houses answer well
+  for general purposes and for the main crop. The large amount of glass
+  or cooling surface, however, makes it more difficult to keep up a high
+  and regular temperature in them, and from this cause they are not so
+  well adapted for very early or very late crops. They are best,
+  nevertheless, when grapes and ornamental plants are grown in the same
+  house, except, indeed, in very wet and cold districts, where, in
+  consequence of its greater warmth, the lean-to is to be preferred.
+  This type of house, cheaply constructed, is in general use for raising
+  grapes for market.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 7.--Span-Roofed Vinery.]
+
+  The _Peach House_ is a structure in which the ripening of the fruit is
+  accelerated by the judicious employment of artificial heat. For early
+  forcing, as in vineries, the lean-to form is to be preferred, and the
+  house may have a tolerably sharp pitch. A width of 7 or 8 ft., with
+  the glass slope continued down to within a foot or two of the ground,
+  and without any upright front sashes, will be suitable for such a
+  house, which may also be conveniently divided into compartments of
+  from 30 to 50 ft. in length according to the extent of the building,
+  small houses being preferable to larger ones. As a very high
+  temperature is not required, two or three pipes running the whole
+  length of the house will suffice. The front wall should be built on
+  piers and arches to allow the roots to pass outwards into a prepared
+  border, the trees being planted just within the house. Abundant means
+  of ventilation should be provided.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 8.--Peach House.]
+
+  For more general purposes the house represented in fig. 8 will be
+  found more useful. One set of trees is planted near the front, and
+  trained to an arched trellis b. Another set is planted at the back,
+  and trained on a trellis c, which is nearly upright, and leans against
+  the back wall; or the back wall itself may be used for training. There
+  are no upright front sashes, but to facilitate ventilation there are
+  ventilators d in the front wall, and the upper roof sashes are made to
+  move up and down for the same object. Two or three hot-water pipes are
+  placed near the front wall. The back wall is usually planted with
+  dwarf and standard trees alternately, the latter being temporary, and
+  intended to furnish the upper part of the trellis, while the permanent
+  dwarfs arc gradually filling up the trellis from below. In any case
+  the front trellis should stop conveniently short of the top of the
+  sashes if there are trees against the back wall, in order to admit
+  light to them. They would also be better carried up nearly parallel to
+  the roof, and at about 1 ft. distant from it, supposing there were no
+  trees at the back.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 9.--Forcing House.]
+
+  A span-roofed house, being lighter than a lean-to, would be so much
+  the better for peach culture, especially for the crop grown just in
+  anticipation of those from the open walls since a high temperature is
+  not required. A low span, with dwarf side walls, and a lantern
+  ventilator along the ridge, the height in the centre being 9 ft.,
+  would be very well adapted for the purpose. The trees should be
+  planted inside and trained up towards the ridge on a trellis about a
+  foot from the glass, the walls being arched to permit the egress of
+  the roots. A trellis path should run along the centre, and movable
+  pieces of trellis should be provided to prevent trampling on the soil
+  while dressing and tying in the young wood.
+
+  The _Forcing House_.--Whenever continuous supplies of cucumbers,
+  melons and tomatoes are required, it is most convenient to grow them
+  in properly constructed forcing houses. Span-roofed houses (fig. 9)
+  arc probably the most useful for the purpose. They are usually 12 to
+  14 ft. wide, by 10 to 12 ft. high, and of any convenient length.
+  Heating is effected by means of hot-water pipes below the beds, and
+  against the side ventilators. The walls bordering the central paths
+  are arched or clotted to admit heat from the chambers below the beds.
+  Side pipes are occasionally dispensed with, heat being obtained by
+  means of slots at the back of the beds, communicating with the
+  chambers. The beds are also of use for plunging pot plants.
+  Ventilation is provided at sides and top.
+
+  Pits and frames of various kinds are frequently used for the
+  cultivation of cucumbers and melons, as well as hot beds covered by
+  ordinary garden frames. In these cases the first supply of heat is
+  derived from the hot bed made up within the pit. When the heat of the
+  original bed subsides, linings of fermenting dung must be added, and
+  these must be kept active by occasional turnings and the addition of
+  fresh material as often as required. It is better, however, to effect
+  both top and bottom heating by hot-water pipes.
+
+  _Orchard Houses_ are span-roofed or lean-to structures, in which
+  various fruits are cultivated without the aid of artificial heat.
+  Peaches, nectarines, apricots, cherries and the more tender varieties
+  of plums and pears succeed well in houses of this kind. The types of
+  houses in general use are substantially as shown in fig. 7, for
+  span-roofed, and as fig. 5, for lean-to; in each case without the
+  heating apparatus. The orchard house is among the most generally
+  useful of all garden structures. These houses require careful
+  management in early summer so as to induce the more delicate varieties
+  of peaches and nectarines to complete and ripen their growth before
+  cold, sunless weather sets in.
+
+  In commercial establishments where utility is of more importance than
+  ornament, the glass houses and hot water apparatus are not of so
+  elaborate a type as indicated in the foregoing remarks, and in many
+  cases excellent produce is grown in structures more or less
+  dilapidated. In some places movable greenhouses have been erected for
+  market purposes, so that the soil may be exposed to the sweetening
+  effect of the weather, when the glass roof is moved to an adjoining
+  patch.
+
+_Pits and Frames._--These are used both for the summer growth and winter
+protection of various kinds of ornamental plants, for the growth of such
+fruits as cucumbers, melons and strawberries, and for the forcing of
+vegetables. When heat is required, it is sometimes supplied by means of
+fermenting dung, or dung and leaves, or tanner's bark, but it is much
+more economically provided by hot-water pipes. Pits of many different
+forms have been designed, but it may be sufficient here to describe one
+or two which can be recommended for general purposes.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 10.--Ventilated Plant Pit.]
+
+  An excellent pit for wintering bedding-out plants or young greenhouse
+  stock is shown at fig. 10. It is built upon the pigeon-hole principle
+  as high as the ground level a, a, and above that in 9-in. brickwork.
+  At a distance of 9 in. retaining walls b, b are built up to the ground
+  level, and the spaces between the two are covered by thick boarding,
+  which is to be shut down as shown at c in cold weather to exclude
+  frost, and opened as shown at d in mild weather to promote a free
+  circulation of air through the pit. The height of the pit might be
+  reduced according to the size of the plants; and, to secure the
+  interior against frost, flow and return hot-water pipe e should pass
+  along beneath the staging, which should be a strong wooden trellis
+  supported by projections in the brickwork. The water which drains from
+  the plants or is spilt in watering would fall on the bottom, which
+  should be made porous to carry it away. For many plants this under
+  current of ventilation would be exceedingly beneficial, especially
+  when cold winds prevented the sashes from being opened. A pit of this
+  character may be sunk into the ground deeper than is indicated in the
+  figure if the subsoil is dry and gravelly, bat in the case of a damp
+  subsoil it should rather be more elevated, as the soil could easily be
+  sloped up to meet the retaining wall.
+
+  _Frames._--Frames (fig. 11) should be made of the best red deal, 1¼
+  in. thick. A convenient size is 6 ft. wide, 24 in. high at the back
+  and 15 in front; and they are usually 12 ft. long, which makes three
+  lights and sashes, though they can be made with two lights or one
+  light for particular purposes. Indeed, a one-light frame is often
+  found very convenient for many purposes. The lights should be 2 in.
+  thick, and glazed with 21 oz. sheet glass, in broad panes four or five
+  to the breadth of a light, and of a length which will work in
+  conveniently and economically, very long panes being undesirable from
+  the havoc caused by accidents, and very short ones being objectionable
+  as multiplying the chances of drip, and the exclusion of light by the
+  numerous lappings; panes about 12 in. long are of convenient size for
+  garden lights of this character. In all gardens the frames and lights
+  should be of one size so as to be interchangeable, and a good supply
+  of extra lights (sashes) may always be turned to good account for
+  various purposes.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 11.--Hot-Bed Three-Light Frame.]
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 12.--Span-Roof Frame.]
+
+  Span-roof garden frame (fig. 12) may under some circumstances be
+  useful as a substitute for the three-light frame. It is adapted for
+  storing plants in winter, for nursing small plants in summer and for
+  the culture of melons and other crops requiring glass shelter. These
+  frames are made 11 in. high in front, 22 at the back and 32 at the
+  ridge, with ends of 1½-in. red deal; the sashes, which are 2 in.
+  thick, open by gearing, the front and back separately. The lights are
+  hinged so that they can be turned completely back when necessary. This
+  more direct and ready access to the plants within is one of the
+  principal recommendations of this form of pit.
+
+_Mushroom House._--Mushrooms may be grown in sheds and cellars, or even
+in protected ridges in the open ground, but a special structure is
+usually devoted to them. A lean-to against the north side of the garden
+wall will be found suitable for the purpose, though a span-roofed form
+may also be adopted, especially if the building stands apart.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 13.--Lean-to Mushroom House.]
+
+  The internal arrangement of a lean-to mushroom house is shown in fig.
+  13. The length may vary from 30 ft. to 60 ft.; a convenient width is
+  10 ft., which admits of a 3½ ft. central path, and beds 3 ft. wide on
+  each side. The shelves should be of slate a, a, supported by iron
+  uprights b, b, each half having a front ledge of bricks set on edge in
+  cement c, c. The slabs of slate forming the shelves should not be too
+  closely fitted, as a small interval will prevent the accumulation of
+  moisture at the bottom of the bed. They may be supported by iron
+  standards or brick piers, back and front, bearing up a flat bar of
+  iron on which the slates may rest; the use of the bar will give wider
+  intervals between the supports, which will be found convenient for
+  filling and emptying the beds. The roof may be tiled or slated; but,
+  to prevent the injurious influence of hot sun, there should be an
+  inner roof or ceiling d, the space between which and the outer roof e
+  should be packed with sawdust. A hot-water pipe f should run along
+  both sides of the pathway, close to the front ledge of the lowest
+  beds. The different shelves can be planted in succession; and the
+  lower ones, especially those on the floor level, as being most
+  convenient, can be utilized for forcing sea-kale and rhubarb.
+
+_The Fruit Room._--This important store should be dark, moderately dry,
+with a steady, moderately cool atmosphere, and with the means of giving
+sufficient ventilation to keep the air sweet. It should also be
+sufficiently commodious to permit of the fruit being arranged in single
+layers on the shelves or trays. A type of building which is becoming
+increasingly popular for this purpose, and which is in many respects
+superior to the older, and often more expensive structures, is built of
+wood, with or without brick foundations, and is thickly thatched with
+reeds or other non-conducting material externally--on walls and
+roof--while the interior is matchboarded. Ventilation is afforded at the
+ends, usually by tilting laths, operated by a cord. Two doors are
+provided at one end--an inner, and an outer--the inner being glazed at
+the top to admit light. They are generally span-roofed, about 6 ft. high
+at the eaves, and 8 or 10 ft. high at the ridge, according to width.
+
+  The length and breadth of these stores should be governed by the
+  amount and character of the storage accommodation to be provided. If
+  intended for storage only, a width of 9 ft. 6 in. would suffice, but
+  if intended to combine display with storage, the internal diameter
+  should be about 13 ft. In the former type, the walls are fitted with
+  four rows of shelves, about 3 ft. wide, and about 1 ft. 6 in. apart.
+  The shelves are of deal strips, 2 or 3 in. wide, laid about 1 in.
+  apart for ventilation. These are being superseded, however, by
+  sliding-out trays of convenient lengths and about 9 in. deep, working
+  on fixed framework. By this means the storage accommodation is nearly
+  doubled and the fruit is more easily manipulated. The central gangway
+  is about 3 ft. 6 in. wide. In the latter a central exhibition bench
+  about 3 ft. wide and of convenient height is provided. Gangways 2½ ft.
+  wide flank this, while the shelves or drawers with which the walls are
+  fitted are about 2½ ft. wide.
+
+  _Care of the Fruit Room._--This consists mainly in the storing only of
+  such fruits as are dry and in proper condition; in judicious
+  ventilation, especially in the presence of large quantities of
+  newly-gathered fruit; in the prompt removal of all decaying fruit; and
+  in the exclusion of vermin. It is also advisable to wash all woodwork
+  and gangways annually with a weak solution of formalin, or other
+  inodorous germicide.
+
+_Heating Apparatus._--Plant houses were formerly heated in a variety of
+ways--by fermenting organic matter, such as dung, by smoke flues, by
+steam and by hot water circulating in iron pipes. The last-named method
+has proved so satisfactory in practice that it is now in general use for
+all ordinary purposes. The water is heated by a furnace, and is conveyed
+from the boiler into the houses by a main or "flow" pipe, connected by
+means of syphon branches with as many pipes as it is intended to serve.
+When cooled it is returned to the boiler by another main or "return"
+pipe. Heat is regulated in the structures by means of valves on the
+various branch pipes. The flow pipe is attached to the boiler at its
+highest point, to take the heated water as it ascends. The return pipe
+is connected with the boiler at or near its lowest point. The highest
+points of the pipes are fitted with small taps, for the removal of air,
+which would retard circulation if allowed to remain. Heating by hot
+water may be said to depend, in part, on the influence of gravity on
+water being to some extent overcome by heating in a boiler. It ascends
+the flow pipe by convection, where its onward journey would speedily end
+if it were not for the driving force of other molecules of water
+following, and the suction set up by the gravitation into the boiler of
+the cooled water by the return pipe. The power of water to conduct heat
+is very low. The conducting power of the iron in which it is conveyed is
+high. It is, however, probable that conduction is to some extent a
+factor in the process.
+
+  Pipes.--It is a mistake to stint the quantity of piping, since it is
+  far more economical and better for the plants to have a larger surface
+  heated moderately than a smaller surface heated excessively. In view
+  of the fact that air expands, becomes lighter and rises, under the
+  influence of heat, the pipes should be set near the floor. If intended
+  to raise the temperature of the structure, they should be set on iron
+  or brick supports just clear of walls, earth or other heat-absorbing
+  bodies. Those intended to provide bottom heat, however, are set in (a)
+  water tanks running under the beds, or (b) in enclosed dry chambers
+  under the beds, or are (c) embedded in the soil or plunging material.
+  The first-named method is distinctly superior to the others. Pipes of
+  2 in., 3 in., 4 in. and 6 in. diameters are mostly used, the 4 in.
+  size being the most convenient for general purposes. The joints are
+  packed or caulked with tow, smeared with a mixture of white and red
+  lead. Flanged joints are made to bolt together on washers of
+  vulcanized rubber.
+
+  _Boilers._--There are numerous types of boilers in use, illustrative
+  of efforts to secure as much exposure as possible to the action of the
+  flames. The water-tube type, with multiple waterways, consists of a
+  number of separate tubes joined together in various ways. Some of
+  these are built in the form of a blunt cone, and are known as conical
+  tubular boilers. Others are built with the tubes arranged
+  horizontally, and are known as horizontal tubular boilers. The
+  majority of the latter are more or less saddle-shaped. Boilers with a
+  single waterway are of three principal types, the Cornish, the saddle
+  and the conical. The Cornish is cylindrical with the furnace occupying
+  about half the length of the cylinder. The saddle is so named from its
+  supposed resemblance to a saddle. It is set to span the furnace,
+  additional exposure to heat being secured in a variety of ways by
+  flues. Exposure in the conical boiler is direct on its inner surface,
+  and is supplemented by flues. Tubular boilers, especially the
+  horizontal types, are very powerful and economical. The Cornish type
+  is a rather slow and steady boiler, and is much used for providing
+  heat for large areas. The saddle boiler is very commonly employed to
+  provide heat for moderately sized and small areas. Both are powerful
+  and economical. Conical boilers are more expensive to set by reason of
+  their shape, and are not so convenient to manipulate as the horizontal
+  kinds. All the above types require a setting of masonry. Portable
+  boilers are convenient for heating small areas, and are less expensive
+  to install than those described above. They are less economical,
+  however, owing to loss of heat from their exposed surfaces. What are
+  called sectional boilers as used in America and on the Continent are
+  being introduced to British gardens. Portions can be added or taken
+  away according to the amount of heating surface required.
+
+  _Water Supply._--Wastage of water in the boilers should be made good
+  automatically from a cistern controlled by means of a ball-cock. It
+  should be placed as high above the boiler as practicable. The feed
+  should connect with the return pipe near the point at which it enters
+  the boiler.
+
+  _Stokeholds._--These have usually to be excavated to admit of the
+  boilers being set below the level of the pipes they are intended to
+  serve. In consequence of their depth, the draining of stokeholds often
+  presents difficulties. Care should be taken to allow sufficient room
+  to properly manipulate the fires and to store fuel. It is important
+  that the ventilation should be as efficient as practicable, especially
+  where coke fuel is to be used.
+
+  _Stoking._--The management of the furnaces is relatively easy, and
+  consists in adapting the volume and intensity of the fires to
+  particular needs. It involves the keeping dean of flues, ashpits and
+  especially the fires themselves. Where coke or ordinary hard coal are
+  used, the removal of clinkers should be done systematically, and the
+  fires stirred. Anthracite coal fires should not be stirred more than
+  is absolutely necessary, and should not be fed in driblets. They
+  require more draught than coke fires, but care must be taken not to
+  give too much, as excessive heat is likely to melt or soften the
+  fire-bars. Draught is regulated in the ashpit by opening or closing
+  the bottom door of the furnace and by the damper on the smoke shaft.
+  The latter must be of a fairly good height, according to
+  circumstances, to secure a good draught.
+
+  _Solar Heat._--The importance of sun heat to the general well-being of
+  plant life, its influence on the production of flowers and the
+  ripening of edible fruits, has long been appreciated in horticulture.
+  The practice of "closing up" early in the afternoon, i.e. the closing
+  of ventilators (accompanied by syringing and damping of surfaces to
+  produce a humid atmosphere) has for its object the conservation of as
+  much solar heat as practicable.
+
+  _Ventilation._--This consists in the admission of air for the purpose
+  of preventing stagnation of the atmosphere and for the regulation of
+  temperature. Means of affording ventilation in all plant houses should
+  be provided in at least two places--as near the floor as practicable,
+  and at the top. Mechanical contrivances whereby whole sets of
+  ventilators may be operated simultaneously are now in common use, and
+  are much more convenient and economical than the older method of
+  working each ventilator separately. Efficient ventilating can only be
+  effected by the exercise of common sense and vigilance, and care must
+  be taken to avoid cold draughts through the houses.
+
+
+III. _Garden Materials and Appliances._
+
+_Soils and Composts._--The principal soils used in gardens, either
+alone, or mixed to form what are called composts, are--loam, sand, peat,
+leaf-mould and various mixtures and combinations of these made up to
+suit the different subjects under cultivation.
+
+_Loam_ is the staple soil for the gardener; it is not only used
+extensively in the pure and simple state, but enters into most of the
+composts prepared specially for his plants. For garden purposes loam
+should be rather unctuous or soapy to the touch when moderately dry, not
+too clinging nor adhesive, and should readily crumble when a compressed
+handful is thrown on the ground. If it clings together closely it is too
+heavy and requires amelioration by the admixture of gritty material; if
+it has little or no cohesion when squeezed tightly in the hand, it is
+too light, and needs to be improved by the addition of heavier or clayey
+material. Sound friable loam cut one sod deep from the surface of a
+pasture, and stacked up for twelve months in a heap or ridge, is
+invaluable to the gardener. When employed for making vine borders, loam
+of a somewhat heavier nature can be used with advantage, on account of
+the porous materials which should accompany it. For stone fruits a
+calcareous loam is best; indeed, for these subjects a rich calcareous
+loam used in a pure and simple state cannot be surpassed. Somewhat heavy
+loams are best for potting pine apples, for melons and strawberries,
+fruit trees in pots, &c., and may be used with the addition of manures
+only; but for ornamental plants a loam of a somewhat freer texture is
+preferable and more pleasant to work. Loam which contains much red
+matter (iron) should be avoided.
+
+_Sand_ is by itself of little value except for striking cuttings, for
+which purpose fine clean sharp silver sand is the best; and a somewhat
+coarser kind, if it is gritty, is to be preferred to the comminuted
+sands which contain a large proportion of earthy matter. River sand and
+the sharp grit washed up sometimes by the road side are excellent
+materials for laying around choice bulbs at planting time to prevent
+contact with earth which is perhaps manure-tainted. Sea sand may be
+advantageously used both for propagating purposes and for mixing in
+composts. For the growth of pot plants sand is an essential part of most
+composts, in order to give them the needful porosity to carry off all
+excess of moisture from the roots. If the finer earthy sands only are
+obtainable, they must be rendered sharper by washing away the earthy
+particles. Washed sand is best for all plants like heaths, which need a
+pure and lasting peaty compost.
+
+_Peat_ soil is largely employed for the culture of such plants as
+rhododendrons, azaleas, heaths, &c. In districts where heather and
+gritty soil predominate, the peat soil is poor and unprofitable, but
+selections from both the heathy and the richer peat soils, collected
+with judgment, and stored in a dry part of the compost yard, are
+essential ingredients in the cultivation of many choice pot plants, such
+as the Cape heaths and many of the Australian plants. Many
+monocotyledons do well in peat, even if they do not absolutely require
+it.
+
+_Leaf-mould_ is eminently suited for the growth of many free-growing
+plants, especially when it has been mixed with stable manure and has
+been subjected to fermentation for the formation of hot beds. It any
+state most plants feed greedily upon it, and when pure or free from
+decaying wood or sticks it is a very safe ingredient in composts; but it
+is so liable to generate fungus, and the mycelium or spawn of certain
+fungi is so injurious to the roots of trees, attacking them if at all
+sickly or weakened by drought, that many cultivators prefer not to mix
+leaf-mould with the soil used for permanent plants, as peaches or choice
+ornamental trees. For quick growing plants, however, as for example most
+annuals cultivated in pots, such as balsams, cockscombs, globe-amaranths
+and the like, for cucumbers, and for young soft-wooded plants generally,
+it is exceedingly useful, both by preventing the consolidation of the
+soil and as a manure. The accumulations of light earth formed on the
+surface in woods where the leaves fall and decay annually are leaf-mould
+of the finest quality. Leaves collected in the autumn and stored in pits
+or heaps, and covered with a layer of soil, make beautiful leaf-mould at
+the end of about twelve months, if frequently drenched with water or
+rain during this period.
+
+_Composts_ are mixtures of the foregoing ingredients in varying
+proportions, and in combination with manures if necessary, so as to suit
+particular plants or classes of plants. The chief point to be borne in
+mind in making these mixtures is not to combine in the same compost any
+bodies that are antagonistic in their nature, as for example lime and
+ammonia. In making up composts for pot plants, the fibrous portion
+should not be removed by sifting, except for small-sized pots, but the
+turfy portions should be broken up by hand and distributed in smaller or
+larger lumps throughout the mass. When sifting is had recourse to, the
+fibrous matter should be rubbed through the meshes of the sieve along
+with the earthy particles. Before being used the turfy ingredients of
+composts should lie together in a heap only long enough for the roots of
+the herbage to die, not to decompose.
+
+_Manures_ (see MANURE).--These are of two classes, organic and
+inorganic--the former being of animal and vegetable, the latter of
+mineral origin. The following are organic manures:
+
+  _Farm-yard manure_ consists of the mixed dung of horses and cattle
+  thrown together, and more or less soaked with liquid drainings of the
+  stable or byre. It is no doubt the finest stimulant for the growth of
+  plants, and that most adapted to restore the fertile elements which
+  the plants have abstracted from exhausted soils. This manure is best
+  fitted for garden use when in a moderately fermented state.
+
+  _Horse dung_ is generally the principal ingredient in all hot bed
+  manure; and, in its partially decomposed state, as afforded by
+  exhausted hot beds, it is well adapted for garden use. It is most
+  beneficial on cold stiff soils. It should not be allowed to lie too
+  long unmoved when fresh, as it will then heat violently, and the
+  ammonia is thus driven off. To avoid this, it should be turned over
+  two or three times if practicable, and well moistened--preferably with
+  farm-yard drainings.
+
+  _Cow dung_ is less fertilizing than horse dung, but being slower in
+  its action it is more durable; it is also cooler, and therefore better
+  for hot dry sandy soils. Thoroughly decayed, it is one of the best of
+  all manures for mixing in composts for florists' flowers and other
+  choice plants.
+
+  _Pig dung_ is very powerful, containing more nitrogen than horse dung;
+  it is therefore desirable that it should undergo moderate
+  fermentation, which will be secured by mixing it with litter and a
+  portion of earth. When weeds are thrown to the pigs, this fermentation
+  becomes specially desirable to kill their seeds.
+
+  _Night-soil_ is an excellent manure for all bulky crops, but requires
+  to be mixed with earth or peat, or coal-ashes, so as both to deodorize
+  it and to ensure its being equally distributed. Quicklime should not
+  be used, as it dispels the greater part of the ammonia. When prepared
+  by drying and mixing with various substances, night-soil is sold as
+  desiccated night-soil or native guano, the value of which depends upon
+  the materials used for admixture.
+
+  _Malt-dust_ is an active manure frequently used as a top-dressing,
+  especially for fruit trees in pots. It is rapid in its action, but its
+  effects are not very permanent. _Rape dust_ is somewhat similar in its
+  character and action.
+
+  _Bones_ are employed as a manure with decided advantage both to
+  vegetable crops and to fruit trees, as well as to flowers. For turnips
+  bone manure is invaluable. The effects of bones are no doubt mainly
+  due to the phosphates they contain, and they are most effectual on dry
+  soils. They are most quickly available when dissolved in sulphuric
+  acid.
+
+  _Guano_ is a valuable manure now much employed, and may be applied to
+  almost every kind of crop with decided advantage. It should be mixed
+  with six or eight times its weight of loam or ashes, charred peat,
+  charcoal-dust or some earthy matter, before it is applied to the soil,
+  as from its causticity it is otherwise not unlikely to kill or injure
+  the plants to which it is administered. Peruvian guano is obtained
+  from the excreta of South American sea-birds, and fish guano from the
+  waste of fish. Both are remarkable for the quantity of nitrates and
+  phosphates they contain.
+
+  _Pigeon dung_ approaches guano in its power as manure. It should be
+  laid up in ridges of good loamy soil in alternate layers to form a
+  compost, which becomes a valuable stimulant for any very choice
+  subjects if cautiously used. The dung of the domestic fowl is very
+  similar in character.
+
+  _Horn_, _hoof-parings_, _woollen rags_, _fish_, _blubber_ and _blood_,
+  after treatment with sulphuric acid, are all good manures, and should
+  be utilized if readily obtainable.
+
+  _Liquid manure_, consisting of the drainings of dung-heaps, stables,
+  cowsheds, &c., or of urine collected from dwelling houses or other
+  sources, is a most valuable and powerful stimulant, and can be readily
+  applied to the roots of growing plants. The urine should be allowed to
+  putrefy, as in its decomposition a large amount of ammonia is formed,
+  which should then be fixed by sulphuric acid or gypsum; or it may be
+  applied to the growing crops after being freely diluted with water or
+  absorbed in a compost heap. Liquid manures can be readily made from
+  most of the solid manures when required, simply by admixture with
+  water. When thus artificially compounded, unless for immediate use,
+  they should be made strong for convenience of storage, and applied as
+  required much diluted.
+
+  The following are inorganic manures:
+
+  _Ammonia_ is the most powerful and one of the most important of the
+  constituents of manures generally, since it is the chief source whence
+  plants derive their nitrogen. It is largely supplied in all the most
+  fertilizing of organic manures, but when required in the inorganic
+  state must be obtained from some of the salts of ammonia, as the
+  sulphate, the muriate or the phosphate, all of which, being extremely
+  energetic, require to be used with great caution. These salts of
+  ammonia may be used at the rate of from 2 to 3 cwt. per acre as a
+  top-dressing in moist weather. When dissolved in water they form
+  active liquid manures. The most commonly used nitrogenous manures are
+  nitrate of soda, nitrate of potash and sulphate of ammonia, the prices
+  of which are constantly fluctuating.
+
+  _Potash_ and _soda_ are also valuable inorganic manures in the form of
+  carbonates, sulphates, silicates and phosphates, but the most valuable
+  is the nitrate of potash. The price, however, is generally so high
+  that its use is practically nil, except in small doses as a liquid
+  manure for choice pot plants. Cheaper substitutes, however, are now
+  found in sulphate of potash, and muriate of potash and kainit. The two
+  last-named must not be applied direct to growing crops, but to the
+  soil some weeks in advance of sowing or cropping. The manures of this
+  class are of course of value only in cases where the soil is naturally
+  deficient in them. On this account the salts of soda are of less
+  importance than those of potash. The value of wood ashes as a manure
+  very much depends upon the carbonate and other salts of potash which
+  they contain.
+
+  _Phosphoric acid_, in the form of phosphates, is a most valuable plant
+  food, and is absorbed by most plants in fairly large quantities from
+  the soil. It induces the earlier production of flowers and fruits. In
+  a natural state it is obtained from bones, guano and wood ashes; and
+  in an artificial condition from basic slag or Thomas's phosphate,
+  coprolites and superphosphate of lime.
+
+  _Lime_ in the caustic state is beneficially applied to soils which
+  contain an excess of inert vegetable matter, and hence may be used for
+  the improvement of old garden soils saturated with humus, or of peaty
+  soils not thoroughly reclaimed. It does not supply the place of
+  organic manures, but only renders that which is present available for
+  the nourishment of the plants. It also improves the texture of clay
+  soils.
+
+  _Gypsum_, or sulphate of lime, applied as a top-dressing at the rate
+  of 2 to 3 cwt. per acre, has been found to yield good results,
+  especially on light soils. It is also employed in the case of liquid
+  manures to fix the ammonia.
+
+  _Gas lime_, after it has been exposed to the air for a few months is
+  an excellent manure on heavy soils. In a fresh state it is poisonous
+  and fatal to vegetation, and is often used for this reason to dress
+  land infested with wireworms, grubs, club-root fungus, &c.
+
+  _Burnt clay_ has a very beneficial effect on clay land by improving
+  its texture and rendering soluble the alkaline substances it contains.
+  The clay should be only slightly burnt, so as to make it crumble down
+  readily; in fact, the fire should not be allowed to break through, but
+  should be constantly repressed by the addition of material. The
+  burning should be effected when the soil is dry.
+
+  _Vegetable refuse_ of all kinds, when smother-burned in a similar way,
+  becomes a valuable mechanical improver of the soil; but the preferable
+  course is to decompose it in a heap with quicklime and layers of
+  earth, converting it into leaf-mould. Potato haulms, and club-rooted
+  cabbage crops should, however, never be mixed with ordinary clean
+  vegetable refuse, as they would be most likely to perpetuate the
+  terrible diseases to which they are subject. The refuse of such plants
+  should be burned as early as possible. The ash may be used as manure.
+
+  _Soot_ forms a good top-dressing; it consists principally of charcoal,
+  but contains ammonia and a smaller proportion of phosphates and
+  potash, whence its value as a manure is derived. It should be kept dry
+  until required for use. It may also be used beneficially in preventing
+  the attacks of insects, such as the onion gnat and turnip fly, by
+  dusting the plants or dressing the ground with it.
+
+  _Common salt_ acts as a manure when used in moderate quantities, but
+  in strong doses is injurious to vegetation. It suits many of the
+  esculent crops, as onions, beans, cabbages, carrots, beet-root,
+  asparagus, &c.; the quantity applied varies from 5 to 10 bushels per
+  acre. It is used as a top-dressing sown by the hand. Hyacinths and
+  other bulbs derive benefit from slight doses, while to asparagus as
+  much as 20 lb. to the rood has been used with beneficial effect. At
+  the rate of from 6 to 10 bushels to the acre it may be used on garden
+  lawns to prevent worm casts. For the destruction of weeds on gravel
+  walks or in paved yards a strong dose of salt, applied either dry or
+  in a very strong solution, is found very effective, especially a hot
+  solution, but after a time much of it becomes washed down, and the
+  residue acts as a manure; its continued application is undesirable, as
+  gravel so treated becomes pasty.
+
+_Garden Tools, &c._--Most of these are so well known that we shall not
+discuss them here. They are, moreover, illustrated and described in the
+catalogues of most nurserymen and dealers in horticultural sundries.
+
+_Tallies or Labels._--The importance of properly labelling plants can
+hardly be over-estimated. For ordinary purposes labels of wood of
+various sizes (sold in bundles) are the most convenient. These should be
+wiped with a little white paint or linseed oil, and written with a soft
+lead pencil before the surface becomes dry. Copying-ink pencils should
+not be used, as water will wash away the writing. For permanent plants,
+as trees, roses, &c., metallic labels with raised type are procurable
+from dealers, and are neat, durable and convenient. Permanent labels may
+also be made from sheet lead, the names being punched in by means of
+steel type. For stove and greenhouse plants, orchids, ferns, &c., labels
+made of xylonite, zinc and other materials are also used.
+
+
+IV. _Garden Operations._
+
+_Propagation._--The increase of plants, so far as the production of new
+individuals of particular kinds is concerned, is one of the most
+important and constantly recurring of gardening operations. In effecting
+this, various processes are adopted, which will now be described.
+
+  1. _By Seeds._--This may be called the natural means of increasing the
+  number of any particular kind of plant, but it is to be remembered
+  that we do not by that means secure an exact reproduction of the
+  parent, especially in the case of plants raised or evolved in the
+  course of generations by hybridization and selection. We may get a
+  progeny very closely resembling it, yet each plant possessing a
+  distinct individuality of its own; or we may get a progeny very unlike
+  the parent, or a mixed progeny showing various degrees of divergence.
+  Many seeds will grow freely if sown in a partially ripened state; but
+  as a general rule seeds have to be kept for some weeks or months in
+  store, and hence they should be thoroughly ripened before being
+  gathered. They should be sown in fine rich soil, and such as will not
+  readily get consolidated. In the case of outdoor crops, if the soil is
+  inclined to be heavy, it is a good plan to cover all the smaller seeds
+  with a light compost. Very small seeds should only have a sprinkling
+  of light earth or of sand, and sometimes only a thin layer of soft
+  moss to exclude light and preserve an equable degree of moisture.
+  Somewhat larger seeds sown indoors may be covered to the depth of
+  one-eighth or one-fourth of an inch, according to their size. Outdoor
+  crops require to be sown, the smaller seeds from ½ to 1 in., and the
+  larger ones from 2 to 4 in. under the surface, the covering of the
+  smaller ones especially being light and open. Many seeds grow well
+  when raked in; that is, the surface on which they are scattered is
+  raked backwards and forwards until most of them are covered. Whatever
+  the seeds, the ground should be made tolerably firm both beneath and
+  above them; this may be done by treading in the case of most kitchen
+  garden crops, which are also better sown in drills, this admitting the
+  more readily of the ground being kept clear from weeds by hoeing. All
+  seeds require a certain degree of heat to induce germination. For
+  tropical plants the heat of a propagating house--75° to 80°, with a
+  bottom heat of 80° to 90°--is desirable, and in many cases absolutely
+  necessary; for others, such as half-hardy annuals, a mild hot bed, or
+  a temperate pit ranging from 60° to 70°, is convenient; while of
+  course all outdoor crops have to submit to the natural temperature of
+  the season. It is very important that seeds should be sown when the
+  ground is in a good working condition, and not clammy with moisture.
+
+  2. _By Offsets._--This mode of increase applies specially to bulbous
+  plants, such as the lily and hyacinth, which produce little bulbs on
+  the exterior round their base. Most bulbs do so naturally to a limited
+  but variable extent; when more rapid increase is wanted the heart is
+  destroyed, and this induces the formation of a larger number of
+  offsets. The stem bulbs of lilies are similar in character to the
+  offsets from the parent bulb. The same mode of increase occurs in the
+  gladiolus and crocus, but their bulb-like permanent parts are called
+  corms, not bulbs. After they have ripened in connexion with the parent
+  bulb, the offsets are taken off, stored in appropriate places, and at
+  the proper season planted out in nursery beds.
+
+  3. _By Tubers._--The tuber is a fleshy underground stem, furnished
+  with eyes which are either visible, as in the potato and in some
+  familiar kinds of _Tropaeolum_ (_T. tuberosum_) and of _Oxalis_ (_O.
+  crenata_), or latent, as in the Chinese yam (_Dioscorea Batatas_).
+  When used for propagation, the tubers are cut up into what are called
+  "sets," every portion having an eye attached being capable of forming
+  an independent plant. The cut portions of bulky sets should be
+  suffered to lie a short time before being planted, in order to dry the
+  surface and prevent rotting; this should not, however, be done with
+  such tropical subjects as caladiums, the tubers of which are often cut
+  up into very small fragments for propagation, and of course require to
+  be manipulated in a properly heated propagating pit. No eyes are
+  visible in the Chinese yam, but slices of the long club-shaped tubers
+  will push out young shoots and form independent plants, if planted
+  with ordinary care.
+
+  4. _By Division._--Division, or partition, is usually resorted to in
+  the case of tufted growing plants, chiefly perennial herbs; they may
+  be evergreen, as chamomile or thrift, or when dormant may consist only
+  of underground crowns, as larkspur or lily-of-the-valley; but in
+  either case the old tufted plant being dug up may be divided into
+  separate pieces, each furnished with roots, and, when replanted,
+  generally starting on its own account without much check. Suffruticose
+  plants and even small shrubs may be propagated in this way, by first
+  planting them deeper than they are ordinarily grown, and then after
+  the lapse of a year, which time they require to get rooted, taking
+  them up again and dividing them into parts or separate plants.
+  Box-edging and southernwood are examples. The same ends may sometimes
+  be effected by merely working fine soil in amongst the base of the
+  stems, and giving them time to throw out roots before parting them.
+
+  5. _By Suckers._--Root suckers are young shoots from the roots of
+  plants, chiefly woody plants, as may often be seen in the case of the
+  elm and the plum. The shoots when used for propagation must be
+  transplanted with all the roots attached to them, care being taken not
+  to injure the parent plant. If they spring from a thick root it is not
+  to be wantonly severed, but the soil should be removed and the sucker
+  taken off by cutting away a clean slice of the root, which will then
+  heal and sustain no harm. Stem suckers are such as proceed from the
+  base of the stem, as is often seen in the case of the currant and
+  lilac. They should be removed in any case; when required for
+  propagation they should be taken with all the roots attached to them,
+  and they should be as thoroughly disbudded below ground as possible,
+  or they are liable to continue the habit of suckering. In this case,
+  too, the soil should be carefully opened and the shoots removed with a
+  suckering iron, a sharp concave implement with long iron handle (fig.
+  14). When the number of roots is limited, the tops should be
+  shortened, and some care in watering and mulching should be bestowed
+  on the plant if it is of value.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 14.--Suckering Iron.]
+
+  6. _By Runners._--The young string-like shoots produced by the
+  strawberry are a well-known example of runners. The process of rooting
+  these runners should be facilitated by fixing them close down to the
+  soil, which is done by small wooden hooked pegs or by stones;
+  hair-pins, short lengths of bent wire, &c., may also be used. After
+  the roots are formed, the strings are cut through, and the runners
+  become independent plants.
+
+  7. _By Proliferous Buds._--Not unlike the runner, though growing in a
+  very different way, are the bud-plants formed on the fronds of several
+  kinds of ferns belonging to the genera _Asplenium_, _Woodwardia_,
+  _Polystichum_, _Lastrea_, _Adiantum_, _Cystopteris_, &c. In some of
+  these (_Adiantum caudatum_, _Polystichum lepidocaulon_) the rachis of
+  the frond is lengthened out much like the string of the strawberry
+  runner, and bears a plant at its apex. In others (_Polystichum
+  angulare proliferum_) the stipes below and the rachis amongst the
+  pinnae develop buds, which are often numerous and crowded. In others
+  again (_Woodwardia orientalis_, _Asplenium bulbiferum_), buds are
+  numerously produced on the upper surface of the fronds. These will
+  develop on the plant if allowed to remain. For propagation the
+  buibiferous portion is pegged down on the surface of a pot of suitable
+  soil; if kept close in a moist atmosphere, the little buds will soon
+  strike root and form independent plants. In _Cystopteris_ the buds are
+  deciduous, falling off as the fronds acquire maturity, but, if
+  collected and pressed into the surface of a pot of soil and kept
+  close, they will grow up into young plants the following season. In
+  some genera of flowering plants, and notably in Bryophyllum, little
+  plants form on various parts of the leaves. In some Monocotyledons,
+  ordinarily in Chlorophytum, and exceptionally in Phalaenopsis and
+  others, new plants arise on the flower stems.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 15.--Propagation by Layers--a, tonguing; b,
+  ringing.]
+
+  8. _By Layers._--Layering consists in preparing the branch of a plant
+  while still attached to the parent, bending it so that the part
+  operated on is brought under ground, and then fixing it there by means
+  of a forked peg. Some plants root so freely that they need only
+  pegging down; but in most cases the arrest of the returning sap to
+  form a callus, and ultimately young roots, must be brought about
+  artificially, either by twisting the branch, by splitting it, by
+  girding it closely with wire, by taking off a ring of bark, or by
+  "tonguing." In tonguing the leaves are cut off the portion which has
+  to be brought under ground, and a tongue or slit is then cut from
+  below upwards close beyond a joint, of such length that, when the cut
+  part of the layer is pegged an inch or two (or in larger woody
+  subjects 3 or 4 in.) below the surface, the elevation of the point of
+  the shoot to an upright position may open the incision, and thus set
+  it free, so that it may be surrounded by earth to induce it to form
+  roots. The whole branch, except a few buds at the extremity, is
+  covered with soil. The best seasons for these operations are early
+  spring and mid-summer, that is, before the sap begins to flow, and
+  after the first flush of growth has passed off. One whole summer,
+  sometimes two, must elapse before the layers will be fully rooted in
+  the case of woody plants; but such plants as carnations and picotees,
+  which are usually propagated in this way, in favourable seasons take
+  only a few weeks to root, as they are layered towards the end of the
+  blooming season in July, and are taken off and planted separately
+  early in the autumn. Fig. 15 shows a woody plant with one layer
+  prepared by tonguing and another by ringing.
+
+  In general, each shoot makes one layer, but in plants like the
+  _Wistaria_ or _Clematis_, which make long shoots, what is called
+  serpentine layering may be adopted; that is, the shoot is taken
+  alternately below and above the surface, as frequently as its length
+  permits. There must, however, be a joint at the underground part where
+  it is to be tongued and pegged, and at least one sound bud in each
+  exposed part, from which a shoot may be developed to form the top of
+  the young plant.
+
+  9. _By Circumposition._--When a plant is too high or its habit does
+  not conveniently admit of its being layered, it may often be increased
+  by what is called circumposition, the soil being carried up to the
+  branch operated on. The branch is to be prepared by ringing or
+  notching or wiring as in layering, and a temporary stand made to
+  support the vessel which is to contain the soil. The vessel may be a
+  flower-pot sawn in two, so that the halves may be bound together when
+  used, or it may be a flower-pot or box with a side slit which will
+  admit the shoot; this vessel is to be filled compactly with suitable
+  porous earth, the opening at the slit being stopped by pieces of slate
+  or tile. The earth must be kept moist, which is perhaps best done by a
+  thick mulching of moss, the moss being also bound closely over the
+  openings in the vessel, and all being kept damp by frequent
+  syringings. Gardeners often dispense with the pot, using sphagnum moss
+  and leaf-mould only when propagating india-rubber plants, perpetual
+  carnations, dracaenas, &c.
+
+  10. _By Grafts._--Grafting is so extensively resorted to that it is
+  impossible here to notice all its phases. It is perhaps of most
+  importance as the principal means of propagating our hardy kinds of
+  fruit, especially the apple and the pear; but the process is the same
+  with most other fruits and ornamental hardy trees and shrubs that are
+  thus propagated. The stocks are commonly divided into two
+  classes:--(1) free stocks, which consist of seedling plants, chiefly
+  of the same genus or species as the trees from which the scions are
+  taken; and (2) dwarfing stocks, which are of more diminutive growth,
+  either varieties of the same species or species of the same or some
+  allied genus as the scion, which have a tendency to lessen the
+  expansion of the engrafted tree. The French Paradise is the best
+  dwarfing stock for apples, and the quince for pears. In determining
+  the choice of stocks, the nature of the soil in which the grafted
+  trees are to grow should have full weight. In a soil, for example,
+  naturally moist, it is proper to graft pears on the quince, because
+  this plant not only thrives in such a soil, but serves to check the
+  luxuriance thereby produced. The scions should always be ripened
+  portions of the wood of the preceding year, selected from healthy
+  parents; in the case of shy-bearing kinds, it is better to obtain them
+  from the fruitful branches. The scions should be taken off some weeks
+  before they are wanted, and half-buried in the earth, since the stock
+  at the time of grafting should in point of vegetation be somewhat in
+  advance of the graft. During winter, grafts may be conveyed long
+  distances, if carefully packed. If they have been six weeks or two
+  months separated from the parent plant, they should be grafted low on
+  the stock, and the earth should be ridged up round them, leaving only
+  one bud of the scion exposed above ground. The best season for
+  grafting apples and similar hardy subjects in the open air is in March
+  and April; but it may be commenced as soon as the sap in the stock is
+  fairly in motion.
+
+  _Whip-grafting_ or _Tongue-grafting_ (fig. 16) is the most usual mode
+  of performing the operation when there is no great difference in
+  thickness between the stock and scion. The stock is headed off by an
+  oblique transverse cut as shown at a, a slice is then pared off the
+  side as at b, and on the face of this a tongue or notch is made, the
+  cut being in a downward direction; the scion c is pared off in a
+  similar way by a single clean sharp cut, and this is notched or
+  tongued in the opposite direction as the figure indicates; the two are
+  then fitted together as shown at d, so that the inner bark of each may
+  come in contact at least on one side, and then tied round with damp
+  soft bast as at e; next some grafting clay is taken on the forefinger
+  and pushed down on each side so as to fill out the space between the
+  top of the stock and the graft, and a portion is also rubbed over the
+  ligatures on the side where the graft is placed, a handful of the clay
+  is then taken, flattened out, and rolled closely round the whole point
+  of junction, being finished off to a tapering form both above and
+  below, as shown by the dotted line f. To do this deftly, the hands
+  should be plunged from time to time in dry ashes, to prevent the clay
+  from sticking to them. Various kinds of grafting wax are now
+  obtainable, and are a great improvement upon the clay process. Some
+  cold mastics become very pliable with the warmth of the hands. They
+  are best applied with a piece of flat wood; or very liquid waxes may
+  be applied with a brush.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 16.--Whip-grafting or Tongue-grafting.]
+
+  _Cleft-grafting_ (fig. 17) is another method in common use. The stock
+  a is cleft down from the horizontal cut d (but not nearly so much as
+  the sketch would indicate), and the scion, when cut to a thin wedge
+  form, as shown at c and e, is inserted into the cleft; the whole is
+  then bound up and clayed as in the former case. This is not so good a
+  plan as whip-grafting; it is improved by sloping the stock on one side
+  to the size of the graft.
+
+  [Illustration: Fig. 17.--Cleft-grafting.]
+
+  [Illustration: Fig. 18.--Crown-Grafting.]
+
+  _Crown-grafting_ or _Rind-grafting_ (fig. 18) is preferable to
+  cleft-grafting, inasmuch as it leaves no open spaces in the wood. The
+  stock b is cut off horizontally or nearly so in January or February.
+  At grafting time a slit is cut in the bark f, f, a wedge-shaped piece
+  of iron or a small chisel being inserted to raise the bark; the scion
+  is then cut to the same wedge-shaped form g, h, and inserted in the
+  space opened for it between the alburnum and the bark, after which it
+  is tied down and clayed or waxed over in the manner already described.
+
+  _Side-grafting_ is performed like whip-grafting, the graft being
+  inserted on the side of a branch and not at the cut end of the stock.
+  It may be practised for the purpose of changing a part of the tree,
+  and is sometimes very useful for filling out vacant spaces, in trained
+  trees especially.
+
+  _Inarching_ is another form of side-grafting. Here the graft is fixed
+  to the side of the stock, which is planted or potted close to the
+  plant to be worked. The branches are applied to the stock while yet
+  attached to the parent tree, and remain so until united. In the case
+  of trained trees, a young shoot is sometimes inarched to its parent
+  stem to supply a branch where one has not been developed in the
+  ordinary way.
+
+  For the propagation by grafts of stove and greenhouse plants the
+  process adopted is whip-grafting or a modification of it. The parts
+  are, however, sometimes so small that the tongue of the graft is
+  dispensed with, and the two stems simply pared smooth and bound
+  together. In this way hardy rhododendrons of choice sorts, greenhouse
+  azaleas, the varieties of the orange family, camellias, roses, rare
+  conifers, clematises and numerous other plants are increased.
+  Raffia--which has taken the place of bast--is generally used for
+  tying, and grafting wax is only used occasionally with such plants
+  under glass. All grafting of this kind is done in the propagating
+  house, at any season when grafts are obtainable in a fit state--the
+  plants when operated on being placed in close frames warmed to a
+  suitable temperature. Roses and clematis, however, are generally
+  grafted from January to March and April.
+
+  _Root-grafting_ is sometimes resorted to where extensive increase is
+  an object, or where stem-grafting or other means of propagation are
+  not available. In this case the scion is grafted directly on to a
+  portion of the root of some appropriate stock, both graft and stock
+  being usually very small; the grafted root is then potted so as to
+  cover the point of junction with the soil, and is plunged in the bed
+  of the propagating house, where it gets the slight stimulus of a
+  gentle bottom heat. Dahlias (fig. 19), paeonies, and Wistarias may be
+  grafted by inserting young shoots into the neck of one of the fleshy
+  roots of each kind respectively--the best method of doing so being to
+  cut a triangular section near the upper end of the root, just large
+  enough to admit the young shoot when slightly pared away on two sides
+  to give it a similar form. In the case of large woody plants thus
+  worked (fig. 20) the grafted roots, after the operation is completed,
+  are planted in nursery beds, so that the upper buds only are exposed
+  to the atmosphere, as shown in the figure.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 19.--Root-grafting of Dahlia.]
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 20.--Root-grafting of Woody Plant.]
+
+  11. _By Buds._--Budding is the inserting of a bud of a choice variety
+  cut with a portion of bark into the bark of the stock of an inferior
+  nature where it is bound gently but firmly. Stone fruits, such as
+  peaches, apricots, plums, cherries, &c., are usually propagated in
+  this way, as well as roses and many other plants. In the propagating
+  house budding may be done at any season when the sap is in motion; but
+  for fruit trees, roses, &c., in the open air, it is usually done in
+  July or August, when the buds destined for the following year are
+  completely formed in the axils of the leaves, and when the bark
+  separates freely from the wood it covers. Those buds are to be
+  preferred, as being best ripened, which occur on the middle portion of
+  a young shoot, and which are quite dormant at the time.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 21.--Shield-budding.]
+
+  The simplest and most generally practised form of budding is that
+  called _shield-budding_ or T-_budding_ (fig. 21). The operator should
+  be provided with a sharp budding knife having a thin ivory or bone
+  handle, for raising the bark of the stock. A horizontal incision is
+  made in the bark quite down to the wood, and from this a perpendicular
+  slit is drawn upwards to the extent of perhaps an inch, so that the
+  slit has a resemblance to the letter T, as at a. A bud is then cut by
+  a clean incision from the tree intended to be propagated, having a
+  portion of the wood attached to it, and so that the whole may be about
+  1 in. long, as at d. The bit of wood e must be gently withdrawn, care
+  being taken that the bud adheres wholly to the bark or shield, as it
+  is called, of which f is a side view. The bark on each side of the
+  perpendicular slit being then cautiously opened, as at b, with the
+  handle of the knife, the bud and shield are inserted as shown at c.
+  The upper tip of the shield is cut off horizontally, and brought to
+  fit the bark of the stock at the transverse incision. Slight ties of
+  soft cotton wool or worsted, or moist raffia, are then applied. In
+  about a month or six weeks the ligatures may be removed or slit with
+  the knife to allow for the swelling stem, when, if the operation has
+  been successful, the bud will be fresh and full, and the shield firmly
+  united to the wood. In the following spring a strong shoot will be
+  thrown out, and to prevent its being blown out by the wind, must be
+  fastened to a stake, or to the lower portion of the old stock which
+  has been left for the purpose.
+
+  To be successful the operation should be performed with a quick and
+  light hand, so that no part of the delicate tissues be injured, as
+  would happen if they were left for a time exposed, or if the bud were
+  forced in like a wedge. The union is effected as in grafting, by means
+  of the organizable sap or cambium, and the less this is disturbed
+  until the inner bark of the shield is pressed and fixed against it the
+  better. Trees to be grown in the form of a bush are usually budded low
+  down on the stem of the stock as near the root as possible to obviate
+  the development of wild suckers later on. Standard trees, however, are
+  budded on a sturdy young shoot close to the top. In either case the
+  stocks should have been carefully planted at least the previous
+  November when the work is to be done in the open air the following
+  July or August.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 22.--Propagation by Cuttings.]
+
+  12. _By Branch Cuttings._--Propagation by cuttings is the mode of
+  increase most commonly adopted, next to that by seeds. It is effected
+  by taking a portion from a branch or shoot of the plant, and placing
+  it in the soil. There are great differences to be observed in the
+  selection and treatment of cuttings. Sometimes soft green leafy
+  shoots, as in _Verbena_ (fig. 22, a), are used; sometimes the shoots
+  must be half-ripened, and sometimes fully matured. So of the mode of
+  preparation; some will root if cut off or broken off at any point and
+  thrust into wet earth or sand in a warm place (fig. 22, a); others
+  require to be cut with the utmost care just below a joint or
+  leaf-base, and by a keen blade so as to sever the tissues without
+  tearing or bruising; and others again after being cut across may be
+  split up for a short distance, but there seems to be no particular
+  virtue in this. It is usual and in most cases necessary to cut away
+  the lower portion of a cutting up to just below the node or joint
+  (fig. 22, b, d, e). The internodal parts will not often divide so as
+  to form separate individual plants; sometimes, however, this happens;
+  it is said that the smallest piece of _Torenia asiatica_, for
+  instance, will grow. Then as to position, certain cuttings grow
+  readily enough if planted outdoors in the open soil, some preferring
+  shade, others sunshine, while less hardy subjects must be covered with
+  a bell-glass, or must be in a close atmosphere with bottom heat, or
+  must have the aid of pure silver sand to facilitate their rooting
+  (fig. 22, c). Cuttings should in all cases be taken from healthy
+  plants, and from shoots of a moderate degree of vigour. It is also
+  important to select leafy growths, and not such as will at once run up
+  to flower. Young shoots which have become moderately firm generally
+  make the best cuttings, but sometimes the very softest shoots strike
+  more readily. For all indoor plants in a growing state spring is a
+  good time for taking cuttings, but at any time during the summer
+  months is also favourable if cuttings are obtainable.
+
+  Cuttings of deciduous plants should be taken off after the fall of the
+  leaf. These cuttings should be about 6 in. to 1 ft. in length, and
+  should be planted at once in the ground so as to leave only the top
+  with the two or three preserved buds exposed. If a clean stem,
+  however, is desired, a longer portion may be left uncovered.
+  Gooseberries, currants, roses and many hardy deciduous trees and
+  shrubs are easily propagated in this way if the cuttings are inserted
+  in well-drained soil about the end of October or early in November.
+
+  Cuttings of growing plants are prepared by removing with a sharp
+  knife, and moderately close, the few leaves which would otherwise be
+  buried in the soil; they are then cut clean across just below a joint;
+  the fewer the leaves thus removed, however, the better, as if kept
+  from being exhausted they help to supply the elaborated sap out of
+  which the roots are formed. Free-rooting subjects strike in any
+  lightish sandy mixture; but difficult subjects should have thoroughly
+  well-drained pots, a portion of the soil proper for the particular
+  plants made very sandy, and a surfacing of clean sharp silver sand
+  about as deep as the length of the cutting.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 23.--Leaf Cuttings.]
+
+  Such difficult plants as heaths are reared in silver sand, a stratum
+  of which is placed over the sandy peat soil in a specially prepared
+  cutting pot, and thus the cuttings, though rooting in the sand under a
+  bell-glass, find at once on the emission of roots congenial soil for
+  them to grow in (fig. 22, c).
+
+  Hardy plants, such as pinks, pansies, &c., are propagated by cuttings
+  planted during early summer in light rich soil. The cuttings of pinks
+  are called pipings (fig. 22, d), and are planted about June, while
+  pansies may be renewed in this way both in spring and in autumn.
+
+  13. _By Leaf Cuttings._--Many plants may be propagated by planting
+  their leaves or portions of the leaves as cuttings, as, for example,
+  the _Gloxinia_ (fig. 23, a) and _Gesnera_, the succulent
+  _Sempervivum_, _Echeveria_, _Pachyphytum_ and their allies, and such
+  hard-leaved plants as _Theophrasta_ (fig. 23, b). The leaves are best
+  taken off with the base whole, and should be planted in well-drained
+  sandy soil; in due time they form roots, and ultimately from some
+  latent bud a little shoot which forms the young plant. The treatment
+  is precisely like that of branch cuttings. Gloxinias, begonias, &c.,
+  grow readily from fragments of the leaves cut clean through the thick
+  veins and ribs, and planted edgewise like cuttings. This class of
+  subjects may also be fixed flat on the surface of the cutting pot, by
+  means of little pegs or hooks, the main ribs being cut across at
+  intervals, and from these points roots, and eventually young tubers,
+  will be produced (fig. 24).
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 24.--Leaf-Propagation of Begonia.]
+
+  14. _By Root Cuttings._--Some plants which are not easily increased by
+  other means propagate readily from root cuttings. Amongst the indoor
+  plants which may be so treated, _Bouvardia_, _Pelargonium_, _Aralia_
+  and _Wigandia_ may be mentioned. The _modus operandi_ is to turn the
+  plant out of its pot, shake away the soil so as to free the roots, and
+  then select as many pieces of the stouter roots as may be required.
+  These are cut up into half-inch lengths (more or less), and inserted
+  in light sandy soil round the margin of a cutting pot, so that the
+  upper end of the root cutting may be level with the soil or only just
+  covered by it. The pots should be watered so as to settle the soil,
+  and be placed in the close atmosphere of the propagating pit or frame,
+  where they will need scarcely any water until the buds are seen
+  pushing through the surface.
+
+  There are various herbaceous plants which may be similarly treated,
+  such as sea-kale and horseradish, and, among ornamental plants, the
+  beautiful autumn-blooming _Anemone japonica_, _Bocconia cordata_,
+  _Dictamnus Fraxinella_--the burning bush; the sea hollies
+  (_Eryngium_), the globe thistle (_Echinops ritro_), the Oriental poppy
+  (Papaver orientale), the sea lavender (_Statice latifolia_), _Senecio
+  pulcher_, &c. The sea-kale and horseradish require to be treated in
+  the open garden, where the cut portions should be planted in lines in
+  well-worked soil; but the roots of the others should be planted in
+  pots and kept in a close frame with a little warmth till the young
+  shoots have started.
+
+  Various hardy ornamental trees are also increased in this way, as the
+  quince, elm, robinia and mulberry, and the rose amongst shrubs. The
+  most important use to which this mode of propagation is put is,
+  however, the increase of roses, and of the various plums used as
+  stocks for working the choicer stone fruits. The method in the latter
+  case is to select roots averaging the thickness of the little finger,
+  to cut these into lengths of about 3 or 4 in., and to plant them in
+  lines just beneath the surface in nursery beds. The root cuttings of
+  rose-stocks are prepared and treated in a similar way.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 25.--Cutting of Single Eye.]
+
+  15. _By Cuttings of Single Eyes._--This mode of propagation is by
+  cutting the ripened young branches into short lengths, each containing
+  one well-matured bud or eye, with a short portion of the stem above
+  and below. It is a common mode of propagating vines, the eyes being in
+  this case cut from the ripened leafless wood. The eyes (fig. 25, a)
+  are planted just below the surface in pots of light soil, which are
+  placed in a hot bed or propagating pit, and in due time each pushes up
+  a young shoot which forms the future stem, while from about its base
+  the young roots are produced (fig. 25, b) which convert it into an
+  independent plant. In the case of plants with persistent leaves, the
+  stem may be cut through just above and below the bud, retaining the
+  leaf which is left on the cutting, the old wood and eye being placed
+  beneath the soil and the leaf left exposed. In this way the
+  india-rubber tree (_Ficus elastica_), for example, and many other
+  tender plants may be increased with the aid of a brisk bottom heat.
+  Many of the free-growing soft-wooded plants may also be grown from
+  cuttings of single joints of the young wood, where rapid increase is
+  desired; and in the case of opposite-leaved plants two cuttings may
+  often be made from one joint by splitting the stem longitudinally,
+  each cutting consisting of a leaf and a perfect bud attached to half
+  the thickness of the stem.
+
+_Planting and Transplanting._--In preparing a fruit tree for
+transplantation, the first thing to be done is to open a trench round it
+at a distance of from 3 to 4 ft., according to size. The trench should
+be opened to about two spades' depth, and any coarse roots which may
+extend thus far from the trunk may be cut clean off with a sharp knife.
+The soil between the trench and the stem is to be reduced as far as may
+seem necessary or practicable by means of a digging fork, the roots as
+soon as they are liberated being fixed on one side and carefully
+preserved. By working in this way all round the ball, the best roots
+will be got out and preserved, and the ball lightened of all superfluous
+soil. The tree will then be ready to lift if carefully prized up from
+beneath the ball, and if it does not lift readily, it will probably be
+found that a root has struck downwards, which will have to be sought out
+and cut through. Whenever practicable, it is best to secure a ball of
+earth round the roots. On the tree being lifted from its hole the roots
+should be examined, and all which have been severed roughly with the
+spade should have the ends cut smooth with the knife to facilitate the
+emission of fibres. The tree can then be transported to its new
+position. The hole for its reception should be of sufficient depth to
+allow the base of the ball of earth, or of the roots, to stand so that
+the point whence the uppermost roots spring from the stem may be 2 or 3
+in. below the general surface level. Then the bottom being regulated so
+as to leave the soil rather highest in the centre, the plant is to be
+set in the hole in the position desired, and steadied there by hand.
+Next the roots from the lower portion of the ball are to be sought out
+and laid outwards in lines radiating from the stem, being distributed
+equally on all sides as nearly as this can be done; some fine and
+suitable good earth should be thrown amongst the roots as they are thus
+being placed, and worked in well up to the base of the ball. The soil
+covering the roots may be gently pressed down, but the tree should not
+be pulled up and down, as is sometimes done, to settle the soil. This
+done, another set of roots higher up the ball must be laid out in the
+same way, and again another, until the whole of the roots, thus
+carefully laid, are embedded as firmly as may be in the soil, which may
+now receive another gentle treading. The stem should next be supported
+permanently, either by one stake or by three, according to its size. The
+excavation will now be filled up about two-thirds perhaps; and if so the
+tree may have a thorough good watering, sufficient to settle the soil
+closely about its roots. After twenty-four hours the hole may be
+levelled in, with moderate treading, if the water has soaked well in,
+the surface being left level and not sloping upwards towards the stem of
+the tree. In transplanting trees of the ornamental class, less need be
+attempted in respect to providing new soil, although the soil should be
+made as congenial as practicable. Generally speaking, fruit trees are
+best transplanted when three or four years of age, in which time they
+will have acquired the shape given by the nurseryman, who generally
+transplants his stock each autumn to produce large masses of root
+fibres. Nowadays, however, quite large trees, chiefly of an ornamental
+character, and perhaps weighing several tons, are lifted with a large
+ball of soil attached to the roots, by means of a special tree-lifting
+machine, and are readily transferred from one part of the garden to
+another, or even for a distance of several miles, without serious
+injury. The best season for transplanting deciduous trees is during the
+early autumn months. As regards evergreens opinions are divided, some
+preferring August and September, others April or May. They can be
+successfully planted at either period, but for subjects which are at all
+difficult to remove the spring months are to be preferred.
+
+In transplanting smaller subjects, such as plants for the flower garden,
+much less effort is required. The plant must be lifted with as little
+injury to its rootlets as possible, and carefully set into the hole, the
+soil being filled in round it, and carefully pressed close by the hand.
+For moving small plants the garden trowel is a very convenient tool, but
+we are inclined to give the preference to the hand-fork. For larger
+masses, such as strong-growing herbaceous plants, a spade or
+digging-fork will be requisite and the soil may be trodden down with the
+feet.
+
+When seedlings of vigorous plants have to be "pricked out," a dibble or
+dibber is the best implement to be used. The ground being prepared and,
+if necessary, enriched, and the surface made fine and smooth, a hole is
+made with the dibble deep enough and large enough to receive the roots
+of the seedling plants without doubling them up, and the hole is filled
+in by working the soil close to the plant with the point of the dibble.
+The pricking out of seedlings in pots in the propagating pit is effected
+in a similar way. The plants, indeed, often require to be removed and
+set from ½ in. to 1 in. apart before they have become sufficiently
+developed to admit of being handled with any degree of facility, and for
+these a pointed stick of convenient size is used as a dibble. In
+delicate cases, such as seedling gloxinias and begonias, it is best to
+lift the little seedling on the end of a flattish pointed stick, often
+cleft at the apex, pressing this into the new soil where the plant is to
+be placed, and liberating it and closing the earth about it by the aid
+of a similar stick held in the other hand.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 26.--Section of Pot showing Crocks.]
+
+_Potting and Repotting._--Garden pots are made with a comparatively
+large hole in the bottom, and those of the largest size have also holes
+at the side near the bottom; these openings are to prevent the soil
+becoming saturated or soured with superabundant water. To prepare the
+pot for the plant, a broadish piece of potsherd, called a "crock," is
+placed over the large hole, and if there be side holes they also are
+covered. The bottom crock is made from a piece of a broken garden pot,
+and is laid with the convex side upwards; then comes a layer of
+irregular pieces of crock of various sizes, about 1 in. deep in a 5-in.
+pot, 2 in. in an 11-in. or 12-in. pot, &c. The mode of crocking a pot is
+shown in fig. 26. A few of the coarser lumps from the outer edge of the
+heap of potting soil are spread over the crocks. The same end, that of
+keeping the finer particles of the soil from mixing with the drainage
+crocks, may be attained by shaking in a little clean moss. A handful or
+two of the soil is then put in, and on this the plant with its roots
+spread out is to be set, a trifle higher than the plant should stand in
+the pot when finished off; more soil is to be added, and the whole
+pressed firmly with the fingers, the base of the stem being just below
+the pot-rim, and the surface being smoothed off so as to slope a little
+outwards. When finished off, the pots should be watered well, to settle
+the soil; but they should stand till the water has well drained away,
+since, if they are moved about while the fresh soil is very wet, there
+will be a risk of its becoming puddled or too much consolidated. Larger
+plants do not need quite such delicate treatment, but care should be
+taken not to handle the roots roughly. The soil for these may be
+somewhat coarser, and the amount of drainage material more ample. Larger
+bodies of soil also require to be more thoroughly consolidated before
+watering; otherwise they would settle down so as to leave an unsightly
+void at the pot-rim.
+
+Some plants, especially when potted temporarily, may be dealt with in a
+simpler way. A single crock may be used in some cases, and in others no
+crock at all, but a handful of half-decayed leaves or half-decayed dung
+thrown into the bottom of the pot. This mode of potting does well for
+bulbs, such as hyacinths, which are either thrown away or planted out
+when the bloom is over. The bedding plants generally may be potted in
+this way, the advantage being that at planting-out time there is less
+risk of disturbing the roots than if there were potsherds to remove.
+Plants of this character should be potted a little less firmly than
+specimens which are likely to stand long in the pot, and indeed the soil
+should be made comparatively light by the intermixture of leaf-mould or
+some equivalent, in order that the roots may run freely and quickly into
+it.
+
+For epiphytal plants like orchids the most thorough drainage must be
+secured by the abundant use of potsherds, small pots being sometimes
+inserted inside the larger ones, or by planting in shallow pots or pans,
+so that there shall be no large mass of soil to get consolidated. For
+most of these the lightest spongy but sweet turfy peat must be used,
+this being packed lightly about the roots, and built up above the
+pot-rim, or in some cases freely mixed before use with chopped sphagnum
+moss and small pieces of broken pots or nodules of charcoal. The plants
+under these conditions often require to be supported by wooden pegs or
+sticks. Some of the species grow better when altogether taken out of the
+soil and fixed to blocks of wood, but in this case they require a little
+coaxing with moss about the roots until they get established. In other
+cases they are planted in open baskets of wood or wire, using the porous
+peat and sphagnum compost. Both blocks and baskets are usually suspended
+from the roof of the house, hanging free, so that no accumulation of
+water is possible. These conditions of orchid-growing have undergone
+great changes of late years, and the plants are grown much as other
+stove and greenhouse plants in ordinary pots with composts not only of
+peat but of leaf-mould, and fibres from osmunda and polypodium ferns.
+
+When repotting is adopted as a temporary expedient, as in the case of
+bedding-out plants which it is required to push forward as much as
+possible, it will suffice if provision is made to prevent the drainage
+hole from getting blocked, and a rich light compost is provided for the
+encouragement of the roots. When, however, a hard-wooded plant has to be
+repotted, the case is different; it may stand without further potting
+for one year or two years or more, and therefore much more care is
+necessary. The old ball of earth must be freed from all or most of the
+old crocks without doing injury to the roots, and the sharp edge of the
+upper surface gently rubbed off. If there be any sour or sodden or
+effete soil into which the roots have not run, this should be carefully
+picked out with a pointed stick. The ball is to be set on the new soil
+just high enough that when finished the base of the stem may be somewhat
+below the pot-rim, and the space between the old ball and the sides of
+the pot is to be filled in gradually with the prepared compost, which is
+from time to time to be pressed down with a blunt-ended flat piece of
+wood called a potting-stick, so as to render the new soil as solid as
+the old. The object of this is to prevent the plant from starving by the
+water applied all running off by way of the new soil, and not
+penetrating the original ball of earth. When this amount of pressure is
+necessary, especially in the case of loamy composts, the soil itself
+should be rather inclined to dryness, and should in no case be
+sufficiently moist to knead together into a pasty mass. In ordinary
+cases the potting soil should be just so far removed from dryness that
+when a handful is gently pressed it may hang together, but may lose its
+cohesion when dropped.
+
+When plants are required to stand in ornamental china pots or vases, it
+is better, both for the plants and for avoiding risk of breakage, to
+grow them in ordinary garden pots of a size that will drop into the more
+valuable vessels. Slate pots or tubs, usually square, are sometimes
+adopted, and are durable and otherwise unobjectionable, only, their
+sides being less porous, the earth does not dry so rapidly, and some
+modification of treatment as to watering is necessary. For large
+conservatory specimens wooden tubs, round or square, are frequently
+used; these should be coated with pitch inside to render them more
+durable.
+
+Various other contrivances take the place of garden pots for special
+purposes. Thus shallow square or oblong wooden boxes, made of light,
+inexpensive wood, are very useful for seed-sowing, for pricking out
+seedlings, or for planting cuttings. When the disturbance of the roots
+incidental to all transplanting is sought to be avoided, the seed or
+plant is started in some cases in squares of turf (used grassy-side
+downwards), which can when ready be transferred to the place the plant
+is to occupy. Cucumber and melon plants and vines reared from eyes are
+sometimes started in this way, both for the reason above mentioned and
+because it prevents the curling of the roots apt to take place in plants
+raised in pots. Strips of turf are sometimes used for the rearing of
+early peas, which are sown in a warmish house or frame, and gradually
+hardened so as to bear exposure before removal to the open air.
+
+_Watering._--The guiding principle in watering plants is to do it
+thoroughly when it is required, and to abstain from giving a second
+supply till the first has been taken up.
+
+When watering becomes necessary for kitchen-garden crops, the hose
+should be laid on and the lines of esculents allowed to drink their
+fill, if fresh succulent vegetables are desired. So also, if
+well-swelled and luscious fruits, such as strawberries, are required,
+there must be no parching at the roots. This applies even more strongly
+to conservatory borders and to forcing-houses than to the outside
+fruit-tree borders, because from these the natural rain supply is in
+most cases more distinctly cut off. In the case of forcing-houses, the
+water should be heated before being applied to the borders containing
+the roots of the trees.
+
+In the watering of pot plants the utmost care is requisite if the plant
+be a shy-growing or valuable one, and yet it is almost impossible to
+give any intelligible instruction for performing the operation. The
+roots should never be suffered either to get thoroughly dry or to get
+sodden with excess of water. An adept will know by the ring of the pot
+on striking it with his knuckles whether water is wanted or not,
+according as it rings loud and clear or dull and heavy. With very choice
+subjects watering may be necessary two or three times a day in drying
+summer weather. It is a wrong though common practice to press the
+surface of the soil in the pot in order to feel if it is moist enough,
+as this soon consolidates it, and prevents it from getting the full
+benefit of aeration.
+
+In all heated houses the water used should be warmed at least up to the
+temperature of the atmosphere, so as to avoid chilling the roots. This
+is also necessary in the case of water used for syringing the plants,
+which should be done two or three times a day in all stoves and
+forcing-houses, especially during the period when the young growth is
+being developed. The damping of all absorbent surfaces, such as the
+floors or bare walls, &c., is frequently necessary several times a day
+in the growing season, so as to keep up a humid atmosphere; hence the
+advantage of laying the floors a little rounded, as then the water draws
+off to the sides against the kerbstone, while the centre remains dry for
+promenaders.
+
+In cooler structures it becomes necessary in the dull season of the year
+to prevent the slopping of water over the plants or on the floor, as
+this tends to cause "damping off,"--the stems assuming a state of
+mildewy decay, which not infrequently, if it once attacks a plant, will
+destroy it piece by piece. For the same reason cleanliness and free
+ventilation under favourable weather conditions are of great importance.
+
+_Pruning._--Pruning is a very important operation in the fruit garden,
+its object being twofold--(1) to give form to the tree, and (2) to
+induce the free production of flower buds as the precursors of a
+plentiful crop of fruit. To form a standard tree, either the stock is
+allowed to grow up with a straight stem, by cutting away all side
+branches up to the height required, say about 6 ft., the scion or bud
+being worked at that point, and the head developed therefrom; or the
+stock is worked close to the ground, and the young shoot obtained
+therefrom is allowed to grow up in the same way, being pruned in its
+progress to keep it single and straight, and the top being cut off when
+the desired height is reached, so as to cause the growth of lateral
+shoots. If these are three or four in number, and fairly balanced as to
+strength and position, little pruning will be required. The tips of
+unripened wood should be cut back about one-third their length at an
+outwardly placed bud, and the chief pruning thereafter required will be
+to cut away inwardly directed shoots which cross or crowd each other and
+tend to confuse the centre of the tree. Bushy heads should be thinned
+out, and those that are too large cut back so as to remodel them. If the
+shoots produced are not sufficient in number, or are badly placed, or
+very unequal in vigour, the head should be cut back moderately close,
+leaving a few inches only of the young shoots, which should be pruned
+back to buds so placed as to furnish shoots in the positions desired.
+When worked at the top of a stem formed of the stock, the growth from
+the graft or bud must be pruned in a similar way. Three or four leading
+shoots should be selected to pass ere long into boughs and form a
+well-balanced framework for the tree; these boughs, however, will soon
+grow beyond any artificial system the pruner may adopt.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 27.--Dwarf-Tree Pruning.]
+
+To form a dwarf or bush fruit tree the stock must be worked near the
+ground, and the young shoot produced from the scion or bud must be cut
+back to whatever height it is desired the dwarf stem should be, say 1½
+to 2 ft. The young shoots produced from the portion of the new wood
+retained are to form the framework of the bush tree, and must be dealt
+with as in the case of standard trees. The growth of inwardly directed
+shoots is to be prevented, and the centre kept open, the tree assuming a
+cup-shaped outline. Fig. 27, reduced from M. Hardy's excellent work,
+_Traité de la taille des arbres fruitiers_, will give a good idea how
+these dwarf trees are to be manipulated, a showing the first year's
+development from the maiden tree after being headed back, and b the form
+assumed a year or two later.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 28.--Pyramid Pruning.]
+
+In forming a pyramidal tree, the lateral growths, instead of being
+removed, as in the standard tree, are encouraged to the utmost; and in
+order to strengthen them the upper part of the leading shoot is removed
+annually, the side branches being also shortened somewhat as the tree
+advances in size. In fig. 28, reduced from M. Hardy's work, a shows a
+young tree with its second year's growth, the upright shoot of the
+maiden tree having been moderately headed back, being left longer if the
+buds near the base promise to break freely, or cut shorter if they are
+weak and wanting in vigour. The winter pruning, carried out with the
+view to shape the tree into a well-grown pyramid, would be effected at
+the places marked by a cross line. The lowest branch would have four
+buds retained, the end one being on the lower side of the branch. The
+two next would be cut to three buds, which here also are fortunately so
+situated that the one to be left is on the lower side of the branches.
+The fourth is not cut at all owing to its shortness and weakness, its
+terminal bud being allowed to grow to draw strength into it. The fifth
+is an example where the bud to which the shoot should be cut back is
+badly placed; a shoot resulting from a bud left on the upper side is apt
+instead of growing outwards to grow erect, and lead to confusion in the
+form of the tree; to avoid this it is tied down in its proper place
+during the summer by a small twig. The upper shoots are cut closer in.
+Near the base of the stem are two prominent buds, which would produce
+two vigorous shoots, but these would be too near the ground, and the
+buds should therefore be suppressed; but, to strengthen the lower part,
+the weaker buds just above and below the lowest branch should be forced
+into growth, by making a transverse incision close above each. Fig. 28,
+b, shows what a similar tree would be at the end of the third year's
+growth.
+
+In order to bring a young tree into the cordon shape, all its side
+branches are shortened back, either to form permanent spurs, as in the
+case of pears, or to yield annual young shoots, as in peaches and
+nectarines. The single-stemmed cordon may be trained horizontally,
+obliquely at any required angle, or vertically if required, the first
+two arrangements being preferable. If a double cordon is required, the
+original young stem must be headed back, and the two best shoots
+produced must be selected, trained right and left, and treated as for
+the single cordon.
+
+The forms chiefly adopted for trees trained to walls and espalier rails
+are the fan-shaped, the half-fan and the horizontal, with their various
+modifications.
+
+The maiden tree is headed down, and two shoots led away right and left.
+Two laterals should be allowed to grow from the upper side of them, one
+from near the base, the other from near the middle, all others being
+pinched out beyond the second or third leaf during summer, but cut away
+to the last bud in winter. The tree will thus consist of six shoots,
+probably 3 ft. to 4 ft. long, which are not to be pruned unless they are
+unequal in strength, a defect which is rather to be remedied by summer
+pinching than by winter pruning. The second year three young shoots are
+to be left on each of the six, one close to the base, one about the
+middle, and one at the point, the rest being rubbed off. These three
+shoots will produce laterals, of which one or two may be selected and
+laid in; and thus a number of moderately strong fertile shoots will be
+obtained, and at the end of the season a comparatively large tree will
+be the result.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 29.--Pruning for Fan-shaped Tree.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 30.--The same--third year.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 31.--The same--fourth year.]
+
+The method of pruning formerly adopted for the formation of a fan-shaped
+tree was to head down the maiden plant to about two eyes, so placed as
+to yield a young shoot on each side (fig. 29), the supernumerary shoots
+being rubbed off while quite young, and the reserved shoots trained
+against the wall during the summer so as to get them well matured. The
+next year they were cut back again; often nearly to the base, in order
+that the lower pair of these shoots might each produce two well-placed
+young shoots, and the upper pair three young shoots. The tree would thus
+consist of ten shoots, to be laid out at regular distances, and then if
+closely cut the frame-work of the tree would be as in fig. 30. These
+main shoots were not again to be shortened back, but from each of them
+three young shoots were to be selected and trained in two, on the upper
+side, one near the base, and the other halfway up, and one on the lower
+side placed about midway between these two; these with the leading
+shoot, which was also to be nailed in, made four branches of the current
+year from each of the ten main branches, and the form of the tree would
+therefore be that of fig. 31. The other young shoots produced were
+pinched off while quite young, to throw all the strength of the tree
+into those which were to form its basis, and to secure abundant light
+and air. In after years the leading shoot was not to be cut back, but
+all the lateral shoots were to be shortened, and from these year by year
+other shoots were to be selected to fill up the area occupied by the
+tree.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 32.--Pruning for Horizontally trained Tree.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 33.--The same--third year.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 34.--The same--fifth year.]
+
+In pruning for a horizontal tree the young maiden tree has to be headed
+back nearly to its base, and from the young shoots three are to be
+selected, the two best-placed lower ones to form an opposite or nearly
+opposite pair of main branches, and the best-placed upper one to
+continue the erect stem (fig. 32). This upper shoot is at the next
+winter pruning to be cut down to within about a foot of the point whence
+it sprung, and its buds rubbed off except the upper one for a leader,
+and one on each side just below it to furnish another pair of side
+shoots; these being trained in position, the tree would appear as in
+fig. 33. The same course is to be followed annually till the space is
+filled. Sometimes in very favourable soils and with vigorous trees two
+pairs of branches may be obtained in one season by summer-stopping the
+erect shoots and selecting others from the young growths thus induced,
+but more commonly the trees have to be built up by forming one pair of
+branches annually. The shoots are not at first lowered to the horizontal
+line, but are brought down gradually and tied to thin stakes; and while
+the tree is being formed weak shoots may be allowed to grow in a more
+erect position than it is ultimately intended they should occupy. Thus
+in four or five years the tree will have acquired something of the
+character of fig. 34, and will go on thus increasing until the space is
+filled.
+
+The half-fan is a combination of the two forms, but as regards pruning
+does not materially differ from the horizontal, as two opposite side
+branches are produced in succession upwards till the space is filled,
+only they are not taken out so abruptly, but are allowed to rise at an
+acute angle and then to curve into the horizontal line.
+
+In all the various forms of cordons, in horizontal training, and in fan
+and half-fan training, the pruning of the main branches when the form of
+the tree is worked out will vary in accordance with the kind of fruit
+under treatment. Thus in the peach, nectarine, apricot, plum and cherry,
+which are commonly trained fan-fashion, the first three (and also the
+morello cherry if grown) will have to be pruned so as to keep a
+succession of young annual shoots, these being their fruit-bearing wood.
+The others are generally pruned so as to combine a moderate supply of
+young wood with a greater or less number of fruit spurs. In the pear and
+apple the fruit is borne principally on spurs, and hence what is known
+as spur-pruning has to be adopted, the young shoots being all cut back
+nearly to their base, so as to cause fruit buds to evolve from the
+remaining eyes or buds. Cordons of apples and pears have to be similarly
+treated, but cordons of peaches and nectarines are pruned so as to
+provide the necessary annual succession of young bearing wood.
+
+Fruit trees trained as espaliers, fans or cordons against walls,
+trellises or fences, are not only pruned carefully in the winter but
+must be also pruned during the early summer months. Many of the smaller,
+useless shoots are rubbed out altogether; the best are allowed to grow
+perhaps a foot or more in length, and then either have the tips pinched
+out with the finger and thumb, or the ends may be cracked or broken, and
+allowed to hang down, but are not detached completely. This is called
+summer pruning, and is an important operation requiring knowledge on the
+part of the gardener to perform properly. Shoots of peaches, nectarines
+and morello cherries are "laid in," that is, placed in between fruiting
+shoots where there is the space to be ripened for next year's crop.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 35.--Summer Pruning for Spurs.]
+
+_Summer Pruning_ should be performed while the shoots are yet young and
+succulent, so that they may in most cases be nipped off with the
+thumb-nail. It is very necessary in the case of trees trained to a flat
+surface, as a wall or espalier rail, to prevent undue crowding. In some
+cases, as, for example, with peaches, the superfluous shoots are wholly
+removed, and certain selected shoots reserved to supply bearing wood for
+next year. In others, as pears, the tops of the young shoots are
+removed, leaving three or four leaves and their buds at the base, to be
+developed into fruit buds by the additional nourishment thus thrown into
+them (fig. 35, a). One or two may push out a late summer growth, b; this
+will serve as a vent for the vigour of the tree, and if the lowermost
+only go to the formation of a fruit spur, the object will have been
+gained. They are cut to the last dormant bud in winter.
+
+But summer pruning has been much extended since the introduction of
+restricted growth and the use of dwarfing stocks. Orchard-house trees,
+and also pyramidal and bush trees of apples, pears and plums, are mainly
+fashioned by summer pruning; in fact, the less the knife is used upon
+them, except in the necessary cutting of the roots in potted trees, the
+better. In the case of orchard-house plants no shoots are suffered to
+lengthen out, except as occasionally wanted to fill up a gap in the
+outline of the tree. On the contrary, the tops of all young shoots are
+pinched off when some three or four leaves are formed, and this is done
+again and again throughout the season. When this pruning is just brought
+to a balance with the vigour of the roots, the consequence is that fruit
+buds are formed all over the tree, instead of a thicket of sterile and
+useless wood. Pyramidal and bush trees out of doors are, of course,
+suffered to become somewhat larger, and sufficient wood must be allowed
+to grow to give them the form desired; but after the first year or two,
+when the framework is laid out, they are permitted to extend very
+slowly, and never to any great extent, while the young growths are
+continually nipped off, so as to clothe the branches with fruit buds as
+closely placed as will permit of their healthy development.
+
+The nature of the cut itself in pruning is of more consequence,
+especially in the case of fruit trees, than at first sight may appear.
+The branches should be separated by a clean cut at an angle of about
+45°, just at the back of a bud, the cut entering on a level with the
+base of the bud and passing out on a level with its top (fig. 36, a),
+for when cut in this way the wound becomes rapidly covered with new
+wood, as soon as growth recommences, whereas if the cut is too close the
+bud is starved, or if less close an ugly and awkward snag is left. Fig
+36, b and c, are examples of the former, and d, e, f of the latter. In
+fact there is only one right way to cut a shoot and that is as shown at
+a.
+
+The _Pruning of flowering plants_ is generally a much lighter matter
+than the pruning of fruit trees. If a young seedling or cutting of any
+soft-wooded plant is to be bushy, it must have its top nipped out by the
+thumb-nail or pruning-scissors at a very early stage, and this stopping
+must be repeated frequently. If what is called a well-furnished plant is
+required, an average of from 2 to 3 in. is all the extension that must
+be permitted--sometimes scarcely so much--before the top is nipped out;
+and this must be continued until the desired size is attained, whether
+that be large or small. Then generally the plant is allowed to grow away
+till bloom or blooming shoots are developed. To form a pyramidal plant,
+which is a very elegant and useful shape to give to a decorative pot
+plant, the main stem should be encouraged to grow upright, for a length
+perhaps of 6 or 8 in. before it is topped; this induces the formation of
+laterals, and favours their development. The best-placed upper young
+shoot is selected and trained upright to a slender stake, and this also
+is topped when it has advanced 6 or 8 in. further, in order to induce
+the laterals on the second portion to push freely. This process is
+continued till the required size is gained. With all the difficult and
+slow-growing plants of the hard-wooded section, all the pruning must be
+done in this gradual way in the young wood as the plant progresses.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 36.--Cuts--Good and Bad.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 37.]
+
+Some plants, like pelargoniums, can only be kept handsomely formed and
+well furnished by cutting them down severely every season, after the
+blooming is over. The plants should be prepared for this by keeping them
+rather dry at the root, and after cutting they must stand with little or
+no water till the stems heal over, and produce young shoots, or "break,"
+as it is technically termed. The appearance of a specimen pelargonium
+properly pruned is shown in fig. 37, in which a shows a young plant, the
+head of which has been taken off to form a cutting, and whose buds are
+ready to break into young shoots. Three shoots will be produced, and
+these, after growing from 4 to 6 in. in length, should be stopped by
+pinching out the point, this giving rise to lateral shoots. These will
+blossom in due course, and, after being ripened thoroughly by full
+exposure to the sun, should be cut back as shown at b. This is the
+proper foundation for a good specimen, and illustrates how all such
+subjects should be pruned to keep them stocky and presentable in form.
+
+_Root-pruning_ is most commonly practised in fruit-tree cultivation. It
+is often resorted to as a means of restoring fertility in plants which
+have become over rank from an excess of nourishment in the soil, or
+sterile from want of it. The effect of root-pruning in the first case is
+to reduce the supply of crude sap to the branches, and consequently to
+cause a check in their development. In the second case all roots that
+have struck downwards into a cold uncongenial subsoil must be pruned off
+if they cannot be turned in a lateral direction, and all the lateral
+ones that have become coarse and fibreless must also be shortened back
+by means of a clean cut with a sharp knife, while a compost of rich
+loamy soil with a little bone-meal, and leaf-mould or old manure, should
+be filled into the trenches from which the old sterile soil has been
+taken. The operation is best performed early in autumn, and may be
+safely resorted to in the case of fruit trees of moderate age, and even
+of old trees if due care be exercised. In transplanting trees all the
+roots which may have become bruised or broken in the process of lifting
+should be cut clean away behind the broken part, as they then more
+readily strike out new roots from the cut parts. In all these cases the
+cut should be a clean sloping one, and made in an upward and outward
+direction.
+
+The root-pruning of pot-plants is necessary in the case of many
+soft-wooded subjects which are grown on year after year--pelargoniums
+and fuchsias, for example. After the close pruning of the branches to
+which they are annually subjected, and when the young shoots have shot
+forth an inch or two in length, they are turned out of their pots and
+have the old soil shaken away from their roots, the longest of which, to
+the extent of about half the existing quantity, are then cut clean away,
+and the plants repotted into small pots. This permits the growing plant
+to be fed with rich fresh soil, without having been necessarily
+transferred to pots of unwieldy size by the time the flowering stage is
+reached.
+
+_Ringing._--One of the expedients for inducing a state of fruitfulness
+in trees is the ringing of the branches or stem, that is, removing a
+narrow annular portion of the bark, by which means, it is said, the
+trees are not only rendered productive, but the quality of the fruit is
+at the same time improved. The advantage depends on the obstruction
+given to the descent of the sap. The ring should be cut out in spring,
+and be of such a width that the bark may remain separated for the
+season. A tight ligature of twine or wire answers the same end. The
+advantages of the operation may generally be gained by judicious root
+pruning, and it is not at all adapted for the various stone fruits.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 38.--Diagram illustrating Branch Distribution.]
+
+_Training._--What is called training is the guiding of the branches of a
+tree or plant in certain positions which they would not naturally
+assume, the object being partly to secure their full exposure to light,
+and partly to regulate the flow and distribution of the sap. To secure
+the former object, the branches must be so fixed as to shade each other
+as little as possible; and to realize the second, the branches must have
+given to them an upward or downward direction, as they may require to be
+encouraged or repressed. Something of the same vegetative vigour which
+is given to a plant or tree by hard pruning is afforded by training in
+an upward direction so as to promote the flow of the sap; while the
+repression effected by summer pruning is supplemented by downward
+training, which acts as a check. One main object is the preservation of
+equilibrium in the growth of the several parts of the tree; and for this
+various minor details deserve attention. Thus a shoot will grow more
+vigorously whilst waving in the air than when nailed close to the wall;
+consequently a weak shoot should be left free, whilst its stronger
+antagonist should be restrained; and a luxuriant shoot may be retarded
+for some time by having its tender extremity pinched off to allow a
+weaker shoot to overtake it.
+
+By the prudent use of the knife, fruit trees may be readily trained into
+the forms indicated below, which are amongst the best out of the many
+which have been devised.
+
+The training of standard and bush trees in the open ground has been
+already referred to under the section _Pruning_. When the growth of
+pyramids is completed, the outline is something like that of fig. 39,
+and very pretty trees are thus formed. It is better, however, especially
+if the tendency to bear fruit is rather slack, to adopt what the French
+call _en quenouille_ training (fig. 40), which consists in tying or
+weighting the tips of the branches so as to give them all a downward
+curve. Pear trees worked on the quince stock, and trained en quenouille,
+are generally very fertile.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 39.--Pyramidal Training.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 40.--Training _en quenouille_.]
+
+Wall trees, it must be evident, are placed in a very unnatural and
+constrained position, and would in fact soon be reduced to a state of
+utter confusion if allowed to grow unrestricted; hence the following
+modes of training have been adopted.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 41.--Horizontal Training.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 42.--Forms of Horizontal Training.]
+
+_Horizontal Training_ (fig. 41) has long been a favourite form in
+England. There is one principal ascending stem, from which the branches
+depart at right angles, at intervals of about a foot. Horizontal
+training is best adapted to the apple and the pear; and for the more
+twiggy growing slender varieties, the forms shown in fig. 42 have been
+recommended. In these the horizontal branches are placed wider, 18 to 20
+in. apart, and the smaller shoots are trained between them, either on
+both sides, as at a, or deflexed from the lower side, as at b. The
+latter is an excellent method of reclaiming neglected trees. Every
+alternate branch should be taken away, and the spurs cut off, after
+which the young shoots are trained in, and soon produce good fruit.
+
+In _Fan Training_ (fig. 43) there is no leading stem, but the branches
+spring from the base and are arranged somewhat like the ribs of a fan.
+This mode of training is commonly adopted for the peach, nectarine,
+apricot and morello cherry, to which it is best adapted. Though
+sometimes adopted, it is not so well suited as the horizontal form for
+apples and pears, because, when the branches reach the top of the wall,
+where they must be cut short, a hedge of young shoots is inevitable. A
+modification of the fan shape (fig. 44) is sometimes adopted for stone
+fruits, such as the plum and apricot. In this the object is to establish
+a number of mother branches, and on these to form a series of
+subordinate members, chiefly composed of bearing wood. The mother
+branches or limbs should not be numerous, but well marked, equal in
+strength and regularly disposed. The side branches should be pretty
+abundant, short and not so vigorous as to rival the leading members.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 43.--Fan Training.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 44.--Modified Fan Training.]
+
+The _Half-fan_ mode of training, which is intermediate between
+horizontal and fan training, is most nearly allied to the former, but
+the branches leave the stem at an acute angle, a disposition supposed to
+favour the more equal distribution of the sap. Sometimes, as in fig. 45,
+two vertical stems are adopted, but there is no particular advantage in
+this, and a single-stemmed tree is more manageable. The half-fan form is
+well adapted for such fruits as the plum and the cherry; and, indeed,
+for fruits of vigorous habit, it seems to combine the advantages of both
+the foregoing.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 45.--Half-Fan Training.]
+
+Trees must be fixed to the walls and buildings against which they are
+trained by means of nails and shreds (neat medicated strips are now sold
+for this purpose), or in cases where it is desired to preserve the wall
+surface intact, by permanent nails or studs driven in in regular order.
+Sometimes the walls are furnished with galvanized wires, but this has
+been objected to as causing cankering of the shoots, for which, however,
+painting is recommended as a remedy. By crossing the tying material
+between the wire and the wood, however, and so preventing them from
+coming in contact, there is no danger. If they are adopted, the wires
+should be a few inches away from the wall, to allow free circulation of
+air between it and the tree, and thus avoid the scorching or burning of
+leaves and fruits during the summer months in very hot places. Care
+should be taken that the ties or fastenings do not eventually cut into
+the bark as the branches swell with increased age. When shreds and nails
+are used, short thick wire nails and "medicated shreds" are the best;
+the ordinary cast iron wall nails being much too brittle and difficult
+to drive into the wall. It must be remembered that nails spoil a wall
+sooner or later, whereas a wire trellis is not only much neater, but
+enables the gardener to tie his trees up much more quickly.
+
+For tying plants to trellises and stakes soft tarred string or raffia
+(the fibre from the Raphia palm of Madagascar) is used.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 46.--Clematis trained on Balloon-Shaped Trellis.]
+
+In training greenhouse plants the young branches should be drawn
+outwards by means of ties fastened to a string or wire under the
+pot-rim; the centre then fills up, and slender stakes are used as
+required; but the fewer these are in number the better. Climbers are
+trained from the bottom around or across trellises, of which the
+cylindrical or the balloon-shaped, or sometimes the flat oval or
+circular, are the best forms. The size should be adapted to the habit of
+the plant, which should cover the whole by the time flowers are
+produced. Bast fibre and raffia fibre are to be preferred for light
+subjects of this character, as they can be split to any degree of
+fineness. Very durable trellises for greenhouse climbers are made of
+slender round iron rods for standards, having a series of hooks on the
+inner edge, into which rings of similar metal are dropped; the rings may
+be graduated so as to form a broad open top, or may be all of the same
+size, when the trellis will assume the cylindrical form. Fig. 46 shows a
+pot specimen of clematis trained, over a balloon-shaped trellis.
+
+The training of certain bedding plants over the surface of the soil is
+done by small pegs of birch wood or bracken, by loops of wire or cheap
+hair-pins, or sometimes by loops of raffia having the ends fixed in the
+soil by the aid of the dibble. The object is to fill up the blank space
+as quickly and as evenly as possible.
+
+_Forcing_ is the accelerating, by special treatment, of the growth of
+certain plants, which are required to be had in leaf, in flower or in
+fruit before their natural season,--as, for instance, the leaves of mint
+at Eastertide or the leafstalks of sea-kale and rhubarb at Christmas,
+the flowers of summer in the depth of winter, or some of the choicest
+fruits perfected so much before their normal period as to complete, with
+the retarded crops of winter, the circle of the seasons.
+
+In the management of artificial heat for this purpose, a considerable
+degree of caution is required. The first stages of forcing should, of
+course, be very gentle, so that the whole growth of the plants may
+advance in harmony. The immediate application of a very hot atmosphere
+would unduly force the tops, while the roots remained partially or
+wholly inactive; and a strong bottom heat, if it did not cause injury by
+its excess, would probably result in abortive growth.
+
+Any sudden decrease of warmth would be very prejudicial to the progress
+of vegetation through the successive stages of foliation, inflorescence
+and fructification. But it is not necessary that one unvarying range of
+temperature should be kept up at whatever pains or risk. Indeed, in very
+severe weather it is found better to drop a little from the maximum
+temperature by fire heat, and the loss so occasioned may be made good by
+a little extra heat applied when the weather is more genial. Night
+temperatures also should always be allowed to drop somewhat, the heat
+being increased again in the morning. In other words, the artificial
+temperature should increase by day and decrease by night, should rise in
+summer and fall in winter, should, in short, imitate as nearly as
+possible the varying influence of the sun.
+
+For the growth of flowers generally, and for that of all fruits, every
+ray of light to be obtained in the dull winter season is required, and
+therefore every possible care should be taken to keep the glass clean. A
+moist genial atmosphere too is essential, a point requiring unremitting
+attention on account of the necessity of keeping up strong fires. With
+moisture as with heat, the cultivator must hold his hand somewhat in
+very severe or very dull weather; but while heat must not drop so as to
+chill the progressing vegetation, so neither must the lack of moisture
+parch the plants so as to check their growth.
+
+There are some few subjects which when forced do not require a light
+house. Thus amongst flowers the white blossoms of the lilac, so much
+prized during winter, are produced by forcing purple-flowered plants in
+darkness. Rhubarb and sea-kale among esculents both need to be forced in
+darkness to keep them crisp and tender, and mushrooms also are always
+grown in dark structures. In fact, a roomy mushroom house is one of the
+most convenient of all places for forcing the vegetables just referred
+to. The lilac would be better placed in a dark shed heated to about 70°
+or 80°, in which some dung and leaves could be allowed to lie and
+ferment, giving off both a genial heat and moisture.
+
+One of the most important preliminaries to successful forcing is the
+securing to the plants a previous state of rest. The thorough ripening
+of the preceding season's wood in fruit trees and flowering plants, and
+of the crown in perennial herbs like strawberries, and the cessation of
+all active growth before the time they are to start into a new growth,
+are of paramount importance. The ripening process must be brought about
+by free exposure to light, and by the application of a little extra heat
+with dryness, if the season should be unfavourable; and both roots and
+tops must submit to a limitation of their water supply. When the
+ripening is perfected, the resting process must be aided by keeping the
+temperature in which they await the forcing process as low as each
+particular subject can bear. (See _Retardation_ above.)
+
+
+V. _Flowers._
+
+_Flower Garden and Pleasure Grounds._--Wherever there is a flower garden
+of considerable magnitude, and in a separate situation, it should be
+constructed on principles of its own. The great object must be to
+exhibit to advantage the graceful forms and glorious hues of flowering
+plants and shrubs. Two varieties of flower gardens have chiefly
+prevailed in Britain. In one the ground is turf, out of which
+flower-beds, of varied patterns, are cut; in the other the flower-beds
+are separated by gravel walks, without the introduction of grass. When
+the flower garden is to be seen from the windows, or any other elevated
+point of view, the former is to be preferred; but where the surface is
+irregular, and the situation more remote, and especially where the
+beauty of flowers is mainly looked to, the choice should probably fall
+on the latter.
+
+The flower garden may include several different compartments. Thus, for
+example, there is the "Rock Garden," which should consist of variously
+grouped masses of large stones, those which are remarkable for being
+figured by water-wearing, or containing petrifactions or impressions, or
+showing something of natural stratification, being generally preferred.
+In the cavities between the stones, filled with earth, alpine or
+trailing plants are inserted, and also some of the choicest flowers. In
+proper situations, a small pool of water may be introduced for the
+culture of aquatic plants. In these days the rock-garden is a most
+important feature, and it requires a good deal of care and skill to
+arrange the boulders, walks, pools or streams in natural and artistic
+fashion. The selection of suitable alpines, perennials and shrubs and
+trees also necessitates considerable knowledge on the part of the
+gardener. A separate compartment laid out on some regular plan is often
+set apart for roses, under the name of the "Rosery." A moist or rather a
+shady border, or a section of the pleasure ground supplied with bog
+earth, may be devoted to what is called the "American Garden," which, as
+it includes the gorgeous rhododendrons and azaleas, forms one of the
+grandest features of the establishment during the early summer, while if
+properly selected the plants are effective as a garden of evergreens at
+all seasons. The number of variegated and various-coloured hardy shrubs
+is now so great that a most pleasant plot for a "Winter Garden" may be
+arrayed with plants of this class, with which may be associated hardy
+subjects which flower during that season or very early spring, as the
+Christmas rose, and amongst bulbs the crocus and snowdrop. Later the
+spring garden department is a scene of great attraction; and some of the
+gardens of this character, as those of Cliveden and Belvoir, are among
+the most fascinating examples of horticultural art. The old-fashioned
+stereotyped flower garden that one met with almost everywhere is rapidly
+becoming a thing of the past, and grounds are now laid out more in
+accordance with their natural disposition, their climatic conditions and
+their suitability for certain kinds of plants. Besides the features
+already mentioned there are now bamboo gardens, Japanese gardens, water
+gardens and wall gardens, each placed in the most suitable position and
+displaying its own special features.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 47.--Turf-Beater.]
+
+_Lawns._--In the formation of lawns the ground must be regularly broken
+up so that it may settle down evenly, any deep excavations that may have
+to be filled in being very carefully rammed down to prevent subsequent
+settlement. The ground must also be thoroughly cleared of the roots of
+all coarse, perennial weeds, and be worked to a fine tilth ready for
+turfing or sowing. The more expeditious method is of course to lay down
+turf, which should be free from weeds, and is cut usually in strips of 1
+ft. wide, 3 ft. long, and about 1 in. in thickness. This must be laid
+very evenly and compactly, and should then be beaten down firmly with
+the implement called a turf-beater (fig. 47). When there is a large
+space to cover, it is much the cheaper plan to sow the lawn with
+grass-seeds, and equally effective, though the sward takes much longer
+to thicken. It is of the utmost importance that a good selection of
+grasses be made, and that pure seeds should be obtained (see GRASS AND
+GRASSLAND). The following sorts can be recommended, the quantities given
+being those for sowing an acre of ground:--
+
+  _Cynosurus cristatus_--Crested Dog's-tail              6 lb.
+  _Festuca duriuscula_--Hard Fescue                      3 lb.
+  _Festuca ovina_--Sheep's Fescue                        3 lb.
+  _Lolium perenne tenue_                                18 lb.
+  _Poa nemoralis sempervirens_--Evergreen Meadow-grass   3 lb.
+  _Poa trivialis_--Trivial Meadow-grass                  3 lb.
+  _Trisetum flavescens_--Yellow Oat-grass                2 lb.
+  _Trifolium repens_--Dutch Clover                       6 lb.
+
+The seeds should be thoroughly mixed, and very evenly sown, after which
+the surface should be raked over to bury them, and then rolled down
+while dry so as to finish it off smooth and level. When thus sown, lawns
+require to be promptly weeded. During the growing season established
+lawns should be mown at least once a week. They should be occasionally
+rolled, and towards autumn they require frequent sweepings to remove
+worm-casts.
+
+  HARDY ANNUALS.--Annual plants are those which grow up from seed,
+  flower, ripen seed, and die in the course of one season--one year.
+  They are useful in the mixed garden, for though in some cases they are
+  of short duration, many of them are possessed of much beauty of hue
+  and elegance of form. Annuals may be divided into three classes: the
+  _hardy_, which are sown at once in the ground they are to occupy; the
+  _half-hardy_, which succeed best when aided at first by a slight hot
+  bed, and then transplanted into the open air; and the _tender_, which
+  are kept in pots, and treated as greenhouse or stove plants, to which
+  departments they properly belong. Some of the more popular annuals,
+  hardy and half-hardy, have been very much varied as regards habit and
+  the colour of the flowers, and purchases may be made in the seed shops
+  of such things as China asters, stocks, Chinese and Indian pinks,
+  larkspurs, phloxes and others, amongst which some of the most
+  beautiful of the summer flowers may be found.
+
+  The hardy annuals may be sown in the open ground during the latter
+  part of March or beginning of April, as the season may determine, for
+  the weather should be dry and open, and the soil in a free-working
+  condition before sowing is attempted. In favourable situations and
+  seasons some of the very hardiest, as _Silene pendula_, Saponaria,
+  Nemophila, Gilia, &c., may be sown in September or October, and
+  transplanted to the beds or borders for very early spring flowering.
+  Those sown in spring begin to flower about June. The plants, if left
+  to flower where they are sown, should be thinned out while young, to
+  give them space for proper development. It is from having ample room
+  that pricked out transplanted seedlings often make the finest plants.
+  The soil should be rich and light.
+
+  The half-hardy series are best sown in pots or pans under glass in
+  mild heat, in order to accelerate germination. Those of them which are
+  in danger of becoming leggy should be speedily removed to a cooler
+  frame and placed near the glass, the young plants being pricked off
+  into fresh soil, in other pots or pans or boxes, as may seem best in
+  each case. All the plants must be hardened off gradually during the
+  month of April, and may generally be planted out some time in May,
+  earlier or later according to the season.
+
+  The class of tender annuals, being chiefly grown for greenhouse
+  decoration, should be treated much the same as soft-wooded plants,
+  being sown in spring, and grown on rapidly in brisk heat, near the
+  glass, and finally hardened off to stand in the greenhouse when in
+  flower.
+
+  We add a select list of some of the more distinct annuals desirable
+  for general cultivation as decorative plants for the open air:--
+
+  _Acroclinium roseum_: half-hardy, 1 ft., rose-pink or white;
+  everlasting.
+
+  _Agrostis pulchella_: hardy, 6 in.; a most graceful grass for
+  bouquets.
+
+  _Amberboa moschata atropurpurea_ (Sweet Sultan): hardy, 1½ ft.,
+  purple: musk-scented.
+
+  _Antirrhinum majus_ (Snapdragon): hardy, 6 in. to 2 ft., white, yellow
+  and red. This plant is perennial, but is best treated as an annual.
+
+  _Arnebia cornuta_: hardy, 1½ to 2 ft. yellow.
+
+  _Bartonia aurea_: hardy, 2 ft., golden yellow; showy and free.
+
+  _Brachycome iberidifolia_: half-hardy, 1 ft., blue or white with dark
+  disk.
+
+  _Calendula officinalis Meteor_: hardy, 1 ft., orange striped with
+  yellow.
+
+  _Calliopsis_ or _Coreopsis bicolor (tinctoria)_: hardy, 2 to 3 ft.,
+  yellow and chestnut-brown.
+
+  _Calliopsis_ or _Coreopsis Drummondii_: hardy, 1 to 2 ft., golden
+  yellow with red disk.
+
+  _Callistephus hortensis_ or _chinensis_ (the China aster): half-hardy,
+  6 in. to 1½ ft.; there arc several groups of various colours. The
+  species itself is a very handsome plant.
+
+  _Campanula Loreyi_: hardy, 1½ ft., purplish-lilac or white.
+
+  _Campanula macrostyla_: hardy, 1 to 2 ft., purple, beautifully veined.
+
+  _Carnations_, _Marguerite_: half-hardy, 9 to 12 in., colours various.
+
+  _Centaurea Cyanus_: hardy, 3 ft., blue, purple, pink or white; showy.
+
+  _Centranthus macrosiphon_: hardy, 1½ to 2 ft., rosy-carmine.
+
+  _Centranthus ruber_ (known as Pretty Betsy and Red Valerian): hardy, 2
+  to 3 ft., red.
+
+  _Chrysanthemum carinatum_: a charming half-hardy annual, 2 to 3 ft.
+  high, with several varieties, of which C. Burridgeanum with zones of
+  white, crimson and yellow is best.
+
+  _C. coronarium_, a yellow-flowered species requires similar treatment.
+
+  _Clarkia pulchella_: hardy, 1½ ft., rosy-purple; some varieties very
+  handsome.
+
+  _Collinsia bicolor_: hardy, 1½ ft., white and purple; pretty.
+
+  _Collinsia verna_: hardy, 1 ft., white and azure; sow as soon as ripe.
+
+  _Convolvulus tricolor atroviolacea_: hardy, 1 ft., white, blue and
+  yellow. This is the _Convolvulus minor_ of gardens.
+
+  _Cosmos bipinnatus_: half-hardy, 3 ft., rose, purple, white; requires
+  sunny spots.
+
+  _Dianthus chinensis_ (Indian pink): half-hardy, 6 in. to 1 ft.,
+  various shades of red and white.
+
+  _Delphinium Ajacis_ and _Delphinium Consolida_ (Larkspurs): hardy, 3
+  ft., various colours.
+
+  _Erysimum Peroffskianum_: hardy, 2 ft., deep orange; in erect racemes.
+
+  _Eschscholtzia californica_: hardy, 1½ ft., yellow with saffron eye.
+
+  _Eschscholtzia crocea flore-pleno_: hardy, 1½ ft., orange yellow;
+  double.
+
+  _Eutoca viscida_: hardy, 2 ft., bright blue, with white hairy centre.
+
+  _Gaillardia Drummondii (picta)_: half-hardy, 1½ ft., crimson, yellow
+  margin.
+
+  _Gilia achilleaefolia_: hardy, 2 ft., deep blue; in large globose
+  heads.
+
+  _Godetia Lindleyana_: hardy, 2 to 3 ft., rose-purple, with crimson
+  spots.
+
+  _Godetia Whitneyi_: hardy, 1 ft., rosy-red, with crimson spots. The
+  variety _Lady Albemarle_ is wholly crimson, and very handsome.
+
+  _Gypsophila elegans_: hardy, 1½ ft., pale rose; branched very
+  gracefully.
+
+  _Helianthus cucumerifolius_: hardy, 3 to 4 ft., golden yellow, black
+  disk; branching, free and bold without coarseness.
+
+  _Helichrysum bracteatum_: half-hardy, 2 ft., the incurved crimson,
+  rose and other forms very handsome.
+
+  _Hibiscus Trionum (africanus)_: hardy, 1½ ft., cream colour, dark
+  purple centre.
+
+  _Iberis umbellata_ (Candytuft): hardy, 1 ft., white, rose, purple,
+  crimson. Some new dwarf white and flesh-coloured varieties are very
+  handsome.
+
+  _Kaulfussia amelloides_: hardy, 1 ft., blue or rose; the var.
+  kermesina is deep crimson.
+
+  _Kochia scoparia_ (Belvedere or lawn cypress): hardy, graceful green
+  foliage, turning purple in autumn.
+
+  _Königa maritima_ (Sweet Alyssum): hardy, 1 ft., white; fragrant,
+  compact.
+
+  _Lathyrus odoratus_ (Sweet Pea): hardy; there are two races, dwarf and
+  tall, the latter--far and away the most beautiful--requires support;
+  various colours; numerous immensely popular forms.
+
+  _Lavatera trimestris_: hardy, 3 ft., pale-rose, showy malvaceous
+  flowers.
+
+  _Leptosiphon densiflorus_: hardy in light soil, 1 ft., purplish or
+  rosy-lilac.
+
+  _Leptosiphon roseus_: hardy in light soil, 6 in., delicate rose; fine
+  in masses.
+
+  _Linaria bipartita splendida_: hardy, 1 ft., deep purple.
+
+  _Linum grandiflorum_: hardy, 1 ft., splendid crimson; var. roseum is
+  pink.
+
+  _Lupinus luteus_: hardy, 2 ft., bright yellow, fragrant.
+
+  _Lupinus mutabilis Cruickshanksii_: hardy, 4 ft., blue and yellow;
+  changeable.
+
+  _Lupinus nanus_: hardy, 1 ft., bluish-purple; abundant flowering.
+
+  _Lychnis Coeli-rosa_: hardy, 1½ ft., rosy-purple, with pale centre;
+  pretty.
+
+  _Lychnis oculata cardinalis_: hardy, 1½ ft., rosy-crimson; very
+  brilliant.
+
+  _Malcolmia maritima_ (Virginian Stock): hardy, 6 in., lilac, rose or
+  white.
+
+  _Malope trifida_: hardy, 3 ft., rich glossy purplish-crimson; showy.
+  _M. grandiflora_ is a finer plant in every way.
+
+  _Matthiola annua_ (Ten-week Stock and its variety, the intermediate
+  stock): half-hardy, 1 to 2 ft., white, rose and red.
+
+  _Matthiola graeca_ (Wallflower-lvd. Stock): hardy, 1 ft., various as
+  in Stock.
+
+  _Mesembryanthemum tricolor_: half-hardy, 3 in., pink and crimson, with
+  dark centre.
+
+  _Mimulus cupreus_: half-hardy, 6 in., coppery red, varying
+  considerably.
+
+  _Mimulus luteus tigrinus_: half-hardy, 1 ft., yellow spotted with red;
+  var. _duplex_ has hose-in-hose flowers.
+
+  _Mirabilis Jalapa_: half-hardy, 3 ft., various colours; flowers
+  evening-scented.
+
+  _Nemesia floribunda_: hardy, 1 ft., white and yellow; pretty and
+  compact.
+
+  _Nemophila insignis_: hardy, 6 in., azure blue, with white centre.
+
+  _Nemophila maculata_: hardy, 6 in., white, with violet spots at the
+  edge.
+
+  _Nicotiana affinis_: half-hardy, 2 to 3 ft., white.
+
+  _Nicotiana Sanderae_: half-hardy, 2 to 3 ft., white, crimson, scarlet,
+  &c.
+
+  _Nigella hispanica_: hardy, 1½ ft., pale blue, white or dark purple.
+
+  _Oenothera odorata_: hardy, 2 to 3 ft., yellow; fragrant.
+
+  _Omphalodes linifolia_ (Venus's Navelwort): hardy, 1 ft., white.
+
+  _Papaver Rhoeas flore-pleno_: hardy, 2 ft., scarlet and other colours;
+  showy.
+
+  _Papaver somniferum flore-pleno_: hardy, 3 ft., white, lilac, rose,
+  &c.; petals sometimes fringed.
+
+  _Petunia violacea hybrida_: half-hardy, 1½ ft., various colours; sow
+  in heat.
+
+  _Pharbitis hispida_: hardy, 6 ft., various; the many-coloured twining
+  _Convolvulus major_.
+
+  _Phlox Drummondii_: half-hardy, 1 ft., various colours.
+
+  _Platystemon californicus_: hardy, 1 ft., sulphur yellow; neat and
+  distinct.
+
+  _Portulaca splendens_: half-hardy, 6 in., crimson, rose, yellow,
+  white, &c., single and double; splendid prostrate plants for sunny
+  rockwork.
+
+  _Pyrethrum Parthenium aureum_: half-hardy, 1 ft.; grown for its golden
+  foliage, and much used for bedding.
+
+  _Reseda odorata_ (Mignonette): hardy, 1 ft., greenish, but exquisitely
+  fragrant; there are some choice new sorts.
+
+  _Rhodanthe maculata_: half-hardy, 1½ ft., rosy-pink or white; larger
+  flower-heads than the next.
+
+  _Rhodanthe Manglesii_: half-hardy, 1 ft., rosy-pink; a drooping
+  everlasting.
+
+  _Salpiglossis sinuata_: half-hardy, 2 to 3 ft., yellow, purple,
+  crimson, &c.; much varied and beautifully veined.
+
+  _Sanvitalia procumbens flore-pleno_: half-hardy, 6 in., golden yellow;
+  procumbent.
+
+  _Saponaria calabrica_: hardy, 6 to 8 in., bright rose pink or white;
+  continuous blooming, compact-growing.
+
+  _Scabiosa atropurpurea_: hardy, 1 to 2 ft., rose, white, lilac,
+  crimson, &c.
+
+  _Schizanthus pinnatus_: hardy, 1 to 2 ft., purple-lilac, prettily
+  blotched; curiously lobed flowers.
+
+  _Schizopetalon Walkeri_: hardy, 1 ft., white, sweet-scented at night;
+  curiously fringed petals.
+
+  _Senecio elegans_: half-hardy, 1½ ft., white, rose or purple; the
+  various double forms are showy.
+
+  _Silene pendula_: hardy, 1 ft., bright rose pink; very showy in
+  masses; var. _compacta_ forms close dense tufts.
+
+  _Silene Pseudo-Atocion_: hardy, 1 ft., rose pink; free-flowering.
+
+  _Specularia Speculum_: hardy, 6 in., reddish-violet; free-flowering.
+
+  _Sphenogyne speciosa_: half-hardy, 1 ft., orange-yellow, with black
+  ring around the disk.
+
+  _Statice Bonduelli_ (Sea Lavender): half-hardy, 1½ ft., yellow.
+
+  _S. Limonum_: bluish purple.
+
+  _S. sinuata_: white, blue, yellow.
+
+  _S. Suworowi_: lilac.
+
+  _Tagetes signata_: half-hardy, 1½ ft., golden yellow; continuous
+  blooming, with elegant foliage. The French and African marigolds,
+  favourites of some, are allied to this.
+
+  _Tropaeolum aduncum_ (Canary creeper): half-hardy, 10 ft., yellow,
+  fringed; an elegant climber.
+
+  _Tropaeolum majus_ (the nasturtium of gardens): hardy. There are two
+  races, dwarf and tall, various shades of red and yellow.
+
+  _Waitzia aurea_: half-hardy, 1½ ft., golden yellow; a showy
+  everlasting.
+
+  _Xeranthemum annuum flore-pleno_: hardy, 2 ft., lilac-purple;
+  floriferous.
+
+  _Zinnia elegans_: half-hardy, 1 to 2 ft., various colours.
+
+  HARDY BIENNIALS.--Biennials live through one winter period. They
+  require to be sown in the summer months, about June or July, in order
+  to get established before winter; they should be pricked out as soon
+  as large enough, and should have ample space so as to become hardy and
+  stocky. They should be planted in good soil, but not of too
+  stimulating a character. Those that are perfectly hardy are best
+  planted where they are to flower in good time during autumn. This
+  transplanting acts as a kind of check, which is rather beneficial than
+  otherwise. Of those that are liable to suffer injury in winter, as the
+  Brompton and Queen Stocks, a portion should be potted and wintered in
+  cold frames ventilated as freely as the weather will permit.
+
+  The number of biennials is not large, but a few very desirable garden
+  plants, such as the following, occur amongst them:--
+
+  _Agrostemma coronaria_ (Rose Campion): hardy, 1½ ft., bright
+  rose-purple or rose and white.
+
+  _Beta Cicla variegata_: hardy, 2 ft., beautifully coloured leaves and
+  midribs, crimson, golden, &c.
+
+  _Campanula Medium_ (Canterbury Bell): hardy, 2 ft., blue, white, rose,
+  &c. The double-flowered varieties of various colours are very
+  handsome.
+
+  _Campanula Medium calycanthema_: hardy, 2 ft., blue or white;
+  hose-in-hose flowered.
+
+  _Catananche coerulea_: hardy, 2 to 3 ft., blue or white.
+
+  _Celsia cretica_: hardy, 4 to 5 ft., yellow, with two dark spots near
+  centre; in spikes.
+
+  _Cheiranthus Cheiri_ (Wallflower): hardy, 1½ to 2 ft., red, purple,
+  yellow, &c.; really a perennial but better as a biennial.
+
+  _Coreopsis grandiflora_: hardy, 2 to 3 ft., bright yellow; the finest
+  member of the genus.
+
+  _Dianthus barbatus_ (Sweet William): hardy, 1 to 1½ ft., crimson,
+  purple, white or parti-coloured.
+
+  _Dianthus chinensis_ (Indian Pink): half-hardy, 1 ft., various; flower
+  earlier if treated as biennials; must be protected from frost.
+
+  _Digitalis purpurea_ (Foxglove): hardy, 3 to 5 ft., rosy-purple or
+  white; beautifully spotted; the variety called _gloxinioides_ has
+  regular, erect flowers.
+
+  _Echium pomponium_: hardy, 4 ft., rosy-pink.
+
+  _Hedysarum coronarium_ (French Honeysuckle): hardy, 2 to 3 ft.,
+  scarlet or white; fragrant.
+
+  _Hesperis tristis_ (Night-scented Rocket): hardy, 3 ft., dull
+  purplish; fragrant at night.
+
+  _Lunaria biennis_ (Honesty): hardy, 2 to 3 ft., purple; the silvery
+  dissepiment attractive among everlastings.
+
+  _Matthiola incana_ (two groups, the Brompton and the Queen stocks):
+  hardy, 2 to 2½ ft., white, red and purple.
+
+  _Meconopsis._ Charming members of the poppy family, of which _M.
+  aculeata_, purple; _M. grandis_, purple; _M. heterophylla_,
+  coppery-orange; _M. nepalensis_, golden yellow; _M. integrifolia_,
+  yellow; _M. simplicifolia_, violet purple, are grown with care in
+  sheltered spots, and in rich, very gritty soil.
+
+  _Michauxia campanuloides_, a remarkable bell flower, 3 to 8 ft. high,
+  white tinged purple. Requires rich loam in warm sheltered spots.
+
+  _Oenothera biennis_ and _O. Lamarckiana_ (Evening primrose): hardy, 5
+  ft., bright yellow; large.
+
+  _Scabiosa caucasica_: hardy, 3 ft., blue, white.
+
+  _Silene compacta_: half-hardy, 3 to 6 inches, bright pink; clustered
+  as in S. Armeria.
+
+  _Verbascum Blattaria_: hardy, 3 to 4 ft., yellowish, with purple hairs
+  on the filaments; in tall spikes.
+
+  HARDY HERBACEOUS PERENNIALS.--This term includes not only those
+  fibrous-rooted plants of herbaceous habit which spring up from the
+  root year after year, but also those old-fashioned subjects known as
+  florists' flowers, and the hardy bulbs. Some of the most beautiful of
+  hardy flowering plants belong to this class. When the length of the
+  flowering season is considered, it will be obvious that it is
+  impossible to keep up the show of a single border or plot for six
+  months together, since plants, as they are commonly arranged, come
+  dropping into and out of flower one after another; and even where a
+  certain number are in bloom at the same time, they necessarily stand
+  apart, and so the effects of contrast, which can be perceived only
+  among adjacent objects, are lost. To obviate this defect, it has been
+  recommended that ornamental plants should be formed into four or five
+  separate suites of flowering, to be distributed over the garden. Not
+  to mention the more vernal flowers, the first might contain the flora
+  of May; the second that of June; the third that of July; and the
+  fourth that of August and the following months. These compartments
+  should be so intermingled that no particular class may be entirely
+  absent from any one quarter of the garden.
+
+  Before beginning to plant, it would be well to construct tables or
+  lists of the plants, specifying their respective times of flowering,
+  colours and heights. To diversify properly and mingle well together
+  the reds, whites, purples, yellows and blues, with all their
+  intervening shades, requires considerable taste and powers of
+  combination; and ascertained failures may be rectified at the proper
+  time the next season. The one great object aimed at should be to
+  present an agreeable contrast--a floral picture; and, as at particular
+  seasons a monotony of tint prevails, it is useful at such times to be
+  in possession of some strong glaring colours. White, for instance,
+  should be much employed in July, to break the duller blues and purples
+  which then preponderate. Orange, too, is very effective at this
+  season. On the other hand, yellows are superabundant in autumn, and
+  therefore reds and blues should then be sought for. The
+  flower-gardener should have a small nursery, or reserve garden, for
+  the propagation of the finer plants, to be transferred into the
+  borders as often as is required.
+
+  As a rule, all the fibrous-rooted herbaceous plants flourish in good
+  soil which has been fairly enriched with manure, that of a loamy
+  character being the most suitable. Many of them also grow
+  satisfactorily in a peaty soil if well worked, especially if they have
+  a cool moist subsoil. Pentstemons and phloxes, amongst others, succeed
+  well in soil of this character, but the surface must be well drained;
+  the former are rather apt to perish in winter in loamy soil, if at all
+  close and heavy. The herbaceous border should be a distinct
+  compartment varying from 6 to 10 ft. in width, and perhaps backed up
+  by evergreens under certain conditions. Such a border will take in
+  about four lines of plants, the tallest being placed in groups at the
+  back and in the centre, and the others graduated in height down to the
+  front. In the front row patches of the white arabis, the yellow
+  alyssum, white, yellow, blue, or purple violas, and the purple
+  aubrietia, recurring at intervals of 5 or 6 yards on a border of
+  considerable length, carry the eye forwards and give a balanced kind
+  of finish to the whole. The same might be done with dianthuses or the
+  larger narcissi in the second row, with paeonies, columbines and
+  phloxes in the third, and with delphiniums, aconitums and some of the
+  taller yellow composites as helianthus and rudbeckia at the back.
+  Spring and autumn flowers, as well as those blooming in summer, should
+  be regularly distributed throughout the border, which will then at no
+  season be devoid of interest in any part. Many of the little alpines
+  may be brought into the front line planted between suitable pieces of
+  stone, or they may be relegated to a particular spot, and placed on an
+  artificial rockery. Most of the hardy bulbs will do well enough in the
+  border, care being taken not to disturb them while leafless and
+  dormant.
+
+  Some deep-rooting perennials do not spread much at the surface, and
+  only require refreshing from time to time by top-dressings. Others, as
+  the asters, spread rapidly; those possessing this habit should be
+  taken up every second or third year, and, a nice patch being selected
+  for replanting from the outer portions, the rest may be either thrown
+  aside, or reserved for increase; the portion selected for replanting
+  should be returned to its place, the ground having meanwhile been well
+  broken up. Some plants are apt to decay at the base, frequently from
+  exposure caused by the lifting process going on during their growth;
+  these should be taken up annually in early autumn, the soil refreshed,
+  and the plants returned to their places, care being taken to plant
+  them sufficiently deep.
+
+  Only a section of some of the best of the decorative hardy perennials
+  can be noted, before we pass on to those popular subjects of this
+  class which have been directly influenced by the hybridizer and
+  improver. Many more might be added to the subjoined list:--
+
+  _Acaena._--Neat trailing plants adapted for rockwork, thriving in
+  sandy soil. _A. microphylla_ and _A. myriophylla_ have pretty spiny
+  heads of flowers.
+
+  _Acantholimon._--Pretty dwarf tufted plants, with needle-shaped
+  leaves, adapted for rockwork. _A. glumaceum_ and _A. venustum_ bear
+  bright pink flowers in July and August. Light sandy loam.
+
+  _Acanthus._--Bold handsome plants, with stately spikes, 2 to 3 ft.
+  high, of flowers with spiny bracts. _A. mollis_, _A. latifolius_, and
+  _A. longifolius_ are broad-leaved sorts; _A. spinosus_ and _A.
+  spinosissimus_ have narrower spiny toothed leaves.
+
+  _Achillea._--Handsome composite plants, the stronger ones of easy
+  culture in common soil. _A. Eupatorium_ and _filipendula_, 3 to 4 ft.,
+  have showy yellow corymbose flowers; _A. rosea_, 2 ft., rosy-crimson;
+  and _A. Ptarmica flore-pleno_, 2 ft., double white flowers. Others
+  suitable for front lines or rockwork are _A. tomentosa_, 9 in., bright
+  yellow; _A. aegyptiaca_, 1 ft., silvery leaves and yellow flowers; _A.
+  umbellata_, 8 in., silvery leaves and white flowers; and _A.
+  Clavennae_, 6 in., with silvery leaves and pure white flowers.
+
+  _Aconitum._--Handsome border plants, the tall stems crowned by racemes
+  of showy hooded flowers. _A. Camarum_, 3 to 4 ft., has deep purple
+  flowers in August; _A. sinense_, 1½ to 2 ft., has large dark purple
+  flowers in September; _A. variegatum_, 3 ft., has the flowers white
+  edged with blue; _A. autumnale_, 3 ft., has pale blue flowers; _A.
+  Anthora_, 1 to 2 ft., yellow; and _A. japonicum_, 2½ ft., deep blue
+  flowers, produced in September and October. _A. Wilsoni_, a new
+  species from China, 6 ft. high, with bluish-purple flowers.
+
+  _Adenophora._--Bell-shaped flowers. _A. stylosa_, 2 ft., pale blue,
+  elegant; _A. denticulata_, 1½ ft., dark blue; and in _A. liliifolia_,
+  1½ ft., pale blue, sweet-scented--all blooming during summer. Light
+  soil.
+
+  _Adonis._--_A. vernalis_, 1 ft., has large bright yellow stellate
+  flowers in April. Deep light soil. _A. amurensis_ is a fine Chinese
+  species.
+
+  _Ajuga._--Free growing, dwarf and showy. _A. reptans_, 8 in., has
+  creeping runners, which _A. genevensis_ has not; both bear handsome
+  spikes of blue labiate flowers. Ordinary soil.
+
+  _Allium._--Hardy bulbs of the garlic family, some species of which are
+  ornamental; the inflorescence is umbellate. In _A. azureum_, 1 to 2
+  ft., the flowers are deep-blue; in _A. Moly_, 1 ft., golden yellow; in
+  _A. neapolitanum_, 1½ ft., white, very handsome; in _A. triquetrum_, 8
+  in., white with green central stripes; in _A. pedemontanum_, 9 in.,
+  reddish-violet, very beautiful, the umbels nodding.
+
+  _Alstroemeria._--Beautiful plants with fleshy tuberous roots, which
+  are the better if not often disturbed. _A. aurantiaca_, 2 to 3 ft.,
+  orange streaked with red, in July and August; _A. chilensis_, 2 to 3
+  ft., blood-red, streaked with yellow, affording many varieties. Deep
+  sandy loam or peat. Should be planted at least 6 or 8 in. deep.
+
+  _Althaea rosea._--The hollyhock is a noble perennial, 6 to 15 ft.
+  high, with flowers of every colour except blue. Requires rich loamy
+  soil and plenty of space.
+
+  _Alyssum._--Showy rockwork or front row border plants of easy culture
+  in any light soil; the plants should be frequently renewed from
+  cuttings. _A. saxatile_, with greyish leaves, and deep yellow flowers,
+  produced in April and May, and the dwarfer _A. montanum_ are useful.
+
+  _Amaryllis._--Noble half-hardy bulbs, for planting near the front wall
+  of a hothouse or greenhouse; the soil must be deep, rich and well
+  drained. _A. Belladonna_, the Belladonna Lily, 3 ft., has large
+  funnel-shaped flowers in September, of a delicate rose colour. The
+  variety _A. blanda_ has paler flowers, almost white.
+
+  _Anchusa._--Pretty boraginaceous herbs, easily grown. _A. italica_, 3
+  to 4 ft., has blue star-like flowers. _A. sempervirens_, 1½ ft., rich
+  blue, is well suited for rough borders.
+
+  _Androsace._--Pretty dwarf rock plants, requiring rather careful
+  management and a gritty soil. _A. Vitaliana_, yellow; _A. Wulfeniana_,
+  purplish-crimson; _A. villosa_, white or pale rose; _A. lactea_, white
+  with yellow eye; _A. lanuginosa_, delicate rose; and _A. Chamaejasme_,
+  delicate rose, are some of the best.
+
+  _Anemone._--The Japanese kinds, _A. japonica_, flowers white and
+  purple, are very easily grown and are particularly fine in autumn. The
+  scarlet _A. fulgens_, and _A. coronaria_, the poppy anemone, are
+  useful for the front, or in nooks in the rockery; while the common
+  hepatica (_A. hepatica_) with its bright blue flowers should also
+  have a place.
+
+  _Antennaria._--Composite plants, with everlasting flowers. _A.
+  margaritacea_, 1½ to 2 ft., has white woolly stems and leaves, and
+  white flower-heads.
+
+  _Anthericum._--Charming border flowers. _A. Liliastrum_, St Bruno's
+  Lily, 1½ ft., bears pretty white sweet-scented flowers in May; _A.
+  Hookeri (Chrysobactron)_, 2 ft., with long racemes of bright golden
+  yellow flowers, requires cool peaty soil.
+
+  _Aquilegia._--The Columbine family, consisting of beautiful border
+  flowers in great variety, ranging from 1 to 2 or 3 ft. in height.
+  Besides the common purple _A. vulgaris_ with its numerous varieties,
+  double and single, there are of choice sorts _A. alpina_ and _A.
+  pyrenaica_, blue; _A. glandulosa_, _A. jucunda_, and _A. coerulea_,
+  blue and white; _A. leptoceras_, blue and yellow; _A. canadensis_, _A.
+  Skinneri_, and _A. truncata (californica)_, scarlet and yellow; _A.
+  chrysantha_, yellow; and _A. fragrans_, white or flesh-colour, very
+  fragrant. Light rich garden soil.
+
+  _Arabis._--Dwarf close-growing evergreen cruciferous plants, adapted
+  for rockwork and the front part of the flower border, and of the
+  easiest culture. _A. albida_ forms a conspicuous mass of greyish
+  leaves and white blossoms. There is also a charming double variety.
+  _A. lucida_, which is also white-flowered, bears its bright green
+  leaves in rosettes, and has a variety with prettily gold-margined
+  leaves.
+
+  _Arenaria._--Evergreen rock plants of easy culture. _A. graminifolia_,
+  and _A. laricifolia_ are tufted, with grassy foliage and white
+  flowers, while A. balearica, a creeping rock plant, has tiny leaves
+  and solitary white flowers.
+
+  _Armeria._--The Thrift or Sea-Pink, of which the common form _A.
+  maritima_ is sometimes planted as an edging for garden walks; there
+  are three varieties, the common pale pink, the deep rose, and the
+  white, the last two being the most desirable. _A. cephalotes_, 1½ ft.,
+  is a larger plant, with tufts of linear lance-shaped leaves, and
+  abundant globular heads of deep rose flowers, in June and July.
+
+  _Asclepias._--_A. tuberosa_ is a handsome fleshy-rooted plant, very
+  impatient of being disturbed, and preferring good peat soil; it grows
+  1 to 1½ ft. high, and bears corymbs of deep yellow and orange flowers
+  in September. _A. incarnata_, 2 to 4 ft., produces deep rose
+  sweet-scented flowers towards the end of summer.
+
+  _Asperula odorata._--The woodruff, a charming white-flowered plant
+  with leaves in circles. Well adapted for carpeting the border or
+  rockery.
+
+  _Asphodelus._--Handsome liliaceous plants, with fleshy roots, erect
+  stems, and showy flowers, thriving in any good garden soil. _A.
+  albus_, 4 ft., _A. aestivus_, 4 ft., and _A. ramosus_, 4 ft., have all
+  long tapering keeled leaves, and simple or branched spikes of white
+  flowers; _A. luteus_, 2 ft., has awl-shaped leaves and dense spikes of
+  fragrant yellow flowers; _A. capillaris_ is similar to _A. luteus_,
+  but more slender and elegant.
+
+  _Aster._--A very large family of autumn-blooming composites, including
+  some ornamental species, all of the easiest culture. Of these, _A.
+  alpinus_, 1 ft., and _A. Amellus_, 1½ ft., with its var.
+  _bessarabicus_, have broadish blunt leaves, and large starry bluish
+  flowers; _A. longifolius formosus_, 2 ft., bright rosy lilac; _A.
+  elegans_, 3 to 5 ft., small pale purple or whitish; _A. laxus_, 2 ft.,
+  purplish-blue; _A. pendulus_, 2½ ft., white, changing to rose; _A.
+  pyrenaeus_, 2 to 3 ft., lilac-blue; _A. turbinellus_, 2 to 3 ft.,
+  mauve-coloured, are showy border plants; and _A. Novae Angliae_, 5 to
+  6 ft., rosy-violet; _A. cyaneus_, 5 ft., blue-lilac; and _A.
+  grandiflorus_, 3 ft., violet, are especially useful from their
+  late-flowering habit.
+
+  _Astilbe._--_A. japonica_, 1 to 1½ ft., better known as _Hoteia
+  japonica_ or _Spiraea japonica_, thrives in peaty or sandy soil; its
+  glossy tripinnate leaves, and feathery panicles of white flowers early
+  in summer, are very attractive. It proves to be a fine decorative
+  pot-plant, and invaluable for forcing during the spring.
+
+  _Astragalus._--Showy pea-flowered plants, the smaller species adapted
+  for rockwork; sandy soil. _A. dasyglottis_, 6 in., has bluish-purple
+  flowers in August and September; and _A. monspessulanus_, 8 in.,
+  crimson-purple in July; while _A. hypoglottis_, 6 in., produces in
+  summer compact heads of pretty flowers, which are either purple or
+  white. There are many very ornamental kinds.
+
+  _Aubrietia._--Beautiful dwarf spring-blooming rock plants, forming
+  carpety tufts of flowers of simple cruciferous form. _A. delioidea_ is
+  of a deep lilac-blue; _A. Campbelliae_ is more compact and rather
+  darker, approaching to purple; _A. grandiflora_ and _graeca_ are
+  rather larger, but of a lighter hue. Light sandy soil.
+
+  _Bambusa._--The bamboo family are elegant arborescent grasses (see
+  BAMBOO).
+
+  _Baptisia._--Stoutish erect-growing, 2 to 3 ft., with smooth foliage
+  and spikes of pea-like flowers. _B. australis_ is purplish-blue, _B.
+  alba_, white, _B. exaltata_, deep blue; all flowering in the summer
+  months.
+
+  _Bellis._--_B. perennis flore-pleno_, the Double Daisy, consists of
+  dwarf showy plants 3 to 4 in. high, flowering freely in spring if
+  grown in rich light soil, and frequently divided and transplanted. The
+  white and pink forms, with the white and red quilled, and the
+  variegated-leaved _aucubaefolia_, are some of the best.
+
+  _Bocconia._--Stately poppyworts, 6 to 8 ft. _B. cordata_ has
+  heart-shaped lobed leaves, and large panicles of small flesh-coloured
+  flowers. Sometimes called _Macleaya_. Deep sandy loam.
+
+  _Brodiaea._--Pretty bulbous plants. _B. grandiflora_, 1 ft., has large
+  bluish-purple flowers; _B. coccinea_, 2 to 3 ft., has tubular
+  campanulate nodding flowers of a rich crimson with green tips. Sandy
+  loam.
+
+  _Bulbocodium._--Pretty spring-flowering crocus-like bulbs. _B.
+  vernum_, 4 to 6 in. high, purplish-lilac, blooms in March. Good garden
+  soil.
+
+  _Buphthalmum._--Robust composite herbs with striking foliage, for the
+  back of herbaceous or shrubbery borders. _B. cordifolium_, 4 ft., has
+  large cordate leaves, and heads of rich orange flowers in cymose
+  panicles in July. Also called _Telekia speciosa_.
+
+  _Calandrinia._--Showy dwarf plants for sunny rockwork, in light sandy
+  soil. _C. umbellata_, 3 to 4 in., much branched, with narrow hairy
+  leaves, and corymbs of magenta-crimson flowers in the summer months.
+
+  _Calochortus._--Beautiful bulbous plants, called mariposa lilies,
+  requiring warm sheltered spots in rich gritty and well-drained soil.
+  There are several species known, the best being _albus_, _elegans_,
+  _luteus_, _Plummerae_, _splendens_, _Purdyi_, _venustus_ and _Weedi_.
+
+  _Caltha._--Showy marsh plants, adapted for the margins of lakes,
+  streamlets or artificial bogs. _C. palustris flore-pleno_, 1 ft., has
+  double brilliant yellow flowers in May.
+
+  _Calystegia._--Twining plants with running perennial roots. _C.
+  pubescens flore-pleno_, 8 to 10 ft., has showy double-pink
+  convolvuloid flowers in July; _C. dahurica_ is a handsome
+  single-flowered summer-blooming kind, with rosy-coloured flowers.
+
+  _Camassia esculenta._--A beautiful bulbous plant 2 to 3 ft. high with
+  large pale blue flowers. Also a white variety.
+
+  _Campanula._--Beautiful, as well as varied in habit and character.
+  They are called bell-flowers. _C. pulla_, 6 in., purplish, nodding, on
+  slender erect stalks; _C. turbinata_, 9 in., purple, broad-belled; _C.
+  carpatica_, 1 ft., blue, broad-belled; _C. nobilis_, 1½ ft.,
+  long-belled, whitish or tinted with chocolate; _C. persicifolia_, 2
+  ft., a fine border plant, single or double, white or purple, blooming
+  in July; and _C. pyramidalis_, 6 ft., blue or white, in tall branching
+  spikes, are good and diverse. There are many other fine sorts.
+
+  _Centaurea._--Bold-habited composites of showy character; common soil.
+  _C. babylonica_, 5 to 7 ft., has winged stems, silvery leaves, and
+  yellow flower-heads from June to September; _C. montana_, 3 ft., deep
+  bright blue or white.
+
+  _Centranthus._--Showy free-flowering plants, for rockwork, banks, or
+  stony soil. _C. ruber_, 2 ft., branches and blooms freely all summer,
+  and varies with rosy, or crimson, or white flowers. It clothes the
+  chalk cuttings on some English railways with a sheet of colour in the
+  blooming season.
+
+  _Cheiranthus._--Pretty rock plants, for light stony soils. _C.
+  alpinus_, 6 in., grows in dense tufts, and bears sulphur-yellow
+  flowers in May. _C. ochroleucus_ is similar in character.
+
+  _Chionodoxa._--Charming dwarf hardy bulbous plants of the liliaceous
+  order, blooming in the early spring in company with _Scilla sibirica_,
+  and of equally easy cultivation. _C. Luciliae_, 6 in., has star-shaped
+  flowers of a brilliant blue with a white centre. _C. gigantea_ is the
+  finest of the few known species. It blooms from February to April.
+
+  _Chrysanthemum._--Apart from the florist's varieties of _C. indicum_
+  there are a few fine natural species. One of the best for the flower
+  border is _C. maximum_ and its varieties--all with beautiful white
+  flowers having yellow centres. _C. latifolium_ is also a fine species.
+
+  _Colchicum._--Showy autumn-blooming bulbs (corms), with crocus-like
+  flowers, all rosy-purple or white. _C. speciosum_, _C. autumnale_,
+  single and double, _C. byzantinum_, and _C. variegatum_ are all worth
+  growing.
+
+  _Convallaria._--_C. majalis_, the lily of the valley, a well-known
+  sweet-scented favourite spring flower, growing freely in rich garden
+  soil; its spikes, 6 to 9 in. high, of pretty white fragrant bells, are
+  produced in May and June. Requires shady places, and plenty of old
+  manure each autumn.
+
+  _Coreopsis._--Effective composite plants, thriving in good garden
+  soil. _C. auriculata_, 2 to 3 ft., has yellow and brown flowers in
+  July and August; _C. lanceolata_, 2 to 3 ft., bright yellow, in
+  August; next to the biennial _C. grandiflora_ it is the best garden
+  plant.
+
+  _Corydalis._--Interesting and elegant plants, mostly tuberous, growing
+  in good garden soil. _C. bracteata_, 9 in., has sulphur-coloured
+  flowers in April, and _C. nobilis_, 1 ft., rich yellow, in May; _C.
+  solida_, with purplish, and _C. tuberosa_, with white flowers, are
+  pretty spring-flowering plants, 4 to 6 in. high. _C. thalictrifolia_,
+  1 ft., yellow, May to October.
+
+  _Cyclamen._--Charming tuberous-rooted plants of dwarf habit, suitable
+  for sheltered rockeries, and growing in light gritty soil. _C.
+  europaeum_, reddish-purple, flowers in summer, and _C. hederae-folium_
+  in autumn.
+
+  _Cypripedium._--Beautiful terrestrial orchids, requiring to be planted
+  in peat soil, in a cool and rather shady situation. _C. spectabile_,
+  1½ to 2 ft., white and rose colour, in June, is a lovely species, as
+  is _C. Calceolus_, 1 ft., yellow and brown, in May; all are full of
+  interest and beauty.
+
+  _Delphinium._--The Larkspur family, tall showy plants, with spikes of
+  blue flowers in July. Distinct sorts are _D. grandiflorum_ and _D.
+  grandiflorum flore-pleno_, 2 to 3 ft., of the richest dazzling blue,
+  flowering on till September; _D. chinense_, 2 ft., blue, and its
+  double-flowered variety, are good, as is _D. Barlowi_, 3 ft., a
+  brilliant double blue-purple. _D. nudicaule_, 2 ft., orange-scarlet,
+  very showy, is best treated as a biennial, its brilliant flowers being
+  produced freely in the second year from the seed.
+
+  _Dianthus._--Chiefly rock plants with handsome and fragrant flowers,
+  the smaller sorts growing in light sandy soil, and the larger border
+  plants in rich garden earth. Of the dwarfer sorts for rock gardens,
+  _D. alpinus_, _D. caesius_, _D. deltoides_, _D. dentosus_, _D.
+  neglectus_, _D. petraeus_, and _D. glacialis_ are good examples; while
+  for borders or larger rockwork _D. plumarius_, _D. superbus_, _D.
+  Fischeri_, _D. cruentus_, and the clove section of _D. Caryophyllus_
+  are most desirable.
+
+  _Dicentra._--Very elegant plants, of easy growth in good soil. _D.
+  spectabilis_, 2 to 3 ft., has paeony-like foliage, and gracefully
+  drooping spikes of heart-shaped pink flowers, about May, but it should
+  have a sheltered place, as it suffers from spring frosts and winds;
+  _D. formosa_ and _D. eximia_, 1 ft., are also pretty rosy-flowered
+  species.
+
+  _Dictamnus._--_D. Fraxinella_ is a very characteristic and attractive
+  plant, 2 to 3 ft., with bold pinnate leaves, and tall racemes of
+  irregular-shaped purple or white flowers. It is everywhere glandular,
+  and strongly scented.
+
+  _Digitalis._--Stately erect-growing plants, with long racemes of
+  pouch-shaped drooping flowers. The native D. purpurea, or foxglove, 3
+  to 5 ft., with its dense racemes of purple flowers, spotted inside, is
+  very showy, but is surpassed by the garden varieties that have been
+  raised. It is really a biennial, but grows itself so freely as to
+  become perennial in the garden. An erect flowered form is called
+  _gloxinioides_. The yellow-flowered _D. lutea_ and _D. grandiflora_
+  are less showy. Good garden soil, and frequent renewal from seeds.
+
+  _Doronicum._--Showy composites of free growth in ordinary soil. _D.
+  caucasicum_ and _D. austriacum_, 1 to 1½ ft., both yellow-flowered,
+  bloom in spring and early summer. _D. plantagineum excelsum_, 3 to 5
+  ft. high, is the best garden plant.
+
+  _Draba._--Good rockwork cruciferous plants. _D. alpina_, _D.
+  aizoides_, _D. ciliaris_, _D. Aizoon_, and _D. cuspidata_ bear yellow
+  flowers in early spring; _D. cinerea_ and _D. ciliata_ have white
+  flowers. Gritty well-drained soil.
+
+  _Dracocephalum._--Handsome labiate plants, requiring a warm and
+  well-drained soil. _D. argunense_, 1½ ft., _D. austriacum_, 1 ft., _D.
+  grandiflorum_, 1 ft., and _D. Ruyschianum_, 1½ ft., with its var.
+  japonicum, all produce showy blue flowers during the summer months.
+
+  _Echinacea._--Stout growing showy composites for late summer and
+  autumn flowering, requiring rich deep soil, and not to be often
+  disturbed. _E. angustifolia_, 3 to 4 ft., light purplish-rose, and _E.
+  intermedia_, 3 to 4 ft., reddish-purple, are desirable kinds. _E.
+  purpurea_ (often called Rudbeckia) is the showiest species. Height 3
+  to 4 ft., with rosy-purple flowers.
+
+  _Eomecon chionanthus._--A lovely poppywort about 1 ft. high, with pure
+  white flowers 2 to 3 in. across. Root-stocks thick, creeping.
+
+  _Epimedium._--Pretty plants, growing about 1 ft. high, with elegant
+  foliage, and curious flowers. _E. macranthum_, white flowers, and _E.
+  rubrum_, red, are distinctly spurred; _E. pinnatum_ and _E.
+  Perralderianum_, yellow, less so. They bloom in spring, and prefer a
+  shady situation and a peaty soil.
+
+  _Eranthis hyemalis._--A charming tuberous rooted plant, called winter
+  aconite. Flowers bright yellow, January to March, close to the ground.
+
+  _Eremurus._--Noble plants with thick rootstocks, large sword-like
+  leaves, and spikes of flowers from 3 to 10 ft. high. They require warm
+  sunny spots and rich gritty soil. The best kinds are _robustus_, pink,
+  6 to 10 ft.; _himalaicus_, 4 to 8 ft., white; _Aitchisoni_, 3 to 5
+  ft., red; _Bungei_, 2 to 3 ft., yellow; and _aurantiacus_, 2 to 3 ft.,
+  orange-yellow. There are now several hybrid forms.
+
+  _Erigeron._--Composite plants, variable in character. _E. purpureus_,
+  1½ ft., with pink flower-heads, having narrow twisted ray-florets; _E.
+  Roylei_, 1 ft., dark blue; and _E. pulchellus_, 1 ft., rich orange,
+  flowering during the summer, are among the best kinds. Good ordinary
+  garden soil.
+
+  _Erinus._--_E. alpinus_ is a beautiful little alpine for rockwork, 3
+  to 6 in., of tufted habit, with small-toothed leaves, and heads of
+  pinkish-purple or, in a variety, white flowers, early in summer. Sandy
+  well-drained soil.
+
+  _Erodium._--Handsome dwarf tufted plants. _E. Manescavi_, 1 to 1½ ft.,
+  has large purplish-red flowers in summer; _E. Reichardi_, a minute
+  stemless plant, has small heart-shaped leaves in rosette-like tufts,
+  and white flowers striped with pink, produced successively. Light
+  soil.
+
+  _Eryngium._--Very remarkable plants of the umbelliferous order, mostly
+  of an attractive character. _E. amethystinum_, 2 ft., has the upper
+  part of the stem, the bracts, and heads of flowers all of an
+  amethystine blue. Some of more recent introduction have the aspect of
+  the pine-apple, such as _E. bromeliaefolium_, _E. pandanifolium_, and
+  _E. eburneum_. Deep light soil.
+
+  _Erythronium._--_E. dens-canis_, the Dog's Tooth Violet, is a pretty
+  dwarf bulbous plant with spotted leaves, and rosy or white flowers
+  produced in spring, and having reflexed petals. Mixed peaty and loamy
+  soil, deep and cool. Several charming American species are now in
+  cultivation.
+
+  _Euphorbia._--Plants whose beauty resides in the bracts or floral
+  leaves which surround the inconspicuous flowers. _E. aleppica_, 2 ft.,
+  and _E. Characias_, 2 to 3 ft., with green bracts, are fine plants
+  for rockwork or sheltered, corners.
+
+  _Ferula._--Gigantic umbelliferous plants, with magnificent foliage,
+  adapted for shrubbery borders or open spots on lawns. They have thick
+  fleshy roots, deeply penetrating, and therefore requiring deep soil,
+  which should be of a light or sandy character. _F. communis_, _F.
+  glauca_, and _F. tingitana_, the last with glossy lozenge-shaped
+  leaflets, grow 8 to 10 ft. high; _F. Ferulago_, with more finely cut
+  leaves, grows 5 to 6 ft. high. They flower in early spring, and all
+  have a fine appearance when in bloom, on account of their large showy
+  umbels of yellow flowers.
+
+  _Fritillaria._--A large genus of liliaceous bulbs, the best known of
+  which is the crown imperial (_F. imperialis_) and the snake's head
+  (_F. Meleagris_). There are many charming species grown, such as
+  _aurea_, _pudica_, _recurva_, _sewerzowi_, _askabadensis_, &c.
+
+  _Funkia._--Pretty liliaceous plants, with simple conspicuously
+  longitudinal-ribbed leaves, the racemose flowers funnel-shaped and
+  deflexed. _F. Sieboldiana_, 1 ft., has lilac flowers; _F.
+  grandiflora_, 18 in., is white and fragrant; _F. coerulea_, 18 in., is
+  violet-blue; _F. albo-marginata_, 15 in., has the leaves edged with
+  white, and the flowers lilac. Rich garden soil.
+
+  _Gaillardia._--Showy composite plants, thriving in good garden soil.
+  _G. aristata_, 2 ft., has large yellow flower-heads, 2 or 3 in.
+  across, in summer; _G. Baeselari_ and _G. Loiselii_ have the lower
+  part of the ray-florets red, the upper part yellow.
+
+  _Galanthus._--The Snowdrop. Early spring-flowering amaryllidaceous
+  bulbs, with pretty drooping flowers, snow-white, having the tips of
+  the enclosed petals green. The common sort is _G. nivalis_, which
+  blossoms on the first break of the winter frosts; _G. Imperoti_, _G.
+  Elwesi_ and _G. plicatus_ have larger flowers.
+
+  _Galax aphylla._--A neat little rock plant, 6 to 8 in. high, with
+  pretty round leaves and white flowers. Requires moist peaty soil.
+
+  _Galega officinalis._--A strong-growing leguminous plant, 2 to 5 ft.
+  high, with pinnate leaves, and masses of pinkish purple pea-like
+  flowers. Also a white variety. Grows anywhere.
+
+  _Galtonia candicans._--~A fine bulbous plant, 3 to 4 ft. high, with
+  drooping white flowers.
+
+  _Gaura._--_G. Lindheimeri_, 3 to 5 ft., is much branched, with elegant
+  white and red flowers of the onagraceous type, in long slender ramose
+  spikes during the late summer and autumn months. Light garden soil;
+  not long-lived.
+
+  _Gentiana._--Beautiful tufted erect-stemmed plants preferring a strong
+  rich loamy soil. _G. acaulis_, known as the Gentianella, forms a close
+  carpet of shining leaves, and in summer bears large erect tubular deep
+  blue flowers. _G. Andrewsii_, 1 ft., has, during summer, large deep
+  blue flowers in clusters, the corollas closed at the mouth; _G.
+  asclepiadea_, 18 in., purplish-blue, flowers in July.
+
+  _Geranium._--Showy border flowers, mostly growing to a height of 1½ or
+  2 ft., having deeply cut leaves, and abundant saucer-shaped blossoms
+  of considerable size. _G. ibericum_, _platypetalum_, _armenum_ and
+  _Endressi_ are desirable purple- and rose-flowered sorts; _G.
+  sanguineum_, a tufted grower, has the flowers a deep rose colour; and
+  the double-flowered white and blue forms of _G. pratense_ and _G.
+  sylvaticum_ make pretty summer flowers. Good garden soil.
+
+  _Gerbera._--A South African genus of composites requiring very warm
+  sunny spots and rich gritty soil. _G. Jamesoni_, with large scarlet
+  marguerite-like flowers, and _G. viridiflora_, with white flowers
+  tinged with lilac, are best known. Numerous hybrids have been raised,
+  varying in colour from creamy white to salmon, pink, yellow, red and
+  orange.
+
+  _Geum._--Pretty rosaceous plants. The single and double flowered forms
+  of _G. chiloense_ and its varieties _grandiflorum_ and _miniatum_, 2
+  ft., with brilliant scarlet flowers; _G. coccineum_, 6 to 12 in.,
+  scarlet, and _G. montana_, 9 in., yellow, are among the best sorts.
+  Good garden soil.
+
+  _Gillenia trifoliata_.--A pretty rosaceous plant about 2 ft. high.
+  Flowers white in graceful panicles; flourishes in a mixture of sandy
+  peat and loam.
+
+  _Gunnera._--Remarkable rhubarb-like plants with huge lobed leaves,
+  often 6 ft. across. They should be grown near water as they like much
+  moisture, and a good loamy soil. _G. manicata_ and _G. scabra_ are the
+  two kinds grown.
+
+  _Gynerium._--The Pampas-Grass, a noble species, introduced from Buenos
+  Aires; it forms huge tussocks, 4 or 5 ft. high, above which towards
+  autumn rise the bold dense silvery plumes of the inflorescence. It
+  does best in sheltered nooks.
+
+  _Gypsophila._--Interesting caryophyllaceous plants, thriving in dryish
+  situations. _G. paniculata_, 2 ft., from Siberia, forms a dense
+  semi-globular mass of small white flowers from July onwards till
+  autumn, and is very useful for cutting.
+
+  _Haberlea rhodopensis._--A pretty rock plant with dense tufts of
+  leaves and bluish-lilac flowers. It likes fibrous peat in fissures of
+  the rocks.
+
+  _Helenium._--Showy composites of free growth in lightish soil. _H.
+  autumnale_, 4 ft., bears a profusion of yellow-rayed flower-heads in
+  August and September.
+
+  _Helianthemum._--Dwarf subshrubby plants well suited for rockwork, and
+  called Sun-Roses from their blossoms resembling small wild roses and
+  their thriving best in sunny spots. Some of the handsomest are _H.
+  roseum_, _mutabile_, _cupreum_ and _rhodanthum_, with red flowers;
+  _H. vulgare flore-pleno_, _grandiflorum_ and _stramineum_, with yellow
+  flowers; and _H. macranthum_ and _papyraceum_, with the flowers white.
+
+  _Helianthus._--The Sunflower genus, of which there are several
+  ornamental kinds. _H. multiflorus_, 4 ft., and its double-flowered
+  varieties, bear showy golden yellow flower-heads in profusion, and are
+  well adapted for shrubbery borders; _H. orgyalis_, 8 ft., has drooping
+  willow-like leaves. Many other showy species.
+
+  _Helichrysum._--Composite plants, with the flower-heads of the
+  scarious character known as Everlastings. _H. arenarium_, 6 to 8 in.,
+  is a pretty species, of dwarf spreading habit, with woolly leaves and
+  corymbs of golden yellow flowers, about July.
+
+  _Helleborus._--Charming very early blooming dwarf ranunculaceous
+  herbs. _H. niger_ or Christmas Rose, the finest variety of which is
+  called _maximus_, has white showy saucer-shaped flowers; _H.
+  orientalis_, 1 ft., rose-coloured; _H. atrorubens_, 1 ft.,
+  purplish-red; and _H. colchicus_, 1 ft., deep purple. Deep rich loam.
+
+  _Hemerocallis._--The name of the day lilies of which _H. fulva_, _H.
+  disticha_, _H. flava_, _H. Dumortieri_ and _H. aurantiaca major_ are
+  the most showy, all with yellow or orange flowers. They flourish in
+  any garden soil.
+
+  _Hepatica._--Charming little tufted plants requiring good loamy soil,
+  and sometimes included with Anemone. _H. triloba_, 4 in., has
+  three-lobed leaves, and a profusion of small white, blue, or pink
+  single or double flowers, from February onwards; _H. angulosa_, from
+  Transylvania, 6 to 8 in., is a larger plant, with sky-blue flowers.
+
+  _Hesperis._--_H. matronalis_, 1 to 2 ft., is the old garden Rocket, of
+  which some double forms with white and purplish blossoms are amongst
+  the choicest of border flowers. They require a rich loamy soil, not
+  too dry, and should be divided and transplanted into fresh soil
+  annually or every second year, in the early autumn season.
+
+  _Heuchera._--_H. sanguinea_ and its varieties are charming and
+  brilliant border plants with scarlet flowers in long racemes. Rich and
+  well-drained soil.
+
+  _Hibiscus._--Showy malvaceous plants. _H. Moscheutos_, rose-coloured,
+  and _H. palustris_, purple, both North American herbs, 3 to 5 ft.
+  high, are suitable for moist borders or for boggy places near the
+  margin of lakes.
+
+  _Iberis._--The Candytuft, of which several dwarf spreading subshrubby
+  species are amongst the best of rock plants, clothing the surface with
+  tufts of green shoots, and flowering in masses during May and June.
+  The best are _I. saxatilis_, 6 to 10 in.; _I. sempervirens_, 12 to 15
+  in.; and _I. Pruitii_ (variously called _coriacea_, _carnosa_,
+  _correaefolia_), 12 in.
+
+  _Incarvillea._--_I. Delavayi_ is the best species for the open air. It
+  grows 2 ft. high and has large tubular rosy carmine blossoms. It likes
+  rich sandy loam and sunny spots.
+
+  _Lathyrus._--Handsome climbing herbs, increased by seeds or division.
+  _L. grandiflorus_, 3 ft., has large rose-coloured flowers with
+  purplish-crimson wings, in June; _L. latifolius_, the everlasting pea,
+  6 ft., has bright rosy flowers in the late summer and autumn; the
+  vars. _albus_, white, and _superbus_, deep rose, are distinct.
+  Ordinary garden soil.
+
+  _Lavatera._--_L. thuringiaca_, 4 ft., is a fine erect-growing
+  malvaceous plant, producing rosy-pink blossoms freely, about August
+  and September. Good garden soil.
+
+  _Leucojum._--Snowflake. Pretty early-blooming bulbs, quite hardy. _L.
+  vernum_, 6 in., blooms shortly after the snowdrop, and should have a
+  light rich soil and sheltered position; _L. carpaticum_, flowers about
+  a month later; _L. pulchellum_, 1½ ft., blooms in April and May; and
+  _L. aestivum_, 2 ft., in May. All have white pendant flowers, tipped
+  with green.
+
+  _Liatris._--Pretty composites with the flower-heads collected into
+  spikes. _L. pumila_, 1 ft., _L. squarrosa_, 2 to 3 ft., _L. spicata_,
+  3 to 4 ft., _L. pycnostachya_, 3 to 4 ft., all have rosy-purplish
+  flowers. Deep, cool, and moist soil.
+
+  _Lilium._--See LILY.
+
+  _Linaria._--Toadflax. Pretty scrophulariads, of which _L. alpina_, 3
+  to 6 in., with bluish-violet flowers having a brilliant orange spot,
+  is suitable for rockwork; _L. dalmatica_, 4 ft., and _L.
+  genistifolia_, 3 ft., both yellow-flowered, are good border plants;
+  _L. vulgaris_, the common British toad-flax, and its regular peloriate
+  form, are very handsome and free flowering during the summer months.
+
+  _Linum._--Flax. _L. alpinum_, 6 in., large, dark blue; _L.
+  narbonnense_, 1½ ft., large, blue; _L. perenne_, 1½ ft., cobalt blue;
+  and _L. arboreum (flavum)_, 1 ft., yellow, are all pretty. The last is
+  liable to suffer from damp during winter, and some spare plants should
+  be wintered in a frame. It is really shrubby in character.
+
+  _Lithospermum._--_L. prostratum_, 3 in., is a trailing evergreen herb,
+  with narrow hairy leaves, and paniculate brilliant blue flowers in May
+  and June. Well adapted for rockwork or banks of sandy soil.
+
+  _Lupinus._--Showy erect-growing plants with papilionaceous flowers,
+  thriving in good deep garden soil. _L. polyphyllus_, 3 ft., forms
+  noble tufts of palmate leaves, and long spikes of bluish-purple or
+  white flowers in June and July; _L. arboreus_ is subshrubby, and has
+  yellow flowers.
+
+  _Lychnis._--Brilliant erect-growing caryophyllaceous plants, thriving
+  best in beds of peat earth or of deep sandy loam. _L. chalcedonica_, 3
+  ft., has dense heads of bright scarlet flowers, both single and
+  double, in June and July; _L. fulgens_, 1 ft., vermilion; _L.
+  Haageana_, 1½ ft., scarlet; and _L. grandiflora_, 1 to 2 ft., with
+  clusters of scarlet, crimson, pink and white flowers. All
+  large-flowered and showy, but require a little protection in winter.
+
+  _Lysimachia._--The best known is the Creeping Jenny, _L. Nummularia_,
+  much used for trailing over rockeries and window boxes, with bright
+  yellow flowers. The variety _aurea_ with golden leaves is also
+  popular. Other species that grow from 2 to 3 ft. high, and are good
+  border plants, are _L. clethroides_, with white spikes of flowers; _L.
+  vulgaris_, _L. thyrsiflora_, _L. ciliata_, _L. verticillata_ and _L.
+  punctata_, all yellow.
+
+  _Malva._--_M. moschata_, 2 ft., with a profusion of pale pink or white
+  flowers, and musky deeply cut leaves, though a British plant, is worth
+  introducing to the flower borders when the soil is light and free.
+
+  _Meconopsis._--The Welsh poppy, _M. cambrica_, 1 to 2 ft. high,
+  yellow, and _M. Wallichi_, from the Himalayas, 4 to 6 ft. high with
+  pale blue flowers, are the best known perennials of the genus. The
+  last-named, however, is best raised from seeds every year, and treated
+  like the biennial kinds.
+
+  _Mertensia._--_M. virginica_, 1 to 1½ ft., azure blue, shows flowers
+  in drooping panicles in May and June. It does best in shady peat
+  borders.
+
+  _Mimulus._--Monkey-flower. Free-blooming, showy scrophulariaceous
+  plants, thriving best in moist situations. _M. cardinalis_, 2 to 3
+  ft., has scarlet flowers, with the limb segments reflexed; _M. luteus_
+  and its many garden forms, 1 to 1½ ft., are variously coloured and
+  often richly spotted; and _M. cupreus_, 8 to 10 in., is bright
+  coppery-red. _M. moschatus_ is the Musk-plant, of which the variety
+  _Harrisoni_ is a greatly improved form, with much larger yellow
+  flowers.
+
+  _Monarda._--Handsome labiate plants, flowering towards autumn, and
+  preferring a cool soil and partially shaded situation. _M. didyma_, 2
+  ft., scarlet or white; M. fistulosa, 3 ft., purple; and _M. purpurea_,
+  2 ft., deep purple, are good border flowers.
+
+  _Muscari._--Pretty dwarf spring-flowering bulbs. _M. botryoides_
+  (Grape Hyacinth), 6 in., blue or white, is the handsomest; _M.
+  moschatum_ (Musk Hyacinth), 10 in., has peculiar livid greenish-yellow
+  flowers and a strong musky odour; _M. monstrosum_ (Feather Hyacinth)
+  bears sterile flowers broken up into a feather-like mass. Good garden
+  soil.
+
+  _Myosotidium nobile._--A remarkable plant, 1½ to 2 ft. high, with
+  large blue forget-me-not-like flowers. Requires gritty peat soil and
+  cool situations, but must be protected from frost in winter.
+
+  _Myosotis._--Forget-me-not. Lovely boraginaceous plants. M.
+  dissitiflora, 6 to 8 in., with large, handsome and abundant sky-blue
+  flowers, is the best and earliest, flowering from February onwards; it
+  does well in light cool soils, preferring peaty ones, and should be
+  renewed annually from seeds or cuttings. _M. rupicola_, 2 to 3 in.,
+  intense blue, is a fine rock plant, preferring shady situations and
+  gritty soil; _M. sylvatica_, 1 ft., blue, pink or white, used for
+  spring bedding, should be sown annually in August.
+
+  _Narcissus._--See NARCISSUS.
+
+  _Nepeta._--_N. Mussinii_, 1 ft., is a compactly spreading
+  greyish-leaved labiate, with lavender-blue flowers, and is sometimes
+  used for bedding or for marginal lines in large compound beds.
+
+  _Nierembergia._--_N. rivularis_, 4 in., from La Plata, has slender,
+  creeping, rooting stems, bearing stalked ovate leaves, and large
+  funnel-shaped white flowers, with a remarkably long slender tube;
+  especially adapted for rockwork, requiring moist sandy loam.
+
+  _Nymphaea._--See WATER-LILY.
+
+  _Oenothera._--The genus of the Evening Primrose, consisting of showy
+  species, all of which grow and blossom freely in rich deep soils. _Oe.
+  missouriensis (macrocarpa)_, 6 to 12 in., has stout trailing branches,
+  lance-shaped leaves and large yellow blossoms; _Oe. taraxacifolia_, 6
+  to 12 in., has a stout crown from which the trailing branches spring
+  out, and these bear very large white flowers, changing to delicate
+  rose; this perishes in cold soils, and should therefore be raised from
+  seed annually. Of erect habit are _Oe. speciosa_, 1 to 2 ft., with
+  large white flowers; _Oe. fruticosa_, 2 to 3 ft., with abundant yellow
+  flowers; and _Oe. serotina_, 2 ft., also bright yellow.
+
+  _Omphalodes._--Elegant dwarf boraginaceous plants. _O. verna_, 4 to 6
+  in., a creeping, shade-loving plant, has bright blue flowers in the
+  very early spring; _O. Luciliae_, 6 in., has much larger lilac-blue
+  flowers, and is an exquisite rock plant for warm, sheltered spots.
+  Light sandy soil.
+
+  _Onosma._--_O. taurica_, 6 to 8 in., is a charming boraginaceous plant
+  from the Caucasus, producing hispid leaves and cymose heads of
+  drooping, tubular, yellow flowers. It is of evergreen habit, and
+  requires a warm position on the rockwork and well-drained sandy soil;
+  or a duplicate should be sheltered during winter in a cold, dry frame.
+
+  _Ornithogalum._--The Star of Bethlehem. _O. arabicum_ can only be
+  grown in the warmest parts of the kingdom, and then requires
+  protection in winter. Other species, all bulbous, are _O. nutans_, _O.
+  pyramidale_, _O. pyrenaicum_, and the common Star of Bethlehem, _O.
+  umbellatum_; all are easily grown, and have white flowers.
+
+  _Ostrowskya magnifica._--A magnificent bellflower from Bokhara, 4 to 5
+  ft. high, and white flowers tinted and veined with lilac, 3 to 5 in.
+  across. Requires rich, gritty loam of good depth, as it produces
+  tuberous roots 1 to 2 ft. long.
+
+  _Ourisia._--Handsome scrophulariaceous plants, from Chile, thriving in
+  moist, well-drained peaty soil, and in moderate shade. _O. coccinea_,
+  1 ft., has erect racemes of pendent crimson flowers.
+
+  _Papaver._--The Poppy. Very showy plants, often of strong growth, and
+  of easy culture in ordinary garden soil. _P. orientale_, 3 ft., has
+  crimson-scarlet flowers, 6 in. across, and the variety _bracteatum_
+  closely resembles it, but has leafy bracts just beneath the blossom.
+  _P. alpinum_, 6 in., white with yellow centre; _P. nudicaule_, 1 ft.,
+  yellow, scented, and _P. pilosum_, 1 to 2 ft., deep orange, are
+  ornamental smaller kinds.
+
+  _Pentstemon._--The popular garden varieties have sprung from _P.
+  Hartwegii_ and _P. Cobaea_. Other distinct kinds are _P.
+  campanulatus_, 1½ ft., pale rose, of bushy habit; _P. humilis_, 9 in.,
+  bright blue; _P. speciosus_, _cyananthus_ and _Jaffrayanus_, 2 to 3
+  ft., all bright blue; _P. barbatus_, 3 to 4 ft., scarlet, in long
+  terminal panicles; _P. Murrayanus_, 6 ft., with scarlet flowers and
+  connate leaves; and _P. Palmeri_, 3 to 4 ft., with large, wide-tubed,
+  rose-coloured flowers.
+
+  _Petasites._--_P. fragrans_, the Winter Heliotrope, though of weedy
+  habit, with ample cordate coltsfoot-like leaves, yields in January and
+  February its abundant spikes, about 1 ft. high, of greyish flowers
+  scented like heliotrope; it should have a corner to itself.
+
+  _Phlomis._--Bold and showy labiates, growing in ordinary soil. _P.
+  Russelliana (lunariaefolia)_, 4 ft., yellow, and _P. tuberosa_, 3 ft.,
+  purplish-rose, both with downy hoary leaves, come in well in broad
+  flower borders.
+
+  _Phygelius._--_P. capensis_ from South Africa is hardy south of the
+  Thames and in favoured localities. Flowers tubular scarlet, on
+  branching stems, 2 to 3 ft. high. Requires light, rich soil.
+
+  _Physalis._--_P. Alkekengi_ from South Europe has long been known in
+  gardens for its bright orange-red globular calyxes. It has been
+  surpassed by the much larger and finer _P. Francheti_ from Japan; the
+  brilliant calyxes are often 3 in. in diameter in autumn. Grows in any
+  garden soil.
+
+  _Physostegia._--Tall, autumn-blooming labiates, of easy growth in
+  ordinary garden soils. _P. imbricata_, 5 to 6 ft., has pale purple
+  flowers in closely imbricated spikes.
+
+  _Phytolacca._--Ornamental strong-growing perennials requiring much
+  space. _P. acinosa_, from the Himalayas, 3 to 4 ft., with whitish
+  flowers in erect spikes. _P. decandra_, the North American Poke Weed
+  or Red Ink plant, grows 5 to 10 ft. high, has fleshy poisonous roots,
+  erect purple stems and white flowers. _P. icosandra_, from Mexico, 2
+  to 3 ft., pinky white. The foliage in all cases is handsome. Ordinary
+  garden soil.
+
+  _Platycodon._--_P. grandiflorum_, 6 to 24 in. high, is a fine Chinese
+  perennial with flattish, bell-shaped flowers, 2 to 3 in. across, and
+  purple in colour. The variety _Mariesi_ (or _pumilum_) is dwarf, with
+  larger, deeper-coloured flowers. Requires rich sandy loam.
+
+  _Podophyllum._--Ornamental herbs with large lobed leaves. _P. Emodi_,
+  6 to 12 in. high, from the Himalayas, has large white or pale-rose
+  flowers, and in autumn bright red, hen's-egg-like fruits. _P.
+  peltatum_, the North American mandrake, has large umbrella-like leaves
+  and white flowers; _P. pleianthum_, from China, purple. They all
+  require moist, peaty soil in warm, sheltered nooks.
+
+  _Polemonium._--Pretty border flowers. _P. coeruleum_ (Jacob's Ladder),
+  2 ft., has elegant pinnate leaves, and long panicles of blue rotate
+  flowers. The variety called variegatum has very elegantly marked
+  leaves, and is sometimes used as a margin or otherwise in bedding
+  arrangements. Good garden soil.
+
+  _Polygonatum._--Elegant liliaceous plants, with rhizomatous stems. _P.
+  multiflorum_ (Solomon's Seal), 2 to 3 ft., with arching stems, and
+  drooping white flowers from the leaf axils, is a handsome border
+  plant, doing especially well in partial shade amongst shrubs, and also
+  well adapted for pot culture for early forcing. Good garden soil.
+
+  _Polygonum._--A large family, varying much in character, often weedy,
+  but of easy culture in ordinary soil. _P. vacciniifolium_, 6 to 10
+  in., is a pretty prostrate subshrubby species, with handsome rose-pink
+  flowers, suitable for rockwork, and prefers boggy soil; _P. affine
+  (Brunonis)_, 1 ft., deep rose, is a showy border plant, flowering in
+  the late summer; _P. cuspidatum_, 8 to 10 ft., is a grand object for
+  planting where a screen is desired, as it suckers abundantly, and its
+  tall spotted stems and handsome cordate leaves have quite a noble
+  appearance. Other fine species are _P. baldschuanium_, a climber, _P.
+  sphaerostachyum_, _P. lanigerum_, _P. polystachyum_ and _P.
+  sachalinense_, all bold and handsome.
+
+  _Potentilla._--The double varieties are fine garden plants obtained
+  from _P. argyrophylla atrosanguinea_ and _P. nepalensis_. The colours
+  include golden-yellow, red, orange-yellow, crimson, maroon and
+  intermediate shades. They all flourish in rich sandy soil.
+
+  _Primula._--Beautiful and popular spring flowers, of which many forms
+  are highly esteemed in most gardens. _P. vulgaris_, 6 in., affords
+  numerous handsome single- and double-flowered varieties, with
+  various-coloured flowers for the spring flower-beds and borders.
+  Besides this, _P. Sieboldii (cortusoides amoena)_, 1 ft., originally
+  deep rose with white eye, but now including many varieties of colour,
+  such as white, pink, lilac and purple; _P. japonica_, 1 to 2 ft.,
+  crimson-rose; _P. denticulata_, 1 ft., bright bluish-lilac, with its
+  allies _P. erosa_ and _P. purpurea_, all best grown in a cold frame;
+  _P. viscosa_, 6 in., purple, and its white variety nivalis, with _P.
+  pedemontana_ and _P. spectabilis_, 6 in., both purple; and the
+  charming little Indian _P. rosea_, 3 to 6 in., bright cherry-rose
+  colour, are but a few of the many beautiful kinds in cultivation.
+
+  _Pulmonaria._--Handsome dwarf, boraginaceous plants, requiring good
+  deep garden soil. _P. officinalis_, 1 ft., has prettily mottled leaves
+  and blue flowers; _P. sibirica_ is similar in character, but has
+  broader leaves more distinctly mottled with white.
+
+  _Pyrethrum._--Composite plants of various character, but of easy
+  culture. _P. Parthenium eximium_, 2 ft., is a handsome double white
+  form of ornamental character for the mixed border; _P. uliginosum_, 5
+  to 6 ft., has fine large, white, radiate flowers in October; _P.
+  Tchihatchewii_, a close-growing, dense evergreen, creeping species,
+  with long-stalked, white flower-heads, is adapted for covering slopes
+  in lieu of turf, and for rockwork.
+
+  _Ramondia._--_R. pyrenaica_, 3 to 6 in., is a pretty dwarf plant,
+  requiring a warm position on the rockwork and a moist, peaty soil more
+  or less gritty; it has rosettes of ovate spreading root-leaves, and
+  large purple, yellow-centred, rotate flowers, solitary, or two to
+  three together, on naked stalks.
+
+  _Ranunculus._--The florists' ranunculus is a cultivated form of _R.
+  asiaticus_ (see RANUNCULUS). _R. amplexicaulis_, 1 ft., white; _R.
+  aconitifolius_, 1 to 2 ft., white, with its double variety _R.
+  aconitifolius flore-pleno_ (Fair Maids of France); and _R. acris
+  flore-pleno_ (Bachelor's Buttons), 2 ft., golden yellow, are pretty.
+  Of dwarfer interesting plants there are _R. alpestris_, 4 in., white;
+  _R. gramineus_, 6 to 10 in., yellow; _R. parnassifolius_, 6 in.,
+  white; and _R. rutaefolius_, 4 to 6 in., white with orange centre.
+
+  _Rodgersia._--Handsome herbs of the saxifrage family. _R. podophylla_
+  with large bronzy-green leaves cut into 5 large lobes, and tall
+  branching spikes 3 to 4 ft. high--the whole plant resembling one of
+  the large meadow sweets. _R. aesculifolia_, yellowish-white; _R.
+  Henrici_, deep purple; _R. pinnata_, fleshy pink; and _R.
+  sambucifolia_, white, are recently introduced species from China. They
+  require rich sandy peat and warm sheltered spots.
+
+  _Romneya._--_R. Coulteri_, a fine Californian plant, with large white
+  flowers on shoots often as high as 7 ft.; _R. trichocalyx_ is similar.
+  Both require very warm, sunny spots and rich, sandy soil, and should
+  not be disturbed often.
+
+  _Rudbeckia._--Bold-habited composite plants, well suited for shrubbery
+  borders, and thriving in light loamy soil. The flower-heads have a
+  dark-coloured elevated disk. _R. Drummondii_, 2 to 3 ft., with the
+  ray-florets reflexed, yellow at the tip and purplish-brown towards the
+  base; _R. fulgida_, 2 ft. golden-yellow with dark chocolate disk, the
+  flower-heads 2 to 3 in. across; and _R. speciosa_, 2 to 3 ft.,
+  orange-yellow with blackish-purple disk, the flower-heads 3 to 4 in.
+  across, are showy plants.
+
+  _Sagittaria._--Graceful water or marsh plants with hastate leaves, and
+  tuberous, running and fibrous roots. _S. japonica plena_; _S.
+  lancifolia_, _S. macrophylla_ and _S. sagittifolia_, are among the
+  best kinds, all with white flowers.
+
+  _Salvia._--The Sage, a large genus of labiates, often very handsome,
+  but sometimes too tender for English winters. _S. Sclarea_, 5 to 6
+  ft., is a very striking plant little more than a biennial, with
+  branched panicles of bluish flowers issuing from rosy-coloured bracts;
+  _S. patens_, 2 ft., which is intense azure, has tuberous roots, and
+  may be taken up, stored away and replanted in spring like a dahlia.
+  _S. pratensis_, 2 ft., blue, a showy native species, is quite hardy;
+  the variety lupinoides has the centre of the lower lip white.
+
+  _Saxifraga._--A very large genus of rock and border plants of easy
+  culture. The Megasea group, to which _S. ligulata_, _S. cordifolia_
+  and _S. crassifolia_ belong, are early-flowering kinds of great
+  beauty, with fleshy leaves and large cymose clusters of flowers of
+  various shades of rose, red and purple. Another very distinct group
+  with silvery foliage--the crustaceous group--contains some of our
+  choicest Alpines. Of these _S. caesia_, _S. calyciflora_, _S.
+  Cotyledon_ are among the best known. Some of the species look more
+  like lichens than flowering plants. The green moss-like saxifrages are
+  also a very distinct group, with dense tufted leaves which appear
+  greener in winter than in summer. The flowers are borne on erect
+  branching stems and are chiefly white in colour. _Saxifraga umbrosa_
+  (London Pride) and _S. Geum_ belong to still another group, and are
+  valuable alike on border and rockery. _S. peltata_ is unique owing to
+  its large peltate leaves, often 1 ft. to 18 in. across, with stalks 1
+  to 2 ft. long. Flowers in April, white or pinkish. Likes plenty of
+  water and a moist peaty soil or marshy place. _S. sarmentosa_, the
+  well-known "mother of thousands," is often grown as a pot plant in
+  cottagers' windows.
+
+  _Scilla._--Beautiful dwarf bulbous plants, thriving in well-worked
+  sandy loam, or sandy peat. _S. bifolia_, 3 in., and _S. sibirica_, 4
+  in., both intense blue, are among the most charming of early spring
+  flowers; _S. patula_, 6 to 8 in., and _S. campanulata_, 1 ft., with
+  tubular greyish-blue flowers, freely produced, are fine border plants,
+  as is the later-blooming _S. peruviana_, 6 to 8 in., dark blue or
+  white.
+
+  _Sedum._--Pretty succulent plants of easy growth, and mostly suitable
+  for rockwork. They are numerous, varied in the colour of both leaves
+  and foliage, and mostly of compact tufted growth. _S. spectabile_, 1
+  to 1½ ft., pink, in great cymose heads, is a fine plant for the
+  borders, and worthy also of pot-culture for greenhouse decoration.
+  Mention may also be made of the common _S. acre_ (Stonecrop), 3 in.,
+  yellow, and its variety with yellow-tipped leaves.
+
+  _Sempervivum._--House-Leek. Neat-growing, succulent plants, forming
+  rosettes of fleshy leaves close to the ground, and rapidly increasing
+  by runner-like offsets; they are well adapted for rockwork, and do
+  best in sandy soil. The flowers are stellate, cymose, on stems rising
+  from the heart of the leafy rosettes. _S. arachnoideum_, purplish, _S.
+  arenarium_, yellow, _S. globiferum_ and _S. Laggeri_, rose, grow when
+  in flower 3 to 6 in. high; _S. calcareum_, rose colour, and _S.
+  Boutignianum_, pale rose, both have glaucous leaves tipped with
+  purple; _S. Heuffelii_, yellow, with deep chocolate leaves, and _S.
+  Wulfeni_, sulphur-yellow, are from 8 to 12 in. high.
+
+  _Senecio._--A large genus with comparatively few good garden plants.
+  Large and coarse-growing kinds like _S. Doria_, _S. macrophyllus_ and
+  _S. sarracenicus_ are good for rough places; all yellow-flowered. _S.
+  pulcher_ is a charming plant, 2 to 3 ft. high, with rosy-purple
+  flower-heads, having a bright orange centre. It likes a warm corner
+  and moist soil. _S. clivorum_, from China, has large roundish leaves
+  and orange-yellow flowers. It flourishes near water and in damp
+  places.
+
+  _Shortia._--_S. galacifolia_, a beautiful tufted plant 2 to 3 in.
+  high, with roundish crenate leaves, on long stalks, and white
+  funnel-shaped flowers in March and April. _S. uniflora_ from Japan is
+  closely related. The leaves of both assume rich purple-red tints in
+  autumn. Warm sunny situations and rich sandy loam and peat are
+  required.
+
+  _Silene._--Pretty caryophyllaceous plants, preferring sandy loam, and
+  well adapted for rockwork. _S. alpestris_, 6 in., white, and _S.
+  quadridentata_, 4 in., white, are beautiful tufted plants for rockwork
+  or the front parts of borders; _S. maritima flore-pleno_, 6 in.,
+  white, _S. Elizabethae_, 4 in., bright rose, and _S. Schafta_, 6 in.,
+  purplish-rose, are also good kinds.
+
+  _Sisyrinchium._--Pretty dwarf iridaceous plants, thriving in peaty
+  soil. _S. grandiflorum_, 10 in., deep purple or white, blooms about
+  April, and is a fine plant for pot-culture in cold frames.
+
+  _Sparaxis._--Graceful bulbous plants from South Africa. _S.
+  grandiflora_, with deep violet-purple, and _S. tricolor_, with rich
+  orange-red, flowers are best known. _S. pulcherrima_, a lovely
+  species, 3 to 6 ft. high, with drooping blood-red blossoms, is now
+  referred to the genus _Dierama_. A warm, light, but rich soil in
+  sheltered spots required.
+
+  _Spiraea._--Vigorous growing plants of great beauty, preferring good,
+  deep, rather moist soil; the flowers small but very abundant, in large
+  corymbose or spicate panicles. _S. Aruncus_, 4 ft., white; _S.
+  astilbioides_, 2 ft., white; _S. Filipendula_, 1½ ft., and _S.
+  Ulmaria_, 3 ft., both white; _S. palmata_, 2 ft., rosy-crimson; and
+  _S. venusta_, 3 ft., carmine rose, are some of the best.
+
+  _Statice._--Pretty plants with broad, radical leaves, and a
+  much-branched inflorescence of numerous small flowers. _S. latifolia_,
+  2 ft., greyish-blue; _S. tatarica_, 1 ft., lavender-pink; _S.
+  speciosa_, 1½ ft., rose colour; and _S. eximia_, 1½ ft.,
+  rosy-lilac--are good border plants. _S. bellidifolia_, 9 in.,
+  lavender; _S. emarginata_, 6 in., purple; _S. globulariaefolia_, 9
+  in., white; and _S. nana_, 4 in.--are good sorts for the rockery.
+
+  _Stenactis._--_S. speciosa_, 1 to 2 ft., is a showy composite, of easy
+  culture in good garden soil; it produces large corymbs of
+  flower-heads, with numerous narrow blue ray-florets surrounding the
+  yellow disk. Now more generally known as Erigeron.
+
+  _Stipa._--_S. pennata_ (Feather Grass), 1½ ft., is a very
+  graceful-habited grass, with stiff slender erect leaves, and long
+  feathery awns to the seeds.
+
+  _Stokesia._--_S. cyanea_, 2 ft., is a grand, autumn-flowering,
+  composite plant, with blue flower-heads, 4 in. across. Sandy loam and
+  warm situation.
+
+  _Symphytum._--Rather coarse-growing but showy boraginaceous plants,
+  succeeding in ordinary soil. _S. caucasicum_, 2 ft., with blue flowers
+  changing to red, is one of the finer kinds for early summer blooming.
+
+  _Thalictrum._--Free-growing but rather weedy ranunculaceous plants, in
+  many cases having elegantly cut foliage. _T. aquilegifolium_, 2 ft.,
+  purplish from the conspicuous stamens, the leaves glaucous, is a good
+  border plant; and _T. minus_ has foliage somewhat resembling that of
+  the Maidenhair fern. Ordinary garden soil.
+
+  _Tiarella._--_T. cordifolia_, the foam flower, is very ornamental in
+  border or rockery. Leaves heart-shaped lobed and toothed; flowers
+  white starry; ordinary garden soil.
+
+  _Tigridia._--Lovely bulbous plants called tiger flowers, useful in the
+  warmest parts of the kingdom for the border in rich but gritty soil.
+  _T. Pavonia_, the peacock tiger flower, from Mexico, grows 1 to 2 ft.
+  high, with plaited sword-like leaves, and large flowers about 6 in.
+  across, having zones of violet and yellow blotched with purple and
+  tipped with scarlet. There are many varieties, all charming.
+
+  _Trillium._--_T. grandiflorum_, the wood-lily of North America, is the
+  finest. It has large white flowers and grows freely in peaty soil in
+  shady borders. There are several other species, some with purplish
+  flowers.
+
+  _Tritonia._--A genus of South African plants with fibrous-coated corms
+  or solid bulbs, often known as montbretas. _T. crocata_, 2 ft.,
+  orange-yellow, _T. crocosmiaeflora_, 2 to 2½ ft., orange-scarlet, and
+  _T. Pottsi_, 3 to 4 ft., bright yellow, are the best-known varieties,
+  of which there are many subsidiary ones, some being very large and
+  free in flowering. A rich, gritty soil, and warm, sunny situations are
+  best for these plants.
+
+  _Triteleia._--Charming spring-flowering bulbs, thriving in any good
+  sandy soil. _T. Murrayana_, 8 in., lavender-blue, and _T. uniflora_,
+  6 in., white, are both pretty plants of the easiest culture, either
+  for borders or rockeries.
+
+  _Tritoma._--Splendid stoutish-growing plants of noble aspect,
+  familiarly known as the Poker plant, from their erect, rigid spikes of
+  flame-coloured flowers; sometimes called Kniphofia. _T. Uvaria_, 3 to
+  4 ft., bright orange-red, passing to yellow in the lower flowers, is a
+  fine autumnal decorative plant. They should be protected from frosts
+  by a covering of ashes over the crown during winter.
+
+  _Trollius._--Showy ranunculaceous plants, of free growth, flowering
+  about May and June. _T. europaeus_, 18 in., lemon globular; _T.
+  asiaticus_, 2 ft., deep yellow; and _T. napellifolius_, 2 to 2½ ft.,
+  golden yellow, are all fine showy kinds. Rich and rather moist soil.
+
+  _Tulipa._--Splendid dwarfish bulbs, thriving in deep, sandy,
+  well-enriched garden soil, and increased by offsets. They bloom during
+  the spring and early summer months. _T. Gesneriana_, the parent of the
+  florists' tulip, 12 to 18 in., crimson and other colours; _T.
+  Eichleri_, 1 ft., crimson with dark spot; _T. Greigi_, 1 ft., orange
+  with dark spot edged with yellow, and having dark spotted leaves; _T.
+  oculus solis_, 1 ft., scarlet with black centre; and _T. sylvestris_,
+  12 to 18 in., bright yellow, are showy kinds.
+
+  _Veratrum._--Distinct liliaceous plants with bold ornamental leaves
+  regularly folded and plaited. _V. album_, 3 to 5 ft., has whitish
+  blossoms in dense panicles, 1 to 2 ft. long. _V. nigrum_, 2 to 3 ft.,
+  has blackish-purple flowers, also _V. Maacki_, 2 ft. Rich sandy loam
+  and peat.
+
+  _Verbascum._--Showy border flowers of erect spire-like habit, of the
+  easiest culture. _V. Chaixii_, 4 to 5 ft., yellow, in large pyramidal
+  panicles; _V. phoeniceum_, 3 ft., rich purple or white; and _V.
+  formosum_, 6 ft., golden yellow in dense panicles, are desirable
+  species.
+
+  _Veronica._--The Speedwell family, containing many ornamental members;
+  all the hardy species are of the easiest cultivation in ordinary
+  garden soil. The rotate flowers are in close, erect spikes, sometimes
+  branched. _V. crassifolia_, 2 ft., dark blue; _V. incarnata_, 1½ ft.,
+  flesh-colour; _V. corymbosa_, 1½ ft., pale blue in
+  corymbosely-arranged racemes; _V. gentianoides_, 2 ft., grey with blue
+  streaks; _V. spicata_, blue, and its charming white variety _alba_;
+  and _V. virginica_, 5 ft., white, are distinct.
+
+  _Vinca._--Periwinkle. Pretty rock plants, growing freely in ordinary
+  soil. _V. herbacea_, of creeping habit, with purplish-blue flowers;
+  _V. minor_, of trailing habit, blue; and _V. major_, 1 to 2 ft. high,
+  also trailing, are suitable for the rock garden. The last two are
+  evergreen, and afford varieties which differ in the colour of their
+  flowers, while some are single and others double.
+
+  _Viola._--Violet. Charming dwarf plants, mostly evergreen and of
+  tufted habit, requiring well-worked rich sandy soil. _V. calcarata_, 6
+  in., light blue; _V. cornuta_, 6 to 8 in., blue; _V. lutea_, 4 in.,
+  yellow; _V. altaica_, 6 in., yellow or violet with yellow eye; _V.
+  palmaensis_, 6 to 8 in., lavender-blue; _V. pedata_, 6 in., pale blue;
+  and _V. odorata_, the Sweet Violet, in its many single and double
+  flowered varieties, are all desirable.
+
+  _Yucca._--Noble subarborescent liliaceous plants, which should be
+  grown in every garden. They do well in light, well-drained soils, and
+  have a close family resemblance, the inflorescence being a panicle of
+  white, drooping, tulip-shaped flowers, and the foliage rosulate,
+  sword-shaped and spear-pointed. Of the more shrubby-habited sorts _Y.
+  gloriosa_, _recurvifolia_ and _Treculeana_ are good and distinct; and
+  of the dwarfer and more herbaceous sorts _Y. filamentosa_, _flaccida_
+  and _angustifolia_ are distinct and interesting kinds, the first two
+  flowering annually.
+
+  The taste for cultivation of the class of plants, of which the
+  foregoing list embraces some of the more prominent members, is on the
+  increase, and gardens will benefit by its extension.
+
+  HARDY TREES AND SHRUBS.--Much of the beauty of the pleasure garden
+  depends upon the proper selection and disposition of ornamental trees
+  and shrubs. We can only afford space here for lists of some of the
+  better and more useful and ornamental trees and shrubs, old and new.
+
+  The following list, which is not exhaustive, furnishes material from
+  which a selection may be made to suit various soils and situations.
+  The shrubs marked * are climbers.
+
+  _Hardy Deciduous Trees._
+
+    Acer--Maple.                      Larix--Larch.
+    Aesculus--Horse-Chestnut.         Liriodendron--Tulip-tree.
+    Ailantus--Tree of Heaven.         Magnolia.
+    Alnus--Alder.                     Morus--Mulberry.
+    Amygdalus--Almond.                Negundo--Box-Elder.
+    Betula--Birch.                    Ostrya--Hop Hornbeam.
+    Carpinus--Hornbeam.               Paulownia.
+    Carya--Hickory.                   Planera.
+    Castanea--Sweet Chestnut.         Platanus--Plane.
+    Catalpa.                          Populus--Poplar.
+    Celtis--Nettle Tree.              Prunus (Plums, Cherries, &c.).
+    Cercis--Judas Tree.               Ptelea--Hop Tree.
+    Cotoneaster (some species).       Pyrus--Pear, &c.
+    Crataegus--Thorn.                 Quercus--Oak.
+    Davidia.                          Rhus--Sumach.
+    Diospyros.                        Robinia--Locust Tree.
+    Fagus--Beech.                     Salix--Willow.
+    Fraxinus--Ash.                    Sophora.
+    Ginkgo--Maidenhair Tree.          Taxodium--Deciduous Cypress.
+    Gleditschia--Honey Locust.        Tilia--Lime.
+    Gymnocladus--Kentucky Coffee      Tree. Ulmus--Elm.
+    Juglans--Walnut.                  Virgilia.
+    Kolreuteria.                      Xanthoceras.
+    Laburnum.
+
+  _Hardy Evergreen Trees._
+
+    Abies--Silver Fir.                Libocedrus.
+    Araucaria--Chili Pine.            Magnolia grandiflora.
+    Arbutus--Strawberry Tree.         Picea--Spruce Fir.
+    Biota--Arbor Vitae.               Pinus--Pine.
+    Buxus--Box.                       Quercus Ilex--Holm-Oak.
+    Cedrus--Cedar.                    Retinospora.
+    Cephalotaxus.                     Sciadopitys--Umbrella Pine.
+    Cryptomeria--Japan Cedar.         Sequoia (Wellingtonia).
+    Cupressus--Cypress.               Taxus--Yew.
+    Ilex--Holly.                      Thuiopsis.
+    Juniperus--Juniper.               Thuya--Arbor Vitae.
+    Laurus--Bay Laurel.               Tsuga.
+
+  _Hardy Deciduous Shrubs._
+
+    Abelia.                           Halesia--Snowdrop Tree.
+    Acer--Maple.                      Hamamelis--Wych Hazel.
+    Amelanchier.                      Hibiscus--Althaea frutex, &c.
+    Ampelopsis.*                      Hippophaë--Sea Buckthorn.
+    Amygdalopsis.                     Hypericum--St John's Wort.
+    Aralia.                           Jasminum*--Jasmine.
+    Aristolochia.*                    Kerria.
+    Berberis--Berberry.               Lonicera*--Honeysuckle.
+    Bignonia*--Trumpet Flower.        Lycium.*
+    Buddleia.                         Magnolia.
+    Calophaca.                        Menispermum*--Moonseed.
+    Calycanthus--Carolina Allspice.   Periploca.*
+    Caragana.                         Philadelphus--Mock Orange.
+    Chimonanthus.                     Rhus--Wig Tree, &c.
+    Clematis.*                        Ribes--Flowering Currant.
+    Colutea--Bladder Senna.           Robinia--Rose Acacia, &c.
+    Cornus--Dogwood.                  Rosa--Rose.
+    Cotoneaster (some species).       Rubus*--Bramble.
+    Crataegus--Thorn.                 Spartium--Spanish Broom.
+    Cydonia--Japan Quince.            Spiraea.
+    Cytisus--Broom, &c.               Staphylaea--Bladder-Nut.
+    Daphne.                           Symphoricarpus--Snowberry.
+    Deutzia.                          Syringa--Lilac.
+    Edwardsia.                        Tamarix--Tamarisk.
+    Euonymus europaeus--Spindle Tree. Viburnum--Guelder Rose, &c.
+    Forsythia.                        Vitis*--Vine.
+    Fremontia.                        Weigela.
+    Genista.
+
+  _Hardy Evergreen Shrubs._
+
+    Akebia.*                          Hedera*--Ivy.
+    Arbutus.                          Hypericum--St John's Wort.
+    Aucuba--Japan Laurel.             Ilex--Holly.
+    Azara.                            Jasminum*--Jasmine.
+    Bambusa--Bamboo.                  Kadsura.*
+    Berberidopsis.*                   Lardizabala.*
+    Berberis--Berberry.               Laurus--Sweet Bay.
+    Buddleia.                         Ligustrum--Privet.
+    Bupleurum.                        Lonicera*--Honeysuckle.
+    Buxus--Box.                       Osmanthus.
+    Ceanothus.                        Pernettya.
+    Cerasus--Cherry-Laurel, &c.       Phillyrea.
+    Cistus-Sun-Rose.                  Photinia.
+    Cotoneaster.                      Rhamnus Alaternus.
+    Crataegus Pyracantha--Fire Thorn. Rhododendron--Rose-Bay.
+    Daphne.                           Rosa*--Rose.
+    Desfontainea.                     Ruscus.
+    Elaeagnus--Oleaster.              Skimmia.
+    Erica--Heath.                     Smilax.*
+    Escallonia.                       Stauntonia.*
+    Euonymus.                         Ulex--Furze.
+    Fabiana.                          Viburnum--Laurustinus.
+    Fatsia (Aralia).                  Vinca--Periwinkle.
+    Garrya.                           Yucca--Adam's Needle.
+    Griselinia.
+
+  BEDDING PLANTS.--This term is chiefly applied to those
+  summer-flowering plants, such as ivy-leaved and zonal pelargoniums,
+  petunias, dwarf lobelias, verbenas, &c., which are employed in masses
+  for filling the beds of a geometrical parterre. Of late years,
+  however, more attention has been bestowed on arrangements of brilliant
+  flowering plants with those of fine foliage, and the massing also of
+  hardy early-blooming plants in parterre fashion has been very greatly
+  extended. Bedding plants thrive best in a light loam, liberally
+  manured with thoroughly rotten dung from an old hotbed or thoroughly
+  decomposed cow droppings and leaf-mould.
+
+  _Spring Bedding._--For this description of bedding, hardy plants only
+  must be used; but even then the choice is tolerably extensive. For
+  example, there are the Alyssums, of which _A. saxatile_ and _A.
+  gemonense_ are in cultivation; _Antennaria tomentosa_; the double
+  white _Arabis albida_; Aubrietias, of which the best sorts are _A.
+  Campbelliae_ and _A. grandiflora_; the double _Bellis perennis_ or
+  Daisy; the Wallflowers, including _Cheiranthus Cheiri_ (the Common
+  Wallflower), _C. alpina_ and _C. Marshallii_; Hepaticas, the principal
+  of which are the varieties of _H. triloba_, and the blue _H.
+  angulosa_; Iberis or Candytuft; _Lithospermum fruticosum_; Myosotis or
+  Forget-me-not, including _M. alpestris_, _M. dissitiflora_, _M.
+  azorica_ and _M. sylvestris_; Phloxes, like _P. subulata_, with its
+  varieties _setacea_, _Nelsoni_, _nivalis_; the single-flowered
+  varieties of the Primrose, _Primula vulgaris_; the Polyanthuses;
+  _Pyrethrum Parthenium aureum_, called Golden Feather; _Sempervivum
+  calcareum_; the pink-flowered _Silene pendula_; self-coloured
+  varieties of the Pansy, _V. tricolor_, and of _V. lutea_ and _V.
+  cornuta_, as well as some recent hybrids. Besides these there are the
+  various spring-flowering bulbs, such as the varieties of Hyacinthus,
+  Tulipa, Narcissus, Fritillaria, Muscari or Grape Hyacinth, Crocus,
+  Scilla, Chionodoxa and Galanthus or Snowdrop.
+
+  _Summer Bedding._--There is great variety amongst the plants which are
+  used for bedding-out in the garden during the summer months, but we
+  can note only some of the most important of them. Amongst them are the
+  Ageratums, the old tall-growing sorts of which have been superseded by
+  dwarfer blue and white flowered varieties; Alternantheras, the
+  principal of which are _A. amoena_, _amoena spectabilis_, _magnifica_,
+  _paronychioides major aurea_ and _amabilis_; _Alyssum maritimum
+  variegatum_; some of the dwarf varieties of _Antirrhinum majus_;
+  _Arundo Donax variegata_; Begonias; Calceolarias; Cannas; _Centaurea
+  ragusina_; Clematises, of which the hybrids of the _Jackmanni_ type
+  are best; _Dahlia variabilis_, and the single-flowered forms of _D.
+  coccinea_; Echeverias, of which _E. secunda_ and _E. metallica_ are
+  much employed; Gazanias; Heliotropes; Iresines; Lantanas; Lobelias;
+  _Mesembryanthemum cordifolium variegatum_; Pelargoniums, of which the
+  various classes of zonal or bedding varieties are unapproachable for
+  effect and general utility; Petunias; Phloxes; _Polemonium coeruleum
+  variegatum_; _Pyrethrum Parthenium aureum_, the well-known Golden
+  Feather, especially useful as an edging to define the outline of beds
+  upon grass; Tropaeolums, especially some of the varieties of _T.
+  Lobbianum_; and Verbenas, the offspring of _Tweedieana_,
+  _chamaedrifolia_ and others. Few bulbs come into the summer flower
+  gardens, but amongst those which should always be well represented are
+  the Gladiolus, the Lilium, the Tigridia and the Montbretia.
+
+  _Subtropical Bedding._--Foliage and the less common flowering plants
+  may be used either in masses of one kind, or in groups arranged for
+  contrast, or as the centres of groups of less imposing or of
+  dwarfer-flowering subjects; or they may be planted as single specimens
+  in appropriate open spaces, in recesses, or as distant striking
+  objects terminating a vista.
+
+  _Carpet Bedding_ consists in covering the surface of a bed, or a
+  series of beds forming a design, with close, low-growing plants, in
+  which certain figures are brought out by means of plants of a
+  different habit or having different coloured leaves. Sometimes, in
+  addition to the carpet or ground colour, individual plants of larger
+  size and handsome appearance are dotted symmetrically over the beds,
+  an arrangement which is very telling. Some of the best plants for
+  carpeting the surface of the beds are: _Antennaria tomentosa_ and
+  _Leucophytum Browni_, white; _Sedum acre_, _dasyphyllum_, _corsicum_
+  and _glaucum_, grey; and _Sedum Lydium_, _Mentha Pulegium
+  gibraltarica_, _Sagina subulata_ and _Herniaria glabra_, green. The
+  Alternantheras, Amaranthuses, Iresines and _Coleus Verschaffelti_
+  furnish high and warm colours; while _Pyrethrum Parthenium aureum_
+  yields greenish-yellow: _Thymus citriodorus aureus_, yellowish;
+  _Mesembryanthemum cordifolium variegatum_, creamy yellow; Centaureas
+  and others, white; _Lobelia Erinus_, blue; and the succulent
+  Echeverias and Sempervivums, glaucous rosettes, which last add much to
+  the general effect. In connexion with the various designs such fine
+  plants as _Agave americana_, _Dracaena indivisa_ are often used as
+  centre-pieces.
+
+  GREENHOUSE PLANTS.--These are plants requiring the shelter of a glass
+  house, provided with a moderate degree of heat, of which 45° Fahr. may
+  be taken as the minimum in winter. The house should be opened for
+  ventilation in all mild weather in winter, and daily throughout the
+  rest of the year. The following is a select list of genera of
+  miscellaneous decorative plants (orchids, palms and ferns excluded;
+  climbers are denoted by *; bulbous and tuberous plants by +):
+
+    Abutilon            Coleus                Lachenalia+
+    Acacia              Coprosma              Lantana
+    Agapanthus          Cordyline             Lapageria*
+    Agathaea            Correa                Lilium+
+    Agave               Cuphea                Lophospermum*
+    Alonsoa             Cyclamen+             Mandevillea*
+    Aloysia             Cyperus               Manettia*
+    Amaryllis+          Cytisus               Mutisia*
+    Ardisia             Darwinia (Genetyllis) Myrsiphyllum*
+    Asparagus           Diosma                Maurandya*
+    Aspidistra          Dracaena              Nerine+
+    Asystasia (Mackaya) Eccremocarpus*        Nerium
+    Azalea              Epacris               Pelargonium
+    Bauera              Epiphyllum            Petunia
+    Begonia+            Erica                 Pimelia
+    Blandfordia         Eriostemon            Plumbago*
+    Bomarea*            Erythrina             Polianthes+
+    Boronia             Eucalyptus            Primula
+    Bougainvillea*      Eupatorium            Rhododendron
+    Bouvardia           Eurya                 Richardia (Calla)+
+    Brugmansia          Ficus                 Salvia
+    Calceolaria         Fuchsia               Sarracenia
+    Camellia            Grevillea             Solanum
+    Campanula           Haemanthus+           Sparmannia
+    Canna               Heliotropium          Statice
+    Celosia             Hibiscus              Strelitzia
+    Cestrum*            Hoya*                 Streptocarpus
+    Chorizema*          Hydrangea             Swainsonia
+    Chrysanthemum       Impatiens             Tacsonia*
+    Cineraria           Jasminum*             Tecoma
+    Clianthus           Justicia              Tradescantia
+    Clivia              Kalosanthes           Vallota+
+    Cobaea*
+
+  STOVE PLANTS.--For the successful culture of stove plants two houses
+  at least, wherein different temperatures can be maintained, should be
+  devoted to their growth. The minimum temperature during winter should
+  range at night from about 55° in the cooler to 65° in the warmer
+  house, and from 65° to 75° by day, allowing a few degrees further rise
+  by sun heat. In summer the temperature may range 10° higher by
+  artificial heat, night and day, and will often by sun heat run up to
+  90° or even 95°, beyond which it should be kept down by ventilation
+  and frequent syringing and damping down of the pathways. During the
+  growing period the atmosphere must be kept moist by damping the walls
+  and pathways, and by syringing the plants according to their needs;
+  when growth is completed less moisture will be necessary. Watering,
+  which, except during the resting period, should generally be copious,
+  is best done in the forenoon; while syringing should be done early in
+  the morning before the sun becomes too powerful, and late in the
+  afternoon to admit of the foliage drying moderately before night. The
+  following is a select list of genera of stove plants (climbers are
+  denoted by *, bulbous and tuberous plants by +):
+
+    Acalypha            Cyanophyllum (Miconia) Musa
+    Achimenes+          Cycas                  Nelumbium+
+    Aeschynanthus       Dieffenbachia          Nepenthes
+    Allamanda*          Dipladenia*            Nymphaea+
+    Alocasia+           Dracaena               Oxera*
+    Amaryllis+          Eranthemum             Pancratium+
+    Anthurium           Eucharis+              Pandanus
+    Aphelandra          Euphorbia              Passiflora*
+    Aralia              Ficus                  Pavetta
+    Ardisia             Franciscea             Petraea*
+    Arisaema+           Gardenia               Pleroma*
+    Aristolochia*       Gesnera                Poinsettia
+    Ataccia             Gloriosa*              Rondeletia
+    Begonia             Gloxinia+              Sanchezia
+    Bertolonia          Heliconia+             Schubertia*
+    Bignonia*           Hoffmannia             Scutellaria
+    Bromeliads          Ipomaea*               Stephanotis
+    Cactus              Ixora                  Tabernaemontana
+    Caladium+           Jacobinia              Terminalia
+    Calathea            Jasminum*              Thunbergia
+    Centropogon         Luculia                Torenia
+    Cissus*             Maranta                Thyrsacanthus
+    Clerodendron*       Medinilla              Tydaea
+    Crinum+             Meyenia                Vinca
+    Codiaeum (Croton)
+
+  ORCHIDS.--For the successful cultivation of a mixed collection of
+  tropical orchids, it is necessary that two or three houses, in which
+  different temperatures can be maintained, should be provided. The
+  greater number of them are epiphytes or plants that grow on others
+  without absorbing nourishment from them, and heat and moisture afford
+  all or nearly all the nourishment they require. At one time it was
+  thought the plants themselves were better for being associated with
+  such objects as ferns and palms, but they are best grown by
+  themselves.
+
+  The East Indian orchid house takes in those species which are found in
+  the warm parts of the eastern hemisphere, as well as those from the
+  hottest parts of the western, and its temperature should range from
+  about 70° to 80° during the summer or growing season and from 65° to
+  70° during winter. The Mexican or Brazilian orchid house accommodates
+  the plants from the warm parts of South America, and its temperature
+  should range from about 65° to 75° during summer and from 60° to 65°
+  in winter. A structure called the cool orchid house is set apart for
+  the accommodation of the many lovely mountain species from South
+  America and India, such as _odontoglossums_, _masdevallias_, &c., and
+  in this the more uniform the temperature can be kept the better, that
+  in summer varying between 60° and 65°, and in winter from 45° to 60°.
+  A genial moist atmosphere must be kept up in the hottest houses during
+  the growing season, with a free circulation of air admitted very
+  cautiously by well-guarded ventilators. In winter, when the plants are
+  at rest, little water will be necessary; but in the case of those
+  plants which have no fleshy pseudobulbs to fall back upon for
+  sustenance, they must not be suffered to become so dry as to cause the
+  leaves to shrivel. In the Mexican house the plants will generally be
+  able to withstand greater drought occasionally, being greatly assisted
+  by their thick pseudobulbs. In the cool or odontoglossum house a
+  considerable degree of moisture must be maintained at all times, for
+  in these the plants keep growing more or less continuously.
+
+  For potting or basketing purposes, or for plants requiring
+  block-culture, the materials used are light fibrous peat, special
+  leaf-mould, osmunda or polypodium fibre and living sphagnum moss,
+  which supply free drainage for the copious supply of water required.
+  Good turfy loam is also used for some, such as _cypripediums_ and
+  _calanthes_. Indeed the composts now used are varied considerably
+  according to the particular group of orchids. The water should,
+  however, be so used as not to run down into the sheathing bases of the
+  leaves. While in flower, orchids may with advantage be removed to a
+  drier and cooler situation, and may be utilized in the drawing-room or
+  boudoir. Of late years not only have many fine hybrids been raised
+  artificially between various species, but some remarkable bigeneric
+  hybrids (between what are considered two distinct genera) have also
+  been produced (indicated in the list below by *). To keep a valuable
+  collection of orchids in good condition requires the services of an
+  expert orchid grower.
+
+  The following is a select list of genera in cultivation:--
+
+    Acineta             Cymbidium             Peristeria
+    Ada                 Cypripedium           Pescatorea
+    Aërides             Cyrtopodium           Phajus
+    Angraecum           Dendrobium            Phaio-calanthe*
+    Anguloa             Diacrium              Phalaenopsis
+    Anoectochilus       Disa                  Pilumna
+    Ansellia            Epidendrum            Platyclinis
+    Arachnanthe         Eulophia              Pleione
+    Arpophyllum         Eulophiella           Pleurothallis
+    Barkeria            Galeandra             Polystachya
+    Batemannia          Gongora               Promenaea
+    Bifrenaria          Grammatophyllum       Renanthera
+    Brassavola          Habenaria             Restrepia
+    Brassia             Houlletia             Rodriguezia
+    Brasso-Cattleya*    Ionopsis              Saccolabium
+    Broughtonia         Ipsea                 Schomburgkia
+    Bulbophyllum        Laelia                Scuticaria
+    Burlingtonia        Laelio-Cattleya*      Sobralia
+    Calanthe            Leptotes              Sophro-cattleya*
+    Catasetum           Lissochilus           Sophronitis
+    Cattleya            Lycaste               Spathoglottis
+    Chysis              Masdevallia           Stanhopea
+    Cirrhopetalum       Miltonia              Thunia
+    Cochlioda           Mormodes              Trichopilia
+    Coelia              Odontoglossum         Trichosma
+    Coelogyne           Odontioda*            Vanda
+    Comparettia         Oncidium              Zygo-colax*
+    Cycnoches           Pachystoma            Zygopetalum
+
+  PALMS.--These form charming table and drawing-room plants when quite
+  young. When more fully developed, and long before their full growth is
+  attained, they are among the most decorative plants known for the
+  conservatory and for subtropical gardening. They are easily
+  cultivated, but should not be allowed to become dry. The soil should
+  consist of about 3 parts turfy loam, 1 part leaf mould, 1 part coarse
+  silver sand, with enough chemical or other manure added to render the
+  whole moderately rich. The older plants will occasionally require the
+  roots pruned in order to keep them in as small pots as possible
+  without being starved. This should be done early in the spring, and
+  the plants heavily shaded until feeding roots are again produced. It
+  is of advantage to afford stove culture while the plants are quite
+  young. A little later most of the genera succeed well under moderately
+  cool conditions.
+
+  The following genera are among those most commonly cultivated:
+
+    Acanthophoenix      Chamaerops            Martinezia
+    Acanthorhiza        Cocos                 Oreodoxa
+    Areca               Corypha               Phoenix
+    Bactris             Geonoma               Pritchardia
+    Brahea              Hyophorbe             Rhapis
+    Calamus             Kentia                Sabal
+    Caryota             Latania               Stevensonia
+    Ceroxylon           Livistonia            Thrinax
+    Chamaedorea
+
+  FERNS.--These popular plants are usually increased by means of their
+  spores, the "dust" produced on the back of their fronds. The spores
+  should be sown in well-drained pots or seed pans on the surface of a
+  mixture of fibrous sifted peat and small broken crocks or sandstone;
+  this soil should be firmly pressed and well-watered, and the spores
+  scattered over it, and at once covered with propagating glasses or
+  pieces of sheet glass, to prevent water or dry air getting to the
+  surface. The pots should be placed in pans full of water, which they
+  will absorb as required. A shady place is desirable, with temperature
+  of 50° to 55° by night and 65° to 70° by day, or they may be set on a
+  shelf in an ordinary propagating pit. The spores may be sown as soon
+  as ripe, and when the young plants can be handled, or rather can be
+  lifted with the end of a pointed flat stick, they should be pricked
+  out into well-drained pots or pans filled with similar soil and should
+  be kept moist and shady. As they become large enough, pot them singly
+  in 3-in. pots, and when the pots are fairly filled with roots shift on
+  into larger ones.
+
+  The best time for a general repotting of ferns is in spring, just
+  before growth commences. Those with creeping rhizomes can be
+  propagated by dividing these into well-rooted portions, and, if a
+  number of crowns is formed, they can be divided at that season. In
+  most cases this can be performed with little risk, but the
+  gleichenias, for example, must only be cut into large portions, as
+  small divisions of the rhizomes are almost certain to die; in such
+  cases, however, the points of the rhizomes can be led over and layered
+  into small pots, several in succession, and allowed to remain
+  unsevered from the parent plant until they become well-rooted. In
+  potting the well-established plants, and all those of considerable
+  size, the soil should be used in a rough turfy state, not sifted but
+  broken, and one-sixth of broken crocks or charcoal and as much sand as
+  will insure free percolation should be mixed with it.
+
+  The stove ferns require a day temperature of 65° to 75°, but do not
+  thrive in an excessively high or close dry atmosphere. They require
+  only such shade as will shut out the direct rays of the sun, and,
+  though abundant moisture must be supplied, the atmosphere should not
+  be overloaded with it. Ferns should not be allowed to become quite dry
+  at the root, and the water used should always be at or near the
+  temperature of the house in which the plants are growing. Some ferns,
+  as the different kinds of Gymnogramme and Cheilanthes, prefer a drier
+  atmosphere than others, and the former do not well bear a lower winter
+  temperature than about 60° by night. Most other stove ferns, if
+  dormant, will bear a temperature as low as 55° by night and 60° by day
+  from November to February. About the end of the latter month the whole
+  collection should be turned out of the pots, and redrained or repotted
+  into larger pots as required. This should take place before growth has
+  commenced. Towards the end of March the night temperature may be
+  raised to 60°, and the day temperature to 70° or 75°, the plants being
+  shaded in bright weather. Such ferns as Gymnogrammes, which have their
+  surface covered with golden or silver powder, and certain species of
+  scaly-surfaced Cheilanthes and Nothochlaena, as they cannot bear to
+  have their fronds wetted, should never be syringed; but most other
+  ferns may have a moderate sprinkling occasionally (not necessarily
+  daily), and as the season advances, sufficient air and light must be
+  admitted to solidify the tissues.
+
+  Hardy British ferns belonging to such genera as Asplenium, Nephrodium,
+  Aspidium, Scolopendrium, have become fairly popular of late years, and
+  many charming varieties are now used in borders and rockeries. Spores
+  may be sown as above described, but in a much lower temperature.
+
+  The following is a select list of genera:--
+
+    Acrostichum         Davallia              Osmunda
+    Actiniopteris       Dicksonia             Onoclea
+    Adiantum            Gleichenia            Phlebodium
+    Alsophila           Gymnogramme           Platycerium
+    Aspidium            Hymenophyllum         Polypodium
+    Asplenium           Lastrea               Pteris
+    Blechnum            Lomaria               Scolopendrium
+    Cheilanthes         Lygodium              Todea
+    Cibotium            Nephrodium            Trichomanes
+    Cyathea             Nephrolepis           Woodwardia
+
+
+VI. _Fruits._
+
+_Fruit-Tree Borders._--No pains should be spared, in the preparation of
+fruit-tree borders, to secure their thorough drainage. In case of
+adhesive clayey subsoil this can generally be secured by placing over
+the sloping bottom a good layer of coarse rubbly material, communicating
+with a drain in front to carry off the water, while earthenware drain
+tubes may be laid beneath the rubble from 8 to 10 ft. apart, so as to
+form air drains, and provided with openings both at the side of the walk
+and also near the base of the wall. Over this rubbly matter, rough turfy
+soil, grass-side downwards, should be laid, and on this the good
+prepared soil in which the trees are to be planted.
+
+The borders should consist of 3 parts rich turfy loam, the top spit of a
+pasture, and 1 part light gritty earth, such as road-grit, with a small
+portion (one-sixth) of fine brick rubbish. They should not be less than
+12 ft. in breadth, and may vary up to 15 or 18 ft., with a fall from the
+wall of about 1 in. in 3 ft. The border itself should be raised a foot
+or more above the general level. The bottom of the border as well as
+that of the drain must be kept lower than the general level of the
+subsoil, else the soakage will gather in all the little depressions of
+its surface. Fruit-tree borders should not be at all cropped with
+culinary vegetables, or very slightly so, as the process of digging
+destroys the roots of the trees, and drives them from near the surface,
+where they ought to be.
+
+Shallow planting, whether of wall trees or standards, is generally to be
+preferred, a covering of a few inches of soil being sufficient for the
+roots, but a surface of at least equal size to the surface of the hole
+should be covered with dung or litter so as to restrain evaporation and
+preserve moisture. In the case of wall trees, a space of 5 or 6 in. is
+usually left between the stem at the insertion of the roots and the
+wall, to allow for increase of girth. Young standard trees should be
+tied to stakes so as to prevent their roots being ruptured by the
+wind-waving of the stems and to keep them erect. The best time for
+planting fruit trees in the open air is from the end of September till
+the end of November in open weather.
+
+In the selection and distribution of fruit trees regard must of course
+be had to local situation and climate. The best walls having a south or
+south-east aspect are devoted to the peach, nectarine, apricot, dessert
+pears, plums and early cherries. Cherries and the generality of plums
+succeed very well either on an east or a west aspect. Morello cherries,
+apples and stewing pears succeed well on a north wall. In Scotland the
+mulberry requires the protection of a wall, and several of the finer
+apples and pears do not arrive at perfection without this help and a
+tolerably good aspect. The wall-trees intended to be permanent are
+called dwarfs, from their branches springing from near the ground.
+Between these, trees with tall stems, called riders, are planted as
+temporary occupants of the upper part of the wall. The riders should
+have been trained in the nursery into good-sized trees, in order that
+when planted out they may come into bearing as speedily as possible.
+
+_Standard Fruit Trees_ should not be planted, if it can be avoided, in
+the borders of the kitchen garden, but in the outer slips, where they
+either may be allowed to attain their full size or may be kept dwarfed.
+Each sort of fruit should be planted by itself, for the sake of orderly
+arrangement, and in order to facilitate protection when necessary by a
+covering of nets. Their produce is often superior in flavour to that of
+the same kind of fruit grown on walls.
+
+_Orchard-house Trees._--Peaches, nectarines, apricots, figs and dessert
+plums, cherries, apples and pears are commonly cultivated in the
+orchard-house. Peaches and nectarines are generally planted out, while
+the rest are more commonly cultivated in pots. This allows of the
+hardier pot plants being removed out of doors while those planted out
+are in need of the room. The pot plants are overhauled in the autumn,
+the roots pruned, a layer being cut off to allow new soil to be
+introduced. Surface dressing and feeding by liquid manure should also be
+afforded these plants while the fruit is swelling. Every effort should
+be made to complete the growth of peaches and nectarines while the sun
+is sufficiently strong to ripen them. Tomatoes are frequently employed
+to fill gaps in the orchard-house. Should it be provided with a central
+path, requiring shade, Hambro and Sweet-water grapes serve the purpose
+well, and in favourable seasons afford excellent crops of fruit.
+
+
+VII. _Vegetables._
+
+Under this head are included those esculents which are largely eaten as
+"vegetables" or as "salads." The more important are treated under their
+individual headings (see ARTICHOKE, ASPARAGUS, BEAN, &c. &c.). The
+culinary herbs used for flavouring and garnishing are for the most part
+dwarf perennial plants requiring to be grown on a rich soil in an open
+sunny aspect, or annuals for which a warm sheltered border is the most
+suitable place; and they may therefore be conveniently grown together in
+the same compartment--a herb garden. The perennials should be
+transplanted either every year or every second year. For winter use the
+tops of the most useful kinds of herbs should be cut when in flower or
+full leaf and quite dry, and spread out in an airy but shady place so
+as to part slowly with the moisture they contain and at the same time
+retain their aromatic properties. When quite dry they should be put into
+dry wide-mouthed bottles and kept closely corked. In this way such herbs
+as basil, marjoram, mint, sage, savory, thyme, balm, chamomile,
+horehound, hyssop and rue, as well as parsley, may be had throughout the
+season with almost the full flavour of the fresh herb.
+
+_Intensive Cultivation._--This name has been applied to the method of
+forcing early vegetables and salads during the winter and spring months
+in the market gardens in the neighbourhood of Paris. The system is now
+popularly known in England as "French gardening." Although a few assert
+that it is an old English one that has been discarded in favour of
+superior methods, there seems to be little or no evidence in support of
+this contention. The system itself has been practised for about 300
+years in the "marais" gardens round Paris. At one time these gardens
+were in the centre of the city itself, but owing to modern improvements
+they have been gradually pushed out beyond the city boundaries farther
+and farther. Most of these gardens are small--not more than a couple of
+acres in extent, and the rent paid by the _maraîcher_, or market
+gardener, is very high--as much as £30 to £40 per acre.
+
+The French _maraîcher_ does not use hot-water apparatus for forcing his
+plants into early growth. He relies mainly upon the best stable manure,
+a few shallow frames about 4½ ft. wide covered with lights, and a number
+of large bell glasses or "cloches." The work is carried on from October
+till the end of March and April, after which, with the exception of
+melons, the cultures are carried on in the open air.
+
+The chief crops grown for early supplies, or "primeurs" as they are
+called, are special varieties of cos and cabbage lettuces, short
+carrots, radishes, turnips, cauliflowers, endives, spinach, onions, corn
+salad and celery. To these is added a very important crop of melons, a
+special large-fruited variety known as the Prescott Canteloup being the
+most favoured.
+
+It is astonishing how much produce is taken off one of these small
+intensive gardens during the year, and especially during the worst
+months when prices usually run fairly high. The fact that rents are so
+heavy around Paris is in itself an indication of the money that is
+realized by the growers not only in the Paris markets, but also in
+Covent Garden.
+
+During the winter season narrow beds are made up of manure, either quite
+fresh or mixed with old manure, according to the amount of heat
+required. These beds are covered with a few inches of the fine old mould
+obtained from the decayed manure of previous years. In the early stages
+seeds of carrots and radishes are sown simultaneously on the same beds,
+and over them young lettuces that have been raised in advance are
+planted. In this way three crops are actually on the same beds at the
+same time. Owing, however, to the difference in their vegetative growth,
+they mature one after the other instead of simultaneously. Thus with the
+genial warmth and moisture of the hotbeds, all crops grow rapidly, but
+the radishes mature first, then the lettuces are taken off in due
+course, thus leaving the beds to finish up with the carrots by
+themselves. Later on in the season, perhaps small cauliflowers will be
+planted along the margins of the beds where the carrots are growing, and
+will be developing into larger plants requiring more space by the time
+all the carrots have been picked and marketed. So on throughout the year
+with other crops, this system of intercropping or overlapping of one
+crop with another is carried out in a most ingenious manner, not only
+under glass lights, but also in the open air. Spinach, corn salad,
+radishes and carrots are the favourite crops for sowing between others
+such as lettuces and cauliflowers.
+
+Although enormous quantities of water are required during the summer
+season, great care must be exercised in applying water to the winter
+crops. When severe frost prevails the lights or cloches are rarely taken
+off except to gather mature specimens; and no water is given directly
+overhead to the plants for fear of chilling them and checking growth.
+They must secure their supply of moisture from the rain that falls on
+the glass, and flows into the narrow pathways from 9 in. to 12 in. wide
+between each range of frames. As the beds are only about 4½ ft. wide,
+the water from the pathways is soaked up on each side by capillary
+attraction, and in this way the roots secure a sufficient supply.
+
+Besides an abundance of water in summer there must also be an enormous
+quantity of good stable manure available during the winter months. This
+is necessary not only to make up the required hotbeds in the first
+place, but also to fill in the pathways between the frames, wherever it
+is considered advisable to maintain the heat within the frames at a
+certain point. As it is impossible to use an ordinary wheelbarrow in
+these narrow pathways, the workman carries a specially made wicker
+basket called a "hotte" on his shoulders by means of two straps. In this
+way large quantities of manure are easily transported to any required
+spot, and although the work looks hard to an English gardener, the
+Frenchman says he can carry more manure with less fatigue in half a day
+than an Englishman can transport in a day with a wheelbarrow.
+
+This is merely an outline of the system, which is now being taken up in
+various parts of the United Kingdom, but not too rapidly. The initial
+expenses for frames, lights, cloches, mats and water-supply are in many
+cases prohibitive to men with the necessary gardening experience, while
+on the other hand those who have the capital lack the practical
+knowledge so essential to success.
+
+  For full details of this system see _French Market-Gardening, with
+  details of Intensive Cultivation_, by John Weathers (London, 1909).
+
+  VIII.--_Calendar of Garden Operations (A) for Great Britain._
+
+  JANUARY
+
+  _Kitchen Garden._--Wheel out manure and composts during frosty
+  weather; trench vacant ground not turned up roughly in autumn. Sow
+  early peas in a cold frame for transplanting. Sow also first-crop
+  peas, early in the month, and William I. towards the end; Early
+  Seville and Early Longpod beans; and short-topped radish in two or
+  three sowings, at a week's interval, all on a warm border; also Hardy
+  Green and Brown cos lettuce in a frame or on south border. Plant
+  shallots and Ashleaf potatoes on a warm border. Protect broccoli as it
+  becomes fit for use, or remove to a dry shed or cellar; lettuces and
+  endive, which are best planted in frames; and parsley in frames so as
+  to be accessible.
+
+  _Fruit Garden._--Plant fruit trees in open weather, if not done in
+  autumn, which is the proper season, mulching over the roots to protect
+  them from frost, and from drought which may occur in spring. Prune
+  fruit trees in mild weather or in moderate frosts, nailing only in
+  fine weather. Wash trees infested with insects with one of the many
+  insecticides now obtainable. Take off grafts, and lay them aside in
+  moist earth in a shady place.
+
+  _Forcing._--Prepare manure for making up hotbeds for early cucumbers
+  and melons, where pits heated with hot water are not in use; also for
+  Ashleaf potatoes. Sow also in heat mustard and cress for salads,
+  onions for salads; tomatoes, celery to be pricked out for an early
+  crop; and Early Horn carrot and kidney-beans on slight hotbeds. Force
+  asparagus, sea-kale and rhubarb, in hotbeds, in pits, in the
+  mushroom-house or in the open garden by the use of covers surrounded
+  with warm litter; for cucumbers a top heat of 70°; for vines in leaf
+  and flower a temperature ranging from 65° to 70°. Keep forced
+  strawberries with swelling fruit well watered. Plant vine eyes for
+  propagation in a brisk heat.
+
+  _Plant Houses._--Give abundance of air to the greenhouse, conservatory
+  and alpine frame in mild weather, but use little water. A supply of
+  roses, kalmias, rhododendrons, &c., and of hardy flowers and bulbs, as
+  lily of the valley, hyacinths, tulips, daffodils, &c., should be kept
+  up by forcing.
+
+  _Flower Garden._---Plant out tubers and bulbs of border flowers, where
+  neglected in autumn, deferring the finer florists' flowers till next
+  month. Transplant herbaceous plants in light soils, if not done in
+  autumn; also deciduous trees, shrubs and hedges. Lay edgings in fine
+  weather. Sow mignonette, stocks, &c., in pots; sow sweet peas and a
+  few hardy annuals on a warm border. Give auriculas and carnations
+  abundance of air, but keep the roots rather dry to prevent damping
+  off.
+
+  FEBRUARY
+
+  _Kitchen Garden._--Sow successional crops of Early Seville beans, and
+  William I., American Wonder or other peas in the beginning and end of
+  the month; early cabbages to follow the last sowing in August; red
+  cabbages and savoys towards the end. Sow also Early Horn carrot; Early
+  Purple-top Munich turnip; onions for a full crop in light soils, with
+  a few leeks and some parsley. Sow lettuce for succession, with
+  radishes and Round-leaved spinach, twice in the course of the month;
+  and small salads every fortnight. Plant Jerusalem artichokes,
+  shallots, garlic, horse-radish and early potatoes. Transplant to the
+  bottom of a south wall a portion of the peas sown in pots in frames in
+  November and January for the first crop. Sow Brussels sprouts in
+  gentle heat for an early crop.
+
+  _Fruit Garden._--Prune apricots, peaches, nectarines and plums, before
+  the buds are much swelled; finish pruning apples, pears, cherries,
+  gooseberries, currants and raspberries, before the end of the month;
+  also the dressing of vines. Keep the fruit-room free from spoiled
+  fruit, and shut it close. Cut down the double-bearing raspberries to
+  secure strong autumn-fruiting shoots. Head back stocks preparatory to
+  grafting.
+
+  _Forcing._--Sow melons and cucumbers on hotbeds and in pits. Sow
+  carrots, turnips, early celery, also aubergines or egg-plants,
+  capsicums, tomatoes and successional crops of kidney-beans;
+  cauliflower and Brussels sprouts, in gentle heat, to be afterwards
+  planted out. Plant early potatoes on slight hotbeds. Continue the
+  forcing of asparagus, rhubarb and sea-kale. Commence or continue the
+  forcing of the various choice fruits, as vines, peaches, figs,
+  cherries, strawberries, &c. Pot roots of mint and place in heat to
+  produce sprigs for mint sauce. Be careful to protect the stems of
+  vines that are outside the forcing-houses.
+
+  _Plant Houses._--Let the greenhouse and conservatory have plenty of
+  air in mild weather. Pot and start tuberous-rooted begonias and
+  gloxinias. Pot young plants of Hippeastrum, and start the established
+  ones. Propagate chrysanthemums in cool-house or vinery under hand
+  lights or frames. Put plants of fuchsias, petunias, verbenas,
+  heliotropes, salvias and other soft-wooded subjects, into a
+  propagating house to obtain cuttings, &c., for the flower garden. Sow
+  stocks, dahlias and a few tender and half-hardy annuals, on a slight
+  hotbed, or in pots. Propagate old roots of dahlias by cuttings of the
+  young shoots in a hotbed. Sow petunias in heat, and prick out and
+  harden for bedding out; also gloxinias to be grown on in heat till the
+  flowering season.
+
+  _Flower Garden._--In dry open weather plant dried roots, including
+  most of the finer florists' flowers; continue the transplanting of
+  hardy biennial flowers and herbaceous plants. Sow in the last week
+  mignonette, and hardy annuals, in a warm border, for subsequent
+  transplanting.
+
+  MARCH
+
+  _Kitchen Garden._--Sow main crops of wrinkled marrow peas; Longpod and
+  Windsor beans; cabbage, onions, leeks, Early Horn carrots, parsnips,
+  salsafy, scorzonera, Brussels sprouts, borecoles, lettuces and
+  spinach. In the beginning and also at the end of the month sow Early
+  Strap-leaf and Early Snowball turnips and savoys. In the last
+  fortnight sow asparagus, cauliflower and the various sweet and savoury
+  herbs; also sea-kale, radishes, celery, celeriac and parsley. Small
+  salads should be sown every ten days. Make up beds for mushrooms with
+  well-prepared dung towards the end of the month. Plant early potatoes
+  in the first week, and a main crop during the last fortnight.
+  Sea-kale, asparagus and peas raised in frames may now be planted; also
+  garlic and shallots. Full crops of cabbages should be planted out;
+  also cauliflowers under hand-glasses. Propagate by slips, or by
+  earthing up the old stems, the various pot-herbs.
+
+  _Fruit Garden._--Finish the pruning of fruit trees before the middle
+  of the month. Protect those coming into blossom. Begin grafting in the
+  third week; dig and dress between the rows of gooseberries, currants
+  and other fruit trees, if not already done. Kill wasps assiduously as
+  soon as they appear.
+
+  _Forcing._--Continue the forcing of melons, cucumbers, tomatoes and
+  the various fruits. In the vinery and peach-house, attend to the
+  keeping down of insects by syringing; and promote the growth of the
+  young shoots, by damping the walls and paths morning and evening. Sow
+  capsicum and tomato; also in slight heat such tender herbs as basil
+  and marjoram.
+
+  _Plant Houses._--More water may be given than formerly. Sow seeds of
+  greenhouse and hothouse plants; also the different sorts of tender
+  annuals; pot off those sown last month; sow cineraria for the earliest
+  bloom; also Chinese primulas. Shift heaths and other hard-wooded
+  subjects and stove-plants; plant tuberoses in pots for forcing. Begin
+  to propagate greenhouse plants by cuttings; also coleuses by cuttings
+  in heat, potting them off as soon as rooted.
+
+  _Flower Garden and Shrubbery._--In the last week, sow hardy annuals in
+  the borders, with biennials that flower the first season, as also
+  perennials. Plant anemone and ranunculus roots and the corms of
+  gladiolus. Transplant from the nursery to their final sites annuals
+  sown in autumn, with biennials and herbaceous plants. Propagate
+  perennials from root-slips and offsets. Continue to propagate the
+  finer sorts of dahlias, both by cuttings and by division of the roots.
+  Finish the pruning of all deciduous trees and hedges as soon as
+  possible. Attend to the dressing of shrubberies; lay turf-edgings, and
+  regulate the surface of gravel walks.
+
+  APRIL
+
+  _Kitchen Garden._--Sow asparagus, sea-kale, Turnip-rooted beet,
+  salsafy, scorzonera, skirret, carrots and onions on heavy soils; also
+  marrow peas, Longpod and Windsor beans, turnips, spinach, celery,
+  cabbage, savoys and Brussels sprouts for succession. Sow broccoli and
+  kidney-beans both in the second and in the last week, and lettuces and
+  small salads twice or thrice during the month; sow all herbs, if not
+  done last month. Sow vegetable marrow. Plant cauliflower, cabbages,
+  sea-kale, lettuce; and finish the planting of the main crops of
+  potatoes; divide and replant globe-artichokes. Propagate all sorts of
+  pot-herbs, and attend to the hoeing and thinning of spinach, onions,
+  turnips, carrots, beet, &c. Earth up cabbages, cauliflower, peas,
+  beans and early potatoes. Stake up peas; blanch sea-kale and rhubarb
+  in the open air by covering with straw or leaves.
+
+  _Fruit Garden._--If vines have been neglected to be pruned, rub off
+  the buds that are not wanted; this is safer than pruning now. Protect
+  the finer sorts of fruit trees on the walls. The hardier orchard-house
+  fruits should now be moved outdoors under temporary awnings, to give
+  the choicer fruits more space,--the roots being protected by plunging
+  the pots. Mulch all newly-planted fruit trees, watering abundantly in
+  dry weather.
+
+  _Forcing._--Continue the preparation of succession beds and pits for
+  cucumbers and melons. Sow; pot tomatoes and capsicums for succession.
+  Pollinate tomatoes by hand to ensure early fruit on plants intended
+  for outdoor culture. In the forcing-houses, from the variable state of
+  the weather, considerable vigilance is required in giving air. Keep
+  down red spider (Acarus) in the more advanced houses by frequent
+  syringings and a well-moistened atmosphere. Continue the usual
+  operations of disbudding and thinning of fruit, and take care to keep
+  up the proper temperatures.
+
+  _Plant Houses._--Still sow tender annuals if required; also cinerarias
+  and primulas. Proceed with all necessary shiftings. Propagate rare and
+  fine plants by cuttings or grafting; increase bouvardias by cuttings,
+  and grow on for winter flowering. Pot off tender annuals, and cuttings
+  of half-hardy greenhouse plants put in during February to get them
+  well established for use in the flower garden. Transfer chrysanthemums
+  to sheltered positions out of doors, and provide means of protecting
+  them from frost and cutting winds.
+
+  _Flower Garden and Shrubbery._--Sow main or successional crops of
+  annuals of all sorts--half-hardy annuals in warm borders, or on slight
+  hotbeds. Biennials and perennials should be sown before the middle of
+  the month. Plant out gladioli, if not done, tigridias and fine stocks.
+  Finish the transplanting of herbaceous plants by the end of the first
+  week. Cuttings of border chrysanthemums may now be dibbled in a warm
+  spot out of doors. Protect stage auriculas and hyacinths from extremes
+  of every description of weather; and tulips from hoar-frosts and heavy
+  rains. Plant out tender deciduous trees and shrubs raised in pots;
+  plant out tea-roses, mulching the roots. Remove part of the coverings
+  of all tender shrubs and plants in the first week, and the remainder
+  at the end of the month. Form and repair lawns and grass walks by
+  laying turf and sowing perennial grass-seeds; mow the lawns
+  frequently; plant evergreens.
+
+  MAY
+
+  _Kitchen Garden._--Sow main crop of beet in the first week, small
+  salads every week, radishes and lettuces thrice, spinach once a
+  fortnight, carrots and onions for late drawing, kidney-beans in the
+  first week and together with scarlet runners in the last fortnight;
+  endive for an early crop; also peas and Longpod and Windsor beans,
+  cauliflowers, Early York or Little Pixie cabbages, Brussels sprouts,
+  borecole, broccoli, savoys and kale for late crops. Sow vegetable
+  marrows and hardy cucumbers on a warm border in the last week; sow
+  cardoons in trenches, or (in the north) in pots under glass shelter;
+  sow chicory for salading. Continue hoeing and earthing up the several
+  crops.
+
+  _Fruit Garden._--Disbud peaches, nectarines and other early trees
+  against the walls; also attend to the thinning of fruit. Give
+  occasional washings with the engine to keep down insects. Pick
+  caterpillars from gooseberries and wall trees on their first
+  appearance. Remove from raspberries and strawberries all suckers and
+  runners that are not wanted.
+
+  _Forcing._--Plant melons and cucumbers on the hotbeds prepared for
+  vegetables in February, and now free. Plant out vegetable marrows and
+  pumpkins on dung-ridges, under hand-glasses. Sow late crops of
+  cucumbers and melons.
+
+  _Plant Houses._--Turn out hardy plants about the middle, and the more
+  tender at the latter end of the month. Sow tender annuals for
+  succession, potting and shifting those sown at an earlier period; sow
+  cinerarias for succession; and a few hardy annuals and ten-week stock,
+  &c., for late crops. Pot off all rooted cuttings. Put in cuttings of
+  the different desirable species which are now fit for that purpose.
+  Plant out in rich soil Richardias, to be potted up in autumn for
+  flowering. Bedding plants should be placed to harden in sheltered
+  positions out of doors towards end of month. Towards the end of the
+  month many of the main stock of chrysanthemums will be ready for the
+  final potting.
+
+  _Flower Garden._--Sow annuals for succession in the last week, also
+  biennials and perennials in the nursery compartment, for planting out
+  next year. Propagate plants of which more stock is required either by
+  cuttings or by dividing the roots. Plant out, during the last week,
+  dahlias, hardy pelargoniums, stocks and calceolarias, protecting the
+  dahlias from slight frosts. By the end of the month, masses of the
+  following plants may be formed with safety in warm
+  localities:--pelargonium, heliotropium, fuchsia, petunia,
+  nierembergia, salvia, verbena, bouvardia and lobelia. Protect tulips,
+  ranunculuses and anemones from the mid-day sun, and from rains and
+  winds. Remove the coverings from all tender plants in the open air.
+
+  _Shrubbery._--Transplant all kinds of evergreens, this month and
+  September being the proper seasons. The rarer conifers should be
+  planted now and in June, after they have commenced to grow. Proceed
+  with the laying down of lawns and gravel-walks, and keep the former
+  regularly mown.
+
+  JUNE
+
+  _Kitchen Garden._--Sow kidney-beans for succession; also the wrinkled
+  marrow peas and Seville Longpod and Windsor beans for late crops. Sow
+  salading every ten days; also carrots, onions and radishes for drawing
+  young; and chicory for salads; sow endive for a full crop. In the
+  first week sow Early Munich and Golden Ball turnips for succession,
+  and in the third week for a full autumn crop. Sow scarlet and white
+  runner beans for a late crop, and cabbages for coleworts. Make up
+  successional mushroom beds early in the month. Plant full crops of
+  broccoli, Brussels sprouts, savoys, kales, leeks and early celery,
+  with successional crops of cabbage and cauliflower. In the first
+  fortnight of the month, plant hardy cucumbers for pickling, in a warm
+  border, placing hand-glasses over them towards the end of the month.
+  Plant out capsicums and tomatoes in sunny positions, and stake and tie
+  securely. Pull and store winter onions, if ripe.
+
+  _Fruit Garden._--Train and prune the summer shoots of wall and trellis
+  and other trained trees. Mulch and water fruit trees and strawberries
+  in dry weather, desisting when the fruit begins to ripen. Net over
+  cherry-trees. Destroy aphides and other insects by syringing with
+  tobacco water, or by fumigating, or by dusting with tobacco powder.
+
+  _Forcing._--Proceed with planting melons, cucumbers and tomatoes. Keep
+  up the necessary temperatures for the ripening of the various fruits.
+  Ventilation will still require constant care. Tomatoes will now be
+  fruiting freely; thin out judiciously, avoiding excessive pruning at
+  one time. Attend to the gathering of fruit as it ripens.
+
+  _Plant Houses._--These will now be occupied with tender greenhouse
+  plants and annuals, and the more hardy plants from the stove. Shift,
+  repot and propagate all plants that are desirable. Sow fragrant or
+  showy annuals to flower in pots during winter; and grow on a set of
+  decorative plants for the same object. Continue the final potting of
+  chrysanthemums as the plants become ready.
+
+  _Flower Garden._--Plant out dahlias and other tender subjects, if risk
+  of frost is past. Take up bulbs and tuberous roots and dry them in the
+  shade before removing them to the store-room. Fill up with annuals and
+  greenhouse plants those beds from which the bulbs and roots have been
+  raised. After this season, keep always a reserve of annuals in pots,
+  or planted on beds of thin layers of fibrous matter, so as to be
+  readily transplanted. Layer carnations and pipe pinks in the end of
+  the month. Keep the lawns closely mown.
+
+  JULY
+
+  _Kitchen Garden._--Watering will be necessary in each department, if
+  the weather is hot and dry. In the first week, sow peas for the last
+  crop of the season; also Longpod beans and French beans. In the last
+  week, sow red globe or Chirk Castle turnip for a full winter crop,
+  spinach for an early winter supply and Enfield Market cabbage for
+  early summer use. Sow endive, for autumn and winter use, in the
+  beginning and end of the month; also successional crops of lettuce and
+  small salads. Make up successional mushroom beds. Plant full crops of
+  celery, celeriac, endive about the middle and end of the month; late
+  crops of broccoli, cauliflower and coleworts in the last week. Gather
+  and dry herbs; also propagate these by slips and cuttings.
+
+  _Fruit Garden._--Continue the pruning and training of wall and
+  espalier trees, and the destruction of noxious insects. Pot
+  strawberries for forcing next winter, and make new beds out of doors
+  as soon as well-rooted runners can be obtained. Propagate the
+  different sorts of stone fruit trees by budding on other trees or on
+  prepared stocks. Gather fruits of all kinds as they ripen.
+
+  _Forcing._--Prune melons and cucumbers, giving air and water and
+  maintaining heat, &c. Continue the routine treatment in the
+  tomato-houses. Feed the plants artificially as soon as good crops are
+  set; do not wait for signs of distress. The forcing-houses ought to
+  have abundance of fresh air and moisture where required, along with
+  the necessary heat.
+
+  _Plant Houses._--Ventilation will be necessary to keep down excessive
+  heat; and attention must be paid to potting, shifting and putting in
+  cuttings, and giving abundance of water to the potted plants, both
+  indoors and out. Sow seed of herbaceous calceolarias; shift heaths, if
+  they require it; cut down pelargoniums past flowering, and plant the
+  cuttings.
+
+  _Flower Garden and Shrubbery._--Take up the remaining tuberous roots,
+  such as anemones, ranunculuses, &c., by the end of the first week;
+  fill up their places, and any vacancies that may have occurred, with
+  annuals or bedding plants from the reserve ground. Repot auriculas,
+  and sow auricula seed in boxes under glass. Propagate herbaceous and
+  other plants that have gone out of flower, by means of cuttings and
+  slips, especially those required for spring bedding; propagate also
+  the various summer bedding plants increased by cuttings. Increase
+  roses and American shrubs, by layering, budding or cuttings, and go on
+  with the layering of carnations and picotees. Stake and tie up dahlias
+  and strong herbaceous plants.
+
+  AUGUST
+
+  _Kitchen Garden._--Sow winter and spring spinach in the beginning and
+  about the end of the month; parsley and winter onions, for a full
+  crop, in the first week; cabbages about the middle of the month, for
+  planting out in spring; cauliflower in the first half (Scotland) and
+  in the second half (England) of the month; Hardy Hammersmith and Brown
+  Cos lettuce in the first and last week; small salads occasionally; and
+  Black Spanish radish, for winter crops. Plant out kales and broccoli
+  for late crops; plant celery (earthing up the advancing crops as
+  required), endive for succession, and a few coleworts. Take up
+  shallots, garlic, &c.
+
+  _Fruit Garden._--Proceed in training and regulating the summer shoots
+  of all fruit trees as directed for the last three months. Net up, in
+  dry weather, gooseberry and currant bushes, to preserve the fruit till
+  late in the autumn. Make new strawberry beds if required. Preserve the
+  ripening fruits on the wall and other trees from insects, and destroy
+  wasp nests. Gather fruits as they ripen.
+
+  _Forcing._--The routine of cultivation in hotbeds and pits may be
+  continued. Sow tomatoes and cucumbers for a winter crop. Make up
+  mushroom beds. In the forcing-houses, where the crops are past, part
+  of the sashes may be removed, so as to permit thorough ventilation.
+
+  _Plant Houses._--Attend to the propagation of all sorts of greenhouse
+  plants by cuttings, and to the replacing in the greenhouse and stoves
+  the more tender species, by the end of the month in ordinary seasons,
+  but in wet weather in the second week. Sow half-hardy annuals, as
+  Nemophila, Collinsia, Schizanthus, Rhodanthe, &c., to flower during
+  winter.
+
+  _Flower Garden and Shrubbery._--Sow in the second and the last week,
+  on a warm border of a light sandy soil, with an east aspect, any
+  free-flowering hardy annuals as _Silene pendula_, Nemophila, &c., for
+  planting in spring; and auricula and primula seeds in pots and boxes.
+  Propagate, all sorts of herbaceous plants by rooted slips or suckers;
+  take off layers of carnations, picotees and pansies. Plant cuttings of
+  bedding plants, and of bedding pelargoniums in boxes for convenience
+  of removal. Layer the tops of chrysanthemums, to obtain dwarf
+  flowering plants. Transplant evergreens in moist weather, about the
+  end of the month; and propagate them by layers and cuttings. Pot
+  Neapolitan violets for forcing; or plant out on a mild hotbed. Clip
+  box edgings.
+
+  SEPTEMBER
+
+  _Kitchen Garden._--Sow small salading for late crops; and lettuce and
+  spinach, if not done last month, for spring crops. Plant endive and
+  lettuce at the foot of a south wall to stand the winter; plant out
+  cabbages from the chief autumn sowing. Plant cauliflowers on a warm
+  border in spaces such as can be protected by hand-lights. Thin the
+  winter spinach, when large enough, that it may have space to grow. If
+  broccoli be too rank or tall to withstand the winter, lift and lay
+  nearly up to the neck in the earth, the heads sloping towards the
+  north. Lift onions, and lay them out to ripen on a dry border or
+  gravel-walk. Lift potatoes and store them.
+
+  _Fruit Garden._--Finish the summer pruning and training. Where the
+  walls are heated, assist the maturing of peaches and nectarines, and
+  the ripening of the young wood for next year, by fires during the day.
+  Gather and lay up in the fruit-room with care the autumnal sorts of
+  apples and pears. Prepare borders and stations for fruit trees during
+  dry weather. Plant strawberries for a main crop. Repot orchard-house
+  trees, disrooting if necessary.
+
+  _Forcing._--Take care that late melons, cucumbers and tomatoes be not
+  injured by getting too much water and too little air. Sow a few kidney
+  beans for an early forced crop. Expel damp, and assist the ripening of
+  late grapes and peaches with fires during the day. Prune early vines
+  and peaches.
+
+  _Plant Houses._--The various pot plants should now be put in their
+  winter quarters. Keep up moderate temperatures in the stove, and
+  merely repel frosts in the greenhouse, guarding against damp, by
+  ventilation and by the cautious use of water. Pot hyacinths, tulips
+  and other bulbs for forcing; and propagate half-hardy plants by
+  cuttings. Begin the housing of the main stock of chrysanthemums.
+
+  _Flower Garden, &c._--Sow in the beginning of this month all
+  half-hardy annuals required for early flowering; also mignonette in
+  pots, thinning the plants at an early stage; the different species of
+  primula; and the seeds of such plants as, if sown in spring, seldom
+  come up the same season, but if sown in September and October,
+  vegetate readily the succeeding spring. Put in cuttings of bedding
+  pelargoniums in boxes, which may stand outdoors exposed to the sun,
+  but should be sheltered from excessive rains. Continue the propagation
+  of herbaceous plants, taking off the layers of carnations, picotees,
+  pansies and chrysanthemums, by the end of the month; choice
+  carnations and picotees may be potted and wintered in cold frames if
+  the season is wet and ungenial. Plant evergreens; lay and put in
+  cuttings of most of the hard-wooded sorts of shrubby plants.
+
+  OCTOBER
+
+  _Kitchen Garden._--Sow small salading and radishes in the first week,
+  and lettuces in frames on a shallow hotbed for planting out in spring.
+  If the winter prove mild they will be somewhat earlier than those sown
+  next month or in January. Plant parsley in pots or boxes to protect
+  under glass in case very severe weather occurs. Plant cabbages in beds
+  or close rows till wanted in spring; and cauliflowers in the last
+  week, to receive the protection of frames, or a sheltered situation.
+  Store potatoes, beet, salsafy, scorzonera, skirret, carrots and
+  parsnips, by the end of the month. Band and earth up cardoons.
+
+  _Fruit Garden._--Such fruit trees as have dropped their leaves may be
+  transplanted; this is the best season for transplanting (though with
+  care it may be done earlier), whether the leaves have fallen or not.
+  Protect fig-trees, if the weather proves frosty, as soon as they have
+  cast their leaves. Plant out raspberries. The orchard-house trees
+  should be got under glass before the end of the month. Gather and
+  store all sorts of apples and pears, the longest-keeping sorts not
+  before the end of the month, if the weather be mild.
+
+  _Forcing._--Maintain the heat in hotbeds and pits by means of fresh
+  dung linings. Give abundance of air in mild bright weather. Dress
+  vines and peaches. Clean and repair the forcing-houses, and overhaul
+  the heating apparatus to see it is in good working condition. Plant
+  chicory in boxes or on hotbeds for blanching. Sow kidney beans. Make
+  up successional winter mushroom beds.
+
+  _Plant Houses._--Replace all sorts of greenhouse plants. Fill the pits
+  with pots of stocks, mignonette and hardy annuals for planting out in
+  spring, along with many of the hardy sorts of greenhouse plants; the
+  whole ought to be thoroughly ventilated, except in frosty weather.
+  From this time till spring keep succulent plants almost without water.
+  Begin to force roses, hyacinths and a few other bulbs, for winter and
+  early spring decoration. Plant hyacinths in glasses for windows. The
+  last of the pot chrysanthemums should be housed by the end of the
+  first week.
+
+  _Flower Garden._--Sow a few pots of hardy annuals in a frame, or on a
+  sheltered border, for successional spring use if required. Plant the
+  greater part of the common border bulbs, as hyacinths, narcissi,
+  crocuses and early tulips, about the end of the month, with a few
+  anemones for early flowering. Transplant strong plants of biennials
+  and perennials to their final situations; also the select plants used
+  for spring bedding. Protect alpine plants, stage auriculas, and choice
+  carnations and picotees with glass frames; and tea roses and other
+  tender plants with bracken or other protective material. Take up, dry
+  and store dahlias and all tender tubers at the end of the month; pot
+  lobelias and similar half-hardy plants from the open borders.
+  Transplant all sorts of hardy evergreens and shrubs, especially in dry
+  soils, giving abundance of water. Put in cuttings of all sorts of
+  evergreens, &c. Plant out the hardier sorts of roses.
+
+  NOVEMBER
+
+  _Kitchen Garden._---Trench up all vacant ground as soon as cleared of
+  its crops, leaving the surface as rough as possible. Sow early peas
+  and Early Dwarf Prolific beans in the second week, for an early crop;
+  also in frames for transplanting. Protect endive, celery, artichoke
+  and sea-kale with stable-litter or fern, or by planting the former in
+  frames; take up late cauliflower, early broccoli and lettuces, and
+  place them in sheltered pits or lay them in an open shed; earth up
+  celery; manure and dress up asparagus beds.
+
+  _Fruit Garden._--Plant all sorts of fruit trees in fine weather--the
+  earlier in the month the better. Protect fig-trees. Commence pruning
+  and nailing. Gather and store the latest apples and pears. Examine the
+  fruit-room and remove all decayed fruit.
+
+  _Forcing._--Keep up the requisite degree of heat in hotbeds and pits.
+  Cucumbers and tomatoes will require more than ordinary attention.
+  Force asparagus, rhubarb and sea-kale, in the mushroom-house, in pits,
+  or in the open border under boxes or cases surrounded and covered by
+  well-fermented stable dung and leaves. Sow Early Horn carrot; also
+  kidney beans and radishes, on hotbeds. In the forcing-houses prune and
+  train the trees; fork over and dress the borders of such houses as
+  have not been already done.
+
+  _Plant Houses._--The directions for the greenhouse and conservatory in
+  January apply also to this month generally. Continue the forcing of
+  roses, hyacinths, &c. Houses containing large-flowered Japanese
+  chrysanthemums will require to be kept dry, airy and moderately warm
+  to prevent "damping-off" of petals.
+
+  _Flower Garden, &c._--Plant dried tubers of border flowers, but the
+  finer sorts had better be deferred till spring. Plant tulips in the
+  early part of the month. Put in cuttings of bedding calceolarias,
+  choosing the shoots that will not run up to flower. Protect such
+  half-hardy plants as are not already sheltered. Plant deciduous trees
+  and shrubs so long as the weather continues favourable, and before the
+  soil has parted with the solar heat absorbed during summer. Dig and
+  dress such flower borders and shrubberies as may now be cleared of
+  annuals and the stems of herbaceous plants.
+
+  DECEMBER
+
+  _Kitchen Garden._--Collect and smother-burn all vegetable refuse, and
+  apply it as a dressing to the ground. Sow a few peas and beans, in
+  case of accident to those sown in November, drawing up the soil
+  towards the stems of those which are above ground as a protection;
+  earth up celery; blanch endive with flower-pots; sow radishes in a
+  very sheltered place. Attend to trenching and digging in dry weather.
+
+  _Fruit Garden._--Plant all sorts of fruit trees in mild weather.
+  Proceed with pruning and nailing wall-trees. Examine the fruit-room
+  every week, removing promptly all decaying fruit.
+
+  _Forcing._--The same degree of attention to hotbeds and pits will be
+  necessary as in the last month. Continue the forcing of asparagus,
+  rhubarb and sea-kale, in pits and in the mushroom-house. Proceed with
+  the usual routine of culture commenced last month. Make the necessary
+  preparations to begin forcing early or succession crops by the last
+  week of this or the first of next month.
+
+  _Plant Houses, Frames, &c._--Carnations and picotees in pots must be
+  kept rather dry to prevent damping off. Heaths and Australian plants
+  must be very sparingly watered, and kept with only fire heat enough to
+  repel frost. Cut down plants of chrysanthemums, which should be placed
+  in a cool pit, near the glass, in order to afford hard sturdy cuttings
+  in February. Shy plants should be given gentle bottom heat to induce
+  growth, which should be gently hardened by exposure under cooler
+  conditions.
+
+  _Flower Garden, &c._--Plant shrubs in open weather. Prune shrubs.
+  Sweep and roll the lawns, and put in repair the gravel-walks, keeping
+  the surface frequently rolled.     (J. Ws.; W. R. W.)
+
+  (B) _For the United States (chiefly for the latitude of New York)._
+
+  JANUARY
+
+  _Flower Garden and Greenhouse._--Little is to be done in either. In
+  the greenhouse care must be used to protect against frost. Ventilate
+  but little, and with care; raise the ventilating sash only high enough
+  to let the heated air from the greenhouse drive back the outer air so
+  as not to chill the plants. To destroy the red spider, syringe the
+  plants copiously at night, and splash the paths with water. The aphis,
+  or "green fly," must also be destroyed; tobacco may be used. Various
+  new preparations are coming on the market for the destruction of
+  greenhouse pests. Several new effective preparations of tobacco have
+  been brought into use. The white-fly is now a common pest in
+  greenhouses, the nymphs being greenish scale-like objects on the under
+  sides of the leaves, and adults very small white flies. The remedy is
+  to spray with kerosene emulsion or whale-oil soap; or if on cucumbers
+  or tomatoes, it is best to fumigate with hydrocyanic acid gas, using
+  one ounce of potassium cyanide to each 1000 cubic ft. of space. (This
+  material is very poisonous.) Many greenhouse insects can be kept more
+  or less in check by careful and effective hosing of the plants at
+  proper times. At this season roses, grape vines and other plants are
+  often affected by mildew; an effectual remedy is to paint the
+  hot-water pipes with a mixture of sulphur and lime, put on as thick as
+  ordinary whitewash, once each week until it is checked; but care must
+  be taken not to apply it on any surface at a higher temperature than
+  212°. Hyacinths and other bulbs that have been kept in a cellar or
+  other dark cool place may now be brought into the light of the
+  greenhouse or sitting-room, provided they have filled the pots with
+  roots. If they are not well rooted, leave them until they are, or
+  select such of them as are best, leaving the others. In the outside
+  flower garden little can be done except that shrubs may be pruned, or
+  new work, such as making walks or grading, performed, if weather
+  permits. See that the ornamental plants and trees are not injured by
+  heavy weights of ice or snow.
+
+  _Fruit Garden._--Pruning, staking up or mulching can be done if the
+  weather is such that the workmen can stand out. In all warm or
+  comfortable days the fruit trees may be pruned.
+
+  _Grapery._--Graperies used for the forcing of foreign grapes may be
+  started, beginning at a temperature of 50° at night, with 10° or 15°
+  higher during the day. The borders must be covered sufficiently deep
+  with leaves or manure to prevent the soil from freezing, as it would
+  be destruction to the vines to start the shoots if the roots were
+  frozen; hence, when forcing is begun in January, the covering should
+  be put on in November, before severe frosts begin.
+
+  _Vegetable Garden._--But little can be done in the northern states
+  except to prepare manure, and get sashes, tools, &c., in working
+  order; but in sections of the country where there is little or no
+  frost the hardier kinds of seeds and plants may be sown and planted,
+  such as asparagus, cabbage, cauliflower, carrot, leek, lettuce, onion,
+  parsnip, peas, spinach, turnip, &c. In any section where these seeds
+  can be sown in open ground, it is an indication that hotbeds may be
+  started for the sowing of such tender vegetables as tomatoes, egg and
+  pepper plants, &c.; though, unless in the extreme southern states,
+  hotbeds should not be started before the beginning or middle of
+  February. Make orders for the spring seeds.
+
+  FEBRUARY
+
+  _Flower Garden and Greenhouse._--The directions for January will in
+  the main apply to this month, except that now some of the hardier
+  annuals may be sown in hotbed or greenhouse, and also the propagation
+  of plants by cuttings may be done rather better now than in January,
+  as the greater amount of light gives more vitality to the cutting.
+
+  _Fruit Garden._--But little can be done in most of the northern states
+  as yet, and in sections where there is no frost in the ground it is
+  likely to be too wet to work; but in many southern states this will be
+  the best month for planting fruit trees and plants of all kinds,
+  particularly strawberries, raspberries, blackberries, pear and apple
+  trees, while grape vines will do, though they will also do well quite
+  a month later. Continue the pruning. Fruit trees for spring planting
+  should be ordered, if not already done.
+
+  _Grapery._--The graperies started last month at 50° at night may now
+  be increased to 60°, with a correspondingly higher day temperature.
+  Great care must be taken to syringe the leaves thoroughly at least
+  once a day, and to deluge the paths with water, so as to produce a
+  moist atmosphere. Paint the hot-water pipes with sulphur mixture, as
+  recommended in January.
+
+  _Vegetable Garden._--Leaves from the woods, house manure or refuse
+  hops from breweries may be got together towards the latter part of
+  this month, and mixed and turned to get "sweetened" preparatory to
+  forming hotbeds. Cabbage, lettuce and cauliflower seeds, if sown early
+  this month in hotbed or greenhouse, will make fine plants if
+  transplanted into hotbed in March. This is preferable to the use of
+  fall-sown plants. Manure that is to be used for the crop should be
+  broken up as fine as possible, for the more completely manure of any
+  kind can be mixed with the soil the better the crop will be, and, of
+  course, if it is dug or ploughed in in large unbroken lumps it cannot
+  be properly commingled.
+
+  MARCH
+
+  _Flower Garden and Greenhouse._--The long days and bright sunshine
+  will now begin to tell on the plants under glass. Examine all plants
+  that are vigorous and healthy; if the roots have matted the "ball" of
+  earth they must be shifted into a larger-sized pot. Plants from
+  cuttings struck last month may now be shifted, and the propagation of
+  all plants that are likely to be wanted should be continued. Hardier
+  kinds of annuals may be sown; it is best done in shallow boxes, say 2
+  in. deep.
+
+  _Lawns_ can be raked off and mulched with short manure, or rich garden
+  earth where manure cannot be obtained. Flower-beds on light soils may
+  be dug up so as to forward the work of the coming busy spring season.
+  Lawns may be benefited by a good dressing, in addition to the manure,
+  of some reliable commercial fertilizer. If the lawn is thin in spots,
+  these places may be raked over heavily and new grass seed sown.
+
+  _Fruit Garden._--In many sections, planting may now be done with
+  safety, provided the soil is light and dry, but not otherwise.
+  Although a tree or plant will receive no injury when its roots are
+  undisturbed in the soil should a frost come after planting, the same
+  amount of freezing will, and very often does, greatly injure the plant
+  if the roots are exposed.
+
+  _Grapery._--The grapery started in January will have set its fruit,
+  which should be thinned by one-third. The temperature may now be
+  further advanced to 70° at night, with 15° higher in the daytime. The
+  same precautions must be used against mildew and insects as given in
+  January. Graperies wanted for succession may be started in February or
+  this month.
+
+  _Vegetable Garden._--This is a busy month. In localities where the
+  frost is out of the ground, if it is not wet, seeds of the hardier
+  vegetables can be sown. The list of seeds given for the southern
+  states in January may now be used at the north, while for most of the
+  southern states tender vegetables, such as egg plant, okra, sweet
+  potatoes, melon, squash, potatoes, tomatoes, &c., may be sown and
+  planted. Hotbeds must now be all started. In March flower seeds and
+  vegetable seeds may be sown in boxes or flats in the greenhouse, or in
+  residence windows, or near the kitchen stove. Unless one has space
+  under glass, or in hotbeds, in which the plants may be transplanted
+  before they are set in the open ground, it is well not to start the
+  seeds too early, inasmuch as the plants are likely to become too large
+  or to be pot-bound, or to become drawn.
+
+  APRIL
+
+  _Flower Garden and Greenhouse._--Window and greenhouse plants require
+  more water and ventilation. Due attention must be paid to shifting
+  well-rooted plants into larger pots; and, if space is desired, many
+  kinds of hardier plants can be safely put out in cold frames. Towards
+  the end of the month it may be necessary slightly to shade the glass
+  of the greenhouse. All herbaceous plants and hardy shrubs may be
+  planted in the garden. The covering of leaves or litter should be
+  taken off bulbs and tender plants that were covered up for winter, so
+  that the beds can be lightly forked and raked. Sow tender annual
+  flower seeds in boxes inside.
+
+  _Fruit Garden._--Strawberries that have been covered up with straw or
+  leaves should be relieved around the plants, leaving the covering
+  between them. Special care must be exercised that the mulch be not
+  left on too long; the plants should not become whitened or "drawn."
+  Raspberries, grape vines, &c., that have been laid down may now be
+  uncovered and tied up to stakes or trellises, and all new plantations
+  of these and other fruits may now be made. Fruit trees may be grafted.
+
+  _Vegetable Garden._--Asparagus, rhubarb, spinach, &c., should be
+  uncovered., and the beds hoed or dug lightly. Hardier sorts of
+  vegetable seeds and plants, such as beets, cabbage, cauliflower,
+  celery, lettuce, onions, parsley, parsnips, peas, potatoes, radishes,
+  spinach, turnip, &c., should all be sown or planted by the middle of
+  the month if the soil is dry and warm, and in all cases, where
+  practicable, before the end of the month. It is essential, in sowing
+  seeds now, that they be well firmed in the soil. Any who expect to get
+  early cabbage, cauliflower, lettuce or radishes, while planting or
+  sowing is delayed until the time of sowing tomato and egg plant in
+  May, are sure to be disappointed of a full crop. Frequent rotation of
+  crops should be practised in the vegetable garden, in order to head
+  off insects and diseases; and also to make the best use of the land.
+  Every three or four years the vegetable garden should be laid out in
+  some new place; but if this cannot be done, the crops should be
+  rotated on different parts of the old garden.
+
+  MAY
+
+  _Flower Garden and Greenhouse._--Window and greenhouse plants should
+  be in their finest bloom. Firing may be entirely dispensed with,
+  though care must still be exercised in ventilating. If weather is cold
+  and backward, however, and in very northern regions, care must be
+  taken not to stop firing too soon, or the plants will mildew and
+  become stunted. Every precaution must be used to keep the air moist.
+  "Moss culture" may be tried, the common sphagnum or moss of the
+  swamps, mixed with one-twentieth of its bulk of bone-dust, being laid
+  as a mulch on the top of the earth of the flower-pots; its effect is
+  to shield the pots from the sun, and at the same time stimulate the
+  roots to come to the surface. By the end of the month all of the
+  plants that are wanted for the summer decoration of the flower border
+  may be planted out, first loosening a little the ball of earth at the
+  roots. If the weather is dry, water freely after planting. When the
+  greenhouse is not to be used during the summer months, camellias,
+  azaleas and plants of that character should be set out of doors under
+  partial shade; but most of the other plants usually grown in the
+  conservatory or window garden in winter may be set in the open border.
+  Flower-beds should be kept well hoed, and raked, to prevent the growth
+  of weeds next month.
+
+  Pelargoniums, pinks, monthly roses and all the half-hardy kinds of
+  flowering plants should be planted early, but coleus, heliotrope and
+  the more tender plants should be delayed until the end of the month.
+  Annuals that have been sown in the greenhouse or hotbed may be planted
+  out, and seeds of such sorts as mignonette, sweet alyssum, Phlox
+  Drummondii, portulaca, &c., may be sown in the beds or borders. The
+  china aster is now one of the most popular of summer and fall plants.
+  The seed may be sown in the north as late as the middle of May, or
+  even the first of June, with good results for fall blooming. If the
+  plants are started early in the greenhouse, they are likely to spend
+  themselves before fall, and therefore a later sowing should be
+  provided.
+
+  _Lawns_ should be mown, and the edgings trimmed.
+
+  _Fruit Garden._--The hay or leaf mulching on the strawberry beds
+  should be removed and the ground deeply hoed (if not removed in April
+  in the more forward places), after which it may be placed on again to
+  keep the fruit clean and the ground from drying. Where it has not been
+  convenient before, most of the smaller fruits may yet be planted
+  during the first part of the month. Tobacco dust will dislodge most of
+  the numerous kinds of slugs, caterpillars or worms that make their
+  appearance on the young shoots of vines or trees. Fruit trees may be
+  planted this month, if they were not planted in March or April. If
+  they have been kept fresh and dormant, they should still be in good
+  condition. The broken roots should be cut back to fresh wood, and the
+  tops should be headed back in proportion.
+
+  _Vegetable Garden._--Attention should be given to new sowings and
+  plantings for succession. Crops sown last month will have to be
+  thinned out if large enough. Hoe deeply all transplanted crops, such
+  as cabbage, cauliflower, lettuce, &c. Tender vegetables, such as
+  tomatoes, egg and pepper plants, sweet potatoes, &c., can be planted
+  out. Seeds of Lima beans, sweet corn, melon, okra, cucumbers, &c.,
+  should be sown; and sow for succession peas, spinach, lettuce, beans,
+  radishes, &c., every ten days.
+
+  JUNE
+
+  _Flower Garden and Greenhouse._--Tropical plants can now be used to
+  fill up the greenhouse during the summer months. It should be well
+  shaded, and fine specimens of fancy caladiums, dracaenas, coleus,
+  crotons, palms, ferns and such plants as are grown for the beauty of
+  their foliage, will make a very attractive show. If these cannot be
+  had, common geraniums may be used. The "moss culture" will be found
+  particularly valuable for these plants. Hyacinths, tulips and other
+  spring bulbs may be dug up, dried and placed away for next fall's
+  planting, and their places filled with bedding plants, such as coleus,
+  achyranthes, pelargoniums, and the various white and coloured leaf
+  plants. It will be necessary to mow the lawn once a week, and
+  sometimes oftener.
+
+  _Fruit Garden._--The small fruits should be mulched about the roots,
+  if this has not yet been done. If the fruit garden is large enough to
+  admit of horse culture, it is best to keep the bush-fruits well
+  cultivated during the season; this tillage conserves the moisture and
+  helps to make a full and plump crop of berries. In small areas the
+  mulching system is sometimes preferable.
+
+  _Vegetable Garden._--Beets, beans, carrots, corn, cucumbers, lettuce,
+  peas and radishes may be sown for succession. This is usually a busy
+  month, as many crops have to be gathered, and, if hoeing is not
+  promptly seen to, weeds are certain to give great trouble. Tomatoes
+  should be tied up to trellises or stakes if fine-flavoured and
+  handsome fruit is desired, for if left to ripen on the ground they are
+  apt to have a gross earthy flavour.
+
+  JULY
+
+  _Flower Garden and Greenhouse._--Watering, ventilating and fumigating
+  (or the use of tobacco in other forms for destruction of aphides) must
+  be attended to. The atmosphere of the greenhouse must be kept moist.
+  Watch the plants that have been plunged out of doors, and see if any
+  require repotting. All plants that require staking, such as dahlias,
+  roses, gladioli and many herbaceous plants, should now be looked to.
+  Carnations and other plants that are throwing up flower stems, if
+  wanted to flower in winter, should be cut back, that is, the flower
+  stems should be cut off to say 5 in. from the ground.
+
+  _Fruit Garden._--If grape vines show any signs of mildew, dust them
+  over with dry sulphur, selecting a still warm day. The fruit having
+  now been gathered from strawberry plants, if new beds are to be
+  formed, the system of layering the plants in small pots is the best.
+  In general, field strawberries are not grown from potted layers, but
+  from good strong layers that strike naturally in the field. In the
+  north, spring planting of strawberries is generally advised for market
+  conditions; although planting in early fall or late summer is
+  successful when the ground is well prepared and when it does not
+  suffer from drought. Where apples, pears, peaches, grapes, &c., have
+  set fruit thickly, thin out at least one-half to two-thirds of the
+  young fruit.
+
+  _Vegetable Garden._--The first ten days of this month will yet be time
+  enough to sow sweet corn, beets, lettuce, beans, cucumbers and
+  ruta-baga turnips. Such vegetables as cabbage, cauliflower, celery,
+  &c., wanted for fall or winter use, are best planted this month,
+  though in some sections they will do later. Keep sweet potatoes hoed
+  to prevent the vines rooting at the joints.
+
+  AUGUST
+
+  _Flower Garden and Greenhouse._--But little deviation is required in
+  these departments from the instructions for July. See that sufficient
+  water is applied; the walks may be wet in the houses.
+
+  _Fruit Garden._--Strawberries that have fruited will now be making
+  "runners," or young plants. These should be kept cut off close to the
+  old plant, so that the full force of the root is expended in making
+  the "crowns" or fruit buds for next season's crop. If plants are
+  required for new beds, only the required number should be allowed to
+  grow, and these may be layered in pots as recommended in July. The old
+  stems of raspberries and blackberries that have borne fruit should be
+  cut away, and the young shoots thinned to three or four canes to each
+  hill or plant. If tied to stakes and topped when 4 or 5 ft. high, they
+  will form three or four branches on a cane, and will make stronger
+  fruiting plants for next year.
+
+  _Vegetable Garden._--Hoe deeply such crops as cabbage, cauliflower and
+  celery. The earthing up of celery this month is not to be recommended,
+  unless a little very early supply is wanted. Onions in many sections
+  can be harvested. The proper condition is when the tops are turning
+  yellow and falling down. They are dried best by placing them in a dry
+  shed in thin layers. Sow spinach for fall use, but not yet for the
+  winter crop. Red top, white globe, and yellow Aberdeen turnips should
+  now be sown; ruta-baga turnips sown last month will need thinning, and
+  in extreme southern states they may yet be sown.
+
+  SEPTEMBER
+
+  _Flower Garden and Greenhouse._--The flower-beds in the lawn should be
+  at their best. If planted in "ribbon lines" or "massing," strict
+  attention must be given to pinching off the tops, so that the lines or
+  masses will present an even surface. Tender plants will require to be
+  put in the greenhouse or housed in some way towards the end of this
+  month; but be careful to keep them as cool as possible during the day.
+  Cuttings of bedding plants may now be made freely if wanted for next
+  season, as young cuttings rooted in the fall make better plants for
+  next spring's use than old plants, in the case of such soft-wooded
+  plants as pelargoniums, fuchsias, verbenas, heliotropes, &c.; with
+  roses and plants of a woody nature, however, the old plants usually do
+  best. Dutch bulbs, such as hyacinths, tulips, crocus, &c., and most of
+  the varieties of lilies, may be planted. Violets that are wanted for
+  winter flowering will now be growing freely, and the runners should be
+  trimmed off. Sow seeds of sweet alyssum, candytuft, daisies,
+  mignonette, pansies, &c. Visit the roadsides and woods for interesting
+  plants to put in the hardy borders.
+
+  _Fruit Garden._--Strawberry plants that have been layered in pots may
+  yet be planted, or in southern districts the ordinary ground layers
+  may be planted. The sooner in the month both are planted the better
+  crop they will give next season; and, as these plants soon make
+  runners, it will be necessary to trim them off. Attend to raspberries
+  and blackberries as advised for last month, if they have not already
+  been attended to. All fruit trees should be gone over for borers
+  before cold weather sets in; they also should have been gone over for
+  the same purpose in May and June.
+
+  _Vegetable Garden._--If cabbage, cauliflower and lettuce are wanted to
+  plant in cold frames, the seed should be sown from about the 10th to
+  the 20th of this month; but judgment should be exercised, for, if sown
+  too early, cabbage and cauliflower are apt to run to seed. The best
+  date for latitude of New York is September 15th. The main crop of
+  spinach or sprouts that is wanted for winter or spring use should be
+  sown about the same date. The earth should be drawn up to celery with
+  a hoe preparatory to earthing up with a spade. Onions that were not
+  harvested and dried last month must now be attended to. Turnips of the
+  early or flat sorts may yet be sown the first week of this month in
+  the northern states, and in the south from two to four weeks later.
+
+  OCTOBER
+
+  _Flower Garden and Greenhouse._--In northern sections of the United
+  States, tender plants that are still outside should be got under cover
+  as early as possible. Delay using fire heat as long as possible,
+  unless the nights become so cold as to chill the plants inside the
+  house. Roses, carnations, camellias, azaleas, pelargoniums and the
+  hardier sorts of plants will do better if placed in a cold frame or
+  pit until the middle of November than they would in an ordinary
+  greenhouse. Look out for insects. Fall bulbs of all kinds may be
+  planted. Take up summer-flowering bulbs and tubers, such as dahlias,
+  tuberoses, gladioli, cannas, caladiums, tigridias, and dry them off
+  thoroughly, stowing them away afterwards in some place free from frost
+  and moisture during the winter. Before winter sets in see that the
+  lawn is freely top-dressed. Be careful not to mow the grass too short
+  in fall.
+
+  _Fruit Garden._--Strawberries that have been grown from pot-grown
+  layers may yet be planted in southern states; keep the runners trimmed
+  off. Fruit trees and shrubs may be set out; but, if planting is
+  deferred to the last of the month, the ground around the roots should
+  be mulched to the thickness of 3 or 4 in. with straw, leaves or rough
+  manure, as a protection against frost. The fruit garden must be
+  protected from the ravages of mice in winter. Mice will nest about the
+  plants if there is straw or other litter around them. Before winter,
+  all tall grass and loose litter should be taken away; if this is not
+  done, then the first snow should be tramped heavily around the plants,
+  in order to destroy any nesting-places.
+
+  _Vegetable Garden._--Celery will now be in full growth, and will
+  require close attention to earthing up, and during the last part of
+  the month the first lot may be stored away in trenches for winter. All
+  vegetable roots not designed to be left in the ground during the
+  winter should be dug up, such as beets, carrots, parsnips, sweet
+  potatoes, &c. The cabbage, cauliflower and lettuce plants grown from
+  seed sown last month should be pricked out in cold frames. If lettuce
+  is wanted for winter use, it may now be planted in the greenhouse or
+  cold frame, and will be ready for use about Christmas. If asparagus or
+  rhubarb is wanted for winter use, it should be taken up and stowed
+  away in pit, frame, shed or cellar for a month or two. It may then be
+  taken into the greenhouse and packed closely together under the stage,
+  and will be fit for use from January to March, according to the
+  temperature of the house. Vegetable gardens often become infested with
+  diseases that are carried over from year to year in the old plants and
+  litter; this is specially true of water-melons and of some diseases of
+  tomatoes. It is well, therefore, to burn the tops of the plants in the
+  fall, rather than to plough them under or to throw them on the compost
+  heap.
+
+  NOVEMBER
+
+  _Flower Garden and Greenhouse._--Plants intended to be grown inside
+  should now all be indoors. Keep a sharp look-out for cold snaps, as
+  they come very unexpectedly in November, and many plants are lost
+  thereby. In cases where it is not convenient to use fire heat, 5° to
+  10° of cold can be resisted by covering the plants over with paper,
+  and by using this before frost has struck the plants valuable
+  collections may be saved. When fire heat is freely used, be careful to
+  keep up the proper amount of moisture by sprinkling the paths with
+  water. Little can be done in the flower garden, except to clean off
+  all dead stalks, and straw up tender roses, vines, &c., and, wherever
+  there is time, to dig up and rake the borders, as it will greatly
+  facilitate spring work. Cover up all beds in which there are
+  hyacinths, tulips and other bulbs with a litter of leaves or straw to
+  the depth of 2 or 3 in. If short, thoroughly-decayed manure can be
+  spared, a good sprinkling spread over the lawn will help it to a finer
+  growth next spring.
+
+  _Fruit Garden._--Strawberry beds should be covered (in cold sections)
+  with hay, straw or leaf mulching, to a depth not exceeding 2 in. Fruit
+  trees and grape vines generally should be pruned; and, if the wood of
+  the vine is wanted for cuttings, or scions of fruit trees for grafts,
+  they should be tied in small bundles and buried in the ground until
+  spring. They may be taken in December or January if preferred.
+
+  _Vegetable Garden._--Celery that is to be stored for winter use should
+  be put away before the end of the month in all sections north of
+  Virginia; south of that it may be left in most places where grown
+  throughout the winter if well covered up. The stalks of the asparagus
+  bed should be cut off, and burned if there are berries on them, as the
+  seeds scattered in the soil sometimes produce troublesome weeds. Mulch
+  the beds with 2 or 3 in. of rough manure. All vegetable roots that are
+  yet in the ground, and not designed to be left there over winter, must
+  be dug up in this latitude before the middle of the month or they may
+  be frozen in. Cover up onions, spinach, sprouts, cabbage or lettuce
+  plants with a covering of 2 or 3 in. of leaves, hay, or straw, to
+  protect them during the winter. Cabbages that have headed may usually
+  be preserved against injury by frost until the middle of next month,
+  by simply pulling them up and packing them closely in a dry spot in
+  the open field with the heads down and roots up. On approach of cold
+  weather in December they should be covered up with leaves as high as
+  the tops of the roots, or, if the soil is light, it may be thrown over
+  them, if leaves are not convenient. Cabbages will keep this way until
+  March if the covering has not been put on too early. Plough all empty
+  ground if practicable, and, whenever time will permit, do trenching
+  and subsoiling. Cabbage, cauliflower and lettuce plants that are in
+  frames should be regularly ventilated by lifting the sash on warm
+  days, and on the approach of very cold weather they should be covered
+  with straw mats or shutters. In the colder latitudes, and even in the
+  middle states, it is absolutely necessary to protect cauliflower in
+  this way, as it is much more tender than cabbage and lettuce plants.
+
+  DECEMBER
+
+  _Flower Garden and Greenhouse._--Close attention must be paid to
+  protecting all tender plants, for it is not uncommon to have the care
+  of a whole year spoiled by one night's neglect. Vigilance and extra
+  hot fires will have to be kept up when the thermometer falls to 34° or
+  35° in the parlour or conservatory. It is well to set the plants under
+  the benches or on the walks of the greenhouses; if they are in the
+  parlour move them away from the cold point and protect them with
+  paper; this will usually save them even if the thermometer falls to
+  24° or 26°. Another plan in the greenhouse is to dash water on the
+  pipes or flues, which causes steam to rise to the glass and freeze
+  there, stopping up all the crevices. With plants outside that require
+  strawing up or to be mulched, this will have now to be finished.
+
+  _Fruit Garden._--In sections where it is an advantage to protect grape
+  vines, raspberries, &c., from severe frost, these should be laid down
+  as close to the ground as possible, and covered with leaves, straw or
+  hay, or with a few inches of soil. Grapes may be pruned. Fruit trees
+  may be pruned from now till March in the north.
+
+  _Vegetable Garden._--Celery in trenches should receive the final
+  covering for the winter, which is best done by leaves or light stable
+  litter; in the latitude of New York it should not be less than 12 in.
+  thick. Potatoes, beets, turnips or other roots in pits, the spinach
+  crop in the ground, or any other article in need of protection, should
+  be attended to before the end of the month; manure and compost heaps
+  should be forwarded as rapidly as possible, and turned and mixed so as
+  to be in proper condition for spring. Remove the snow that accumulates
+  on cold frames or other glass structures, particularly if the soil
+  which the glass covers was not frozen before the snow fell; it may
+  remain on the sashes longer if the plants are frozen in, since they
+  are dormant, and would not be injured if deprived of light for eight
+  or ten days. If roots have been placed in cellars, attention must be
+  given to ventilation, which can be done by making a wooden box, say 6
+  by 8 in., to run from the ceiling of the cellar to the eaves of the
+  building above.     (L. H. B.; P. H.)
+
+  BIBLIOGRAPHY OF MODERN WORKS ON HORTICULTURE.--W. Robinson, _Alpine
+  Flowers_; Lord Redesdale (A. B. Freeman Mitford), _The Bamboo Garden_;
+  J. Weathers, _Bulbous Plants_ (33 col. plates); H. H. Cousins,
+  _Chemistry of the Garden_; W. Watson, _Cactus Culture for Amateurs_;
+  R. P. Brotherston and M. R. Smith, _Book of the Carnation_; J.
+  Weathers, _Cottage and Allotment Gardening_; J. Veitch and Sons,
+  _Manual of Coniferae_; W. Wells, _Culture of the Chrysanthemum_; Rev.
+  S. E. Bourne, _Book of the Daffodil_; Geo. Nicholson, _Dictionary of
+  Gardening_ (5 vols.); W. Robinson, _The English Flower Garden_; Geo.
+  Schneider, _Book of Choice Ferns_ (3 vols.); W. Robinson, _Flora and
+  Sylva_ (3 vols.; col. plates by the late H. G. Moon); J. Weathers,
+  _Flowering Trees and Shrubs_ (33 col. plates); J. Weathers, _French
+  Market-Gardening and Intensive Cultivation_; T. Smith, _French
+  Gardening_; Geo. Bunyard and O. Thomas, _The Fruit Garden_; Josh.
+  Brace, Fruit Trees in Pots; Dr R. Hogg, The Fruit Manual; M. C. Cooke,
+  _Fungoid Pests of Cultivated Plants_; Thos. H. Mawson, _The Art and
+  Craft of Garden-Making_; J. Weathers, _A Practical Guide to Garden
+  Plants_; W. Watson, _The Gardeners' Assistant_; C. H. Wright and D.
+  Dewar, _The Gardeners' Dictionary_; J. Weathers, _Garden Flowers for
+  Town and Country_ (33 col. plates); Chas. Baltet, _The Art of Grafting
+  and Budding_; W. Thomson, _The Grape Vine_; Thos. Baines, _Greenhouse
+  and Stove Plants_; R. Irwin Lynch, _The Book of the Iris_; G. Jekyll,
+  _Lilies for English Gardens_; E. A. Ormerod, _Manual of Injurious
+  Insects_; Dr A. B. Griffiths, _Manures for Fruit and other Trees_; F.
+  W. Burbridge and J. G. Baker, _The Narcissus_ (48 col. plates); H. A.
+  Burberry, _The Orchid Cultivator's Handbook_; B. S. Williams, _The
+  Orchid Grower's Manual_; J. Veitch & Sons, _Manual of Orchidaceous
+  Plants_; Dr Paul Sorauer and F. E. Weiss, _Physiology of Plants_; W.
+  Watson, _Orchids, their Culture and Management_; G. Massee, _Plant
+  Diseases_; Rev. A. Foster-Melliar, _Book of the Rose_; Wm. Paul, _The
+  Rose Garden_ (20 col. plates); G. Jekyll and E. Mawley, _Roses for
+  English Gardens_; J. Weathers, _Roses for Garden and Greenhouse_ (33
+  col. plates); _Nat. Rose Society, Handbook on Pruning Roses_; Rev. J.
+  H. Pemberton, _Roses, their History, Development and Culture_; Very
+  Rev. Dean Hole, _A Book about Roses_; J. Hoffmann, _The Amateur
+  Gardener's Rose Book_ (20 col. plates; translated from the German); A.
+  Gaut, _Seaside Planting of Trees and Shrubs_; E. Beckett, _Book of the
+  Strawberry_; W. Iggulden, _The Tomato_; J. Weathers, _Trees and Shrubs
+  for English and Irish Gardens_ (33 col. plates); Vilmorin et Cie.,
+  _The Vegetable Garden_ (Eng. ed. by W. Robinson); A. F. Barron, _Vines
+  and Vine Culture_; G. Jekyll, _Wall and Water Gardens_; W. Robinson,
+  _The Wild Garden_; L. H. Bailey, _Practical Garden Book_ (New York,
+  1908).     (J. Ws.; W. R. W.)
+
+
+
+
+HORTON, CHRISTIANA (c. 1696-c. 1756), English actress, first appeared in
+London as Melinda in _The Recruiting Officer_ in 1714 at Drury Lane.
+Here she remained twenty years, followed by fifteen at Covent Garden. At
+both houses during this long career she played all the leading tragedy
+and comedy parts, and Barton Booth (who "discovered" her) said she was
+the best successor of Mrs. Oldfield. She was the original Mariana in
+Fielding's _Miser_ (1733).
+
+
+
+
+HORTON, ROBERT FORMAN (1855-   ), British Nonconformist divine, was born
+in London on the 18th of September 1855. He was educated at Shrewsbury
+school and New College, Oxford, where he took first classes in classics.
+He was president of the Oxford Union in 1877. He became a fellow of his
+college in 1879, and lectured on history for four years. In 1880 he
+accepted an influential invitation to become pastor of the Lyndhurst
+Road Congregational church, Hampstead, and subsequently took a very
+prominent part in church and denominational work generally. He delivered
+the Lyman Beecher lectures at Yale in 1893; in 1898 he was chairman of
+the London Congregational Union; and in 1903 of the Congregational Union
+of England and Wales. In 1909 he took a prominent part in the 75th
+anniversary celebration of Hartford Theological Seminary. His numerous
+publications include books on theological, critical, historical,
+biographical and devotional subjects.
+
+
+
+
+HORTON, SAMUEL DANA (1844-1895), American writer on bimetallism, was
+born in Pomeroy, Ohio, on the 16th of January 1844. He graduated at
+Harvard in 1864, and at the Harvard Law School in 1868, studied Roman
+law in Berlin in 1869, and in 1871 was admitted to the Ohio bar. He
+practised law in Cincinnati, and then in Pomeroy until 1885, when he
+gave up law for the advancement of bimetallism. His attention had been
+turned to monetary questions by the "greenback campaign" of 1875 in
+Ohio, in which, as in former campaigns, he had spoken, particularly
+effectively in German, for the Republican party. He was secretary of the
+American delegation to the Monetary Conference which met in Paris in
+1878, and edited the report of the delegation. To the conference of 1881
+he was a delegate, and thereafter he spent much of his time in Europe,
+whither he was sent by President Harrison in 1889 as special
+commissioner to promote the international restoration of silver. He died
+in Washington, D.C., on the 23rd of February 1895. Horton's principal
+works were _The Silver Pound_ (1887) and _Silver in Europe_ (1890), a
+volume of essays.
+
+
+
+
+HORUS (Egyptian _Hor_), the name of an Egyptian god, if not of several
+distinct gods. To all forms of Horus the falcon was sacred; the name
+Hor, written with a standing figure of that bird, [Hieroglyph] is
+connected with a root signifying "upper," and probably means "the
+high-flyer." The tame sacred falcon on its perch [Hieroglyph] is the
+commonest symbol of divinity in early hieroglyphic writing; the
+commonest title of the king in the earliest dynasties, and his first
+title later, was that which named him Horus. Hawk gods were the
+presiding deities of Poi (Pe) and Nekhen, which had been the royal
+quarters in the capitals of the two primeval kingdoms of Upper and Lower
+Egypt, at Buto and opposite El Kab. A principal festival in very early
+times was the "worship of Horus," and the kings of the prehistoric
+dynasties were afterwards called "the worshippers of Horus." The
+Northern Kingdom in particular was under the patronage of Horus. He was
+a solar divinity, but appears very early in the Osiris cycle of deities,
+a son of Isis and probably of Osiris, and opponent of Seth. On monuments
+of the Middle Kingdom or somewhat later we find besides Hor the
+following special forms: Har-behtet, i.e. Hor of Beht, the winged solar
+disk, god of Edfu (_Apollinopolis Magna_); Har-khentekthai, god of
+Athribis; Har-mesen (whose principal sacred animal was a lion), god of
+the Sethroite (?) nome; Har-khentemna, i.e. the blind (?) Horus (with a
+shrew-mouse) at Letopolis; Har-mert ("of two eyes") at Pharbaethus;
+Har-akht, Ra-har-akht, or Har-m-akhi (Harikakhis, "Hor of the horizon"),
+the sun-god of Heliopolis.
+
+As a sun-god Horus not only worsted the hostile darkness and avenged his
+father, but also daily renewed himself. He was thus identical with his
+own father from one point of view. In the mythology, especially that of
+the New Kingdom, or of quite late times, we find the following standing
+epithets applied to more or less distinct forms or phases: Harendotes
+(Har-ent-yotf), i.e. "Hor, avenger of his father (Osiris)"; Harpokhrates
+(Har-p-khrat), i.e. "Hor the child," with finger in mouth, sometimes
+seated on a lotus-flower; Harsiesis (Har-si-Esi), i.e. "Hor, son of
+Isis," as a child; Har-en-khebi, "Hor in Chemmis," a child nursed by
+Isis in the papyrus marshes; Haroeris (Har-uer), i.e. "the elder Hor,"
+at Ombos, &c., human-headed or falcon-headed; Harsemteus (Har-sem-teu),
+i.e. "Hor, uniter of the two lands," and others.
+
+In the judgment scene Horus introduces the deceased to Osiris. To the
+Greeks Horus was equivalent to Apollo, but in the name of Hermopolis
+Parva (see DAMANHUR), which must have been among the first of the
+Egyptian cities to be known to them, he was apparently identified with
+Hermes. Although the falcon was the bird most properly sacred to Horus,
+not only its varieties, but also the sparrow-hawk, kestrel and other
+small hawks were mummified in his honour in late times.
+
+  See EGYPT: section _Religion_; Meyer, art. "Horos" in Röscher,
+  _Lexicon der Griech. und Rom. Mythologie_.     (F. Ll. G.)
+
+
+
+
+HORWICH, an urban district in the Westhoughton parliamentary division of
+Lancashire, England, 4 m. W.N.W. of Bolton, on the Lancashire and
+Yorkshire railway. Pop. (1901) 15,084. It lies beneath the considerable
+elevation of Rivington Pike, where formerly was a great forest. It has
+extensive locomotive works, and there are large stone quarries in the
+district. Bleaching and cotton-spinning and the manufacture of
+fire-bricks and tiles are carried on.
+
+
+
+
+HOSANNA, the cry of praise or adoration shouted in recognition of the
+Messiahship of Jesus on his entry into Jerusalem (Matt. xxi. 9, 15; Mark
+xi. 9 sq.; John xii. 13), and since used in the Christian Church. It is
+also a Jewish liturgical term, and was applied specifically to the
+"hosanna" branches carried in procession in the Feast of Booths or
+Tabernacles, the seventh day of which was called the Hosanna-day (so
+also in Syrian usage; cf. "Palm" Sunday). This festival (for which see
+Lev. xxiii. 39 sqq.; 2 Macc. x. 7; Jos. _Ant._ xii. 10. 4, xiii. 13. 15;
+and the Talmudic tractate _Sukkah_) already suggested a Dionysiac
+celebration to Plutarch (_Symp._ iv. 6), and was associated with a
+ceremonial drawing of water which, it was believed, secured fertilizing
+rains in the following year; the penalty for abstinence was drought (cf.
+Zech. xiv. 16 seq.). The evidence (see further _Ency. Bib._ cols. 3354,
+4880 seq.; I. Levy, _Rev. des Ét. juives_, 1901, pp. 192 sqq.) points to
+rites of nature-worship, and it is possible that in these the term
+Hosanna had some other application.
+
+  The old interpretation "save, now!" which may be a popular etymology,
+  is based on Ps. cxviii. 25 (Heb. _hoshi'ah-nna_), but this does not
+  explain the occurrence of the word in the Gospels, a complicated
+  problem, on which see the articles of J. H. Thayer in Hastings's
+  _Dict. Bib._, and more especially T. K. Cheyne, _Ency. Bib._ s.v.
+
+
+
+
+HOSE (a word common to many Teutonic languages; cf. Dutch, _hoos_,
+stocking, Ger. _Hose_, breeches, tights; the ultimate origin is
+unknown), the name of an article of dress, used as a covering for the
+leg and foot. The word has been used for various forms of a long
+stocking covering both the foot and leg (see HOSIERY), and this is the
+usual modern sense. But it also formerly meant a kind of gaiter covering
+the leg from the knee to the ankle only, of the long tight covering for
+the whole of the lower limbs, and later of the short puffed or slashed
+breeches worn with the doublet--at this period, from the early part of
+the 16th century onwards, comes the distinction between the "hose" or
+"trunk hose" and the stocking (see COSTUME). The term is applied to
+certain objects resembling such a covering, as in its application to
+flexible rubber or canvas piping used for conveying water (see
+HOSEPIPE), and in botany, to the "sheath" covering, e.g. the ear of
+corn. The term "hose-in-hose" is thus used in botany for a flower in
+which the corolla has become doubled, as though a second were inserted
+in the throat of the first; it occurs sometimes in the primrose.
+
+
+
+
+HOSEA, the son of Beeri, the first in order of the minor prophets of the
+Old Testament. The name Hosea ([Hebrew: Hoshea], LXX. [Greek:, Ôsêe],
+Vulg. _Osee_, and so the English version in Rom. ix. 25) ought rather to
+be written Hoshea, and is identical with that borne by the last king of
+Ephraim, and by Joshua in Num. xiii. 16, Deut. xxxii. 44. Of the life of
+Hosea[1] we know nothing beyond what can be gathered from his
+prophecies. That he was a citizen of the northern kingdom appears from
+the whole tenor of the book, but most expressly from i. 2, where "the
+land," the prophet's land, is the realm of Israel, and vii. 5, where
+"our king" is the king of Samaria. The date at which Hosea flourished is
+given in the title, i. 1, by the reigning kings of Judah and Israel. He
+prophesied (i) in the days of Uzziah, Jotham, Ahaz and Hezekiah, kings
+of Judah; (2) in the days of Jeroboam the son of Joash, king of Israel.
+The dates indicated by the title, which may be regarded as editorial,
+are, for the four kings of the southern kingdom, 789-740, 739-734,
+733-721 and 720-693 B.C. respectively; and, for Jeroboam II., 782-743
+(cf. _Ency. Bib._ col. 797-798). The book itself, however, plainly
+belongs to the period prior to 734 B.C. since, in that year, (a) the
+Syro-Ephraimitic war began, to which there is here no reference, nor is
+Assyria yet the open foe it then became; (b) Gilead became
+Tiglath-Pileser's (2 Kings xv. 29), whereas it is here described as
+still part of the territory of Israel (vi. 8; xii. 11; cf. the included
+place-names of v. 1). On the other hand, the prophet connects with the
+birth of his eldest child the approaching fall of the house of Jehu (i.
+4), thus anticipating the death of Jeroboam II. in 743, and the period
+of anarchy which followed (2 Kings xv.). Thus the prophetic work of
+Hosea may be dated, with practical certainty, as beginning from some
+point previous to 743 and extending not later than 734.[2] This is
+corroborated by the general character of the book. Of its two parts,
+i.-iii. reflects the wealth and prosperity of the reign of Jeroboam II.,
+whilst iv.-xiv. contains frequent references to the social disorder and
+anarchy of the subsequent years.
+
+The first part of Hosea's prophetic work, corresponding to chs. i.-iii.,
+lay in the years of external prosperity immediately preceding the
+catastrophe of the house of Jehu in or near the year 743. The second
+part of the book is a summary of prophetic teaching during the
+subsequent troublous reign of Menahem, and, perhaps, that of his
+successor, Pekahiah, and must have been completed before 734 B.C. Apart
+from the narrative in chs. i.-iii., to which we shall presently recur,
+the book throws little or no light on the details of Hosea's life. It
+appears from ix. 7, 8, that his prophetic work was greatly embarrassed
+by opposition: "As for the prophet, a fowler's snare is in all his ways,
+and enmity in the house of his God." The enmity which had its centre in
+the sanctuary probably proceeded from the priests (comp. Amos vii.),
+against whose profligacy and profanation of their office our prophet
+frequently declaims--perhaps also from the degenerate prophetic gilds
+which had their seats in the holy cities of the northern kingdom, and
+with whom Hosea's elder contemporary Amos so indignantly refuses to be
+identified (Amos vii. 14). In ch. iv. 5 Hosea seems to comprise priests
+and prophets in one condemnation, thus placing himself in direct
+antagonism to all the leaders of the religious life of his nation. He is
+not less antagonistic to the kings and princes of his day (vii. 3-7,
+viii. 4, viii. 10 Septuagint, x. 7-15, xiii. 11).[3] In view of the
+familiarity shown with the intrigues of rulers and the doings of
+priests, it has been conjectured that Hosea held a prominent position,
+or even (by Duhm) that he was himself a priest (Marti, p. 2).
+
+The most interesting problem of Hosea's history lies in the
+interpretation of the story of his married life (chs. i.-iii.). We read
+in these chapters that God's revelation to Hosea began when in
+accordance with a divine command he married a profligate wife, Gomer,
+the daughter of Diblaim. Three children were born in this marriage and
+received symbolical names, illustrative of the divine purpose towards
+Israel, which are expounded in ch. i. In ch. ii. the faithlessness of
+Israel to Jehovah (Yahweh), the long-suffering of God, the moral
+discipline of sorrow and tribulation by which He will yet bring back His
+erring people and betroth it to Himself for ever in righteousness, love
+and truth, are depicted under the figure of the relation of a husband to
+an erring spouse. The suggestion of this allegory lies in the prophet's
+marriage with Gomer, but the details are worked out quite independently,
+and under a rich multiplicity of figures derived from other sources. In
+the third chapter we return to the personal experience of the prophet.
+His faithless wife had at length left him and fallen, under
+circumstances which are not detailed, into a state of misery, from which
+Hosea, still following her with tender affection, and encouraged by a
+divine command, brought her back and restored her to his house, where he
+kept her in seclusion, and patiently watched over her for many days, yet
+not readmitting her to the privileges of a wife.
+
+In these experiences the prophet again recognizes a parallel to Yahweh's
+long-suffering love to Israel, and the discipline by which the people
+shall be brought back to God through a period in which all their
+political and religious institutions are overthrown. Throughout these
+chapters personal narrative and prophetic allegory are interwoven with a
+rapidity of transition very puzzling to the modern reader; but an
+unbiassed exegesis can hardly fail to acknowledge that chs. i. and iii.
+narrate an actual passage in the prophet's life. The names of the three
+children are symbolical, but Isaiah in like manner gave symbolical names
+to his sons, embodying prominent points in his prophetic teaching
+(Shear-jashub, Isa. vii. 3, comp. x. 21; Maher-shalal-hash-baz, viii.
+3). And the name of Gomer bath Diblaim is certainly that of an actual
+person, upon which all the allegorists, from the Targum, Jerome and
+Ephraem Syrus downwards, have spent their arts in vain, whereas the true
+symbolical names in the book are perfectly easy of interpretation.[4]
+That the ancient interpreters take the whole narrative as a mere parable
+is no more than an application of their standing rule that everything in
+the Biblical history is allegorical which in its literal sense appears
+offensive to propriety (comp. Jerome's proem to the book). But the
+supposed offence to propriety seems to rest on mistaken exegesis and too
+narrow a conception of the way in which the Divine word was communicated
+to the prophets.[5] There is no reason to suppose that Hosea knowingly
+married a woman of profligate character. The point of the allegory in i.
+2 is plainly infidelity after marriage as a parallel to Israel's
+departure from the covenant God, and a profligate wife ([Hebrew: eshet
+znunim]) is not the same thing with an open prostitute ([Hebrew:
+zonna]). The marriage was marred by Gomer's infidelity; and the struggle
+of Hosea's affection for his wife with this great unhappiness--a
+struggle inconceivable unless his first love had been pure and full of
+trust in the purity of its object--furnished him with a new insight into
+Yahweh's dealings with Israel. Then he recognized that the great
+calamity of his life was God's own ordinance and appointed means to
+communicate to him a deep prophetic lesson. The recognition of a divine
+command after the fact has its parallel, as Wellhausen observes, in Jer.
+xxxii. 8.
+
+It was in the experiences of his married life, and in the spiritual
+lessons opened to him through these, that Hosea first heard the
+revealing voice of Yahweh (i. 2).[6] Like Amos (Amos iii. 8), he was
+called to speak for God by an inward constraining voice, and there is
+no reason to think that he had any connexion with the recognized
+prophetic societies, or ever received such outward adoption to office as
+was given to Elisha. His position in Israel was one of tragic isolation.
+Amos, when he had discharged his mission at Bethel, could return to his
+home and to his friends; Hosea was a stranger among his own people, and
+his home was full of sorrow and shame. Isaiah in the gloomiest days of
+Judah's declensions had faithful disciples about him, and knew that
+there was a believing remnant in the land. Hosea knows no such remnant,
+and there is not a line in his prophecy from which we can conclude that
+his words ever found an obedient ear.
+
+As already stated, this prophecy falls into two clearly distinguished
+sections,[7] the former (i.-iii.), already dealt with, accounting for
+the general standpoint of the latter (iv.-xiv.). It is not possible to
+make any convincing subdivisions of this latter section (cf. G. A.
+Smith, i. p. 223) which is best regarded as a series of separate
+discourses on certain recurrent topics, viz. (a) the cultus, (b) the
+social disorder and immorality, (c) political tendencies (alliance with
+either Assyria or Egypt sought).[8] In regard to each of these topics,
+the attitude of the prophet involves the discernment of present guilt,
+and the assertion of future punishment. For him the present condition of
+the people contained no germ or pledge of future amendment, and he
+describes the impending judgment, not as a sifting process (Amos ix. 9,
+10) in which the wicked perish and the righteous remain, but as the
+total wreck of the nation which has wholly turned aside from its God. In
+truth, while the idolatrous feasts of Ephraim still ran their joyous
+round, while the careless people crowded to the high places, and there
+in unbridled and licentious mirth flattered themselves that their many
+sacrifices ensured the help of their God against all calamity, the
+nation was already in the last stage of internal dissolution. To the
+prophet's eye there was "no truth, nor mercy, nor knowledge of God in
+the land--nought but swearing, and lying, and killing, and stealing and
+adultery; they break out, and blood toucheth blood" (iv. 1, 2). The root
+of this corruption lay in total ignorance of Yahweh, whose precepts were
+no longer taught by the priests, while in the national calf-worship, and
+in the local high places, this worship was confounded with the service
+of the Canaanite Baalim. Thus the whole religious constitution of Israel
+was undermined. And the political state of the realm was in Hosea's eyes
+not more hopeful. The dynasty of Jehu, still great and powerful when the
+prophet's labours began, is itself an incorporation of national sin.
+Founded on the bloodshed of Jezreel, it must fall by God's vengeance,
+and the state shall fall with it (i. 4, iii. 4). This sentence stands at
+the head of Hosea's predictions, and throughout the book the civil
+constitution of Ephraim is represented as equally lawless and godless
+with the corrupt religious establishment. The anarchy that followed on
+the murder of Zachariah appears to the prophet as the natural decadence
+of a realm not founded on divine ordinance. The nation had rejected
+Yahweh, the only helper. And now the avenging Assyrian[9] is at hand.
+Samaria's king shall pass away as foam on the water. Fortress and city
+shall fall before the ruthless invader, who spares neither age nor sex,
+and thistles shall cover the desolate altars of Ephraim.
+
+  In our present book of Hosea, this condemnatory judgment on
+  contemporary Israel culminates in a chapter of appeal for penitence,
+  with promise of divine forgiveness. The question of the authenticity
+  of this and of other "restoration" passages[10] forms the chief
+  problem for literary criticism presented by the book.[11] Amongst the
+  more recent commentators, Davidson, G. A. Smith and Nowack regard
+  Hosea xiv. as written by the prophet, though the second admits its
+  chronological misplacement and the third its later expansion. On the
+  other hand, it is altogether rejected by Cheyne, Wellhausen, Marti and
+  Harper. These claim that the passage reflects the later standpoint of
+  completed punishment, and is therefore inconsistent in the prophet who
+  anticipates that punishment. But the case is different from that of
+  the epilogue to Amos, since Hosea's personal experience covers
+  forgiveness as well as discipline (Marti consistently, though without
+  ground, rejects this experience also). There seems, therefore, to be
+  no sufficient evidence for denying thoughts of restoration to Hosea,
+  whilst it is highly probable that such passages would be amplified in
+  a later age. Indeed, the importance of these passages for the
+  interpretation of Hosea is apt to be overrated, for, as one of those
+  rejecting them remarks, though Hosea "promised nothing," yet he
+  "contributed a conception of Yahweh which made such a future not only
+  possible but even probable" (Harper, p. cliii.). We may therefore read
+  the closing chapter as, at least, the explicit statement of a hope
+  implicit in Hosea's teaching.
+
+Hosea could discern no faithful remnant in Ephraim, yet Ephraim in all
+his corruption is the son of Yahweh, a child nurtured with tender love,
+a chosen people, whose past history declares in every episode the
+watchful and patient affection of his father. And that father is God and
+not man, the Holy One who will not and cannot sacrifice His love even to
+the justest indignation (chap. xi.). To the prophet who knows this love
+of Yahweh, who has learned to understand it in the like experience of
+his own life, the very ruin of the state of Israel is a step in the
+loving guidance which makes the valley of trouble a door of hope (ii.
+15), and the wilderness of tribulation as full of promise as the desert
+road from Egypt to Canaan was to Israel of old. Of the manner of
+Israel's repentance and conversion Hosea presents no clear image--nay,
+it is plain that on this point he had nothing to tell. The certainty
+that the people will at length return and seek Yahweh their God rests,
+not on any germ of better things in Israel, but on the invincible
+supremacy of Yahweh's love. And so the two sides of his prophetic
+declaration, the passionate denunciation of Israel's sin and folly, and
+the not less passionate tenderness with which he describes the final
+victory of divine love, are united by no logical bond. The unity is one
+of feeling only, and the sob of anguish in which many of his appeals to
+a heedless people seem to end turns once and again with sudden revulsion
+into the clear accents of evangelical promise, which in the closing
+chapter swell forth in pure and strong cadence out of a heart that has
+found its rest with God from all the troubles of a stormy life.
+
+The strongly emotional temperament of Hosea suggests comparison with
+that of Jeremiah, who like himself is the prophet of the decline and
+fall of a kingdom. The subsequent influence of Hosea on the literature
+of the Old and New Testaments is very marked. Not only is it seen in the
+conception of the relation between God and His people as a marriage,
+which he makes current coin (cf. Marti, p. 15), but still more in the
+fact that his conception of the divine character becomes the inspiration
+of the book of Deuteronomy and so of the whole canon of Scripture. "In a
+special degree, the author of Deuteronomy is the spiritual heir of
+Hosea."[12]
+
+  RECENT LITERATURE (where references to older works will be found):
+  Cheyne, "Hosea" in _Cambridge Bible_ (1884); W. R. Smith, _The
+  Prophets of Israel_,^2 with Cheyne's introduction (1895); G. A. Smith,
+  "The Book of the Twelve," i., in _The Expositor's Bible_ (1896);
+  Nowack, _Die Kleinen Propheten_ (1897); Wellhausen, _Die Kleinen
+  Propheten_^3 (1898); Smend, _Alttest. Religionsgeschichte_,^2 pp. 204
+  f. (1899); Davidson, art. "Hosea" in Hastings' _Dictionary of the
+  Bible_, ii. pp. 419 f. (1900); Marti, art. "Hosea" in _Ency.
+  Biblica_, ii. c. 2119 (1901) (a revision of the original article by
+  W. R. Smith, in the _Ency. Britannica_, partially reproduced above);
+  Marti, _Dodekapropheton_ (1903); W. R. Harper, "Amos and Hosea" in
+  _Inter. Critical Commentary_ (1905) (with copious bibliography).
+       (W. R. S.; H. W. R.*)
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+  [1] _Traditions about Hosea._--Beeri, the prophet's father, is
+    identified by the Rabbins with Beerah (1 Chron. v. 6), a Reubenite
+    prince carried captive by Tiglath-Pileser. This view is already
+    expressed by Jerome, _Quaest. in Paralip._, and doubtless underlies
+    the statement of the Targum to Chronicles that Beerah was a prophet.
+    For it is a Jewish maxim that when a prophet's father is named, he,
+    too, was a prophet, and accordingly a tradition of R. Simon makes
+    Isa. viii. 19, 20 a prophecy of Beeri (Kimchi in loc.; _Leviticus
+    Rabba_, par. 15). According to the usual Christian tradition,
+    however, Hosea was of the tribe of Issachar, and from an unknown
+    town, Belemoth or Belemon (pseudo-Epiphanius, pseudo-Dorotheus,
+    Ephraem Syr. ii. 234; _Chron. Pasch._, Bonn ed., i. 276). As the
+    tradition adds that he died there, and was buried in peace, the
+    source of the story lies probably in some holy place shown as his
+    grave. There are other traditions as to the burial-place of Hosea. A
+    Jewish legend in the _Shalshelet haqqabala_ (Carpzov, _Introd._, pt.
+    iii. ch. vii. § 3) tells that he died in captivity at Babylon, and
+    was carried to Upper Galilee, and buried at [Hebrew: Zefat], that is,
+    Safed (Neubauer, Géog. _du Talmud_, p. 227); and the Arabs show the
+    grave of Nebi 'Osha, east of the Jordan, near Es-Salt (Baedeker's
+    _Palestine_, p. 337; Burckhardt's _Syria_, p. 353).
+
+  [2] The supposed reference of viii. 9-10 to the tribute paid by
+    Menahem to Tiglath-Pileser (2 Kings xv. 19), and dated, on the
+    monuments, 738 B.C., depends on a corrupt text: read v. 10 with
+    Septuagint.
+
+  [3] Some scholars hold that his attack is directed against the very
+    principle of monarchy (Nowack, p. 8; Smend, p. 209: "Hosea rejects
+    the kingship in itself"; Wellhausen, p. 125: "The making of kings in
+    Israel is for him, together with the heathen cultus, the fundamental
+    evil"). This view depends on a disputed interpretation of the
+    reference to Gibeah (x. 9; cf. ix. 9); and on the words: "I give thee
+    kings in mine anger, and I take them away in my wrath" (xiii. 11),
+    which may refer to the rise and fall of contemporary kings (cf.
+    Marti, ad loc). In any case, as Wellhausen himself says (p. 132): "He
+    does not start from a dogmatic theory, but simply from historical
+    experience."
+
+  [4] Theodorus Mops. remarks very justly, [Greek: kai to onoma kai ton
+    patera legei, ôs mê plasma psilon ti dokoiê to legomenon, historia de
+    alêthês tôn pragmatôn.]
+
+  [5] This explanation of the narrative, which is essentially Ewald's,
+    is now generally accepted. It has the great advantage of supplying a
+    psychological key to the conception of Israel or the land of Israel
+    (i. 2) as the spouse of Yahweh, which dominates these chapters, but
+    in the later part of the book gives way to the personification of the
+    nation as God's son. This conception has, indeed, formal points of
+    contact with notions previously current, and even with the ideas of
+    Semitic heathenism. On the one hand, it is a standing Hebrew usage to
+    represent the land as mother of its people, while the representation
+    of worshippers as children of their god is found in Num. xxi. 29,
+    where the Moabites are called children of Chemosh, and is early and
+    widespread throughout the Semitic field (cf. _Trans. Bib. Arch._ vi.
+    438; _Jour. of Phil._ ix. 82). The combination of these two notions
+    gives at once the conception of the national deity as husband of the
+    land. On the other hand, the designation of Yahweh as Baal, which, in
+    accordance with the antique view of marriage, means husband as well
+    as lord and owner, was current among the Israelites in early times,
+    perhaps, indeed, down to Hosea's age (ii. 16). Now it is highly
+    probable that among the idolatrous Israelites the idea of a marriage
+    between the deity and individual worshippers was actually current and
+    connected with the immorality which Hosea often condemns in the
+    worship of the local Baalim whom the ignorant people identified with
+    Yahweh. For we have a Punic woman's name, [Hebrew: areshetbaal], "the
+    betrothed of Baal" (Euting, Punische Steine, pp. 9, 15), and a
+    similar conception existed among the Babylonians (Herod. i. 181,
+    182). But Hosea takes the idea of Yahweh as husband, and gives it an
+    altogether different turn, filling it with a new and profound
+    meaning, based on the psychical experiences of a deep human affection
+    in contest with outraged honour and the wilful self-degradation of a
+    spouse. It can hardly be supposed that all that lies in these
+    chapters is an abstract study in the psychology of the emotions. It
+    is actual human experience that gives Hosea the key to divine truth.
+
+  [6] Davidson (_D.B._ ii. 422) remarks that "it was not his
+    misfortunes that gave Hosea his prophetic word. Israel's apostasy was
+    plain to him, and he foreshadowed her doom in Jezreel, the name of
+    his first child, before any misfortunes overtook him. At most, his
+    misfortunes may at a later time have given a complexion to his
+    prophetic thoughts." Wellhausen (p. 108) objects to the emergence of
+    the call from the experience, on the ground that the name given to
+    the first child gives no indication that Hosea had yet reached his
+    specific message, the infidelity of his wife and of Israel, though it
+    shows him already as a prophet. Marti (p. 15) agrees with Davidson in
+    making the order (a) call, (b) marriage and birth of three children,
+    (c) comprehension of the significance of the marriage for himself and
+    for Israel. The statement made above must be interpreted of Hosea's
+    _specific_ message from Yahweh, as recorded in his book.
+
+  [7] Marti disregards this generally accepted division, arguing that
+    (a) i.-iii. was not written earlier than iv.-xiv., (b) iii. is not
+    Hoseanic, (c) ii. is much more akin to iv.-xiv. than to i.-iii.
+    (_Comm._ p. 1; cf. _Enc. Bib._ 2123 n.^3). He holds that another
+    wife, not Gomer, is intended in iii., which is an allegory referring
+    to Israel, as Gomer referred to Judah. His arguments are not
+    convincing.
+
+  [8] So, practically, Davidson, _D.B._ ii. p. 423 seq., where the
+    detailed references will be found.
+
+  [9] This is too definite for the data; cf. Davidson, _l.c._ "Hosea
+    has no clear idea of the instrument or means of Israel's destruction.
+    It is 'the sword' (vii. 16, xi. 6), the 'enemy' (viii. 3, v. 8-9); or
+    it is natural, internal decay (vii. 8-9, ix. 16), the moth and
+    rottenness (v. 12)."
+
+  [10] e.g. i. 10-ii. 1, ii. 14 f., iii. 5, v. 15-vi. 3, xi. 10-11.
+
+  [11] Apart from glosses and minor alterations, the only other
+    critical problem of importance is that of the references to _Judah_
+    scattered throughout the book (i. 7, iv. 15, v. 5, v. 10 f., vi. 4,
+    11, viii. 14, x. 11, xi. 12). There is no inherent improbability in
+    some mention of the sister kingdom; but some of the actual references
+    do suggest interpolation, especially i. 7, where the deliverance of
+    Judah from Sennacherib in 701 B.C. seems intended. Each case, as
+    Wellhausen implies, is to be considered on its merits. On these and
+    other suspected passages, cf. Cheyne, Intro. to W. R. Smith's
+    _Prophets of Israel_, pp. xvii.-xxii.; Marti, p. 8; Harper, p. clix.
+
+  [12] Driver, _Deuteronomy_, p. xxvii.
+
+
+
+
+HOSE-PIPE, or simply "hose," the name given to flexible piping by means
+of which water may be conveyed from one place to another. One end of the
+pipe is connected to the source of the water, while the other end is
+free, so that the direction of the stream of water which issues from the
+pipe may be changed at will. The method of manufacture and the strength
+of the materials used depend naturally upon the particular use to which
+the finished article is to be put. Simple garden hose is often made of
+india-rubber or composition, but the hose intended for fire brigade and
+similar important purposes must be of a much more substantial material.
+The most satisfactory material is the best long flax, although cotton is
+also extensively used for many types of this fabric.
+
+The flax fibre, after having been carefully spun into yarn, is boiled
+twice and then beetled; these two processes remove all injurious matter,
+and make the yarn soft and lustrous. The yarn is then wound on to large
+bobbins, and made into a chain; the number of threads in the chain
+depends upon the size of the hose, which may be anything from half an
+inch to 15 in. or even more in diameter. When the chain is warped, it is
+beamed upon the weaver's beam, and the ends--either double or
+triple--are drawn through the leaves of the cambs of heddles, passed
+through the reed and finally tied to the cloth beam. The preparation of
+the warp for any kind of loom varies very little, but the weaving may
+vary greatly. In all cases the hose fabric is essentially circular,
+although it appears quite flat during the weaving operation.
+
+There are very few hand-made fabrics which can compete with the
+machine-made article, but the very best type of hose-pipe is certainly
+one of the former class. The cloth can be made much more cheaply in the
+power-loom than in the hand-loom, but, up to the present, no power-loom
+has been made which can weave as substantial a cloth as the hand-loom
+product; the weak part in all hose-pipes is where the weft passes round
+the sides from top to bottom of the fabric or vice versa, that is, the
+side corresponding to the selvages in an ordinary cloth; the hand-loom
+weaver can draw the weft tighter than is possible in the power-loom,
+hence the threads at the sides can be brought close together, and by
+this means the fabric is made almost, but not quite, as perfect here as
+in other parts. It is essential that the warp threads be held tightly in
+the loom, and to secure this, they pass alternately over and under three
+or four back rests before reaching the heddles or cambs, which are
+almost invariably made of wire. Although the warp yarn is made very soft
+and pliable by boiling and beetling, the weaver always tallows it in
+order to make it work more easily.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 1.]
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 2.]
+
+  The commonest type of hose-pipe is made on the double-plain principle
+  of weaving, the cloth being perfectly plain but woven in such a manner
+  that the pipe is without seams of any kind. Fig. 1 is a design showing
+  two repeats or eight shots in the way of the weft, and six repeats or
+  twenty-four-threads in the way of the warp, consequently the weave is
+  complete on four threads, or leaves, and four picks. Fig. 2
+  illustrates the method of interlacing the threads and the picks: this
+  figure shows that twenty-three threads only are used, the first
+  thread--shown shaded in fig. 1--having been left out. It is necessary
+  to use a number of threads which is either one less or one more than
+  some multiple of four--the number of threads in the unit weave. The
+  sectional view (fig. 2), although indicating the crossings of the warp
+  and the weft, is quite different from an actual section through the
+  threads: the warp is almost invariably two or three ply, and in
+  addition two or more of these twisted threads pass through the same
+  heddle-eye in the camb; moreover, they are set very closely
+  together--so closely, indeed, that the threads entirely conceal the
+  weft; it is, therefore, impossible to give a correct sectional view
+  with satisfactory clearness, as the threads are so very rank, but fig.
+  3 gives some idea of the structure of the fabric. This view shows
+  ninety-nine threads and one complete round of weft; this round is, of
+  course, equal to two picks or shots--one pick for the top part of the
+  cloth and one for the bottom part. A comparison of this figure with
+  fig. 2 will, perhaps, make the description clearer. The weft in fig. 3
+  is thinner than the warp, but, in practice, it is always much thicker,
+  and may consist of from two to seventy threads twisted together.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 3.--Section through the Warp.]
+
+  Hose-pipes are also woven with the three-leaf twill on both sides, and
+  occasionally with the four-leaf twill. These pipes, woven with the
+  twill weaves, are usually lined with a pure rubber tube which is fixed
+  to the inside of the cloth by another layer of rubber after the cloth
+  leaves the loom. Such pipes have usually, but not invariably, a
+  smoother inner surface than those which are unlined, hence, when they
+  are used, less friction is presented to the flow of water, and there
+  is less tendency for the pipe to leak. They are, therefore, suitable
+  for hotels, public buildings and similar places where their temporary
+  use will not result in undue damage to articles of furniture, carpets
+  and general decoration.
+
+  The greatest care must be observed in the weaving of these fabrics,
+  the slightest flaw in the structure rendering the article practically
+  useless. After the cloth has been woven, it is carefully examined, and
+  then steeped in a chemical solution which acts as an antiseptic. The
+  cloth is thus effectively preserved from mildew, and is, in addition,
+  made more pliable. Finally the hose-pipe is dried artificially, and
+  then fitted with the necessary couplings and nozzles.
+
+  For a more detailed description of circular weaving see Woodhouse and
+  Milne, _Textile Design: Pure and Applied_.     (T. Wo.)
+
+
+
+
+HOSHANGABAD, a town and district of British India, in the Nerbudda
+division of the Central Provinces. The town stands on the left bank of
+the Nerbudda, 1009 ft. above the sea, and has a railway station. Pop.
+(1901), 14,940. It is supposed to have been founded by Hoshang Shah, the
+second of the Ghori kings of Malwa, in the 15th century; but it remained
+an insignificant place till the Bhopal conquest about 1720, when a
+massive stone fort was constructed, with its base on the river,
+commanding the Bhopal road. It sustained several sieges during the 18th
+century, and passed alternately into the hands of the Bhopal and Nagpur
+rulers. Since 1818 it has been the residence of the chief British
+officials in charge of the district. It has a government high school,
+and agricultural school and a brass-working industry.
+
+The DISTRICT OF HOSHANGABAD has an area of 3676 sq. m. Pop. (1901),
+449,165, showing a decrease of 10% in the decade, due to famine. It may
+be described as a valley of varying breadth, extending for 150 m.
+between the Nerbudda river and the Satpura mountains. The soil consists
+chiefly of black basaltic alluvium, often more than 20 ft. deep; but
+along the banks of the Nerbudda the fertility of the land compensates
+for the tameness of the scenery. Towards the west, low stony hills and
+broken ridges cut up the level ground, while the Vindhyas and the
+Satpuras throw out jutting spurs and ranges. In this wilder country
+considerable regions are covered with jungle. On the south the lofty
+range which shuts in the valley is remarkable in mountain scenery,
+surpassing in its picturesque irregularity the Vindhyan chain in the
+north. Many streams take their rise amid its precipices, then, winding
+through deep glens, flow across the plain between sandy banks covered
+with low jungle till they swell the waters of the Nerbudda. None is of
+any importance except the Tawa, which is interesting to the geologist on
+account of the many minerals to be found along its course. The boundary
+rivers, the Nerbudda and Tapti, are the only considerable waters in
+Hoshangabad. The principal crops are wheat, millets and oil-seeds. The
+district is traversed throughout its length by the Great Indian
+Peninsula railway.
+
+
+
+
+HOSHEA (Heb. for "deliverance"), the last king of Israel, in the Bible.
+The attempt of his predecessor Pekah to take Jerusalem with the help of
+his ally Rasun (Rezin) of Damascus was frustrated by the intervention of
+Tiglath-Pileser IV. (see AHAZ), who attacked Gilead, Galilee and the
+north frontier, and carried off some of its population (cp. 1 Chron. v.
+26). Pekah's resistance to Assyria led to a conspiracy in which he lost
+his life, and Hoshea the son of Elah became king (2 Kings xv. 27-30).
+The Assyrian king held him as his vassal (and indeed claims to have set
+him on the throne), and exacted from him a yearly tribute. Meanwhile,
+Damascus was besieged (733-732 B.C.), Rasun was slain and the
+inhabitants deported (2 Kings xvi. 9; LXX. omits "to Kir," but see Amos
+i. 5). The impending fate of Damascus is illustrated by Isaiah (vii. 16,
+viii. 4, xvii. 1-11), who also gives a vivid description of the
+impression left by the Assyrian army (v. 26-30). After the death of
+Tiglath-Pileser, Israel regained confidence (Isa. ix. 8-x. 4) and took
+steps to recover its independence. Its policy vacillated--"like a silly
+dove" (Hos. vii. 11), and at length negotiations were opened with
+Mizraim. The annual payment of tribute ceased and Shalmaneser IV. (who
+began to reign in 727 B.C.) at once laid siege to Samaria, which fell at
+the end of three years (722-721 B.C.). The achievement is claimed by his
+successor Sargon. Hoshea was killed, the land was again partly
+depopulated and a governor appointed (2 Kings xviii. 9-12; cp. xvii. 1
+sqq.). For other allusions to this period see HOSEA, ISAIAH.
+
+  2 Kings xvii. 3 and 5 imply _two_ attacks by Shalmaneser: in the first
+  of which Hoshea was imprisoned and perhaps blinded (Cheyne, emending,
+  "shut him up" in v. 4), although in v. 6 he is still reigning; see on
+  this Winckler, _Keilinschr. u. Alte Test._^3 p. 268; Burney, _Kings_,
+  p. 328 seq.; Skinner, _Kings_, p. 372 seq. The chronological notes,
+  moreover, are extremely confused; contrast xv. 30 with xvii. 1. The
+  usual identification of So (or Seve), king of Mizraim, with Shabaka of
+  Egypt is difficult, partly on chronological grounds (which Petrie,
+  _History of Egypt_, pp. 277, 281 sqq. does not remove), and partly
+  because the Ethiopian dominion in Egypt appears to be still weak and
+  divided. The Assyrian records name a certain Sibi as _officer_, and
+  also Piru (Pharaoh!) as _king_ of Musri, and it is doubtful whether
+  Hoshea's ally was a petty prince of Egypt or of a N. Arabian district
+  (see MIZRAIM). If the latter, Hoshea's policy becomes more
+  intelligible; see Whitehouse, _Isaiah_, p. 17 seq.; JEWS: _History_;
+  PHILISTINES. On the depopulation of Samaria and the introduction of
+  colonists, see Winckler's objections, _Alttest. Untersuch._ pp.
+  95-107, with Burney's criticisms, _Kings_, p. 334 seq.     (S. A. C.)
+
+
+
+
+HOSHIARPUR, a town of British India, in the Jullundur division of the
+Punjab. Pop. (1901), 17,549. It was founded, according to tradition,
+about the early part of the 14th century. In 1809 it was occupied by
+Ranjit Singh. The maharaja and his successors maintained a considerable
+cantonment 1 m. S.E. of the town, and the British government kept it up
+for several years after the annexation of the Punjab in 1849. There are
+manufactures of cotton goods, inlaid woodwork, lacquered ware, shoes and
+copper vessels.
+
+The DISTRICT OF HOSHIARPUR comprises an area of 2244 sq. m.; pop. (1901)
+989,782, showing a decrease of 2% in the decade, compared with an
+increase of 12% during the previous decade. It falls into two nearly
+equal portions of hill and plain country. Its eastern face consists of
+the westward slope of the Solar Singhi Hills; parallel with that ridge,
+a line of lower heights belonging to the Siwalik range traverses the
+district from south to north, while between the two chains stretches a
+valley of uneven width, known as the Jaswan Dun. Its upper portion is
+crossed by the Sohan torrent, while the Sutlej sweeps into its lower end
+through a break in the hills, and flows in a southerly direction till it
+turns the flank of the central range, and debouches westwards upon the
+plains. This western plain consists of alluvial formation, with a
+general westerly slope owing to the deposit of silt from the mountain
+torrents in the sub-montane tract. The Beas has a fringe of lowland,
+open to moderate but not excessive inundations, and considered very
+fertile. A considerable area is covered by government woodlands, under
+the care of the forest department. Rice is largely grown, in the marshy
+flats along the banks of the Beas. Several religious fairs are held, at
+Anandpur, Mukerian and Chintpurni, all of which attract an enormous
+concourse of people. The district, owing to its proximity to the hills,
+possesses a comparatively cool and humid climate. Cotton fabrics are
+manufactured, and sugar, rice and other grains, tobacco and indigo are
+among the exports.
+
+The country around Hoshiarpur formed part of the old Hindu kingdom of
+Katoch In Jullundur. The state was eventually broken up, and the present
+district was divided between the rajas of Ditarpur and Jaswan. They
+retained undisturbed possession of their territories until 1759, when
+the rising Sikh chieftains commenced a series of encroachments upon the
+hill tracts. In 1815 the aggressive maharaja, Ranjit Singh, forced the
+ruler of Jaswan to resign his territories in exchange for an estate on
+feudal tenure; three years later the raja of Ditarpur met with similar
+treatment. By the close of the year 1818 the whole country from the
+Sutlej to the Beas had come under the government of Lahore, and after
+the first Sikh war in 1846 passed to the British government. The deposed
+rajas of Ditarpur and Jaswan received cash pensions from the new rulers,
+but expressed bitter disappointment at not being restored to their
+former sovereign position. Accordingly the outbreak of the second Sikh
+war, in 1848 found the disaffected chieftains ready for rebellion. They
+organized a revolt, but the two rajas and the other ringleaders were
+captured, and their estates confiscated.
+
+
+
+
+HOSIERY, a term used to designate all manufactured textile fabrics which
+in their process of manufacture have been built on the principle of
+looping or loop structure. The origin of the term is obvious, being
+derived from "hose" or stocking, this being one of the earliest garments
+made by the process of knitting (q.v.). While it still forms one of the
+staples of the trade, it is only one of a very numerous and diversified
+range of applications of the entire industry. The elastic structure of
+knitting makes it very adaptable for all kinds of body or underwear.
+There is scarcely a single textile article manufactured but can be
+reproduced on the knitting or loop structure principle. The art of
+knitting is of very modern origin as compared with that of weaving. No
+certain allusion to the art occurs before the beginning of the 15th
+century. In an act of parliament of Henry VII. (1488) knitted woollen
+caps are mentioned. It is supposed that the art was first practised in
+Scotland, and thence carried into England, and that caps were made by
+knitting for some period before the more difficult feat of
+stocking-making was attempted. In an act of Edward VI. (1553) "knitte
+hose, knitte peticotes, knitte gloves and knitte sleeves" are
+enumerated, and the trade of hosiers, among others, included in an act
+dated 1563. Spanish silk stockings were worn on rare occasions by Henry
+VIII., and the same much-prized articles are also mentioned in connexion
+with the wardrobe of Edward VI.
+
+Knitting, or loop formation by mechanical means, is divided into two
+distinct principles--frame-work knitting and warp knitting. Both
+principles may be employed in the formation of a large variety of plain
+and fancy stitches or a combination of the two.
+
+  _Frame-work Knitting_ in its simplest form consists of rows of loops
+  supporting each other--built from one continuous thread of yarn and
+  running from one side of the fabric to the other and back (fig. 1). It
+  is on this principle of stitch that the greatest amount of hosiery is
+  built (hose, shirts, pants).
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 1.--The Stitch or Loop Structure of Plain Knitting
+  (back of fabric).]
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 2.--A Single Thread formed into a Chain of Crocket
+  Work, showing the Loop Structure of the plain Warp-knitted Fabric. It
+  is built up as shown in the diagram by a number of threads running up
+  the fabric.]
+
+  _Warp Knitting_ in its simplest form consists of rows of loops, but
+  the number of threads employed are equal to the number of loops in the
+  width of the fabric. Thus it will be seen that the threads run
+  lengthwise of the fabric (fig. 2). This principle gives greater scope
+  for reproducing designs in openwork and colour than that of
+  frame-work knitting. For this reason it is largely used in the shawl,
+  glove and fancy hosiery industries.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 3.--Hand Stocking Frame.]
+
+  _Machinery._--In hand knitting the implements employed (a few needles
+  or wires) are very simple and inexpensive. In the manufacturing
+  industry the most complex and ingenious machinery is used. In 1589 the
+  Rev. William Lee, a graduate of St John's College, Cambridge, while
+  acting as curate (or vicar) of Calverton, Nottinghamshire, introduced
+  his stocking-frame. This machine was the first mechanical means
+  employed to produce a looped or knitted fabric. This frame or machine
+  of Lee's was the origin of all the hosiery and lace machines at
+  present in use. One of the most remarkable points about his invention
+  was its completeness and adaptability for the work for which its
+  inventor intended it. The main principles of Lee's frame are embodied
+  in most of the rotary or power frames of the present day. Fig. 3 shows
+  a hand frame of the present day.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 4.
+
+    A, The leads into which the needles (B) are cast.
+    D, The old loops or work.
+    C, The new loops formed and brought under the beards.]
+
+  In hand knitting an indefinite number of loops are skewered on a wire
+  or pin, but, in Lee's frame, an individual hooked or bearded needle is
+  employed for the support and formation of each loop in the breadth of
+  the fabric. This needle consists of a shank with a terminal
+  spring-pointed hook (or beard), the point of which can be pressed at
+  will into a groove or eye in the shank. For method by which the loops
+  are formed on the needles of the frame see fig. 4. This shows a few of
+  Lee's hooked or bearded needles having the old loops or work hanging
+  round the needle shanks. The thread of yarn which is to form the new
+  row of loops is laid over the needle shanks and waved or looped
+  between each pair of needles. This waving or looping ensures
+  sufficient yarn being drawn and loops of a uniform size being made, so
+  that a regular and level fabric will be produced. The looping or
+  waving is obtained by having thin plates of shaped metal, called
+  sinkers, which have a nose-shaped point and hang between the needles.
+  When looping they have an individual movement downwards between the
+  needles, and as they fall the nose-shaped point carries the yarn down,
+  thus forming the new loop (fig. 5). The size of the loop is regulated
+  by the distance the sinker is allowed to fall. After the thread of
+  yarn has been looped between the needle shanks by the sinkers, the
+  loops are brought forward under the needle beards or hooks. A presser
+  bar is now brought down to close or press all the points of the needle
+  beards into the eye in the shank. Thus all the hook ends of the
+  needles are temporarily closed, with the newly formed loops under
+  them. While in this position, the old loops hanging round the shank
+  are brought forward and landed on to the top of the needle beard and
+  off the needle altogether, being thus left hanging round, or supported
+  by the loops newly formed. The needle beards are now released, and the
+  loops drawn back along the shanks to be in position for next new
+  course of loops. The foregoing is only an outline of how the loops are
+  formed on the needles. It is not necessary here to enter into a
+  description of the complex mechanical movements of Lee's
+  stocking-frame. The first fabric made by Lee was of a flat,
+  even-selvedged nature, so that garments had to be cut to shape from
+  the fabric. He soon learned to fashion or shape the garment at will,
+  during the process of making, by transferring loops at the edges,
+  inwards to narrow, or outwards to widen. This process at the present
+  day is known as fashioning, and all garments of the best make are
+  shaped or fashioned in this manner. After Lee had practised his new
+  art for a few years at Calverton he removed to London, but on his
+  receiving no help or encouragement from Queen Elizabeth or her
+  successor, King James, he was induced to cross over to France with his
+  frames. There he built up a flourishing industry at Rouen, under the
+  patronage of the French king, Henry IV. Through the murder of this
+  monarch he lost his patronage and died of want about the year 1610. He
+  was buried in an unknown grave in Paris.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 5.--Formation of a Loop on a Hand Frame.
+
+    1, Bearded needle cast in the lead. A, Lead; B, Shank; C, Eye; D,
+      Beard.
+    2, The thread is laid over the needles and formed into loops between
+      the needles by means of the sinkers, those new-formed loops being
+      brought under the needle beards (as at 3).
+    4, The beards pressed or closed to allow the old loops to be passed
+      on to the top.
+    5, The old loops knocked off the needles and left hanging round the
+      newly formed loops.]
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 6.--A 1/1 Rib Stitch.]
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 7.--Eight at once, 130 gauge, full-fashioned,
+  seamless bosom, sloped shoulder underwear frame, Cotton's patents.
+  (William Cotton, Ltd., Loughborough.)]
+
+  A number of improvements had been made on Lee's frame during the 18th
+  century. The one of greatest importance was the rib machine invented
+  by Jedediah Strutt of Belper in 1758. It was not what could be
+  actually termed an improvement on Lee's frame, but an addition to it.
+  Lee's frame was not altered in any way, Strutt's machine being added
+  to it, and the two being worked in conjunction produced a fabric of a
+  more elastic nature and alike on both sides (fig. 6). Strutt's machine
+  consisted of a set of needles placed at right angles to and between
+  Lee's plain needles, with the result that, when knitting, the frame
+  needles drew their loops to one side and the machine needles their
+  loops to the opposite side of the fabric. The first offshoot from
+  frame-work knitting was the invention of the hand warp loom in 1775.
+  It was improved by the addition of the Dawson wheel by William Dawson
+  in 1791. This machine is the origin of the various complex machines
+  now working on this principle. Some of these have Jacquard mechanism
+  attached, and nearly all of them are driven by motive power. About the
+  middle of the 19th century close on 50,000 of Lee's hand frames were
+  in use, finding employment for nearly 100,000 persons. Many attempts
+  had been made previously to transform Lee's frame into a power or
+  rotary frame. One of the first and most successful was that invented
+  by Luke Barton in 1857. This frame was fitted with self-acting
+  mechanism for fashioning, and was practically Lee's frame having
+  rotary shafts with cams added to give the various movements, this type
+  of frame being known as straight bar rotary frames. In 1864 William
+  Cotton of Loughborough altered this frame by reversing the positions
+  of the needles and sinkers. Although made by various builders it is
+  still known as the "Cotton Patent Rotary Frame" (fig. 7). Since 1864 a
+  great number of important improvements and additions have been made to
+  this frame. Single frames are built which will turn off one dozen
+  pairs of hose at once, with the attention of one person. One of the
+  most important inventions in connexion with the hosiery trade was the
+  latch, tumbler, or self-acting needle invented by Matthew Townsend and
+  David Moulding of Leicester in 1858. Previous to this Lee's type of
+  needle was the only one in use. This latch-needle (fig. 8) consists of
+  a stem having a butt at lower end by which it receives its knitting
+  action from cams, the upper end being turned into a hook. Near the
+  hook end and attached to the stem by a pin is the spoon-shaped latch,
+  which closes over the hook as required. Machines fitted with
+  latch-needles have grooves in which the stem of the needle works.
+  Cams, which act on the needle butts, give the needles their individual
+  knitting action in rotation. This needle is self-acting, in that it is
+  made to draw its own loop, sinkers being dispensed with.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 8.--Various Shapes of the Latch Needle.]
+
+  Fig. 9 shows the looping action of this needle. The needles when not
+  knitting have a loop round their shank, thus holding the latch open.
+  When about to knit, they are raised individually and in rotation (by
+  the cams acting on the needle butts) to receive the new loop of yarn.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 9.--Individual Action of the Latch Needle.]
+
+  Down till almost the middle of the 19th century only a flat web could
+  be knitted in the machines in use, and for the finishing of stockings,
+  &c., it was necessary to seam up the selvedges of web shaped on the
+  frame (fashioned work), or to cut and seam them from even web (cut
+  work). The introduction of any device by which seamless garments could
+  be fabricated was obviously a great desideratum, and it is a singular
+  fact that a machine capable of doing this was patented in 1816 by Sir
+  Marc I. Brunel. This frame was the origin of the French-German
+  loop-wheel circular frame of the present day. Brunel's frame was
+  greatly improved by Peter Claussen of Brussels and was shown at an
+  exhibition in Nottingham in 1845. This frame had horizontal placed
+  needles fixed on a rotating rim. A few years later Moses Mellor of
+  Nottingham transformed this type of frame by altering the position of
+  the needles to perpendicular. This is now known as the English
+  loop-wheel circular frame. After the invention of the latch-needle
+  there was a revolution in the hosiery machine-building industry, new
+  types of machines being invented, fitted to work with latch-needles.
+  Among others there was the latch-needle circular frame, invented by
+  Thomas Thompson, which was the origin of the English latch-needle
+  circular frame, a frame largely used for the production of wide
+  circular fabric.
+
+  A circular knitting machine of American origin is the type of machine
+  on which is produced the seamless hosiery of to-day. Like the sewing
+  machine it is largely used in the home as well as in the factory. From
+  this machine all the circular automatic power machines for making
+  plain and rib seamless hose and half hose have been developed. The
+  "flat" or "lamb" type of machine, an American invention, was
+  introduced by J. W. Lamb in 1863. This machine has two needle beds or
+  rows of needles sloping at an angle of nearly 90°.
+
+  A great many varieties of this type of machine have been invented for
+  the production of all kinds of plain and fancy hosiery. It is built in
+  small sizes to be wrought by hand or in large power machines. A large
+  variety of sewing, seaming and linking machines are employed in the
+  hosiery industry for the purpose of putting together or joining all
+  kinds of hosiery and knitted goods. These machines have almost
+  entirely superseded the sewing or joining of the garments by hand.
+
+  The principle centres in Great Britain of the hosiery industry are
+  Leicester and Nottingham and the surrounding districts. It is also an
+  industry of some extent in the south of Scotland.     (T. B.*)
+
+
+
+
+HOSIUS, or OSIUS (c. 257-359), bishop of Cordova, was born about A.D.
+257, probably at Cordova, although from a passage in Zosimus it has
+sometimes been conjectured that he was believed by that writer to be a
+native of Egypt. Elected to the see of Cordova before the end of the 3rd
+century, he narrowly escaped martyrdom in the persecution of Maximian
+(303-305). In 305 or 306 he attended the council of Illiberis or Elvira
+(his name appearing second in the list of those present), and upheld
+its severe canons concerning such points of discipline as the treatment
+of the lapsed and clerical marriages. In 313 he appears at the court of
+Constantine, being expressly mentioned by name in a constitution
+directed by the emperor to Caecilianus of Carthage in that year. In 323
+he was the bearer and possibly the writer of Constantine's letter to
+Bishop Alexander of Alexandria and Arius his deacon, bidding them cease
+disturbing the peace of the church; and, on the failure of the
+negotiations in Egypt, it was doubtless with the active concurrence of
+Hosius that the council of Nicaea was convened in 325. He certainly took
+part in its proceedings, and was one of the large number of "confessors"
+present; that he presided is a very doubtful assertion, as also that he
+was the principal author of the Nicene Creed. Still he powerfully
+influenced the judgment of the emperor in favour of the orthodox party.
+After a period of quiet life in his own diocese, Hosius presided in 343
+at the fruitless synod of Sardica, which showed itself so hostile to
+Arianism; and afterwards he spoke and wrote in favour of Athanasius in
+such a way as to bring upon himself a sentence of banishment to Sirmium
+(355). From his exile he wrote to Constantius II. his only extant
+composition, a letter not unjustly characterized by the great French
+historian Sebastian Tillemont as displaying gravity, dignity,
+gentleness, wisdom, generosity and in fact all the qualities of a great
+soul and a great bishop. Subjected to continual pressure the old man,
+who was near his hundredth year, was weak enough to sign the formula
+adopted by the second synod of Sirmium in 357, which involved communion
+with the Arians but not the condemnation of Athanasius. He was then
+permitted to return to his diocese, where he died in 359.
+
+  See S. Tillemont, _Mémoires_, vii. 300-321 (1700); Hefele,
+  _Conciliengeschichte_, vol. i.; H. M. Gwatkin, _Studies of Arianism_
+  (Cambridge, 1882, 2nd ed., 1900); A. W. W. Dale, _The Synod of Elvira_
+  (London, 1882); and article _s.v._ in Herzog-Hauck, _Realencyklopädie_
+  (3rd ed., 1900), with bibliography.
+
+
+
+
+HOSIUS, STANISLAUS (1504-1579), Polish cardinal, was born in Cracow on
+the 5th of May 1504. He studied law at Padua and Bologna, and entering
+the church became in 1549 bishop of Kulm, in 1551 bishop of Ermland, and
+in 1561 cardinal. Hosius had Jesuit sympathies and actively opposed the
+Protestant reformation, going so far as to desire a repetition of the St
+Bartholomew massacre in Poland. Apart from its being "the property of
+the Roman Church," he regarded the Bible as having no more worth than
+the fables of Aesop. Hosius was not distinguished as a theologian,
+though he drew up the _Confessio fidei christiana catholica_ adopted by
+the synod of Piotrkow in 1557. He was, however, supreme as a diplomatist
+and administrator. Besides carrying through many difficult negotiations,
+he founded the lyceum of Braunsberg, which became the centre of the
+Roman Catholic mission among Protestants. He died at Capranica near Rome
+on the 5th of August 1579.
+
+  A collected edition of his works was published at Cologne in 1584.
+  Life by A. Eichhorn (Mainz, 1854), 2 vols.
+
+
+
+
+HOSKINS, JOHN (d. 1664), English miniature painter, the uncle of Samuel
+Cooper, who received his artistic education in Hoskins's house. His
+finest miniatures are at Ham House, Montagu House, Windsor Castle,
+Amsterdam and in the Pierpont Morgan collection. Vertue stated that
+Hoskins had a son, and Redgrave added that the son painted a portrait of
+James II. in 1686 and was paid £10, 5s, although it is not supported by
+any reference in the State Papers. Some contemporary inscriptions on the
+miniatures at Ham House record them as the work of "Old Hoskins," but
+the fact of the existence of a younger artist of the same name is
+settled by a miniature in the Pierpont Morgan collection, signed by
+Hoskins, and bearing an authentic engraved inscription on its
+contemporary frame to the effect that it represents the duke of Berwick
+at the age of twenty-nine in 1700. The elder Hoskins was buried on the
+22nd of February 1664, in St Paul's, Covent Garden, and as there is no
+doubt of the authenticity of this miniature or of the signature upon
+it, it is evident that he had a son who survived him thirty-six years
+and whose monogram we find upon this portrait. The frame of it has also
+the royal coat of arms debruised, the batons of a marshal of France, the
+collar of the Golden Fleece and the ducal coronet.     (G. C. W.)
+
+
+
+
+HOSMER, HARRIET GOODHUE (1830-1908), American sculptor, was born at
+Watertown, Massachussetts, on the 9th of October 1830. She early showed
+marked aptitude for modelling, and studied anatomy with her father, a
+physician, and afterwards at the St Louis Medical College. She then
+studied in Boston until 1852, when, with her friend Charlotte Cushman,
+she went to Rome, where from 1853 to 1860 she was the pupil of the
+English sculptor John Gibson. She lived in Rome until a few years before
+her death. There she was associated with Nathaniel Hawthorne,
+Thorwaldsen, Flaxman, Thackeray, George Eliot and George Sand; and she
+was frequently the guest of the Brownings at Casa Guidi, in Florence.
+Among her works are "Daphne" and "Medusa," ideal heads (1853); "Puck"
+(1855), a spirited and graceful conception which she copied for the
+prince of Wales, the duke of Hamilton and others; "Oenone" (1855), her
+first life-sized figure, now in the St Louis Museum of Fine Arts;
+"Beatrice Cenci" (1857), for the Mercantile Library of St Louis;
+"Zenobia, Queen of Palmyra, in Chains" (1859), now in the Metropolitan
+Museum of Art, New York City; "A Sleeping Faun" (1867); "A Waking Faun";
+a bronze statue of Thomas H. Benton (1868) for Lafayette Park, St Louis;
+bronze gates for the earl of Brownlow's art gallery at Ashridge Hall; a
+Siren fountain for Lady Marian Alford; a fountain for Central Park, New
+York City; a monument to Abraham Lincoln; and, for the Columbian
+Exposition, Chicago, 1893, statues of the queen of Naples as the
+"heroine of Gaëta," and of Queen Isabella of Spain. Miss Hosmer died at
+Watertown, Mass., on the 21st of February 1908.
+
+
+
+
+HOSPICE (Lat. _hospitium_, entertainment, hospitality, inn, _hospes_,
+host), the name usually given to the homes of rest and refuge kept by
+religious houses for pilgrims and guests. The most famous hospices are
+those of the Great and Little St Bernard Passes in the Alps.
+
+
+
+
+HOSPITAL (Lat. _hospitalis_, the adjective of _hospes_, host or guest),
+a term now in general use for institutions in which medical treatment is
+given to the sick or injured. The place where a guest was received, was
+in Lat. _hospitium_ (Fr. _hospice_), but the terms _hospitalis_ (sc.
+_domus_), _hospitale_ (sc. _cubiculum_) and _hospitalia_ (sc.
+_cubicula_) came into use in the same sense. Hence were derived on the
+one hand the Fr. _hospital_, _hôpital_, applied to establishments for
+temporary occupation by the sick for the purpose of medical treatment,
+and _hospice_ to places for permanent occupation by the poor, infirm,
+incurable or insane; on the other, the form _hôtel_, which became
+restricted (except in the ease of _hôtel-Dieu_) to private or public
+dwelling-houses for ordinary occupation. In English, while "hostel"
+retained the earlier sense and "hotel" has become confined to that of a
+superior inn (q.v.), "hospital" was used both in the sense of a
+permanent retreat for the poor infirm or for the insane, and also for a
+regular institution for the temporary reception of sick cases; but
+modern usage has gradually restricted it mainly to the latter, other
+words, such as almshouse and asylum, being preferred in the former
+cases.
+
+_The Origin of Hospitals._--In spite of contrary opinions the germ of
+the hospital system may be seen in pre-Christian times (see CHARITY AND
+CHARITIES). Pinel goes so far as to declare that there were asylums
+distinctly set apart for the insane in the temples of Saturn in ancient
+Egypt. But this is probably an exaggeration, the real historical facts
+pointing to the existence of medical schools in connexion with the
+temples generally, to the knowledge that the priests possessed what
+medical science existed, and finally to the rite of "Incubation," which
+involved the visit of sick persons to the temple, in the shade of which
+they slept, that the god might inform them by dreams of the treatment
+they ought to follow. The temples of Saturn are known to have existed
+some 4000 years before Christ; and that those temples were medical
+schools in their earliest form is beyond question. The reason why no
+records of these temples have survived is due to the fact that they were
+destroyed in a religious revolution which swept away the very name of
+Saturn from the monuments in the country. Professor Georg Ebers of
+Leipzig, whose possession of that important handbook of Egyptian
+medicine called the _Papyrus Ebers_ constitutes him an authority, says
+the Heliopolis certainly had a clinic united to the temple. The temples
+of Dendera, Thebes and Memphis, are other examples. Those early medical
+works, the Books of Hermes, were preserved in the shrines. Patients
+coming to them paid contributions to the priests. The most famous
+temples in Greece for the cure of disease were those of Aesculapius at
+Cos and Trikka, while others at Rhodes, Cnidus, Pergamum and Epidaurus
+were less known but frequented. Thus it is clear that both in Egypt and
+in Greece the custom of laying the sick in the precincts of the temples
+was a national practice.
+
+Alexandria again was a famous medical centre. Before describing the
+European growth of the hospital system in modern times, to which its
+development in the Roman Empire is the natural introduction, it will be
+well to dispose very briefly of the facts relating to the hospital
+system in the East. Harun al-Rashid (A.D. 763-809) attached a college to
+every mosque, and to that again a hospital. He placed at Bagdad an
+asylum for the insane open to all believers; and there was a large
+number of public infirmaries for the sick without payment in that city.
+Benjamin, the Jewish traveller, notes an efficient scheme for the
+reception of the sick in A.D. 1173, which had long been in existence.
+The Buddhists no less than the Mahommedans had their hospitals, and as
+early as 260 B.C. the emperor Asoka founded the many hospitals of which
+Hindustan could then boast. The one at Surat, made famous by travellers,
+and considered to have been built under the emperor's second edict, is
+still in existence. These hospitals contained provision so extensive as
+to be quite comparable to modern institutions. In China the only records
+that remain are those of books of very early date dealing with the
+theory of medicine. To return to India, the hospitals of Asoka were
+swept away by a revival of Brahmanism, and a practical hiatus exists
+between the hospitals he introduced and those that were refounded by the
+British ascendancy. Hadrian's reign contains the first notice of a
+military hospital in Rome. At the beginning of the Christian era we hear
+of the existence of open surgeries (of various price and reputation),
+the specialization of the medical profession, and the presence of women
+practitioners, often as obstetricians. Iatria, or _tabernae-medicae_,
+are described by Galen and Placetus: many towns built them at their own
+cost. These iatria attended almost entirely to out-patients, and the
+system of medicine fostered by them continued without much development
+down to the middle of the 18th century. It is to be noted that these
+out-patients paid reasonable fees. In Christian days no establishments
+were founded for the relief of the sick till the time of Constantine. A
+law of Justinian referring to various institutions connected with the
+church mentions among them the Nosocomia, which correspond to our idea
+of hospitals. In A.D. 370 Basil had one built for lepers at Caesarea. St
+Chrysostom founded a hospital at Constantinople. At Alexandria an order
+of 600 Parabolani attended to the sick, being chosen for the purpose for
+their experience by the prelate of the city (A.D. 416). Fabiola, a rich
+Roman lady, founded the first hospital at Rome possessed of a
+convalescent home in the country. She even became a nurse herself. St
+Augustine founded one at his see of Hippo. These Nosocomia fell indeed
+almost entirely into the hands of the church, which supported them by
+its revenues when necessary and controlled their administration. Salerno
+became famous as a school of medicine; its rosiest days were between
+A.D. 1000 and 1050. Frederick II. prescribed the course for students
+there, and founded a rival school at Naples. At this period the
+connexion between monasteries and hospitals becomes a marked one. The
+crusaders also created another bond between the church and hospital
+development, as the route they traversed was marked by such foundations.
+Lepers were some of the earliest patients for whom a specialized
+treatment was recognized, and in 1118 a leprosarium was built in London
+for isolation purposes. Russia seems the one country where the
+interconnexion of hospital and monastery was not to be observed. After
+the period already reached, the 13th century, hospitals became common
+enough to demand individual or at any rate national treatment.
+
+_History of the Hospital Movement._--We have now to consider the
+principles upon which the provision of the best form of medical care in
+hospitals can be secured for all classes of people. Though hospitals
+cannot be claimed as a direct result of Christianity, no doubt it
+softened the relations between men, and gradually tended to instil
+humanitarian views and to make them popular with the civilized peoples
+of the world. These principles, as civilization grew, education
+improved, and the tastes and requirements of the common people were
+developed, made men and women of many races realize that the treatment
+of disease in buildings set apart exclusively for the care of the sick
+was, in fact, a necessity in urban districts. The establishment of a
+hospital freed the streets of the abuses attendant upon beggars and
+other poor creatures, who made their ailments the chief ground of appeal
+for alms. As the knowledge of hygiene and of the doctrine of cleanliness
+and purity in regard not only to dwellings and towns, but also in
+relation to food of all descriptions, including water, became known and
+appreciated, hospitals were found to be of even greater importance, if
+that is possible, to the healthy in crowded communities, than to the
+sick. It took many centuries before sound hygiene really began to occupy
+the position of importance which it is now known to possess, not only in
+regard to the treatment and cure of disease, but to its prevention and
+eradication. So the history of the world shows, that, whereas a few of
+the larger towns in most countries contained hospitals of sorts, up to
+and including the middle ages, it was not until the commencement of the
+18th century that inhabitants of important but relatively small towns of
+from 50,000 to 100,000 inhabitants began to provide themselves with a
+hospital for the care of the sick. Thus, twenty-three of the principal
+English counties appear to have had no general hospital prior to 1710,
+while London itself at that date, so far as the relief of the sick was
+concerned, was mainly, if not entirely, dependent upon St Bartholomew's
+and St Thomas's Hospitals. These facts are interesting to note, because
+we are enabled from them to deduce from recent events that hospital
+buildings in the past, though the planning of most of them was faulty to
+begin with and became more and more faulty as extensions were added to
+the original buildings, did in fact suffice to satisfy the requirements
+of the medical profession for nearly two centuries. In other words,
+under the old condition of affairs the life of a building devoted to the
+care of the sick might be considered as at least 150 years. To-day,
+under the conditions which modern science impose upon the management,
+probably few hospital buildings are likely to be regarded as efficient
+for the purpose of treating the sick for more than from 30 to 50 years.
+
+The foregoing statement is based upon the history of British hospitals
+of importance throughout the country, but the same remark will apply in
+practice to hospital buildings almost everywhere throughout the world.
+In truth, hospitals have been more developed and improved in Great
+Britain than in other countries, though, since the last quarter of the
+19th century, German scientists especially have added much to the
+efficiency of the accommodation for the sick, not only at hospitals but
+in private clinics, and many German ideas have been accepted and copied
+by other countries. In Great Britain hospitals for the treatment of
+general and special diseases are mainly maintained upon what is known as
+the voluntary system. On the European continent, hospitals as a rule are
+maintained by the state or municipalities, and this system is so fully
+developed in Sweden and elsewhere that a sound economical principle has
+been embroidered upon the hospital system, to the great physical and
+moral advantage of all classes of the community. The system referred to
+confers great benefits upon inhabitants in large towns by bringing the
+poor-law and voluntary institutions into more intimate association,
+although they may be managed by separate governing bodies. The plan
+pursued is to demand payment from all patients who are admitted to the
+hospital under a scale of charges divided into three or four grades. The
+first grade pays a substantial sum and obtains anything or everything
+the patient may care to have or to pay for, subject to the control of
+the medical attendant. The second pays much less, but a remunerative
+rate, for all they receive at the hospital; and the third and fourth
+classes are very poor people or paupers, who are paid for on a graduated
+scale by the poor-law authorities, or the communal government, or the
+municipality. Under this system well-to-do thrifty artisans and
+improvident paupers are all treated by one staff, controlled by one
+administration, and are located in immediate proximity to each other
+though in separate pavilions. We have no doubt, as the result of many
+years' investigation and an accurate knowledge of the working of the
+system, that this is the true principle to enforce in providing adequate
+medical relief for large urban populations everywhere throughout the
+world. It should be accompanied by a system of government insurance,
+whereby all classes who desire to be thrifty may pay a small annual
+premium in the days of health, and secure adequate hospital treatment
+and care when ill. Provided that pay wings were added to the existing
+voluntary and municipal hospitals, it should be found that the
+relatively small annual premium of £3 per annum should enable the
+policyholders to defray the cost of medical treatment in a pay ward or
+at a consultation department of a great hospital as a matter of
+business. In the United States of America most large towns have great
+hospitals, usually known as city hospitals, administered and mainly
+supported by the municipality. Many such institutions have pay wards,
+but nowhere, so far as we have been able to discover, has the system of
+medical relief in its entirety been organized as yet upon the business
+system we have just referred to.
+
+As to the relative merits and demerits of the systems of government of
+municipal hospitals and voluntary hospitals a few words may be useful.
+There can be no doubt that the voluntary hospital in Great Britain has
+had a remarkable effect for good upon all classes in the making of
+modern England. The management of these institutions is frequently
+representative of all classes of the people, while the voluntary system,
+as the Hospital Sunday collections all over the country, and all over
+the English-speaking world, prove, has united all creeds in the good
+work of caring and providing for the sick and injured members of each
+community. Again the voluntary system makes for efficiency in the
+administration of all hospitals. Each voluntary hospital is dependent
+upon its popularity and efficiency, in large measure, for the financial
+support it receives. In this way an ill-managed voluntary hospital, or
+one which has ceased to fulfil any useful public purpose, is sure to
+disappear in due course under the voluntary system. Voluntary hospitals
+are always open to, as well as supported by, the public, and, owing
+largely to the example so prominently set by King Edward VII. and
+members of the royal family, more people every year devote some time in
+some way to the cause of the hospitals. Attached to the voluntary
+hospitals are the principal medical and nursing schools upon which the
+public depend for the supply of doctors and nurses. The education of
+students and nurses in a clinical hospital makes that hospital the most
+desirable place for everybody when they are really ill. In such a
+hospital no patient can be overlooked, no wrong or imperfect diagnosis
+can long remain undiscovered and unrectified, and nowhere else have the
+patients so continuous a guarantee that the treatment they receive will
+be of the best, while the provision made for their comfort and welfare,
+owing to the unceasing and ever varying quality of the criticism to
+which the work of everybody, from the senior physician to the humblest
+official, is subjected in a clinical hospital, is unequalled anywhere
+else. At a great voluntary hospital, not only do hundreds of medical
+students and nurses work in the wards, but thousands of people, in the
+persons of the patients' friends, and those members of the public who
+take an interest in hospitals, pass through the wards in the course of
+every year. Again, each voluntary hospital has to live by competition, a
+fact which guarantees that everything in the way of new treatment and
+scientific development shall in due course find its proper place within
+the walls of such an establishment. Open as they are to the full
+inspection of everybody whose knowledge and presence can promote
+efficiency, the voluntary hospitals have shown, especially since the
+last quarter of the 19th century, a continuous development and
+improvement. Here the patients are treated with invariable kindness and
+consideration, as human beings rather than cases, to the great benefit
+of the whole human family as represented by the officials, the patients
+and the students, with their relations and friends, the honorary medical
+officers, hundreds of medical practitioners and nurses, who receive
+their medical training in the hospitals, and the ever-increasing number
+of governors and supporters by whose contributions voluntary hospitals
+live. The great missionary and social value of the voluntary hospitals
+to the whole community cannot be questioned, and they have been of
+inestimable value to the churches by inculcating the higher principles
+of humanity, while removing the many acerbities which might otherwise
+prevail between rich and poor in large cities.
+
+The voluntary hospitals are attended, however, by certain disadvantages
+which do not attach to municipal institutions. A municipality which
+undertakes the provision of hospitals for the entire community is
+largely able to plan out the urban area, and to provide that each
+hospital site selected shall not only be suitable for the purpose, but
+that it shall be so chosen as to contribute to make the whole system of
+hospital provision easily accessible to all classes who may require its
+aid. The voluntary hospitals, on the contrary, have grown up without any
+comprehensive plan of the districts or any real regard to the
+convenience or necessities of their poorer inhabitants. Voluntary
+hospital sites were almost invariably selected to suit the convenience
+of the honorary medical staff and the general convenience of the
+hospital economy rather than to save the patients and their friends long
+journeys in search of medical aid. The best of the municipal systems too
+enables economy to be enforced in the administration by a plan which
+provides a central office in every town where the number of vacant beds
+in each hospital is known, so that the average of occupied beds in all
+the hospitals can be well maintained from an economical point of view.
+This speedy and ready inter-communication between all hospitals in a
+great city, which might perfectly well be secured under the voluntary
+system if the managers could only be brought into active co-operation,
+prevents delay in the admission of urgent cases, promotes the absence of
+waste by keeping the average of beds occupied in each establishment high
+and uniform, and has often proved a real gain to the poor by the
+diminution in cost to the patients and their friends, who under the best
+municipal systems can find a hospital within reasonable distance of
+their home in a large city wherever it may be placed. Another advantage
+of the municipal system should be that central control makes for
+economical administration. Unfortunately a close study of this question
+tends to prove that municipal hospitals for the most part have resulted
+in a dead monotony of relative inefficiency, often entailing great
+extravagance in buildings, and accompanied by much waste in many
+directions. Existing municipal hospital systems are attended by several
+grave disadvantages. The administration shows a tendency to lag and grow
+sleepy and inert. The absence of competition, and the freedom from
+continuous publicity and criticism such as the voluntary hospitals
+enjoy, make for inefficiency and indifferent work. Rate-supported
+hospitals, as a rule, are administered by permanent officials who reside
+in houses usually situated on the hospital sites, and who are paid
+salaries which attract the younger men, who, once appointed, tend to
+continue in office for a long period of years. This fixture of tenure is
+apt to cause a decline in the general interest in the work of the
+municipal hospital, due mainly to the absence of a continuous criticism
+from outside, and so the average of efficiency, both in regard to
+treatment and other important matters, may become lower and lower.
+Those who have habitually inspected great rate-supported hospitals must
+have met instances over and over again where a gentleman who has held
+office for twenty or thirty years has frankly stated that his income is
+fixed, that his habits have become crystallized, that he finds the work
+terribly monotonous, and yet, as he hopes ultimately to retire upon a
+pension, he has felt there was no course open to him but to continue in
+office, even though he may feel conscientiously that a change would be
+good for the patients, for the hospital and for himself. Under the
+voluntary system evils of this kind are seldom or never met with, nor
+have these latter establishments, within living memory, ever been so
+conducted as to exhibit the grave scandals which have marred the
+administration of rate-supported hospitals not only in Great Britain but
+in other parts of the world. We believe that the more thoroughly the
+advantages and disadvantages of rate-supported and voluntary hospitals
+for the care of the sick are weighed and considered, and the more
+accurate and full the knowledge which is added to the judgment upon
+which a decision can be based, the more certain will it be that every
+capable administrator will come to the conclusion that on the whole it
+is good for the sick and for the whole community that these
+establishments should, at any rate in Great Britain, be maintained upon
+the voluntary system. Of course it is essential to have rate-supported
+hospitals where cases of infectious disease and the poorest of the
+people who are dependent largely upon the poor-law for their maintenance
+can be cared for. It is satisfactory to be able to state that of late
+years the administration of both these types of rate-supported hospitals
+has greatly improved. The added importance now given all over the
+country to medical officers of health, and the disposition exhibited,
+both by parliament and government departments, to make the position of
+these officers more important and valuable than ever before, have tended
+largely to improve the administrative efficiency of hospitals for
+infectious diseases. No doubt the whole community would benefit if
+residents in every part of the country could be moved to take a personal
+interest in the infectious hospital in their immediate neighbourhood.
+Amongst the smaller of these establishments there has been so marked an
+inefficiency at times as to cause much avoidable suffering. The
+existence of such inefficiency casts a grave reflection upon the local
+authorities and others who are responsible for the evils which
+undoubtedly exist in various places at the present time. Unfortunately
+knowledge has not yet sufficiently spread to enable the public to
+overcome its fear and dread of infectious maladies. It is therefore very
+difficult to induce people to take an active interest in one of these
+hospitals, but we look forward to the time when, owing to the activity
+of the medical officers of health who have immediate charge of buildings
+of this kind, this difficulty may be overcome, when the avoidable
+dangers and risks and the appalling discomfort which a poor sufferer
+from a severe infectious disease in a rural district may suddenly have
+to encounter under existing circumstances, would be rendered impossible.
+
+The poor-law infirmary in large cities, so far as the buildings and
+equipment are concerned, very often leaves little to desire. Poor-law
+infirmaries lack, however, the stimulus and the checks and advantages
+which impartial criticism continuously applied brings to a great
+voluntary hospital. Such disadvantages might be entirely removed if
+parliament would decide to throw open every poor-law infirmary for
+clinical purposes, and to have connected with each such establishment a
+responsible visiting medical staff, consisting of the best qualified men
+to be found in the community which each hospital serves. The old
+prejudice against hospital treatment has disappeared, for the least
+intelligent members of the population now understand that, when a
+citizen is sick, there is no place so good as the wards of a
+well-administered hospital. Looking at the question of hospital
+provision in Great Britain, and indeed in all countries at the present
+time, it may be said, that there is everywhere evidence of improvement
+and development upon the right lines, so that never before in the
+history of the world has the lot of the sick man or woman been so
+relatively fortunate and safe as it is in the present day. Probably it
+is not too much to say that to-day hospitals occupy the most important
+position in the social economy of nations.
+
+_Classification of Hospitals._--Having dealt with hospitals as a whole
+it may be well very briefly to classify them in groups, and explain as
+tersely as possible what they represent and how far it may be desirable
+to eliminate by consolidation or to increase by disintegration the
+number of special hospitals.
+
+_General Hospitals._--These establishments consist of two kinds, (a)
+clinical and (b) non-clinical, each of which, under the modern system,
+should include every department of medicine and surgery, and every
+appliance and means for the alleviation of suffering, the healing of
+wounds, the reduction of fractures, the removal of mal-formations and
+foreign growths, the surgical restoration of damaged and diseased organs
+and bones, and everything of every kind which experience and knowledge
+prove to be necessary to the rapid cure of disease. The clinical
+hospital means an institution to which a medical school is attached,
+where technical instruction is given by able and qualified teachers to
+medical students and others. A non-clinical hospital is one which is not
+attached to a medical school, and where no medical instruction is
+organized.
+
+_Special Hospitals._--Up to about 1840 the general hospital was,
+speaking generally, the only hospital in existence. Twenty years later,
+as the population increased and medical science became more and more
+active, some of the more ardent members of the medical profession,
+especially amongst the younger men, pressed continuously for
+opportunities to develop the methods of treatment in regard to special
+diseases for which neither accommodation nor appliances were at that
+time forthcoming in general hospitals. In a few cases, where the
+managers of the great general hospitals were men of action and
+initiative special departments were introduced, and an attempt was made
+to make them efficient. The conservative spirit which, on the whole,
+represents the British character for the most part, resulted, however,
+in a steady resistance being offered by the older members of the medical
+staffs and existing committees to the advocates of special departments.
+In the result, especially as such special departments as there were in
+connexion with general hospitals were too often starved for want of
+means and men for their development and improvement, the younger spirits
+called their friends together and began to start special hospitals.
+To-day every really efficient clinical general hospital has within its
+walls special departments of almost every description, which have been
+made as efficient and up-to-date as money and knowledge can make them.
+Unfortunately the causes already referred to led to the establishment of
+hundreds of the smaller special hospitals, many of which were started in
+unsuitable buildings, and some of which have ever since maintained a
+struggling existence. Others, on the contrary, through the energy of
+their original promoters and the excellence of the work they have done,
+have obtained a position of authority and reputation which has had a
+very important bearing for good upon the development of medical science
+in the treatment of disease. If the world had to-day to organize the
+very best system of hospital accommodation which could be evolved, there
+is no doubt that few or none of the special hospitals would find any
+place in that system. As matters stand, however, the special hospital
+has had to be accepted, and nothing which King Edward's Hospital Fund
+has done in London has met with greater popularity and professional
+approval than the labours which its council have undertaken in promoting
+the amalgamation of the smaller special hospitals of certain kinds, so
+as to secure the provision of one really efficient special hospital for
+each speciality. No doubt this policy of amalgamation will be steadily
+pursued, and in the course of years every great city will gradually
+reorganize its hospital methods so as to secure that, whether the
+patients are treated in a general hospital or in a special hospital, the
+average efficiency in every institution shall be as high and as good as
+possible.
+
+  We will take now the special hospitals in detail.
+
+  _Cancer Hospitals._--The justification for efficient cancer hospitals
+  must be found in the circumstance that most scientific men of
+  experience believe that, if adequate resources were placed at the
+  disposal of the medical profession, the origin of cancer might be
+  discovered, and so the human race would be freed from one of the most
+  awful diseases which affect humanity. Pending such a discovery the
+  experience of the cancer department connected with the Middlesex
+  Hospital in London proves to demonstration that the provision of
+  adequate and special accommodation for the exclusive treatment of
+  cases of cancer is not only desirable but necessary on humanitarian
+  grounds alone.
+
+  _Hospitals for Consumption._--For many years it was held that this
+  group of hospitals was not a necessity, and the patients were treated
+  in the ordinary medical wards of the general hospitals. Since the
+  contagious character of tuberculosis became known, and improved
+  methods of treatment have been developed, every one agrees that this
+  type of special hospital is desirable, though it is believed by the
+  more advanced school of scientists that before long it may be happily
+  rendered obsolete owing to the discovery of methods of treatment which
+  will stay the disease at its commencement and restore the patient to
+  health.
+
+  _Children's Hospitals._--These hospitals were very much opposed at the
+  outset. There can be no doubt that the children's ward or wards in a
+  big voluntary hospital is a most valuable asset to the managers, so
+  long as the children are treated in separate wards. There is no reason
+  of course why a hospital should confine its work to the treatment of
+  children, exclusively. Still this special hospital is popular with the
+  public; it has led to many discoveries and developments in the
+  treatment of children's diseases; on the whole the administration of
+  these establishments has been good; and we believe they will continue
+  to flourish, however many children's wards may be provided in general
+  hospitals. Children's hospitals with country branches for the
+  treatment of chronic ailments, such as hip disease, are a valuable
+  addition to the relief of suffering in cities.
+
+  _Cottage Hospitals._--These hospitals, established originally in 1859
+  by Mr Albert Napper at Cranleigh, Surrey, have fulfilled a most useful
+  function. Many of them are very efficient both in regard to equipment
+  and treatment. They have become essential to the well-being and
+  adequate medical care of rural populations, as they attract to the
+  country some of the best members of the profession, who are able, with
+  the aid of the cottage hospital, to keep themselves efficient and
+  up-to-date, so that all classes of the community are benefited in this
+  way by this type of hospital.
+
+  _Ear, Throat and Nose Hospitals._--The history of this type of
+  hospital bears out in every particular the reason we have given above
+  for the establishment of special hospitals in the first instance.
+  There can be no doubt that the best conducted throat hospitals have
+  been beneficial to the poorer inhabitants of great cities.
+
+  _Fever Hospitals._--Incidentally we have dealt with these
+  institutions, which are usually supported out of the rates and
+  administered by the medical officers of health, who are paid by the
+  county or municipal authorities.
+
+  _Maternity and Lying-in Hospitals._--This is one of the oldest types
+  of special hospitals, and has done a great deal of good in its time.
+  Owing to modern methods of treatment and hygienic developments the
+  maternity hospital never occupied a stronger position than it does
+  to-day.
+
+  _Mental Hospitals._--In Great Britain the insane are provided for in
+  asylums (see INSANITY, ad fin.), though such establishments, if
+  properly conducted, are essentially hospitals. Scientific and public
+  opinion tend towards the establishment of mental hospitals to which
+  all acute cases of mental disease should be first relegated for
+  treatment and diagnosis before they are consigned to a permanent
+  lunatic hospital. Too little attention on an organized plan has been
+  given to the continuous study of mental disease in its clinical and
+  pathological aspects. It is probable, therefore, that the advent of
+  the mental hospital may lead to important developments in treatment in
+  many ways.
+
+  _Ophthalmic Hospitals._--Of all special hospitals this is one which
+  would probably be the least necessary, providing general hospitals
+  everywhere were properly equipped and organized. No special hospital
+  has probably been so abused in the material sense by the free relief
+  of patients who could well afford to pay for their treatment at the
+  ophthalmic hospital. Several of the existing ophthalmic hospitals have
+  entailed an enormous expenditure, and their modern equipment is
+  wonderfully efficient.
+
+  _Orthopaedic Hospitals._--It is very doubtful whether this type o£
+  hospital is really desirable or necessary. Its necessity may be
+  advocated on the ground that orthopaedic cases may require prolonged
+  treatment, and that the pressure upon the beds of general hospitals by
+  acute cases is nowadays so great as to render the orthopaedic hospital
+  more necessary than ever before.
+
+  _Paralysis and Epileptic Hospitals._--Seeing that the percentage of
+  those who are at present attacked by paralysis and nervous disease
+  shows a continued tendency to increase under modern conditions of life
+  in large cities, hospitals of this type are necessary, and London at
+  any rate, like most foreign towns of importance, possesses, at
+  present, far too little accommodation for this class of case.
+
+  _Skin and Photo-Therapy._--Up to the end of the 19th century hospitals
+  for diseases of the skin were a constant cause of scandal and
+  criticism. The introduction of modern methods of treatment by light
+  and electricity, including photo-therapy, has given an importance to
+  this department and treatment which it did not previously possess. We
+  are of opinion that, on the whole, it is better and more economical to
+  treat these cases in properly equipped departments of general
+  hospitals than in separate institutions.
+
+  _Women's Hospitals._--These hospitals are not absolutely necessary,
+  but considering their popularity with the women themselves, and that
+  several of them have done excellent work, remembering too that women
+  constitute the majority of the population, there seems to be some
+  reason for their continuance.
+
+_The Evolution of the Modern Hospital._--The evolution of the modern
+hospital affords one of the most marvellous evidences of the advance of
+scientific and humanitarian principles which the world has ever seen. At
+the outset hospitals were probably founded by the healthy more for their
+own comfort than out of any regard for the sick. Nowadays the healthy,
+whilst they realize that the more efficient they can make the hospital,
+the more certain, in the human sense, is their own chance of prolonged
+life and health, are, as the progress of the League of Mercy has shown
+in recent years, genuinely anxious for the most part to do something as
+individuals in the days of health in the cause of the sick. Formerly the
+hospital was merely a building or buildings, very often unsuitable for
+the purposes to which it was put, where sick and injured people were
+retained and more frequently than not died. In other words the hygienic
+condition, the methods of treatment and the hospital atmosphere were all
+so relatively unsatisfactory as to yield a mortality in serious cases of
+40%. Nowadays, despite, or possibly because of, the fact that operative
+interference is the rule rather than the exception in the treatment of
+hospital patients, and in consequence of the introduction of antiseptic
+and aseptic methods, the mortality in hospitals is, in all the
+circumstances, relatively less, and probably materially less, than it is
+even amongst patients who are attended in their own homes. Originally
+hospitals were unsystematic, crowded, ill-organized necessities which
+wise people refused to enter, if they had any voice in the matter. At
+the present time in all large cities, and in crowded communities in
+civilized countries, great hospitals have been erected upon extensive
+sites which are so planned as to constitute in fact a village with many
+hundreds of inhabitants. This type of modern hospital has common
+characteristics. A multitude of separate buildings are dotted over the
+site, which may cover 20 acres or upwards. In one such institution,
+within an area of 20 acres, there are 6 m. of drains, 29 m. of water and
+steam pipes, 3 m. of roof gutters, 42 m. of electric wires, and 42
+separate buildings, which to all intents and purposes constitute a
+series of distinct, isolated hospitals, in no case containing more than
+forty-six patients. On the continent of Europe buildings of this class
+are usually of one storey; in the United States, owing to the difficulty
+of obtaining suitable sites and for reasons of economy, some competent
+authorities strenuously advocate high buildings with many storeys for
+town hospitals. In England the majority have two to three storeys each,
+the ward unit containing a ward for twenty beds and two isolation wards
+for one and two beds respectively. The two storeys in modern fever
+hospitals, however, are absolutely distinct--that is, there is no
+internal staircase going from one ward to the others, for each is
+entered separately from the outside. This system carries to its extreme
+limits the principle of separating the patients as much as possible into
+small groups; the acute cases are usually treated in the upper ward, and
+as they become convalescent are removed downstairs. In this way the
+necessity for an entirely separate convalescent block is done away with
+and the patients are kept under the same charge nurse, an arrangement
+which promotes necessary discipline. The unit of these hospitals is the
+pavilion, not the ward, and consists of an acute ward, a convalescent
+ward, separation wards, nurses' duty rooms, store-rooms for linen, an
+open-air balcony upstairs into which beds can be wheeled in suitable
+weather, and a large airing-ground for convalescent patients directly
+accessible from the downstairs ward. Each of the pavilions is raised
+above the ground level, so that air can circulate freely underneath.
+The wall, floor and air spaces in the scarlet fever wards of one of
+these hospitals are respectively 12 ft., 156 ft. and 2028 ft. per bed;
+and in the enteric and diphtheria wards they have been increased to 15
+ft., 195 ft. and 2535 ft. respectively. The provision of so large a
+floor and linear space, especially in the diphtheria wards, is an
+experiment the effect of which will be watched with considerable
+interest. A building of this type is a splendid example of the separate
+pavilion hospital, and is doing great service in the treatment of fevers
+wherever it has been introduced. Some idea of a hospital village, some
+of the wards of which we have been describing, may be gathered from the
+circumstances that it costs from £300,000 to £400,000, that it usually
+contains from 500 to 700 beds, and that the staff numbers from 350 to
+500 persons. The medical superintendent lives in a separate house of his
+own. The nurses are provided with a home, consisting of several blocks
+of buildings under the control of the matron; the charge nurses usually
+occupy the main block; where the dining and general sitting-rooms are
+placed; the day assistant-nurses another block; and lastly, by a most
+excellent arrangement, the night nurses, 80 to 120 in number, have one
+whole block entirely given up to their use. The female servants have a
+second home under the control of the housekeeper, and the male servants
+occupy a third home under the supervision of the steward. The two main
+ideas aimed at are to disconnect the houses occupied by the staff from
+the infected area, and to place the members of each division of the
+staff together, but in separate buildings, under their respective heads.
+These objects are highly to be commended, as they have important
+bearings upon the well-being and discipline of the whole establishment
+and constitute a lesson for all who have to do with buildings where a
+great number of people are constantly employed.
+
+_The Hospital City._--We have shown that the modern hospital where an
+adequate site is available under the most favourable conditions has
+developed into a hospital village. No one who is familiar with the
+existing disadvantages of many of the sites and their surroundings of
+town hospitals in many a large city can have any doubt that, if the
+well-being of the patients and the good of the whole community, combined
+with economical and administrative reasons, together with the provision
+of an adequate system for the instruction and training of medical
+students and nurses, are to be the first considerations with those
+responsible for the hospitals of the future, the time will come, and is
+probably not far distant, when each great urban community will provide
+for the whole of its sick by removing them to a hospital city, which
+will be situated upon a specially selected and most salubrious site some
+distance from the town itself. The atmosphere of a great city grows less
+and less suitable to the rapid and complete recovery of patients who may
+undergo the major operations or be suffering from the severe and acute
+forms of disease. Asepsis, it is true, has reduced the average residence
+in hospital from about 35 to less than 20 days. It has thereby added
+quite one million working days each year to the earning power of the
+artisan classes in London alone. Medical opinion is more and more
+favouring the provision of convalescent and suburban hospitals, to which
+patients suffering from open wounds may be removed from the city
+hospitals. This course, which entails much additional expenditure, is
+advocated to overcome the difficulty arising from the fact that, in
+operation and other cases, the patients cease to continue to make rapid
+progress towards recovery after the seventh or ninth day's residence in
+a city hospital. A change of such cases to the country restores the
+balance and completes the recovery with a rapidity often remarkable.
+
+Thinking out the problem here presented in all its bearings, realizing
+the great and ever-increasing cost of sites for hospitals in great
+cities, the heavy consequential taxes and charges which they have to
+meet there, and all the attendant disadvantages and drawbacks, the
+present writer has ventured upon an anticipation which he hopes may
+prove intelligent and well-founded. Nearly every difficulty in regard to
+the cost of hospitals and in respect to all the many problems presented
+by securing the material required, under present systems, for the
+efficient training of students and nurses, would be removed by the
+erection of the Hospital City, which, he foresees, must ultimately be
+recognized by intelligent communities throughout the civilized world.
+Why should we not have, on a carefully selected site well away from the
+contaminations of the town, and adequately provided with every requisite
+demanded from the site of the most perfect modern hospital which the
+mind of man can conceive, a "Hospital City"? Here would be concentrated
+all the means for relieving and treating every form of disease to the
+abiding comfort of all responsible for their adequacy and success. At
+the present time all the traffic and all the citizens give way to fire
+engines and the ambulance in the public streets. Necessarily the means
+of transit to and from the "Hospital City," and its rapidity, would be
+the most perfect in the world. So the members of the medical staff, the
+friends of the patients, and all who had business in the "Hospital
+City," would find it easier and less exacting in time and energy to be
+attached to one of the hospitals located therein than to one situated in
+the centre of a big population in a crowded town. To meet the urgent and
+accident cases a few receiving houses, or outpost relief stations, with
+a couple of wards, would be situated in various quarters of the working
+city, where patients could be temporarily treated, and whence they could
+be removed to the "Hospital City" by an efficient motor ambulance
+service. The writer can see such a "Hospital City" established, can
+realize the comfort it will prove in practice to the medical profession,
+to the patients' friends, to those who have to manage the hospitals and
+train the medical and nursing students, and indeed to all who may go
+there as well as to the whole community. The initial cost of hospital
+buildings should be reduced at once to a quarter or less of the present
+outlay. They could then be built of the cheapest but most suitable
+material, which would have many advantages, whilst the actual money
+forthcoming from the realization and sale of the existing hospital sites
+in many cities would, in all probability, produce a sum which in the
+whole might prove adequate, or nearly adequate, or even in some cases
+more than adequate, to defray the entire cost of building the "Hospital
+City" and of equipping it too. The cost of administration and working
+must be everywhere reduced to a minimum. The hygienic completeness of
+the whole city, its buildings and appliances, must expedite recovery to
+the maximum extent. In all probability the removal of the sick from
+contact with the healthy would tend in practice so to increase the
+healthiness of the town population, i.e. of the workers of the city
+proper, as to free them from some of the most burdensome trials which
+now cripple their resources and diminish materially the happiness of
+their lives. Probably the United States (where a city has sometimes
+sprung up in twelve months) may be the home where this idea may first
+find its realization in accomplished fact. The writer may never live to
+see such a city in actual working or in its entirety, but he makes bold
+to believe its adoption will one day solve the more difficult of the
+problems involved in providing adequately for the sick in crowded
+communities. He has formulated the idea because it seems desirable to
+encourage discussion as to the best method of checking the growing
+tendency to make hospital buildings everywhere too costly. If the idea
+of the "Hospital City" commends itself to the profession and the public,
+the practice of treating all the hospital accommodation in each city as
+a whole will gradually increase and spread, until most of the present
+pressing difficulties may disappear altogether. That is a consummation
+devoutly to be wished.
+
+_The Problem of Hospital Administration._--A study of the hospital
+problem in various countries, and especially in different portions of
+the English-speaking world, convinces the writer that, apart from local
+differences, the features presented are everywhere practically
+identical. A number of hospitals under independent administration,
+dependent in whole or in part on voluntary contributions, administered
+under different regulations originally representing the idiosyncracies
+of individual managers for the time being, without any standard of
+efficiency or any system of co-operation, which would bring the whole
+of the medical establishments of each or all of the great cities of the
+world under one administration which the combined wisdom and experience
+of hospital managers as a whole might agree to be the best, must mean in
+practice a material gain in every way to each and all of the hospitals
+and their supporters on economical, scientific and other grounds. Such
+an absence of system throughout the world has everywhere led to
+overlapping, to the perpetuation of many abuses, to the admission of an
+increasing number of patients whose social position does not entitle
+them to claim free medical relief at all, and, often too, to the
+admission of patients belonging to a humbler grade of society who are
+already provided for by the rates in institutions which they do not care
+to enter and who find their way to the wards of hospitals which were
+established to provide for patients of an entirely different social
+grade. These evils have continued to grow and increase almost
+everywhere, despite many and varied attempts to grapple with and remove
+them. Amongst these attempts we may mention the assembling of hospital
+conferences, the establishment of special funds and committees, and the
+holding of inquiries of various kinds in London and other British cities
+and also in the United States. The most remarkable proof of the
+impossibility of inducing those responsible to act together and enforce
+the necessary reforms is afforded by the historical fact that the famous
+Commission on Hospital Abuse, known as Sir William Fergusson's
+Commission, in 1871, after an exhaustive inquiry, made the following
+recommendations: (1) to improve the administration of poor-law medical
+relief; (2) to place all free dispensaries under the control of the
+poor-law authorities; (3) to establish an adequate system of provident
+dispensaries; (4) to curtail the unrestricted system of gratuitous
+relief, partly by the selection of cases possessing special clinical
+interest and partly by the exclusion of those who on social grounds are
+not entitled to gratuitous medical advice; (5) the payment of the
+medical staff engaged in both in- and out-patient work, and the payment
+of fees by patients in the pay wards and in the consultation departments
+of the voluntary hospitals. Other commissions have since been appointed,
+have reported, and have disappeared, with the result that nothing
+practical had been done up to 1910 in the way of reform. Yet it is an
+undoubted fact that, if the foregoing recommendations of Sir William
+Fergusson's Commission had been carried out in their entirety at the
+time they were made, practically all the abuses from which British
+hospitals afterwards suffered would have been removed, and the
+charitable public might have been saved several millions of pounds
+sterling. It may be well, therefore, briefly to indicate exactly what
+these changes amount to, and how they can be made effective at any time
+by those responsible for the working of a hospital.
+
+There is no doubt that all the facts available tend to prove that the
+voluntary hospitals are used to an increasing extent by persons able to
+make payment or partial payment for the treatment which they receive.
+The evidence and statistics demonstrating these facts may be readily
+gathered from a study of the Report (1909) and Evidence of the Royal
+Commission on the Poor Laws and Relief of Distress (Lord George
+Hamilton's Commission) and in the authorities mentioned at the end of
+this article. The underlying cause of the abuse was that no means
+existed whereby persons of moderate income could obtain efficient
+treatment and hospital care when ill at a rate which they could afford
+to pay. The system, or want of system, whereby medical relief is granted
+to practically all applicants by the voluntary hospitals grew up without
+any combined attempt to organize it efficiently or to check abuses. Such
+a system rests upon a wrong basis, and the best interests of every class
+of the population demand its abolition in favour of one which shall
+afford the maximum of justice (1) to the poor, (2) to those who can
+afford to pay in part or in whole the cost of their medical treatment
+and care at a hospital, (3) to the medical profession, (4) to the
+subscribers and supporters of voluntary hospitals, whose gifts should be
+strictly applied to the purposes they were intended to serve, and (5) to
+the ratepayers, who are entitled to a guarantee that the maximum
+efficiency is secured by the poor-law system of medical relief. The
+remedy is very simple and easy of application. Every voluntary hospital,
+while admitting all accidents and urgent cases needing immediate
+attention, should institute a system whereby each applicant would be
+asked to prove that he or she was a fit object of charity. The only real
+attempt at reform, up to 1909, was the appointment by many of the larger
+hospitals of almoners to ascertain whether certain selected patients
+were in a position to pay or not. By putting the burden of proof of
+eligibility to receive free medical relief upon the patients and their
+friends, all abuse of every kind must speedily cease. There would be no
+hardship entailed upon the patients by such a system, as experience has
+proved, but, to make it effective, the system of providing for in- and
+out-patients in Great Britain requires radical change, for, in existing
+circumstance, if a voluntary hospital attempted to enforce this simple
+method, it would be met with the difficulty that, where it was found
+that a patient or his friends could pay at any rate something, no
+department connected with British hospitals existed--as is the case in
+regard to hospitals in the United States--enabling such in-patients to
+be transferred to accommodation provided in paying wards. In the same
+way, directly the out-patients were dealt with under such a system, it
+would be made apparent, where a case could be properly treated, under
+the poor law, that no plan of co-operation to secure this was organized
+under existing conditions. If the patient, being of a better class, were
+suffering from a minor ailment, and could be properly dealt with at a
+provident dispensary, the fees of which he could easily pay, the same
+absence of co-operation must make it practically impossible readily to
+enforce the system. When, again, an out-patient of the better class was
+entitled, from the severity of his ailment, to receive the advantages of
+a consultation by the medical staff, no method existed whereby this aid
+could be rendered to him, and his transfer afterwards to the care of a
+medical practitioner attached to some provident dispensary, or resident
+near the patient's home, could be properly carried out. It follows that
+adequate reform required that methods should be adopted with a view to
+some part or all the cost of treatment being provided by the patient or
+his friends through an entire reorganization of the system of medical
+relief not only at the voluntary hospitals, but under the poor-law
+system. The reforms required in regard to voluntary hospitals are that
+every large hospital shall have connected with the in-patient
+department, in separate buildings, but under the administration of the
+managers, pay wards for the reception of those patients who are able to
+pay some part or all of the cost of treatment; that, as regards
+out-patients, the existing out-patient department should be abolished;
+that in substitution for it each hospital should have a casualty
+department and a department for consultation. In the casualty department
+every applicant should be seen once, and be there disposed of by being
+handed on to the consultation department; if his case was sufficiently
+important, he should then be transferred to some provident or poor-law
+dispensary, or be referred to a private medical attendant. It would no
+doubt take time to overcome the incidental difficulties which would
+necessarily arise in effecting so radical a reform as is here
+contemplated, but if all voluntary hospitals adopted the same system,
+and were to be brought into active co-operation with provident
+dispensaries and poor-law dispensaries and private medical
+practitioners, the new system might be successfully introduced and made
+effective within twelve months, and probably within six months, from the
+date of its commencement. This opinion is based upon the assumption that
+the provident dispensaries would be standardized, and that every one of
+them would be brought up to a state of the highest efficiency. In the
+town of Northampton the Royal Victoria Dispensary has been worked with
+the maximum of success, so far as the patients and the medical
+practitioners are concerned. In London and in other large towns like
+Manchester and elsewhere the provident dispensary has not succeeded as
+it has done in Northampton, because so many members of the medical
+profession are not alive to the importance of making it their first
+business to provide that every patient connected with the provident
+dispensary who attends at the surgery of a private medical practitioner
+shall receive at least equal attention and accommodation to that
+afforded to every other private patient, whatever the fee he may pay. In
+the same way, poor-law dispensaries must be radically reformed.
+Everything which tends to excite a feeling of shame on the part of the
+patient attending the poor-law dispensary, such as the printing of the
+word "pauper" at the beginning of the space on which the patient's name
+is entered, must be abolished, and the class of medical service and all
+the arrangements for the treatment of the patients, however poor, at the
+poor-law dispensary, must be made at least as efficient as those
+provided by voluntary hospitals. There undoubtedly is considerable
+overlapping between the voluntary hospitals and the poor law in Great
+Britain. The Royal Commission on the Poor Laws and Relief of Distress
+(1909) deals with this point with a view to set up a standard of medical
+relief to be granted by each class and type of hospitals, provides for
+adequate co-operation between all classes of institutions; and these
+reforms may be commended. It is too often forgotten that the function of
+the poor law is the relief of destitution, while it should be the object
+and duty of each voluntary hospital and indeed of all hospitals other
+than poor-law institutions to apply their resources entirely to the
+prevention of destitution, by stepping in to grant free medical relief
+to the provident and thrifty when, through no fault of their own, they
+meet with an accident or are overtaken by disease. An adequate system of
+co-operation would preserve the privilege of the voluntary hospitals,
+which save such patients from the necessity of requiring the relief
+which it is the object of the poor law to supply.
+
+We have dealt with the relative advantages and disadvantages of
+rate-supported hospitals and voluntary hospitals. We should regard the
+establishment of a complete state-provided or rate-provided system of
+gratuitous medical relief, either for indoor patients or for out-door
+patients, or for both, as a grave evil. Such a system must eventually
+lead to the extinction of voluntary hospitals. If this disaster ever
+happens, it must result in the gravest evils, for it could not fail to
+injure the morale of all classes and tend to harden unnecessarily the
+relations between the rich and poor, who, under the voluntary system,
+have come to share each other's sufferings and to be animated by respect
+and confidence towards each other.
+
+  _Hospital Construction. Locality and Site._--Hospitals are required
+  for the use of the community in a certain locality, and to be of use
+  they must be within reach of the centre of population. Formerly the
+  greater difficulty of locomotion made it necessary that they should be
+  actually in the midst of towns and cities, and to some extent this
+  continues to prevail. It is now proved to demonstration that this is
+  not the best plan. Fresh and pure air being a prime necessity, as well
+  as a considerable amount of space of actual area in proportion to
+  population, it would certainly be better to place hospitals as much in
+  the outskirts as is consistent with considerations of usefulness and
+  convenience. In short, the best site would be open fields; but if that
+  be impracticable, a large space, "a sanitary zone" as it is called by
+  Tollet, should be kept permanently free between them and surrounding
+  buildings, certainly never less than double the height of the highest
+  building. In the selection of a site various factors must be taken
+  into consideration. If the hospital is to be used as the clinical
+  school of a university or medical college, then the most suitable
+  ground available within easy reach of the university or college must
+  be secured. If, on the other hand, the hospital is not to be used as a
+  teaching school, a site more in the country should be favoured. In any
+  case ample ground must be purchased to permit of the wards receiving
+  the maximum of sunlight, an abundant supply of fresh air, and leave
+  room for possible future extensions. The site should be
+  self-contained; it should be in such a position as to prevent the
+  hospital being shadowed by other buildings in the neighbourhood, and,
+  unless the site is alongside a public park, it should be entirely
+  surrounded by streets of from 40 to 60 ft. in width. It is also
+  necessary to secure that adequate water mains serve the site, and that
+  the system of sewers be ample for all sewage purposes.
+
+  The difference between the expense of purchase of land in a town and
+  in the environs is generally considerable, and this is therefore an
+  additional reason for choosing a suburban locality. Even with existing
+  hospitals it would be in most cases pecuniarily advantageous to
+  dispose of the present building and site and retain only a receiving
+  house in the town. St Thomas's in London, the Hôtel-Dieu in Paris and
+  the Royal Infirmary in Manchester, are all good examples where this
+  might have been carried out. In none, however, has this been done;
+  these hospitals have been rebuilt, at enormous outlay, in the cities
+  as before, although not exactly in the same locality.
+
+  As regards the actual site itself, where circumstances admit of
+  choice, a dry gravelly or sandy soil should be selected, in a position
+  where the ground water is low and but little subject to fluctuations
+  of level, and where the means of drainage are capable of being
+  effectually carried out. There should also be a cheerful sunny aspect
+  and some protection from the coldest winds.
+
+  _Form of Building._--A form of building must be selected which answers
+  the following conditions: (a) the freest possible circulation of air
+  round each ward, with no cul-de-sac or enclosed spaces where air can
+  stagnate; (b) free play of sunlight upon each ward during some portion
+  at least of the day; (c) the possibility of isolating any ward, or
+  group of wards, effectually, in case of infectious disease breaking
+  out; (d) the possibility of ventilating every ward independently of
+  any other part of the establishment. Those conditions can only be
+  fulfilled by one system, viz. a congeries of houses or pavilions, more
+  or less connected with each other by covered ways, so as to facilitate
+  convenient and economical administration. The older plans of huge
+  blocks of buildings, arranged in squares or rectangles, enclosing
+  spaces without free circulation of air, are obviously objectionable.
+  Even when arranged in single lines or crosses they are not desirable,
+  as the wards either communicate with each other or with common
+  passages or corridors, rendering separation impossible. On this point
+  it may be remarked that some of the buildings of the 18th century were
+  more wisely constructed than many of those in the first half of the
+  19th century, and that the older buildings have been from time to time
+  spoilt by ignorant additions made in later times.
+
+  The question next arises, is it better to have pavilions of two or
+  more storeys high, or to have single-storeyed huts or cottages
+  scattered more widely? For the treatment of tuberculosis there can be
+  no doubt that, for hygienic reasons, the _châlet_ or single-patient
+  hut is the best for the patients in the acute stages; for economical
+  reasons the _châlet_ has not been heretofore as popular as it deserves
+  to be, but if the welfare of the patient is to be the first
+  consideration there is no doubt that the _châlet_ will ultimately
+  prevail. It has the merit of being easily adapted to villages and
+  houses where there is a garden, and in this way poor families may
+  readily isolate and treat a member affected by tuberculosis at a cost
+  within their means. For hospital purposes, so long as the system of
+  placing hospital buildings in densely crowded areas prevails,
+  many-storeyed buildings for hospital purposes are likely to continue.
+  Should the proposal to institute a Hospital City ultimately prevail,
+  then it is probable that the majority of the pavilions will be
+  single-storeyed. Still some hospital authorities prefer the
+  multiple-storeyed system for administrative reasons, contending that
+  single-storeyed pavilions have no special advantages over two or
+  three-storeyed buildings, whereas the difficulties in administration
+  and service of a hospital building on the single-storey principle
+  outweigh any argument against the two- or three-storey building, if it
+  is properly designed and constructed. We hope that the time is
+  approaching when architects and those members of the public who have
+  to provide the money for hospital buildings will insist upon the
+  erection of simple structures, costing little, so that the whole cost
+  of hospital buildings may be, as it ought to be, reduced by at least
+  half when compared with the expenditure of the past.
+
+  The pavilions may be arranged in various ways; they may be joined at
+  one end by a corridor, or may be divided by a central corridor at
+  right angles to them. In fact, the plan is very elastic, and adapts
+  itself to almost any circumstances. A certain distance, not less than
+  twice the height of the pavilions, ought to be preserved between them.
+  By this means free circulation of air and plenty of light are secured,
+  whilst separation or isolation may be at once accomplished if
+  required.
+
+  _Foundations, Building Materials, &c._--It is of the first consequence
+  that a hospital should be dry; therefore the foundation and walls
+  ought to be constructed so as to prevent the inroads of damp. An
+  impervious foundation has the further advantage of preventing
+  emanations from the soil rising up in consequence of the suction force
+  produced by the higher temperature of the internal atmosphere of the
+  building itself. There should be free ventilation in the basement, and
+  the raising of the whole on arches is a good plan, now generally
+  carried out in hot climates. If the pavilions are two or more storeys
+  high, it is advisable to use fire-proof material as much as possible,
+  but single-storeyed huts may be of wood. In any case effectual means
+  of excluding damp must be employed. The interiors of wards ought to be
+  rendered as non-absorbent as possible, by being covered with
+  impervious coatings, such as glazed tiles (Parian, though much used,
+  is apt to crack), silicate paint, which is preferable to tiles, or the
+  like. The ceilings ought to be treated in the same way as the walls.
+  There must be a concrete floor between each flat, experience showing
+  that if a teak floor is laid hard on the concrete a very noisy floor
+  is the result, but if the teak is laid on strips of wood, leaving a
+  small space between the concrete and the floor, a more silent floor is
+  obtained. For the floors themselves various materials have been
+  suggested: in France there is a preference for flags (_dalles_), but
+  in England wood is more liked; and indeed hard well-fitting wood,
+  such as teak, oak or American willow, leaves nothing to be desired.
+  The surface should be waxed and polished or varnished. Even deal
+  floors can be rendered non-absorbent by waxing, by impregnating them
+  with solid paraffin as recommended by Dr Langstaff.
+
+  _Shape and Arrangement of Wards._--It is now generally agreed that
+  wards should have windows on at least two opposite sides. Three main
+  shapes have been proposed: (a) long wards with windows down each side,
+  and (generally) one at the farther end with balcony; 26 ft. is a good
+  width for a ward of twelve or fourteen beds, but for larger wards of
+  more than fourteen beds the width should be not less than 28 ft.; (b)
+  wards nearly square, with windows on three sides; and (c) circular
+  wards with windows all round. The first (a) is the form usually
+  adopted in pavilions; (b) is recommended by Dr C. F. Folsom (_Plans
+  for the Johns Hopkins Hospital_); and (c) has been suggested by Mr
+  John Marshall, F.R.S. (_Nat. Assoc. for Promotion of Social Science_,
+  1878). Of these (b) seems the least to be commended, and (c), now
+  comparatively common, has distinct advantages in an administrative
+  sense, when the wards are constructed as to floor space so as to allow
+  the same proportion of superficial space per bed in a circular ward to
+  that which is contained in a rectangular ward, as is the case at the
+  Great Northern Central Hospital, London. Some authorities object to a
+  chimney-stack up the centre of the circular ward, urging that it
+  prevents the nurses from having complete supervision over all the
+  beds. In practice this objection seems to us to have little force, and
+  it can be avoided by placing the fireplaces at the side of the
+  circular ward, if desirable, though this adds somewhat to the cost of
+  building.
+
+  Each bed should be a little distance, say from 8 in. to 1 ft. from the
+  wall, and each bed may be reckoned as 6½ ft. long; this gives 7½ ft.
+  on each side. Between the ends of the beds about 10 ft. space is
+  necessary, so that 25 or 26 ft. of total breadth may be taken as a
+  favourable width. The wards of the Herbert Hospital are 26 ft.; but
+  some exceed this, as, for instance, St Thomas's, London, and the New
+  Royal infirmary, Edinburgh, 28; new Hôtel Dieu, 29; and Lariboisière,
+  30. There seems no necessity for exceeding 26 for a ward of twelve or
+  fourteen beds, but if the breadth be greater there ought to be more
+  window space--the great difficulty being to get a wide space
+  thoroughly ventilated. There ought to be only two rows of beds, one
+  down each wall, with a window on each side of each bed.
+
+  For ventilation two things are required--sufficient space and
+  sufficiently frequent change or renewal of air. As regards space, this
+  must be considered with reference both to total space and to lateral
+  or floor space. Unless a minimum of floor space be laid down, we shall
+  always be in danger of overcrowding, for cubic space may be supplied
+  vertically with little or no advantage to the occupier. If we allow a
+  minimum distance of 4 ft. between the beds and 10 ft. between the ends
+  of the beds, this gives 100 sq. ft. of space per bed; less than this
+  is undesirable. In severe surgical cases, fever cases and the like, a
+  much larger space is required; and in the Edinburgh Infirmary 150 sq.
+  ft. is allowed. Cubic space must be regulated by the means of
+  ventilation; we can rarely change the air oftener than three times in
+  an hour, and therefore the space ought to be at least one-third of the
+  hourly supply. This ought not to be less than 4000 cubic ft. per bed,
+  even in ordinary cases of sickness--and the third of that is 1333
+  cubic ft. of space. With 100 sq. ft. of floor space a ward of 13½ ft.
+  high would supply this amount, and there is but little to be gained by
+  raising the ceiling higher,--indeed 12 ft. is practically enough. The
+  experiments of Drs Cowles and Wood of Boston (see _Report of State
+  Board of Health of Massachusetts for 1879_) show that above 12 ft.
+  there is little or no movement in the air except towards the outlet
+  ventilator; the space above is therefore of little value as
+  ventilation space. Authorities nowadays, however, fix 10 ft. 6 in. as
+  the maximum, and any height above this may be disregarded for purposes
+  of ventilation. Additional height adds also to the cost of
+  construction, increases the expense of warming, makes cleaning more
+  difficult, and to some extent hampers ventilation. Whatever be the
+  height of wards, the windows must reach to the ceiling, or there must
+  be ventilators in the ceiling or at the top of the side walls. If this
+  be not arranged for, a mass of foul air is apt to stagnate near the
+  ceiling, and sooner or later to be driven down upon the inmates. The
+  reasons for a large and constant renewal of air are, of course, the
+  immediate removal and dilution of the organic matter given off by the
+  inmates; as this is greater in quantity and more offensive and
+  dangerous in sickness than in health, the change of air in the former
+  case must be greater than in the latter. Hence in serious cases an
+  amount of air practically unlimited is desirable--the aim of true
+  ventilation being to approach as near as possible to the condition of
+  pure external air. Without going too much into details, a few general
+  rules may be laid down. (1) Fresh air ought, if possible, to be
+  brought in at the lowest part of the ward, warmed if necessary; (2)
+  foul air ought to be taken out at the highest part of the ward; (3)
+  fresh air should reach each patient without passing over the bed of
+  any other; (4) the vitiated air should be removed from each patient
+  without passing over the bed of any other; (5) 4000 cubic ft. of fresh
+  air per head per hour should be the minimum in ordinary cases of
+  sickness, to be increased without limit in severer cases; (6) the air
+  should move in no part of a ward at a greater rate than 1½ ft. per
+  second, except at the point of entry, where it should not exceed 5 ft.
+  per second, and at the outlet, where the rate may be somewhat higher;
+  about 64 sq. in. of inlet and outlet sectional area ought to be
+  supplied per head as a minimum; (7) every opportunity ought to be
+  taken of freely flushing the wards with air, by means of open windows,
+  when this can be done with safety.
+
+  Warming is a question of great importance in most climates, especially
+  in such a climate as that of Great Britain, where every system of
+  ventilation must involve either the warming of some portion of the
+  incoming air, or the contriving its delivery without too great
+  lowering of temperature; at the same time it cannot be too strongly
+  insisted upon that the tendency is too much in the direction of
+  allowing warmth to supersede freshness of air. There are very few
+  cases of disease (if any) that are not more injured by foul air than
+  by low temperature; and in the zymotic diseases, such as typhus,
+  enteric fever, smallpox, &c., satisfactory results have been obtained
+  even in winter weather by almost open-air treatment. At the same time
+  a reasonable warmth is desirable on all grounds if it can be obtained
+  without sacrificing purity of atmosphere. For all practical purposes
+  60° to 63° F. is quite sufficient, and surgical and lying-in cases do
+  well in lower temperatures. Various plans of warming have been
+  recommended, but probably a combination is the best. It is inadvisable
+  to do away altogether with radiant heat, although it is not always
+  possible to supply sufficient warmth with open-air fire-places alone.
+  A portion of the air may be warmed by being passed over a heating
+  apparatus before it enters the ward, by having an air-chamber round
+  the fire-place or stove, or by the use of radiators in the ward
+  itself. In each case, however, the air must be supplied independently
+  to each ward, so that no general system of air supply is applicable.
+
+  The lighting of the ward at night will be most conveniently done by
+  means of electricity in the form of a lamp for each bed, where gas is
+  used each jet should have a special ventilator to carry off combustion
+  products, as in the Edinburgh Infirmary.
+
+  _The Furniture of Wards_ should be simple, clean and non-absorbent;
+  the bedsteads of iron, mattresses hair, laid on spring bottoms without
+  sacking. No curtains should be permitted.
+
+  The water-supply ought to be on the constant system, and plentiful; 50
+  gallons per head per diem may be taken as a fair minimum estimate.
+
+  The closets ought to be of the simplest construction, the pans of
+  earthenware all in one piece, the flushing arrangements simple but
+  perfect, and the supply of water ample. Each ward should have its own
+  closets, lavatories, &c., built in small annexes, with a
+  cross-ventilated vestibule separating them from the ward. All the
+  pipes should be disconnected from the drains, the closets by
+  intercepting traps, the sink and waste pipes by being made to pour
+  their contents over trapped gratings. The soil pipes should be
+  ventilated, and placed outside the walls, protected as may be
+  necessary from frost. Each ward should have a movable bath, which can
+  be wheeled to the patient's bedside.
+
+  Each ward should have attached to it a small kitchen for any special
+  cooking that may be required, a room for the physician or surgeon, and
+  generally a room with one or two separate beds. No cooking should be
+  done in the wards, nor ought washing, airing or drying of linen to be
+  allowed there.
+
+  _Hospital Economics._--There is no doubt that the voluntary system of
+  hospital government is far more economical than any system of state or
+  rate-supported hospitals. That the present condition of the voluntary
+  hospitals in regard to economy is all that can be wished is not, of
+  course, true. Still, resting as this system does upon the goodwill of
+  the public for its continuance and maintenance, it is satisfactory to
+  note that there is a continuous improvement in system and method,
+  which makes for economy. It has taken many years to perfect and
+  enforce the uniform system of hospital accounts, but this system with
+  the co-operation of the great funds has produced economical results of
+  the first importance. This system originated at the Queen's Hospital,
+  Birmingham, in 1869, and was devised by an eminent Birmingham
+  accountant, William Laundy, and Sir Henry Burdett. It proved so
+  fruitful in practice that six years later it was introduced at the
+  "Dreadnought" Seamen's Hospital, the first London hospital to use it,
+  and was then adopted spontaneously by a few of the best-administered
+  hospitals where the managers were keen in enforcing economy. In 1891,
+  in order to secure for comparative purposes an identical
+  classification of the items and charges included in the system, a
+  glossary or index of classification was prepared and published in the
+  _Hospital Annual_ of that year. This index enabled the same
+  classification of the many items included in the expenditure of a
+  great institution to be adopted generally. In the same year a
+  committee of hospital secretaries, at the instigation of the
+  Metropolitan Hospital Sunday Fund, revised and elaborated the index of
+  classification, and the new index was adopted by a general meeting of
+  hospital secretaries in January 1892. The Council of the Metropolitan
+  Hospital Sunday Fund approved it, and the Uniform System of Accounts
+  was formulated by that body for the use of the metropolitan hospitals.
+  In 1906 the whole of this system was inquired into on behalf of the
+  King's Fund by Mr John G. Griffiths, F.C.A., when a committee of
+  hospital secretaries and representatives of the King's Fund prepared a
+  further revision of the system. This was completed in the course of
+  the year and adopted by the King's, the Hospital Sunday and the
+  Hospital Saturday Funds. The publication of a book by Sir Henry
+  Burdett led to the adoption of the system in several of the British
+  Colonies, and as a result of the action taken in the British Empire
+  the Uniform System of Accounts has recently been set up and adopted by
+  the principal hospitals of the United States of America. The prince of
+  Wales (George V.) testified to the value of this system in enforcing
+  control over expenditure, and Sir Henry Burdett adapted it for the use
+  of the authorities of all charities of every class. It is probable
+  that no single reform has had a greater influence for good upon the
+  administration of charitable institutions than the evolution and
+  enforcement of the uniform system of accounts.
+
+  _Nursing._--The arrangements for nursing the sick have greatly
+  improved in recent times, although controversy still goes on as to the
+  best method of carrying it out. In arranging for the nursing in a
+  hospital both efficiency and economy have to be considered. No ward in
+  a general hospital for acute cases should contain more than 24 beds.
+  In hospitals with clinical schools the proportion of nurses to
+  patients should be about one nurse to every three patients, and if
+  possible every ward should have a probationer on duty at night in
+  addition to the night nurse. In all well-conducted hospitals it is now
+  arranged that the nurses on night duty have a hot meal served in the
+  general dining-room during the night, and this is only possible where
+  a nurse and a probationer are allowed for each ward. The nurses'
+  quarters should be separate from the hospital proper, and connected by
+  a conservatory or covered way. Each nurse should have a separate
+  bedroom, measuring not less than 12 ft. long, 9 ft. broad and 10 ft.
+  high. A bath should be allowed for every eight rooms, and the
+  water-closets and sinks should, if possible, be in sanitary towers cut
+  off from the main block of buildings.
+
+  Circumstances must to a large extent determine the arrangement, but it
+  seems desirable on the whole that the work of a nurse should be
+  confined to a single ward at a time if possible. The duties of nurses
+  ought also to be distinctly confined to attendance on the sick, and no
+  menial work, such as scrubbing floors and the like, should be demanded
+  of them; a proper staff of servants ought to be employed for such
+  purposes. It is also desirable that a separate pavilion for lodging
+  the nurses should be set apart, and that fair and reasonable time for
+  rest and recreation should be allowed. Some discussion has taken place
+  as to the advisability of placing the nursing of a hospital in the
+  hands of a sisterhood or a separate corporation. It will, however, be
+  admitted that the best plan is for the nursing staff of each hospital
+  to be special and under one head within the establishment itself, even
+  though it may be connected with some main institution outside. The
+  nursing must, of course, be carried on in accordance with the
+  directions and treatment of the physicians and surgeons.
+
+  _General._--The kitchen, laundry, dispensary and other offices must be
+  in a separate pavilion or pavilions, away from the wards, but within
+  convenient access. A separate pavilion for isolation of infectious
+  cases is desirable. This may be a wooden hut, or in some cases even a
+  tent; either is probably preferable to a permanent block of buildings.
+  A disinfecting chamber ought to be provided where heat can be applied
+  to clothes and bedding, for the destruction both of vermin and of the
+  germs of disease. It is advisable to expose all bedding and clothing
+  to its influence after each occasion of wear. Although this may entail
+  additional expense from the deterioration of fabric, it is worth the
+  outlay to secure immunity from disease. This plan is rigidly followed
+  at the Royal South Hants Infirmary at Southampton. It is of great
+  importance that the wards should be periodically emptied and kept
+  unoccupied for not less than one month in each year, and longer if
+  possible. During such period thorough cleansing and flushing with air
+  could be carried out, so as to prevent any continuous deposit of
+  organic matter.
+
+  _Gate House or Admission Block._--If the efficiency of a hospital and
+  the regular and smooth working of its departments are to be secured,
+  the proper management and control of the admission department is of
+  the greatest importance. When one considers for a moment the number of
+  applicants of all ages in various stages of disease, and the number of
+  accident cases of every degree of severity who present themselves
+  every day seeking admission, it will be evident that the most careful
+  supervision must be exercised on the very threshold. It is essential
+  that every precaution be taken against the admission of an unsuitable
+  case, or the refusal, without careful examination, of any patient
+  seeking admission. It is only necessary to instance the case of a
+  patient with delirium tremens being admitted to a general ward at a
+  late hour, or a case of infectious disease admitted through an
+  overlook, or a case refused admission and expiring on the way home, in
+  order to illustrate the danger and trouble which might arise should
+  the supervision exercised over this department not be systematic,
+  stringent and thorough.
+
+  To secure this proper control it is necessary that the admission
+  department should be designed on a definite plan suitable for the
+  purposes in view. It is not sufficient to utilize any available rooms,
+  say, in the basement of the building, where patients may be casually
+  interviewed by a house surgeon or physician. This department should be
+  as carefully designed and equipped as any other department of the
+  hospital.
+
+  Within recent years much more attention has been devoted to the
+  details of construction than was formerly considered necessary, but
+  even in the best type of hospital there is still much to be desired in
+  this respect. It is essential for an architect in designing any
+  building to have before him an accurate idea of all the requirements,
+  and the use to which each foot of space is to be put; for unless he is
+  furnished with this information it is not possible for him to design
+  his building so as to give effect to all the details which are so
+  necessary. The following is an endeavour in a general way to enumerate
+  the various points which an architect should have before him in
+  designing the admission department of a general hospital:--
+
+  The admission department should be conveniently placed on the ground
+  floor of the hospital--or it may be a detached building--with a large
+  court where ambulance wagons or other vehicles may easily pass each
+  other on approaching or retiring from the institution. The entrance to
+  the admission department for patients should, if possible, be entirely
+  separate and distinct from that for the staff and students. An
+  additional entrance should be provided for patients' friends on
+  visiting days, in order that they may be able to enter the hospital
+  without passing through the patients' entrance, or coming into contact
+  with an accident case or other patient seeking admission. The main
+  entrance door should be protected by a covered porch so that patients
+  may be removed from the ambulance or cab to the examination room
+  without being exposed to the weather or the gaze of inquisitive
+  onlookers. This door should be sufficiently wide to allow two hand
+  ambulances or barrows to pass should they require to be brought out to
+  the ambulance or cab, and to facilitate this the floor of the entrance
+  hall should be as nearly as possible on a level with that of the
+  outside porch. Adjoining the entrance vestibule, lavatory
+  accommodation should be provided for males and females who may
+  accompany the patient. Lavatory accommodation should also be provided
+  for porters on duty, and all lavatories should have a cut-off
+  ventilating passage.
+
+  A recess to store ambulance barrows should adjoin the entrance, and
+  this recess must be in proportion to the size of the hospital, in
+  order that a hand ambulance may always be available when an accident
+  or urgent case arrives. The vestibule should lead into a large
+  waiting-hall with an inquiry office at its entrance, provided with a
+  telephone exchange, private exchange box, also letter and parcel
+  racks. If possible a window of the inquiry office should command a
+  view of the main entrance. A room should be provided for the medical
+  officer on duty, so that a medical officer may be always at hand and
+  that no delay will occur in attending to a patient on arrival.
+
+  Leading off from this waiting-hall, well-lit examination rooms should
+  be available for the thorough examination of patients, both male and
+  female, the number of rooms, of course, varying with the size of the
+  hospital and the amount of work to be done. Each of these rooms should
+  be fitted with a wash-hand basin and sink, and a plentiful supply of
+  hot and cold water.
+
+  Two rooms, with recovery rooms adjoining, should be fitted up as small
+  operating-rooms for the treatment of minor casualties. A special room
+  should also be furnished with an X-ray outfit, and arrangements should
+  be made whereby this room can be readily darkened so that suspected
+  fractures, &c. may be examined with the fluorescent screen.
+
+  Adjoining the admission department two small wards should be provided
+  for the accommodation of drunk or noisy cases unfit to be placed in
+  the general wards. To these "emergency wards" must be attached the
+  usual bathroom and lavatory accommodation, nurses' room, ward kitchen
+  and urine-test room or small lavatory. These wards should have double
+  windows in order to prevent noise being heard outside if the wards are
+  near other buildings.
+
+  The interior walls of the admission department should, as far as
+  possible, have a smooth and impervious surface, in order that they may
+  be easily cleaned. All angles should be avoided and all corners
+  rounded. Although glazed tiles are open to the criticism that they
+  have numerous joints, they probably make the most suitable wall yet
+  devised, as they can be easily washed down at very small cost. The
+  corridors and waiting-hall should be tiled to a height of 6 ft. 6 in.,
+  and the upper walls covered with Parian or Kean's cement, and be
+  treated with three coats of flat paint and two coats of enamel, or,
+  what is equally suitable and less costly, enamellette. The floors of
+  the passages and corridors throughout the department should be covered
+  with terrazzo, which is a mixture of Portland cement and marble chips.
+  A margin of 1 ft. round the rooms should be treated in this way, and
+  the terrazzo carried up this same distance on the wall to join the
+  tiles. The remainder of the floors should be covered with hard wood,
+  such as American maple or teak. As these floors require to be
+  frequently washed, oak is not so suitable. Oak very soon becomes
+  destroyed with water; the same trouble is experienced with pitch pine.
+  The doors should also be made of a hard wood, preferably teak, and
+  have no mouldings or grooves where dust can lodge. They should be wide
+  enough to admit an ambulance barrow or bed with ease. In no case
+  should the doors of an examination room be less than 3 ft. 6 in. in
+  width.
+
+  As an aid to a complete understanding of the varied work which has to
+  be provided for, and the most effective method of carrying it out, the
+  accompanying plans are given of an admission block designed to embody
+  the main principles which govern the construction of such a
+  department.
+
+  [Illustration: Plans of Ground Floor and Basement of a Hospital.]
+
+  All accidents and patients seeking admission to this hospital enter
+  through the central gateway, and on the left is shown the porters'
+  room, where a porter is always in readiness to attend to any
+  applicant. This room has suitable accommodation for parcels, letters,
+  telephones, &c., and adjoining it is a small lavatory for the use of
+  porters. At the side of the porters' room is the entrance to the
+  central waiting-hall, which is lit from the roof. On one side of this
+  hall are examination and dressing-rooms for males, with lavatory
+  accommodation; and on the other side similar provision for females,
+  with the addition of a nurses' duty room. At the end of the central
+  hall are two operating theatres, with recovery room adjoining each;
+  one theatre for males, and the other for females. Between these
+  theatres are rooms for sterilizers and dressings. An X-ray examination
+  room is provided beyond the male examination room on the right of the
+  hall. In the basement, under the entrance-hall and operating theatres
+  are two bathrooms for males and two for females, with W.C.'s for each.
+  The remainder of the basement is used as a store for patients'
+  clothes, and a hot-air chamber is provided for purposes of
+  disinfection. The basement can be reached by a lift or by a wide
+  staircase which is situated at the end of the waiting-hall.
+
+  In the above plan provision is made for a sitting-room for the medical
+  officer on duty. This is a new and essential feature in the admission
+  block unit of all hospitals in large cities, for it should secure that
+  no patient is kept waiting for many minutes before being seen. One of
+  the blots on the management of many hospitals is that regrettable
+  delays often take place, and much dissatisfaction and avoidable
+  suffering may arise from this difficulty in the administration of a
+  general hospital. We have given this plan of a model gatehouse or
+  admission block for a modern general hospital, because the block as it
+  stands contains all the elements necessary for a receiving-house block
+  in cities in connexion with a great Hospital city situated outside its
+  area, in fulfilment of the suggestion for a Hospital city made above.
+  Apart from its interest as a new feature which all new hospitals
+  should adopt, the gatehouse or admission block has an importance in
+  the wider sense, that it may come to form the key to the solution of
+  the problem of how best to provide hospital accommodation for the poor
+  in great cities under the best hygienic conditions, while protecting
+  them from the misery and danger of prolonged delay in first treatment,
+  especially in connexion with accidents and other cases of urgency.
+
+  BIBLIOGRAPHY.--Sir H. Burdett, _Cottage Hospitals, General, Fever and
+  Convalescent, their Construction, Management and Work_ (London, 1877,
+  1880 and 1896); Tollet, _Les Édifices hospitaliers depuis leur_
+  _origine jusqu'à nos jours_ (Paris, 1892); Sir H. Burdett, _Hospitals
+  and Asylums of the World_, with large portfolio of plans to a uniform
+  scale (London, 1893) (a supplement is published every year bringing
+  the information up to date, entitled _Burdett's Hospitals and
+  Charities_); J. S. Billings, _The Principles of Ventilation, Heating
+  and their Practical Application_ (New York, 1893); Galton, _Healthy
+  Hospitals_ (London, 1893); Tollet, _Les Hôpitaux au XIX^e siècle_
+  (Paris, 1894); Billings and Hurd, _Suggestions to Hospital and Asylum
+  Visitors_ (Philadelphia, 1895); Oswald Kuhn, "Hospitals," _Handbuch
+  der Architektur_, 4th part, 5th half-volume, part i. (Stuttgart,
+  1897); _Plans for the Johns Hopkins Hospital_ (Baltimore, 1875);
+  _Report of State Board of Health for Massachusetts for 1879_.
+       (H. Bt.)
+
+
+
+
+HOSPITIUM (Gr. [Greek: xenia, proxenia]), "hospitality," among the
+Greeks and Romans, was of a twofold character: (1) private; (2) public.
+
+(1) In Homeric times all strangers without exception were regarded as
+being under the protection of Zeus Xenios, the god of strangers and
+suppliants. It is doubtful whether, as is commonly assumed, they were
+considered as _ipso facto_ enemies; they were rather guests. Immediately
+on his arrival, the stranger was clothed and entertained, and no inquiry
+was made as to his name or antecedents until the duties of hospitality
+had been fulfilled. When the guest parted from his host he was often
+presented with gifts ([Greek: xenia]), and sometimes a die ([Greek:
+astragalos]) was broken between them. Each then took a part, a family
+connexion was established, and the broken die served as a symbol of
+recognition; thus the members of each family found in the other hosts
+and protectors in case of need. Violation of the duties of hospitality
+was likely to provoke the wrath of the gods; but it does not appear that
+anything beyond this religious sanction existed to guard the rights of a
+traveller. Similar customs seem to have existed among the Italian races.
+Amongst the Romans, private hospitality, which had existed from the
+earliest times, was more accurately and legally defined than amongst the
+Greeks, the tie between host and guest being almost as strong as that
+between patron and client. It was of the nature of a contract, entered
+into by mutual promise, the clasping of hands, and exchange of an
+agreement in writing (_tabula hospitalis_) or of a token (_tessera_ or
+_symbolum_), and was rendered hereditary by the division of the tessera.
+The advantages thus obtained by the guest were, the right of hospitality
+when travelling and, above all, the protection of his host (representing
+him as his patron) in a court of law. The contract was sacred and
+inviolable, undertaken in the name of Jupiter Hospitalis, and could only
+be dissolved by a formal act.
+
+(2) This private connexion developed into a custom according to which a
+state appointed one of the citizens of a foreign state as its
+representative ([Greek: proxenos]) to protect any of its citizens
+travelling or resident in his country. Sometimes an individual came
+forward voluntarily to perform these duties on behalf of another state
+([Greek: etheloproxenos]). The proxenus is generally compared to the
+modern consul or minister resident. His duties were to afford
+hospitality to strangers from the state whose proxenus he was, to
+introduce its ambassadors, to procure them admission to the assembly and
+seats in the theatre, and in general to look after the commercial and
+political interests of the state by which he had been appointed to his
+office. Many cases occur where such an office was hereditary; thus the
+family of Callias at Athens were proxeni of the Spartans. We find the
+office mentioned in a Corcyraean inscription dating probably from the
+7th century B.C., and it continued to grow more important and frequent
+throughout Greek history. There is no proof that any direct emolument
+was ever attached to the office, while the expense and trouble entailed
+by it must often have been very great. Probably the honours which it
+brought with it were sufficient recompense. These consisted partly in
+the general respect and esteem paid to a proxenus, and partly in many
+more substantial honours conferred by special decree of the state whose
+representative he was, such as freedom from taxation and public burdens,
+the right of acquiring property in Attica, admission to the senate and
+popular assemblies, and perhaps even full citizenship. Public hospitium
+seems also to have existed among the Italian races; but the
+circumstances of their history prevented it from becoming so important
+as in Greece. Cases, however, occur of the establishment of public
+hospitality between two cities (Rome and Caere, Livy v. 50), and of
+towns entering into a position of clientship to some distinguished
+Roman, who then became patronus of such a town. Foreigners were
+frequently granted the right of public hospitality by the senate down to
+the end of the republic. The public hospes had a right to entertainment
+at the public expense, admission to sacrifices and games, the right of
+buying and selling on his own account, and of bringing an action at law
+without the intervention of a Roman patron.
+
+  A full bibliography of the subject will be found in the article in
+  Daremberg and Saglio, _Dictionnaire des antiquités_, to which may be
+  added R. von Jhering, _Die Gastfreundschaft im Altertum_ (1887); see
+  also Smith's _Dictionary of Greek and Roman Antiquities_ (3rd ed.,
+  1890).
+
+
+
+
+HOSPODAR, a term of Slavonic origin, meaning "lord" (Russ. _gospodar_).
+It is a derivative of _gospod_, "lord," and is akin to _gosudar_, which
+primarily means "sovereign," and is now also used in Russia as a polite
+form of address, equivalent to "sir." The pronunciation as _hospodar_ of
+a word written _gospodar_ in all but one of the Slavonic languages which
+retain the Cyrillic alphabet is not, as is sometimes alleged, due to the
+influence of Little Russian, but to that of Church Slavonic. In both of
+these g is frequently pronounced h. In Little Russian the title
+_hospodar_ is specially applied to the master of a house or the head of
+a family. The rulers of Walachia and Moldavia were styled _hospodars_
+from the 15th century to 1866. At the end of this period, as the title
+had been held by many vassals of Turkey, its retention was considered
+inconsistent with the growth of Rumanian independence. It was therefore
+discarded in favour of _domn_ (_dominus_, "lord"), which continued to be
+the official princely title up to the proclamation of a Rumanian kingdom
+in 1881.
+
+
+
+
+HOST. (1) (Through the O. Fr. _oste_ or _hoste_, modern _hôte_, from
+Lat. _hospes_, a guest or host; _hospes_ being probably from an original
+_hostipes_, one who feeds a stranger or enemy, from _hostis_ and the
+root of _pascere_), one who receives another into his house and provides
+him with lodging and entertainment, especially one who does this in
+return for payment. The word is thus transferred, in biology, to an
+animal or plant upon which a parasite lives. (2) (From Lat. _hostis_, a
+stranger or enemy; in Med. Latin a military expedition), a very large
+gathering of men, armed for war, an army, and so used generally of any
+multitude. In biblical use the word is applied to the company of angels
+in heaven; or to the sun, moon and stars, the "hosts of heaven," and
+also to translate "Jehovah Sabaoth," the Lord God of hosts, the lord of
+the armies of Israel or of the hosts of heaven. (3) (From Lat. _hostia_,
+a victim or sacrifice), the sacrifice of Christ's body and blood in the
+Eucharist, more particularly the consecrated wafer used in the service
+of the mass in the Roman Church (see EUCHARIST).
+
+
+
+
+HOSTAGE (through Fr. _ostage_, modern _otage_, from Late Lat.
+_obsidaticum_, the state of being an obses or hostage; Med. Lat.
+_ostaticum_, _ostagium_), a person handed over by one of two belligerent
+parties to the other or seized as security for the carrying out of an
+agreement, or as a preventive measure against certain acts of war. The
+practice of taking hostages is very ancient, and has been used
+constantly in negotiations with conquered nations, and in cases such as
+surrenders, armistices and the like, where the two belligerents depended
+for its proper carrying out on each other's good faith. The Romans were
+accustomed to take the sons of tributary princes and educate them at
+Rome, thus holding a security for the continued loyalty of the conquered
+nation and also instilling a possible future ruler with ideas of Roman
+civilization. This practice was also adopted in the early period of the
+British occupation of India, and by France in her relations with the
+Arab tribes in North Africa.[1] The position of a hostage was that of a
+prisoner of war, to be retained till the negotiations or treaty
+obligations were carried out, and liable to punishment (in ancient
+times), and even to death, in case of treachery or refusal to fulfil the
+promises made. The practice of taking hostages as security for the
+carrying out of a treaty between civilized states is now obsolete. The
+last occasion was at the treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle in 1748, when two
+British peers, Henry Bowes Howard, 11th earl of Suffolk, and Charles,
+9th Baron Cathcart, were sent to France as hostages for the restitution
+of Cape Breton to France.
+
+In modern times the practice may be said to be confined to two
+occasions: (1) to secure the payment of enforced contributions or
+requisitions in an occupied territory and the obedience to regulations
+the occupying army may think fit to issue; (2) as a precautionary
+measure, to prevent illegitimate acts of war or violence by persons not
+members of the recognized military forces of the enemy. During the
+Franco-Prussian War of 1870, the Germans took as hostages the prominent
+people or officials from towns or districts when making requisitions and
+also when foraging, and it was a general practice for the mayor and
+_adjoint_ of a town which failed to pay a fine imposed upon it to be
+seized as "hostages" and retained till the money was paid. The last case
+where "hostages" have been taken in modern warfare has been the subject
+of much discussion. In 1870 the Germans found it necessary to take
+special measures to put a stop to train-wrecking by parties in occupied
+territory not belonging to the recognized armed forces of the enemy, an
+illegitimate act of war. Prominent citizens were placed on the engine of
+the train "so that it might be understood that in every accident caused
+by the hostility of the inhabitants their compatriots will be the first
+to suffer." The measure seems to have been effective. In 1900 during the
+Boer War, by a proclamation issued at Pretoria (June 19th), Lord Roberts
+adopted the plan for a similar reason, but shortly afterwards (July 29)
+it was abandoned (see _The Times' History of the War in S. Africa_, iv.
+402). The Germans also, between the surrender of a town and its final
+occupation, took "hostages" as security against outbreaks of violence by
+the inhabitants. Most writers on international law have regarded this
+method of preventing such acts of hostility as unjustifiable, on the
+ground that the persons taken as hostages are not the persons
+responsible for the act;[2] that, as by the usage of war hostages are to
+be treated strictly as prisoners of war, such an exposure to danger is
+transgressing the rights of a belligerent; and as useless, for the mere
+temporary removal of important citizens till the end of a war cannot be
+a deterrent unless their mere removal deprives the combatants of persons
+necessary to the continuance of the acts aimed at (see W. E. Hall,
+_International Law_, 1904, pp. 418, 475). On the other hand it has been
+urged (L. Oppenheim, _International Law_, 1905, vol. ii., "War and
+Neutrality," pp. 271-273) that the acts, the prevention of which is
+aimed at, are not legitimate acts on the part of the armed forces of the
+enemy, but illegitimate acts by private persons, who, if caught, could
+be quite lawfully punished, and that a precautionary and preventive
+measure is more reasonable than "reprisals." It may be noticed, however,
+that the hostages would suffer should the acts aimed at be performed by
+the authorized belligerent forces of the enemy.
+
+In France, after the revolution of Prairial (June 18, 1799), the
+so-called "law of hostages" was passed, to meet the insurrection in La
+Vendée. Relatives of _émigrés_ were taken from disturbed districts and
+imprisoned, and were liable to execution at any attempt to escape.
+Sequestration of their property and deportation from France followed on
+the murder of a republican, four to every such murder, with heavy fines
+on the whole body of hostages. The law only resulted in an increase in
+the insurrection. Napoleon in 1796 had used similar measures to deal
+with the insurrection in Lombardy (_Correspondance de Napoléon I._ i.
+323, 327, quoted in Hall, _International Law_).
+
+In May 1871, at the close of the Paris Commune, took place the massacre
+of the so-called hostages. Strictly they were not "hostages," for they
+had not been handed over or seized as security for the performance of
+any undertaking or as a preventive measure, but merely in retaliation
+for the death of their leaders E. V. Duval and Gustave Flourens. It was
+an act of maniacal despair, on the defeat at Mont Valérien on the 4th of
+April and the entry of the army into Paris on the 21st of May. Among the
+many victims who were shot in batches the most noticeable were Monsignor
+Darboy, archbishop of Paris, the Abbé Deguery, curé of the Madeleine,
+and the president of the Court of Cassation, Louis Bernard Bonjean.
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+  [1] The sultan of Bagiemi, in Central Africa, in 1906 sent his nephew
+    to undergo military training with a squadron of Spahis, and at the
+    same time to serve as a guarantee of his fidelity to the French
+    (_Bulletin du Comité de l'Afrique française_, Oct. 1906).
+
+  [2] Article 50 of the Hague War Regulations lays it down that "no
+    general penalty, pecuniary or otherwise, can be inflicted on the
+    population on account of the acts of individuals for which it cannot
+    be regarded as collectively responsible." The regulations, however,
+    do not allude to the practice of taking hostage.
+
+
+
+
+HOSTE, SIR WILLIAM (1780-1828), British naval captain, was the son of
+Dixon Hoste, rector of Godwick and Tittleshill in Norfolk. He was born
+on the 26th of August 1780 at Ingoldsthorpe, and entered the navy in
+April 1793, under the special care of Nelson, who had a lively affection
+for him. He became lieutenant in 1798, and was appointed commander of
+the "Mutine" brig after the battle of the Nile, at which he was present
+as lieutenant of the "Theseus." In 1802 he was promoted post captain by
+Lord St Vincent. During all his active career, he was employed in the
+Mediterranean and the Adriatic. From 1808 to 1814 he held the command of
+a detached force of frigates, and was engaged in operations against the
+French who held Dalmatia at the time, and in watching, or, when they
+came out, fighting, the ships of the squadron formed at Venice by
+Napoleon's orders. The work was admirably done, and was also lucrative;
+and Hoste, although he occasionally complained that his exertions did
+not put much money in his pocket, made a fortune of at least £60,000 by
+the capture of Italian and Dalmatian merchant ships. He also made many
+successful attacks on the French military posts on shore. His most
+brilliant feat was performed on the 13th of March 1811. A
+Franco-Venetian squadron of six frigates and five small vessels, under
+the command of a French officer named Dubourdieu, assailed Hoste's small
+force of four frigates near the island of Lissa. The French officer
+imitated Nelson's attack at Trafalgar by sailing down on the English
+line from windward with his ships in two lines. But the rapid
+manoeuvring and gunnery of Hoste's squadron proved how little virtue
+there is in any formation in itself. Dubourdieu was killed, one of the
+French frigates was driven on shore, and two of the Venetians were
+taken. After the action, which attracted a great deal of attention,
+Hoste returned to England, but in 1812 he was back on his station, where
+he remained till the end of the war. During the peace he did not again
+go to sea, and he died on the 6th of December 1828. He married Lady
+Harriet Walpole in April 1817, and left three sons and three daughters.
+
+  In 1833 his widow published his _Memoirs and Letters_. See also
+  Marshall, _Roy. Nav. Biog._ vol. iii., and James, _Naval History_.
+
+
+
+
+HOSTEL, the old name for an inn (see HOSPITAL, ad init.); also employed
+at Oxford and Cambridge to designate the lodgings which were in ancient
+times occupied by students of the university and to a certain extent
+regulated by the authorities. In some English public schools what is
+known as the "hostel" system provides for an organization of the lodging
+accommodation under separate masterships.
+
+
+
+
+HOSTIUS, Roman epic poet, probably flourished in the 2nd century B.C. He
+was the author of a _Bellum Histricum_ in at least seven books, of which
+only a few fragments remain. The poem is probably intended to celebrate
+the victory gained in 129 by Gaius Sempronius Tuditanus (consul and
+himself an annalist) over the Illyrian Iapydes (Appian, _Illyrica_, 10;
+Livy, _epit._ 59). Hostius is supposed by some to be the "doctus avus"
+alluded to in Propertius (iv. 20. 8), the real name of Propertius's
+Cynthia, according to Apuleius (_Apologia_ x.) and the scholiast on
+Juvenal (vi. 7), being Hostia (perhaps Roscia).
+
+  Fragments in E. Bährens, _Fragmenta poetarum Romanorum_ (1884); A.
+  Weichert, _Poetarum Latinorum reliquiae_ (1830).
+
+
+
+
+HOSUR, a town of British India, in the Salem district of Madras, 24 m.
+E. of Bangalore. Pop. (1901) 6695. It contains an old fort, frequently
+mentioned in the history of the Mysore wars, and a fine castellated
+mansion built by a former collector. Close by is the remount depôt,
+established in 1828, where Australian horses are acclimatized and
+trained for artillery and cavalry use in southern India.
+
+
+
+
+HOTCH-POT, or HOTCH-POTCH (from Fr. _hocher_, to shake; used as early as
+1292 as a law term, and from the 15th century in cookery for a sort of
+broth with many ingredients, and so used figuratively for any
+heterogeneous mixture), in English law, the name given to a rule of
+equity whereby a person, interested along with others in a common fund,
+and having already received something in the same interest, is required
+to surrender what has been so acquired into the common fund, on pain of
+being excluded from the distribution. "It seemeth," says Littleton,
+"that this word _hotch-pot_ is in English a pudding; for in a pudding is
+not commonly put one thing alone, but one thing with other things
+together." The following is an old example given in Coke on Littleton:
+"If a man seized of 30 acres of land in fee hath issue only two
+daughters, and he gives with one of them 10 acres in marriage to the man
+that marries her, and dies seized of the other 20; now she that is thus
+married, to gain her share of the rest of the land, must put her part
+given in marriage into hotch-pot; i.e. she must refuse to take the
+profits thereof, and cause her land to be so mingled with the other that
+an equal division of the whole may be made between her and her sister,
+as if none had been given to her; and thus for her 10 acres she shall
+have 15, or otherwise the sister will have the 20." In the common law
+this seems to have been the only instance in which the rule was applied,
+and the reason assigned for it is that, inasmuch as daughters succeeding
+to lands take together as coparceners and not by primogeniture, the
+policy of the law is that the land in such cases should be equally
+divided. The law of hotch-pot applies only to lands descending in
+fee-simple. The same principle is noticed by Blackstone as applying in
+the customs of York and London to personal property. It is also
+expressly enacted in the Statute of Distributions (§ 5) that no child of
+the intestate, except his heir-at-law, who shall have any estate in land
+by the settlement of the intestate, or who shall be advanced by the
+intestate in his lifetime by pecuniary portion equal to the distributive
+shares of the other children, shall participate with them in the
+surplus; but if the estate so given to such child by way of advancement
+be not equivalent to their shares, then such part of the surplus as will
+make it equal shall be allotted to him. It has been decided that this
+provision applies only to advancements by _fathers_, on the ground that
+the rule was founded on the custom of London, which never affected a
+widow's personal estate. The heir-at-law is not required to bring any
+land which he has by descent or otherwise from the deceased into
+hotch-pot, but advancements made to him out of the personal property
+must be brought in. The same principle is to be found in the _collatio
+bonorum_ of the Roman law: emancipated children, in order to share the
+inheritance of their father with the children unemancipated, were
+required to bring their property into the common fund. It is also found
+in the law of Scotland.
+
+
+
+
+HÔTEL-DE-VILLE, the town hall of every French municipality. The most
+ancient example still in perfect preservation is that at St-Antonin
+(Tarn-et-Garonne) dating from the middle of the 12th century. Other fine
+town halls are those of Compiègne, Orléans, Saumur, Beaugency and St
+Quentin. The Hôtel de Ville in Paris built in the 16th century was burnt
+by the Commune in 1871 and has since been rebuilt on an extended site,
+the central portion of the main front being a reproduction of the old
+design. There is only one town hall in a French town, those erected for
+the mayors of the different arrondissements in Paris being called
+_mairies_.
+
+
+
+
+HÔTEL-DIEU, the name given to the principal hospital in any French town.
+The Hôtel-Dieu in Paris was founded in the year A.D. 660, has been
+extended at various times, and was entirely rebuilt between 1868-1878.
+One of the most ancient in France is at Angers, dating from 1153. The
+Hôtel-Dieu of Beaune (Côte-d'Or), founded 1443, is one of the most
+interesting, as it retains the picturesque disposition of its courtyard,
+with covered galleries on two storeys and large dormer windows; and the
+great hall of the Hôtel-Dieu at Tonnerre, Yonne (1338), nearly 60 ft.
+wide and over 300 ft. long, is still preserved as part of the chief
+hospital of the town.
+
+
+
+
+HOTHAM, SIR JOHN (d. 1645), English parliamentarian, belonged to a
+Yorkshire family, and fought on the continent of Europe during the early
+part of the Thirty Years' War. In 1622 he was made a baronet, and he was
+member of parliament for Beverley in the five parliaments between 1625
+and 1640, being sheriff of Yorkshire in 1635. In 1639 he was deprived by
+the king of his office of governor of Hull, and joining the
+parliamentary party refused to pay ship-money. In January 1642 Hotham
+was ordered by the parliament to seize Hull, where there was a large
+store of munitions of war; this was at once carried out by his son John.
+Hotham took command of Hull and in April 1642 refused to admit Charles
+I. to the town. Later he promised his prisoner, Lord Digby, that he
+would surrender it to the king, but when Charles appeared again he
+refused a second time and drove away the besiegers. Meanwhile the
+younger Hotham was taking an active part in the Civil War in Yorkshire
+and Lincolnshire, but was soon at variance with other parliamentary
+leaders, especially with the Fairfaxes, and complaints about his conduct
+and that of his troops were made by Cromwell and by Colonel Hutchinson.
+Soon both the Hothams were corresponding with the earl of Newcastle, and
+the younger one was probably ready to betray Hull; these proceedings
+became known to the parliament, and in June 1643 father and son were
+captured and taken to London. After a long delay they were tried by
+court-martial, were found guilty and were sentenced to death. The
+younger Hotham was beheaded on the 2nd of January 1645, and in spite of
+efforts made by the House of Lords and the Presbyterians to save him,
+the elder suffered the same fate on the following day. Sir John Hotham
+had two other sons who were persons of some note: Charles Hotham
+(1615-c. 1672), rector of Wigan, a Cambridge scholar and author of _Ad
+philosophiam Teutonicam Manuductio_ (1648); and Durant Hotham
+(1617-1691), who wrote a _Life of Jacob Boehme_ (1654).
+
+
+
+
+HOTHAM, WILLIAM HOTHAM, 1st Baron (1736-1813), British Admiral, son of
+Sir Beaumont Hotham (d. 1771), a lineal descendant of the above Sir John
+Hotham, was educated at Westminster School and at the Royal Naval
+Academy, Portsmouth. He entered the navy in 1751, and spent most of his
+midshipman's time in American waters. In 1755 he became lieutenant in
+Sir Edward Hawke's flagship the "St George," and he soon received a
+small command, which led gradually to higher posts. In the "Syren" (20)
+he fought a sharp action with the French "Télémaque" of superior force,
+and in the "Fortune" sloop he carried, by boarding, a 26-gun privateer.
+For this service he was rewarded with a more powerful ship, and from
+1757 onwards commanded various frigates. In 1759 his ship the "Melampe,"
+with H.M.S. "Southampton," fought a spirited action with two hostile
+frigates of similar force, one of which became their prize. The
+"Melampe" was attached to Keppel's squadron in 1761, but was in the main
+employed in detached duty and made many captures. In 1776, as a
+commodore, Hotham served in North American waters, and he had a great
+share in the brilliant action in the Cul de Sac of St Lucia (Dec. 15th,
+1778). Here he continued till the spring of 1781, when he was sent home
+in charge of a large convoy of merchantmen. Off Scilly Hotham fell in
+with a powerful French squadron, against which he could effect nothing,
+and many of the merchantmen went to France as prizes. In 1782 Commodore
+Hotham was with Howe at the relief of Gibraltar, and at the time of the
+Spanish armament of 1790 he flew his flag as rear-admiral of the red.
+Some time later he was made vice-admiral. As Hood's second-in-command in
+the Mediterranean he was engaged against the French Revolutionary navy,
+and when his chief retired to England the command devolved upon him. On
+March 12th, 1794 he fought an indecisive fleet action, in which the
+brunt of the fighting was borne by Captain Horatio Nelson, and some
+months later, now a full admiral, he again engaged, this time under
+conditions which might have permitted a decisive victory; of this
+affair Nelson wrote home that it was a "miserable action." A little
+later he returned to England, and in 1797 he was made a peer of Ireland
+under the title of Baron Hotham of South Dalton, near Hull. He died in
+1813. Hotham lacked the fiery energy and genius of a Nelson or a Jervis,
+but in subordinate positions he was a brave and capable officer.
+
+As Hotham died unmarried his barony passed to his brother, Sir Beaumont
+Hotham (1737-1814), who became 2nd Baron Hotham in May 1813. Beaumont,
+who was a baron of the exchequer for thirty years, died on the 4th of
+March 1814, and was succeeded as 3rd baron by his grandson Beaumont
+Hotham (1794-1870), who was present at the battle of Waterloo, being
+afterwards a member of parliament for forty-eight years. He died
+unmarried in December 1870 and was succeeded by his nephew, Charles
+(1836-1872), and then by another nephew, John (1838-1907). In 1907 his
+cousin Frederick William (b. 1863) became the 6th baron.
+
+Other distinguished members of this family were the 2nd baron's son, Sir
+Henry Hotham (1777-1833), a vice-admiral, who saw a great deal of
+service during the Napoleonic wars; and Sir William Hotham (1772-1848),
+a nephew of the 1st baron, who served with Duncan in 1797 off Camperdown
+and elsewhere.
+
+  See Charnock, _Biographia navalis_, vi. 236.
+
+
+
+
+HOTHO, HEINRICH GUSTAV (1802-1873), German historian of art, was born at
+Berlin in 1802, and died in his native city on Christmas day 1873.
+During boyhood he was affected for two years with blindness consequent
+on an attack of measles. But recovering his sight he studied so hard as
+to take his degree at Berlin in 1826. A year of travel spent in visiting
+Paris, London and the Low Countries determined his vocation. He came
+home delighted with the treasures which he had seen, worked laboriously
+for a higher examination and passed as "docent" in aesthetics and art
+history. In 1829 he was made professor at the university of Berlin. In
+1833 G. F. Waagen accepted him as assistant in the museum of the
+Prussian capital; and in 1858 he was promoted to the directorship of the
+print-room. During a long and busy life, in which his time was divided
+between literature and official duties, Hotho's ambition had always been
+to master the history of the schools of Germany and the Netherlands.
+Accordingly what he published was generally confined to those countries.
+In 1842-1843 he gave to the world his account of German and Flemish
+painting. From 1853 to 1858 he revised and published anew a part of this
+work, which he called "The school of Hubert van Eyck, with his German
+precursors and contemporaries." His attempt later on to write a history
+of Christian painting overtasked his strength, and remained unfinished.
+Hotho is important in the history of aesthetics as having developed
+Hegel's theories; but he was deficient in knowledge of Italian painting.
+
+
+
+
+HOTI-MARDAN, or MARDAN, a frontier cantonment of British India in the
+Peshawar district of the North-West Frontier Province, situated 15 m. N.
+of Nowshera. Pop. (1901) 3572. It is notable as the permanent
+headquarters of the famous corps of Guides, and also contains a cavalry
+brigade belonging to the 1st division of the northern army.
+
+
+
+
+HOTMAN, FRANÇOIS (1524-1590), French publicist, eldest son of Pierre
+Hotman, was born on the 23rd of August 1524, at Paris, his family being
+of Silesian origin. His name is latinized by himself Hotomanus, by
+others Hotomannus and Hottomannus. His father, a zealous Catholic, and a
+counsellor of the parlement of Paris, destined him for the law, and sent
+him at the age of fifteen to the university of Orleans. He obtained his
+doctorate in three years, and became a pleader at Paris. The arts of the
+barrister were not to his taste; he turned to the study of jurisprudence
+and literature, and in 1546 was appointed lecturer in Roman Law at the
+university of Paris. The fortitude of Anne Dubourg under torture gained
+his adhesion to the cause of Reform. Giving up a career on which he had
+entered with high repute, he went in 1547 to Lyons, and thence to Geneva
+and to Lausanne, where, on the recommendation of Calvin, he was
+appointed professor of belles-lettres and history, and married Claudine
+Aubelin, a refugee from Orleans. On the invitation of the magistracy,
+he lectured at Strassburg on law in 1555, and became professor in 1556,
+superseding François Baudouin, who had been his colleague in Paris. His
+fame was such that overtures were made to him by the courts of Prussia
+and Hesse, and by Elizabeth of England. Twice he visited Germany, in
+1556 accompanying Calvin to the Diet at Frankfort. He was entrusted with
+confidential missions from the Huguenot leaders to German potentates,
+carrying at one time credentials from Catherine de Medici. In 1560 he
+was one of the principal instigators of the conspiracy of Amboise; in
+September of that year he was with Antoine of Navarre at Nérac. In 1562
+he attached himself to Condé. In 1564 he became professor of civil law
+at Valence, retrieving by his success the reputation of its university.
+In 1567 he succeeded Cujas in the chair of jurisprudence at Bourges.
+Five months later his house and library were wrecked by a Catholic mob;
+he fled by Orleans to Paris, where L'Hôpital made him historiographer to
+the king. As agent for the Huguenots, he was sent to Blois to negotiate
+the peace of 1568. He returned to Bourges, only to be again driven away
+by the outbreak of hostilities. At Sancerre, during its siege, he
+composed his _Consolatio_ (published in 1593). The peace of 1570
+restored him to Bourges, whence a third time he fled, in consequence of
+the St Bartholomew massacre (1572). In 1573, after publishing his
+_Franco-Gallia_, he left France for ever with his family, and became
+professor of Roman law at Geneva. On the approach of the duke of Savoy
+he removed to Basel in 1579. In 1580 he was appointed councillor of
+state to Henry of Navarre. The plague sent him in 1582 to Montbéliard;
+here he lost his wife. Returning to Geneva in 1584 he developed a kind
+of scientific turn, dabbling in alchemy and the research for the
+philosopher's stone. In 1589 he made his final retirement to Basel,
+where he died on the 12th of February 1590, leaving two sons and four
+daughters; he was buried in the cathedral.
+
+Hotman was a man of pure life, real piety (as his _Consolatio_ shows)
+and warm domestic virtues. His constant removals were inspired less by
+fear for himself than by care for his family, and by a temperament
+averse to the conditions of warfare, and a constitutional desire for
+peace. He did much for 16th-century jurisprudence, having a critical
+knowledge of Roman sources, and a fine Latin style. He broached the idea
+of a national code of French law. His works were very numerous,
+beginning with his _De gradibus cognationis_ (1546), and including a
+treatise on the Eucharist (1566); a treatise (_Anti-Tribonien_, 1567) to
+show that French law could not be based on Justinian; a life of Coligny
+(1575); a polemic (_Brutum fulmen_, 1585) directed against a bull of
+Sixtus V., with many other works on law, history, politics and classical
+learning. His most important work, the _Franco-Gallia_ (1573), was in
+advance of his age, and found favour neither with Catholics nor with
+Huguenots in its day; yet its vogue has been compared to that obtained
+later by Rousseau's _Contrat Social_. It presented an ideal of
+Protestant statesmanship, pleading for a representative government and
+an elective monarchy. It served the purpose of the Jesuits in their
+pamphlet war against Henry IV.
+
+  See Bayle, Dictionnaire; R. Dareste, _Essai sur F. Hotman_ (1850); E.
+  Grégoire, in _Nouvelle Biog. générale_ (1858).     (A. Go.*)
+
+
+
+
+HOT SPRINGS, a city of Arkansas, U.S.A., the county-seat of Garland
+county, at the easterly base of the Ozark mountains, 55 m. by rail
+W.S.W. of Little Rock. Pop. (1880) 3554; (1890) 8086; (1900) 9973, of
+whom 3102 were of negro descent and 561 were foreign-born; (1910 census)
+14,434. The transient population numbers more than 100,000 annually. Hot
+Springs is served by the Chicago, Rock Island & Pacific, the Little Rock
+& Hot Springs Western, and the St Louis, Iron Mountain & Southern
+railways. The city lies partly in several mountain ravines and partly on
+a plateau. A creek, flowing through the valley but walled over, empties
+into the Ouachita river several miles from Hot Springs. The elevation of
+the surrounding hills is about 1200 ft. above the sea and 600 above the
+surrounding country. The scenery is beautiful, and there is a remarkable
+view from a steel tower observatory, 150 ft. high, on the top of Hot
+Springs mountain. The climate is delightful. The average rainfall for
+the year is about 55 in. The springs are about forty-four in number,
+rising within an area of 3 acres on the slope of Hot Springs mountain.
+They are all included within a reservation held by the United States
+government, which (since 1903) exercises complete jurisdiction. The
+daily flow from the springs used is more than 800,000 gallons. Their
+temperature varies from 95° to 147° F. The waters are tasteless and
+inodorous, and contain calcium and magnesium bicarbonates, combinations
+of hydrogen and silicon, and of iodides, bromides and lithium. The
+national government maintains at Hot Springs an army and navy hospital,
+and a bath-house open gratuitously to indigent bathers. The business of
+Hot Springs consists mainly in caring for its visitors. Fruit-raising
+and small gardening characterize its environs. There are sulphur, lithia
+and other springs near the city, and an ostrich farm and an alligator
+farm in the suburbs. The finest of the novaculite rocks of central
+Arkansas are quarried near the city. The total value of its factory
+product in 1905 was $597,029, an increase of 213.1% since 1900.
+
+The Springs were first used by the itinerant trappers. They were visited
+about 1800 by French hunters; and by members of the Lewis and Clark
+party in 1804 under instructions from President Thomas Jefferson. The
+permanent occupation of the town site dates only from 1828, though as
+early as 1807 a temporary settlement was made. In 1876 Hot Springs was
+incorporated as a town, and in 1879 it was chartered as a city. In 1832
+Congress created a reservation, but the right of the government as
+against private claimants was definitely settled only in 1876, by a
+decision of the United States Supreme Court. The city was almost
+destroyed by fire in 1878, and was greatly improved in the rebuilding.
+
+
+
+
+HOT SPRINGS, a hamlet and health-resort in Cedar Creek District, Bath
+county, Virginia, U.S.A., 25 m. by rail (a branch of the Chesapeake &
+Ohio railway) N. by E. of Covington and near the N.W. border of the
+state. It lies in a narrow valley, about 2200-2500 ft. above the sea,
+with rugged mountains on either side. Pop. of the district (1900) 1761;
+(1910) 2472. The mean summer temperature is only 69° F., and the summer
+nights are always cool. There is a good golf-course. Mineral waters
+(with magnesia, soda-lithia and alum) issue from several springs, some
+at a temperature as high as 106° F., and are used both for drinking and
+for bathing. The Warm Sulphur Springs (about 98° F.) are 5 m. N.;
+Healing Springs (85° F.) are 2½ m. S. of Hot Springs; and a few miles to
+the S.E., in Rockbridge county, are Rockbridge and Jordan Alum Springs.
+
+
+
+
+HOTTENTOTS, an African people of western Cape Colony and the adjoining
+German territory, formerly widely spread throughout South Africa. The
+name is that given them by the early Dutch settlers at the Cape, being a
+Dutch word of an onomatopoeic kind to express stammering, in reference
+to the staccato pronunciation and clicks of the native language. Some
+early writers termed them Hodmadods or Hodmandods, and others Hot-nots
+and Ottentots--all corruptions of the same word. Their name for
+themselves was Khoi-Khoin (men of men), or Quae Quae, Kwekhena,
+t'Kuhkeub, the forms varying according to the several dialects. Early
+authorities believed them to be totally distinct from all other African
+races. The researches of Gustav Fritsch, Dr E. T. Hamy, F. Shrubsall and
+others have demonstrated, however, that they are not so much a distinct
+or independent variety of mankind as the result of a very old cross
+between two other varieties--the Bantu Negro (containing a distinct
+Hamitic element) and the Bushman. Hamy calls them simply "Bushman-Bantu
+half-breeds," the Bushman element being seen in the leathery colour,
+compared to that of the "sere and yellow leaf"; in the remarkably
+prominent cheekbones and pointed chin, giving the face a peculiarly
+triangular shape; and lastly, in such highly specialized characters as
+the _tablier_ and the _steatopygia_ of the women. The cranial capacity
+is also nearly the same (1331 c.c. in the Bushman, 1365 c.c. in the
+Hottentot), and on these anatomical grounds Shrubsall concludes that the
+two are essentially one race, allowing for the undeniable strain of
+Bantu blood in the Hottentot. This view is further strengthened by the
+vast range in prehistoric times of the Hottentot variety, which, since
+the time of Martin H. K. Lichtenstein (1800-1804), was known to have
+comprised the whole of Africa south of the Zambezi, and has since been
+extended as far north as the equatorial lake region.
+
+Fritsch divides the Hottentots into three bodies; the Cape Hottentots,
+from the Cape peninsula eastward to Kaffraria, the Koranna, chiefly on
+the right bank of the Orange river, but also found on the Harts and the
+Vaal, and the Namaqua in the western portion of South Africa. Of these
+all save the last mentioned have ceased to exist in any racial purity.
+The name which the Namaqua give to themselves is _Khoi-Khoin_, and this
+name must be distinguished from that of the Berg-Damara or _Hau-Khoin_,
+since the latter are physically of Bantu origin though they have
+borrowed their speech from the Hottentots. While the Namaqua preserve
+the racial type and speech, the other so-called Hottentots are more or
+less Hottentot-Dutch or Hottentot-Bantu half-breeds, mainly of debased
+Dutch speech, although the Koranna still here and there speak a moribund
+Hottentot jargon flooded with Dutch and English words and expressions.
+When the Cape Colony became a part of the British empire the protection
+given to the natives arrested the process of extermination with which
+the Hottentots were then threatened, but it did not promote racial
+purity. Sir John Barrow, describing the condition of the Hottentots in
+1798, estimated their number at about 15,000 souls. In 1806 the official
+return gave a Hottentot population of 9784 males and 10,642 females. In
+1824 they had increased to 31,000. At the census of 1865 they numbered
+81,589, but by this time the official classification "Hottentot"
+signified little more than a half-breed. The returns for 1904 showed a
+"Hottentot" population of 85,892. Very few of these were pure-bred
+Hottentots, while the official estimate of those in which Hottentot
+blood was strongly marked was 56,000.
+
+  _Customs and Culture._--The primitive character of the race having
+  greatly changed, the best information as to their original manners and
+  customs is therefore to be found in the older writers. All these agree
+  in describing the Hottentots as a gentle and friendly people. They
+  held in contempt the man who could eat, drink or smoke alone. They
+  were hospitable to strangers, even to the point of impoverishing
+  themselves. Although mentally and physically indolent, they were
+  active in the care of their cattle and, within certain limits, clever
+  hunters. They were of a medium height, the females rather smaller than
+  the men, slender but well proportioned, with small hands and feet.
+  Their skin was of a leathery brown colour; their face oval, with
+  prominent cheekbones; eyes dark brown or black and wide apart; nose
+  broad and thick and flat at the root; chin pointed and mouth large,
+  with thick turned-out lips. Their woolly hair grew in short thick
+  curly tufts and the beard was very scanty. Amongst the women abnormal
+  developments of fat were somewhat common; and cases occurred of
+  extraordinary elongation of the _labia minora_ and of the _praeputium
+  clitoridis_.[1]
+
+  Their dress was a skin cloak (kaross) worn across the shoulders and a
+  smaller one across the loins. They wore these cloaks all the year
+  round, turning the hairy side inward in winter and outward in summer;
+  they slept in them at night, and when they died they were buried in
+  them. They had suspended around their necks little bags or pouches,
+  containing their knives, their pipes and tobacco or dakka (_Cannabis_,
+  or hemp), and an amulet of burnt wood. On their arms were rings of
+  ivory. Sometimes they wore sandals and carried a jackal's tail
+  fastened on a stick, which served as handkerchief and fan. The women
+  wore, besides the kaross, a little apron to which were hung their
+  ornaments; and underneath this one or two fringed girdles; and a skin
+  cap. Both sexes smeared themselves and even their dress with an
+  ointment made of soot, butter or fat, and the powdered leaves of a
+  shrub called by them _bucchu (Diosma crenata)_.
+
+  Their villages were usually on meadow grounds. They never entirely
+  exhausted the grass but kept moving from one pasture to another. The
+  huts were in circles, the area of which varied with the pastoral
+  wealth of the community. In the centre of the huts a hole served for a
+  fire-place, and at each side of this small excavations an inch or two
+  deep were made in the ground in which both sexes, rolled up in their
+  karosses, slept. A few earthen vessels, well-made bowls of wood,
+  tortoise shells for spoons and dishes, calabashes, bamboos and skins
+  for holding milk and butter, and mats of rushes interwoven with bast,
+  were all their furniture. Their weapons were primarily bows and
+  arrows, but they also possessed assegais, and knob-kerries. To women
+  much respect was shown; the most sacred oath a Hottentot could take
+  was to swear by his sister or mother; yet the females ate apart from
+  the men and did all the work of the kraal with the exception of the
+  tending of cattle and of the curing of the hides; the men, however,
+  assisted in the erection of the framework of the huts. The usual food
+  of the Hottentots was milk, the flesh of the buffalo, hippopotamus,
+  antelope or other game, and edible roots and bulbs or wild fruits. On
+  the coast fish captured by hooks and lines or spears were also eaten.
+  Cows' milk was commonly drunk by both sexes, but ewes' milk only by
+  the women, and when cows' milk was scarce the women were obliged to
+  keep to ewes' milk or water. Milk was drunk fresh, and not allowed to
+  turn sour as among the Bantu. Meats were eaten either roasted or
+  boiled, but for the most part half raw, without salt, spices or bread.
+  From some meats they carefully abstained, such as swine's flesh. Hares
+  and rabbits were forbidden to the men, but not to the women; the pure
+  blood of beasts and the flesh of the mole were forbidden to the women,
+  but not to the men.
+
+  In occupation they were essentially cattle-breeders, and showed great
+  skill in this pursuit, especially the Namaqua, who were capable of
+  training the horns of their cattle so that they grew in spirals. Their
+  social pleasures consisted in feasting, smoking, dancing and singing.
+  Dances were held every first quarter of the moon and lasted all night,
+  often for eight days in succession. Every signal event of life, and
+  every change of abode and condition was celebrated with a feast. On
+  the formation of a new kraal an arbour was constructed in the centre,
+  and the women and children adorned and perfumed it with flowers and
+  branches of trees and odoriferous herbs. The fattened ox was killed
+  and cooked, and the men ate of it in the arbour, while the women
+  sitting apart regaled themselves with broth. Upon such occasions the
+  only intoxicant was tobacco or dakka.
+
+  Circumcision, which is common to the Kaffir tribes, was unknown to the
+  Hottentots, but when a youth entered upon manhood a ceremony was
+  performed. One of the elders, using a knife of quartz, made incisions
+  in the young man's body, afterwards besprinkling them with urine. When
+  a man killed his first elephant, hippopotamus or rhinoceros, similar
+  marks were made on his body, and were regarded as insignia of honour.
+  Finger mutilation was common, especially among women; this consisted
+  in the removal of one or two joints of the little finger, and,
+  sometimes, the first joint of the next. The reason for this is
+  doubtful; it may have been a sign of mourning, or, especially in the
+  case of children, it may have been regarded as magically protective.
+  Marriages were by arrangement between the man and the girl's parents,
+  the consent of the girl herself being a matter of little
+  consideration. If accepted, the suitor, accompanied by all his
+  kindred, drove two or three fat oxen to the house of his bride. There
+  her relations welcomed the visitors; the oxen were slain, and the
+  bridal feast took place. The nuptial ceremony was concluded by an
+  elder besprinkling the happy pair. Among the southern Hottentots these
+  ancient usages have ceased; but they are continued among some tribes
+  north of the Orange river. Polygamy was allowed: divorce was common.
+  Family names were perpetuated in a peculiar manner--the sons took the
+  family name of the mother, the daughters that of the father. The
+  children were very respectful to their parents, by whom they were
+  kindly and affectionately treated. Yet the aged father or mother was
+  sometimes put in the bush and left to die. Namaqua says this was done
+  by very poor people if they had no food for their parents. But even
+  when there was food enough, aged persons, especially women, who were
+  believed to be possessed of the evil spirit, were so treated.
+
+  The Hottentots had few musical instruments. One named the "gorah" was
+  formed by stretching a piece of the twisted entrails of a sheep from
+  end to end of a thin hollow stick about 3 ft. in length in the manner
+  of a bow and string. At one end there was a piece of quill fixed into
+  the stick, to which the mouth of the player was applied. The
+  "rommel-pot" was a kind of drum shaped like a bowl and containing
+  water to keep the membrane moist. Reeds several feet long were used as
+  flutes.
+
+  _Government and Laws._--The system of government was patriarchal. Each
+  tribe had its hereditary "khu-khoi" or "gao-ao" or chief, and each
+  kraal its captain. These met in council whenever any great matters had
+  to be decided. The post was honorary, and the councillors were held in
+  great reverence, and were installed in office with solemnities and
+  feasting. In certain tribes the hind part of every bullock slaughtered
+  was sent to the chief, and this he distributed among the males of the
+  village. He also collected sufficient milk at the door of his hut to
+  deal out amongst the poor. A part of every animal taken in hunting was
+  exacted by the chief, even though it was in a state of putrefaction
+  when brought to him. The captains, assisted by the men of each kraal,
+  settled disputes regarding property and tried criminals. A murderer
+  was beaten or stoned to death; but if one escaped and was at large for
+  a whole year, he was allowed to go unpunished. Adultery seldom
+  occurred; if any one found parties in the act and killed them he was
+  no murderer, but on the contrary received praise for his deed. Women
+  found offending were burnt. Theft, especially cattle-stealing, was
+  severely punished. The thief was bound hand and foot, and left on the
+  ground without food for a long time; then, if his offence was slight,
+  he received some blows with a stick, but if the case was an
+  aggravated one, he was severely beaten, and then unloosed and banished
+  from the kraal. The family of even the worst criminal suffered nothing
+  on his account in reputation, privilege or property. The duel was an
+  institution. If any one was insulted he challenged his enemy by
+  offering him a handful of earth. If the latter seized the hand and the
+  dust fell to the ground, the challenge was accepted. If it was not
+  accepted, the challenger threw the dust in his foe's face. The duel
+  took place by kicking, with clubs, or with the spear and shield.
+
+  _Religious Ideas._--The religious ideas of the Hottentots were very
+  obscure. François le Vaillant says they had "neither priests nor
+  temples, nor idols, nor ceremonials, nor any traces of the notion of a
+  deity." Other authorities state that they believed in a benevolent
+  deity or "Great Captain," whom they named Tik-guoa (_Tsu-goab_). There
+  were other "captains" of less power, and a black captain named Gauna,
+  the spirit of evil. The moon was a secondary divinity, supposed to
+  govern the weather; and its appearance each month was hailed with
+  dancing and singing.[2] George Schmidt, the first missionary to the
+  Hottentots, says they also celebrated the annual appearance of the
+  Pleiades above the eastern horizon. As soon as the constellation
+  appeared, all the mothers ascended the nearest hill, carrying their
+  babies, whom they taught to stretch their arms towards the friendly
+  stars. Some of the tribes are said to worship a being whom they name
+  Tusib, the rain god. An old Namaqua was once heard to say "The stars
+  are the souls of the deceased," and a Hottentot form of imprecation is
+  "Thou happy one, may misfortune fall on thee from the star of my
+  grandfather."
+
+  Such as it was, the Hottentot religion was largely ancestor-worship.
+  Their deified hero was named _Heitsi-Eibib_; and of him endless
+  stories are told. The one most generally accepted is that he was a
+  notable warrior of great physical strength, who once ruled the
+  Khoi-Khoin, and that in a desperate struggle with one of his enemies,
+  whom he finally overcame, he received a wound in the knee, from which
+  event he got the name of "Wounded knee." He had extraordinary powers
+  during life, and after death he continued to be invoked as one who
+  could still relieve and protect. According to the tradition preserved
+  among the Namaqua, Heitsi-Eibib came from the east. Therefore they
+  make the doors of their huts towards the east, and those who possess
+  waggons and carts put their vehicles alongside the mat-house with the
+  front turned towards the east. All the graves are in true
+  west-easterly direction, so that the face of the deceased looks
+  towards the east. The spirit of Heitsi-Eibib is supposed to exist in
+  the old burial places, and, whenever a heathen Hottentot passes them,
+  he throws stones on the spot as an offering, at the same time invoking
+  the spirit's blessing and protection. Johann Georg von Hahn asserts
+  that there are many proofs which justify the conclusion that
+  Heitsi-Eibib and Tsu-goab (the supreme being) were identical. Both
+  were benevolent. Both were believed to have died and risen again. They
+  killed the bad beings and restored peace on earth; they promised men
+  immortality, understood the secrets of nature, and could foretell the
+  future.[3]
+
+  Various ceremonies were practised to ward off the evil influence of
+  ghosts and spectres, and charms were freely employed. If a Khoi-Khoi
+  went out hunting his wife kindled a fire, and assiduously watched by
+  it to keep it alive; if the fire should be extinguished her husband
+  would not be lucky. If she did not make a fire, she went to the water
+  and kept on throwing it about on the ground, believing that thereby
+  her husband would be successful in getting game. Charms, consisting of
+  bones, burnt wood, and roots of particular shrubs cut into small
+  pieces, were generally worn round the neck. There was also a belief
+  that in every fountain there was a snake, and that as long as the
+  snake remained there water would continue to flow, but that if the
+  snake was killed or left the fountain it would cease. Offerings were
+  sometimes made to the spirit of the fountain. In common with the
+  Bushmen, the Hottentots venerated the _mantis fausta_, a local variety
+  of the insect known as "the praying mantis" (_mantis religiosa_). P.
+  Kolbe saw sacrifices made in its honour when it appeared inside a
+  kraal; to kill it was strictly forbidden. The Hottentots had great
+  faith in witch-doctors, or sorcerers. When called to a sick-bed these
+  ordered the patient to lie on his back, and then pinched, cuffed, and
+  beat him all over until they expelled the illness. After that they
+  produced a bone, small snake, frog or other object which they
+  pretended to have extracted from the patient's body. If the treatment
+  did not succeed, the person was declared incurably bewitched. If death
+  occurred, the corpse was interred on the day of decease. It was wrapt
+  in skins, and placed in the ground in the same position it once
+  occupied in the mother's womb. Death was generally regarded in a very
+  stoical manner.
+
+  _Language._--The existence of a fundamental connexion between the
+  language of the Hottentot and that of the Bushman was suggested by Dr
+  Bleek and is supported by further evidence advanced by Bertin.
+
+  The Hottentot language was regarded by the early travellers and
+  colonists as an uncouth and barbarous tongue. The Portuguese called
+  the native manner of speaking stammering; and the Dutch compared it to
+  the "gobbling of a turkey-cock." These phonetic characteristics arose
+  from the common use of "clicks,"--sounds produced by applying the
+  tongue to the teeth or to various parts of the gums or roof of the
+  mouth, and suddenly jerking it back. Three-fourths of the syllabic
+  elements of the language begin with these clicks, and combined with
+  them are several hard and deep gutturals and nasal accompaniments. The
+  difficulty a European has in acquiring an accurate pronunciation is
+  not so much in producing the clicking sound singly as in following it
+  immediately with another letter or syllable. The four recognized
+  clicks, with the symbols generally adopted to denote them, are as
+  follows: dental = |; palatal = #; lateral = ||; cerebral = !.
+  According to Tindall, one of the best grammarians of the language, the
+  dental click (similar to a sound of surprise or indignation) is
+  produced by pressing the top of the tongue against the upper front
+  teeth, and then suddenly and forcibly withdrawing it. The palatal
+  click (like the crack of a whip) is produced by pressing the tongue
+  with as flat a surface as possible against the termination of the
+  palate at the gums, so that the top of the tongue touches the upper
+  front teeth and the back of the tongue lies towards the palate, and
+  then forcibly withdrawing the tongue. The cerebral click (compared to
+  the popping of the cork of a bottle of champagne) is produced by
+  curling up the tip of the tongue against the roof of the palate, and
+  withdrawing it suddenly and forcibly. The lateral click (similar to
+  the sound used in stimulating a horse to action) is articulated by
+  covering with the tongue the whole of the palate and producing the
+  sound as far back as possible; Europeans imitate it by placing the
+  tongue against the side teeth and then withdrawing it. The easiest
+  Hottentot clicks, the dental and cerebral, have been adopted by the
+  Kaffirs; and it is a striking circumstance, in evidence of the past
+  Hottentot influence upon the Kaffir languages, that the clicking
+  decreases amongst these tribes almost in proportion to their distance
+  from the former Hottentot domain.
+
+  The language in its grammatical structure is beautiful and regular. Dr
+  Bleek describes it as having the distinctive features of the
+  suffix-pronominal order or higher form of languages, in which the
+  pronouns are identical with and borrowed from the derivative suffixes
+  of the nouns. The words are mostly monosyllables, always ending, with
+  two exceptions, in a vowel or nasal sound. Among the consonants
+  neither _l_, nor _f_ nor _v_ is found. There are two _g_'s, _g_ hard
+  and _g_ guttural, and a deeper guttural _kh_. Diphthongs abound. There
+  is no article, but the definite or indefinite sense of a noun is
+  determined by the gender. In the fullest known dialect (that spoken by
+  the Namaqua) nouns are formed with eight different suffixes, which in
+  nouns designating persons distinguish masc. sing. (-_b_), masc. plur.
+  (-_ku_), masc. dual (_kha_), fem. sing, (-_s_), fem. plur. (-_ti_),
+  com. sing. (-_i_), com. plur. (-_u_), com. dual (-_ra_). The adjective
+  is either prefixed to a noun or referred to it by a suffixed pronoun.
+  This grammatical division of the nouns according to gender led to the
+  classification of the language as "sex-denoting," thus suggesting its
+  relationship, in original structure, with the Galla and others.
+
+  There are four dialectical varieties of the language, each with
+  well-marked characteristics: the Nama dialect, spoken by the Namaqua
+  as well as by the Hau-Khoin or Hill Damara; the Kora dialect, spoken
+  by the Koranna, or Koraqua, dwelling about the middle and upper part
+  of the Orange, Vaal and Modder rivers; the Eastern dialect, spoken by
+  the Gona or Gonaqua on the borders of Kaffirland; and the Cape
+  dialect, now no longer spoken but preserved in the records of early
+  voyagers and settlers. Of the Nama dialect there are three grammars:
+  Wallmann's (1857) and Hahn's in German, and Tindall's (1871) in
+  English, the last being the best; and the four Gospels, with a large
+  amount of missionary literature, have been published in it.
+
+  The vocabulary is not limited merely to the expression of the rude
+  conceptions that are characteristic of primitive races. It possesses
+  such words as _koi_, human being; _khoi-si_, kindly or friendly;
+  _koi-si-b_, philanthropist; _khoi-si-s_, humanity; # _ei_, to think; #
+  _ei-s_, thought; _amo_, eternal; _amo-si-b_, eternity; _tsa_, to feel;
+  _tsa-b_, feeling, sentiment; _tsa-kha_, to condole; _ama_, true;
+  _ama-b_, the truth; _anu_, sacred; _anu-si-b_, holiness; _esa_,
+  pretty; _anu-xa_, full of beauty.
+
+  _Literature and History._--Much traditionary literature--fables, myths
+  and legends--existed amongst the Hottentots,--a fact first made known
+  by Sir James Alexander, who in his journeyings through Great
+  Namaqualand in 1835 jotted down the stories told him around the camp
+  fire by his Hottentot followers. These Hottentot tales generally have
+  much of the character of fables; some are in many points identical
+  with northern nursery tales, and suggestive of European origin or of
+  contact with the white man; but the majority bear evidence of being
+  true native products. Bleek's _Reynard the Fox in South Africa_ (1864)
+  contains a translation of a legend written down from the lips of the
+  Namaqua by the Rev. G. Krönlein, which is regarded as an excellent
+  specimen of the national style. Another legend relating to the moon
+  and the hare conveys the idea of an early conception of the hope of
+  immortality. It is found in various versions, and, like many other
+  stories, occurs in Bushman as well as in Hottentot mythology.
+
+  The earliest accounts of the Hottentots occur in the narratives of
+  Vasco da Gama's first voyage to India round the Cape in 1497-1498. In
+  1510 the Portuguese viceroy, Francisco d'Almeida, count of Abrantes,
+  met his death in a dispute with the natives. Till the 17th century
+  they were believed to be cannibals, but with the occupation of the
+  Cape by the Dutch, in 1652, more accurate knowledge was obtained. A
+  century of Dutch rule resulted in the Hottentots becoming a nation of
+  slaves and in serious danger of extermination, and thus the arrival of
+  the English in 1795 was welcomed by them. In 1828 an ordinance was
+  passed declaring "all Hottentots and other free persons of colour"
+  entitled to all and every right to which any other British subjects
+  were entitled. (See CAPE COLONY: _History_; and SOUTH AFRICA.)
+
+  BIBLIOGRAPHY.--A. de Quatrefages, _Les Pygmées_ (1887); G. W. Stow,
+  _The Native Races of South Africa_ (1905); E. T. Hamy, "Les Races
+  nègres," in _L'Anthropologie_ (1897), pp. 257 et sqq.; F. Shrubsall,
+  "Crania of African Bush Races," in _Jour. Anthrop. Inst._ (November
+  1897); W. H. J. Bleek, _A Comparative Grammar of South African
+  Languages_ (1862); and "Die Hottentotten Stämme," in _Petermanns Mit._
+  (1858), pp. 49 et sqq.; G. Fritsch, _Die Eingebornen Süd-Afrikas_
+  (1872), and "Schilderungen der Hottentotten," in _Globus_ (1875), pp.
+  374 et sqq.; G. Bertin, "The Bushmen and their Language," in _Jour. R.
+  Asiat. Soc._ xviii., part i., and reprint; P. Kolbe or Kolben,
+  _Present State of the Cape of Good Hope_; Sir John Barrow, _Travels in
+  South Africa_ (1801-1804).
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+  [1] See paper by Messrs Flower and Murie in _Journ. Comp. Anat. and
+    Physiology_ (1867); and Fritsch, _Die Eingebornen Süd-Afrikas_
+    (Breslau, 1873).
+
+  [2] An interesting notice of this form of worship occurs in the
+    journal of an expedition which the Dutch governor, Ryk van Tulbagh,
+    sent to the Great Namaqua in 1752, which reached as far as the Kamob
+    or Lion river (about 27° S. lat.).
+
+  [3] On the religion and antiquities see Theophilus Hahn's papers,
+    "Graves of the Heitsi-Eibib," in _Cape Monthly Magazine_ (1879). and
+    "Der hottentottische Zai-goab und der griechische Zeus," in
+    _Zeitschr. für Geogr._ (Berlin, 1870).
+
+
+
+
+HOTTINGER, JOHANN HEINRICH (1620-1667), Swiss philologist and
+theologian, was born at Zürich on the 10th of March 1620. He studied at
+Geneva, Groningen and Leiden, and after visiting France and England was
+in 1642 appointed professor of church history in his native town. The
+chair of Hebrew at the Carolinum was added in 1643, and in 1653 he was
+appointed professor ordinarius of logic, rhetoric and theology. He
+gained such a reputation as an Oriental scholar that the elector
+palatine in 1655 appointed him professor of Oriental languages and
+biblical criticism at Heidelberg. In 1661, however, he returned to
+Zürich, where in 1662 he was chosen principal of the university. In 1667
+he accepted an invitation to succeed Johann Hoornbeck (1617-1666) as
+professor in the university of Leiden, but he was drowned with three of
+his children by the upsetting of a boat while crossing the river Limmat.
+His chief works are _Historia ecclesiastica Nov. Test._ (1651-1667);
+_Thesaurus philologicus seu clavis scripturae_ (1649; 3rd ed. 1698);
+_Etymologicon orientale, sive lexicon harmonicum heptaglotton_ (1661).
+He also wrote a Hebrew and an Aramaic grammar.
+
+His son, JOHANN JAKOB HOTTINGER (1652-1735), who became professor of
+theology at Zürich in 1698, was the author of a work against Roman
+Catholicism, _Helvetische Kirchengeschichte_ (4 vols., 1698-1729); and
+his grandson, JOHANN HEINRICH HOTTINGER (1681-1750), who in 1721 was
+appointed professor of theology at Heidelberg, wrote a work on
+dogmatics, _Typus doctrinae christianae_ (1714).
+
+
+
+
+HOUBRAKEN, JACOBUS (1698-1780), Dutch engraver, was born at Dort, on the
+25th of December 1698. All that his father, Arnold Houbraken
+(1660-1719), bequeathed to him was a fine constitution and a pure love
+for work. In 1707 he came to reside at Amsterdam, where for years he had
+to struggle incessantly against difficulties. He commenced the art of
+engraving by studying the works of Cornelis Cort, Suyderhoef, Edelinck
+and the Visschers. He devoted himself almost entirely to portraiture.
+Among his best works are scenes from the comedy of _De Ontdekte
+Schijndeugd_, executed in his eightieth year, after Cornelis Troost, who
+was called by his countrymen the Dutch Hogarth. He died on the 14th of
+November 1780.
+
+  See A. Ver Hull, _Jacobus Houbraken et son oeuvre_ (Arnhem, 1875),
+  where 120 engraved works are fully described.
+
+
+
+
+HOUDENC (or HOUDAN), RAOUL DE, 12th-century French trouvère, takes his
+name from his native place, generally identified with Houdain (Artois),
+though there are twelve places bearing the name in one or other of its
+numerous variants. It has been suggested that he was a monk, but from
+the scattered hints in his writings it seems more probable that he
+followed the trade of jongleur and recited his chansons, with small
+success apparently, in the houses of the great. He was well acquainted
+with Paris, and probably spent a great part of his life there. His
+undoubted works are: _Le Songe d'enfer_, _La Voie de paradis_, _Le Roman
+des eles_ (pr. by A. Scheler in _Trouvères belges_, New Series, 1897)
+and the romance of _Méraugis de Portlesguez_, edited by M. Michelant
+(1869) and by Dr M. Friedwagner (Halle, 1897). Houdenc was an imitator
+of Chrétien de Troyes; and Huon de Méri, in his _Tournoi de
+l'antéchrist_ (1226) praises him with Chrétien in words that seem to
+imply that both were dead. _Méraugis de Portlesguez_, the hero of which
+perhaps derives his name from Lesguez, the port of Saint Brieuc in
+Brittany, is a _roman d'aventures_ loosely attached to the Arthurian
+cycle.
+
+  See Gaston Paris in _Hist. litt. de la France_, xxx. 220-237; W.
+  Zingerlé, _Über Raoul de Houdenc und seine Werke_ (Erlangen, 1880);
+  and O. Boerner, _Raoul de Houdenc. Eine stilistische Untersuchung_
+  (1885).
+
+
+
+
+HOUDETOT, a French noble family, taking its name from the lordship of
+Houdetot, between Arques and St Valéry. Louis de Houdetot went with
+Robert, duke of Normandy, to Palestine in 1034, and the various branches
+of the family trace descent from Richard I. de Houdetot (fl. 1229), who
+married Marie de Montfort. Charles Louis de Houdetot received a
+marquisate in 1722, and on his son Claude Constance César,
+lieutenant-general in the French army, was conferred the hereditary
+title of count in 1753. His wife (see below) was the Madame de Houdetot
+of Rousseau's _Confessions_. Their son César Louis Marie François Ange,
+comte de Houdetot (1749-1825), was governor of Martinique (1803-1809)
+and lieutenant-general (1814) under the Empire. His son Frédéric
+Christophe, comte de Houdetot (1778-1859), was director-general of
+indirect imposts in Prussia after Jena, and prefect of Brussels in 1813.
+He acquiesced in the Restoration, but had to resign from the service
+after the Hundred Days. He became a peer of France in 1819, and under
+the Second Empire he was returned by the department of Calvados to the
+Corps Législatif. His half-brother, Charles Île-de-France, comte de
+Houdetot (1789-1866), was wounded at Trafalgar and transferred to the
+army, in which he served through the Napoleonic wars. He retired at the
+Restoration, but returned to the service in 1823, and in 1826 became
+aide-de-camp to the duke of Orleans, becoming lieutenant-general in
+1842. He sat in the Chamber of Deputies from 1837 to 1848, when he
+followed Louis Philippe into exile. A third brother, César François
+Adolphe, comte de Houdetot (1799-1869), was a well-known writer on
+military and other subjects.
+
+
+
+
+HOUDETOT, ELISABETH FRANÇOISE SOPHIE DE LA LIVE DE BELLEGARDE, COMTESSE
+DE (1730-1813), was born in 1730. She married the comte de Houdetot (see
+above) in 1748. In 1753 she formed with the marquis de Saint Lambert
+(q.v.) a connexion which lasted till his death. Mme de Houdetot has been
+made famous by the chapter in Rousseau's _Confessions_ in which he
+describes his unreciprocated passion for her. When questioned on the
+subject she replied that he had much exaggerated. A view differing
+considerably from Rousseau's is to be found in the _Mémoires_ of Mme
+d'Epinay, Mme de Houdetot's sister-in-law.
+
+  For a discussion of her relations with Rousseau see
+  Saint-Marc-Girardin in the _Revue des deux mondes_ (September 1853).
+
+
+
+
+HOUDON, JEAN ANTOINE (1740-1828), French sculptor, was born at
+Versailles on the 18th of March 1740. At the age of twelve he entered
+the École royale de Sculpture, and at twenty, having learnt all that he
+could from Michel Ange Slodtz and Pigalle, he carried off the prix de
+Rome and left France for Italy, where he spent the next ten years of his
+life. His brilliant talent, which seems to have been formed by the
+influence of that world of statues with which Louis XIV. peopled the
+gardens of Versailles rather than by the lessons of his masters,
+delighted Pope Clement XIV., who, on seeing the St Bruno executed by
+Houdon for the church of St Maria degli Angeli, said "he would speak,
+were it not that the rules of his order impose silence." In Italy Houdon
+had lived in the presence of that second Renaissance with which the name
+of Winckelmann is associated, and the direct and simple treatment of the
+Morpheus which he sent to the Salon of 1771 bore witness to its
+influence. This work procured him his "agrégation" to the Academy of
+Painting and Sculpture, of which he was made a full member in 1775.
+Between these dates Houdon had not been idle; busts of Catharine II.,
+Diderot and Prince Galitzin were remarked at the Salon of 1773, and at
+that of 1775 he produced, not only his Morpheus in marble, but busts of
+Turgot, Gluck (in which the marks of small-pox in the face were
+reproduced with striking effect) and Sophie Arnould as Iphigeneia (now
+in the Wallace Collection, London), together with his well-known marble
+relief, "Grive suspendue par les pattes." He took also an active part in
+the teaching of the academy, and executed for the instruction of his
+pupils the celebrated Écorché still in use. To every Salon Houdon was a
+chief contributor; most of the leading men of the day were his sitters;
+his busts of d'Alembert, Prince Henry of Prussia, Gerbier, Buffon (for
+Catharine of Russia) and Mirabeau are remarkable portraits; and in 1778,
+when the news of Rousseau's death reached him, Houdon started at once
+for Ermenonville, and there took a cast of the dead man's face, from
+which he produced the grand and life-like head now in the Louvre. In
+1779 his bust of Molière, at the Théâtre Français, won universal praise,
+and the celebrated draped statue of Voltaire, in the vestibule of the
+same theatre, was exhibited at the Salon of 1781, to which Houdon also
+sent a statue of Marshal de Tourville, commissioned by the king, and the
+Diana executed for Catharine II. This work was refused; the jury alleged
+that a statue of Diana demanded drapery; without drapery, they said, the
+goddess became a "suivante de Vénus," and not even the proud and frank
+chastity of the attitude and expression could save the Diana of Houdon
+(a bronze reproduction of which is in the Louvre) from insult. Three
+years later he went to America, there to carry out a statue of
+Washington. With Franklin, whose bust he had recently executed, Houdon
+left France in 1785, and, staying some time with Washington at Mount
+Vernon, he modelled the bust, with which he decided to go back to Paris,
+there to complete the statue destined for the capitol of the State of
+Virginia. After his return to his native country Houdon executed for the
+king of Prussia, as a companion to a statue of Summer, La Frileuse, a
+naif embodiment of shivering cold, which is one of his best as well as
+one of his best-known works. The Revolution interrupted the busy flow of
+commissions, and Houdon took up a half-forgotten project for a statue of
+St Scholastica. He was immediately denounced to the convention, and his
+life was only saved by his instant and ingenious adaptation of St
+Scholastica into an embodiment of Philosophy. Under Napoleon, of whom in
+1806 he made a nude statue now at Dijon, Houdon received little
+employment; he was, however, commissioned to execute the colossal
+reliefs intended for the decoration of the column of the "Grand Army" at
+Boulogne (which ultimately found a different destination); he also
+produced a statue of Cicero for the senate, and various busts, amongst
+which may be cited those of Marshal Ney, of Josephine and of Napoleon
+himself, by whom Houdon was rewarded with the legion of honour. He died
+at Paris on the 16th of July 1828.
+
+  See memoir by Émile Délerot and Arsène Legrelle in _Mémoires de la
+  société des sciences morales ... de Seine-et-Oise_, iv. 49 et seq.
+  (1857); Anatole de Montaiglon and Georges Duplessis in _Revue
+  universelle des arts_, i. and ii. (1855-1856); Hermann Dierks,
+  _Houdons Leben und Werke_ (Gotha, 1887); Albert Terrade, _Autour de la
+  statue de Jean Houdon_ (Versailles, 1892); P. E. Mangeant, _Sur une
+  statuette de Voltaire par J. Houdon_ (Paris, 1896).
+
+
+
+
+HOUFFALIZE, a small town occupying an elevated position (nearly 1100
+ft.) in the extreme south-east of the province of Luxemburg, Belgium,
+much visited during the summer on account of its fine bracing air. There
+are the ruins of an old castle, and some remains of the still older
+abbey of Val Ste Catherine. The parish church dates from the 13th or
+14th century. It contains two old black marble tombs to Thierry of
+Houffalize and Henri his son, the latter killed at Woeringen in 1288.
+Houffalize is on the eastern Ourthe, and is connected by a steam tramway
+with Bourcy on the line from Libramont to Bastogne, Spa and Liége. Pop.
+(1904) 1486.
+
+
+
+
+HOUGHTON, RICHARD MONCKTON MILNES, 1ST BARON (1809-1885), English poet
+and man of letters, son of Robert Pemberton Milnes, of Fryston Hall,
+Yorkshire, and the Hon. Henrietta Monckton, daughter of the fourth Lord
+Galway, was born in London on the 19th of June 1809. He was educated
+privately, and entered Trinity College, Cambridge, in 1827. There he
+was at once drawn into a literary set, and became a member of the famous
+"Apostles" Club, which then included Tennyson, Hallam, Trench, J. W.
+Blakesley, afterwards dean of Lincoln, and others. After taking his
+degree, Milnes travelled abroad, spending some time at Bonn University.
+Thence he went to Italy and Greece, and published in 1834 a volume of
+_Memorials of a Tour in some Parts of Greece_, describing his
+experiences. He returned to London in 1837, and was in that year elected
+to Parliament as member for Pontefract. His parliamentary career was
+marked by much strenuous activity. He interested himself particularly in
+the question of copyright and the conditions of reformatory schools. He
+left Peel's party over the Corn Law controversy, and was afterwards
+identified in politics with Palmerston, at whose instance he was made a
+peer in 1863. His literary career was industrious and cultured, without
+being exceptionally distinguished. Church matters had always a claim
+upon him: he wrote a striking tract in 1841, which was praised by
+Newman; and took part in the discussion about "Essays and Reviews,"
+defending the tractarian position in _One Tract More_ (1841). He
+published two volumes of verse in 1838, _Memorials of Residence upon the
+Continent and Poems of Many Years_, _Poetry for the People in 1840_ and
+_Palm Leaves_ in 1844. He also wrote a _Life and Letters of Keats_ in
+1848, the material for which was largely provided by the poet's friend,
+Charles Armitage Brown. Milnes also contributed largely to the reviews.
+His poetry is meditative and delicate; some of his ballads were among
+the most popular of their day, and all his work was marked by
+refinement. But his chief distinctions were his keen sense of literary
+merit in others, and the judgment and magnanimity with which he fostered
+it. He was surrounded by the most brilliant men of his time, many of
+whom he had been the first to acclaim. His chief title to remembrance
+rests on the part he played, as a man of influence in society and in
+moulding public opinion on literary matters, in connexion with his large
+circle of talented friends. He secured a pension for Tennyson, helped to
+make Emerson known in Great Britain, and was one of the earliest
+champions of Swinburne. He helped David Gray and wrote a preface for
+_The Luggie_. He was, in the old sense of the word, a patron of letters,
+and one who never abused the privileges of his position. Milnes married
+in 1851 the Hon. Annabel Crewe (d. 1874). He died at Vichy on the 11th
+of August 1885, and was buried at Fryston. His son, the second Baron
+Houghton, was created Earl of Crewe (q.v.) in 1895.
+
+  See _The Life, Letters and Friendships of Richard Monckton Milnes,
+  first Lord Houghton_ (1890), by Sir T. Wemyss Reid.
+
+
+
+
+HOUGHTON-LE-SPRING, an urban district in the Houghton-le-Spring
+parliamentary division of Durham, England, 6 m. N.E. of the city of
+Durham. Pop. (1901) 7858. It is well situated at the head of a small
+valley branching from that of the Wear. St Michael's church is a
+cruciform Early English and Decorated building, with a picturesque
+embattled rectory adjoining. Bernard Gilpin, "the Apostle of the North,"
+was rector of this parish from 1556 to 1583, and the founder of the
+grammar school. The principal public buildings are a town hall, market
+house and church institute. Houghton Hall is a fine mansion of the late
+16th century. In the orchard stands a tomb, that of the puritan Sir
+Robert Hutton (d. 1680), of whom a curious tradition states that he
+desired burial beside his war-horse, the body of which was denied
+interment in consecrated ground. The main road from Durham to Sunderland
+here passes through a remarkable cutting in the limestone 80 ft. deep.
+The district affords frequent evidence of ice activity in the glacial
+period. The town is the centre of a large system of electric tramways.
+The population is mainly dependent on the neighbouring collieries, but
+limestone quarrying is carried on to some extent.
+
+
+
+
+HOUND, a dog, now used, except in poetry, only of dogs of the chase, and
+particularly of the breed used in hunting the fox, the "hound" _par
+excellence_. Other breeds have a defining word prefixed, e.g.
+boar-hound, stag-hound, &c. (see DOG). The O. Eng. _hund_ is the common
+Teutonic name for the animal, cf. Du. _hond_, Ger. _Hund_, &c., and is
+cognate with Sansk. _çvan_, Gr. [Greek: kyôn], Lat. _canis_, Ir. and
+Gael. _cu_.
+
+
+
+
+HOUNSLOW, a town in the Brentford parliamentary division of Middlesex,
+England, 12½ m. W. by S. of St Paul's Cathedral, London, on the District
+and London & South Western railways. Pop. (1901) 11,377. It has grown
+into an extensive residential suburb of London. Its situation at the
+junction of two great roads from the west of England made it an
+important coaching station, and some 500 coaches formerly passed through
+it daily. A priory of friars of the Holy Trinity was founded at Hounslow
+in 1296, and existed till the dissolution of the monasteries. The priory
+chapel was used as a church till 1830, after which its place was taken
+by the existing church of the Holy Trinity (1835). Hounslow Heath, west
+of the town, had, according to the survey of 1546, an area of 4293
+acres. It was the site of Roman and British camps, and in the wars of
+the 17th century was the scene of several important military rendezvous.
+It was a favourite resort of highwaymen, whose bodies were exposed on
+gibbets along the road. In 1784 the base-line of the first
+trigonometrical survey in England was laid down on the heath. In 1793
+large cavalry barracks were erected upon it, and it is also the site of
+extensive powder mills. It began to be enclosed towards the end of the
+reign of George III. In Osterley Park, N.E. of Hounslow, Sir Thomas
+Gresham built a mansion in 1577, and this was rebuilt with great
+magnificence by Francis and Robert Child c. 1770. Hounslow is divided
+between the parishes of Heston and Isleworth. Pop. of urban district of
+Heston and Isleworth (1901) 30,863.
+
+
+
+
+HOUR, the twenty-fourth part of a civil day, the twelfth part of a
+natural day or night, a space of time of sixty minutes' duration. The
+word is derived through the O. Fr. _ure_, _ore_, _houre_, mod. _heure_,
+from Lat. _hora_, Gr. [Greek: hôra], season, time of day, hour (see
+CALENDAR).
+
+
+
+
+HOUR ANGLE, the angular distance of a heavenly body from the meridian,
+as measured around the celestial pole. It is equal to the angle at the
+pole between the hour circle through the body and the meridian, but is
+usually expressed in time.
+
+
+
+
+HOUR-GLASS, a device for measuring intervals of time, also known as
+sand-glass, and as log-glass when used in conjunction with the common
+log for ascertaining the speed of a ship. It consists of two pear-shaped
+bulbs of glass, united at their apices and having a minute passage
+formed between them. A quantity of sand (or occasionally of mercury) is
+enclosed in the bulbs, and the size of the passage is so proportioned
+that this sand will completely run through from one bulb to another in
+the time it is desired to measure--e.g. an hour or a minute. Instruments
+of this kind, which have no great pretensions to accuracy, were formerly
+common in churches. In the English House of Commons, as a preliminary to
+a division, a two-minute sand-glass is still turned, and while the sand
+is running the "division bells" are set in motion in every part of the
+building, to give members notice that a division is at hand.
+
+
+
+
+HOURI, the term for a beautiful virgin who awaits the devout Mahommedan
+in Paradise. The word is the French representative of the Pers. _huri_,
+Arab, _hawra'_, a black-eyed virgin, from _hawira_, to be black-eyed,
+like a gazelle.
+
+
+
+
+HOURS, CANONICAL, certain portions of the day set apart by rule (canon)
+of the church for prayer and devotion. The Jewish custom of praying
+three times a day, i.e. at the third, sixth and ninth hours, was
+perpetuated in the early Christian Church (Acts ii. 15, iii. 1, x. 9),
+and to these were added midnight (when Paul and Silas sang in prison),
+and the beginning of day and of night. Ambrose, Augustine and Hilary
+commended the example of the psalmist who gave praise "seven times a
+day" (Ps. cxix. 164). The seventh (Compline, _Completorium_) was added
+by Benedict. These hours were adopted especially in the monasteries as a
+part of the canonical life, and spread thence to the cathedral and
+collegiate chapters.
+
+Since the 6th century the number and order of the hours have been fixed
+thus: matins, lauds, prime, terce, sext, none, vespers, compline.
+
+_Matins_ theoretically belongs to midnight, but in Italy it is said
+about 7 or 8 A.M. and in France often on the preceding evening in
+accordance with the statement "evening and morning were one day." At
+matins is said the _Venite_ (Ps. xcv.) and a hymn, followed by a
+_Nocturna_ or night-watch (on Sundays three) which consists of twelve
+psalms. After the _nocturna_ comes a lesson divided into three parts,
+one biblical and two patristic, and finally the _Te Deum_.
+
+_Lauds_ is proper to sunrise, but is mostly grouped with matins. It
+consists of four psalms, a canticle, psalms 148-150, a hymn, the
+Benedictus (Luke i. 68-79) and prayers.
+
+_Prime_ (6 A.M.), _Terce_ (9 A.M.), _Sext_ (noon) and _None_ (3 P.M.)
+are called the Little Day Hours, are often said together, and are alike
+in character, consisting of a hymn and some sections of Ps. cxix.,
+followed by a prayer. On Sundays the Athanasian Creed is said at prime.
+
+_Vespers_ or _Evensong_ consists of five varying psalms, a hymn, the
+_Magnificat_ (Luke i. 46-55) and prayers. It belongs theoretically to
+sunset.
+
+_Compline_, technically 9 P.M., but usually combined with vespers, is a
+prayer for protection during the darkness. It consists of the general
+confession, four fixed psalms, a hymn, the _Nunc dimittis_ (Luke ii.
+29-32), prayers and a Commemoration of the Virgin.
+
+  The term "canonical hours" is also used of the time during which
+  English marriages may be solemnized without special licence, i.e.
+  between 8 A.M. and 3 P.M.
+
+
+
+
+HOUSE (O. Eng. _hús_, a word common to Teutonic languages, cf. Dut.
+_huis_, Ger. _Haus_; in Gothic it is only found in _gudhûs_, a temple;
+it may be ultimately connected with the root of "hide," conceal), the
+dwelling-place of a human being (treated, from the architectural point
+of view, below), or, in a transferred sense, of an animal, particularly
+of one whose abode, like that of the beaver, is built by the animal
+itself, or, like that of the snail, resembles in some fancied way a
+human dwelling. Apart from the numerous compound uses of the word,
+denoting the purpose for which a building is employed, such as
+custom-house, lighthouse, bakehouse, greenhouse and the like, there may
+be mentioned the particular applications to a chamber of a legislative
+body, the Houses of Parliament, House of Representatives, &c.; to the
+upper and lower assemblies of convocation; and to the colleges at a
+university; the heads of these foundations, known particularly as
+master, principal, president, provost, rector, &c., are collectively
+called heads of houses. At English public schools a "house" is the usual
+unit of the organization. In the "houses" the boys sleep, have their
+"studies" and their meals, if the school is arranged on the
+"boarding-house" system. The houses have their representative teams in
+the school games, but have no place in the educational class-system of
+the school. It may be noticed that in Scotland the words "house" and
+"tenement" are used in a way distinct from the English use, "tenement"
+being applied to the large block containing "houses," portions, i.e.,
+occupied by separate families. "The House" is the name colloquially
+given to such different institutions as the London Stock Exchange, the
+House of Commons or Lords and to a workhouse.
+
+In the transferred sense, "house" is used of a family, genealogically
+considered, and of the audience at a public meeting or entertainment,
+especially of a theatre. A "house-physician" and "house-surgeon" is a
+member of the resident medical staff of a hospital. In astrology the
+twelve divisions into which the heavens are divided, and through which
+the planets pass, are known as houses, the first being called the "house
+of life." The word "house," "housing," used of the trappings of a horse,
+especially of a covering for the back and flanks, attached to the
+saddle, is of quite distinct origin. In medieval Latin it appears as
+_hucia_, _houssia_ and _housia_ (see Ducange, _Glossarium_, s.v.
+_housia_), and comes into English from the O. Fr. _huche_, modern
+_housse_. It has been supposed to have been adopted, at the time of the
+crusades, from the Arabic _yushiah_, a covering.
+
+Architecturally considered, the term "house" is given to a building
+erected for habitation, in contradistinction to one built for secular or
+ecclesiastical purposes. The term extends, therefore, to a dwelling of
+any size, from a single-room building to one containing as many rooms as
+a palace; thus in London some of the largest dwellings are those
+inhabited by royalty, such as Marlborough House, or others by men of
+rank, such as Devonshire House, Bridgewater House, Spencer House, &c.;
+and even those which, formerly built as habitations, have subsequently
+been devoted to other purposes, such as Somerset House and Burlington
+House, retain the term. In Paris the larger houses thus named would be
+called _hôtel_.
+
+So far as the history of domestic architecture is concerned, the
+earliest houses of which remains have been found are those of the
+village of Kahun in Egypt, which were built for the workmen employed in
+the building of the pyramid at Illahun, and deserted on its completion.
+They varied in size from the habitations of the chief inspectors to the
+single room of the ordinary labourer, and were built in unburnt brick
+with open courts in the larger examples, to give light and air to the
+rooms round. The models found in 1907 at Deir-Rifa opposite Assiut in
+Upper Egypt, by Flinders Petrie, and assumed by him to be those of
+"soul-houses," suggest that the early type of building consisted of a
+hut, to which later a porch or lean-to, with two poles in front, has
+been added; subsequently, columns replaced the poles, and a flat roof
+with parapet, suggesting the primitive forms of the Egyptian temple.
+
+The only remains of early houses found in Mesopotamia are those within
+the precincts of the Temple of Bel, at Nippur, occupied by the king; but
+beyond the fact that the walls were built in unburnt brick and were
+sometimes of great thickness, nothing is known.
+
+The houses in Crete would seem to have been small in area, but this was
+compensated for in height, as the small plaques found in the palace at
+Cnossus show houses in two or three storeys, with gable roofs and
+windows subdivided by mullions and transomes, corresponding with those
+of the 15th to 17th centuries in England. The stone staircase in the
+palace rising through two storeys shows that even at this early period
+the houses in towns had floors superposed one above the other; to a
+certain extent the same extension existed in the later Greek houses
+found in Delos, in two of which there was clear evidence of wooden
+staircases leading within to the roof or to an upper storey. The largest
+series hitherto discovered is that at Priene in Asia Minor, where the
+remains of some thirty examples were found, varying in dimensions, but
+all based on the same plan; this consisted of an entrance passage
+leading to an open court, on the north side of which, and therefore
+facing south, was an open portico, corresponding to the _prostas_ in
+Vitruvius (vi. 7), and in the rear two large rooms, one of which might
+be the oecus or sitting-room, and the other the thalamos or chief
+bedroom. Other rooms round the court were the triclinium, or dining
+room, and cubicula or bedchambers. The largest of these houses occupied
+an area measuring 75 × 30 ft. Those found in Delos, though fewer in
+number, are of much greater importance, the house in the street of the
+theatre having twelve rooms exclusive of the entrance passage and the
+great central court, surrounded on all four sides by a peristyle; in
+this house the oecus measured 26 × 18 ft. In a second example the
+prostas consisted of a long gallery, the whole width of the site, which
+was lighted by windows at each end, the sills of which were raised 8 ft.
+or 9 ft. from the floor.
+
+[Illustration: PLATE II.
+
+  _Photo, Neurdein._
+  FIG. 4.--MUSICIAN'S HOUSE, REIMS.
+
+  _Photo, F. Frith & Co._
+  FIG. 5.--JEW'S HOUSE, LINCOLN.
+
+  _Photo, Neurdein._
+  FIG. 6.--HÔTEL DE CLUNY, PARIS.]
+
+[Illustration: PLATE II.
+
+  _Photo, Neurdein._
+  FIG. 7.--HÔTEL DE JACQUES COEUR, BOURGES, FAÇADE.
+
+  Fig. 8.--HALF-TIMBERED HOUSE AT HILDESHEIM.
+
+  _Photo. F. Frith & Co._
+  FIG. 9.--HOUSE OF JOHN HARVARD'S MOTHER, STRATFORD-ON-AVON.]
+
+The remains of the houses found in the Peiraeus are of the same simple
+plan as those at Priene, and suggest that the Greek house was considered
+to be the private residence only for the members of the family, and
+without any provision for entertaining guests as in Rome and Pompeii.
+From the descriptions given by Vitruvius (ii. 8) it may be gathered that
+in his time many of the houses in Rome were built in unburnt brick, the
+walls of which, if properly protected at the top with a course of burnt
+brick projecting over the face of the brickwork, and coated inside and
+outside with stucco, were considered to be more lasting than those built
+in soft stone. Vitruvius refers also to Greek houses thus built, and
+states that in the house of Mausolus, at Halicarnassus, the walls were
+of unburnt brick, and the plastering with which they were covered was
+so polished that they sparkled like glass. In Rome, however, he points
+out, such walls ought to be forbidden, as they are not fit to carry an
+upper storey, unless they are of great thickness, and as upper storeys
+become necessary in a crowded city such walls would occupy too much
+space. The houses in Pompeii (q.v.) were built in rubble masonry with
+clay mortar, and their walls were protected at the top by burnt brick
+courses and their faces with stucco; they were, however, of a second- or
+third-rate class compared with those in Rome, the magnificence of which
+is attested in the descriptions given by various writers and
+substantiated by the remains occasionally found in excavations.
+Vitruvius refers to upper storeys, which were necessary in consequence
+of the limited area in Rome, and representations in mosaic floors and in
+bas-relief sculpture have been found on which two or three storeys are
+indicated. The plans of many Roman houses are shown on the _Marble
+Plan_, and they resemble those of Pompeii, but it is probable that the
+principal reception rooms were on an upper storey, long since destroyed.
+The house of Livia on the Palatine Hill was in two storeys, and the
+decoration was of a much finer character than those of Pompeii; this
+house and the House of the Vestals might be taken as representative of
+the Roman house in Rome itself. In those built in colder climates, as in
+England and Germany, account has to be taken of the special provision
+required for warming the rooms by hypocausts, of which numerous examples
+have been found, with rich mosaic floors over them.
+
+Of the houses in succeeding centuries, those found in the cities of
+central Syria, described in the article ARCHITECTURE, are wonderfully
+perfect, in consequence of their desertion at the time of the Mahommedan
+invasion in the 7th century. Very little is known of the houses in
+Europe during the dark ages, owing to the fact that they were generally
+built in wood, with thatched roofs. The only examples in stone which
+have been preserved are those in the island of Skellig Michael, Kerry,
+which were constructed like the beehive tombs at Mycenae with stone
+courses overlapping inside until they closed in at the top. These houses
+or cells were rectangular inside and round or oval outside, with a small
+low door at one end, and an opening above to let the smoke out.
+
+The houses, even in large towns like London, were built mainly in wood,
+in some cases down to the 17th century; in the country, the smaller
+houses were constructed with trunks of trees in pairs, one end of the
+trunk being sunk in the ground, the other bent over and secured by a
+ridge piece, thus forming a pointed arch, the opening of which was about
+11 ft. The pairs were fixed 16 ft. apart, and the space included
+constituted a bay, any requisite increase in the size of the house being
+made by doubling or trebling the bays. The roofs were thatched with
+straw on battens, and sometimes with a collar beam carrying a floor,
+which constituted an upper storey. The end walls were closed with wooden
+studs and wattle-and-daub filling. The pairs of trees were known as
+forks or crucks. Vitruvius (ii. 1) suggests a similar kind of building
+in ancient times, except that the interlaced twigs were covered with
+clay, so as to carry off the rain. In Yorkshire there was another type
+of house, known as a coit, which was a dwelling-house and barn (shippon)
+united; the latter contained the cow-stalls with loft above, and the
+former was in two storeys, with a ladder inside the room leading to the
+upper floor.[1]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 1.--Houses at Cluny.]
+
+Passing now to structures of a less ephemeral character, the earliest
+houses of which there still remain substantial relics are those built in
+stone (see MANOR HOUSE). The Jew's House at Lincoln, 12th century, is
+one of the best-known examples, and still preserves its street front in
+stone, with rich entrance doorway and first-floor windows lighting the
+principal room, which seems invariably in those early houses to have
+been on the first floor, the ground floor being used for service and
+stores (see Plate I. fig. 5). To the 13th century belongs the old
+Rectory House at West Dean, Sussex, and to the 14th century the
+Parsonage House at Market Deeping, Lincolnshire. The principal examples
+of the domestic architecture of this early period in the country are
+castles, manor houses and farm buildings, as town houses occupied sites
+too valuable to be left untouched; this, however, is not the case in
+France, and particularly in the south, where streets of early houses are
+still to be found in good preservation, such as those at Cluny (fig. 1)
+and Cordes (Tarn), and others at Montferrand, Cahors, Figeac, Angers,
+Provins, Sarlat (fig. 2), St Emilion, Périgueux, Soissons and Beauvais,
+dating from the 12th to the 14th centuries. One of the most remarkable
+examples is the Musician's House at Reims (see Plate I., fig. 4), with
+large windows on the first floor, between which are niches with
+life-size figures of musicians seated in them. Generally speaking, the
+ground storeys of these houses, which in many cases were occupied by
+shops, have been transformed, but occasionally the old shop fronts
+remain, as in Dinan, Morlaix and other old towns in Brittany. Houses of
+the first Renaissance of great beauty exist in Orleans, such as the
+house of Agnes Sorel; and the example in the Market Place illustrated in
+fig. 3; in Tours, Tristan's house in brick with stone quoins and
+dressings to windows; in Rouen, Caen, Bayeux, Toulouse, Dijon and, in
+fact, in almost every town throughout France. Of houses of large
+dimensions, which in France are termed _hôtels_, there are also many
+other fine examples, the best known of which are the hôtel de Jacques
+Coeur (see Plate II., fig. 7), at Bourges, and the hôtel de Cluny at
+Paris (see Plate I., fig. 6). In the 15th and 16th centuries in France,
+owing to the value of the sites in towns, the houses rose to many
+storeys, the upper of which were built in half-timber, sometimes
+projecting on corbels and richly carved; of these numerous examples
+exist at Rouen, Beauvais, Bayeux and other towns in Normandy and
+Brittany. Of such structures in English towns (see Plate II. fig. 9)
+there are still preserved some examples in York, Southampton, Chester,
+Shrewsbury, Stratford-on-Avon, and many smaller towns; the greatest
+development in half-timber houses in England is that which is found more
+particularly throughout Kent, Sussex and Surrey, in houses of modest
+dimensions, generally consisting of ground and first floor only, with
+sometimes additional rooms in the roof; in these the upper storey
+invariably projects in front of the lower, giving increased dimensions
+to the rooms in the former, but adopted in order to protect the walls of
+the ground storey from rain, which in the upper storey was effected by
+the projecting eaves of the roof. In the north and west of England,
+where stone could be obtained at less cost than brick, and in the east
+of England, where brick, often imported from the Low Countries, was
+largely employed, the ordinary houses were built in those materials,
+and in consequence of their excellent construction many houses of the
+16th and 17th centuries have remained in good preservation down to the
+present day; they are found in the Cotswolds generally, and (among small
+towns) at Broadway in Worcestershire and (of brick) throughout Essex and
+Suffolk. Among the larger half-timber houses built in the 15th and 16th
+centuries, mention may be made of Bramhall Hall, near Manchester; Speke
+Hall, near Liverpool (see Plate III., fig. 10); The Oaks; West Bromwich;
+and Moreton Old Hall, Cheshire, one of the most elaborate of the series
+(see Plate III., fig. 11).
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 2.--House at Sarlat.]
+
+On the borders of the Rhine, as at Bacharach and Rhense, and throughout
+Germany, hall-timber houses of the most picturesque character are found
+in every town, large and small, those of Hildesheim (see Plate II., fig.
+8) dating from the 15th and 16th centuries, and in some cases rising to
+a great height with four or five storeys, not including those in the
+lofty roofs. Houses in stone from the 12th to the 16th century are found
+in Cologne, Metz, Trier, Hanover and Münster in Westphalia, where again
+there are whole streets remaining; and in brick at Rostock, Stralsund,
+Lübeck, Greifswald and Dantzig, forming a very remarkable series of 15th
+and 16th-century work.
+
+Of half-timber work in Italy there are no examples, but sometimes (as at
+Bologna) the rooms of the upper floors are carried on arcades, and
+sometimes on corbels, as the casa dei Carracci in the same town. The
+principal feature of the Italian house is the courtyard in the rear,
+with arcades on one or more sides, the front in stone or brick, or both
+combined, being of the greatest simplicity (examples in San Gimignano
+and Pisa). At Viterbo are small houses in stone, two of which have
+external stone staircases of fine design, and the few windows on the
+ground floor suggest that the rooms there were used only for stores.
+Houses with external staircases, but without any architectural
+pretensions, are found throughout the Balkan provinces.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 3.--Detail of house at Orleans.]
+
+The introduction of the purer Italian style into England in the 17th
+century created a great change in domestic architecture. Instead of the
+projecting wings and otherwise picturesque contour of the earlier work
+the houses were made square or rectangular on plan, in two or three
+storeys, crowned with a modillion cornice carrying a roof of red tiles;
+the only embellishments of the main front were the projecting courses of
+stone on the quoins and architraves round the windows, and flat
+pilasters carrying a hood or pediment flanking the entrance doorway. In
+the larger mansions more thought was bestowed on the introduction of
+porticoes (scarcely necessary in the English climate), with sometimes
+great flights of steps up to the principal floor, which was raised above
+a basement with cold and dark passages; a great saloon in the centre of
+the block, lighted from above, took the place of the great entrance hall
+of the Tudor period, and the rooms frequently led one out of the other,
+without an independent entrance door. On the other hand, in the ordinary
+houses, the deficiency in external ornament was amply made up for by the
+comfort in the interior and the decoration of the staircase and other
+rooms. Towards the close of the century the square mullioned and
+transomed windows, with opening casements, gave way to sash windows,
+introduced from Holland, and these with moulded and stout sash-bars gave
+a certain character to the outside of the houses, which are valued now
+for their quiet unpretentious character and excellent construction. In
+the closes of many English cathedrals, on the outskirts of London, and
+in some of the older squares, as Lincoln's Inn Fields and Queen Square,
+are examples of this style of house. The substitution of thin sash-bars
+in the 19th century, and their omission occasionally, in favour of
+plate-glass, deprived the house-front of one of its chief attractions;
+but the old English casements and oriels or bow-windows have been again
+introduced, and a return has been made to the style which prevailed in
+the beginning of the 18th century, commonly known as that of Queen Anne.
+
+[Illustration: PLATE III.
+
+  _Photo, Frith & Co._
+  FIG. 10.--SPEKE HALL, NEAR LIVERPOOL.
+
+  _Photo, F. Frith & Co._
+  FIG. 11.--MORETON OLD HALL, NEAR CONGLETON, CHESHIRE.]
+
+[Illustration: PLATE IV.
+
+  From Garner and Stratton, _Domestic Architecture of England during the
+  Tudor Period_, 1910. By permission of B. T. Batsford.
+
+  FIG. 12.--SOUTH COURT OF SUTTON PLACE, SURREY, 1525.
+
+  From _Gotch, Architecture of the Renaissance in England_, 1894. By
+  permission of B. T. Batsford.
+
+  FIG. 13.--MOYNS PARK, ESSEX, 1580.]
+
+[Illustration: PLATE V.
+
+  From Belcher and Macartney, _Later Renaissance Architecture in
+  England_, 1901. By permission of B. T. Batsford.
+
+  FIG. 14.--HAM HOUSE, PETERSHAM, 1610.
+
+  From Gotch, _Architecture of the Renaissance in England_, 1894. By
+  permission of B. T. Batsford.
+
+  FIG. 15.--BRAMSHILL, HAMPSHIRE, 1612.]
+
+[Illustration: PLATE VI.
+
+  From Belcher and MaCartney, _Later Renaissance Architecture in
+  England_, By permission of B. T. Batsford.
+
+  FIG. 16.--THE EARL OF BURLINGTON'S VILLA, CHISWICK. EIGHTEENTH
+  CENTURY.
+
+  From the same source as above.
+  FIG. 17.--HOUSES IN CAVENDISH SQUARE, LONDON. EIGHTEENTH CENTURY.]
+
+Perhaps in one respect the greatest change which has been made in the
+English house is the adoption of "flats"; commenced some time in the
+'fifties in Ashley Gardens, Westminster, they have spread throughout
+London. In consequence of the great value of the sites on which they are
+sometimes built, to which must be added the cost of the houses pulled
+down to make way for them, the question of expense in material and rich
+decoration has not always been worth considering, so that frontages in
+stone, with the classic orders brought in with many varieties of design,
+have given the character of a palace to a structure in which none of the
+rooms exceeds the modest height of 10 ft. The increasing demand for
+these, however, shows that they meet, so far as their accommodation and
+comfort are concerned, the wants and tastes of the upper and middle
+classes. In some of the London streets, where shops occupy the ground
+floor, a far finer type of house has been erected than that which could
+have been afforded for the shopkeeper's residence above, as in old
+times, so that London promises in time to become a city of palaces. The
+same change in the aspects of its streets has long been evident in
+Paris, but there is one feature in the latter city which has never yet
+found its way into London, much to the surprise of French visitors, viz.
+the _porte-cochère_, through which the occupants of the house can in wet
+weather drive and be landed in a covered hall or vestibule. This
+requires, of course, a small court at the back, so small that one
+wonders sometimes how it is possible for the carriage to turn round in
+it. The _porte-cochère_ also, from its dimensions, is a feature of more
+importance than the ordinary street doorway, even when a portico of some
+kind is added; on the other hand, the strict regulations in Paris as
+regards the projection of cornices and other decorative accessories
+gives to the stranger the appearance of monotony in their design, which
+certainly cannot be said of the houses in flats lately built in London.
+Within recent years an old English feature, known as the bow-window, has
+been introduced into Paris, the primary object of which does not seem
+yet to have been thoroughly understood by the French architect. An
+English bow-window, by its slight projection in front of the main wall,
+increases greatly the amount of light entering the room, and it is
+generally placed between solid piers of stone or brick. The French
+architects, however, project their piers on immense corbels, and then
+sink their windows with deep external reveals, so that no benefit
+accrues to the room, so far as the increased light is concerned. In
+Paris, since 1900, there has been a tendency to introduce a style of
+design in French houses which is known as "l'art nouveau," a style which
+commenced in furniture as a reaction against the revival of the Empire
+and Louis XIV. and XVI. periods, and was then extended to house fronts;
+this style has unfortunately spread through the various towns in France
+and apparently to Germany, again as a reaction against the formal
+classic style of the latter half of the 19th century. It is probable
+that in Italy and Spain "l'art nouveau" may meet with the same success,
+and for the same reasons, so that in the latter country it will be a
+revival, with modifications, of the well-known Churrigueresque style,
+the most debased Rococo style which has ever existed. In England it has
+never met with any response.     (R. P. S.)
+
+
+FOOTNOTE:
+
+  [1] A complete description of these houses will be found in _The
+    Evolution of the English House_, by S. O. Addy.
+
+
+
+
+HOUSEHOLD, ROYAL. In all the medieval monarchies of western Europe the
+general system of government sprang from, and centred in, the royal
+household. The sovereign's domestics were his officers of state, and the
+leading dignitaries of the palace were the principal administrators of
+the kingdom. The royal household itself had, in its turn, grown out of
+an earlier and more primitive institution. It took its rise in the
+_comitatus_ described by Tacitus, the chosen band of _comites_ or
+companions who, when the Roman historian wrote, constituted the personal
+following, in peace as well as in war, of the Teutonic chieftain. In
+England before the Conquest the _comitatus_ had developed or
+degenerated into the thegnhood, and among the most eminent and powerful
+of the king's thegns were his dishthegn, his bowerthegn, and his
+horsethegn or staller. In Normandy at the time of the Conquest a similar
+arrangement, imitated from the French court, had long been established,
+and the Norman dukes, like their overlords the kings of France, had
+their seneschal or steward, their chamberlain and their constable. After
+the Conquest the ducal household of Normandy was reproduced in the royal
+household of England; and since, in obedience to the spirit of
+feudalism, the great offices of the first had been made hereditary, the
+great offices of the second were made hereditary also, and were
+thenceforth held by the grantees and their descendants as
+grand-serjeanties of the crown. The consequence was that they passed out
+of immediate relation to the practical conduct of affairs either in both
+state and court or in the one or the other of them. The steward and
+chamberlain of England were superseded in their political functions by
+the justiciar and treasurer of England, and in their domestic functions
+by the steward and chamberlain of the household. The marshal of England
+took the place of the constable of England in the royal palace, and was
+associated with him in the command of the royal armies. In due course,
+however, the marshalship as well as the constableship became hereditary,
+and, although the constable and marshal of England retained their
+military authority until a comparatively late period, the duties they
+had successively performed about the palace had been long before
+transferred to the master of the horse. In these circumstances the
+holders of the original great offices of state and the household ceased
+to attend the court except on occasions of extraordinary ceremony, and
+their representatives either by inheritance or by special appointment
+have ever since continued to appear at coronations and some other public
+solemnities, such as the opening of the parliament or trials by the
+House of Lords.[1]
+
+The materials available for a history of the English royal household are
+somewhat scanty and obscure. The earliest record relating to it is of
+the reign of Henry II. and is contained in the _Black Book of the
+Exchequer_. It enumerates the various inmates of the king's palace and
+the daily allowances made to them at the period at which it was
+compiled. Hence it affords valuable evidence of the antiquity and
+relative importance of the court offices to which it refers,
+notwithstanding that it is silent as to the functions and formal
+subordination of the persons who filled them.[2] In addition to this
+record we have a series of far later, but for the most part equally
+meagre, documents bearing more or less directly on the constitution of
+the royal household, and extending, with long intervals, from the reign
+of Edward III. to the reign of William and Mary.[3] Among them, however,
+are what are known as the _Black Book of the Household_ and the
+_Statutes of Eltham_, the first compiled in the reign of Edward IV. and
+the second in the reign of Henry VIII., from which a good deal of
+detailed information may be gathered concerning the arrangements of the
+court in the 15th and 16th centuries. The _Statutes of Eltham_ were
+meant for the practical guidance merely of those who were responsible
+for the good order and the sufficient supply of the sovereign's
+household at the time they were issued. But the _Black Book of the
+Household_, besides being a sort of treatise on princely magnificence
+generally, professes to be based on the regulations established for the
+governance of the court by Edward III., who, it affirms, was "the first
+setter of certeynties among his domesticall meyne, upon a grounded rule"
+and whose palace it describes as "the house of very policie and flowre
+of England"; and it may therefore possibly, and even probably, take us
+back to a period much more remote than that at which it was actually put
+together.[4] Various orders, returns and accounts of the reigns of
+Elizabeth, James I., Charles I., Charles II., and William and Mary throw
+considerable light on the organization of particular sections of the
+royal household in times nearer to our own.[5] Moreover, there were
+several parliamentary inquiries into the expenses of the royal household
+in connexion with the settlement or reform of the civil list during the
+reigns of George III., George IV. and William IV.[6] But they add little
+or nothing to our knowledge of the subject in what was then its
+historical as distinguished from its contemporary aspects. So much,
+indeed, is this the case that, on the accession of Queen Victoria,
+Chamberlayne's _Present State of England_, which contains a catalogue of
+the officials at the court of Queen Anne, was described by Lord
+Melbourne the prime minister as the "only authority" which the advisers
+of the crown could find for their assistance in determining the
+appropriate constitution and dimensions of the domestic establishment of
+a queen regnant.[7]
+
+In its main outlines the existing organization of the royal household is
+essentially the same as it was under the Tudors or the Plantagenets. It
+is now, as it was then, divided into three principal departments, at the
+head of which are severally the lord steward, the lord chamberlain and
+the master of the horse, and the respective provinces of which may be
+generally described as "below stairs," "above stairs" and "out of
+doors." The duties of these officials, and the various officers under
+their charge are dealt with in the articles under those headings. When
+the reigning sovereign is a queen, the royal household is in some other
+respects rather differently arranged from that of a king and a queen
+consort. When there is a king and a queen consort there is a separate
+establishment "above stairs" and "out of doors" for the queen consort.
+She has a lord chamberlain's department of her own, and all the ladies
+of the court from the mistress of the robes to the maids of honour are
+in her service. At the commencement of the reign of Queen Victoria the
+two establishments were combined, and on the whole considerably reduced.
+On the accession of Edward VII. the civil list was again reconstituted;
+and while the household of the king and his consort became larger than
+during the previous reign, there was a tendency towards increased
+efficiency by abolishing certain offices which were either redundant or
+unnecessary.
+
+The royal households of such of the continental monarchies of Europe as
+have had a continuous history from medieval times resemble in general
+outlines that described above. There are, common to many, certain great
+offices, which have become, in course of time, merely titular and
+sometimes hereditary. In most cases, as the name of the office would
+suggest, they were held by those who discharged personal functions about
+the sovereign. Gradually, in ways or for reasons which might vary in
+each individual case, the office alone survived, the duties either
+ceasing to be necessary, or being transferred to officers of less
+exalted station and permanently attached to the sovereign's household.
+For example, in Prussia, there are certain great titular officers, such
+as the Oberstmarschall (great chamberlain); the Oberstjägermeister
+(grand master of the hunt); the Oberstschenk (grand cup-bearer) and the
+Obersttruchsess (grand carver), while, at the same time, there are also
+departments which correspond, to a great extent--both as to offices and
+their duties--to those of the household of the English sovereigns. This
+is a feature which must necessarily be reproduced in any monarchical
+country, whatever the date of its foundation, to a more or less limited
+extent, and varying in its constitution with the needs or customs of the
+particular countries.
+
+  See also LORD STEWARD; LORD CHAMBERLAIN; MASTER OF THE HORSE; PRIVY
+  PURSE; and CIVIL LIST.
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+  [1] The great officers of state and the household whom we have
+    particularly mentioned do not of course exhaust the catalogue of
+    them. We have named those only whose representatives are still
+    dignitaries of the court and functionaries of the palace. If the
+    reader consults Hallam (_Middle Ages_, i. 181 seq.), Freeman (_Norman
+    Conquest_, i. 91 seq., and v. 426 seq.) and Stubbs (_Const. Hist._ i.
+    343, seq.), he will be able himself to fill in the details of the
+    outline we have given above.
+
+  [2] The record in question is entitled _Constitutio Domus Regis de
+    Procurationibus_, and is printed by Hearne (_Liber Niger Scaccarii_,
+    i. 341 sq.). It is analysed by Stubbs (_Const. Hist._ vol. i. note 2,
+    p. 345).
+
+  [3] _A Collection of Ordinances and Regulations for the Government of
+    the Royal Household, made in Divers Reigns from King Edward III. to
+    King William and Queen Mary_, printed for the Society of Antiquaries,
+    (London, 1790). See also Pegge's _Curialia_, published partly before
+    and partly after this volume; and Carlisle's _Gentlemen of the Privy
+    Chamber_, published in 1829. Pegge and Carlisle, however, deal with
+    small and insignificant portions of the royal establishment.
+
+  [4] _Liber niger domus Regis Edward IV._ and _Ordinances for the
+    Household made at Eltham in the seventeenth year of King Henry VIII.,
+    A.D. 1526_, are the titles of these two documents. The earlier
+    documents printed in the same collection are _Household of King
+    Edward III. in Peace and War from the eighteenth to the twenty-first
+    year of his reign_; _Ordinances of the Household of King Henry IV. in
+    the thirty-third year of his reign, A.D. 1455_, and _Articles
+    ordained by King Henry VII. for the Regulation of his Household, A.D.
+    1494_.
+
+  [5] _The Book of the Household of Queen Elizabeth as it was ordained
+    in the forty-third year of her Reign delivered to our Sovereign Lord
+    King James, &c._, is simply a list of officers' names and allowances.
+    It seems to have been drawn up under the curious circumstances
+    referred to in _Archaeologia_ (xii. 80-85). For the rest of these
+    documents see _Ordinances and Regulations, &c._, pp. 299, 340, 347,
+    352, 368 and 380.
+
+  [6] Burke's celebrated Act "for enabling His Majesty to discharge the
+    debt contracted upon the civil list, and for preventing the same from
+    being in arrear for the future, &c.," 22 Geo. III. c. 82, was passed
+    in 1782. But it was foreshadowed in his great speech on "Economical
+    Reform" delivered two years before. Since the beginning of the 19th
+    century select committees of the House of Commons have reported on
+    the civil list and royal household in 1803, 1804, 1815, 1831 and
+    1901.
+
+  [7] Torrens's _Memoirs of William, second Viscount Melbourne_,
+    ii-303.
+
+
+
+
+HOUSEL, the English name, until the time of the Reformation, for the
+Eucharist. The word in O. Eng. was _húsel_. Its proper meaning is
+"sacrifice," and thus the word _hunsl_ appears in Ulfilas' Gothic
+version of Matt. ix. 13, "I will have mercy and not sacrifice." The
+ultimate origin is doubtful. The _New English Dictionary_ connects it
+with a Teutonic stem meaning "holy"; from which is derived the
+Lithuanian _szwentas_, and Lettish _swéts_. Skeat refers it to a root
+meaning "to kill," which may connect it with Gr. [Greek: kainein].
+
+
+
+
+HOUSELEEK, _Sempervivum_, a genus of ornamental evergreen plants
+belonging to the natural order _Crassulaceae_. About 30 species are
+known in gardens, some of which are hardy perennial herbs, and grow well
+in dry or rocky situations; the others are evergreen shrubs or
+undershrubs, fit only for cultivation in the greenhouse or conservatory.
+The genus _Sempervivum_ is distinguished from the nearly allied _Sedum_
+by having more than five (about 12) petals, and by the glands at the
+base of the ovary being laciniated if present. The common houseleek, _S.
+tectorum_ (Ger. _Hauswurzel_, Fr. _joubarbe_), is often met with in
+Britain on roofs of outhouses and wall-tops, but is not a native.
+Originally it was indigenous in the Alps, but it is now widely dispersed
+in Europe, and has been introduced into America. The leaves are thick,
+fleshy and succulent, and are arranged in the form of a rosette lying
+close to the soil. The plant propagates itself by offsets on all sides,
+so that it forms after a time a dense cushion or aggregation of
+rosettes. The flowering stem, which is of rather rare occurrence, is
+about 1 ft. high, reddish, cylindrical and succulent, and ends in a
+level-topped cyme, reflexed at the circumference, of reddish flowers,
+which bloom from June to September. The houseleek has been known
+variously as the houselick, homewort or great houseleek. _Sedum acre_
+(stone-crop) is styled the little houseleek. In Germany it is sometimes
+called _Donnerkraut_, from being supposed to protect the house on which
+it grows from thunder. The leaves are said to contain malic acid in
+considerable quantity, and have been eaten as salad, like _Portulaca_.
+_S. glutinosum_ and _S. balsamiferum_, natives respectively of Madeira
+and the Canary Islands, contain a very viscous substance in large
+quantity, and are used for the preparation of bird-lime; fishermen in
+Madeira, after dipping their nets in an alkaline solution, rub them with
+this substance, rendering them as tough as leather. _S. montanum_,
+indigenous in Central Europe, according to Gmelin, causes violent
+purging; _S. arboreum_, [Greek: to mega aeizôon] of Dioscorides, is
+employed in Cyprus, the East, and northern Africa as an external remedy
+for malignant ulcers, inflammations and burns, and internally for mucous
+discharges.
+
+
+
+
+HOUSING. The housing of the poorer classes has become a pressing problem
+in all populous Western countries, and has engaged, in a varying but
+constantly increasing measure, the attention of legislative and
+administrative bodies and of philanthropic individuals and societies.
+The general interest was signalized by an International Congress held
+in London in 1907. The recognition of the problem is due in the first
+instance to the science of public health, the rise of which dates from
+the second quarter of the 19th century; and in the second instance to
+the growth of urban populations consequent on the development of
+manufacturing industries and of trading and transporting agencies, both
+of which tend to mass increasing numbers of people in convenient
+centres. To have a clear view of the subject it is necessary to
+distinguish these factors and their respective influence upon the
+problem. Urban congestion is quite secondary, and only important because
+and so far as it has a prejudicial effect upon health and strength.
+Further, the requirements on the scientific side, made on behalf of
+public health, are of very much wider application and more expansive
+than those which arise from the mere growth of urban population. That is
+obvious at once from the fact that they extend to rural housing, which
+has indeed become a prominent feature of the question in recent years.
+To ascribe the housing problem to the "factory system," as some writers
+have done, is to put forward an inadequate and misleading view of it. It
+is, in fact, particularly acute in some places totally devoid of
+factories and least acute in some purely factory towns. If the factory
+system were abolished with all its effects the housing question would
+remain. But there is a more important distinction than extent of
+application. The requirements of public health are indeterminate and
+interminable; knowledge increases, or rather changes, and the standard
+constantly rises. It is the changing standard which gives most trouble;
+housing at one period thought good enough is presently condemned. Fifty
+years ago no house existed which would satisfy modern sanitary
+standards, and the mansions of the great were in some respects inferior
+to the worst quarters to-day. And to this process there is no end. It is
+quite conceivable that urban congestion might cease to be a difficulty
+at all. That actually happens in particular towns where the population
+is stationary or diminishing. One whole nation (France) has already
+reached that point, and others are moving towards it at varying rates.
+But even where the supply of houses exceeds the demand and many stand
+empty, the housing problem remains; condemnation of existing
+accommodation continues and the effort to provide superior houses goes
+on. In other words, there are two main aspects of the housing question,
+quality and quantity; they touch at various points and interact, but
+they are essentially distinct. The problem of quantity may be "solved,"
+that of quality has no finality.
+
+The importance attached to housing is much enhanced by the general
+tendency to lay stress on the material conditions of life, which
+characterizes the present age. Among material conditions environment
+takes a leading place, largely under the influence of the theory of
+evolution in a popular and probably erroneous form; and among the
+factors of environment the home assumes a more and more prominent
+position. There is reason in this, for whatever other provision be made
+for work or recreation the home is after all the place where people
+spend most of their time. Life begins there and generally ends there. At
+the beginning of life the whole time is spent there and home conditions
+are of paramount importance to the young, whose physical welfare has
+become the object of increasing care. But the usual tendency to run to
+extremes has asserted itself. It may be admitted that it is extremely
+difficult to raise the character and condition of those who live in
+thoroughly bad home surroundings, and that an indispensable or
+preliminary step is to improve the dwelling. But if in pursuit of this
+object other considerations are lost sight of, the result is failure.
+Bad housing is intimately connected with poverty; it is, indeed, largely
+a question of poverty now that the difference between good and bad
+housing is understood and the effects of the latter are recognized. The
+poorest people live under the worst housing conditions because they are
+the cheapest; the economic factor governs the situation. Poverty again
+is associated with bad habits, with dirt, waste, idleness and vice, both
+as cause and as effect. These factors cannot be separated in real life;
+they act and react upon each other in such a way that it is impossible
+to disentangle their respective shares in producing physical and moral
+evils. To lay all responsibility upon the structural environment is an
+error constantly exposed by experience.
+
+Defective quality embraces some or all of the following
+conditions--darkness, bad air, damp, dirt and dilapidation. Particular
+insanitary conditions independent of the structure are often associated;
+namely defects of water-supply, drainage, excrement and house refuse
+removal, back-yards and surrounding ground; they contribute to dirt,
+damp and bad air. Defective quantity produces high rents and
+overcrowding, both of which have a prejudicial effect upon health; the
+one by diminishing expenditure on other necessaries, the other by
+fouling the atmosphere and promoting the spread of infectious illness.
+The physical effects of these conditions have been demonstrated by
+comparative statistics of mortality general and special; among the
+latter particular stress is laid on the mortality of infants, that from
+consumption and from "zymotic" diseases. The statistical evidence has
+been especially directed to the effects of overcrowding, which can be
+stated with greater precision than other insanitary conditions. It
+generally takes the form of comparing the death-rates of different areas
+having widely contrasted densities of population or proportions of
+persons to a given space. It is not necessary to quote any of these
+figures, which have been produced in great abundance. They broadly
+establish a connexion between density and mortality; but the inference
+that the connexion can be reduced to a precise numerical statement and
+that the difference of mortality shown is all due to overcrowding or
+other housing conditions is highly fallacious. Many other factors ought
+to be taken into account, such as the age-distribution of the
+population, the birth-rate, the occupations, means, character and habits
+of the people, the geographical situation, the number of public
+institutions, hospitals, workhouses, asylums and so forth. The
+fallacious use of vital statistics for the purpose of proving some
+particular point has become so common that it is necessary to enter a
+warning against them; the subject of housing is a popular field for the
+exercise of that art, though there is no need of it.
+
+The actual state of housing in different countries and localities, the
+efforts made to deal with it by various agencies, the subsidiary points
+which arise in connexion with it and the results attained--all these
+heads embrace such a vast mass of facts that any attempt to treat them
+fully in detail would run to inordinate length. It must suffice to
+review the more salient points; and the most convenient way of doing so
+is to deal first with Great Britain, which has led the way historically
+in extent of need, in its recognition and in efforts to meet it, adding
+some notes upon other countries, in which the question is of more recent
+date and for which less information is available.
+
+
+THE UNITED KINGDOM
+
+The importance of housing and the need of improvement had by 1909
+received public recognition in England for nearly 70 years, a period
+coinciding almost exactly with the systematic study of sanitation or
+public health. The active movement definitely began about 1841 with
+voluntary effort in which Lord Shaftesbury was the most prominent and
+active figure. The motive was philanthropic and the object was to
+improve the condition of the working classes. It took the form of
+societies; one was the "Metropolitan Association for Improving the
+Dwellings of the Industrial Classes," incorporated in 1845 but founded
+in 1841; another was the "Society for Improving the Condition of the
+Labouring Classes," originally the "Labourers' Friend Society," of which
+the Prince Consort became president. That fact and the statement of the
+Society concerning improved housing that "the moral were almost equal to
+the physical benefits," sufficiently prove that public interest in the
+subject and a grasp of its significance already existed at that date.
+Legislation followed not long after and has continued at intervals ever
+since.
+
+  _Legislation._--Twenty-eight Housing and Health Acts, passed between
+  1851 and 1903, are enumerated by Mr Dewsnup, whose monograph on _The
+  Housing Problem in England_ is the fullest account of the subject
+  published. The first was the Shaftesbury Act of 1851 for the
+  establishment of lodging-houses for the working classes; the last was
+  the Housing of the Working Classes Act of 1903. The Shaftesbury Act
+  had in view the provision by local authorities of good lodging-houses
+  for the better class of artisans, and particularly of single persons,
+  male and female, though families were also contemplated. It was
+  accompanied in the same year by another act, not included in the list
+  of twenty-eight, for the regulation and control of common
+  lodging-houses, from which Mr Dewsnup reasonably infers that the
+  object of Lord Shaftesbury, who inspired both acts, was the separation
+  of the casual and disorderly class frequenting common lodging-houses
+  from the more regularly employed and respectable workers who were
+  sometimes driven to use them for lack of other accommodation. At any
+  rate this early legislation embodied the principle of differential
+  treatment and showed a grasp of the problem not always visible in
+  later procedure. The most important of the subsequent acts were those
+  of 1855 and 1866, both intended to encourage private enterprise in the
+  provision of working-class dwellings; the Torrens Act of 1868
+  (Artisans' and Labourers' Dwellings Act) for the improvement or
+  demolition of existing buildings; the Cross Act of 1875 (Artisans' and
+  Labourers' Dwellings Improvement Act), for extending that process to
+  larger areas; the Public Health Act of 1875; the Housing of the
+  Working Classes Act of 1885 following the report of the Royal
+  Commission on the Housing of the Working Classes, of which King
+  Edward, then prince of Wales, was a member; the Housing of the Working
+  Classes Act of 1890; the Public Health (London) Act of 1891. The acts
+  of 1875 (Public Health), of 1890 and of 1891 are still in force. The
+  story of this half-century of legislation (which also includes a
+  number of Scotch and Irish acts, local private acts and others bearing
+  on the question) is one of tentative efforts first in one direction
+  then in another, of laws passed, amended, extended, consolidated,
+  superseded. Many of the enactments, originally of limited application,
+  were subsequently extended, and the principal laws now in force apply
+  to the whole of the United Kingdom. Two main objects can be
+  distinguished--(1) the treatment of existing dwellings by demolition
+  or improvement; (2) the construction of new ones. The second head is
+  further subdivided into (a) municipal action, (b) private action.
+  These objects have been alternately promoted by legislative measures
+  conceived and carried out on no systematic plan, but gradually and
+  continuously developed into an effective body of law, particularly
+  with regard to the means of dealing with existing insanitary
+  dwellings. The advancing requirements of public health are clearly
+  traceable in the series of enactments directed to that end. The
+  Nuisances Removal Act of 1855 took cognizance of premises in such a
+  state as to be "a nuisance or injurious to health," and made provision
+  for obtaining an order to prohibit the use of such premises for human
+  habitation. In the same act overcrowding obtained statutory
+  recognition as a condition dangerous or prejudicial to health, and
+  provision was made for compelling its abatement. The campaign against
+  bad housing conditions thus inaugurated by the legislature was
+  extended by subsequent acts in 1860, 1866 and 1868, culminating in the
+  Cross Act of 1875 for the demolition (and reconstruction) of large
+  insanitary areas and the extremely important Public Health Act of the
+  same year. The constructive policy, begun still earlier in 1851 by
+  Lord Shaftesbury's Act, was concurrently pursued, and for some years
+  more actively than the destructive; but after 1866 the latter became
+  more prominent, and though the other was not lost sight of it fell
+  into the background until revived by the Royal Commission of 1885 and
+  the housing legislation which followed, particularly the Housing of
+  the Working Classes Act of 1890, amending and consolidating previous
+  acts.
+
+The laws in operation at the beginning of 1909 were the Public Health
+Acts of 1875 and 1891 (London), as amended by subsequent minor measures,
+and the Housing of the Working Classes Act of 1890, amended in 1894,
+1900 and 1903. The Public Health Acts place upon the local sanitary
+authority the obligation of securing, under by-laws, the proper
+construction, draining and cleaning of streets, removal of house refuse
+and building of houses, including structural details for the prevention
+of damp and decay, the provision of sanitary conveniences and an
+adequate water-supply; also of inquiring into and removing nuisances,
+which include any premises in such a condition as to be a nuisance or
+injurious to health and any house so overcrowded as to be dangerous or
+injurious to health. For the purpose of carrying out these duties the
+local authority has the power of inspection, of declaring a building
+unfit for human habitation and of closing it by order. The Housing Acts
+give more extended power to the local authority to demolish insanitary
+dwellings and clear whole areas or "slums," and also to construct
+dwellings for the working classes with or without such clearance; they
+also retain the older provisions for encouraging private enterprise in
+the erection of superior dwellings for the working classes. The
+procedure for dealing with insanitary property under these Acts is too
+intricate to be stated in detail; but, briefly, there are two ways of
+proceeding. In the first the local authority, on receiving formal
+complaint of an unhealthy area, cause an inspection to be made by their
+medical officer, and if the report in their opinion justifies action,
+they may prepare an "improvement scheme," which is submitted to the
+Local Government Board. The Board holds an inquiry, and, if satisfied,
+issues a provisional order, which has to be confirmed by a special act
+of parliament, under which the local authority can proceed to demolish
+the houses concerned after paying compensation to the owners. This
+procedure, which is authorized by part i. of the act of 1890, is
+obviously both cumbrous and costly. The second way, provided for by part
+ii. of the act, is much simpler and less ambitious; it only applies to
+single houses or groups of houses. The medical officer in the course of
+his duty reports to the local authority any houses which are in his
+opinion unfit for human habitation; the local authority can then make an
+order to serve notices on the owners to repair the houses at their own
+expense. Failing compliance on the part of the owners, an order for
+closing the houses can be obtained; and if nothing is done at the end of
+three months an order for demolition can be made. Buildings injurious by
+reason of their obstructive character (e.g. houses built back to back so
+as to be without through ventilation and commonly called "back-to-back"
+houses) can be dealt with in a similar manner. Small areas containing
+groups of objectionable houses of either kind may be made the subject of
+an improvement scheme, as above. Where areas are dealt with under
+improvement schemes there is a certain obligation to re-house the
+persons displaced. Building schemes are provided for under part iii. of
+the act. Land may be compulsorily purchased for the purpose and the
+money required may be raised by loans under certain conditions. The
+provisions thus summarized were considerably modified by the "Housing,
+Town Planning, &c., Act," passed at the end of 1909. It rendered
+obligatory the adoption (previously permissive) of the housing
+provisions (part iii.) of the act of 1890 by local authorities,
+simplified the procedure for the compulsory purchase of land required
+for the purpose and extended the facilities for obtaining loans. It
+further gave power to the Local Government Board to compel local
+authorities to put in force the act of 1890 in regard both to existing
+insanitary housing and the provision of new housing. Power was also
+given to county councils to act in default of rural district councils in
+regard to new housing. The procedure for dealing with insanitary houses
+by closing and demolition under part ii. (see above) was rendered more
+stringent. The general intention of the new act was partly to facilitate
+the administration of the previous one by local authorities and partly
+to provide means of compelling supine authorities to take action. Its
+town-planning provisions are noted below.
+
+_Effects of Legislation._--The efficacy of laws depends very largely on
+their administration; and when they are permissive and dependent on the
+energy and discretion of local bodies their administration varies
+greatly in different localities. That has been the case with the British
+housing and health laws, and is one cause of dissatisfaction with them.
+But in the aggregate they have effected very great improvement. Public
+action has chiefly taken effect in sanitary reform, which includes the
+removal of the worst housing, through demolition or alteration, and
+general sanitary improvements of various kinds. In some large towns the
+worst parts have been transformed, masses of old, narrow, crowded,
+dilapidated and filthy streets and courts have been swept away at one
+blow or by degrees; other parts have been reconstructed or improved. The
+extent to which this has been accomplished is not generally recognized.
+It is not easily demonstrated, and to realize it local knowledge,
+observation and memory are needed. The details of the story are hidden
+away in local annals and official reports; and writers on the subject
+are usually more concerned with what has not than with what has been
+done. Both the Public Health and the Housing Acts have had a share in
+the improvement effected. The operation of the former is slow and
+gradual, but it is continuous and far more general than that of the
+latter. It embraces many details which are not usually taken into
+account in discussing housing, but which have as much bearing on the
+healthiness of the home as the structure itself. The Public Health Acts
+have further had a certain preventive influence in laying down a
+standard for the erection of new houses by the ordinary commercial
+agencies. Such houses are not ideal, because the commercial builder
+studies economy and the question of rent; but the standard has risen,
+and building plans involving insufficient light and air, such as once
+were general, have now for several years been forbidden almost
+everywhere. Supervision of commercial building is, in fact, vastly more
+important than the erection of dwellings by public or philanthropic
+agencies, because it affects a vastly larger proportion of the
+population. The influence of the Public Health Acts in improving the
+conditions of home life cannot be estimated or summarized, but it is
+reflected in the general death-rate, which fell steadily in the United
+Kingdom from 21.1 per 1000 in 1878 to 15.4 per 1000 in 1907.
+
+  _Insanitary Areas._--The operation of the Housing Acts is more
+  susceptible of being stated in figures, though no fully comprehensive
+  information is available. The original Shaftesbury Act of 1851 for
+  erecting municipal lodging-houses appears to have been practically
+  inoperative and little or nothing was done for a good many years. In
+  1864, however, Liverpool obtained a private act and entered on the
+  policy of improvement by the demolition of insanitary dwellings on a
+  considerable scale, following it up in 1869 by re-housing. In 1866
+  Glasgow, also under a private act, created an Improvement Trust,
+  administered by the city council, and embarked on a large scheme of
+  improvement. These seem to have been the earliest examples. The
+  Torrens Act of 1868, which embodied the improvement policy, did not
+  produce much effect. According to a parliamentary return, during the
+  years 1883-1888, proceedings were only taken under this act in respect
+  of about 2000 houses in London and four provincial towns. More
+  advantage was taken of the Cross Act of 1875, which was intended to
+  promote large improvement schemes. Between 1875 and 1885 23 schemes
+  involving a total area of 51 acres and a population of about 30,000
+  were undertaken, in London; and 11 schemes in provincial towns. By far
+  the most important of these, and the largest single scheme ever
+  undertaken, was one carried out in Birmingham. It affected an area of
+  93 acres and involved a net cost of £550,000. Altogether between
+  £4,000,000 and £5,000,000 were raised for improvement schemes under
+  those acts. After the Housing Act of 1890 the clearance policy was
+  continued in London and extended in the provinces. During the period
+  1891-1905 loans to the amount of about £2,300,000 were raised for
+  improvement schemes by 28 provincial towns in England and Wales. The
+  largest of these were Leeds (£923,000), Manchester (£285,000),
+  Liverpool (£178,000), Sheffield (£131,000), Brighton (£112,000). The
+  Leeds scheme affected an area of 75 acres, which was cleared at a cost
+  of £500,000. In London the area cleared was raised to a total of 104
+  acres; the gross cost, down to March 31, 1908, was £3,417,337, the net
+  cost £2,434,096, and the number of persons displaced 48,525. Glasgow
+  has under its Improvement Trust cleared an area of 88 acres with a
+  population of 51,000. At the same time the policy of dealing with
+  houses unfit for habitation singly or in small groups by compelling
+  owners to improve them has been pursued by a certain number of local
+  authorities. In the six years 1899-1904 action was taken each year on
+  the average in respect of about 5000 houses by some 400 local
+  authorities large and small outside London. Representations were made
+  against 33,746 houses, 17,210 were rendered fit for habitation,
+  closing orders were obtained against 4220 and demolition orders
+  against 748. These figures do not include cases in which action was
+  taken under local acts and Public Health Acts. In Manchester, between
+  1885 and 1905, nearly 10,000 "back-to-back" houses were closed and
+  about half of them reopened after reconstruction. Hull, an old seaport
+  town with a great deal of extremely bad housing, has made very
+  effective use of the method of gradual improvement and has transformed
+  its worst areas without appearing in any list of improvement schemes.
+  In recent years this procedure has been systematically taken up in
+  Birmingham and other places, and has been strongly advocated by Mr J.
+  S. Nettlefold (_Practical Housing_) in preference to large improvement
+  schemes on account of the excessive expense involved by the latter in
+  buying up insanitary areas. In the six years 1902-1907 Birmingham
+  dealt with 4111 houses represented as unfit for habitation; 1780 were
+  thoroughly repaired, 1005 were demolished; the rest were under notice
+  or in course of repair at the end of the period. Among other towns
+  which have adopted this policy are Liverpool, Cardiff, York,
+  Warrington and two London boroughs.
+
+  _Building._--On the constructive side the operation of the Housing
+  Acts has been less extensive and much less general. In London alone
+  has the erection of working-class dwellings by municipal action and
+  organized private enterprise assumed large proportions. Philanthropic
+  societies were first in the field and date from a period anterior to
+  legislation, which however, stimulated their activity for many years
+  by affording facilities. Fourteen organizations were in operation in
+  London prior to 1890 and some of them on a large scale; others have
+  since been formed. The earliest was the Metropolitan Association for
+  Improving the Dwellings of the Industrial Classes, whose operations
+  date from 1847; it has built 1441 tenements containing 5105 rooms. The
+  largest of these enterprises are the Improved Industrial Dwellings
+  Company (1864), which has built 5421 tenements containing 19,945
+  rooms; the Peabody Fund (1864) with 5469 tenements containing 12,328
+  rooms; the Artisans', Labourers' and General Dwellings Company (1867),
+  with 1467 tenements containing 3495 rooms, and 6195 cottage dwellings;
+  the East-End Dwellings Company (1885) with 2096 tenements containing
+  4276 rooms; the Guinness Trust (1889) with 2574 tenements containing
+  5338 rooms. The Artisans' Dwellings Company alone has housed upwards
+  of 50,000 persons. In addition to these there are the Rowton Houses
+  (1892), which are hotels for working men, six in number, accommodating
+  5162 persons. So far as can be estimated, private enterprise has
+  housed some 150,000 persons in improved dwellings in London on a
+  commercial basis. The early activity of the building companies was
+  largely due to the policy of the Metropolitan Board of Works, which
+  adopted extensive improvement schemes and sold the cleared sites to
+  the companies, who carried out the re-housing obligations imposed by
+  the law. Since the London County Council, which replaced the Board of
+  Works in 1889, adopted the policy of undertaking its own re-housing,
+  their activity has greatly diminished. The buildings erected by them
+  are nearly all in the form of blocks of tenements; the Artisans'
+  Dwellings Company, which has built small houses and shops in outlying
+  parts of London, is an exception. The tenement blocks are scattered
+  about London in many quarters. For instance the Peabody Fund has 18
+  sets of dwellings in different situations, the Metropolitan
+  Association has 14; the Artisans' Dwellings Company has 10; the
+  Guinness Trust has 8. In 1909 an important addition to the list of
+  philanthropic enterprises in London was put in hand under the will of
+  Mr W. R. Sutton, who left nearly £2,000,000 for the purpose of
+  providing improved working-class dwellings. The erection of tenement
+  blocks containing accommodation for 300 families was begun on a site
+  in the City Road. In only a few provincial towns has private
+  enterprise contributed to improved housing in a similar manner and
+  that not upon a large scale; among them are Newcastle, Leeds, Hull,
+  Salford and Dublin.
+
+  _Municipal Building_ has been more generally adopted. The following
+  details are taken from Mr W. Thompson's _Housing up to Date_, which
+  gives comprehensive information down to the end of 1906. The number of
+  local authorities which had then availed themselves of part iii. of
+  the Housing Act of 1890, which provides for the erection of
+  working-class dwellings, was 142. They were the London County Council,
+  12 Metropolitan Boroughs, 69 County Boroughs and Town Councils, 49
+  Urban District Councils and 12 Rural District Councils. The dwellings
+  erected are classified as lodging-houses, block dwellings, tenement
+  houses, cottage flats and cottages. Lodging-houses have been built by
+  12 towns, of which 8 are in England, 3 in Scotland (Glasgow, Aberdeen
+  and Leith) and 1 in Ireland (Belfast). The total number of beds
+  provided was 6218, of which Glasgow accounts for 2414, London for
+  1846, Manchester and Salford together for 648. Four other towns have
+  built or are building municipal lodging-houses for which no details
+  are available. The other municipal dwellings erected are summarized as
+  follows:--
+
+    +------------------+-----------------+-------------+
+    | Kind of Dwelling.|No. of Dwellings.|No. of Rooms.|
+    +------------------+-----------------+-------------+
+    | Blocks           |     12,165      |   27,523    |
+    | Tenement Houses  |      2,507      |    6,068    |
+    | Cottage flats    |      2,004      |    5,747    |
+    | Cottages         |      3,830      |   17,611    |
+    +------------------+-----------------+-------------+
+    |      Total       |     20,506      |   56,949    |
+    +------------------+-----------------+-------------+
+
+  It appears from these figures that municipal building has provided for
+  a smaller number of persons in the whole of the United Kingdom than
+  private enterprise in London alone. The principal towns which have
+  erected dwellings in blocks are London (7786), Glasgow (2300),
+  Edinburgh (596), Liverpool (501), Dublin (460) and Manchester (420).
+  The great majority of such dwellings contain either two or three
+  rooms. Tenement houses have been built in Liverpool (1424), Manchester
+  (308), Sheffield (192), Aberdeen (128), and in seven other towns on a
+  small scale. Such tenements are generally somewhat larger than those
+  built in blocks; the proportion of three- and four-roomed dwellings is
+  higher and only a small number consist of a single room. Cottage flats
+  have been built in Dublin (528), West Ham (401), Battersea (320),
+  Plymouth (238), East Ham (212), and on a small scale in Liverpool,
+  Birmingham, Newcastle and seven other places. The majority of the
+  cottage flats contain three or more rooms, a considerable proportion
+  have four rooms. Cottages have been built in 67 places, chiefly small
+  towns and suburban districts. Of the large towns which have adopted
+  this class of dwellings Salford stands first with 633 cottages; three
+  London boroughs, all on the south side of the Thames, have built 234;
+  Manchester has 228, Sheffield 173, Huddersfield 157, Birmingham 103.
+  The number of rooms in municipal cottages ranges from three to eight,
+  but the great majority of these dwellings have four or five rooms.
+
+  Some further details of municipal housing in particular towns are of
+  interest. In London, the work of the London County Council down to
+  March 31, 1908, not including three lodging-homes containing 1845
+  cubicles, is given in the official volume of London Statistics,
+  published by the Council, as follows:--
+
+    _Buildings Erected and in Course of Erection._
+
+    +----------+--------+--------------+----------------+
+    |  No. of  | No. of | Cost of Land | No. of Persons |
+    |Dwellings.| Rooms. | and Building.| in Occupation. |
+    +----------+--------+--------------+----------------+
+    |  8,373   | 22,939 |  £2,438,263  |     26,687     |
+    +----------+--------+--------------+----------------+
+
+  With regard to the cost, it is to be noted that the actual cost of the
+  land purchased for improvement schemes was very much greater than that
+  stated, having been written down to an arbitrary figure called
+  "housing valuation." The financial accounts of L.C.C. dwellings for
+  the year ending March 31, 1908, are thus summarized:--
+
+    _London County Council Dwellings, Accounts 1907-1908._
+
+    +--------+--------------+-------------+-----------+--------+
+    |  Gross |Deductions for|             |Expenditure|  Net   |
+    | Rental.| Empties, &c. |Net Receipts.| including |Returns.|
+    |        |              |             | Interest. |        |
+    +--------+--------------+-------------+-----------+--------+
+    |£180,169|   £19,455    |  £160,714   |  £157,141 | £3,573 |
+    +--------+--------------+-------------+-----------+--------+
+
+  It appears from this that if the actual commercial cost of the land
+  were taken the housing of the Council would be run at a considerable
+  annual loss. The occupations of the tenants are stated in the
+  following proportions: labourers 789, clerks 312, policemen 251, shop
+  assistants 202, warehousemen 183, printers 182, charwomen 182, tailors
+  155, cabinetmakers 146, canvassers 122, cigarette makers 118, widows
+  116, tram drivers 110, postmen 107, packers 97, engineers 87,
+  dressmakers 41, coachmen 31, motormen 26, milliners 19. These
+  proportional figures show that though a considerable number of
+  labourers have been housed, the great majority of the occupants of
+  London municipal dwellings are of a superior class. The mean weekly
+  rent in London County Council dwellings is 2s. 10½d. per room against
+  2s. 4d. in dwellings erected by other agencies. The most important
+  feature of the County Council's policy in recent years has been the
+  acquisition of suburban sites for the erection of cottages. There are
+  four such sites, two on the south, one on the north and one on the
+  west side of London; the total area is 349 acres, and the total
+  accommodation contemplated is for 66,000 persons at an estimated cost
+  of £3,105,840; the present accommodation is for about 8000. In
+  addition to the housing provided by the County Council, fourteen
+  London Borough Councils and the City Corporation had at the beginning
+  of 1909 erected or adapted 3136 dwellings containing 7999 rooms.
+
+  In Liverpool, down to 1907, about £920,000 had been spent in clearing
+  insanitary areas and building new dwellings; the demolition of about
+  8000 houses and purchase of land cost about £500,000; and the erection
+  of 2046 dwellings, containing 4961 rooms, cost about £350,000. The
+  size of the dwellings and the number of each class are: 1 room, 193; 2
+  rooms, 965; 3 rooms, 719; 4 rooms, 167. The great majority are in
+  tenement houses of three storeys. The mean weekly rent is 1s. 6½d. per
+  room, but a large number are let at less. The net return on the total
+  outlay is just over 1%, on the building outlay it is 2(2/3)%. The
+  principal classes of persons occupying the dwellings are labourers
+  675, carters 120, charwomen 103, firemen 93, porters 80, hawkers 64,
+  sailors 45, scavengers 40. These all belong to the poorest classes,
+  living by casual or irregular work. Liverpool has, in fact, succeeded
+  more than any other town in providing municipal dwellings in which the
+  really poor can afford to live.
+
+  In Manchester 956 dwellings have been built at a total cost for
+  building and improvement of £451,932; of the whole number 420 are in
+  blocks, 308 in tenement houses and 228 in cottages. The rents are much
+  higher than in Liverpool; in the tenement houses the mean weekly rent
+  is about 6d. per room more than in Liverpool. The gross profit on the
+  block dwellings is 1(1/3)% on the capital outlay, on the tenement
+  houses 3%, on the cottages 2(2/3)%. "The total loss during the last
+  seven to ten years, including loan charges, has amounted to about
+  £54,240" (Thompson).
+
+  In Glasgow the corporation has built under improvement schemes 2280
+  new dwellings containing 4013 rooms and 241 shops. The dwellings,
+  which are all in blocks and centrally situated, are occupied chiefly
+  by artisans; only 28% have been reserved for the poorest class of
+  tenants. The total amount taken from the rates on this account in 30
+  years is £600,000. Dwellings valued at £400,000 for building and
+  £300,000 for land give a net return of 3.06% on outlay; dwellings
+  valued at £280,000 for land and building return 3.03% on outlay;
+  leaving the sinking fund charges to be defrayed out of rates.
+
+  In Edinburgh insanitary areas have been bought for £107,023 and new
+  dwellings containing 1032 rooms have been built for £87,970. Nearly
+  all the dwellings are of one or two rooms only. The rents charged
+  average about 2s. a week per room; actual rents received average 1s.
+  4d. per room and they have to be subsidized out of the rates to the
+  extent of 2s. 3d. per room to meet the cost of site.
+
+  In Dublin provision has been or was in 1909 shortly to be made for
+  housing 5394 families or 19,000 persons; of which 1041 families, or
+  about one-fifth, are housed by the Corporation, the rest by companies
+  and private persons. Altogether it was estimated that £500,000 would
+  be spent under the act of 1890. Fifteen streets, containing 1665
+  houses, have been declared unhealthy areas by the medical officer, and
+  between 1879 and 1909 more than 3000 houses were closed as unfit for
+  habitation.
+
+  _Co-operative Building._--Municipal and philanthropic housing by no
+  means exhaust the efforts that have been made to provide working-class
+  dwellings outside the ordinary building market. Their special function
+  has been to substitute better dwellings for pre-existing bad ones,
+  which is the most costly and difficult, as well as the most urgent,
+  part of the problem in old towns. But in the provision of new
+  dwellings alone they have been far surpassed by organized self-help in
+  different forms. Down to 1906 there had been built 46,707 houses by
+  413 co-operative societies at a cost of nearly £10,000,000. They are
+  most numerous in the manufacturing towns and particularly in the
+  north-western district of England. Of the whole number 8530 were owned
+  by the societies which built them; 5577 had been sold to members, and
+  32,600 had been built by members on money lent by the societies. These
+  figures do not include the particular form of co-operative building
+  known as co-partnership housing, which will be mentioned later on, or
+  the operations of the so-called building societies, which are really
+  companies lending money to persons on mortgage for the purpose of
+  building. The difference between them and the co-operative societies
+  which do the same thing is that the latter retain the element of
+  co-operation by lending only to their own members, whereas the
+  building societies deal in the open market. Their operations are on an
+  immense scale; at the end of 1908 the invested funds of the registered
+  building societies exceeded £72,000,000. An agency working on this
+  scale, which far exceeds the operations of all the others put
+  together, is obviously an important factor in housing. The number of
+  houses built must help to relieve congestion, and since they are built
+  to suit the owners or tenants they cannot be of the worst class. They
+  also represent a form of thrift, and deserve notice on that account.
+
+  The Small Dwellings Acquisition Act of 1899, which has not previously
+  been mentioned, was intended to facilitate the building or purchase of
+  small houses by their tenants by means of loans advanced by local
+  authorities. Down to 1906 about £82,000 had been so advanced by 5
+  county boroughs, 17 urban councils and 1 rural district council.
+
+  _Housing by Employers._--No comprehensive information is available on
+  this head, but it has not been an important factor in towns, being
+  chiefly confined to agricultural, mining and suburban manufacturing
+  districts. The former two belong to the subject of Rural Housing,
+  which is separately discussed below; the third has an interest of its
+  own on account of its connexion with "model settlements." The building
+  of houses for their workpeople by industrial employers has never been
+  widely adopted in this country, but it has attracted considerable
+  attention at two different periods. Sir Titus Salt was a pioneer in
+  this direction, when he built his woollen mills at Saltaire, on the
+  outskirts of Bradford, and housed his workpeople on the spot. That
+  plan was maintained by his successors, who still own some 900
+  excellent and cheap cottages, and was adopted by a few other
+  manufacturers in the same neighbourhood. Saltaire was a model
+  settlement with many institutions for the benefit of the mill-hands,
+  and as such it attracted much attention; but the example was not
+  generally followed, and the interest lapsed. Recently it has been
+  revived by the model settlements at Port Sunlight, near Liverpool,
+  started about 1888, Bournville near Birmingham (1895), and Earswick,
+  near York (1904), which are of a much more elaborate character.
+  Elsewhere, employers setting down works in some new locality where no
+  provision existed, have had to build houses for their workmen; but
+  they have done so in a plain way, and this sort of housing has not
+  assumed large proportions.
+
+_Conditions in 1909._--It has been said above that great improvements
+have been effected, and of that there is no doubt at all. Both quantity
+and quality are more satisfactory than they were, though both are still
+defective. The conditions vary greatly in different places, and no
+general indictment can be sustained. The common practice of citing some
+exceptionally bad cases, and by tacit inference generalizing from them
+to the whole country, is in nothing more misleading than in the matter
+of housing. Local differences are due to several causes--age,
+population, occupations and means of the people, public opinion and
+municipal energy. The first three chiefly determine the difficulty and
+extent of the problem, the last two influence its treatment. The
+difficulty is greatest in towns which are old, have large populations
+and a high percentage of poor. Such pre-eminently are the large
+seaports, where much casual labour is employed. London, Liverpool,
+Glasgow, the Tyne, Hull, Sunderland are examples. Old inland towns
+having a large trading as well as an industrial element present the same
+features. Such are Manchester, Birmingham, Leeds, Sheffield and
+Bradford. In all these, and some others like them, the past has left a
+heavy legacy of bad housing by malconstruction and dilapidation, which
+has been increased by growth of population and overcrowding. They have
+attacked it with varying degrees of energy according to the prevalent
+local spirit and with varying results.
+
+_Overcrowding._--The one condition which permits of precise and
+comprehensive statement is overcrowding. A standard has been officially
+adopted in England based on the number of persons to a room in each
+dwelling; and the facts in relation to this standard are embodied in the
+census returns. It is a much better criterion than that of "density" or
+number of persons per acre, which is very deceptive; for an apparently
+low density may conceal much overcrowding within walls and an apparently
+high one may be comparatively guiltless. The room-density is the
+important thing in actual life. Some light is also thrown on this
+question by the number of rooms contained in each dwelling, and that is
+also given in the census. The standard of overcrowding is more than two
+persons to a room. In 1901 there were in England and Wales 2,667,506
+persons or 8.2% of the population living in a state of overcrowding
+according to this definition. Their distribution is extremely irregular
+and capricious. In rural districts the proportion was only 5.8%, in
+urban districts 8.9%; but these summary figures give no idea of the
+actual state of things in different localities. In both rural districts
+and in towns the proportion of overcrowding varies in different
+localities from less than 1% to over 30% of the population. The towns
+are the most important and we shall confine attention chiefly to them. A
+list of 84 having a population of 50,000 and upwards, exclusive of
+London, is given by Mr Dewsnup. The overcrowding ranges from 34.54% in
+Gateshead and 32.42% in South Shields to 0.97% in Northampton and 0.62%
+in Bournemouth. Of the whole number exactly one-half have less than 5%;
+15 have less than 2% and 22 have 10% or more. Neither size nor character
+has much to do with the variation. Bournemouth, at the bottom of the
+list with 0.62%, is a residential place and health resort with a
+population of about 50,000; so is Tynemouth, which is nearly at the top,
+with 30.71%. The two largest towns, Liverpool and Manchester, are 26th
+and 32nd on the list, with only 7.94% and 6.28% respectively, or
+considerably less than the average; and on the other hand none of the
+first 17 towns with the highest proportion of overcrowding are of the
+largest size. Again, with regard to character, Leicester and
+Northampton, which are almost at the bottom of the list, with 1.04% and
+0.97% respectively, are both purely industrial towns. The most striking
+facts are that the six towns, which alone have more than 20% of
+overcrowding, namely Gateshead (34.5), South Shields (32.4), Tynemouth
+(30.7), Newcastle (30.4), Sunderland (30.10), Plymouth (20.1) are all
+old seaports, that four of them at the head of the list are on the Tyne
+and the fifth on the Wear. This points strongly to special local
+conditions and it is borne out by the facts with regard to rural
+districts. Northumberland and Durham show a great excess of overcrowding
+over other counties; and some of their rural districts even surpass any
+of the towns. The highest of all is the district of Tynemouth, with
+38.18% of overcrowding. The explanation lies in a special combination of
+large families and small houses prevalent in this area. All the rural
+districts are seats of coal-mining, and miners are the most prolific
+section of the population. They also live in small houses of a
+traditional and antiquated character, often of one storey only or built
+back to back. Many are built by colliery proprietors. Large families
+and small houses also prevail in the towns. Some of them contain
+coal-pits and the rest of their industrial population is engaged chiefly
+in engineering and shipbuilding works, occupations also usually
+associated with a high birth-rate. The men live as near their work as
+possible and the practice of living in flats or occupying part of a
+house prevails extensively.
+
+In London the number of persons living in overcrowded conditions in 1901
+was 726,096 or 16.0% of the population. The proportion varied from 2.6%
+in Lewisham to 35.2% in Finsbury, but in 23 out of the 29 boroughs into
+which the county is divided it exceeded the urban mean for the whole
+country, and in 9 boroughs having an aggregate population of 1,430,000
+it was more than double the mean. Conditions in London are evidently
+untypical of English towns.
+
+In the light of the census figures it is clear that no large proportion
+of the English industrial population is living under conditions of
+serious overcrowding, outside the special districts mentioned and that
+the expression "house famine" cannot be properly applied to England or
+English towns in general. In the House of Commons, on the 16th of August
+1909, the president of the Local Government Board, Mr John Burns, gave a
+list of the number of unoccupied houses and tenements in each of the
+London boroughs and in the eight largest provincial towns, including
+Glasgow; the total was 104,107. By a further analysis of the census
+returns Mr Dewsnup shows that a great deal of the overcrowding is of a
+comparatively mild character and that it is due to a relatively small
+excess of population. Bradford, for instance, is credited with 40,896
+overcrowded persons, representing the high percentage of 14.61 of the
+population; but in the case of nearly 20,000 the excess over the
+standard is very slight, and the proportion of gross overcrowding comes
+down to 7.55%. Moreover, this serious overcrowding is produced by no
+more than 2.79 of the population, so that its cure presents no
+insuperable difficulty. The argument is confirmed by the very
+substantial diminution which actually took place between 1891 and 1901.
+The facts are so striking that they deserve to be presented in tabular
+form:--
+
+  _Percentage of Population Overcrowded._
+
+  +------------------+--------+--------+
+  |                  |  1891  |  1901  |
+  +------------------+--------+--------+
+  | England and Wales| 11.23  |  8.20  |
+  |                  |        |        |
+  | Gateshead        | 40.78  | 34.54  |
+  | Newcastle        | 35.08  | 30.47  |
+  | Sunderland       | 32.85  | 30.10  |
+  | Plymouth         | 26.27  | 20.19  |
+  | Halifax          | 21.31  | 14.49  |
+  | Bradford         | 20.61  | 14.61  |
+  | Huddersfield     | 19.89  | 12.88  |
+  | London           | 19.70  | 16.01  |
+  | Leeds            | 16.46  | 10.08  |
+  | St Helens        | 15.72  | 10.86  |
+  | Birmingham       | 14.27  | 10.32  |
+  | Burnley          | 12.74  |  7.14  |
+  | Sheffield        | 11.58  |  9.50  |
+  | Bolton           | 11.22  |  6.50  |
+  | Liverpool        | 10.96  |  7.94  |
+  | Oldham           | 10.13  |  7.42  |
+  | Salford          |  9.39  |  7.54  |
+  | West Ham         |  9.34  |  9.27  |
+  | Wolverhampton    |  9.31  |  4.67  |
+  | Swansea          |  9.25  |  5.57  |
+  | Stockport        |  8.50  |  4.98  |
+  | Manchester       |  8.25  |  6.28  |
+  | Bristol          |  8.03  |  3.55  |
+  | Hull             |  7.86  |  6.12  |
+  | Blackburn        |  7.05  |  3.92  |
+  | Birkenhead       |  6.80  |  5.02  |
+  | Norwich          |  4.91  |  3.34  |
+  | Brighton         |  4.56  |  3.07  |
+  | Cardiff          |  4.31  |  2.92  |
+  | Preston          |  4.13  |  2.64  |
+  | Nottingham       |  3.62  |  3.65  |
+  | Croydon          |  2.76  |  2.74  |
+  | Derby            |  2.69  |  1.18  |
+  | Leicester        |  2.22  |  1.04  |
+  | Portsmouth       |  1.74  |  1.19  |
+  +------------------+--------+--------+
+
+To what is this remarkable movement due? It is far too general to be
+attributed to the operation of the Housing Acts; for, though they have
+helped in some cases, a great diminution has occurred in many places in
+which no use has been made of them. Towns of all kinds and in all parts
+of the country exhibit the same movement in some degree; those which had
+little and those which had much overcrowding, the worst and the best. In
+London the percentage fell by 3.7, and the number of persons overcrowded
+was reduced by 103,669 in spite of an increase of population of 324,798.
+In Gateshead a fall of 6.2%, in Newcastle one of 4.6% took place; while
+at the other end of the scale Leicester and Derby reduced their already
+very low proportions by more than one-half. Nottingham is the only
+exception in the whole list. And in 28 out of the 35 towns the decrease
+of overcrowding was absolute as well as relative in spite of a large
+increase of population. London has been cited. The other large towns may
+be tabulated with it, thus:--
+
+  +------------+------------+------------+
+  |            |Increase of | Decrease of|
+  |    Town.   | Population.| Overcrowded|
+  |            |            |  Persons.  |
+  +------------+------------+------------+
+  | London     |  324,898   |  103,669   |
+  | Liverpool  |  166,978   |    2,381   |
+  | Manchester |   38,504   |    7,545   |
+  | Birmingham |   44,091   |   14,290   |
+  | Leeds      |   61,463   |   17,252   |
+  | Sheffield  |   56,550   |    1,388   |
+  | Bristol    |  107,367   |    6,105   |
+  | Bradford   |   63,406   |    3,696   |
+  +------------+------------+------------+
+
+The very divergencies make the uniform diminution of overcrowding the
+more remarkable. The large increase of population in Liverpool and
+Bristol no doubt means extension of boundaries, which might have the
+effect of reducing the proportions of overcrowding, but it cannot
+account for the actual decrease of overcrowded persons. The change seems
+to be due to three factors all of which have been in general operation
+though in varying degrees. They are (1) the centrifugal movement
+promoted by improved locomotive facilities, (2) the declining
+birth-rate, (3) public health administration. (1) The first is the most
+important and the chief element has been tramways, of which a great
+extension accompanied by electrification took place in the decade. Thus
+the process of urbanization has been modified by one of suburbanization.
+Bristol is a prominent case; its overcrowding has been reduced by more
+than one-half without any large and costly municipal interference,
+mainly through the operation of ordinary economic forces. Tramways have
+made the outskirts accessible and builders have utilized the
+opportunity. They have built good houses, too, under supervision, and
+Bristol, though an old seaport and industrial town with much poverty,
+has the lowest general death-rate and the lowest infantile death-rate of
+all the great towns. (2) The birth-rate and the size of families are
+conditions which affect overcrowding in a very marked degree, though no
+attention is paid to them in that connexion. The case of the mining
+districts and the towns on the Tyne has been mentioned above; the same
+thing is seen in London, where all the most overcrowded districts
+(Finsbury, Stepney, Shoreditch and Bethnal Green) have high birth-rates,
+ranging from 31.3 to 36.4 per 1000 in 1902-1906. The necessity imposed
+on poor parents of putting several children into a cheap and therefore
+small dwelling accounts for a large proportion of overcrowding, which
+automatically diminishes with a falling birth-rate. The ultimate
+advantage of this method of reducing overcrowding is a question on which
+opinions may differ, but there is no doubt about the fact. (3) Public
+health administration is the third general cause; it attracts no notice
+and works very gradually, but it does work. The last annual report (for
+1907) of the medical officer to the London County Council says of
+overcrowding: "There is reason for thinking that in recent years greater
+attention has been paid by sanitary authorities to the abatement of the
+nuisance, and Dr Newman states that in Finsbury there has been an
+enormous reduction in overcrowding, the reduction having been effected
+mainly in the years 1901-1905." The medical officers of the metropolitan
+boroughs reported in 1907 2613 dwellings overcrowded in 23 boroughs and
+3216 such dwellings remedied in 27 boroughs. It should not be forgotten
+that a good deal of overcrowding is voluntary. Families which have not
+enough room for their own members nevertheless take in lodgers; and in
+some places, of which London is the most conspicuous but not the only
+example, foreigners herd together thickly in a very small space.
+
+The improvement shown by the statistics of overcrowding is confirmed by
+those relating to the size of dwellings. Between 1891 and 1901 the
+percentage of the population living in very small dwellings appreciably
+diminished thus--in 1-roomed dwellings, from 2.2 to 1.6%; in 2-roomed
+dwellings, from 8.3 to 6.6%; in 3-roomed dwellings, from 11.1 to 9.8%;
+while the proportion living in dwellings of 5 rooms and upwards
+increased from 54.9 to 60.1%. This again is referable to the suburban
+movement and a higher standard of requirements. Six-roomed houses with a
+bathroom tend to replace the old four-roomed type. The general report
+accompanying the census says: "However the tenement figures for England
+and Wales are compared it is impossible to avoid the conclusion that the
+comparison affords satisfactory evidence of distinct improvement in the
+housing of the people during the ten years 1891-1901." In short, the
+problem of quantity is only acute in a few places and steadily becoming
+less so.
+
+  The foregoing facts apply only to England and Wales. In Scotland the
+  state of things is much less satisfactory. No statistics of
+  overcrowding are available, but the following comparative table shows
+  how different the housing conditions are in the two countries:--
+
+    _Size of Dwellings, England and Scotland, 1901._
+
+    +-----------------+-------------------------+
+    |                 |Percentage of Population.|
+    |    Dwelling.    +------------+------------+
+    |                 |  England.  |  Scotland. |
+    +-----------------+------------+------------+
+    | 1 room          |     1.6    |    11.1    |
+    | 2 rooms         |     6.6    |    39.5    |
+    | 3 rooms         |     9.8    |    19.9    |
+    | 4 rooms         |    21.9    |     9.1    |
+    | 5 rooms and over|    60.1    |    20.4    |
+    +-----------------+------------+------------+
+
+  Over 50% of the population of Scotland live in tenements of one or two
+  rooms; only 8.2% in England. A comparison of the largest towns in the
+  two countries gives the following result:--
+
+    _Percentage of Population._
+
+    +----------------------------+----------------------------+
+    |          Scotland.         |           England.         |
+    +-----------+-------+--------+-----------+-------+--------+
+    |   Town.   |1 Room.|2 Rooms.|   Town.   |1 Room.|2 Rooms.|
+    +-----------+-------+--------+-----------+-------+--------+
+    | Glasgow   | 16.2  |  38.9  | London    |  6.7  | 15.5   |
+    | Edinburgh |  8.9  |  32.4  | Liverpool |  2.7  |  5.9   |
+    | Dundee    | 11.3  |  51.7  | Manchester|  0.8  |  4.01  |
+    | Aberdeen  |  6.1  |  33.2  | Birmingham|  0.3  |  2.4   |
+    | Greenock  | 11.3  |  47.6  | Sheffield |  0.4  |  4.0   |
+    | Kilmarnock| 18.9  |  43.3  | Bristol   |  1.6  |  5.7   |
+    +-----------+-------+--------+-----------+-------+--------+
+    |    Mean   | 12.7  |  42.4  |    Mean   |  1.8  |  6.7   |
+    +-----------+-------+--------+-----------+-------+--------+
+
+  The conditions in Scottish towns where very tall tenement houses are
+  common, resemble those in other countries, in which overcrowding is
+  far greater than in England. All these matters are comparative, and
+  the superiority of conditions in England ought to be recognized. Yet,
+  in Scotland, too, great improvements have been effected. In 1861 there
+  were 25,959 houses without windows; in 1901 only 130. These facts
+  throw light on the long standing of the housing question, the change
+  of standard and the improvement effected.
+
+  In Ireland there is more overcrowding than in England, though probably
+  less than in Scotland, with the possible exception of Dublin, which
+  has a larger proportion of one-roomed dwellings than any Scottish
+  town, namely, 24.7%. The percentage of population living in
+  overcrowded conditions in the principal towns is--Dublin 40.6,
+  Limerick 31.7, Cork 23.4, Waterford 20.6, Londonderry 16.7, Belfast
+  8.2.
+
+_Sanitary Conditions._--With regard to the quality of existing housing
+reference has already been made to the effect of the Public Health Acts
+and the general improvement in sanitation. The only numerical measure is
+afforded by the death-rates, which have fallen in England from 20.9 per
+1000 in 1871-1875 to 15.4 per 1000 in 1903-1907 and in the United
+Kingdom from 21.3 to 15.7 per 1000 in the same period. The condition of
+the dwelling must be credited with a considerable share in this fall.
+There have, in fact, been great changes and all in the direction of
+improvement. The rise and development of sanitation, of house and main
+drainage and sewage disposal, the purification of water and provision of
+a constant service in the house, the removal of refuse, the segregation
+of infectious illness, sanitary inspection--all these, apart from the
+demolition of the worst housing and the provision of better, have raised
+the general healthiness of the dwellings of the people. In face of these
+facts and of the vital statistics, to say that the people are physically
+deteriorating through the influence of bad housing is to talk obvious
+nonsense, for all conditions have been improving for more than a
+generation. If physical deterioration is going on, of which there is no
+proof, either it is not caused by bad housing or there is less than
+there was. Deterioration may be caused by the continued process of
+urbanization and the congregating of an ever larger proportion of the
+population in towns; but that is a different question. If the town has
+any injurious influence it is not due to the sanitary condition of the
+houses, which is in general superior to that of houses in the country,
+but to the habits and occupations of the people or to the atmosphere and
+the mere aggregation. But much misapprehension prevails with regard to
+towns. The most distinctive and the most valuable feature of English
+housing is the general predominance of the small house or cottage
+occupied by a single family. Only in London and a few other towns do
+blocks of large tenement houses of the continental type exist, and even
+there they are comparatively few. In England and Wales 84% of the
+population live in dwellings of 4 rooms and upwards, which means broadly
+separate houses. Now the prevalence of small houses involves spreading
+out and the covering of much ground with many little streets, which
+produce a monotonous effect; a smoky atmosphere makes them grimy and
+dull skies contribute to the general dinginess. The whole presents to
+the eye a vast area of dreary meanness and monotony. Thus the best
+feature of English national housing turns to its apparent disadvantage
+and the impression is gained by superficial observers that the bulk of
+our working-class populations lives in "slums." The word "slum" has no
+precise meaning, but if it implies serious sanitary defects it is not
+applicable to most of our town housing. There are real slums still, but
+the bulk of the working class population do not live in them; they live
+in small houses, often of a mean and dingy exterior but in essential
+respects more sanitary than the large and often handsome blocks to be
+seen in foreign towns, which are not put down as slums because they do
+not look dirty. A smoky atmosphere is injurious to health, but it must
+be distinguished from defects of housing. Ideal houses in a smoky place
+soon look bad; inferior ones in a clean air look brighter and deceive
+the eye. The worst of the old housing has disappeared; the filthy,
+dilapidated, airless and sunless rookeries--the real slums--and the
+underground dwellings have been swept away in most cases, and what
+remains of them is not so bad as what has gone. But reform has been very
+regularly applied. Some towns have done much, others little. The large
+towns, in which the evil was most intense and most conspicuous in bulk,
+have as a class done far more than smaller ones in which the need
+perhaps was less great, but in which also a less healthy public spirit
+prevailed. The worst housing conditions to-day are probably to be found
+in old towns of small and medium size, in which the ratepayers have a
+great disinclination to spend money on anything, and the control of
+local affairs is apt to be in the hands of the owners of the most
+insanitary property. Nor is this state of things altogether confined to
+old places. Some of recent growth have been allowed, for the same
+reason, to spring up and develop without any regard to sanitary
+principles or the requirements of public health. There is therefore
+abundant scope for further reform and in not a few cases urgent need of
+it. On the other hand, we have a number of towns, particularly
+manufacturing towns, both large and small in the midlands and the north
+of England, which have already reached a good general standard of
+housing in all essential requirements, and only need the regular and
+steady exercise of vigilance by the public health service to remove such
+defects as still remain or may reveal themselves with the lapse of time.
+
+  _Rents._--Rent is a matter of great importance from every point of
+  view, and that is now being realized. A quantity of official
+  information on the subject has been collected and made available by an
+  elaborate inquiry ordered by the Board of Trade in 1905 and published
+  in 1908 (Cd. 3864). It relates to working class dwellings in the
+  principal industrial towns in the United Kingdom, 94 in all: namely,
+  77 in England and Wales, 11 in Scotland and 6 in Ireland. The
+  following tables give in a condensed form the chief statistical
+  results obtained in October 1905:--
+
+    _Predominant Range of Weekly Rents._
+
+    +----------+--------------------------+------------+------------+
+    |          |    England and Wales.    |            |            |
+    |          +-------------+------------+  Scotland. |  Ireland.  |
+    |          |   London.   | Provincial |            |            |
+    |          |             |   towns    |            |            |
+    +----------+-------------+------------+------------+------------+
+    | One room |     ..      |     ..     | 2/- to 2/6 | 1/6 to 2/6 |
+    | Two rooms| 4/6 to 7/6  | 3/- to 3/6 | 3/10 to 4/3| 2/6 to 3/6 |
+    | Three "  | 6/- to 9/-  | 3/9 to 4/6 | 5/2 to 6/5 | 4/- to 5/- |
+    | Four  "  | 7/6 to 10/6 | 4/6 to 5/6 |     ..     | 5/6 to 6/9 |
+    | Five  "  | 9/- to 13/- | 5/6 to 6/6 |     ..     |     ..     |
+    | Six   "  | 10/6 to 15/6| 6/6 to 7/9 |     ..     |     ..     |
+    +----------+-------------+------------+------------+------------+
+
+  Rents are lowest in Ireland and next lowest in English provincial
+  towns, considerably higher in Scotland and highest of all in London,
+  for which further special details are given. It is divided into three
+  zones (1) central, (2) middle, (3) outer, which have the following
+  mean weekly rents:--
+
+    _London Mean Weekly Rents._
+
+    +----------+---------------------------+
+    |          |           Zone.           |
+    |          +---------+--------+--------+
+    |          | Central.| Middle.| Outer. |
+    +----------+---------+--------+--------+
+    | One room |   4/6   |  3/9   |   ..   |
+    | Two rooms|   7/-   |  6/-   |   ..   |
+    | Three "  |   8/9   |  7/6   |  6/6   |
+    | Four  "  |    ..   |  9/-   |  7/9   |
+    | Five  "  |    ..   |  11/-  |  9/6   |
+    | Six   "  |    ..   |  13/-  |  11/-  |
+    +----------+---------+--------+--------+
+
+  In central London--which extends to Stepney in the East, Lambeth m the
+  South, Islington in the North, and includes Westminster, Holborn,
+  Finsbury, Marylebone, Shoreditch, most of Bethnal Green, Southwark and
+  Bermondsey--the rent of a single room may be as high as 6s. or even
+  6s. 6d. (Holborn) a week. It is here that overcrowding is greatest,
+  and block-tenements, philanthropic and municipal, most numerous. The
+  rentals of the block dwellings have not been taken into account in the
+  foregoing official statistics; they range as follows: 1 room, 2s. 6d.
+  to 5s.; 2 rooms, 5s. to 8s.; three rooms, 6s. 6d. to 11s. The lowest
+  rent for which a single room can be obtained in this area is 2s. 6d. a
+  week. In no English town are rents nearly so high as in London. If 100
+  is taken as the index number for rent in London the nearest towns to
+  it (Croydon and Plymouth) only reach 81, and one town on the list
+  (Macclesfield) is as low as 32. The index number of twenty-one towns
+  out of the whole is 50 or under, and these include a number of
+  important industrial centres--Hull, Leicester, Blackburn, Northampton,
+  Warrington, Coventry, Crewe and others. The index numbers of the great
+  towns are: Liverpool 65, Manchester and Salford 62, Birmingham 59,
+  Leeds 56, Sheffield 55, Bristol 53, Bradford 59, Hull 48; that is to
+  say the level of rents in these towns is little more than half that in
+  London. This is one more proof of the untypical character of London,
+  and of the fallacy of generalizing from it to the rest of the country.
+  Even in the overcrowded towns on Tyneside rents do not run to
+  three-fourths of the London level. When the towns are divided into
+  geographical groups the index numbers run thus: London 100, Northern
+  Counties 62, Yorkshire 56, Lancashire and Cheshire 54, Midlands 51,
+  Eastern Counties 50, Southern Counties 61, Wales and Monmouth 60.
+  Rents are always highest in capitals, and Edinburgh complies with the
+  rule; but it is very slightly in advance of Glasgow, and in Scotland
+  generally the range is much smaller than in England. Dublin, on the
+  other hand, is differentiated from the other Irish towns as widely as
+  London from English ones.
+
+  A general and progressive rise in rents has been taking place for many
+  years. The following index numbers for the great towns are given in
+  the second series of memoranda published by the Board of Trade in 1904
+  (Cd. 1761):--
+
+    _Relative Working-Class Rents._
+
+    1880   86.6  |  1890   89.9
+    1885   90.1  |  1900  100.0
+    1895   96.3  |
+
+  The tendency to rise is attributable to increased cost of labour, due
+  to higher wages and less work, increased cost of materials and higher
+  rates. Weekly working-class rents generally include rates which are
+  paid by the landlord. Housing reform has contributed to the rise, both
+  directly and through the rates, on which it has thrown a heavy burden
+  in various ways. When slums are cleared away and replaced by superior
+  dwellings the new rents are generally higher than the old and this
+  fact has proved a great difficulty. Most of the improved housing is
+  beyond the means of those who need it most, and they seek other
+  quarters resembling the old ones as nearly as possible. The example of
+  Liverpool, which has the largest proportion of casual and ill-paid
+  labour of all the great towns, and has been the most successful in
+  providing new dwellings of a fair quality, centrally situated and not
+  in blocks, at really low rates, shows that the problem is not
+  insoluble; but as a rule too little attention is paid to the question
+  of rent in housing reform, especially in building undertaken by
+  municipalities. It is not ignored, but the importance attached to it
+  by the poor is not realized. To them it is the first consideration
+  after four walls, a roof and a fire-place; and 6d. a week makes a vast
+  difference in their calculations. Reform which aims at raising the
+  lowest classes of tenants by improving their dwellings defeats itself
+  when it drives them away.
+
+_Rural Housing._--Little has hitherto been said about rural housing. It
+is of less importance than urban housing because it concerns a much
+smaller proportion of the population, and because in rural life the
+influence of inferior housing on health is offset by other conditions;
+but it has recently attracted much attention and was made the subject of
+inquiry by a Select Committee of the House of Commons in 1906. The
+report laid stress chiefly on the inaction of local rural authorities
+under the Public Health and Housing Acts, and on various obstacles in
+the way of improving existing houses and of providing more and better
+ones at rents which agricultural labourers can afford to pay. The
+available facts with regard to rural housing are scrappy and
+unsatisfactory. The word "rural" has no precise meaning and it includes
+several very different sections of the population; for instance, the
+inhabitants of suburbs, mining villages and mill villages as well as the
+real agricultural population. Complaint is made of both the quantity and
+the quality of rural housing. With regard to quantity it is said that in
+spite of migration to the towns there is a dearth of cottages through
+dilapidation and demolition without rebuilding. That may happen in
+particular localities, but there is no evidence to support a general
+allegation. Inquiries issued by the Board of Trade to agricultural
+correspondents brought the following replies: insufficient 56,
+sufficient 111, more than sufficient 32. Similar inquiries of land
+agents and owners resulted thus: insufficient 9, sufficient 11, more
+than sufficient 4, variable 6. From which it appears that insufficiency
+exists but is not general. The official evidence with regard to
+overcrowding is that it is much less acute than in the towns. The
+proportion of the rural population in England living in overcrowded
+conditions in 1901 was 5.8%; if the rural mining districts, the
+exceptional overcrowding of which has been noted above, be eliminated,
+the rest cannot be very bad. Moreover, the percentage has appreciably
+diminished; in 1891 it was 8.46. The complaint of bad quality is better
+founded. Some landowners take great pride in the state of their
+property, and excellent cottages may be found in model villages and
+elsewhere in many parts of the country; but much rural housing is of an
+extremely insanitary character. A good deal of evidence on this head has
+of late years been published In the reports of medical inspectors to the
+Local Government Board. And local authorities are very reluctant to set
+the law in motion against insanitary dwellings. On the other hand, they
+have in some cases hindered and prevented building by too rigid
+insistence on by-laws, framed with a view to urban housing and quite
+unsuited to rural conditions. A few rural authorities have taken action
+with regard to building schemes under Part III. of the Housing Act. A
+list of 31 in 17 counties is given in "Housing up to Date"; 13
+applications were refused and 13 granted by the respective county
+councils and others were dropped. Details are given by the same
+authority of 54 houses built by 17 rural district councils. Public
+action may thus be said to amount to nothing at all. Landowners,
+however, have borrowed under the Improvements of Lands Acts upwards of
+£1,250,000 for building labourers' cottages; and this is probably only a
+fraction of the amount spent privately.
+
+In Ireland a special condition of affairs exists. A series of about a
+dozen acts, dating from 1881 and culminating in the Labourers (Ireland)
+Act of 1906, have been passed for promoting the provision of labourers'
+cottages; and under them 20,634 cottages had been built and some
+thousands more authorized previous to the act of 1906, which extended
+the pre-existing facilities. The principle is that of the English
+Housing Acts applied to rural districts, but the procedure is simpler
+and quicker. The law provides that a representation may be made to the
+local authority by three ratepayers or resident labourers that "the
+existing house accommodation for agricultural labourers and their
+families is deficient having regard to the ordinary requirements of the
+district, or is unfit for human habitation owing to dilapidation, want
+of air, light, ventilation or other convenience or to any other sanitary
+defects," whereupon the local authority shall make an improvement
+scheme. It may also initiate a scheme without representation, or the
+Local Government Board may do so in default of the local authority. The
+scheme is published, an inquiry held, notice given and an order made
+with very much less delay and expense than under the English law. Land
+is purchased by agreement, or compulsorily and the money for land and
+building raised by loan. Loans amounting to about 3½ millions sterling
+had been raised down to 1906. The great majority of the cottages built
+are in Münster and Leinster. They must have at least 2 bedrooms and a
+kitchen, and the habitable rooms must be 8 ft. high. One of the most
+remarkable features is the low cost--about £150--at which these cottages
+have been built, including land and the expenses of procedure.
+
+_Recent Developments._--It is clear from a general review of the subject
+that the problem of housing the working classes in a satisfactory manner
+has proved more complex than was at one time realized. Experience has
+falsified hopes and led to a change of attitude. It is seen that there
+are limits to drastic interference with the normal play of economic
+forces and to municipal action on a large and ambitious scale. A
+reaction has set in against it. At the same time the problem is being
+attacked on other sides and from new points of departure. The tendency
+now is towards the more effectual application of gradual methods of
+improvement, the utilization of other means and the exercise of
+prevention in preference to cure. Under each of these heads certain
+movements may be noted.
+
+The most troublesome problem is the treatment of existing bad housing.
+In regard to this the policy of large improvement schemes under which
+extensive areas are bought up and demolished has had its day, and is not
+likely to be revived to any considerable extent. That is not only
+because it is extremely costly but also because it has in the main done
+its work. It has done what could not have been done otherwise, and has
+swept away the worst of the old housing _en masse_. To call it a failure
+because it is costly and of limited application would be as great a
+mistake as to regard it as a panacea. The procedure which seems to be
+coming into favour in place of it is that adopted in Birmingham and
+advocated by Mr J. S. Nettlefold (_Practical Housing_) coupled with a
+more general and effective use of the Public Health Acts. The principle
+is improvement in detail effected by pressure brought to bear on owners
+by public authority. The embodiment of this principle forms an important
+part of the Housing and Town Planning Bill introduced by the Local
+Government Board in 1908, which contained clauses empowering the central
+authority to compel apathetic local authorities to do their duty in
+regard to the closing of unfit houses, and authorizing local authorities
+both to issue closing orders and to serve notices on landlords requiring
+them "to execute such works as the local authority may specify as being
+necessary to make the house in all respects reasonably fit for human
+habitation."
+
+Among the other and less direct means to which attention is being turned
+is the policy of getting people away from the towns. The effect of
+improved travelling facilities in reducing urban overcrowding has been
+noted above. That object was not specifically contemplated in the
+building and electrification of tramways, and in the development of
+other means of cheap local travel, but the beneficial effect has caused
+them to be recognized as an important factor in relation to housing and
+to be more systematically applied in that connexion. A newer departure,
+however, is to encourage migration not to the outskirts of towns but
+altogether into the country by facilitating the acquisition of small
+holdings of land. This has been done by private landowners in an
+experimental way for some years, and in 1907 the policy was embodied in
+the Small Holdings Act, which gives county and borough councils power to
+purchase or hire land compulsorily and let it in holdings of not more
+than 50 acres or £50 annual value. Failing action on their part the
+Board of Agriculture may frame schemes. Power is also conferred on the
+Board and on County Councils to establish co-operative agricultural
+societies and credit banks. These measures have been adopted from
+foreign countries, and particularly from Denmark and Germany. A very
+large number of applications for holdings have been made under this act,
+but it is too early to state the effects. They will depend on the
+success of tenants in earning a livelihood by agricultural produce.
+
+Another new and quite different departure is the attempt to establish a
+novel kind of town, called a "Garden City," which shall combine the
+advantages of the town and the country. The principal points are the
+choice of a site, which must be sufficiently convenient to enable
+industries to be carried on, yet with rural surroundings, the laying out
+of the ground in such a way as to ensure plenty of open space and
+variety, the insistence on building of a certain standard and the
+limitation of size. One has been established at Letchworth in
+Hertfordshire, 34 m. from London, and so far seems to be prospering. It
+consists of an area of 3800 acres, bought from the previous owners by a
+company registered in 1903 and entitled First Garden City Ltd., with a
+capital of £300,000 in £5 shares. The interest is limited to a dividend
+of 5%, all further profits to be devoted to the benefit of the town. The
+estate is divided into a central urban area of 1200 and a surrounding
+agricultural belt of 2600 acres. The town is planned for an eventual
+population of 30,000 and at present (1909) has about 5000. Some London
+printing works and other small industrial establishments have been
+planted there, and a number of model cottages have been built. In this
+connexion another recent novelty has appeared in the shape of an
+exhibition of cottages. The idea, originated by Mr St Loe Strachey, was
+to encourage the art of designing and building cheap but good and
+convenient cottages, especially for the country. Two exhibitions have
+been held at Letchworth in 1905 and 1907, and others at Sheffield (1907)
+and Newcastle (1908). The two latter were held on municipal land, and it
+is proposed by the National Housing Reform Council to hold one every
+year.
+
+The "Garden City" has led to the "Garden Suburb," an adaptation of the
+same idea to suburban areas. One was opened near Hampstead Heath in
+1907: it consists of 240 acres, of which 72 have been reserved for
+working-class cottages with gardens. These developments, with which may
+be associated the model industrial villages, mentioned above, at
+Bournville, Port Sunlight and Earswick, represent an aspiration towards
+a higher standard of housing for families belonging to the upper ranks
+of the working classes; and the same movement is demonstrated in a still
+more interesting fashion by a particular form of co-operative activity
+known as Co-partnership Housing. The first complete example of this
+method of organization was the Ealing Tenants Limited, a society
+registered under the Industrial and Provident Societies Act in 1901,
+though the Tenant Co-operators Limited, formed in 1888, was a precursor
+on very nearly the same lines. The essential principle is self-help
+applied by combination to the provision of superior homes, and the
+chief material feature is the building of houses which are not only of
+good design and workmanship, but disposed on a systematic plan so as to
+utilize the ground to the best advantage. Land is bought and houses are
+built with combined capital to which each tenant contributes a
+substantial share; the houses are let at rents which will return 5% on
+share capital and 4% on loan capital after defraying all expenses, and
+the surplus profits are divided among the tenant members in proportion
+to the rents paid by them. Each tenant's share of profits is credited to
+him in shares until his share capital equals the value of the house he
+occupies, after which it is paid in cash. There is thus common ownership
+of the whole group, which forms a little community. This system has
+caught on in a remarkable way and has spread with great rapidity. In
+1905 a central organizing body was formed called the Co-partnership
+Housing Council, for the purpose of promoting the formation of societies
+and assisting them with advice; it is supported by voluntary
+contributions. In 1909 twelve societies, including the original Tenant
+Co-operators, had been formed with a total investment of £536,300. They
+are situated at Ealing, Letchworth, Seven-oaks, Leicester, Manchester,
+Hampstead (two), Harborne near Birmingham, Fallings Park,
+Stoke-on-Trent, Wayford and Derwentwater. The rapidity with which the
+movement has developed and spread since the establishment of the
+Co-partnership Housing Council indicates great vitality, and since it is
+based on thoroughly sound lines it has probably a large future. It is
+the most interesting and in many respects the best of all recent
+developments. The Report of the Select Committee on Rural Housing
+mentioned above suggested that a Co-partnership Housing Society should
+be formed in every county in England.
+
+All the enterprises just described have one feature in common, namely,
+the laying out of sites on a plan which takes cognizance of the future,
+secures a due proportion of open space, variety in the arrangement of
+streets and the most advantageous disposition of the houses and other
+buildings. They go beyond sanitary requirements and take account of
+higher needs. They have lent force to the advocacy of municipal
+"town-planning," as practised by several towns in Germany; and provision
+was made for this procedure in the Housing and Town Planning Act of
+1909. The act contains clauses giving local authorities power to prepare
+plans with reference to any land which appears likely to be used for
+building purposes within or near their own boundaries; and also to
+purchase land comprised in a town-planning scheme and either build on it
+themselves or let plots for building in accordance with the plan. The
+chief object is to safeguard the future, prevent the repetition of past
+defects and encourage a higher standard of housing.
+
+These new developments represent an upward movement at the higher end of
+the scale. They cater for the superior ranks of working classes, those
+who attach some importance to the aesthetic and moral influence of
+pleasant and wholesome surroundings, and are willing to sacrifice
+immediate gratifications to a higher end. They embody an aspiration, set
+an example and exercise an educative influence. But they have nothing to
+do with the housing of the really poor, which is the great difficulty;
+and their very attractiveness seems in some danger of drawing attention
+from it. Garden cities and suburbs will never house the poor or even the
+bulk of our working class population, and it would be a pity if the
+somewhat sentimental popularity of romantic schemes led to a distaste
+for the plodding effort which alone can effect a real cure of
+deep-seated social evils of long standing. All the new schemes and
+legislative proposals leave untouched the greatest difficulty of all,
+which lies not in the dwelling but in the tenant. It is comparatively
+easy to afford better opportunities to those who are willing to take
+advantage of them, but how to raise those who are not? The lesson taught
+by Miss Octavia Hill's classical experiment is, if not forgotten,
+certainly neglected in the presence of more showy efforts. Or perhaps it
+would be more true to say that half of it is neglected. Miss Hill was
+one of the pioneers in the comparatively modest method of improving and
+reconstructing bad houses, which, as we have noted, is now being more
+generally recognized and pursued; but that was only half her work. She
+improved bad dwellings and made them decent, but she also managed them
+on business lines, by a system of inspection and rent collection which
+combined a judicious discipline with the stimulus of reward. This was
+done by means of personal service, which is the secret of all really
+effective work among the poor. Her words written years ago remain true
+to-day: "The people's homes are bad partly because they are badly built
+and arranged; they are tenfold worse because the tenants' habits and
+lives are what they are. Transplant them to-morrow to healthy and
+commodious homes and they will pollute and destroy them."
+
+  The following is a list of the principal associations formed for the
+  promotion of housing reform: Mansion House Council on the Dwellings of
+  the Poor, Rural Housing and Sanitation Association, Workmen's National
+  Housing Council, National Housing Reform Council, Co-partnership
+  Tenants Housing Council. They are all of recent date, except the
+  first. There are also local associations at Liverpool, Oldham,
+  Rochdale, York, Plymouth, and elsewhere.
+
+
+OTHER COUNTRIES
+
+At the International Housing Congress organized by the National Housing
+Reform Council and held in London in 1907 representatives were present
+from a number of foreign countries and a good deal of information was
+collected and published in the report of the Congress. Further detailed
+data have been supplied by foreign correspondents to Mr W. Thompson and
+published in _Housing up to Date_. The more important facts relating to
+the principal industrial countries are here condensed from this and
+other sources of information.
+
+  _Austria._--An act for encouraging the building of cheap working-class
+  dwellings was passed in 1902; it provides for exemption from taxes for
+  24 years of working-class dwellings which fulfil certain conditions
+  including sanitary requirements, a minimum area per room, minimum
+  height, minimum door and window spaces, thickness of walls, a maximum
+  number of inhabitants (one to 4 sq. metres in sleeping rooms),
+  prohibition of lodgers, fixed rent and maximum profit. The
+  municipalities are the authority for administering sanitary and
+  housing laws; they have no power of compulsory purchase of land
+  without a special law. There is excessive overcrowding in the large
+  towns; in Vienna (1900) 43% of the population live in dwellings of 1
+  room or 1 room and a kitchen; in 60 provincial towns the proportion is
+  63%. Overcrowding is reckoned at more than 5 persons to a room and
+  more than 9 to two rooms; the proportion of overcrowded on this basis
+  is nearly one-fifth in Vienna and one-fourth in the provincial towns
+  (Thompson).
+
+  _Belgium._--An act was passed in 1889 instituting _Comités de
+  Patronage_; since then other Acts relating to loan societies, and to
+  inheritance and succession in the case of small properties. Comités de
+  Patronage are semi-official bodies, but without legal power, whose
+  function it is to study the subject of housing, to report to local
+  authorities on existing conditions, to advise, to collect funds and
+  promote the provision of good houses by any means in their power. They
+  influence public opinion and stimulate the activity of local
+  authorities which have the power to compel improvements and close
+  dwellings unfit for habitation; they have led to the formation of
+  numerous societies for erecting working-class dwellings. The latter
+  are encouraged by the law in various ways; they are exempt from the
+  payment of some government duties and partly exempt from others.
+  Working men buying or building houses liable to registration fees up
+  to from 72 to 171 francs are exempted from personal, provincial and
+  communal taxes. The National Savings Bank of Belgium is empowered to
+  lend money to working men for buying or building houses and to insure
+  the lives of those doing so, to preserve the home for the family. In
+  1904 the number of workmen's homes exempted from taxation was 164,387,
+  and the amount of taxation remitted considerably exceeded 3 million
+  francs; workmen had acquired lands and houses valued at nearly
+  £4,000,000; there were 161 societies for building working-class
+  dwellings; 30,000 workmen representing a population of 150,000 had
+  become owners of property; and 70,000 representing a population of
+  350,000 had availed themselves of the law in obtaining exemptions and
+  loans (O. Velghe). The foregoing results effected in 15 years are
+  remarkable and indicate a great capacity for self-help on the part of
+  Belgian workmen with suitable and well-considered assistance. But this
+  movement, in common with those of a similar character in other
+  countries, does not touch the problem of housing the very poor. No
+  statistics of overcrowding are available, but the average number of
+  persons to a dwelling is over 5 for the whole country and nearly 9 in
+  Brussels. The communal administrations are the authorities for health
+  and housing; they have power to abate nuisances but not to compel
+  landowners to sell land for building, though they have the right to
+  dispossession for "public purposes." No town has constructed quarters
+  devoted entirely to working-class dwellings and only one commune (St
+  Giles) has built any. In towns the height of buildings is regulated by
+  the width of streets; generally it is the width plus 6 metres. The
+  height of rooms and thickness of walls are prescribed by local
+  regulations but not the area of rooms. The housing difficulty has been
+  lessened in a notable degree by cheap transport facilities, including
+  railroads, light railroads and tramways; a large proportion of the
+  workpeople travel long distances to and from work. One-quarter travel
+  on the State railways alone; fares are 1s. 6d. a week for a daily
+  double journey of 20 m., 2s. for 44 m. and 2s. 6d. for 66 m. The area
+  of the labour market of Liége extends nearly to Ostend and out of 5830
+  workmen travelling over 1000 live more than 50 kilometres from Liége.
+  Some journeys last 3 hours.
+
+  _France._--The question of housing was publicly raised in France quite
+  as early as in England on grounds of public health in connexion with
+  the first visitation of cholera, and building societies were formed as
+  early as 1851, but little was done until after 1889, when the _Société
+  Française des Habitations à Bon Marché_ was founded under the
+  inspiration of M. Siegfried. This led to the formation of several
+  societies, which increased rapidly after the passage of _la loi
+  Siegfried_ in 1894, for promoting the provision of working-class
+  dwellings. In 1902 a Public Health Act and in 1906 a Housing of the
+  Working Classes Act were passed, and these three enactments with
+  regulations made in 1907 govern the procedure. The act of 1906
+  embodies the Belgian system of Comités de Patronage, of which at least
+  one was to be established in each department with grants in aid, and
+  exemptions from certain taxes of working-class dwellings fulfilling
+  specified conditions as to sanitation and rent. The law promotes the
+  formation of Housing Societies by granting various facilities for the
+  investment of money in building by public bodies and benevolent
+  institutions by taking shares or by loans. Down to the end of 1906
+  there had been lent for this purpose £233,000 by savings banks,
+  £258,000 by the Caisse des Dépôts, and £14,000 by charitable
+  institutions. The law does not authorize municipalities to build
+  houses and none of the communes have acquired land for this purpose.
+  Under the Public Health Act of 1902 towns can purchase land
+  compulsorily in connexion with unhealthy areas. The Public Health and
+  Housing Acts are administered by the local authority, which makes
+  regulations for building and for laying out building land. A minimum
+  height of 2.6 metres and a minimum cubical content of 25 cubic metres
+  are prescribed for rooms; there are no regulations for thickness of
+  walls. Housing societies are under the Ministry of Works and a
+  Superior Housing Council, which is a central advisory body. These
+  societies are now numerous; there are 46 in Paris alone, but their
+  operations are not on a large scale. One of them deserves special
+  notice on account of its special object. It is called the _Société de
+  logements pour familles nombreuses_ and it builds special flats called
+  _maisons des enfants_ which are let at low rents only to persons with
+  large families. In 1907 it had housed 168 families, averaging 6.8
+  persons, in two blocks at Belleville and Montmartre. The great defect
+  in France is the large quantity of old, bad, insanitary housing. Real
+  slums exist in all the old towns and in some of them, such as
+  Marseilles and Lyons, on an extensive scale. Very little has hitherto
+  been done to grapple with this difficulty. The standard of sanitation
+  is altogether lower in France than in England, as is shown by the
+  death-rates, and this holds good of the housing. But conditions vary
+  widely in different parts of the country. They are better, generally
+  speaking, in the industrial towns of the north, which are largely
+  Flemish and distinguished by the prevalence of small houses after the
+  English fashion, than in the central or southern districts where tall
+  old tenement houses of six and seven storeys abound. There are no
+  statistics and no standard of overcrowding; but the careful inquiry
+  carried out by the Board of Trade and published in 1909 shows the
+  extraordinary prevalence of tenements consisting of 1, 2 or 3 rooms.
+  In 16 towns for which information was obtained the average proportion
+  of dwellings containing less than 4 rooms was 75% of the whole; in
+  some it was as high as 89% and in none lower than 61%. In 8 towns,
+  including Paris, the number of one-roomed dwellings was more than a
+  quarter of the whole, and in two towns (Brest and Fougères) it was
+  more than half. Some corresponding statistics for English and German
+  towns are given below in the section on Germany. According to the same
+  report, the general accuracy of which has been confirmed by personal
+  inquiries, made in 1909 by the writer in a number of towns, rents are
+  decidedly lower in France. If the London level be taken as 100 that of
+  Paris is only 78 and the other French towns are considerably lower, 21
+  out of 29 being less than half the London standard. A general
+  comparison between a number of English and French towns shows the
+  average level of French rents to be less than three-fourths of English
+  ones. A noticeable feature of housing in France is the large number of
+  dwellings built by employers in recent years. The mining companies,
+  particularly in the Pas de Calais, have built whole groups of
+  villages; the railway companies and various manufacturers have also
+  done a great deal, chiefly in rural areas. Among the manufacturers MM.
+  Schneider at Le Creusot and the textile mill-owners in the Vosges are
+  noticeable. The houses provided are of a charming type, white with red
+  roofs; the rooms are of good size, the rents low, and a large garden
+  is usually attached to every house.
+
+  _Germany._--In no country is the problem of housing more acute than
+  in Germany, where the increase of population, the growth of
+  manufacturing industry and the urbanization of the people have
+  proceeded at an exceptionally rapid pace in recent years and have
+  combined with increasing wealth and a rising standard of living to
+  force the question into prominence. Up to 1909 no uniform legislation
+  for the empire had been framed and no central authority existed for
+  dealing with housing; but the several states have their own public
+  health and housing laws, and great activity has been developed in
+  various directions. The most general difficulty is deficiency of
+  quantity consequent on the rapid change in the distribution of the
+  population. The proportion of the whole population living in the great
+  towns increased from 7.2% to 16.2%, or more than doubled between 1890
+  and 1900; in England it only increased by about one-tenth. Slums are a
+  much less conspicuous feature than in England because of the
+  comparatively recent development of German towns, but where old
+  quarters exist on a large scale, as in Hamburg, the conditions are
+  quite as bad as anything in English towns, and call for similar
+  measures. Public sanitation in Germany is still as a whole less
+  advanced than in England; but in some cases it is superior and in
+  general it is coming up rapidly; the administration of sanitary laws,
+  as of others, is more effective and uniform, and less subject to
+  evasion. This also contributes to the comparative absence of slums.
+  And there is a third factor which has perhaps the greatest influence
+  of all, and that is the superior manner in which German homes are
+  kept. But the pressure of inadequate quantity is urgent; it has caused
+  high rents, overcrowding, and the development of large barrack or
+  block dwellings which are becoming the prevailing type. At the same
+  time it has led to many and varied efforts to meet the difficulty.
+  Isolated attempts go back to an early date. For instance a building
+  society was formed in Berlin in 1849, Alfred Krupp began to build his
+  "colonies" at Essen in 1863, Barmen started a society in 1871 and
+  there were other cases; but general attention seems first to have been
+  drawn to the subject by the reforming efforts of Pastor Bodelschwingh
+  at Bielefeld about 1884 in connexion with his _Arbeiterheim_. In short
+  housing reform in Germany is really a matter of the last 20 years. The
+  first efficient by-laws for regulating building in Berlin were not
+  adopted till 1887; the previous regulations dating from 1853 permitted
+  many abuses and under them a great deal of bad housing was
+  constructed, especially after the establishment of the empire and the
+  beginning of the great development of the capital.
+
+  The worst feature is the general prevalence of dwellings containing a
+  very small number of rooms--from 1 to 3--and consequent overcrowding.
+  The following figures are extracted from the Report to the Board of
+  Trade on Rents, Housing, &c., in Germany (1908, Cd. 4032). They
+  indicate the proportion of dwellings containing 1, 2 or 3 rooms, or
+  (in a few cases) the proportion of the population living in such
+  dwellings. The towns are those for which the information is given.
+  They are not selected as particularly bad specimens but as
+  representative, and they include most of the capitals and chief
+  industrial centres. The figures relate to the year 1900, except in a
+  few cases, in which they are taken from a municipal house census in
+  1905.
+
+    _Percentage of Dwellings or Population living in Dwellings
+    containing_
+
+    +-------------------+--------+--------+--------+-----------+
+    |       Town.       |1 Room. |2 Rooms.|3 Rooms.|Total under|
+    |                   |        |        |        |  4 Rooms. |
+    +-------------------+--------+--------+--------+-----------+
+    | Berlin            |  8.0   |  37.2  |  30.6  |   75.8    |
+    | Aachen            | 13.7   |  32.0  |  21.9  |   67.6    |
+    | Barmen (pop.)     |  1.5   |  24.3  |  28.8  |   54.6    |
+    | Bremen            |  3.8(?)|  26.8  |  26.1  |   56.7(?) |
+    | Breslau (pop.)    |  3.9   |  46.0  |  24.4  |   74.3    |
+    | Chemnitz (pop.)   |  1.7   |  34.8  |  29.9  |   66.4    |
+    | Dantzig           |  3.3   |  45.0  |  29.9  |   78.2    |
+    | Dortmund          |  4.7   |  45.5  |  30.0  |   80.2    |
+    | Dresden           |  0.8   |   3.5  |  27.8  |   32.1    |
+    | Düsseldorf        |  5.0   |  26.4  |  22.7  |   54.1    |
+    | Elberfeld         |  8.4(?)|  36.9  |  21.7  |   67.0(?) |
+    | Essen             |  2.9   |  35.4  |  30.0  |   68.3    |
+    | Hamburg           |  1.0   |   3.9  |  24.7  |   29.6    |
+    | Königshütte (pop.)| 10.0   |  60.4  |  16.8  |   87.2    |
+    | Leipzig (pop.)    |  0.4   |   1.7  |  14.5  |   16.6    |
+    | Mannheim          |  3.1   |  22.1  |  40.4  |   65.6    |
+    | Munich (pop.)     |  4.6   |  24.1  |  28.4  |   57.1    |
+    | Plauen (pop.)     |  1.3   |  14.2  |  21.8  |   36.3    |
+    +-------------------+--------+--------+--------+-----------+
+
+  The figures must be read with a certain amount of caution, as they are
+  not in every case compiled on a precisely uniform method with regard
+  to inclusion of kitchens and attics. For this reason the position of
+  Bremen and Elberfeld is probably more unfavourable than it ought to
+  be. But broadly the table shows that in most of the large towns in
+  Germany more than half, and in some cases more than three-quarters of
+  the dwellings have less than 4 rooms. Leipzig is the most striking
+  exception. If working-class quarters alone are taken it is found that
+  dwellings of more than 3 rooms are so few as to be negligible. In
+  Stuttgart, where housing is very dear, the percentages for
+  working-class quarters are--1 room 21.0, 2 rooms 51.8, 3 rooms 26.9;
+  total under 4 rooms 98.7. Königshütte, the chief coal and iron centre
+  in Silesia and a purely working-class town, shows the same state of
+  things; 60% of the whole population live in dwellings of 2 rooms and
+  87% in less than four. It is interesting to compare English towns. The
+  proportion of dwellings containing less than 4 rooms in London was
+  (1901) 52.2%, in Berlin 75.8%; the proportion of the population living
+  in such dwellings was--London 38.7%, Berlin 71.5%. Not only is the
+  proportion of small dwellings very much higher in Berlin but the
+  proportion of the population living in them shows a far greater
+  discrepancy. This indicates a much higher degree of overcrowding. The
+  only point in which Berlin has the advantage is the smaller number of
+  single-room dwellings. The proportions are London 14.7%, Berlin 8.0%.
+  But it is to be observed that overcrowding is not so common in 1-room
+  dwellings, which are often occupied by a single person, as in those
+  with 2 or 3 rooms, which are occupied by families, though probably the
+  most extreme cases of overcrowding occur in particular 1-room
+  dwellings. In the English county boroughs the proportion of dwellings
+  with less than 4 rooms was 24.0%, in other urban districts 17.4, and
+  in all urban areas including London 26.4%. When all allowance is made
+  for minor errors and discrepancies it may be broadly concluded that
+  the proportion of small dwellings containing less than 4 rooms is at
+  least twice as great in German as in English towns, and that the
+  conditions as to accommodation which in England prevail only in London
+  are general in urban Germany. As a set-off German rooms are generally
+  larger than English ones and in block dwellings there is often a
+  little ante-room or landing which does not count but really increases
+  the space.
+
+  The German census does not take cognisance of overcrowding and there
+  is no general official standard; but some towns have adopted a
+  standard of their own, namely, six or more persons to 1 room and ten
+  or more to 2 rooms. In Breslau, which is one of the worst towns, 17.5%
+  of the population (53,000) of the "city" or inner ring were
+  overcrowded on this basis in 1900. In Barmen, which is not one of the
+  worst, 20% of the 2-roomed and 17% of the 3-roomed dwellings (together
+  housing more than half the population) were overcrowded according to
+  the English standard. Overcrowding and other bad conditions are worst
+  in the basement or cellar dwellings, of which some towns have a very
+  large number. In Breslau 15,000 persons were living in 3853 such
+  dwellings in 1900; in Berlin 91,426 persons were living in 24,088
+  basements. Some of these are free from objection, but 11,147, housing
+  38,663 persons, were situated in back buildings and unfit for
+  habitation on account of darkness, damp, dilapidation and the like.
+  "Back" houses are a feature of old towns; they are houses which do not
+  give on the street but lie behind and are approached by a passage;
+  they are what we call courts and quite as insanitary as anything of
+  the kind in English towns.
+
+  With regard to rents the Board of Trade (London) Report gives the
+  following figures for Berlin and a number of other towns:--
+
+    +-------------+-----------------------------------+
+    |No. of Rooms | Predominant Range of Weekly Rents.|
+    |per Dwelling.+----------------+------------------+
+    |             |     Berlin.    |   Other Towns.   |
+    +-------------+----------------+------------------+
+    | 2 rooms     |   5/- to 6/-   |    2/8 to 3/6    |
+    | 3 rooms     |   7/- to 9/3   |    3/6 to 4/9    |
+    | 4 rooms     |       ..       |    4/3 to 6/-    |
+    +-------------+----------------+------------------+
+
+  Rents are higher in Berlin than in any other town, though Stuttgart
+  comes very near it. The following table of index numbers shows the
+  relations of 32 towns to Berlin:--
+
+    +--------------+-------++---------------+-------+
+    |     Town.    | Index ||     Town.     | Index |
+    |              |Number.||               |Number.|
+    +--------------+-------++---------------+-------+
+    | Berlin       |  100  || Nuremberg     |   53  |
+    | Stuttgart    |   97  || Aachen        |   53  |
+    | Düsseldorf   |   79  || Crefeld       |   52  |
+    | Dortmund     |   68  || Bremen        |   52  |
+    | Anchaffenburg|   67  || Plauen        |   52  |
+    | Hamburg      |   66  || Leipzig       |   51  |
+    | Mannheim     |   64  || Dantzig       |   49  |
+    | Königsberg   |   62  || Mülhausen     |   48  |
+    | Munich       |   63  || Königshütte   |   47  |
+    | Essen        |   62  || Stettin       |   46  |
+    | Solingen     |   61  || Magdeburg     |   43  |
+    | Bochum       |   57  || Chemnitz      |   40  |
+    | Elberfeld    |   57  || Zwickau       |   38  |
+    | Barmen       |   57  || Brunswick     |   37  |
+    | Remscheid    |   56  || Stassfurt     |   33  |
+    | Breslau      |   56  || Oschersleben  |   28  |
+    | Dresden      |   54  ||               |       |
+    +--------------+-------++---------------+-------+
+
+  Comparing rents in Germany and England, the Board of Trade Report
+  gives the following table, to which the corresponding ratio of French
+  towns has been added.
+
+    +-------------+-------------------------+-------------+-------------+
+    |             |Predominant Weekly Rents.|   Ratio of  |   Ratio of  |
+    |No. of rooms.+-----------+-------------+  German to  |  French to  |
+    |             |  England. |   Germany.  |English (100)|English (100)|
+    +-------------+-----------+-------------+-------------+-------------+
+    | 2 rooms     |3/- to 3/6 | 2/8 to 3/6  |      95     |      79     |
+    | 3 rooms     |3/9 to 4/6 | 3/6 to 4/9  |     100     |      86     |
+    | 4 rooms     |4/6 to 5/6 | 4/3 to 6/-  |     102     |      78     |
+    +-------------+-----------+-------------+-------------+-------------+
+
+  If the mean of the English and German figures be taken it shows a very
+  slight difference in favour of Germany; the mean weekly rent per room
+  being 1s. 5d. in England and 1s. 4¾d. in Germany. But in England rent
+  usually includes local taxation (rates) whereas in Germany it does
+  not; if this be added German rents are to English as 123 to 100, or
+  nearly one-fourth more.
+
+  The statistics given above indicate a wide range of variation in the
+  conditions prevailing in different towns in Germany; and that holds
+  good with regard to improvements. The administration of the laws
+  relating to public health and housing is in the hands of the local
+  authorities. The public health service is generally efficient and
+  sometimes very good. Increasing attention has been paid in recent
+  years to the sanitary inspection of houses and in some towns it is now
+  thorough and systematic, but active efforts to deal with old and
+  insanitary quarters _en masse_ are isolated and exceptional. Hamburg
+  is an instance; scared by the visitation of cholera in 1892 the
+  authorities put in hand an extensive improvement scheme on the English
+  plan at a cost of half a million sterling. But demolition is
+  exceptional; slums are usually subjected to supervision and are not
+  allowed to be in a state of dilapidation, and sometimes, as at
+  Mannheim, notices are served to abate overcrowding. In Munich a policy
+  of gradually buying up insanitary houses has been adopted. But
+  improvement has principally been promoted by new building and the
+  reduction of the population in old insanitary quarters, to which cheap
+  locomotive facilities have greatly contributed. The great bulk of
+  urban Germany is new, and the most valuable contribution made by it to
+  the housing question is the more effective control of new building and
+  particularly the principle of town-planning, coupled with the purchase
+  of neighbouring ground with a view to future extension. This policy is
+  comparatively recent and still very partially applied, but it is now
+  rapidly extending. A general act providing for the planning of streets
+  was passed in Prussia in 1875 and still forms the basis of building
+  legislation; but as noted above no effective by-laws were adopted even
+  in Berlin until after 1887, and consequently a very faulty style of
+  building was adopted, especially in large blocks which conceal grave
+  defects behind an imposing exterior. The Saxon towns have been
+  conspicuously successful in regard to housing. Leipzig stands alone
+  among German towns in having 83.4% of its population living in
+  dwellings of 4 rooms and upwards. Yet it is a great commercial city,
+  the fifth in the empire, with a population of upwards of half a
+  million. It also comes low on the rent table, having an index number
+  little more than half that of Berlin. All the Saxon towns are low,
+  Chemnitz and Zwickau particularly so, and the position of Dresden,
+  being a capital, is remarkable. More than two-thirds of the population
+  live in dwellings of 4 rooms or more, and the rent index number is
+  only 54. In Saxony a general Building Act, especially providing for
+  town planning, was passed in 1900; and the Grand Duchy of Hesse, which
+  alone among the German states has a government Housing Department,
+  adopted a Housing of the Working Classes Act in 1902. Other states
+  have followed or are following and the air is full of movement. The
+  distinctive features of urban housing reform in Germany are (1) the
+  systematic planning of extensions, (2) purchase of ground by
+  municipalities, (3) letting or sale of municipal land for building
+  under prescribed conditions. Many of the great towns, including
+  Berlin, Munich, Dresden, Leipzig, Cologne, Frankfort and Düsseldorf,
+  are owners of land to a variable but sometimes large extent. This
+  policy seems to have been originally adopted on economic grounds and
+  those municipalities which bought or otherwise came into possession of
+  town land at an early date derive a substantial revenue from it now,
+  besides being in a position to promote housing improvement. There is
+  comparatively little municipal building, and that as a rule only or
+  principally for municipal servants, as at Düsseldorf, Mannheim and
+  Nuremberg; but there seems to be a tendency to venture further in this
+  direction and some towns have built houses for letting. The
+  municipalities generally sell or let their land, and the building
+  agencies which enjoy most official favour are the societies "of public
+  utility"; they are encouraged in every way and have greatly developed,
+  particularly in the Rhine province. Some are co-operative, others
+  semi-philanthropic in that they aim at building good houses and limit
+  their profits. In 1901 the Prussian Government issued an order urging
+  municipalities to support these societies by remitting the cost of
+  constructing streets and sewers, placing the assistance of building
+  officials at their disposal, taking their shares, lending them money
+  and becoming security for them. A great deal of public money has been
+  advanced to building societies, and one very important source of
+  supply has been developed, since the Old Age and Infirmity Insurance
+  Act of 1889, in the National Insurance Funds which invest their
+  surplus capital in this way. Down to 1906 the Boards of insurance had
+  lent £8,650,000 to societies for building; the Imperial Government
+  had lent £1,250,000, the Prussian Government £1,825,000, and the other
+  states further large sums in addition to the municipalities. Money
+  lent by the state is usually limited to building houses for state
+  employees and Insurance Boards lend on condition that the houses are
+  let to persons who come under the insurance laws. The development of
+  building societies has been promoted by the formation of general
+  building associations of which the earliest was established in
+  Düsseldorf in 1897 for the Rhine provinces; under its influence
+  one-fifth of the new housing provided in 1901 was erected by the
+  societies. The example was followed at Frankfort, Münster and
+  Wiesbaden. Housing by employers has also been carried out on a large
+  scale in Germany. States and municipalities have to some extent built
+  houses as employers, the former chiefly for railwaymen, besides
+  lending money to societies for the purpose; but most housing of this
+  kind has been done by private employers. Krupps, who had built 4274
+  dwellings housing nearly 27,000 persons down to 1901, are the most
+  famous example; but they are only one among many. In Rhineland and
+  Westphalia employers had in 1902 provided 22,269 houses containing
+  62,539 dwellings at a cost of £10,500,000; more than half the families
+  so housed belonged to the mining industry, the rest to various
+  manufactures. These two provinces, in which industrial development has
+  been extremely rapid, are exceptional; but housing by employers is not
+  confined to them. At Mannheim for instance over 1000 working-class
+  households have been so provided. At Nuremberg the Siemens Schuckert
+  Company have encouraged an interesting system of collective building
+  among their employees, by which 722 dwellings have been provided.
+
+  _Holland._--In 1901 a Public Health and a Housing Act were passed, and
+  these two embody most of the features of housing reform adopted in
+  other countries. The first provides for a general sanitary service
+  under the Ministry of the Interior. The second ordains that local
+  authorities shall frame by-laws for building and for the maintenance
+  and proper use of dwellings; that they shall inspect existing
+  dwellings, order improvements or repairs or demolition; empowers them
+  to take land compulsorily for the purposes of the act, to prohibit
+  building or rebuilding on sites reserved for public purposes and to
+  make grants or loans to societies or companies operating exclusively
+  for the improvement of working-class dwellings. If they fail to make
+  by-laws the provincial authorities may take action. Land buying with a
+  view to extensions has been adopted by a number of municipalities
+  including Amsterdam, Rotterdam, Utrecht and other important towns, and
+  the practice is increasing. Amsterdam has also begun the systematic
+  planning of extensions. There has been a little municipal building in
+  some small places, but it is on an insignificant scale; the tendency
+  is rather to favour societies of public utility as in France, Germany
+  and Belgium. The new laws are too recent to have had much effect and
+  housing reform is as yet in an early stage. Rents are high in the
+  large towns, namely, 1 room 1s. 8d. to 3s.; 2 rooms 2s. 6d. to 5s.; 3
+  rooms 3s. 6d. to 6s; 4 rooms 4s. 2d. to 7s.
+
+  _Italy._--A Housing of the Working Classes Act was passed in 1903, to
+  promote the improvement and provision of workmen's dwellings.
+  Municipalities have the power to purchase land compulsorily for
+  housing purposes and also to build workmen's dwellings. A few towns,
+  of which Milan is one, have done so. There are building regulations
+  relating to the area and height of rooms and the thickness of walls.
+  The antiquity of the Italian towns and the great quantity of old and
+  insanitary building make housing improvement a very difficult matter.
+  _La Società Umanitaria_, a benevolent trust founded by Prosper Loria
+  of Milan in 1902, has taken up this subject among others and has built
+  two model tenements, housing 2000 persons.
+
+  _United States._--Interest in the housing question in the United
+  States is confined to a few of the largest cities and can only be said
+  to be acute in New York, though there have been investigations by
+  commissions elsewhere and Miss Octavia Hill's work in London has found
+  admirers and imitators in Philadelphia and Boston as well as in New
+  York. The evils of housing in New York have been the subject of much
+  sensational writing which has elevated them to the position of a
+  world-wide scandal. It is not necessary to accept all the allegations
+  made in order to see that several circumstances have combined to
+  produce an exceptional state of things in this great city. The limited
+  space--the island or peninsula of Manhattan--in which central New York
+  is built has compelled the erection of large tenement blocks,
+  otherwise rare in American towns; the incessant inrush of immigrants
+  from the poorest parts of Europe has filled these tenements with
+  immense numbers of persons of many nationalities accustomed to a low
+  standard of living; the generally backward state of public sanitation
+  in America, and the absence or evasion of regulations and supervision,
+  have permitted the erection of bad dwellings, their deterioration into
+  worse, and their misuse by excessive overcrowding. Other large cities
+  in which bad housing conditions are known to exist are Chicago,
+  Philadelphia, Boston, Baltimore, Cincinnati, Pittsburg, Jersey City.
+  There are doubtless many others, but bad housing conditions are not so
+  general in the United States as in Europe. Outside the very large
+  cities there is more space, more light and air, less crowding
+  together, less darkness, dirt and dilapidation. Large houses, occupied
+  by two or perhaps three families, are common, but they have more room
+  space than is usual in Europe. The 18th annual report (1903) of the
+  Commissioner of Labour gives the result of a special inquiry embracing
+  23,447 families distributed in 33 states. The average number of rooms
+  was 4.95 per family and 1.04 per individual. It is a fair inference
+  that overcrowding is confined to a comparatively small number of
+  exceptional places. A large number of the schedules were furnished by
+  the eminently urbanized and manufacturing states of New York,
+  Pennsylvania, Massachusetts, Ohio and Illinois; and in all these the
+  average number of rooms to a family exceeded 4, ranging from 4.2 in
+  Ohio to 5.5 in Massachusetts. The condition of homes as to sanitation
+  and cleanliness was statistically stated thus: Sanitary
+  condition--good 61.46%, fair 32,59%, bad 5.95%; Cleanliness--good
+  79.63%, fair 14.66 bad 5.71%. Other special inquiries have been
+  carried out in particular towns. In 1891-1892 the tenements in Boston
+  were investigated for the Massachusetts Labour Bureau, which found
+  3657 sleeping rooms without outside windows and about 8% of the
+  population living in conditions objectionable from one cause or
+  another. In 1892 Congress authorized a special inquiry into the slum
+  population of New York, Chicago, Philadelphia and Baltimore, the
+  results of which were published in the seventh special report (1894)
+  of the United States Commissioner of Labour. It was estimated that the
+  total "slum population" (presumably those living in unhealthy
+  conditions) was--New York 360,000, Chicago 162,000, Philadelphia
+  35,000, Baltimore 25,000. In Baltimore 530 families, consisting of
+  1648 persons, were living in single rooms with an average of 3.15
+  persons to a room; in Philadelphia 401 families were so living with an
+  average of 3.11 persons to a room. The proportion of 1-room dwellings
+  was less in New York and Chicago. In New York 44.55% or nearly half
+  the families investigated were found living in 2-roomed dwellings, in
+  Baltimore 27.88%, in Philadelphia 19.41% and in Chicago 19.14%. These
+  figures conclusively prove that European conditions reproduce
+  themselves in American cities. Poverty was not the cause, as the
+  average earnings per family ranged from £3, 4s. a week in Baltimore to
+  £4, 6s. a week in Chicago. Another official investigation in New York
+  was carried out in 1895 by the Tenement House Commission appointed by
+  the State of New York. It reported "many houses in the city in an
+  insanitary condition which absolutely unfits them for habitation."
+  Further details have been compiled from the census by the New York
+  Federation of Churches, chiefly relating to density of population in
+  the city. In 1900, out of a total of nearly 250,000 dwellings, 95,433
+  (38.2%) contained from 2 to 6 persons, 60,672 (24.2%) from 7 to 10
+  persons and 89,654 (35.9%) 11 persons or more. The density of
+  population for the whole city as now constituted was 19 persons to the
+  acre, in Manhattan 149; in the south-eastern district of Manhattan 382
+  and in one ward 735. Between 1900 and 1905 the density increased in
+  every district, and in the latter year there were 12 blocks with from
+  1000 to 1400 persons to the acre. The number of persons to the acre in
+  London (1901) is 60.6; in the most densely populated borough 182, and
+  in the most densely populated district (a very small one) 396. This
+  will give a measure of comparison. The large tenement blocks in New
+  York have been constructed with far less regard to health than those
+  in Berlin, and reproduce in an aggravated form the same evil of
+  insufficient light and air. In place of the inadequate courts round
+  which many are built in Berlin, the New York tenements have merely
+  narrow air shafts. In 1904 there were reported to be 362,000 dark
+  interior rooms, that is with no outside windows.
+
+  If American cities have nothing to learn from other countries in
+  regard to bad housing, they have nothing to teach in the way of
+  reform. They are following Europe slowly and a long distance behind.
+  There is no serious attempt to deal with insanitary areas as they have
+  been dealt with in England, or to prevent the creation of new ones by
+  regulation and planning of extensions as in Germany, or to promote the
+  provision of superior houses by organized public effort as in several
+  countries. A little has been done in New York to improve the worst
+  housing. A Tenement House Act was passed after the report of the
+  Commission of 1895 and a Department formed to give effect to it. Some
+  cleansing and repairing and insertion of windows is carried out every
+  year, but more attention seems to be paid to fire escapes. Societies
+  for providing improved dwellings exist in New York, Boston, Chicago
+  and Philadelphia. The oldest is one formed in Boston in 1871, called
+  the Co-operative Building Company; it was followed in 1876 by an
+  Improved Dwellings Company in Brooklyn, and in 1879 by a similar
+  society in Manhattan, and in 1885 by another in Boston. The largest
+  concern of the kind is the City and Suburban Houses Company in New
+  York, formed in 1896 under the guidance of Dr E. R. L. Gould; it has
+  built four groups of tenements housing 1238 families in the city and
+  112 houses on a suburban estate at Brooklyn; in all it has housed some
+  6000 persons. More recently Mr Henry Phipps has given £200,000 for the
+  provision of model dwellings in New York, and a building has been
+  erected on the plan of the Maison des Enfants in Paris. In Chicago the
+  City Houses Association works at housing reforms in various ways.
+  There are some other institutions of a like kind, but the aggregate
+  results are inconsiderable. Two other building agencies have done far
+  more in the United States than philanthropic societies; these are the
+  building and loan associations and private employers. The former are
+  co-operative provident societies; they are widely diffused throughout
+  the United States and their operations are on a very large scale. They
+  date from 1831, when the Oxford Provident Building Association was
+  formed at Frankfort, near Philadelphia. Pennsylvania has still the
+  largest number of associations, but from 1843 onwards the movement
+  spread rapidly and continuously in other states. The high-water mark
+  appears to have been reached in 1897, when the total assets of the
+  associations amounted to about £133,000,000. In 1905 there were 5326
+  associations with an aggregate membership of 1,686,611 and assets of
+  about £130,000,000. The states of Pennsylvania and Ohio head the list,
+  but the movement is very strong in many others. It accounts for the
+  comparatively large number of houses owned by working-class families
+  in the United States. With regard to housing by employers, no
+  comprehensive information is available, but the total amount is
+  certainly considerable though probably not so large as in Germany or
+  in France. Some of the better-known instances are the Pelzer
+  Manufacturing Company at Pelzer in South Carolina, which has built
+  about 1000 dwellings; the Maryland Steel Company at Sparrows Point,
+  Maryland, 800 dwellings; Ludlow Manufacturing Associates at Ludlow,
+  Mass., 500 dwellings; Whitin Machine Works at Whitinsville, Mass., 600
+  dwellings; Westinghouse Air Brake Co. at Wilmerding, Penn., 360
+  dwellings; Draper Co., Hopedale, Mass., 250 dwellings. These are all
+  more or less "model" settlements, not in cities, but in outlying or
+  country places, where works have been established, and that is
+  generally true of housing by employers in the United States, whereas
+  in Germany much has been provided by them in the large towns. Rents
+  are very much higher in American cities than in European towns of
+  comparable size and character.
+
+  AUTHORITIES.--Board of Trade _Reports_--"Cost of Living of the Working
+  Classes (England)" (1908); "Cost of Living in German Towns" (1908);
+  "Cost of Living in French Towns" (1909). _Proceedings of International
+  Housing Congress_ (London, 1907); _The New Encyclopaedia of Social
+  Reform_; E. R. Dewsnup, _The Housing Problem in England_; T. C.
+  Horsfall, _The Example of Germany_; J. S. Nettlefold, _Practical
+  Housing Reform_; A. Shadwell, _Industrial Efficiency_, ch. xi. on
+  "Housing"; W. Thompson, _The Housing Handbook, Housing up to Date_.
+      (A. Sl.)
+
+
+
+
+HOUSMAN, LAURENCE (1867-   ), English writer and artist, was born on the
+18th of June 1867. Having studied at South Kensington, he first made a
+reputation as a book-illustrator. Some of his best pictorial work may be
+seen in the editions of Meredith's _Jump to Glory Jane_ (1892), the
+_Weird Tales of Jonas Lie_ (1892), Jane Barlow's _Land of Elfintoun_
+(1894), Christina Rossetti's _Goblin Market_ (1893), _Werewolf_ (1896),
+by his sister, Miss Clemence Housman, Shelley's _Sensitive Plant_
+(1898), and his own _Farm in Fairyland_ (1894). His designs were
+engraved on wood by Miss Housman. His volumes of verse include _Green
+Arras_ (1896), _Rue_ (1899), _Spikenard_ (1898) and _Mendicant Rhymes_
+(1906); and the mysticism which characterizes the devotional poems in
+_Spikenard_ recurs in his half-allegorical tales, _All Fellows_ (1896),
+_The Blue Moon_ (1904) and _The Cloak of Friendship_ (1906). His
+nativity play, _Bethlehem_, was presented in the Great Hall of London
+University at South Kensington for a week in December 1902. In 1900 he
+published anonymously _An Englishwoman's Love Letters_, which created a
+temporary sensation; and he followed this essay in popular fiction by
+the novels _A Modem Antaeus_ (1901) and _Sabrina Warham_ (1904). On the
+23rd of December 1904 his fantastic play _Prunella_, written in
+collaboration with Mr Granville Barker, was produced at the Court
+Theatre.
+
+His brother, Alfred Edward Housman (b. 1859), an accomplished scholar,
+professor of Latin at University College, London, is known as a poet by
+his striking lyrical series, _A Shropshire Lad_ (1896).
+
+
+
+
+HOUSSAYE, ARSÈNE (1815-1896), French novelist, poet and man of letters,
+was born at Bruyères (Aisne), near Laon, on the 28th of March 1815. His
+real surname was Housset. In 1832 he found his way to Paris, and in 1836
+he published two novels, _La Couronne de bluets_ and _La Pécheresse_. He
+had many friends in Paris, among them Jules Janin and Théophile Gautier,
+and he wrote in collaboration with Jules Sandeau. He produced art
+criticism in _L'Histoire de la peinture flamande et hollandaise_ (1846);
+semi-historical sketches In _Mlle de la Vallière et Mme de Montespan_
+(1860) and _Galerie de portraits du XVII^e siècle_ (1844); literary
+criticism in _Le Roi Voltaire_ (1858) and his famous satirical _Histoire
+du quarante et unième fauteuil de l'académie française_ (1855); drama in
+his _Comédiennes_ (1857); poetry in his _Symphonie des vingt ans_
+(1867), _Cent et un sonnets_ (1873), &c.; and novels, _Les Filles
+d'Ève_ (1852) and many others. In 1849, through the influence of Rachel,
+he was entrusted with the administration of the Théâtre Français, a
+position he filled with unfailing tact and success until 1859, when he
+was made inspector-general of works of art. He died on the 26th of
+February 1896.
+
+  His _Confessions, souvenir; d'un démi-siècle_ appeared in 1885-1891.
+  See also J. Lemaître, _Arsène Houssaye_ (1897), with a bibliography.
+
+His son, HENRY HOUSSAYE (1848-   ), the historian, was born in Paris. His
+early writings were devoted to classical antiquity, studied not only in
+books but on the actual Greek sites which he visited in 1868. He
+published successively _Histoire d'Apelles_ (1867), a study on Greek
+art; _L'Armée dans la Grèce antique_ (1867); _Histoire d'Alcibiade et de
+la république athénienne depuis la mort de Périclès jusqu'à l'avènement
+des trente tyrans_ (1873); Papers on _Le Nombre des citoyens d'Athènes
+au V^ème siècle avant l'ère chrétienne_ (1882); _La Loi agraire à
+Sparte_ (1884); _Le Premier Siège de Paris en 52 av. J.-C._ (1876); and
+two volumes of miscellanies, _Athènes, Rome, Paris, l'histoire et les
+moeurs_ (1879), and _Aspasie, Cléopatre, Théodora_ (6th ed. 1889). The
+military history of Napoleon I. then attracted him. His first volume on
+this subject, called _1814_ (1888), went through no fewer than forty-six
+editions. It was followed by _1815_, the first part of which comprises
+the first Restoration, the return from Elba and the Hundred Days (1893);
+the second part, Waterloo (1899); and the third part, the second
+abdication and the White Terror (1905). He was elected a member of the
+French Academy in 1895.
+
+
+
+
+HOUSTON, SAM, or SAMUEL (1793-1863), American general and statesman, of
+Scotch-Irish descent, was born near Lexington, Virginia, on the 2nd of
+March 1793. His father, who had fought in the War of Independence, died
+in 1806, and soon afterward Samuel removed with his mother to the
+frontier in Blount county, Tennessee. When he was about fifteen his
+elder brothers obtained for him a place as clerk in a trader's store,
+but he ran away and lived with the Cherokee Indians of East Tennessee
+for nearly three years. On his return he opened a country school, and
+later attended a session or two of the Academy at Maryville. During the
+War of 1812 he served under Andrew Jackson against the Creek Indians,
+and his bravery at the battle of Tohopeka, in which he was disabled by
+several wounds, won promotion to a lieutenancy. In 1817 he was appointed
+sub-agent in managing the business relating to the removal of the
+Cherokees from East Tennessee to a reservation in what is now Arkansas,
+but he was offended at a rebuke from John C. Calhoun, then secretary of
+war, for appearing before him in Indian garments, as well as at an
+inquiry into charges affecting his official integrity, and he resigned
+in 1818. He entered a law office in Nashville, and was admitted to the
+bar, and was soon elected a district attorney. From 1823 to 1827 Houston
+represented the ninth district of Tennessee in Congress, and in 1827 was
+elected governor of the state by the Jackson Democrats. He married Eliza
+Allen in January 1829; his wife left him three months later, and he
+resigned his office of governor, again took up his residence among the
+Cherokees, who were at this time about to remove to Indian Territory,
+and was formally adopted a member of their nation.
+
+In 1830 and again in 1832 he visited Washington to expose the frauds
+practised upon the Cherokees by government agents, and attracted
+national attention by an encounter on the 13th of April 1832 with
+William Stanberry, a Congressman from Ohio, who intimated that Houston
+himself was seeking to defraud them. Commissioned by President Jackson,
+Houston went to Texas in December 1832 to negotiate treaties with the
+Indian tribes there for the protection of American traders on the
+border. He decided to remain in Texas, and was elected a delegate to the
+constitutional convention which met at San Felipe on the 1st of April
+1833 to draw up a memorial to the Mexican Congress asking for the
+separation of Texas from Coahuila, in which the anti-American party was
+in control, as well as to frame a constitution for the commonwealth as a
+new member of the Mexican Republic, and he served as chairman of the
+drafting committee, and took a prominent part in the preparations for
+war when next year the petition was refused. In October 1835, soon after
+the outbreak of the War for Texan Independence, the committees of the
+township of Nacogdoches chose Houston as commander-in-chief of the
+forces in eastern Texas, and after the San Felipe convention in November
+he was chosen commander-in-chief of the Texan army. On the 21st of April
+1836, while in command of 743 raw troops, he met on the bank of the San
+Jacinto about 1600 Mexican veterans led by Santa Anna and completely
+routed them; on the next day Santa Anna was taken prisoner.
+
+Texan independence was won by this victory (although the Mexican
+government repudiated the treaty negotiated by Santa Anna), and Houston
+was elected president of Texas (1st of September) and was inaugurated on
+the 22nd of October. His term expired in December 1838; he was elected
+again in 1841 and served until 1844. During his first term a newly
+founded city was named in his honour and this was the seat of government
+in 1837-39 and in 1842-45. Texas having been admitted as a state of the
+American Union in 1845, Houston was elected one of its first two United
+States senators. He served as a stalwart Union Democrat from March 1846
+until 1859; he opposed the Kansas-Nebraska bill in an able speech (3rd
+March 1854), and spoke frequently in defence of the rights of the
+Indians. In 1859 he was elected governor of Texas and tried to prevent
+the secession of his state; upon his refusal, in March 1861, to swear
+allegiance to the Confederacy he was declared deposed. He died at
+Huntsville, Texas, on the 26th of July 1863. Houston was an able
+soldier, wary, intrepid and resolute; and was a legislator of rare
+foresight, cool discrimination and fearless candour.
+
+  See A. M. Williams, _Sam Houston and the War of Independence in Texas_
+  (Boston, 1893); Henry Bruce, _Life of General Houston_ (New York,
+  1891); and W. C. Crane, _Life and Select Literary Remains of Sam
+  Houston_ (Philadelphia, 1884).
+
+
+
+
+HOUSTON, a city and the county-seat of Harris county, Texas, U.S.A., at
+the head of deep-sea navigation on Buffalo Bayou, a tributary of
+Galveston Bay, 50 m. N.W. of Galveston, and about 325 m. W. of New
+Orleans. Pop. (1880) 16,513; (1890) 27,557; (1900) 44,633, of whom 4415
+were foreign-born and 14,608 were negroes; (1910 census) 78,800. The
+land area in 1906 was 16.02 sq. m.; in 1908, about 20 sq. m. It is
+served by the Galveston, Harrisburg & San Antonio (Southern Pacific),
+the Galveston, Houston & Henderson, the Gulf, Colorado & Santa Fe, the
+Houston & Texas Central (Southern Pacific), the Houston, East & West
+Texas, the International & Great Northern, the Missouri, Kansas & Texas,
+the San Antonio & Aransas Pass, the Trinity & Brazos Valley, the St
+Louis, Brownsville & Mexico, the Texas & New Orleans, and the Houston
+Belt & Terminal railways, several of which have their headquarters at
+Houston. The Federal government has greatly improved the natural channel
+from the city to the Gulf of Mexico, straightening, widening and
+deepening it to a depth of 25 ft. for the entire distance from the
+Galveston jetties to the Houston turning basin--where the municipality
+has constructed free municipal wharves. The city occupies an unusually
+fine site on both sides of the Buffalo Bayou. Among the principal
+buildings are a Carnegie library, the Houston Lyceum, the Federal
+building, the Masonic temple, the city high school, the city hall and
+market house, the Harris County Court House, the Cotton Exchange, and
+the First and Commercial National banks. Houston is the seat of the
+Texas Dental College, of St Thomas College (1903), and of the Houston,
+Annunciation and St Agnes academies; and the will (1901) of William
+Marsh Rice provided an endowment (valued in 1908 at about $7,000,000)
+for the William M. Rice Institute for the Advancement of Literature,
+Science and Art, of which Dr Edgar Odell Lovett, formerly professor of
+mathematics (1900-1905) and of astronomy (1905-1908) in Princeton
+University, was made president in 1908. The city is the most important
+railway and shipping centre of South Texas, and has a large trade in
+cotton (the receipts for the year ending Aug. 31, 1907 being 2,967,535
+bales), cotton-seed oil, sugar, rice,[1] lumber and citrus fruits.
+Houston is important also as a manufacturing centre, its factory product
+being valued at $13,564,019 in 1905, an increase of 81% over the factory
+product in 1900. There are extensive railway car-shops, cotton-seed oil,
+petroleum and sugar refineries, cotton gins and compresses, steel
+rolling mills, car-wheel factories, boiler, pump and engine works, flour
+mills, rice mills and a rice elevator, breweries, planing and saw-mills,
+pencil factories, and brick and tile factories. Its proximity to the
+Texas oil fields gives the city a cheap factory fuel. The assessed
+valuation of taxable property in the city increased from $27,480,898 in
+1900 to $51,513,615 in 1908. The No-Tsu Oh Carnival week each November
+is a distinctive feature of the city. Houston, like Galveston, adopted
+in 1905 a very successful system of municipal government by commission,
+a commission of five (one of whom acts as mayor) being elected
+biennially and having both executive and legislative powers. The
+waterworks are owned and operated by the municipality, which greatly
+improved them from the city's surplus under the first two years of
+government by commission. In 1908 extensive improvements in paving,
+drainage and sewerage were undertaken by the city. The payment of an
+annual poll-tax of $2.50 is a prerequisite to voting. Houston was
+settled and laid out in 1836, and was named in honour of General Sam
+Houston, whose home in Caroline Street was standing in 1908. In
+1837-1839 and in 1842-1845 Houston was the capital of the Republic of
+Texas. About 15 m. E.S.E. of the city is the battleground of San
+Jacinto, which was bought by the state in 1906 for a public memorial
+park.
+
+
+FOOTNOTE:
+
+  [1] Much rice is cultivated in the vicinity of Houston by Japanese
+    farmers.
+
+
+
+
+HOUWALD, CHRISTOPH ERNST, FREIHERR VON (1778-1845), German dramatist and
+author, was born at Straupitz in Lower Lusatia, a son of the president
+of the district court of justice, on the 28th of November 1778. He
+studied law at the university of Halle, and on completion of his
+academic studies returned home, married, and managed the family estates.
+In 1816 he afforded a home to his friend K. W. S. Contessa (1777-1825),
+himself a poet, who had met with serious reverses of fortune; Contessa
+lived with Houwald, assisting and stimulating him in his literary work,
+for eight years. In 1821 Houwald was unanimously elected syndic for
+Lower Lusatia, an office which placed him at the head of the
+administration of the province. He died at Neuhaus, near Lübben, on the
+28th of January 1845.
+
+  Houwald is remembered as the author of several so-called "Fate
+  tragedies" (see GERMAN LITERATURE), of which the best known are _Das
+  Bild_, _Der Leuchtturm_, _Die Heimkehr_, _Fluch und Segen_ (all
+  published in 1821). They have, however, small literary value, and
+  Houwald is seen to better advantage in his narratives and books for
+  juvenile readers, such as _Romantische Akkorde_ (publ. by W. Contessa,
+  Berlin, 1817); _Buch für Kinder gebildeter Stände_ (1819-1824); and
+  _Jakob Thau, der Hofnarr_ (1821). Houwald's collected works,
+  _Sämtliche Werke_, were published in five volumes (Leipzig, 1851; 2nd
+  ed., 1858-1859). See J. Minor, _Die Schicksalstragödie in ihren
+  Hauptvertretern_ (Frankfurt, 1883), and _Das Schicksalsdrama_ in
+  Kürschner's _Deutsche Nationalliteratur_; vol. cli. (Stuttgart, 1884);
+  O. Schmidtborn, _C. E. von Houwald als Dramatiker_ (1909).
+
+
+
+
+HÒVA, the name originally applied to the middle-class Malayo-Indonesian
+natives of Madagascar (q.v.), as distinct from the noble class
+_Andrìana_ and the slave class _Andèvo_. Hòva has now come to mean the
+most numerous and powerful of the tribes which form the native
+population of Madagascar. The Hòva, who occupy the province of Imérina,
+the central plateau of the island, are of Malayo-Indonesian origin. The
+period at which the Hòva arrived in Madagascar is still a subject of
+dispute. Some think that the immigration took place in very early times,
+before Hinduism reached the Malay Archipelago, since no trace of
+Sanskrit is found in Malagasy. Others believe that the Hòva did not
+reach the island until the 12th or 13th century. At the French conquest
+of Madagascar (1895), the Hòva were the most powerful and, politically,
+the dominant people; but were far from having subjected the whole of the
+island to their rule. The Hòva are short and slim, with a complexion of
+a yellowish olive, many being fairer than the average of southern
+Europeans. Their hair is long, black and smooth but coarse. Their heads
+are round, with flat straight foreheads, flat faces, prominent
+cheekbones, small straight noses, fairly wide nostrils, and small black
+and slightly oblique eyes. The physical contrast to the negro is usually
+very obvious, but, especially among the lower classes, there is a
+tendency to thick lips, kinky hair and dark skin. In many of their
+customs, such as taboo, infanticide, marriage and funeral rites, they
+show their Indonesian origin. Most of them now profess Christianity.
+
+
+
+
+HOVE, a municipal borough of Sussex, England, adjoining the
+watering-place of Brighton on the west, on the London, Brighton, & South
+Coast railway. Pop. (1901) 36,535. The great seawall of Brighton
+continues along the front at Hove, forming a pleasant promenade. Here is
+the Sussex county cricket ground. The municipal borough, incorporated in
+1898, includes the parishes of Hove and Aldrington, of which the first
+is within the parliamentary borough of Brighton, but the second is in
+the Lewes division of the county. The corporation consists of a mayor,
+10 aldermen and 30 councillors. Area, 1521 acres.
+
+
+
+
+HOVENDEN, THOMAS (1840-1895), American artist, was born in Dunmanway,
+Co. Cork, Ireland, on the 28th of December 1840. He was a pupil of the
+South Kensington Art Schools and those of the National Academy of
+Design, New York, whither he had removed in 1863. Subsequently he went
+to Paris and studied in the École des Beaux Arts under Cabanel, but
+passed most of his time with the American colony in Brittany, at
+Pont-Aven, where he painted many pictures of the peasantry. Returning to
+America in 1880, he became an academician in 1882, and attracted
+attention by an important canvas of "The Last Moments of John Brown"
+(now in the Metropolitan Museum of Art). His "Breaking Home Ties," a
+picture of American farm life, was engraved with considerable popular
+success. Hovenden was mortally injured in a heroic effort to save a
+child from a railroad train in the station at Germantown, near
+Philadelphia, and died at Norristown, Pennsylvania, on the 14th of
+August 1895. Among his principal works are:--"News from the Conscript"
+(1877), "Loyalist Peasant Soldier of La Vendée" (1879). "A Breton
+Interior," "Image Seller" and "Jerusalem the Golden" (in the
+Metropolitan Museum of Art).
+
+
+
+
+HOW, WILLIAM WALSHAM (1823-1897), English divine, son of a Shrewsbury
+solicitor, was born on the 13th of December 1823, and was educated at
+Shrewsbury school and Wadham College, Oxford. He was ordained in 1846,
+and for upwards of thirty years was actively engaged in parish work at
+Whittington in Shropshire and Oswestry (rural dean, 1860). He refused
+preferment on several occasions, but his energy and success made him
+well known, and in 1879 he became a suffragan bishop in London, under
+the title of bishop of Bedford, his province being the East End. There
+he became the inspiring influence of a revival of church work. He
+founded the East London Church Fund, and enlisted a large band of
+enthusiastic helpers, his popularity among all classes being immense. He
+was particularly fond of children, and was commonly called "the
+children's bishop." In 1888 he was made bishop of Wakefield, and in the
+north of England he continued to do valuable work. His sermons were
+straightforward, earnest and attractive; and besides publishing several
+volumes of these, he wrote a good deal of verse, including such
+well-known hymns as "Who is this so weak and helpless," "Lord, Thy
+children guide and keep." In 1863-1868 he brought out a _Commentary on
+the Four Gospels_; and he also wrote a _Manual for the Holy Communion_.
+In the movement for infusing new spiritual life into the church
+services, especially among the poor, How was a great force. He died on
+the 10th of August 1897. He was much helped in his earlier work by his
+wife. Frances A. Douglas (d. 1887).
+
+  See his _Life_ by his son, F. D. How (1898).
+
+
+
+
+HOWARD (FAMILY). Among English families, the house of Howard has long
+held the first place. Its head, the duke of Norfolk, is the first of the
+dukes and the hereditary earl marshal of England, while the earls of
+Suffolk, Carlisle and Effingham and the Lord Howard of Glossop represent
+in the peerage its younger lines.
+
+Its founder was a Norfolk lawyer, William Howard or Haward, who was
+summoned to parliament as a justice in 1295, being appointed a justice
+of the common pleas in 1297. Over the parentage of this man genealogists
+have disputed for centuries. The pedigree-makers have hailed him in turn
+as the descendant of a Norman "Auber, earl of Passy" and as the heir of
+Hereward, "the last of the English." But out of the copies of Norfolk
+deeds and records collected for Thomas, earl of Arundel, in the early
+part of the 17th century, it seems clear enough that he sprang from a
+Norfolk family, several of whose members held lands at Wiggenhall near
+Lynn. These notes from deeds, evidently collected by an honest inquirer,
+make no extravagant claims of ancient ancestry or illustrious origin for
+the Howards, although the facts contained in them were recklessly
+manipulated by subservient genealogists. Doubtless the judge was the son
+of John Howard of Wiggenhall, living about 1260, whose widow Lucy,
+called by the genealogists the daughter of John Germund, was probably
+the wife of John Germund by her second marriage. William Howard was
+employed as counsel by the corporation of Lynn, and it is worthy of note
+that the "crosslets fitchy" in his shield of arms suggest the cross with
+which the dragon was discomfited by St Margaret, the patroness of Lynn.
+Prospering by the law, William Howard of Wiggenhall rose to knight's
+rank and acquired by purchase Grancourt's manor in East Winch, near
+Lynn, where he had his seat in a moated house whose ruins remain. He was
+probably dead and buried in his chapel at East Winch before November 27,
+1308, the date of the patent by which Henry Scrope succeeded him as a
+commissioner of trailbaston. His two wives, Alice Ufford and Alice
+Fitton--heir of Fitton's manor in Wiggenhall--were both daughters of
+knightly houses. Before his death his eldest son, John Howard, was a
+knight and already advanced by his marriage with Joan of Cornwall, one
+of the bastard line founded by Richard of Cornwall, king of the Romans.
+
+Sir John Howard served in Edward II.'s wars in Scotland and Gascony, was
+sheriff of Norfolk and Suffolk and governor of Norwich Castle. When he
+died in 1331 he was seised of many Norfolk manors. His son and heir,
+another Sir John, admiral of the king's navy in the north, was a
+banneret who displayed his banner in the army that laid siege to Calais.
+By the admiral's wife Alice, sister and heir of Sir Robert de Boys, the
+Howards had the Boys manor of Fersfield, near Diss, which is still among
+the possessions of the dukes of Norfolk. His son Sir Robert Howard, who
+had married a daughter of Sir Robert Scales (Lord Scales), died in 1388.
+From Sir John Howard, the only son of Sir Robert, two branches of the
+house of Howard spring. The elder line was soon extinct. By his first
+wife, Margaret, daughter and heir of Sir John Plays, Sir John Howard had
+a son who died before him, leaving a daughter through whom descended to
+her issue, the Veres, earls of Oxford, the ancient Norfolk estates of
+the Howards at East Winch and elsewhere, with the lands of the houses of
+Scales, Plays and Walton, brought in by the brides of her forefathers.
+After the death of Margaret Plays, her widower found, with the peculiar
+instinct of his race, a second well-endowed wife. By her, the heir of
+the Tendrings of Tendring, he had a second son, Sir Robert Howard, a
+knight who fought under Henry V. in France, and died, like his
+half-brother, before the old knight's career ended in 1436.
+
+It is to the marriage of this young knight that the house of Howard owes
+the tragedy of its greatness. He was a younger son, although he had some
+of his mother's inheritance. Had he married the landless daughter of a
+neighbour he might have been the ancestor of a line of Essex squires,
+whose careers would have had the parish topographer for chronicler. But
+his bride was Margaret Mowbray, daughter of the banished duke of
+Norfolk. Although this was a noble alliance, it is probable that the
+lady had no great portion. The head of her elder brother, the boy earl
+marshal, had been stricken off in the cornfield under the walls of York,
+but her younger brother's right to his father's dukedom was allowed by
+parliament in 1425.
+
+Sir John Howard, only son of the match between Howard and Mowbray, took
+service with his cousin the third duke of Norfolk, who had him returned
+as knight of the shire for Norfolk, where, according to the _Paston
+Letters_, this Howard of the Essex branch was regarded by the gentry as
+a strange man. He followed the White Rose and was knighted at the
+crowning of King Edward IV., who pricked him for sheriff of Norfolk and
+Suffolk. In the duke's quarrel he brawled with the Pastons, his wife
+boasting that, should her husband's men meet with John Paston "there
+should go no penny for his life." "And Howard," writes Clement Paston,
+"hath with the king a great fellowship." Offices and lands came to John
+Howard by reason of that fellowship. Henry VI., when restored, summoned
+him to parliament in 1470 as Lord Howard, a summons which may have been
+meant to lure him to London into Warwick's power, but he proclaimed the
+Yorkist sovereign on his return and fought at Barnet and Tewkesbury.
+When peace was made, Edward summoned him again as a baron and gave him
+the Garter and the treasurership of his household. After Edward's
+burial, at which he bore the king's banner, Howard, an enemy of the
+Wydviles, linked his fortunes with those of the duke of Gloucester. At
+this time came his sudden lifting to the highest rank in the peerage.
+The last of the dukes of Norfolk had left a child heir, Anne Mowbray,
+married to the infant duke of York, the younger of the princes doomed by
+Richard in the Tower. By the death of this little girl, John Howard
+became one of the coheirs of her illustrious house, which was now
+represented by the issue of Margaret Mowbray, his mother, and of her
+sister Isabel, who had married James, Lord Berkeley. A lion's share of
+the Mowbray estates, swollen by the great alliances of the house, heir
+of Breouse and Segrave, and, through Segrave, of Thomas of Brotherton,
+son of Edward I., fell to Howard, who, by a patent of June 28, 1483, was
+created duke of Norfolk and earl marshal of England with a remainder to
+the heirs male of his body. On the same day the lord Berkeley, the other
+coheir, was made earl of Nottingham. High steward at Richard's crowning,
+the duke bore the crown and rode as marshal into Westminster Hall. For
+the rest of his life he was Richard's man, and though warned by the
+famous couplet that "Dykon his master" was bought and sold, "Jack of
+Norfolk" led the archer vanguard at Bosworth and died in the fight, from
+which his son the earl of Surrey was carried away a wounded prisoner. An
+attainder by the first parliament of Henry VII. extinguished the honours
+of the father with those of the son, who had been created an earl when
+the lord Howard was raised to the dukedom. Their estates were forfeit.
+
+Thomas Howard, a politic mind, loyal to the powers that be, was released
+from the Tower of London in 1489, his earldom of Surrey and his Garter
+restored. Accepting the position in which the Tudor king would have his
+great nobles, he became the faithful soldier, diplomatist and official
+of the new power. In his seventieth year, as lieutenant-general of the
+North, he led the English host on the great day of Flodden, earning a
+patent of the dukedom of Norfolk, dated 1 February 1513/4, and that
+strange patent which granted to him and his heirs that they should bear
+in the midst of the silver bend of their Howard shield a demi-lion
+stricken in the mouth with an arrow, in the right colours of the arms of
+the king of Scotland. This augmentation has been interpreted as a golden
+scocheon with the demi-lion within the Scottish tressure. Thus charged
+on the silver bend, it makes bad armory and it is worthy of note that,
+although the grant of it is clearly to the duke and his heirs in fee
+simple, Howards of all branches descending from the duke bear it in
+their shields, even though all right to it has long passed from the
+house to the duke's heirs general, the Stourtons and Petres.
+
+The victor of Flodden is the common ancestor of all living Howards that
+can show a descent from the main stock. The second duke, twice married,
+was father of at least eleven sons and six daughters, the sons including
+Edward the lord high admiral, killed in boarding Prégent's galleys at
+Brest, Edmund the knight marshal of the army at Flodden, and William the
+first Lord Howard of Effingham. The eldest son, Thomas, succeeded as the
+third duke of his name, although the second under the patent of 1514. He
+had fought as captain of the vanguard at Flodden and after the victory
+was created earl of Surrey. When Richard III. was allying himself with
+the Howards, Thomas Howard, a boy of eleven, had been betrothed to Anne,
+daughter of the late King Edward IV., and Henry VII. allowed the
+marriage with his queen's sister to take place in 1495. This royal bride
+died of consumption, leaving no living child, and her husband took in
+1513, as his second wife, Elizabeth Stafford, daughter of that duke of
+Buckingham upon whom the old duke of Norfolk, the tears upon his cheeks,
+was forced to pass sentence of death. Succeeding his father in 1524,
+Norfolk was created earl marshal in 1533. An unsuccessful diplomatist,
+his chief services in arms were the butchery in the north after the
+Pilgrimage of Grace and the raid into Scotland which ended with the rout
+of Solway Moss. He left his wife for a mistress, Elizabeth Holland, was
+in discord with his family, and lived to see his two nieces, Anne Boleyn
+and Catherine Howard, and his son Surrey, the fiery-tempered poet, go in
+turn to the block. He himself was attainted and was lying a prisoner in
+the Tower, doomed to die in the morning, on the night of the death of
+Henry VIII. He was not released until the accession of Mary, parliament
+restoring his dukedom on his petition for reversal of the attainder. His
+grandson Thomas succeeded him in 1554, and in 1556 made the second of
+those marriages which have given the Howards their high place among the
+English nobility. The bride was Mary, sole heir in her issue of her
+father Henry, the last of the Fitzalan earls of Arundel. Her father's
+line and the royal Stewards of Scotland sprang from one forefather,
+Alan, son of Flaald the Breton. The Mowbray match had already brought to
+the Howards the representation of an elder line of the Fitzalan earls,
+who sat in the seats of their ancestors, the Aubignys and Warennes,
+great earls near akin to their sovereigns. And now the younger line,
+earls of Arundel and Lords Mautravers, were also to have a Howard to
+represent them. From this time the spreading genealogy of the Howards
+drew its origins from most of the illustrious names of the houses
+founded after the Norman Conquest.
+
+The young duchess died in her seventeenth year after giving birth to a
+son, and the duke took a second wife from a humble stock, newly enriched
+and honoured, the daughter of Henry VIII.'s subservient chancellor, the
+Lord Audley of Walden. Within ten years he married a third time, the
+lady being Elizabeth Leybourne, the widow of Lord Dacre of Gilsland. She
+survived her marriage but a few months and her husband then obtained the
+wardship of her Dacre offspring, a son who died young, and three
+daughters whom the duke, with the true Howard eye for a rich
+inheritance, gave as brides to three of his sons. After three such good
+fortunes by marriage Norfolk in his folly looked for a crown with a
+fourth match, listening to the laird of Lethington when he set forth the
+scheme by which the duke was to marry a restored queen of Scots and rule
+Scotland with her who should be recognized as Elizabeth's successor. Ten
+months in the Tower under strong suspicion would have warned another
+man, but Norfolk was unstable and false. After promising fidelity and
+the abandonment of the Scots marriage scheme, Cecil took him
+corresponding with Mary and tampering with the Ridolfi plot. He died on
+Tower Hill in 1572 for an example to the disloyal counties, protesting
+innocence and repentance, warning his children in a last letter to
+discredit all "false bruits" that he was a papist.
+
+By his attainder the Norfolk titles were once more forfeited. But Philip
+Howard, the son and heir, succeeded to the ancient earldom of Arundel in
+1580, on the death of his maternal grandfather, while the Lord Lumley,
+his uncle by marriage, surrendered to him his life interest in the
+castle and honour of Arundel. The next year an act of parliament
+restored the earl in blood. After a profligate youth at court, he
+followed his wife in professing the Roman faith, and in 1585 made an
+attempt to leave England to seek safety from the penal laws. But his
+ship was boarded in the Channel and the earl, condemned by the
+Star-Chamber to a heavy fine and to imprisonment during the queen's
+pleasure, suffered a harsh captivity in the Tower. After the defeat of
+the Armada he had been condemned to death on a charge of high treason,
+founded on the tale drawn by torture from a priest, that Arundel had
+urged him to say a mass for the success of the Spaniards. But he was
+allowed to linger in his prison until 1595 when he died, the sight of
+his wife and children being cruelly refused to the dying man. Thus it
+befell that, of the chiefs of the Howards born since the great Mowbray
+alliance, two had died by the axe and one in the prison from which a
+fourth had hardly escaped. A fifth had fallen in a lost battle, and only
+one had died in peace in his own house.
+
+The ill fate of the Howards seemed to be appeased by the death of
+Philip, earl of Arundel. Tudor policy did its work well, and noblemen,
+however illustrious their pedigrees, could no longer be counted as
+menaces by the Crown, which was, indeed, finding another rival to its
+power. In the first year of James I., Thomas, the young son of Earl
+Philip, was restored in blood and given the titles of Arundel and
+Surrey. But the lands belonging to these titles remained with the Crown
+and he had to repair his fortunes by one of those marriages which never
+failed his house, his wife being Alathea Talbot, who was at last the
+heir of Gilbert, earl of Shrewsbury. To the grief of his mother he left
+the Roman church. A knight of the Garter, he was in 1621 created earl
+marshal for life, and revived the jurisdiction belonging to the office.
+An act of 1627, one of several such aimed at aggrandizing families by
+diverting the descent of dignities in fee from heirs general, entailed
+the earldom and castle of Arundel upon Thomas, earl of Arundel and
+Surrey and the heirs male of his body "and for default of such issue, to
+the heirs of his body." His pride and austerity made him unpopular at
+court and he left the country in 1642, settling at last in Padua, where
+he died in 1646, impoverished by the sequestrations of the parliament,
+whose forces had taken and retaken his castle of Arundel. In answer to
+his petition for the dukedom, the king had, on the 6th of June 1644,
+given him a patent of the earldom of Norfolk, in order, as it would
+seem, to flatter him by suggesting that the title of Norfolk would at
+least be refused to any other family. He is celebrated as a collector of
+paintings, books, gems and sculptures, his "Arundel marbles" being given
+by his grandson in 1667 to the University of Oxford. The dukedom for
+which Arundel had petitioned Charles I. in vain was restored by act of
+the first parliament of Charles II. to his grandson Thomas, a lunatic
+living at Padua, on whose death in 1677 it passed to this Thomas's
+brother, Henry Frederick, who had been created earl of Norwich and
+hereditary earl marshal of England in 1672. In 1777 Edward, the ninth of
+the Howard dukes, died childless in his ninety-second year. With him
+ended the earldom of Norwich, while the representation of the Mowbrays
+and Segraves passed to his nieces, the Ladies Stourton and Petre, the
+abeyance of the two baronies being determined in 1878 in favour of Lord
+Stourton. Under the act of 1627 the earldom of Arundel and the castle
+passed with the dukedom to a second cousin, Charles Howard of Greystock
+(d. 1786), an eccentric recluse. At his death in 1786 he was succeeded
+by his son Charles, the notorious "Jockey of Norfolk," the big, coarse,
+generous, slovenly, hard-drinking Whig of whom all the memoir-writers of
+his age have their anecdotes. He conformed to the Church of England and
+spent a vast sum in restoring Arundel Castle. A third cousin succeeded
+him in 1815, Bernard Edward Howard, who, although a Roman Catholic, was
+enabled, by the act of 1824, to act as earl marshal. This was the
+grandfather of the fifteenth duke, earl of Arundel, Surrey and Norfolk,
+and hereditary earl marshal of England.
+
+  The eldest of the cadet branches of the ducal house has its origin in
+  William (c. 1510-1573), eldest son of the victor of Flodden by his
+  second marriage. He survived the reign of Henry VIII., that perilous
+  age for the Howards, with no worse misadventure than the conviction of
+  himself and his wife of misprision of treason in concealing the
+  offences of his niece, Queen Catherine. But both were pardoned. In
+  1553 he had the office of lord admiral of England, and in the next
+  year the Garter. For his services against Sir Thomas Wyat he was
+  created (March 11, 1553/4) Lord Howard of Effingham, the title being
+  taken from a Surrey manor granted him by Edward VI. Queen Elizabeth
+  continued his employment in diplomacy, and had he been richer he might
+  have had an earldom. His eldest son Charles (1536-1624), lord admiral
+  of England in 1585, sailed as commander in chief against the Spanish
+  Armada, and, although giving due weight to the counsel of Drake and
+  his other officers, showed himself a leader as prudent as courageous.
+  He was created earl of Nottingham in 1596 and died in 1624. The legend
+  that the admiral was a Roman Catholic has no authority. Two of his
+  sons succeeded in turn to the earldom of Nottingham, extinct on the
+  death of Charles, the third earl in 1681. Sir William Howard of
+  Lingfield, younger brother of the great admiral, carried on the
+  Effingham line, his great-grandson succeeding to the barony on the
+  extinction of the earldom. Francis, seventh Lord Howard of Effingham,
+  was created earl of Effingham in 1731, a title extinct in 1816 with
+  the fourth earl, but revived again in 1837 for the eleventh baron, who
+  had served as a general officer in the Peninsular campaign, the
+  great-grandfather of the present peer.
+
+  A patent of 1604 created Henry Howard (1540-1614), younger son of
+  Surrey the poet, earl of Northampton, a peerage which ended with the
+  death of this, the most unprincipled of his house.
+
+  Thomas, son of the fourth duke of Norfolk's marriage with the daughter
+  and heir of Thomas, Lord Audley of Walden, founded the line of the
+  present earls of Suffolk and Berkshire and of the extinct Lords Howard
+  of Escrick. His barony of Howard of Walden has descended to his heirs
+  general. Lord William Howard (1563-1640), the "belted Will" of Scott's
+  Lay and the "bauld Willie" of more authentic legend, was another of
+  the sons of the fourth duke and Margaret Audley. Married in 1577 to
+  one of the three co-heirs of the Lord Dacre of Gilsland he suffered
+  under Elizabeth more than one imprisonment with his brother the
+  unfortunate earl of Arundel. But in 1603 he was able, on the partition
+  of the Dacre lands, to make his home at Naworth Castle, where he
+  lived, a border patriarch, cultivating his estates and serving as a
+  commissioner of the borders. His great-grandson Charles Howard,
+  although fledged in a nest of cavaliers, changed sides and fought at
+  Worcester for the parliament. The Protector summoned him in 1657 to
+  his House of Lords, but he was imprisoned in 1659 on suspicion of a
+  share in Booth's insurrection and, after the Restoration, was created,
+  in 1661, earl of Carlisle, Viscount Morpeth and Lord Dacre of
+  Gilsland, titles which are still held by his descendants. From Sir
+  Francis Howard, a cavalier colonel and a younger son of "bauld
+  Willie," come the Howards of Corby Castle in Cumberland, a branch
+  without a hereditary title.
+
+  William Howard, Viscount Stafford, was the fifth son of Thomas, earl
+  of Arundel, and grandson of Philip the prisoner. Marrying the sister
+  and heir of the fifth Lord Stafford, who died in 1637, he and his wife
+  were created Baron and Baroness Stafford by a patent of 1640, with
+  remainder, in default of heirs male, to heirs female. A grant of the
+  precedence enjoyed by the bride's father being held illegal, her
+  husband was in the same year created Viscount Stafford. Roger
+  Stafford, the impoverished heir male of the ancient Staffords, had
+  been forced to surrender his barony to the king by a deed dated in the
+  preceding year, a piece of injustice which is in the teeth of all
+  modern conceptions of peerage law. The Viscount Stafford was one of
+  the "five Popish lords" committed to the Tower in 1678 as a result of
+  the slanders of Titus Oates and he died by the axe in 1680 upon
+  testimony which, as the diarist Evelyn protested, "should not be taken
+  against the life of a dog." But three earls of his own
+  house--Carlisle, Suffolk and Berkshire--and the Lord Howard of
+  Escrick, an ex-trooper of Cromwell's guard and an anabaptist sectary,
+  gave their votes against him, his nephew Mowbray being the only peer
+  of his name in the minority for acquittal. In 1688 his widow was
+  created countess of Stafford for life, and his eldest son, Henry, had
+  the earldom of Stafford, with special remainder to his brothers. This
+  earldom ended in 1762, but the attainder was reversed by an act of
+  1824 and in the following year Sir George Jerningham, the heir
+  general, established his claim to the Stafford barony of 1640.
+
+  AUTHORITIES.--State papers; patent, close and plea rolls. Tierney,
+  _History of Arundel_; G. E. C., _Complete Peerage_; J. H. Round,
+  _Peerage Studies_; Howard of Corby, _Memorials of the Family of
+  Howard_; Brenan and Statham, _House of Howard_; Howard, _Historical
+  Anecdotes of the Howard Family_; Morant, _Essex_; Blomefield,
+  _Norfolk_.     (O. Ba.)
+
+
+
+
+HOWARD, CATHERINE (d. 1542), the fifth queen of Henry VIII., was a
+daughter of Lord Edmund Howard and a granddaughter of Thomas Howard, 2nd
+duke of Norfolk (d. 1524). Her father was very poor, and Catherine lived
+mainly with Agnes, widow of the 2nd duke of Norfolk, meeting the king at
+the house of Stephen Gardiner, bishop of Winchester. Henry was evidently
+charmed by her; the Roman Catholic party, who disliked the marriage with
+Anne of Cleves, encouraged his attentions; and after Anne's divorce he
+was privately married to Catherine at Oatlands in July 1540. Soon
+afterwards she was publicly acknowledged as queen. Before her marriage
+Catherine had had several lovers, among them being a musician, Henry
+Mannock, or Manox; her cousin, Thomas Culpepper; and Francis Dereham, to
+whom she had certainly been betrothed. After becoming queen she
+occasionally met Dereham and Culpepper, and in November 1541 Archbishop
+Cranmer informed Henry that his queen's past life had not been
+stainless. Cranmer had obtained his knowledge indirectly from an old
+servant of the duchess of Norfolk. Dereham confessed to his relations
+with Catherine, and after some denials the queen herself admitted that
+this was true; but denied that she had ever been betrothed to Dereham,
+or that she had misconducted herself since her marriage. Dereham and
+Culpepper were executed in December 1541 and their accomplices were
+punished, but Catherine was released from prison. Some fresh
+information, however, very soon came to light showing that she had been
+unchaste since her marriage; a bill of attainder was passed through
+parliament, and on the 13th of February 1542 the queen was beheaded.
+
+  See A. Strickland, _Lives of the Queens of England_ (vol. iii. 1877).
+
+
+
+
+HOWARD, JOHN (1726-1790), English philanthropist and prison reformer,
+was born at Hackney, probably on the 2nd of September 1726. His
+childhood was passed at Cardington, near Bedford, where his father, a
+retired merchant of independent means, had a small estate. He was
+apprenticed to a firm of grocers in the city of London, but on the death
+of his father in 1742, by which he inherited considerable property, he
+bought up his indenture, and devoted more than a year to foreign travel.
+Never constitutionally strong, he became, on his return to England, a
+confirmed invalid. Having been nursed through an acute illness by an
+attentive landlady, a widow of some fifty-three years of age, Howard, in
+return for her kindness, offered her marriage and they were united in
+1752. Becoming a widower in less than three years, he determined to go
+abroad again, Portugal being his destination. The ship, however, in
+which he sailed was taken by a French privateer, the crew and passengers
+being carried to Brest, where they were treated with great severity.
+Howard was permitted to return to England on parole to negotiate an
+exchange, which he accomplished, as well as successfully representing
+the case of his fellow-captives. He now settled down on his Cardington
+property, interesting himself in meteorological observations. He was
+admitted a member of the Royal Society in 1756. In 1758 he married
+Henrietta, daughter of Edward Leeds, of Croxton, Cambridgeshire. He
+continued to lead a secluded life at Cardington and at Watcombe,
+Hampshire, busying himself in the construction of model cottages and the
+erection of schools. In 1765 his second wife died after giving birth to
+a son. In the following year Howard went for a prolonged foreign tour,
+from which he returned in 1770.
+
+In 1773 the characteristic work of his life may be said to have begun by
+his acceptance of the office of high sheriff of Bedford. When the
+assizes were held he did not content himself with sitting out the trials
+in open court, his inquisitiveness and his benevolence alike impelled
+him to visit the gaol. Howard found it, like all the prisons of the
+time, wretchedly defective in its arrangements; but what chiefly shocked
+him was the circumstance that neither the gaoler nor his subordinates
+were salaried officers, but were dependent for their livelihood on fees
+from the prisoners. He found that some whom the juries had declared not
+guilty, others in whom the grand jury had not found even such appearance
+of guilt as would warrant a trial, others whose prosecutors had failed
+to appear, were frequently detained in prison for months after they had
+ceased to be in the position of accused parties, until they should have
+paid the fees of gaol delivery (see Introduction to _The State of the
+Prisons of England and Wales_). His prompt application to the justices
+of the county for a salary to the gaoler in lieu of his fees was met by
+a demand for a precedent in charging the county with an expense. This he
+undertook to find if such a thing existed. He went accordingly from
+county to county, and though he could find no precedent for charging the
+county with the wages of its servants he did find so many abuses in
+prison management that he determined to devote himself to their reform.
+
+In 1774 he gave evidence before a committee of the House of Commons, and
+received the thanks of the house for "the humanity and zeal which have
+led him to visit the several gaols of this kingdom, and to communicate
+to the House the interesting observations which he has made on that
+subject." Almost immediately an act was passed which provided for the
+liberation, free of all charges, of every prisoner against whom the
+grand jury failed to find a true bill, giving the gaoler a sum from the
+county rate in lieu of the abolished fees. This was followed in June by
+another requiring justices of the peace to see that the walls and
+ceilings of all prisons within their jurisdiction were scraped and
+whitewashed once a year at least; that the rooms were regularly cleaned
+and ventilated; that infirmaries were provided for the sick, and proper
+care taken to get them medical advice; that the naked should be clothed;
+that underground dungeons should be used as little as could be; and
+generally that such courses should be taken as would tend to restore and
+preserve the health of the prisoners. It was highly characteristic of
+the man that, having caused the provisions of the new legislation to be
+printed at his own private cost in large type, he sent a copy to every
+gaoler and warder in the kingdom, that no one should be able to plead
+ignorance of the law if detected in the violation of its provisions. He
+then set out upon a new tour of inspection, from which, however, he was
+brought home by the approach of a general election in September 1774.
+Standing as one of the anti-ministerial candidates for Bedford, he was
+returned by a narrow majority but was unseated after a scrutiny.
+
+After a tour in Scotland and Ireland, he set out in April 1775 upon an
+extended tour through France, the Low Countries and Germany. At Paris he
+was at first denied access to the prisons; but, by recourse to an old
+and almost obsolete law of 1717, according to which any person wishing
+to distribute alms to the prisoners was to be admitted, he succeeded in
+inspecting the Bicêtre, the Force l'Évêque and most of the other places
+of confinement, the only important exception being the Bastille. Even in
+that case he succeeded in obtaining possession of a suppressed pamphlet,
+which he afterwards translated and published in English, to the
+unconcealed chagrin of the French authorities. At Ghent he examined with
+special interest the great Maison de Force, then recently erected, with
+its distinctive features--useful labour, in the profits of which the
+prisoners had a share, and complete separation of the inmates by night.
+At Amsterdam, as in Holland generally, he was much struck with the
+comparative absence of crime, a phenomenon which he attributed to the
+industrial and reformatory treatment there adopted. In Germany he found
+little that was useful and much that was repulsive; in Hanover and
+Osnabrück, under the rule of a British sovereign, he even found traces
+of torture. After a short tour in England (Nov. 1775 to May 1776), he
+again went abroad, extending his tour to several of the Swiss cantons.
+In 1777 appeared _The State of the Prisons in England and Wales, with
+Preliminary Observations, and an Account of some Foreign Prisons_. One
+of the immediate results was the drafting a bill for the establishment
+of penitentiary houses, where by means of solitary imprisonment,
+accompanied by well-regulated labour and religious instruction, the
+object of reforming the criminal and inuring him to habits of industry
+might be pursued. New buildings were manifestly necessary; and Howard
+volunteered to go abroad again and collect plans. He first went to
+Amsterdam (April 1778), and carefully examined the "spin-houses" and
+"rasp-houses"[1] for which that city was famous; next he traversed
+Prussia, Saxony, Bohemia, Austria and Italy, everywhere inspecting
+prisons, hospitals and workhouses, and carefully recording the merits
+and defects of each. The information he thus obtained having been placed
+at the service of parliament, a bill was passed for building two
+penitentiary houses, and Howard was appointed first supervisor, but he
+resigned the post before anything practical had been achieved. In 1780
+he had published a quarto volume as an appendix (the first) to his
+_State of Prisons_; about the same time also he caused to be printed his
+translation of the suppressed French pamphlet on the Bastille; but on
+obtaining release from his employments at home his passion for
+accumulating statistics urged him to new and more extended continental
+tours, as far as to Denmark, Sweden and Russia in 1781, and to Spain and
+Portugal in 1783. The results of these journeys were embodied in 1784 in
+a second appendix, with the publication of which his direct labours in
+connexion with the subject of prison reform may be said to have ceased.
+
+The five remaining years of his life were chiefly devoted to researches
+on the means for prevention of the plague, and for guarding against the
+propagation of contagious distempers in general. After an extended tour
+on the continent his researches seemed to be complete; and with a great
+accumulation of papers and memoranda, he was preparing to return
+homewards from Constantinople by Vienna, when it occurred to his
+scrupulous mind that he still lacked any personal experience of
+quarantine discipline. He returned to Smyrna, and, deliberately choosing
+a foul ship, took a passage to Venice. A protracted voyage of sixty
+days, during which an attack by pirates gave Howard an opportunity of
+manifesting his personal bravery, was followed by a weary term of
+confinement which enabled him to gain the experience he had desired.
+While imprisoned in the Venetian lazaretto he received the information
+that his only son, a youth of twenty-two years of age, had lost his
+reason and had been put under restraint. Returning hastily by Trieste
+and Vienna (where he had a long and singular interview with the emperor
+Joseph II.), he reached England in February 1787. His first care related
+to his domestic concerns; he then set out upon another journey of
+inspection of the prisons of the United Kingdom, at the same time
+busying himself in preparing for the press the results of his recent
+tour. The somewhat rambling work containing them was published in 1798
+at Warrington, under the title _An Account of the Principal Lazarettos
+in Europe: with various Papers relative to the Plague, together with
+further Observations on some Foreign Prisons and Hospitals, and
+additional Remarks on the present State of those in Great Britain and
+Ireland_.
+
+In July 1789 he embarked on what proved to be his last journey.
+Travelling overland to St Petersburg and Moscow, and so southwards, and
+visiting the principal military hospitals that lay on his route, he
+reached Kherson in November. In the hospitals of this place and of the
+immediate neighbourhood he found more than enough to occupy his
+attention while he awaited the means of transit to Constantinople.
+Towards the end of the year his medical advice was asked in the case of
+a young lady who was suffering under the camp fever then prevalent, and
+in attending her he himself took the disease, which terminated fatally
+on the 20th of January 1790. He was buried near the village of Dauphigny
+on the road to St Nicholas. There is a statue by Bacon to his memory in
+St Paul's, London, and one at Bedford by A. Gilbert. In personal
+appearance Howard is described as having been short, thin and
+sallow--unprepossessing apart from the attraction of a penetrating eye
+and a benevolent smile.
+
+  AUTHORITIES.--_Anecdotes of the Life and Character of John Howard,
+  written by a Gentleman_ (1790); Aikin, _View of the Character and
+  Public Services of the late John Howard_. (1792); _Memoirs_ by J.
+  Baldwin Brown (1818); T. Taylor (1836), Hepworth Dixon (1849), J.
+  Field (1850), and J. Stoughton, _Howard the Philanthropist_ (1884).
+
+
+FOOTNOTE:
+
+  [1] The spinhouses were for women prisoners, who were set to spinning
+    or other useful work; in the rasp-houses, the prisoners were employed
+    in rasping wood.
+
+
+
+
+HOWARD, OLIVER OTIS (1830-1909), American soldier, was born in Leeds,
+Maine, on the 8th of November 1830. He graduated at Bowdoin College in
+1850, and at the U.S. Military Academy in 1854. In 1857 he served in
+Florida against the Seminole Indians, and from 1857 to 1861 he was
+assistant professor of mathematics at West Point. At the beginning of
+the Civil War he resigned to become colonel of the 3rd Maine volunteer
+regiment, and at the first battle of Bull Run was in command of a
+brigade. In September he was promoted brigadier-general of volunteers.
+He served in the Peninsular Campaign, and at the battle of Seven Pines
+(Fair Oaks) he was twice wounded, losing his right arm. On his return to
+active service in August 1862 he took part in the Virginian campaigns of
+1862-63; at Antietam he succeeded Sedgwick in command of a division,
+and he became major-general of volunteers in March 1863. In the campaign
+of Chancellorsville (see WILDERNESS) he commanded the XI. corps, which
+was routed by "Stonewall" Jackson, and in the first day's battle at
+Gettysburg he was for some hours (succeeding Doubleday after Reynolds's
+death) in command of the Union troops. The XI. corps was transferred to
+Tennessee after Rosecrans's defeat at Chickamauga, and formed part of
+Hooker's command in the great victory of Chattanooga. When Sherman
+prepared to invade Georgia in the spring of 1864 the XI. corps was
+merged with the XII. into the new XX., commanded by Hooker, and Howard
+was then placed, in command of the new IV. corps, which he led in all
+the actions of the Atlanta campaign, receiving another wound at
+Pickett's Mills. On the death in action of General M'Pherson, Howard, in
+July 1864, was selected to command the Army of the Tennessee. In this
+position he took part in the "March to the Sea" and the Carolinas
+campaign. In March 1865 he was breveted major-general U.S.A. "for
+gallant and meritorious service in the battle of Ezra Church and during
+the campaign against Atlanta," and in 1893 received a Congressional
+medal of honour for bravery at Fair Oaks. After the peace he served as
+commissioner of the Bureau of Refugees, Freedmen and Abandoned Lands
+from 1865 until 1874; in 1872 he was special commissioner to the hostile
+Apaches of New Mexico and Arizona; in 1874-1881 was in command of the
+Department of the Columbia and conducted the campaign against Chief
+Joseph in 1877 and that against the Bannocks and Piutes in 1878. In
+1881-1882 he was superintendent of West Point; and in 1882-1886 he
+commanded the Department of the Platte, in 1886-1888 the Department of
+the Pacific, and in 1888-1894 the Department of the East. In 1886 he was
+promoted major-general and in 1894 he retired. He died at Burlington,
+Vermont, on the 26th of October 1909.
+
+Howard was deeply interested, in the welfare of the negroes; and the
+establishment by the U.S. Government in 1867 of Howard University, at
+Washington, especially for their education, was largely due to him; it
+was named in his honour, and from 1869 to 1873 he presided over it. In
+1895 he founded for the education of the "mountain whites" the Lincoln
+Memorial University at Cumberland Gap, Tenn. (see CUMBERLAND MOUNTAINS),
+and became president of its board. He held honorary degrees of various
+universities, and was a chevalier of the Legion of Honour. He wrote,
+amongst other works, _Donald's Schooldays_ (1877); _Chief Joseph_
+(1881); a life of General Zachary Taylor (1892) in the "Great
+Commanders" series; _Isabella of Castile_ (1894); _Fighting for
+Humanity_ (1898); _Henry in the War_ (1898); papers in the "Battles and
+Leaders" collection on the Atlanta campaign; _My Life and Experience
+among our Hostile Indians_ (1907); and _Autobiography of O. O. Howard_
+(2 vols., New York, 1907).
+
+
+
+
+HOWARD, SIR ROBERT (1626-1698), English dramatist, sixth son of Thomas
+Howard, 1st earl of Berkshire, was born in 1626. He was knighted at the
+second battle of Newbury (1644) for his signal courage on the Royalist
+side. Imprisoned in Windsor Castle under the Commonwealth, his loyalty
+was rewarded at the Restoration, and he eventually became auditor of the
+exchequer. His best play is a comedy, _The Committee, or the Faithful
+Irishman_ (1663; printed 1665), which kept the stage, long after its
+interest as a political satire was exhausted, for the character of
+Teague, said to have been drawn from one of his own servants. He was an
+early patron of Dryden, who married his sister, Lady Elizabeth Howard,
+and in the _Indian Queen_, a tragedy in heroic verse (1664; pr. 1665)
+Howard had assistance from Dryden, although the fact was not made public
+until the production of Dryden's _Indian Emperor_. The magnificence of
+the spectacle, and the novelty of the costume of feathers, presented by
+Mrs. Aphra Behn, that was worn by Zempoalla, the Indian queen, made a
+great sensation. The scenery and accessories were unusually brilliant,
+the richest ever seen in England, according to Evelyn. In 1665 Howard
+published _Foure New Plays_, in the preface to which he opposed the view
+maintained by Dryden in the dedicatory epistle to _The Rival Ladies_,
+that rhyme was better suited to the heroic tragedy than blank verse.
+Howard made an exception in favour of the rhyme of Lord Orrery, but by
+his silence concerning Dryden implicated him in the general censure.
+Dryden answered by placing Howard's sentiments in the mouth of Crites in
+his own _Essay on Dramatic Poesy_ (1668). The controversy did not end
+here, but Dryden completely worsted his adversary in the 1668 edition of
+_The Indian Emperor_. Howard died on the 3rd of September 1698.
+
+His brother, James Howard, wrote two comedies, _All Mistaken, or the Mad
+Couple_, a comedy (1667; pr. 1672), and _The English Mounsieur_ (1666;
+pr. 1674), the success of which seems to have been partly due to the
+acting of Nell Gwynn.
+
+
+
+
+HOWARD, LORD WILLIAM (1563-1640), known as "Belted, or Bauld (bold)
+Will," 3rd son of Thomas Howard, 4th duke of Norfolk (executed in 1572),
+and of his second wife Margaret, daughter of Lord Audley, was born at
+Audley End in Essex on the 19th of December 1563. He married on the 28th
+of October 1577 Elizabeth, daughter of Thomas, Lord Dacre, and proceeded
+subsequently to the University of Cambridge. Being suspected of
+treasonable intentions together with his elder brother, Philip, earl of
+Arundel, he was imprisoned in 1583, 1585 and 1589. He joined the church
+of Rome in 1584, both brothers being dispossessed by the queen of a
+portion of their Dacre estates, which were, however, restored in 1601
+for a payment of £10,000. Howard then took up his residence with his
+children and grandchildren at Naworth Castle in Cumberland, restored the
+castle, improved the estate and established order in that part of the
+country. In 1603, on the accession of James, he had been restored in
+blood. In 1618 he was made one of the commissioners for the border, and
+performed great services in upholding the law and suppressing marauders.
+Lord William was a learned and accomplished scholar, praised by Camden,
+to whom he sent inscriptions and drawings from relics collected by him
+from the Roman wall, as "a singular lover of valuable antiquity and
+learned withal." He collected a valuable library, of which most of the
+printed works remain still at Naworth, though the MSS. have been
+dispersed, a portion being now in the Arundel MSS. in the Royal College
+of Arms; he corresponded with Ussher and was intimate with Camden,
+Spelman, and Cotton, whose eldest son married his daughter. He
+published, in 1592 an edition of Florence of Worcester's _Chronicon ex
+Chronicis_, dedicated to Lord Burghley, and drew up a genealogy of his
+family, now among the duke of Norfolk's MSS. at Norfolk House. He died
+in October 1640 at Greystock, to which place he had been removed when
+failing in health to escape the Scots who were threatening an advance on
+Naworth. He had a large family of children, of whom Philip, his heir,
+was the grandfather of Charles, 1st earl of Carlisle, and Francis was
+the ancestor of the Howards of Corby.
+
+
+
+
+HOWARD OF EFFINGHAM, WILLIAM HOWARD, 1st BARON (c. 1510-1573), English
+lord high admiral, was the son of the 2nd duke of Norfolk. He was
+popular with Henry VIII., and at Anne Boleyn's coronation was deputy
+earl marshal; and he was sent on missions to Scotland and France; but in
+1541 he was charged with abetting his relative Queen Catherine Howard,
+and was convicted of misprision of treason, but pardoned. In 1552 he was
+made governor of Calais, and in 1553 lord high admiral, being created
+Baron Howard of Effingham in 1554 for his defence of London in Sir
+Thomas Wyat's rebellion against Queen Mary. He befriended the princess
+Elizabeth, but his popularity with the navy saved him from Mary's
+resentment; and when Elizabeth became queen he had great influence with
+her and filled several important posts. His son, the second baron, who
+is famous in English naval history, was created earl of Nottingham
+(q.v.); and from a younger son the later earls of Effingham were
+descended. William's descendant, Francis (d. 1695), inherited the barony
+of Howard of Effingham on the death of his cousin, Charles, in 1681; and
+Francis's son, Francis (1683-1743), was created earl of Effingham in
+1731. This earldom became extinct on the death of Richard, the fourth
+holder, in 1816; but it was created again in 1837 in favour of Kenneth
+Alexander (1767-1845), another of William Howard's descendants, who had
+succeeded to the barony of Howard of Effingham in 1816.
+
+
+
+
+HOWE, ELIAS (1819-1867), American sewing-machine inventor, was born in
+Spencer, Massachusetts, on the 9th of July 1819. His early years were
+spent on his father's farm. In 1835 he entered the factory of a
+manufacturer of cotton-machinery at Lowell, Massachusetts, where he
+learned the machinist's trade. Subsequently, while employed in a machine
+shop at Cambridge, Mass., he conceived the idea of a sewing machine, and
+for five years spent all his spare time in its development. In September
+1846 a patent for a practical sewing machine was granted to him; and
+Howe spent the following two years (1847-1849) in London, employed by
+William Thomas, a corset manufacturer, to whom he had sold the English
+rights for £250. Years of disappointment and discouragement followed
+before he was successful in introducing his invention, and several
+imitations which infringed his patent, particularly that of Isaac
+Merritt Singer (1811-1875), had already been successfully introduced and
+were widely used. His rights were established after much litigation in
+1854, and by the date of expiration of his patent (1867) he had realized
+something over $2,000,000 out of his invention. He died in Brooklyn, New
+York, on the 3rd of October 1867.
+
+  See _History of the Sewing Machine and of Elias Howe, Jr., the
+  Inventor_ (Detroit, 1867); P. G. Hubert, Jr., _Inventors_, in "Men of
+  Achievement" series (New York, 1893).
+
+
+
+
+HOWE, JOHN (1630-1706), English Puritan divine, was born on the 17th of
+May 1630 at Loughborough, Leicestershire, where his father was vicar. On
+the 19th of May 1647 he entered Christ's College, Cambridge, as a sizar,
+and in the following year took his degree of B.A. During his residence
+at the university he made the acquaintance of Ralph Cudworth, Henry More
+and John Smith, from intercourse with whom, as well as from direct
+acquaintance with the _Dialogues_ themselves, his mind received that
+"Platonic tinge" so perceptible in his writings. Immediately after
+graduation at Cambridge, he migrated to Oxford, where he became fellow
+and chaplain of Magdalen College, proceeding M.A. in 1652. He was then
+ordained by Charles Herle (1598-1659), the Puritan rector of Winwick,
+and in 1654 went as perpetual curate to Great Torrington in Devon, where
+he preached the discourses which later took shape in his treatises on
+_The Blessedness of the Righteous_ and on _Delighting in God_. In the
+beginning of 1657 a journey to London accidentally brought Howe under
+the notice of Cromwell, who made him his domestic chaplain. In this
+position his conduct was such as to win the praise of even the bitterest
+enemies of his party. Without overlooking his fellow-Puritans, he was
+always ready to help pious and learned men of other schools. Seth Ward
+(afterwards bishop of Exeter) and Thomas Fuller were among those who
+profited by Howe's kindness, and were not ashamed subsequently to
+express their gratitude for it. On the resignation of Richard Cromwell,
+Howe returned to Great Torrington, to leave it again in 1662 on the
+passing of the Act of Uniformity. For several years he led a wandering
+and uncertain life, preaching in secret as occasion offered to handfuls
+of trusted hearers. Being in straits he published in 1668 _The
+Blessedness of the Righteous_; the reputation which he thus acquired
+procured him an invitation from Lord Massereene, of Antrim Castle,
+Ireland, with whom he lived for five or six years as domestic chaplain,
+frequently preaching in public, with the approval of the bishop of the
+diocese. Here too he produced the most eloquent of his shorter
+treatises, _The Vanity of Man as Mortal_, and _On Delighting in God_,
+and planned his best work, _The Living Temple_. In the beginning of 1676
+he accepted an invitation to become joint-pastor of a nonconformist
+congregation at Haberdashers' Hall, London; and in the same year he
+published the first part of _The Living Temple_ entitled _Concerning
+God's Existence and his Conversableness with Man: Against Atheism or the
+Epicurean Deism_. In 1677 appeared his tractate _On the
+Reconcileableness of God's Prescience of the Sins of Men with the Wisdom
+and Sincerity of His Counsels, Exhortations and whatsoever means He uses
+to prevent them_, which was attacked from various quarters, and had
+Andrew Marvell for one of its defenders. _On Thoughtfulness for the
+Morrow_ followed in 1681; _Self-Dedication_ and _Union among
+Protestants_ in 1682, and _The Redeemer's Tears wept over Lost Souls_ in
+1684.
+
+For five years after his settlement in London Howe enjoyed comparative
+freedom, and was on not unfriendly terms with many eminent Anglicans,
+such as Stillingfleet, Tillotson, John Sharp and Richard Kidder; but the
+greater severity which began to be exercised towards nonconformists in
+1681 so interfered with his liberty that in 1685 he gladly accepted the
+invitation of Philip, Lord Wharton, to travel abroad with him. In 1686
+he determined to settle for a time at Utrecht, where he officiated in
+the English chapel. Among his friends there was Gilbert Burnet, by whose
+influence he obtained several confidential interviews with William of
+Orange. In 1687 Howe availed himself of the declaration for liberty of
+conscience to return to England, and in the following year he headed the
+deputation of nonconformist ministers who went to congratulate William
+on his accession to the English throne. The remainder of his life was
+uneventful. His influence was always on the side of mutual forbearance,
+between conformists and dissenters in 1689, and between
+Congregationalists and Presbyterians in 1690. In 1693 he published three
+discourses _On the Carnality of Religious Contention_, suggested by the
+disputes that became rife among nonconformists as soon as liberty of
+doctrine and worship had been granted. In 1694 and 1695 he published
+various treatises on the subject of the Trinity, the principal being _A
+Calm and Solemn Inquiry concerning the Possibility of a Trinity in the
+Godhead_. The second part of _The Living Temple_, entitled
+_Animadversions on Spinosa and a French Writer pretending to confute
+him, with a recapitulation of the former part and an account of the
+destitution and restitution of God's Temple among Men_, appeared in
+1702. In 1701 he had some controversy with Daniel Defoe on the question
+of occasional conformity. In 1705 he published a discourse _On Patience
+in the Expectation of Future Blessedness_, but his health had begun to
+fail, and he died in London on the 2nd of April 1706. Richard Cromwell
+visited him in his last illness.
+
+Though excelled by Baxter as a pulpit orator, and by Owen in exegetical
+ingenuity and in almost every department of theological learning, Howe
+compares favourably with either as a sagacious and profound thinker,
+while he was much more successful in combining religious earnestness and
+fervour of conviction with large-hearted tolerance and cultured breadth
+of view. He was a man of high principle and fine presence, and it was
+said of him "that he never made an enemy and never lost a friend."
+
+  The works published in his lifetime, including a number of sermons,
+  were collected into 2 vols. fol. in 1724, and again reprinted in 3
+  vols. 8vo. in 1848. A complete edition of the _Whole Works_, including
+  much posthumous and additional matter, appeared with a memoir in 8
+  vols, in 1822; this was reprinted in 1 vol. in 1838 and in 6 vols. in
+  1862-1863. E. Calamy's _Life_ (1724) forms the basis of _The Life and
+  Character of Howe, with an Analysis of his Writings_, by Henry Rogers
+  (1836, new ed. 1863). See also a sketch by R. F. Horton (1896).
+
+
+
+
+HOWE, JOSEPH (1804-1873), Canadian statesman, was born at Halifax, Nova
+Scotia, on the 13th of December 1804, the son of John Howe (1752-1835),
+a United Empire Loyalist who was for many years king's printer and
+postmaster-general for the Maritime Provinces and the Bermudas. He
+received little regular education, and at the age of 13 entered his
+father's office. In 1827 he started the _Acadian_, a weekly
+non-political journal, but soon sold it, and in 1828 purchased the _Nova
+Scotian_, which later became amalgamated with the _Morning Chronicle_.
+From this date he devoted increasing attention to political affairs, and
+in 1835 was prosecuted for libelling the magistrates of Halifax. Being
+unable to find a lawyer willing to undertake his case, he pleaded it
+himself, and won his acquittal by a speech of over six hours, which
+secured for Nova Scotia the freedom of the press and for himself the
+reputation of an orator. In 1836 he was elected member for Halifax in
+the provincial assembly, and during the next twelve years devoted
+himself to attaining responsible government for Nova Scotia. This
+brought him into fierce conflict with the reigning oligarchy and with
+the lieutenant-governor, Lord Falkland (1803-1884), whom he forced to
+resign. Largely owing to Howe's statesmanship responsible government was
+finally conceded in 1848 by the imperial authorities, and was thus
+gained without the bloodshed and confusion which marked its acquisition
+in Ontario and Quebec. In 1850 he was appointed a delegate to England on
+behalf of the Intercolonial railway, for which he obtained a large
+imperial guarantee. In 1854 he resigned from the cabinet, and was
+appointed chief commissioner of railways. In 1855 he was sent by the
+imperial government to the United States in connexion with the Foreign
+Enlistment Act, to raise soldiers for the war in the Crimea. Through the
+rashness of others he got into difficulties, and was attacked in the
+British House of Commons by Mr Gladstone, whom he compelled to
+apologize.
+
+In 1855 he was defeated by Mr (afterwards Sir Charles) Tupper, but was
+elected by acclamation in the next year in Hants county, and was from
+1860 to 1863 premier of Nova Scotia. In the latter years he was
+appointed by the imperial government fishery commissioner to the United
+States, and thus took no part in the negotiations for confederation.
+Though his eloquence had done more than anything else to make
+practicable a union of the British North American provinces, he opposed
+confederation, largely owing to wounded vanity; but on finding it
+impossible to obtain from the imperial authorities the repeal of the
+British North America Act, he refused to join his associates in the
+extreme measures which were advocated, and on the promise from the
+Canadian government of better financial terms to his native province,
+entered (on the 30th of January 1869) the cabinet of Sir John Macdonald
+as president of the council. This brought upon him a storm of obloquy,
+under which his health gradually gave way. In May 1873 he was appointed
+lieutenant-governor of Nova Scotia, but died suddenly on the 1st of June
+of the same year.
+
+Howe's eloquence, and still more his unfailing wit and high spirits,
+made him for many years the idol of his province. He is the finest
+orator whom Canada has produced, and also wrote poetry, which shows in
+places high merit. Many of his sayings are still current in Nova Scotia.
+In 1904 a statue in his honour was erected in Halifax.
+
+  His _Letters and Speeches_ were published in 1858 in Boston, Mass., in
+  2 vols., edited nominally by William Annand, really by himself. See
+  also _Public Letters and Speeches of Joseph Howe_ (Halifax, 1909). The
+  _Life and Times_ by G. E. Fenety (1896) is poor. The _Life_ by the
+  Hon. James W. Longley (Toronto, 1904) is dispassionate, but otherwise
+  mediocre. _Joseph Howe_, by George Monro Grant (reprinted Halifax,
+  1904), is a brilliant sketch.     (W. L. G.)
+
+
+
+
+HOWE, JULIA WARD (1819-1910), American author and reformer, was born in
+New York City on the 27th of May 1819. Her father, Samuel Ward, was a
+banker; her mother, Julia Rush [Cutler] (1796-1824), a poet of some
+ability. When only sixteen years old she had begun to contribute poems
+to New York periodicals. In 1843 she married Dr Samuel Gridley Howe
+(q.v.), with whom she spent the next year in England, France, Germany
+and Italy. She assisted Dr Howe in editing the _Commonwealth_ in
+1851-1853. The results of her study of German philosophy were seen in
+philosophical essays; in lectures on "Doubt and Belief," "The Duality of
+Character," &c., delivered in 1860-1861 in her home in Boston, and later
+in Washington; and in addresses before the Boston Radical Club and the
+Concord school of philosophy. Samuel Longfellow, his brother Henry,
+Wendell Phillips, W. L. Garrison, Charles Sumner, Theodore Parker and
+James Freeman Clarke were among her friends; she advocated abolition,
+and preached occasionally from Unitarian pulpits. She was one of the
+organizers of the American Woman-Suffrage Association and of the
+Association for the Advancement of Women (1869), and in 1870 became one
+of the editors of the _Woman's Journal_, and in 1872 president of the
+New England Women's Club. In the same year she was a delegate to the
+Prison Reform Congress in London, and founded there the Woman's Peace
+Association, one of the many ways in which she expressed her opposition
+to war. She wrote _The World's Own_ (unsuccessfully played at
+Wallack's, New York, in 1855, published 1857), and in 1858, for Edwin
+Booth, _Hippolytus_, never acted or published. Her lyric poetry, thanks
+to her temperament, and possibly to her musical training, was her
+highest literary form: she published _Passion Flowers_ (anonymously,
+1854), _Words for the Hour_ (1856), _Later Lyrics_ (1866), and _From
+Sunset Ridge: Poems Old and New_ (1898); her most popular poem is _The
+Battle Hymn of the Republic_, written to the old folk-tune associated
+with the song of "John Brown's Body," when Mrs Howe was at the front in
+1861, and published (Feb. 1862) in the _Atlantic Monthly_, to which she
+frequently contributed. She edited _Sex and Education_ (1874), an answer
+to _Sex in Education_ (1873) by Edward Hammond Clarke (1820-1877); and
+wrote several books of travel, _Modern Society_ (1880) and _Is Polite
+Society Polite?_ (1895), collections of addresses, each taking its title
+from a lecture criticizing the shallowness and falseness of society, the
+power of money, &c., _A Memoir of Dr Samuel G. Howe_ (1876), _Life of
+Margaret Fuller_ (1883), in the "Famous Women" series. _Sketches of
+Representative Women of New England_ (1905) and her own _Reminiscences_
+(Boston, 1899). Her children were: Julia Romana Anagnos (1844-1886),
+who, like her mother, wrote verse and studied philosophy, and who taught
+in the Perkins Institution, in the charge of which her husband, Michael
+Anagnos (1837-1906), whose family name had been Anagnostopoulos,
+succeeded her father; Henry Marion Howe (b. 1848), the eminent
+metallurgist, and professor in Columbia University; Laura Elizabeth
+Richards (b. 1850), and Maud Howe Elliott (b. 1855), wife of John
+Elliott, the painter of a fine ceiling in the Boston library,--both
+these daughters being contributors to literature. Mrs Howe died on the
+17th of October 1910.
+
+
+
+
+HOWE, RICHARD HOWE, EARL (1726-1799), British admiral, was born in
+London on the 8th of March 1726. He was the second son of Emmanuel
+Scrope Howe, 2nd Viscount Howe, who died governor of Barbadoes in March
+1735, and of Mary Sophia Charlotte, a daughter of the baroness
+Kilmansegge, afterwards countess of Darlington, the mistress of George
+I.--a relationship which does much to explain his early rise in the
+navy. Richard Howe entered the navy in the "Severn," one of the squadron
+sent into the south seas with Anson in 1740. The "Severn" failed to
+round the Horn and returned home. Howe next served in the West Indies in
+the "Burford," and was present in her when she was very severely
+damaged, in the unsuccessful attack on La Guayra on the 18th of February
+1742. He was made acting-lieutenant in the West Indies in the same year,
+and the rank was confirmed in 1744. During the Jacobite rising of 1745
+he commanded the "Baltimore" sloop in the North Sea, and was dangerously
+wounded in the head while co-operating with a frigate in an engagement
+with two strong French privateers. In 1746 he became post-captain, and
+commanded the "Triton" (24) in the West Indies. As captain of the
+"Cornwall" (80), the flagship of Sir Charles Knowles, he was in the
+battle with the Spaniards off Havana on the 2nd of October 1748. While
+the peace between the War of the Austrian Succession and the Seven
+Years' War lasted, Howe held commands at home and on the west coast of
+Africa. In 1755 he went with Boscawen to North America as captain of the
+"Dunkirk" (60), and his seizure of the French "Alcide" (64) was the
+first shot fired in the war. From this date till the peace of 1763 he
+served in the Channel in various more or less futile expeditions against
+the coast of France, with a steady increase of reputation as a firm and
+skilful officer. On the 20th of November 1759 he led Hawke's fleet as
+captain of the "Magnanime" (64) in the magnificent victory of Quiberon.
+
+By the death of his elder brother, killed near Ticonderoga on the 6th of
+July 1758, he became Viscount Howe--an Irish peerage. In 1762 he was
+elected M.P. for Dartmouth, and held the seat till he received a title
+of Great Britain. During 1763 and 1765 he was a member of the Admiralty
+board, and from 1765 to 1770 was treasurer of the navy. In that year he
+was promoted rear-admiral, and in 1775 vice-admiral. In 1776 he was
+appointed to the command of the North American station. The rebellion
+of the colonies was making rapid progress, and Howe was known to be in
+sympathy with the colonists. He had sought the acquaintance of Benjamin
+Franklin, who was a friend of his sister Miss Howe, a clever eccentric
+woman well known in London society, and had already tried to act as a
+peacemaker. It was doubtless because of his known sentiments that he was
+selected to command in America, and was joined in commission with his
+brother Sir William Howe, the general at the head of the land forces, to
+make a conciliatory arrangement. A committee appointed by the
+Continental Congress conferred with the Howes in September 1776 but
+nothing was accomplished. The appointment of a new peace commission in
+1778 offended the admiral deeply, and he sent in a resignation of his
+command. It was reluctantly accepted by Lord Sandwich, then First Lord,
+but before it could take effect France declared war, and a powerful
+French squadron was sent to America under the count d'Estaing. Being
+greatly outnumbered, Howe had to stand on the defensive, but he baffled
+the French admiral at Sandy Hook, and defeated his attempt to take
+Newport in Rhode Island by a fine combination of caution and calculated
+daring. On the arrival of Admiral John Byron from England with
+reinforcements, Howe left the station in September. Until the fall of
+Lord North's ministry in 1782 he refused to serve, assigning as his
+reason that he could not trust Lord Sandwich. He considered that he had
+not been properly supported in America, and was embittered both by the
+supersession of himself and his brother as peace commissioners, and by
+attacks made on him by the ministerial writers in the press.
+
+On the change of ministry in March 1782 he was selected to command in
+the Channel, and in the autumn of that year, September, October and
+November, he carried out the final relief of Gibraltar. It was a
+difficult operation, for the French and Spaniards had in all 46
+line-of-battle ships to his 33, and in the exhausted state of the
+country it was impossible to fit his ships properly or to supply them
+with good crews. He was, moreover, hampered by a great convoy carrying
+stores. But Howe was eminent in the handling of a great multitude of
+ships, the enemy was awkward and unenterprising, and the operation was
+brilliantly carried out. From the 28th of January to the 16th of April
+1783 he was First Lord of the Admiralty, and he held that post from
+December 1783 till August 1788, in Pitt's first ministry. The task was
+no pleasant one, for he had to agree to economies where he considered
+that more outlay was needed, and he had to disappoint the hopes of the
+many officers who were left unemployed by the peace. On the outbreak of
+the Revolutionary war in 1793 he was again named to the command of the
+Channel fleet. His services in 1794 form the most glorious period of his
+life, for in it he won the epoch-making victory of the 1st of June (see
+FIRST OF JUNE, BATTLE OF). Though Howe was now nearly seventy, and had
+been trained in the old school, he displayed an originality not usual
+with veterans, and not excelled by any of his successors in the war, not
+even by Nelson, since they had his example to follow and were served by
+more highly trained squadrons than his. He continued to hold the nominal
+command by the wish of the king, but his active service was now over. In
+1797 he was called on to pacify the mutineers at Spithead, and his great
+influence with the seamen who trusted him was conspicuously shown. He
+died on the 5th of August 1799, and was buried in his family vault at
+Langar. His monument by Flaxman is in St Paul's Cathedral. In 1782 he
+was created Viscount Howe of Langar, and in 1788 Baron and Earl Howe. In
+June 1797 he was made a knight of the Garter. With the sailors he was
+always popular, though he was no popularity hunter, for they knew him to
+be just. His nickname of Black Dick was given on account of his swarthy
+complexion, and the well-known portrait by Gainsborough shows that it
+was apt.
+
+Lord Howe married, on the 10th of March 1758, Mary Hartop, the daughter
+of Colonel Chiverton Hartop of Welby in Leicestershire, and had issue
+two daughters. His Irish title descended to his brother William, the
+general, who died childless in 1814. The earldom, and the viscounty of
+the United Kingdom, being limited to heirs male, became extinct, but
+the barony, being to heirs general, passed to his daughter, Sophia
+Charlotte (1762-1835), who married the Hon. Penn Assheton Curzon. Their
+son, Richard William Curzon (1796-1870), who succeeded his paternal
+grandfather as Viscount Curzon in 1820, was created Earl Howe in 1821;
+he was succeeded by his son, George Augustus (1821-1876), and then by
+another son, Richard William (1822-1900), whose son Richard George Penn
+Curzon-Howe (b. 1861) became 4th Earl Howe in 1900.
+
+  The standard _Life_ is by Sir John Barrow (1838). Interesting
+  reminiscences will be found in the _Life of Codrington_, by Lady
+  Bourchier. Accounts of his professional services are in Charnock's
+  _Biographia Navalis_, v. 457, and in Ralf's _Naval Biographies_, i.
+  83. See also Beatson's _Naval and Military Annals_, James's _Naval
+  History_, and Chevalier's _Histoire de la Marine française_, vols. i.
+  and ii.     (D. H.)
+
+
+
+
+HOWE, SAMUEL GRIDLEY (1801-1876), American philanthropist, was born at
+Boston, Massachusetts, on the 10th of November 1801. His father, Joseph
+N. Howe, was a ship-owner and cordage manufacturer; and his mother,
+Patty Gridley, was one of the most beautiful women of her day. Young
+Howe was educated at Boston and at Brown University, Providence, and in
+1821 began to study medicine in Boston. But fired by enthusiasm for the
+Greek revolution and by Byron's example, he was no sooner qualified and
+admitted to practice than he abandoned these prospects and took ship for
+Greece, where he joined the army and spent six years of hardship amid
+scenes of warfare. Then, to raise funds for the cause, he returned to
+America; his fervid appeals enabled him to collect about $60,000, which
+he spent on provisions and clothing, and he established a relief depot
+near Aegina, where he started works for the refugees, the existing quay,
+or American Mole, being built in this way. He formed another colony of
+exiles on the Isthmus of Corinth. He wrote a _History of the Greek
+Revolution_, which was published in 1828, and in 1831 he returned to
+America. Here a new object of interest engaged him. Through his friend
+Dr John D. Fisher (d. 1850), a Boston physician who had started a
+movement there as early as 1826 for establishing a school for the blind,
+he had learnt of the similar school founded in Paris by Valentin Haüy,
+and it was proposed to Howe by a committee organized by Fisher that he
+should direct the establishment of a "New England Asylum for the Blind"
+at Boston. He took up the project with characteristic ardour, and set
+out at once for Europe to investigate the problem. There he was
+temporarily diverted from his task by becoming mixed up with the Polish
+revolt, and, in pursuit of a mission to carry American contributions
+across the Prussian frontier, he was arrested and imprisoned at Berlin,
+but was at last released through the intervention of the American
+minister at Paris. Returning to Boston in July 1832, he began receiving
+a few blind children at his father's house in Pleasant Street, and thus
+sowed the seed which grew into the famous Perkins Institution. In
+January 1833 the funds available were all spent, but so much progress
+had been shown that the legislature voted $6000, later increased to
+$30,000 a year, to the institution on condition that it should educate
+gratuitously twenty poor blind from the state; money was also
+contributed from Salem, and from Boston, and Colonel Thomas H. Perkins,
+a prominent Bostonian, presented his mansion and grounds in Pearl Street
+for the school to be held there in perpetuity. This building being later
+found unsuitable, Colonel Perkins consented to its sale, and in 1839 the
+institution was moved to South Boston, to a large building which had
+previously been an hotel. It was henceforth known as the "Perkins
+Institution and Massachusetts Asylum (or, since 1877, School) for the
+Blind." Howe was director, and the life and soul of the school; he
+opened a printing-office and organized a fund for printing for the
+blind--the first done in America; and he was unwearied in calling public
+attention to the work. The Institution, through him, became one of the
+intellectual centres of American philanthropy, and by degrees obtained
+more and more financial support. In 1837 Dr Howe went still further and
+brought the famous blind deaf-mute, Laura Bridgman (q.v.) to the
+school.
+
+It must suffice here to chronicle the remaining more important facts in
+Dr Howe's life, outside his regular work. In 1843 he married Julia Ward
+(see above), daughter of a New York banker, and they made a prolonged
+European trip, on which Dr Howe spent much time in visiting those public
+institutions which carried out the objects specially interesting to him.
+In Rome, in 1844, his eldest daughter, Julia Romana (afterwards the wife
+of Michael Anagnos, Dr Howe's assistant and successor), was born, and in
+September the travellers returned to America, and Dr Howe resumed his
+activities. In 1846 he became interested in the condition and treatment
+of idiots, and particularly in the experiments of Dr Guggenbühl on the
+cretins of Switzerland. He became chairman of a state commission of
+inquiry into the number and condition of idiots in Massachusetts, and
+the report of this commission, presented in 1848, caused a profound
+sensation. An appropriation of $2500 per annum was made for training ten
+idiot children under Dr Howe's supervision, and by degrees the value of
+his School for Idiotic and Feeble-minded Youths, which, starting in
+South Boston, was in 1890 removed to Waltham, was generally appreciated.
+It was the first of its kind in the United States. An enthusiastic
+humanitarian on all subjects, Dr Howe was an ardent abolitionist and a
+member of the Free Soil party, and had played a leading part at Boston
+in the movements which culminated in the Civil War. When it broke out he
+was an active member of the sanitary commission. In 1871 he was sent to
+Santo Domingo as a member of the commission appointed by President Grant
+to examine the condition of the island, the government of which desired
+annexation; and when that scheme was defeated through Sumner's
+opposition he returned (1872) as the representative of the Samana Bay
+Company, which proposed to take a lease of the Samana peninsula; but
+though in 1874 he revisited the island, it was only to see the flag of
+the company hauled down. His health was then breaking and began soon
+after to fail rapidly, and on the 9th of January 1876 he died at Boston.
+The governor of the state sent a special message of grief to the
+legislature on his death, eulogies were delivered in the two houses, and
+a public memorial service was held, at which Dr O. W. Holmes read a
+poem. Whittier had in his lifetime commemorated him in his poem "The
+Hero," in which he called him "the Cadmus of the blind"; and in 1901 a
+centennial celebration of his birth was held at Boston, at which, among
+other notable tributes, Senator Hoar spoke of Howe as "one of the great
+figures of American history."
+
+  A _Memoir_ of Dr Howe by his wife appeared in 1876. See also the
+  _Letters and Journals of S. G. Howe_, edited by Laura E. Richards
+  (1910).     (H. Ch.)
+
+
+
+
+HOWE, WILLIAM HOWE, 5TH VISCOUNT (1729-1814), British general, was the
+younger brother of George Augustus, 3rd viscount, killed in the
+Ticonderoga expedition of 1758, and of Richard, 4th viscount and
+afterwards Earl Howe, the admiral. He entered the cavalry in 1746,
+becoming lieutenant a year later. On the disbanding of his regiment in
+1749 he was made captain-lieutenant and shortly afterwards captain in
+Lord Bury's (20th) regiment, in which Wolfe was then a field officer.
+Howe became major in 1756 and lieutenant-colonel in 1757 of the 58th
+(now Northampton) regiment, which he commanded at the capture of
+Louisburg. In Wolfe's expedition to Quebec he distinguished himself
+greatly at the head of a composite light battalion. He led the advanced
+party in the landing at Wolfe's Cove and took part in the battle of the
+Plains of Abraham which followed. He commanded his own regiment in the
+defence of Quebec in 1759-1760, led a brigade in the advance on Montreal
+and took part on his return to Europe in the siege of Belleisle (1761).
+He was adjutant-general of the force which besieged and took Havana in
+1762, and at the close of the war had acquired the reputation of being
+one of the most brilliant of the junior officers of the army. He was
+made colonel of the 46th foot in 1764 and lieutenant-governor of the
+Isle of Wight four years later. From 1758 to 1780 he was M.P. for
+Nottingham. In 1772 he became major-general, and in 1774 he was
+entrusted with the training of light infantry companies on a new system,
+the training-ground being Salisbury Plain.
+
+Shortly after this he was sent out to North America. He did not agree
+with the policy of the government towards the colonists, and regretted
+in particular that he was sent to Boston, where the memory of his eldest
+brother was still cherished by the inhabitants, and General Gage, in
+whom he had no confidence, commanded in chief. He was the senior officer
+after Gage, and led the troops actively engaged in the storming of
+Bunker Hill, he himself being in the thickest of the fighting. In the
+same year Howe was made a K.B. and a lieutenant-general, and appointed,
+with the local rank of general, to the chief command in the seat of war.
+For the events of his command see AMERICAN WAR OF INDEPENDENCE. He
+retained it until May 1778--on the whole with success. The cause of his
+resignation was his feeling that the home government had not afforded
+the proper support, and after his return to England, he and his brother
+engaged in a heated but fruitless controversy with the ministers. Howe's
+own defence is embodied in _Narrative of Sir William Howe before a
+Committee of the House of Commons_ (London, 1780). In 1782 Howe was made
+lieutenant-general of the ordnance; in 1790 he was placed in command of
+the forces organized for action against Spain, and in 1793 he was made a
+full general. He held various home commands in the early part of the
+French revolutionary war, in particular that of the eastern district at
+the critical moment when the French established their forces on the
+Dutch coast. When Earl Howe died in 1799, Sir William succeeded to the
+Irish viscounty. He had been made governor of Berwick-on-Tweed in 1795,
+and in 1805 he became governor of Plymouth, where he died on the 12th of
+July 1814. With his death the Irish peerage became extinct.
+
+
+
+
+HOWEL DDA ("the Good") (d. 950), prince of Deheubarth (South Central
+Wales) from before 915, and king of Wales from 943 to 950, was the
+grandson of Rhodri Mawr (the Great), who had united practically the
+whole of Wales under his supremacy. As Idwal Voel succeeded his father
+Anarawd, the elder son of Rhodri, as lord of Gwynedd in 915, so Howel at
+some time before that date succeeded Rhodri's younger son Cadell as
+prince of Deheubarth. Howel married Elen, daughter of the last king of
+Dyfed, and also added Kidweli and Gwyr to his dominions, while on the
+death of Idwal, who was slain by the English in 943, he took possession
+of Gwynedd. Both these princes had done homage to the English kings,
+Edward the Elder and Aethelstan, in 922 and 926, and we find that Howel
+attended the witans of the English kingdom and witnessed about ten
+charters between the years 931 and 949. He was secure, therefore, from
+attack on the eastern side of his kingdom, and it is not certain whether
+he was engaged in any of the battles recorded during these years in
+Wales, either in Môn 914, at Dinas Newydd 919 or at Brun 935. To the
+peaceful character of his reign is probably due the high place which he
+holds among the Welsh princes. From 943 to 950 Howel Dda was probably
+ruler of all Wales except Powys (apparently dependent on Mercia),
+Brecheiniog, Buallt, Gwent and Morgannwg. With Morgan Hen, king of
+Morgannwg, Howel had a dispute which was eventually settled in favour of
+the former at the court of the English king. Howel died in 950, and such
+unity as he had preserved at once disappeared in a war between his sons
+and those of Idwal Voel. The code of laws attributed to this prince is
+perhaps his chief claim to fame. He is said to have summoned four men
+from each cantref in his dominions to the Ty Gwyn (perhaps Whitland in
+Caermarthenshire) to codify existing custom. Three codes, accordingly
+called Venedotian, Demetian and Gwentian, are said to have been written
+down by Bleggwryd, archdeacon of Llandaff (see Welsh Laws).
+
+  See Sir John Rhys and Brynmor-Jones, _The Welsh People_ (London,
+  1900); and Aneurin Owen, _Ancient Laws and Institutions of Wales_
+  (London, 1841).
+
+
+
+
+HOWELL, JAMES (c. 1594-1666), British author, who came of an old Welsh
+family, was born probably at Abernant, in Carmarthenshire, where his
+father was rector. From the free grammar school at Hereford he went to
+Jesus College, Oxford, and took his degree of B.A. in 1613. About 1616
+he was steward in Sir Robert Mansell's glass-works in Broad Street, and
+was commissioned to go abroad to procure the services of expert
+workmen. It was not till 1622 that he returned, having visited Holland,
+France, Spain and Italy. With the intention of utilizing to better
+purpose his knowledge of continental languages and methods, he left the
+glass business and applied for a diplomatic post. Failing to obtain
+this, he was for a short time tutor in a nobleman's family. At the close
+of 1622 he was sent on a special mission to Madrid to obtain redress for
+the seizure of an English vessel, but, owing to the presence at the
+Spanish court of Prince Charles and the duke of Buckingham to arrange a
+marriage between the prince and the infanta of Spain, the negotiations
+had to be broken off. He made many friends among the prince's retinue,
+and, after his return in 1624, applied for employment to the duke of
+Buckingham, but without success. In 1626 he became secretary to Lord
+Scrope, Lord President of the North at York, and retained the office
+under Scrope's successor, Thomas Wentworth. In 1627 he was elected M.P.
+for Richmond; in 1632 he was sent as secretary to the embassy of the
+earl of Leicester to Denmark; and in 1642 the king appointed him one of
+the clerks of the privy council. In 1643 he was committed to the Fleet
+prison by the parliament, according to his own account, on suspicion of
+royalist leanings, or, as Anthony à Wood says, for debt. Whatever the
+reason, he remained in prison until 1651. He had acquired considerable
+fame by his allegorical [Greek: Dendrologia]: _Dodona's Grove, or the
+Vocall Forest_, published in 1640, and his _Instructions for Forreine
+Travell_ (1642), which has been described as the first continental
+handbook; and now he was driven to maintain himself by his pen. He
+edited and supplemented (1650) Cotgrave's French and English dictionary,
+compiled _Lexicon Tetraglotton, or an English, French, Italian and
+Spanish Dictionary_ (London, 1660), translated various works from
+Italian and Spanish, wrote a life of Louis XIII. and issued a number of
+political pamphlets, varying the point of view somewhat to suit the
+changes of the time. Among these tracts may be mentioned a rather
+malicious _Perfect Description of the People and Country of Scotland_,
+which was revived by John Wilkes and printed in the _North Briton_
+during the agitation directed against Lord Bute. In 1660 he asked for
+the place of clerk of the privy council; and, though this was not
+granted him, the post of historiographer royal was created for him. In
+1661 he applied for the office of tutor in foreign languages to the
+infanta Catherine of Braganza, and in 1662 published an _English Grammar
+translated into Spanish_. He was buried in the Temple Church on the 3rd
+of November 1666, having realized to the last his favourite motto,
+"Senesco non segnesco."
+
+All Howell's writings are imbued with a certain simplicity and
+quaintness. His elaborate allegories are forgotten; his linguistic
+labours, of value in their time, are now superseded; but his _Letters_,
+the _Epistolae Ho-elianae_ (four volumes issued in 1645, 1647, 1650 and
+1655), are still models of their kind. Their dates are often fictitious,
+and they are, in nearly every case, evidently written for publication.
+Thackeray said that the _Letters_ was one of his bedside books. He
+classes it with Montaigne and says he scarcely ever tired of "the
+artless prattle" of the "priggish little clerk of King Charles's
+council."
+
+  The _Epistolae_ have been frequently edited, notably by J. Jacobs in
+  1890, with a commentary (1891), and Agnes Repplier (1907).
+
+
+
+
+HOWELLS, WILLIAM DEAN (1837-   ), American novelist, was born at Martin's
+Ferry, Ohio, on the 1st of March 1837. His father, William Cooper
+Howells, a printer-journalist, moved in 1840 to Hamilton, Ohio, and here
+the boy's early life was spent successively as type-setter, reporter and
+editor in the offices of various newspapers. In the midst of routine
+work he contrived to familiarize himself with a wide range of authors in
+several modern tongues, and to drill himself thoroughly in the use of
+good English. In 1860, as assistant editor of the leading Republican
+newspaper in Ohio, he wrote--in connexion with the Presidential
+contest--the campaign life of Lincoln; and in the same year he was
+appointed consul at Venice, where he remained till 1865. On his return
+to America he joined the staff of the _Atlantic Monthly_, and from 1872
+to 1881 he was its editor-in-chief. Since 1885 he has lived in New York.
+For a time he conducted for _Harper's Magazine_ the department called
+"The Editor's Study," and in December 1900 he revived for the same
+periodical the department of "The Easy Chair," which had lapsed with the
+death of George William Curtis. Of Mr Howells's many novels, the
+following may be mentioned as specially noteworthy: _Their Wedding
+Journey_ (1872); _The Lady of the Aroostook_ (1879); _A Modern Instance_
+(1882); _The Rise of Silas Lapham_ (1885); _The Minister's Charge_
+(1886); _A Hazard of New Fortunes_ (1889); _The Quality of Mercy_
+(1892); _The Landlord at Lion's Head_ (1897). He also published _Poems_
+(1873 and 1886); _Stops of Various Quills_ (1895), a book of verse;
+books of travel; several amusing farces; and volumes of essays and
+literary criticism, among others, _Literary Friends and Acquaintance_
+(1901), which contains much autobiographical matter, _Literature and
+Life_ (1902), and _English Films_ (1905).
+
+Howells is by general consent the foremost representative of the
+realistic school of indigenous American fiction. From the outset his aim
+was to portray life with entire fidelity in all its commonplaceness, and
+yet to charm the reader into a liking for this commonplaceness and into
+reverence for what it conceals. Though in his earliest novels his method
+was not consistently realistic--he is at times almost as personal and as
+whimsical as Thackeray--yet his vivid impressionism and his choice of
+subjects, as well as an occasional explicit protest that "dulness is
+dear to him," already revealed unmistakably his realistic bias. In _A
+Modern Instance_ (1882) he gained complete command of his method, and
+began a series of studies of American life that are remarkable for their
+loyalty to fact, their truth of tone, and their power to reveal, despite
+their strictly objective method, both the inner springs of American
+character and the sociological forces that are shaping American
+civilization. He refuses to over-sophisticate or to over-intellectualize
+his characters, and he is very sparing in his use of psychological
+analysis. He insists on seeing and portraying American life as it exists
+in and for itself, under its own skies and with its own atmosphere; he
+does not scrutinize it with foreign comparisons in mind, and thus try to
+find and to throw into relief unsuspected configurations of surface. He
+keeps his dialogue toned down to almost the pitch of everyday
+conversation, although he has shown in his comedy sketches how easy a
+master he is of adroit and witty talk.
+
+  See also J. M. Robertson, _Essays towards a Critical Method_ (London,
+  1889); H. C. Vedder, _American Writers_ (Boston, 1894).
+
+
+
+
+HOWITT WILLIAM, (1792-1879), English author, was born on the 18th of
+December 1792 at Heanor, Derbyshire. His parents were Quakers, and he
+was educated at the Friends' public school at Ackworth, Yorkshire. In
+1814 he published a poem on the "Influence of Nature and Poetry on
+National Spirit." He married, in 1821, Mary Botham (1799-1888), like
+himself a Quaker and a poet. William and Mary Howitt collaborated
+throughout a long literary career, the first of their joint productions
+being _The Forest Minstrels and other Poems_ (1821). In 1831 William
+Howitt produced a work for which his habits of observation and his
+genuine love of nature peculiarly fitted him. It was a history of the
+changes in the face of the outside world in the different months of the
+year, and was entitled _The Book of the Seasons, or the Calendar of
+Nature_ (1831). His _Popular History of Priestcraft_ (1833) won for him
+the favour of active Liberals and the office of alderman in Nottingham,
+where the Howitts had made their home. They removed in 1837 to Esher,
+and in 1840 they went to Heidelberg, primarily for the education of
+their children, remaining in Germany for two years. In 1841 William
+Howitt produced, under the pseudonym of "Dr Cornelius," _The Student
+Life of Germany_, the first of a series of works on German social life
+and institutions. Mary Howitt devoted herself to Scandinavian
+literature, and between 1842 and 1863 she translated the novels of
+Frederika Bremer and many of the stories of Hans Andersen. With her
+husband she wrote in 1852 _The Literature and Romance of Northern
+Europe_. In June of that year William Howitt, with two of his sons, set
+sail for Australia, where he spent two years in the goldfields. The
+results of his travels appeared in _A Boy's Adventures in the Wilds
+of Australia_ (1854), _Land, Labour and Gold; or, Two Years in Victoria_
+(1855) and _Tallangetta, the Squatter's Home_ (1857). On his return to
+England Howitt had settled at Highgate and resumed his indefatigable
+book-making. From 1856 to 1862 he was engaged on Cassell's _Illustrated
+History of England_, and from 1861 to 1864 he and his wife worked at the
+_Ruined Abbeys and Castles of Great Britain_. The Howitts had left the
+Society of Friends in 1847, and became interested in spiritualism. In
+1863 appeared _The History of the Supernatural in all Ages and Nations,
+and in all Churches, Christian and Pagan, demonstrating a Universal
+Faith_, by William Howitt. He added "his own conclusions from a
+practical examination of the higher phenomena through a course of seven
+years." From 1870 onwards Howitt spent the summers in Tirol and the
+winters in Rome, where he died on the 3rd of March 1879. Mary Howitt was
+much affected by his death, and in 1882 she joined the Roman Catholic
+Church, towards which she had been gradually moving during her connexion
+with spiritualism. She died at Rome on the 30th of January 1888. The
+Howitts are remembered for their untiring efforts to provide wholesome
+and instructive literature. Their son, Alfred William Howitt, made
+himself a name by his explorations in Australia. Anna Mary Howitt
+married Alaric Alfred Watts, and was the author of _Pioneers of the
+Spiritual Reformation_ (1883).
+
+  Mary Howitt's autobiography was edited by her daughter, Margaret
+  Howitt, in 1889. William Howitt wrote some fifty books, and his wife's
+  publications, inclusive of translations, number over a hundred.
+
+
+
+
+HOWITZER (derived, through an earlier form _howitz_, and the Ger.
+_Haubitz_, from the Bohemian _houfnice_ = catapult, from which come
+also, through the Ital. _obiza_ or _obice_, the French forms _obus_ =
+shell and _obusier_ = howitzer), a form of mobile ordnance in use from
+the 16th century up to the present day. It is a short and therefore
+comparatively light gun, which fires a heavy projectile at low velocity.
+A high angle of elevation is always given and the angle of descent of
+the projectile is consequently steep (up to 70°). On this fact is based
+the tactical use of the modern howitzer. The field howitzer is of the
+greatest value for "searching" trenches, folds of ground, localities,
+&c., which are invulnerable to direct fire, while the more powerful
+siege howitzer has, since the introduction of modern artillery and,
+above all, of modern projectiles, taken the foremost place amongst the
+weapons used in siege warfare.
+
+  See ARTILLERY, ORDNANCE and FORTIFICATION AND SIEGECRAFT.
+
+
+
+
+HOWLER, a name applied to the members of a group of tropical American
+monkeys, now known scientifically as _Alouata_, although formerly
+designated _Mycetes_. These monkeys, which are of large size, with thick
+fur, sometimes red and sometimes black in colour, are characterized by
+the inflation of the hyoid-bone (which supports the roof of the tongue)
+into a large shell-like organ communicating with the wind-pipe, and
+giving the peculiar resonance to the voice from which they take their
+title. To allow space for the hyoid, the sides of the lower jaw are very
+deep and expanded. The muzzle is projecting, and the profile of the face
+slopes regularly backwards from the muzzle to the crown. The long tail
+is highly prehensile, thickly furred, with the under surface of the
+extremity naked. Howlers dwell in large companies, and in the early
+morning, and again in the evening, make the woods resound with their
+cries, which are often continued throughout the night. They feed on
+leaves, and are in the habit of sitting on the topmost branches of
+trees. When active, they progress in regular order, led by an old male.
+     (R. L.*)
+
+
+
+
+HOWRAH, a city and district of British India, in the Burdwan division of
+Bengal. The city is situated opposite Calcutta, with which it is
+connected by a floating bridge. The municipal area is about 11 sq. m.;
+pop. (1901) 157,594, showing an increase of 35% in the decade. Since
+1872 the population has almost doubled, owing to the great industrial
+development that has taken place. Howrah is the terminus of the East
+Indian railway, and also of the Bengal-Nagpur and East Coast lines. It
+is also the centre of two light railways which run to Amta and
+Sheakhala. Further, it is the headquarters of the jute-manufacturing
+industry, with many steam mills, steam presses, also cotton mills, oil
+mills, rope-works, iron-works and engineering works. Sibpur Engineering
+College lies on the outskirts of the town. There is a hospital, with a
+department for Europeans, and Howrah forms a suburban residence for many
+people who have their place of business in Calcutta.
+
+The DISTRICT OF HOWRAH extends southwards down the right bank of the
+Hugli to the confluence of the river Damodar. For revenue purposes it is
+included within the district of Hugli Its area is 510 sq. m.; pop.
+(1901) 850,514, showing an increase of 11% in the decade. In addition to
+the two steam tramways and the East Indian railway, the district is
+crossed by the high-level canal to Midnapore, which communicates with
+the Hugli at Ulubaria. The manufacturing industries of Howrah extend
+beyond the city into the district. One or two systems of draining
+low-lying lands are maintained by the government.
+
+
+
+
+HOWSON, JOHN SAUL (1816-1885), English divine, was born at
+Giggleswick-in-Craven, Yorkshire, on the 5th of May 1816. After
+receiving his early education at Giggleswick school, of which his father
+was head-master, he went to Trinity College, Cambridge, and there became
+tutor successively to the marquis of Sligo and the marquis of Lorne. In
+1845 Howson, having taken orders, accepted the post of senior classical
+master at the Liverpool College under his friend W. J. Conybeare, whom
+he succeeded as principal in 1849. This post he held until 1865, and it
+was largely due to his influence that a similar college for girls was
+established at Liverpool. In 1866 he left Liverpool for the vicarage of
+Wisbech, and in 1867 he was appointed dean of Chester Cathedral, where
+he gave himself vigorously to the work of restoring the crumbling
+fabric, collecting nearly £100,000 in five years for this purpose. His
+sympathies were with the evangelical party, and he stoutly opposed the
+"Eastward position," but he was by no means narrow. He did much to
+reintroduce the ministry of women as deaconesses. The building of the
+King's School for boys, and the Queen's School for girls (both in
+Chester), was due in a great measure to the active interest which he
+took in educational matters. He died at Bournemouth on the 15th of
+December 1885, and was buried in the cloister garth of Chester. Howson's
+chief literary production was _The Life and Epistles of St Paul_ (1852)
+in which he collaborated with Conybeare.
+
+  The book is still of interest, especially for its descriptive
+  passages, which were mostly done by Howson; but later researches (such
+  as those of Sir W. M. Ramsay) have made the geographical and
+  historical sections obsolete, and the same may be said of the
+  treatment of the Pauline theology.
+
+
+
+
+HOWTH [pronounced _Hoth_], a seaside town of Co. Dublin, Ireland, on the
+rocky hill of Howth, which forms the northern horn of Dublin Bay, 9 m.
+N.E. by N. of Dublin by the Great Northern railway. Pop. (1901) 1166. It
+is frequented by the residents of the capital as a watering-place. The
+artificial harbour was formed (1807-1832) between the mainland and the
+picturesque island of Ireland's Eye, and preceded Kingstown as the
+station for the mail-packets from Great Britain, but was found after its
+construction to be liable to silt, and is now chiefly used by
+fishing-boats and yachts. The collegiate church, standing picturesquely
+on a cliff above the sea, was founded about 1235, and has a monastic
+building attached to it. The embattled castle contains the two-handed
+sword of Sir Almeric Tristram, the Anglo-Norman conqueror of the hill of
+Howth, and a portrait of Dean Swift holding one of the Drapier letters,
+with Wood, the coiner against whom he directed these attacks, prostrate
+before him. The view of Dublin Bay from the hill of Howth is of great
+beauty. Howth is connected with the capital by electric tramway, besides
+the railway, and another tramway encircles the hill.
+
+
+
+
+HÖXTER, a town of Germany, in the Prussian province of Westphalia,
+prettily situated on the left bank of the Weser, and on the Prussian
+state railways Börssum-Soest and Scherfede-Holzminden, 32 m. N. of
+Cassel. Pop. (1905) 7699. It has a medieval town hall, and interesting
+houses with high gables and wood-carved façades of the 15th and 16th
+centuries. The most interesting of the churches is the Protestant church
+of St Kilian, with a pulpit dating from 1595 and a font dating from
+1631. There are a gymnasium, a school of architecture and a monument to
+Hoffmann von Fallersleben in the town. The Weser is crossed here by a
+stone bridge about 500 ft. in length, erected in 1833. On the Brunsberg
+adjoining the town there is an old watch-tower, said to be the remains
+of a fortress built by Bruno, brother of Widukind. Near Höxter is the
+castle, formerly the Benedictine monastery, of Corvey. The principal
+manufactures of the town are linen, cotton, cement and gutta-percha, and
+there is also a considerable shipping trade. Höxter (Lat. _Huxaria_) in
+the time of Charlemagne was a _villa regia_, and was the scene of a
+battle between him and the Saxons. Under the protection of the monastery
+of Corvey it gradually increased in prosperity, and became the chief
+town of the principality of Corvey. Later it asserted its independence
+and joined the Hanseatic League. It suffered severely during the Thirty
+Years' War. After the peace of Westphalia in 1648 it was united to
+Brunswick; in 1802 it was transferred to Nassau; and in 1807 to the
+kingdom of Westphalia, after the dismemberment of which, in 1814, it
+came into the possession of Prussia.
+
+  See Kampschulte, _Chronik der Stadt Höxter_ (Höxter, 1872).
+
+
+
+
+HOY (Norse _Haey_, "high island"), the second largest island of the
+Orkneys, county of Orkney, Scotland. Pop. (1901) 1216. It has an extreme
+length from N.W. to S.E. of 13(1/3) m., its greatest breadth from E. to
+W. is 8 m., and its area occupies 53 sq. m. It is situated 2 m. S.W. of
+Pomona, from which it is separated by Hoy Sound. As seen from the west
+it rises abruptly from the sea, presenting in this respect a marked
+contrast to the rest of the isles of the Orcadian group, which as a
+whole are low-lying. Its eastern and southern shores are indented by
+numerous bays, one of which, Long Hope, forms a natural harbour 4 m.
+long, with a breadth varying from ¼ m. to more than 1 m., affording to
+any number of vessels a haven of refuge from the roughest weather of the
+Pentland Firth. Off the eastern coast lie the islands of Graemsay, Cava,
+Risa, Fara, Flotta and Switha, while the peninsula of South Walls,
+forming the southern side of the harbour of Long Hope, is an island in
+all but name. Red and yellow sandstone cliffs, sometimes over 1000 ft.
+in height, stretch for 10 to 12 m. on the Atlantic front. The detached
+pillar or stack called the Old Man of Hoy (450 ft.) is a well-known
+landmark to sailors. The only break in this remarkable run of rocky
+coast is at Rackwick in the bight below the head of Rora. In the
+interior, Ward Hill (1564 ft.) is the loftiest summit in either the
+Orkneys or Shetlands. In the valley between Ward Hill and the ridge of
+the Hamars to the south-east is situated the famous Dwarfie Stone, an
+enormous block of sandstone measuring 28 ft. long, from 11 ft. to 14½
+ft. broad, and 6½ ft. high at one end and 2 ft. high at the other, in
+which two rooms have been artificially hollowed out, traditionally
+believed to be the bed-chambers of Trolld, the dwarf of the sagas, and
+his wife. A boulder lying at the narrow end was supposed to be used to
+close the entrance. The generally accepted theory is that it was a pagan
+altar which some hermit afterwards converted into a cell. Other hills in
+the island are the Cuilags (1420 ft.) and the Knap of Trewieglen (1308
+ft.), besides several peaks exceeding 1000 ft. in height. Hoy is
+commonly approached from Stromness, there being piers at Linksness, the
+nearest point to Graemsay, and at Hackness, South Ness and North Bay,
+the last three all on the harbour of Long Hope.
+
+
+
+
+HOYLAKE, a watering-place in the Wirral parliamentary division of
+Cheshire, England, 8 m. W. of Birkenhead, on the Wirral railway. With
+West Kirby to the south, at the mouth of the estuary of the Dee, it
+forms the urban district of Hoylake and West Kirby. Pop. (1901) 10,911.
+The well-known links of the Royal Liverpool Golf Club are at Hoylake.
+The town has a considerable population of fishermen.
+
+
+
+
+HOYLAND NETHER, an urban district in the Hallamshire parliamentary
+division of the West Riding of Yorkshire, England, 5½ m. S.S.E. of
+Barnsley, on the Midland railway. Collieries and brickworks employ the
+large industrial population. Pop. (1901) 12,464.
+
+
+
+
+HOYLE, EDMUND, or EDMOND (1672-1769), the first systematizer of the laws
+of whist, and author of a book on games, was born in 1672. His parentage
+and place of birth are unknown, and few details of his life are
+recorded. For some time he was resident in London, and partially
+supported himself by giving instruction in the game of whist. For the
+use of his pupils he drew up a _Short Treatise_ on the game, which after
+circulating for some time in manuscript was printed by him and entered
+at Stationers' Hall in November 1742. The laws of Hoyle continued to be
+regarded as authoritative until 1864, since which time they have been
+gradually superseded by the new rules adopted by the Arlington and
+Portland clubs in that year (see Whist). He also published rules for
+various other games, and his book on games, which includes the _Short
+Treatise_, has passed into many editions. The weight of his authority is
+indicated by the phrase "according to Hoyle," which, doubtless first
+applied with reference to whist, has gained currency as a general
+proverb. Hoyle died in London on the 29th of August 1769.
+
+
+
+
+HOZIER, PIERRE D', SEIGNEUR DE LA GARDE (1592-1660), French genealogist,
+was born at Marseilles on the 10th of July 1592. In 1616 he entered upon
+some very extensive researches into the genealogy of the noble families
+of the kingdom, in which work he was aided by his prodigious memory for
+dates, names and family relationships, as well as by his profound
+knowledge of heraldry. In 1634 he was appointed historiographer and
+genealogist of France, and in 1641 _juge d'armes_ of France, an officer
+corresponding nearly to the Garter king-of-arms in England. In 1643 he
+was employed to verify the claims to nobility of the pages and equerries
+of the king's household. He accumulated a large number of documents, but
+published comparatively little, his principal works being _Recueil
+armorial des anciennes maisons de Bretagne_ (1638); _Les noms, surnoms,
+qualitez, armes et blasons des chevaliers et officiers de l'ordre du
+Saint-Esprit_ (1634); and the genealogies of the houses of La
+Rochefoucauld (1654), Bournonville (1657) and Amanzé (1659). He was
+renowned as much for his uprightness as for his knowledge, no slight
+praise in a profession exposed to so many temptations to fraud. He died
+in Paris on the 1st of December 1660. At his death his collections
+comprised more than 150 volumes or portfolios of documents and papers
+relating to the genealogy of the principal families in France. Of his
+six sons, only two survived him. His eldest son, Louis Roger d'Hozier
+(1634-1708), succeeded him as _juge d'armes_, but became blind in 1675,
+and was obliged to surrender his office to his brother.
+
+CHARLES RENÉ D'HOZIER (1640-1732), younger son of Pierre, was the true
+continuator of his father. In addition to his commentary appended to
+Antoine Varillas's history of King Charles IX. (1686 ed.), he published
+_Recherches sur la noblesse de Champagne_ (1673). On the promulgation in
+1696 of an edict directing all who had armorial bearings to register
+them on payment of 20 livres, he was employed to collect the
+declarations returned in the various _généralités_, and established the
+_Armorial général de France_. This work, which contained not only the
+armorial bearings of noble families, but also of those commoners who
+were entitled to bear arms, is not complete, inasmuch as many refused to
+register their arms, either from vanity or from a desire to evade the
+fee.
+
+  The collection (now in the Bibliothèque Nationale) consists of 34
+  volumes of text and 35 of coloured armorial bearings, and in spite of
+  its deficiencies is a useful store of information for the history of
+  the old French families. It contains 60,000 names, grouped according
+  to provinces and provincial subdivisions. The sections relating to
+  Burgundy and Franche-Comté were published by Henri Bouchot
+  (1875-1876): those relating to the _généralité_ of Limoges, by Moreau
+  de Pravieux (1895); and those for the _élection_ of Reims, by P.
+  Gosset (1903).
+
+In 1717, in consequence of a quarrel with his nephew Louis Pierre, son
+of Louis Roger, Charles sold his collection to the king. It then
+comprised 160 portfolios of genealogical papers arranged alphabetically,
+175 volumes of documents, and numerous printed books profusely
+annotated. In 1720 it was inventoried by P. de Clairambault, who added a
+certain number of genealogies taken from the papers of F. R. de
+Gaignières, increasing the total to 217 boxes and portfolios. Thus
+originated the _Cabinet des titres_ of the Bibliothèque Nationale.
+Charles subsequently became reconciled to his nephew, to whom he left
+all the papers he had accumulated from the date of the quarrel until his
+death, which occurred in Paris on the 13th of February 1732.
+
+LOUIS PIERRE D'HOZIER (1685-1767), son of Louis Roger, succeeded his
+uncle Charles as _juge d'armes_. He published the _Armorial général, ou
+registre de la noblesse de France_ (10 vols., 1738-1768), which must not
+be confounded with the publication mentioned above, inasmuch as it
+related solely to noble families and was not an official collection.
+Complete copies of this work, which should contain six _registres_, are
+comparatively rare. A seventh _registre_, forming vol. xi., prepared by
+Ambroise Louis Marie, nephew of Louis Pierre, was published in 1847 by
+comte Charles d'Hozier. Louis Pierre died on the 25th of September 1767.
+His eldest son, Antoine Marie d'Hozier de Sérigny (1721-c. 1810), was
+his father's collaborator and continuator; and his fourth son, Jean
+François Louis, wrote an account of the knights of St Michael in the
+province of Poitou, which was published in 1896 by the vicomte P. de
+Chabot.
+
+His nephew, AMBROISE LOUIS MARIE D'HOZIER (1764-1846), was the last of
+the _juges d'armes_ of France. He held the position of president of the
+_cour des comptes, aides et finances_ of Normandy, and was therefore
+generally known as President d'Hozier, to distinguish him from the other
+members of the family. After the Restoration he was employed to verify
+French armorial bearings for the _conseil du sceau des titres_. He died
+in obscurity. His collection, which was purchased in 1851 by the
+Bibliothèque Nationale, comprised 136 volumes, 165 portfolios of
+documents and 200 packets of extracts from title-deeds, known as the
+_Carrés d'Hozier_.
+
+ABRAHAM CHARLES AUGUSTE D'HOZIER (1775-1846), who also belonged to his
+family, was implicated in the conspiracy of Georges Cadoudal, and was
+condemned to death, but Bonaparte spared his life. He did not, however,
+recover his liberty until after the fall of the emperor, and died at
+Versailles on the 24th of August 1846.     (C. B.*)
+
+
+
+
+HRABANUS MAURUS MAGNENTIUS (c. 776-856), archbishop of Mainz, and one of
+the most prominent teachers and writers of the Carolingian age, was born
+of noble parents at Mainz. Less correct forms of his name are Rabanus
+and Rhabanus. The date of his birth is uncertain, but in 801 he received
+deacon's orders at Fulda, where he had been sent to school; in the
+following year, at the instance of Ratgar, his abbot, he went together
+with Haimon (afterwards of Halberstadt) to complete his studies at Tours
+under Alcuin, who in recognition of his diligence and purity gave him
+the surname of Maurus, after St Maur the favourite disciple of Benedict.
+Returning after the lapse of two years to Fulda, he was entrusted with
+the principal charge of the school, which under his direction rose into
+a state of great efficiency for that age, and sent forth such pupils as
+Walafrid Strabo, Servatus Lupus of Ferières and Otfrid of Weissenburg.
+At this period it is most probable that his _Excerptio_ from the grammar
+of Priscian, long so popular as a text-book during the middle ages, was
+compiled. In 814 he was ordained a priest; but shortly afterwards,
+apparently on account of disagreement with Ratgar, he was compelled to
+withdraw for a time from Fulda. This "banishment" is understood to have
+occasioned the pilgrimage to Palestine to which he alludes in his
+commentary on Joshua. He returned to Fulda on the election of a new
+abbot (Eigil) in 817, upon whose death in 822 he himself became abbot.
+The duties of this office he discharged with efficiency and success
+until 842, when, in order to secure greater leisure for literature and
+for devotion, he resigned and retired to the neighbouring cloister of St
+Peter's. In 847 he was again constrained to enter public life by his
+election to succeed Otgar in the archbishopric of Mainz, which see he
+occupied for upwards of eight years. The principal incidents of
+historical interest belonging to this period of his life were those
+which arose out of his relations to Gottschalk (q.v.): they may be
+regarded as thoroughly typical of that cruel intolerance which he shared
+with all his contemporaries, and also of that ardent zeal which was
+peculiar to himself; but they hardly do justice to the spirit of kindly
+benevolence which in less trying circumstances he was ever ready to
+display. He died at Winkel on the Rhine, on the 4th of February 856. He
+is frequently referred to as St Rabanus, but incorrectly.
+
+  His voluminous works, many of which remain unpublished, comprise
+  commentaries on a considerable number of the books both of canonical
+  and of apocryphal Scripture (Genesis to Judges, Ruth, Kings,
+  Chronicles, Judith, Esther, Canticles, Proverbs, Wisdom,
+  Ecclesiasticus, Jeremiah, Lamentations, Ezekiel, Maccabees, Matthew,
+  the Epistles of St Paul, including Hebrews); and various treatises
+  relating to doctrinal and practical subjects, including more than one
+  series of Homilies. Perhaps the most important is that _De
+  institutione clericorum_, in three books, by which he did much to
+  bring into prominence the views of Augustine and Gregory the Great as
+  to the training which was requisite for a right discharge of the
+  clerical function; the most popular has been a comparatively worthless
+  tract _De laudibus sanctae crucis_. Among the others may be mentioned
+  the _De universo libri xxii., sive etymologiarum opus_, a kind of
+  dictionary or encyclopaedia, designed as a help towards the historical
+  and mystical interpretation of Scripture, the _De sacris ordinibus_,
+  the _De disciplina ecclesiastica_ and the _Martyrologium_. All of them
+  are characterized by erudition (he knew even some Greek and Hebrew)
+  rather than by originality of thought. The poems are of singularly
+  little interest or value, except as including one form of the "Veni
+  Creator." In the annals of German philology a special interest
+  attaches to the _Glossaria Latino-Theodisca_. A commentary, _Super
+  Porphyrium_, printed by Cousin in 1836 among the _Ouvrages inédits
+  d'Abélard_, and assigned both by that editor and by Hauréau to
+  Hrabanus Maurus, is now generally believed to have been the work of a
+  disciple.
+
+  The first nominally complete edition of the works of Hrabanus Maurus
+  was that of Colvener (Cologne, 6 vols. fol., 1627). The _Opera omnia_
+  form vols. cvii.-cxii. of Migne's _Patrologiae cursus completus_. The
+  _De universo_ is the subject of _Compendium der Naturwissenschaften an
+  der Schule zu Fulda im IX. Jahrhundert_ (Berlin, 1880). Maurus is the
+  subject of monographs by Schwarz (_De Rhabano Mauro primo Germaniae
+  praeceptore_, 1811), Kunstmann (_Historische Monographie über Hrabanus
+  Magnentius Maurus_, 1841), Spengler (_Leben des heil. Rhabanus
+  Maurus_, 1856) and Köhler (_Rhabanus Maurus u. die Schule zu Fulda_,
+  1870). _Lives_ by his disciple Rudolphus and by Joannes Trithemius are
+  printed in the Cologne edition of the _Opera_. See also Pertz, _Monum.
+  Germ. Hist._ (i. and ii.); Bähr, _Gesch. d. römischen Literatur im
+  Karoling. Zeitalter_ (1840), and Hauck's article in the Herzog-Hauck
+  _Realencyklopädie_, ed. 3.
+
+
+
+
+HRÓLFR KRAKI, perhaps the most famous of the Danish kings of the heroic
+age. In _Beowulf_, where he is called Hrothwulf, he is represented as
+reigning over Denmark in conjunction with his uncle Hrothgar, one of the
+three sons of an earlier king called Healfdene. In the Old Norse sagas
+Hrólfe is the son of Helgi (Halga), the son of Halfdan (Healfdene). He
+is represented as a wealthy and peace-loving monarch similar to Hrothgar
+in _Beowulf_, but the latter (Hróarr, or Roe) is quite overshadowed by
+his nephew in the Northern authorities. The chief incidents in Hrólfr's
+career are the visit which he paid to the Swedish king Aðils (Beowulf's
+Eadgils), of which several different explanations are given, and the
+war, in which he eventually lost his life, against his brother-in-law
+Hiörvarðr. The name Kraki (pole-ladder) is said to have been given to
+him on account of his great height by a young knight named Vöggr, whom
+he handsomely rewarded and who eventually avenged his death on
+Hiörvarðr. There is no reason to doubt that Hrólfr was an historical
+person and that he reigned in Denmark during the early years of the 6th
+century, but the statement found in all the sagas that he was the
+stepson of Aðils seems hardly compatible with the evidence of _Beowulf_,
+which is a much earlier authority.
+
+  See Saxo Grammaticus, _Gesta Danorum_, pp. 52-68, ed. A. Holder
+  (Strassburg, 1886); and A. Olrik, _Danmarks Hettedigtning_
+  (Copenhagen, 1903).
+
+
+
+
+HROSVITHA (frequently ROSWITHA, and properly HROTSUIT), early medieval
+dramatist and chronicler, occupies a very notable position in the
+history of modern European literature. Her endeavours formed part of the
+literary activity by which the age of the emperor Otto the Great sought
+to emulate that of Charles the Great. The famous nun of Gandersheim has
+occasionally been confounded with her namesake, a learned abbess of the
+same convent, who must have died at least half a century earlier. The
+younger Hrosvitha was born in all probability about the year 935; and,
+if the statement be correct that she sang the praises of the three
+Ottos, she must have lived to near the close of the century. Some time
+before the year 959 she entered the Benedictine nunnery of Gandersheim,
+a foundation which was confined to ladies of German birth, and was
+highly favoured by the Saxon dynasty. In 959 Gerberga, daughter of Duke
+Henry of Bavaria and niece of the emperor Otto I., was consecrated
+abbess of Gandersheim; and the earlier literary efforts of the youthful
+Hrosvitha (whose own connexion with the royal family appears to be an
+unauthenticated tradition) were encouraged by the still more youthful
+abbess, and by a nun of the name of Richarda.
+
+The literary works of Hrosvitha, all of which were as a matter of course
+in Latin, divide themselves into three groups. Of these the first and
+least important comprises eight narrative religious poems, in leonine
+hexameters or distichs. Their subjects are the Nativity of the Virgin
+(from the apocryphal gospel of St James, the brother of our Lord), the
+Ascension and a series of legends of saints (Gandolph, Pelagius,
+Theophilus, Basil, Denis, Agnes). Like these narrative poems, the dramas
+to which above all Hrosvitha owes her fame seem to have been designed
+for reading aloud or recitation by sisters of the convent. For though
+there are indications that the idea of their representation was at least
+present to the mind of the authoress, the fact of such a representation
+appears to be an unwarrantable assumption. The comedies of Hrosvitha are
+six in number, being doubtless in this respect also intended to recall
+their nominal model, the comedies of Terence. They were devised on the
+simple principle that the world, the flesh and the devil should not have
+all the good plays to themselves. The experiment upon which the young
+Christian dramatist ventured was accordingly, although not absolutely
+novel, audacious enough. In form the dramas of "the strong voice of
+Gandersheim," as Hrosvitha (possibly alluding to a supposed etymology of
+her name) calls herself, are by no means Terentian. They are written in
+prose, with an element of something like rhythm, and an occasional
+admixture of rhyme. In their themes, and in the treatment of these, they
+are what they were intended to be, the direct opposites of the lightsome
+adapter of Menander. They are founded upon legends of the saints,
+selected with a view to a glorification of religion in its supremest
+efforts and most transcendental aspects. The emperor Constantine's
+daughter, for example, Constantia, gives her hand in marriage to
+_Gallicanus_, just before he starts on a Scythian campaign, though she
+has already taken a vow of perpetual maidenhood. In the hour of battle
+he is himself converted, and, having on his return like his virgin bride
+chosen the more blessed unmarried state, dies as a Christian martyr in
+exile. The three holy maidens, Agape, Chionia and Irene, are preserved
+by a humorous miracle from the evil designs of _Dulcitius_, to offer up
+their pure lives as a sacrifice under Diocletian's persecutions.
+_Callimachus_, who has Romeo-like carried his earthly passion for the
+saintly Drusiana into her tomb, and among its horrors has met with his
+own death, is by the mediation of St John raised with her from the dead
+to a Christian life. All these themes are treated with both spirit and
+skill, often with instinctive knowledge of dramatic effect--often with
+genuine touches of pathos and undeniable felicities of expression. In
+_Dulcitius_ there is also an element of comedy, or rather of farce. How
+far Hrosvitha's comedies were an isolated phenomenon of their age in
+Germany must remain undecided; in the general history of the drama they
+form the visible bridge between the few earlier attempts at utilizing
+the forms of the classical drama for Christian purposes and the miracle
+plays. They are in any case the productions of genius; nor has Hrosvitha
+missed the usual tribute of the supposition that Shakespeare has
+borrowed from her writings.
+
+The third and last group of the writings of Hrosvitha is that of her
+versified historical chronicles. At the request of the abbess Gerberga,
+she composed her _Carmen de gestis Oddonis_, an epic attempting in some
+degree to follow the great Roman model. It was completed by the year
+968, and presented by the authoress to both the old emperor and his son
+(then already crowned as) Otto II. This poem so closely adheres to the
+materials supplied to the authoress by members of the imperial family
+that, notwithstanding its courtly omissions, it is regarded as an
+historical authority. Unfortunately only half of it remains; the part
+treating of the period from 953 to 962 is lost with the exception of a
+few fragments, and the period from 962 to 967 is summarized only.
+Subsequently, in a poem (of 837 hexameters) _De primordiis et
+fundatoribus coenobii Gandersheimensis_, Hrosvitha narrated the
+beginnings of her own convent, and its history up to the year 919.
+
+  The Munich MS., which contains all the works enumerated above except
+  the _Chronicle of Gandersheim_, was edited by the great Vienna
+  humanist, Conrad Celtes, in 1501. The edition of Celtes was published
+  at Nuremberg, with eight wood-cuts by Albrecht Dürer. It was re-edited
+  by H. L. Schurzfleisch and published at Wittenberg in 1707. The
+  comedies have been edited and translated into German by J. Bendixen
+  (Lübeck, 1857), and into French by C. Magnin (Paris, 1845), whose
+  introduction gives a full account of the authoress and her works. See
+  also her _Poésies latines_, with a translation into French verse by V.
+  Rétif de la Bretonne (Paris, 1854). A copious analysis of her plays
+  will be found in Klein, _Geschichte des Dramas_, iii. 665-754. See
+  also W. Creizenach, _Geschichte des neueren Dramas_, i. 17 sqq.
+  (Halle, 1893), and A. W. Ward, _History of English Dramatic
+  Literature_, i. 6 sqq. (Cambridge, 1899). Gustav Freytag wrote a
+  dissertation, _De Rosuitha poëtria_ (Breslau, 1839), to qualify
+  himself as an academical teacher, which, as he records (_Erinnerungen
+  aus meinem Leben_, Leipzig, 1887, p. 1839), showed "how impossible it
+  was to the German, a thousand years since, to compose dramatically";
+  and at the beginning of Albert Cohn's _Shakespeare in Germany_
+  (Berlin, 1865) Shakespearean parallels are suggested to certain
+  passages in Hrosvitha's dramas. Her two chronicles in verse were
+  edited by Z. H. Pertz in the _Monumenta Germaniae_, iv. 306-335
+  (Hanover, 1841). See also J. P. Migne, _Patrologiae curs. compl._
+  (Paris, 1853, vol. 137). The _Carmen_ was included by Leibnitz in his
+  _Scriptores rer. Brunsvic._ (Hanover, 1707-1711). For other early
+  editions of these see A. Potthast, _Bibliotheca historica medii aevi_
+  (supplement, Berlin, 1862-1868); and for an appreciation of them see
+  Wattenbach, _Geschichtsquellen_, pp. 214-216, and Giesebrecht,
+  _Deutsche Kaiserzeit_, i. 780, who mentions a German translation by
+  Pfund (1860). There is a complete edition of the works of Hrosvitha by
+  K. A. Barack (Nürnberg, 1858). J. Aschbach (1867) attempted to prove
+  that Celtes had forged the productions which he published under the
+  name of Hrosvitha, but he was refuted by R. Köpke (Berlin, 1869).
+  Anatole France, _La Vie littéraire_ (3^ème série, Paris, 1891), cited
+  by Creienach, mentions a curious recent experiment, the performance of
+  Hrosvitha's comedies in the Théâtre des Marionettes at Paris.
+       (A. W. W.)
+
+
+
+
+HSÜAN TSANG (HIOUEN THSANG, HIWEN T'SANG, YÜAN TSANG, YUAN-CHWANG), the
+most eminent representative of a remarkable and valuable branch of
+Chinese literature, consisting of the narratives of Chinese Buddhists
+who travelled to India, whilst their religion flourished there, with the
+view of visiting the sites consecrated by the history of Sakya Muni, of
+studying at the great convents which then existed in India, and of
+collecting books, relics and other sacred objects.
+
+  The importance of these writings as throwing light on the geography
+  and history of India and adjoining countries, during a very dark
+  period, is great, and they have been the subject of elaborate
+  commentaries by modern students. Several Chinese memoirs of this kind
+  appear to have perished; and especially to be regretted is a great
+  collection of the works of travellers to India, religious and secular,
+  in sixty books, with forty more of maps and illustrations, published
+  at the expense of the emperor Kao-Tsung of the T'ang dynasty, A.D.
+  666, with a preface from the imperial hand. We will mention the
+  clerical travellers of this description who are known to us by name.
+
+  1. _Shi-tao-'an_ (d. 385) wrote a work on his travels to the "western
+  lands" (an expression applying often to India), which is supposed to
+  be lost. 2. _Fa-hien_ travelled to India in 399, and returned by sea
+  in 414. His work, called _Fo-Kwo-Ki, or Memoirs on the Buddha Realms_,
+  has been translated by Abel-Rémusat and Landresse, and again into
+  English by the Rev. S. Beale; Mr Laidlay of Calcutta also published a
+  translation from the French, with interesting notes. 3. _Hwai Seng_
+  and _Sung-Yun_, monks, travelled to India to collect books and
+  reliques, 518-521. Their short narrative has been translated by Karl
+  Fried. Neumann, and also by Mr Beale (along with Fa-hien). 4. _Hsüan
+  Tsang_, the subject of this notice. In relation to his travels there
+  are two Chinese works, both of which have been translated with an
+  immense appliance of labour and learning by M. Stanislas Julien, viz.
+  (a) the _Ta-T'ang-Si-Yu-Ki, or Memoirs on Western Countries issued by
+  the T'ang Dynasty_, which was compiled under the traveller's own
+  supervision, by order of the great emperor Tai-Tsung; and (b) a
+  _Biography of Hsüan Tsang_ by two of his contemporaries. 5. _The
+  Itinerary of Fifty-six Religious Travellers_, compiled and published
+  under imperial authority, 730. 6. _The Itinerary of Khi-Nie_, who
+  travelled (964-976) at the head of a large body of monks to collect
+  books, &c. Neither of the last two has been translated.
+
+Hsüan Tsang was born in the district of Keu-Shi, near Honan-Fu, about
+605, a period at which Buddhism appears to have had a powerful influence
+upon a large body of educated Chinese. From childhood grave and
+studious, he was taken in charge by an elder brother who had adopted the
+monastic life, in a convent at the royal city of Loyang in Honan. Hsüan
+Tsang soon followed his brother's example. For some years he travelled
+over China, teaching and learning, and eventually settled for a time at
+the capital Chang-gan (now Si-gan-fu in Shensi), where his fame for
+learning became great. The desire which he entertained to visit India,
+in order to penetrate all the doctrines of the Buddhist philosophy, and
+to perfect the collections of Indian books which existed in China, grew
+irresistible, and in August 629 he started upon his solitary journey,
+eluding with difficulty the strict prohibition which was in force
+against crossing the frontier.
+
+The "master of the law," as his biographers call him, plunged alone into
+the terrible desert of the Gobi, then known as the Sha-mo or "Sand
+River," between Kwa-chow and Igu (now Hami or Kamil). At long intervals
+he found help from the small garrisons of the towers that dotted the
+desert track. Very striking is the description, like that given six
+centuries later by Marco Polo, of the quasi-supernatural horrors that
+beset the lonely traveller in the wilderness--the visions of armies and
+banners; and the manner in which they are dissipated singularly recalls
+passages in Bunyan's _Pilgrim's Progress_. After great suffering Hsüan
+Tsang reached Igu, the seat of a Turkish principality, and pursued his
+way along the southern foot of the T'ian-shan, which he crossed by a
+glacier pass (vividly described) in the longitude of Lake Issyk-kul. In
+the valley of the Talas river he encounters the great khan of the Turks
+on a hunting party,--a rencontre which it is interesting to compare with
+the visit of Zemarchus to the great khan Dizabul, sixty years before, in
+the same region. Passing by the present Tashkend, and by Samarkand, then
+inhabited by fire worshippers, he reached the basin of the Upper Oxus,
+which had recently been the seat of the powerful dominion of the
+Haiathelah, Ephthalites or White Huns, known in earlier days to the
+Greeks as _Tochari_, and to Hsüan Tsang (by the same name) as _Tuholo_
+or Tukhara. His account of the many small states into which the Tukhara
+empire had broken up is of great interest, as many of them are identical
+in name and topography with the high valley states and districts on the
+Upper Oxus, which are at this day the object of so much geographical and
+political interest.
+
+Passing by Bamian, where he speaks of the great idols still so famous,
+he crosses Hindu-Kush, and descends the valley of the Kabul river to
+Nagarahara, the site of which, still known as Nagara, adjoining
+Jalalabad, has been explored by Mr W. Simpson. Travelling thence to
+Peshawar (_Purushapura_), the capital of Gandhara, he made a digression,
+through the now inaccessible valley of Swat and the Dard states, to the
+Upper Indus, returning to Peshawar, and then crossing the Indus
+(_Sintu_) into the decayed kingdom of _Taxila_ (Ta-cha-si-lo,
+Takshasila), then subject to Kashmir. In the latter valley he spent two
+whole years (631-633) studying in the convents, and visiting the many
+monuments of his faith. In his further travels he visited Mathura
+(_Mot'ulo_, Muttra), whence he turned north to Thanesar and the upper
+Jumna and Ganges, returning south down the valley of the latter to
+Kanyakubja or Kanauj, then one of the great capitals of India. The
+pilgrim next entered on a circuit of the most famous sites of Buddhist
+and of ancient Indian history, such as Ajodhya, Prayaga (Allahabad),
+Kausambhi, Sravasti, Kapilavastu, the birth-place of Sakya, Kusinagara,
+his death-place, Pataliputra (Patna, the _Palibothra_ of the Greeks),
+Gaya, Rajagriha and Nalanda, the most famous and learned monastery and
+college in India, adorned by the gifts of successive kings, of the
+splendour of which he gives a vivid description, and of which traces
+have recently been recovered. There he again spent nearly two years in
+mastering Sanskrit and the depths of Buddhist philosophy. Again,
+proceeding down the banks of the Ganges, he diverged eastward to
+Kamarupa (Assam), and then passed by the great ports of Tamralipti
+(Tamluk, the misplaced _Tamalitis_ of Ptolemy), and through Orissa to
+Kanchipara (Conjeeveram), about 640. Thence he went northward across the
+Carnatic and Maharashtra to Barakacheva (Broach of our day, _Barygaza_
+of the Greeks). After this he visited Malwa, Cutch, Surashtra
+(peninsular Gujarat, _Syrastrene_ of the Greeks), Sind, Multan and
+Ghazni, whence he rejoined his former course in the basin of the Kabul
+river.
+
+This time, however, he crosses Pamir, of which he gives a remarkable
+account, and passes by Kashgar, Khotan (_Kustana_), and the vicinity of
+Lop-nor across the desert to Kwa-chow, whence he had made his venturous
+and lonely plunge into the waste fifteen years before. He carried with
+him great collections of books, precious images and reliques, and was
+received (April 645) with public and imperial enthusiasm. The emperor
+T'ai-Tsung desired him to commit his journey to writing, and also that
+he should abandon the eremitic rule and serve the state. This last he
+declined, and devoted himself to the compilation of his narrative and
+the translation of the books he had brought with him from India. The
+former was completed A.D. 648. In 664 Hsüan Tsang died in a convent at
+Chang-gan. Some things in the history of his last days, and in the
+indications of beatitude recorded, strongly recall the parallel history
+of the saints of the Roman calendar. But on the other hand we find the
+Chinese saint, on the approach of death, causing one of his disciples to
+frame a catalogue of his good works, of the books that he had translated
+or caused to be transcribed, of the sacred pictures executed at his
+cost, of the alms that he had given, of the living creatures that he had
+ransomed from death. "When Kia-shang had ended writing this list, the
+master ordered him to read it aloud. After hearing it the devotees
+clasped their hands, and showered their felicitations on him." Thus the
+"well-done, good and faithful" comes from the servant himself in
+self-applause.
+
+The book of the biography, by the disciples Hwai-li and Yen-t'sung, as
+rendered with judicious omissions by Stan. Julien, is exceedingly
+interesting; its Chinese style receives high praise from the translator,
+who says he has often had to regret his inability to reproduce its
+grace, elegance and vivacity.
+
+  AUTHORITIES.--_Fo-Koue-Ki_, trad. du Chinois, par Abel-Rémusat, revu
+  et complété par Klaproth et Landresse (Paris, 1836); _H. de la vie de
+  Hiouen-Thsang, &c._, trad. du Chinois par Stanislas Julien (Paris,
+  1853); _Mémoires sur les contrées occidentales ..._ trad. du Chinois
+  en Français (par le même) (2 vols., Paris, 1857-1858); _Mémoire
+  analytique_, &c., attached to the last work, by L. Vivien de St
+  Martin; "Attempt to identify some of the Places mentioned in the
+  Itinerary of Hiuan Thsang," by Major Wm. Anderson, C.B., in _Journ.
+  As. Soc. Bengal_, vol. xvi. pt. 2, p. 1183 (the enunciation of a
+  singularly perverse theory); "Verification of the Itinerary of Hwan
+  Thsang, &c.," by Captain Alex. Cunningham, Bengal Engineers, ibid.
+  vol. xvii. pt. 1, p. 476; _Travels of Fah-hian and Sung-Yan, Buddhist
+  Pilgrims, &c._, by Sam. Beal (1869); _The Ancient Geography of India_,
+  by Major-General Alex. Cunningham, R.E. (1871); "Notes on Hwen
+  Thsang's Account of the Principalities of Tokharistan," by Colonel H.
+  Yule, C.B., in _Journ. Roy. As. Soc._, new ser., vol. vi. p. 82; "On
+  Hiouen Thsang's Journey from Patna to Ballabhi," by James Fergusson,
+  D.C.L., ibid. p. 213.     (H. Y.; R. K. D.)
+
+
+
+
+HUAMBISAS, a tribe of South American Indians on the upper Marañon and
+Santiago rivers, Peru. In 1841 they drove all the civilized Indians from
+the neighbouring missions. In 1843 they killed all the inhabitants of
+the village of Santa Teresa, between the mouths of the Santiago and
+Morona. They are fair-skinned and bearded, sharing with the Jeveros a
+descent from the Spanish women captured by their Indian ancestors at the
+sack of Sevilla del Oro in 1599.
+
+
+
+
+HUANCAVELICA, a city of central Peru and capital of a department, 160 m.
+S.E. of Lima. The city stands in a deep ravine of the Andes at an
+elevation of about 12,400 ft. above the sea, the ravine having an
+average width of 1 m. Pop. (1906 estimate) 6000. The city is solidly and
+regularly built, the houses being of stone and the stream that flows
+through the town being spanned by several stone bridges. Near
+Huancavelica is the famous quicksilver mine of Santa Barbara, with its
+subterranean church of San Rosario, hewn from the native
+cinnabar-bearing rock. Huancavelica was founded by Viceroy Francisco de
+Toledo in 1572 as a mining town, and mining continues to be the
+principal occupation of its inhabitants. The department is traversed by
+the Cordillera Occidental, and is bounded N., E. and S. by Junin and
+Ayacucho. Pop. (1906 official estimate) 167,840; area, 9254 sq. m. The
+principal industry is mining for silver and quicksilver. The best-known
+silver mines are the Castrovirreyna.
+
+
+
+
+HUÁNUCO, a city of central Peru, capital of a department, 170 m. N.N.E.
+of Lima in a beautiful valley on the left bank of the Huallaga river,
+nearly 6000 ft. above sea-level. Pop. (1906 estimate) about 6000. The
+town was founded in 1539 by Gomez Alvarado. Huánuco is celebrated for
+its fruits and sweetmeats, the "chirimoya" (_Anona chirimolia_) of this
+region being the largest and most delicious of its kind. Mining is one
+of the city's industries. Huánuco was the scene of one of the
+bloodthirsty massacres of which the Chileans were guilty during their
+occupation of Peruvian territory in 1881-1883. The department of Huánuco
+lies immediately N. of Junin, with Ancachs on the W. and San Martin and
+Loreto on the N. and E. Pop. (1906 estimate) 108,980; area, 14,028 sq.
+m. It lies wholly in the Cordillera region, and is traversed from S. to
+N. by the Marañon and Huallaga rivers.
+
+
+
+
+HUARAZ, a city of northern Peru and capital o£ the department of
+Ancachs, on the left bank of the Huaraz, or Santa river, about 190 m.
+N.N.W. of Lima and 58 m. from the coast. Pop. (1876) 4851, (1906
+estimate) 6000. Huaraz is situated in a narrow fertile valley of the
+Western Cordillera, at a considerable elevation above sea-level, and has
+a mild climate. A railway projected to connect Huaraz with the port of
+Chimbote, on the Bay of Chimbote, a few miles S. of the mouth of the
+Santa river, was completed from Chimbote to Suchimán (33 m.) in 1872,
+when work was suspended for want of money. In the valley of the Huaraz
+cattle are raised, and wheat, sugar and fruit, gold, silver, copper and
+coal are produced. Alfalfa is grown by stock-raisers, and the cattle
+raised here are among the best in the Peruvian market. In the vicinity
+of Huaraz are megalithic ruins similar to those of Tiahunaco and Cuzco,
+showing that the aboriginal empire preceding the Incas extended into
+northern Peru.
+
+
+
+
+HUARTE DE SAN JUAN, or HUARTE Y NAVARRO, JUAN (c. 1530-1592), Spanish
+physician and psychologist, was born at Saint-Jean-Pied-de-Port (Lower
+Navarre) about 1530, was educated at the university of Huesca, where he
+graduated in medicine, and, though it appears doubtful whether he
+practised as a physician at Huesca, distinguished himself by his
+professional skill and heroic zeal during the plague which devastated
+Baeza in 1566. He died in 1592. His _Examen de ingenios para las
+ciencias_ (1575) won him a European reputation, and was translated by
+Lessing. Though now superseded, Huarte's treatise is historically
+interesting as the first attempt to show the connexion between
+psychology and physiology, and its acute ingenuity is as remarkable as
+the boldness of its views.
+
+
+
+
+HUASTECS, a tribe of North American Indians of Mayan stock, living to
+the north of Vera Cruz. They are of interest to the ethnologist as being
+so entirely detached from the other Mayan tribes of Central America. The
+theory is that the Mayas came from the north and that the Huastecs were
+left behind in the migration southward.
+
+
+
+
+HUBER, FRANÇOIS (1750-1831), Swiss naturalist, was born at Geneva on the
+2nd of July 1750. He belonged to a family which had already made its
+mark in the literary and scientific world: his great-aunt, Marie Huber
+(1695-1753), was known as a voluminous writer on religious and
+theological subjects, and as the translator and epitomizer of the
+_Spectator_ (Amsterdam, 3 vols., 1753); and his father Jean Huber
+(1721-1786), who had served for many years as a soldier, was a prominent
+member of the coterie at Ferney, distinguishing himself by his
+_Observations sur le vol des oiseaux_ (Geneva, 1784). François Huber was
+only fifteen years old when he began to suffer from an affection of the
+eyes which gradually resulted in total blindness; but, with the aid of
+his wife, Marie Aimée Lullin, and of his servant, François Burnens, he
+was able to carry out investigations that laid the foundations of our
+scientific knowledge of the life history of the honey-bee. His
+_Nouvelles Observations sur les abeilles_ was published at Geneva in
+1792 (Eng. trans., 1806). He assisted Jean Senebier in his _Mém. sur
+l'influence de l'air, &c., dans la germination_ (Geneva, 1800); and he
+also wrote "Mém. sur l'origine de la cire" (_Bibliothèque britannique_,
+tome xxv.), a "Lettre à M. Pictet sur certains dangers que courent les
+abeilles" (_Bib. brit_. xxvii), and "Nouvelles Observ. rel. au sphinx
+Atropos" (_Bib. brit_. xxvii). He died at Lausanne on the 22nd of
+December 1831. De Candolle gave his name to a genus of Brazilian
+trees--_Huberia laurina_.
+
+PIERRE HUBER (1777-1840) followed in his father's footsteps. His
+best-known work is _Recherches sur les moeurs des fourmis indigènes_
+(Geneva and Paris, 1810; new ed., Geneva, 1861), and he also wrote
+various papers on entomological subjects.
+
+  See the account of François Huber, by De Candolle, in _Bibl.
+  universelle_ (1832); and the notice of Pierre in _Bibl. univ._ (1886);
+  also Haag, _La France protestante_.
+
+
+
+
+HUBER, JOHANN NEPOMUK (1830-1879), German philosophical and theological
+writer, a leader of the Old Catholics, was born at Munich on the 18th of
+August 1830. Originally destined for the priesthood, he early began the
+study of theology. By the writings of Spinoza and Oken, however, he was
+strongly drawn to philosophical pursuits, and it was in philosophy that
+he "habilitated" (1854) in the university of his native place, where he
+ultimately became professor (extraordinarius, 1859; ordinarius, 1864).
+With Döllinger and others he attracted a large amount of public
+attention in 1869 by the challenge to the Ultramontane promoters of the
+Vatican council in the treatise _Der Papst und das Koncil_, which
+appeared under the pseudonym of "Janus," and also in 1870 by a series of
+letters (_Römische Briefe_, a redaction of secret reports sent from Rome
+during the sitting of the council), which were published over the
+pseudonym Quirinus in the _Allgemeine Zeitung_. He died suddenly of
+heart disease at Munich on the 20th of March 1879.
+
+WORKS.--The treatise _Über die Willensfreiheit_ (1858), followed in 1859
+by _Die Philosophie der Kirchenväter_, which was promptly placed upon
+the _Index_, and led to the prohibition of all Catholic students from
+attending his lectures; _Johannes Scotus Erigena_ (1861); _Die Idee der
+Unsterblichkeit_ (1864); _Studien_ (1867); _Der Proletarier; zur
+Orientirung in der sozialen Frage_ (1865); _Der Jesuitenorden nach
+seiner Verfassung und Doctrin, Wirksamkeit und Geschichte_ (1873), also
+placed upon the _Index_; _Der Pessimismus_ (1876); _Die Forschung nach
+der Materie_ (1877); _Zur Philosophie der Astronomie_ (1878); _Das
+Gedächtnis_ (1878). He also published adverse criticisms of Darwin,
+Strauss, Hartmann and Häckel; pamphlets on _Das Papsttum und der Staat_
+(1870), and on _Die Freiheiten der französischen Kirche_ (1871); and a
+volume of _Kleine Schriften_ (1871).
+
+See E. Zirngiebl, _Johannes Huber_ (1881); and M. Carrière in
+_Allgemeine deutsche Biographie_, xiii. (1881), and in _Nord und Süd_
+(1879).
+
+
+
+
+HUBER, LUDWIG FERDINAND (1764-1804), German author, was born in Paris on
+the 14th of September 1764, the son of Michael Huber (1727-1804), who
+did much to promote the study of German literature in France. In his
+infancy young Huber removed with his parents to Leipzig, where he was
+carefully instructed in modern languages and literature, and showed a
+particular inclination for those of France and England. In Leipzig he
+became intimate with Christian Gottfried Körner, father of the poet; in
+Dresden Huber became engaged to Dora Stock, sister of Körner's
+betrothed, and associated with Schiller, who was one of Körner's
+stanchest friends. In 1787 he was appointed secretary to the Saxon
+legation in Mainz, where he remained until the French occupation of
+1792. While here he interested himself for the welfare of the family of
+his friend Georg Forster, who, favouring republican views, had gone to
+Paris, leaving his wife Therese Forster (1764-1829) and family in
+destitute circumstances. Huber, enamoured of the talented young wife,
+gave up his diplomatic post, broke off his engagement to Dora Stock,
+removed with the Forster family to Switzerland, and on the death of her
+husband in 1794 married Therese Forster. In 1798 Huber took over the
+editorship of the _Allgemeine Zeitung_ in Stuttgart. The newspaper
+having been prohibited in Württemberg, Huber continued its editorship in
+Ulm in 1803. He was created "counsellor of education" for the new
+Bavarian province of Swabia in the following year, but had hardly
+entered upon the functions of his new office when he died on the 24th of
+December 1804.
+
+Huber was well versed in English literature, and in 1785 he published
+the drama _Ethelwolf_, with notes on Beaumont and Fletcher and the old
+English stage. He also wrote many dramas, comedies and tragedies, most
+of which are now forgotten, and among them only _Das heimliche Gericht_
+(1790, new ed. 1795) enjoyed any degree of popularity. As a critic he is
+seen to advantage in the _Vermischte Schriften von dem Verfasser des
+heimlichen Gerichts_ (2 vols., 1793). As a publicist he made his name in
+the historical-political periodicals _Friedenspräliminarien_ (1794-1796,
+10 vols.) and _Klio_ (1795-1798, 1819).
+
+  His collected works, _Sämtliche Werke seit dem Jahre 1802_ (4 vols.,
+  1807-1819), were published with a biography by his wife Therese Huber.
+  See L. Speidel and H. Wittmann, _Bilder aus der Schiller-Zeit_ (1884).
+
+
+
+
+HUBERT (HUCBERTUS, HUGBERTUS), ST (d. 727), bishop of Liége, whose
+festival is celebrated on the 3rd of November. The Bollandists have
+published seven different lives of the saint. The first is the only one
+of any value, and is the work of a contemporary. Unfortunately, it is
+very sparing of details. In it we see that Hubert in 708 succeeded
+Lambert in the see of Maestricht (Tongres), and that he erected a
+basilica to his memory. In 825 Hubert's remains were removed to a
+Benedictine cloister in the Ardennes, which thenceforth bore his name
+(St Hubert, province of Luxemburg, Belgium), and ultimately became a
+considerable resort of pilgrims. The later legends (_Bibliotheca
+hagiographica latina_, nos. 3994-4002) are devoid of authority. One of
+them relates, probably following the legend of St Eustace, the miracle
+of the conversion of St Hubert. This conversion, represented as having
+been brought about while he was hunting on Good Friday by a miraculous
+appearance of a stag bearing between his horns a cross or crucifix
+surrounded with rays of light, has frequently been made the subject of
+artistic treatment. He is the patron of hunters, and is also invoked in
+cases of hydrophobia. Several orders of knighthood have been under his
+protection; among these may be mentioned the Bavarian, the Bohemian and
+that of the electorate of Cologne.
+
+  See _Acta Sanctorum_, Novembris, i. 759-930; G. Kurth, _Chartes de
+  l'abbaye de St Hubert en Ardenne_ (Brussels, 1903); Anna Jameson,
+  _Sacred and Legendary Art_, i. 732-737 (London, 1896); Cahier,
+  _Caractéristiques des saints_, pp. 183, 775, &c. (Paris, 1867).
+       (H. De.)
+
+
+
+
+HUBERTUSBURG, a château in the kingdom of Saxony, near the village of
+Wermsdorf and midway 6 m. between the towns Oschatz and Grimma. It was
+built in 1721-1724 by Frederick Augustus II., elector of Saxony,
+subsequently King Augustus III. of Poland, as a hunting box, and was
+often the scene of brilliant festivities. It is famous for the peace
+signed here on the 15th of February 1763, which ended the Seven Years'
+War. After undergoing various vicissitudes, it now serves the purpose of
+a lunatic asylum and a training school for nursing sisters.
+
+  See Riemer, _Das Schloss Hubertusburg, sonst und jetzt_ (Oschatz,
+  1881).
+
+
+
+
+HUBLI, a town of British India, in the Dharwar district of Bombay, 15 m.
+S.E. of Dharwar town. Pop. (1901) 60,214. It is a railway junction on
+the Southern Mahratta system, where the lines to Bangalore and Bezwada
+branch off south and west. It is an important centre of trade and of
+cotton and silk weaving, and has two cotton mills and several factories
+for ginning and pressing cotton. Hubli was in early times the seat of an
+English factory, which, with the rest of the town, was plundered in 1673
+by Sivaji, the Mahratta leader.
+
+
+
+
+HÜBNER, EMIL (1834-1901), German classical scholar, son of the
+historical painter Julius Hübner (1806-1882), was born at Düsseldorf on
+the 7th of July 1834. After studying at Berlin and Bonn, he travelled
+extensively with a view to antiquarian and epigraphical researches. The
+results of these travels were embodied in several important works:
+_Inscriptiones Hispaniae Latinae_ (1869, supplement 1892), _I. H.
+Christianae_ (1871, supplement 1900); _Inscriptiones Britanniae Latinae_
+(1873), _I. B. Christianae_ (1876); _La Arqueologia de España_ (1888);
+_Monumenta linguae Hibericae_ (1893). Hübner was also the author of two
+books of the greatest utility to the classical student: _Grundriss zu
+Vorlesungen über die römische Literaturgeschichte_ (4th ed. 1878,
+edited, with large additions, by J. E. B. Mayor as _Bibliographical Clue
+to Latin Literature_, 1875), and _Bibliographie der classischen
+Altertumswissenschaft_ (2nd ed., 1889); mention may also be made of
+_Römische Epigraphik_ (2nd ed., 1892); _Exempla Scripturae Epigraphicae
+Latinae_ (1885); and _Römische Herrschaft in Westeuropa_ (1890). In 1870
+Hübner was appointed professor of Classical Philology in the university
+of Berlin, where he died on the 21st of February 1901.
+
+
+
+
+HÜBNER, JOSEPH ALEXANDER, COUNT (1811-1892), Austrian diplomatist, was
+born in Vienna on the 26th of November 1811. His real name was
+Hafenbredl, which he afterwards changed to Hübner. He began his public
+career in 1833 under Metternich, whose confidence he soon gained, and
+who sent him in 1837 as attaché to Paris. In 1841 he became secretary of
+embassy at Lisbon, and in 1844 Austrian consul-general at Leipzig. In
+1848 he was sent to Milan to conduct the diplomatic correspondence of
+Archduke Rainer, viceroy of Lombardy. On the outbreak of the revolution
+he was seized as a hostage, and remained a prisoner for some months.
+Returning to Austria, he was entrusted with the compilation of the
+documents and proclamations relating to the abdication of the Emperor
+Ferdinand and the accession of Francis Joseph. His journal, an
+invaluable clue to the complicated intrigues of this period, was
+published in 1891 in French and German, under the title of _Une Année de
+ma vie, 1848-1849_. In March 1849 he was sent on a special mission to
+Paris, and later in the same year was appointed ambassador to France. To
+his influence was in large measure due the friendly attitude of Austria
+to the Allies in the Crimean War, at the close of which he represented
+Austria at the congress of Paris in 1856. He allowed himself, however,
+to be taken by surprise by Napoleon's intervention on behalf of Italian
+unity, of which the first public intimation was given by the French
+emperor's cold reception of Hübner on New Year's Day, 1859, with the
+famous words: "I regret that our relations with your Government are not
+so good as they have hitherto been." He did not return to Paris after
+the war, and after holding the ministry of police in the Goluchowski
+cabinet from August to October 1859, lived in retirement till 1865, when
+he became ambassador at Rome. Quitting this post in 1867, he undertook
+extensive travels, his descriptions of which appeared as _Promenade
+autour du monde, 1871_ (1873; English translation by Lady Herbert, 1874)
+and _Through the British Empire_ (1886). Written in a bright and
+entertaining style, and characterized by shrewd observation, they
+achieved considerable popularity in their time. A more serious effort
+was his _Sixte-Quint_ (1870, translated into English by H. E. H.
+Jerningham under the title of _The Life and Times of Sixtus the Fifth_,
+1872), an original contribution to the history of the period, based on
+unpublished documents at the Vatican, Simancas and Venice. In 1879 he
+was made a life-member of the Austrian Upper House, where he sat as a
+Clerical and Conservative. He had received the rank of Baron (Freiherr)
+in 1854, and in 1888 was raised to the higher rank of Count (Graf). He
+died at Vienna on the 30th of July 1892. Though himself of middle-class
+origin, he was a profound admirer of the old aristocratic régime, and
+found his political ideals in his former chiefs, Metternich and
+Schwarzenberg. As the last survivor of the Metternich school, he became
+towards the close of his life more and more out of touch with the trend
+of modern politics, but remained a conspicuous figure in the Upper House
+and at the annual delegations. That he possessed the breadth of mind to
+appreciate the working of a system at total variance with his own school
+of thought was shown by his grasp of British colonial questions. It is
+interesting, in view of subsequent events, to note his emphatic belief
+in the loyalty of the British colonies--a belief not shared at that time
+by many statesmen with far greater experience of democratic
+institutions.
+
+  See Sir Ernest Satow, _An Austrian Diplomatist in the Fifties_ (1908).
+
+
+
+
+HUC, ÉVARISTE RÉGIS (1813-1860), French missionary-traveller, was born
+at Toulouse, on the 1st of August 1813. In his twenty-fourth year he
+entered the congregation of the Lazarists at Paris, and shortly after
+receiving holy orders in 1839 went out to China. At Macao he spent some
+eighteen months in the Lazarist seminary, preparing himself for the
+regular work of a missionary. Having acquired some command of the
+Chinese tongue, and modified his personal appearance and dress in
+accordance with Chinese taste, he started from Canton. He at first
+superintended a Christian mission in the southern provinces, and then
+passing to Peking, where he perfected his knowledge of the language,
+eventually settled in the Valley of Black Waters or He Shuy, a little to
+the north of the capital, and just within the borders of Mongolia.
+There, beyond the Great Wall, a large but scattered population of native
+Christians had found a refuge from the persecutions of Kia-King, to be
+united half a century later in a vast but vague apostolic vicariate. The
+assiduity with which Huc devoted himself to the study of the dialects
+and customs of the Tatars, for whom at the cost of much labour he
+translated various religious works, was an admirable preparation for
+undertaking in 1844, at the instigation of the vicar apostolic of
+Mongolia, an expedition whose object was to dissipate the obscurity
+which hung over the country and habits of the Tibetans. September of
+that year found the missionary at Dolon Nor occupied with the final
+arrangements for his journey, and shortly afterwards, accompanied by his
+fellow-Lazarist, Joseph Gabet, and a young Tibetan priest who had
+embraced Christianity, he set out. To escape attention the little party
+assumed the dress of lamas or priests. Crossing the Hwang-ho, they
+advanced into the terrible sandy tract known as the Ordos Desert. After
+suffering dreadfully from want of water and fuel they entered Kansu,
+having recrossed the flooded Hwang-ho, but it was not till January 1845
+that they reached Tang-Kiul on the boundary. Rather than encounter alone
+the horrors of a four months' journey to Lhasa they resolved to wait for
+eight months till the arrival of a Tibetan embassy on its return from
+Peking. Under an intelligent teacher they meanwhile studied the Tibetan
+language and Buddhist literature, and during three months of their stay
+they resided in the famous Kunbum Lamasery, which was reported to
+accommodate 4000 persons. Towards the end of September they joined the
+returning embassy, which comprised 2000 men and 3700 animals. Crossing
+the deserts of Koko Nor, they passed the great lake of that name, with
+its island of contemplative lamas, and, following a difficult and
+tortuous track across snow-covered mountains, they at last entered Lhasa
+on the 29th of January 1846. Favourably received by the regent, they
+opened a little chapel, and were in a fair way to establish an important
+mission, when the Chinese ambassador interfered and had the two
+missionaries conveyed back to Canton, where they arrived in October of
+the same year. For nearly three years Huc remained at Canton, but Gabet,
+returning to Europe, proceeded thence to Rio de Janeiro, and died there
+shortly afterwards. Huc returned to Europe in shattered health in 1852,
+visiting India, Egypt and Palestine on his way, and, after a prolonged
+residence in Paris, died on the 31st of March 1860.
+
+  His writings comprise, besides numerous letters and memoirs in the
+  _Annales de la propagation de la foi_, the famous _Souvenirs d'un
+  voyage dans la Tartarie, le Thibet, et la Chine pendant les années
+  1844-1846_ (2 vols., Paris, 1850; Eng. trans. by W. Hazlitt, 1851,
+  abbreviated by M. Jones, London, 1867); its supplement, crowned by the
+  Academy, entitled _L'Empire chinois_ (2 vols., Paris, 1854; Eng.
+  trans., London, 1859); and an elaborate historical work, _Le
+  Christianisme en Chine, &c._ (4 vols., Paris, 1857-1858; Eng. trans.,
+  London, 1857-1858). These works are written in a lucid, racy,
+  picturesque style, which secured for them an unusual degree of
+  popularity. The _Souvenirs_ is a narrative of a remarkable feat of
+  travel, and contains passages of so singular a character as in the
+  absence of corroborative testimony to stir up a feeling of
+  incredulity. That Huc was suspected unjustly was amply proved by later
+  research. But he was by no means a practical geographer, and the
+  record of his travels loses greatly in value from the want of precise
+  scientific data.
+
+  See, for information specially relating to the whole subject, the Abbé
+  Desgodin's _Mission du Thibet de 1855 à 1870_ (Verdun, 1872); and
+  "Account of the Pundit's Journey in Great Tibet," in the _Royal
+  Geographical Society's Journal_ for 1877.
+
+
+
+
+HUCBALD (HUGBALDUS, HUBALDUS), Benedictine monk, and writer on music,
+was born at the monastery of Saint Amand near Tournai, in or about 840,
+if we may believe the statement of his biographers to the effect that he
+died in 930, aged 90. He studied at the monastery, where his uncle Milo
+occupied an important position. Hucbald made rapid progress in the
+acquirement of various sciences and arts, including that of music, and
+at an early age composed a hymn in honour of St Andrew, which met with
+such success as to excite the jealousy of his uncle. It is said that
+Hucbald in consequence was compelled to leave St Amand, and started an
+independent school of music and other arts at Nevers. In 860, however,
+he was at St Germain d'Auxerre, bent upon completing his studies, and in
+872 he was back again at St Amand as the successor in the headmastership
+of the convent school of his uncle, to whom he had been reconciled in
+the meantime. Between 883 and 900 Hucbald went on several missions of
+reforming and reconstructing various schools of music, including that of
+Rheims, but in the latter year he returned to St Amand, where he
+remained to the day of his death on the 25th of June 930, or, according
+to other chroniclers, on the 20th of June 932. The only work which can
+positively be ascribed to him is his _Harmonica Institutio_. The _Musica
+Enchiriadis_, published with other writings of minor importance in
+Gerbert's _Scriptores de Musica_, and containing a complete system of
+musical science as well as instructions regarding notation, has now been
+proved to have originated about half a century later than the death of
+the monk Hucbald, and to have been the work of an unknown writer
+belonging to the close of the 10th century and possibly also bearing the
+name of Hucbald. This work is celebrated chiefly for an essay on a new
+form of notation described in the present day as _Dasia Notation_. The
+author of the _Harmonica Institutio_ wrote numerous lives of the saints
+and a curious poem on bald men, dedicated to Charles the Bald.
+
+  AUTHORITIES.--Sir John Hawkins, _General History of the Science and
+  Practice of Music_ (i. 153); _Histoire littéraire de la France_ (vi.
+  216 et seq.); Coussemaker, _Mémoire sur Hucbald_ (Paris, 1841); Hans
+  Müller, _Hucbald's echte und unechte Schriften über Musik_ (Leipzig,
+  1884); Spitta, _Die Musica Enchiriadis und seine Zeitalter_
+  (_Vierteljahresschrift für Musikwissenschaft_, 1889, 5th year).
+
+
+
+
+HU-CHOW-FU, a city of China, in the province of Cheh-Kiang (30° 48´ N.,
+120° 3´ E.), a little S. of Tai-hu Lake, in the midst of the central
+silk district. According to Chinese authorities it is 6 m. in
+circumference, and contains about 100,000 families. A broad stream or
+canal crosses the city from south to north, and forms the principal
+highway for boat traffic. The main trade of the place is in raw silk,
+but some silk fabrics, such as flowered crape (_chousha_), are also
+manufactured. Silk is largely worn even by the lowest classes of the
+inhabitants.
+
+
+
+
+HUCHOWN, "of the Awle Ryale" (fl. 14th century), Scottish poet, is
+referred to by Wyntoun in his _Chronicle_ in these words:--
+
+                    "Hucheon,
+  þat cunnande was in littratur.
+  He made a gret Gest of Arthure,
+  And þe Awntyr of Gawane,
+  Þe Pistil als of Suet Susane.
+  He was curyousse in his stille,
+  Fayr of facunde and subtile,
+  And ay to pleyssance hade delyte,
+  Mad in metyr meit his dyte
+  Litil or noucht neuir þe lesse
+  Wauerande fra þe suythfastnes."
+       (Cott. MS. bk. v. II, 4308-4318).
+
+Much critical ingenuity has been spent in endeavouring to identify (a)
+the poet and (b) the works named in the foregoing passage. It has been
+assumed that "Huchown," or "Hucheon," represents the "gude Sir Hew of
+Eglyntoun" named by Dunbar (q.v.) in his _Lament for the Makaris_ (i.
+53). The only known Sir Hugh of Eglintoun of the century is frequently
+mentioned in the public records from the middle of the century onwards,
+as an auditor of accounts and as witness to several charters. By 1360 he
+had married Dame Egidia, widow of Sir James Lindsay and half-sister of
+Robert the Steward. His public office and association with the Steward
+sorts well with the designation "of the Awle Ryale," if that be
+interpreted as "Aula Regalis" or "Royal Palace." He appears to have died
+late in 1376 or early in 1377.
+
+The first of the poems named above, the _Gest of Arthure_ or _Gest
+Historyalle_ (_ib._ i. 4288), has been identified by Dr Trautmann,
+"Anglia," _Der Dichter Huchown_ (1877), with the alliterative _Morte
+Arthure_ in the Thornton MS. at Lincoln, printed by the E.E.T.S. (ed.
+Brock, 1865). The problem of the second (_The Awntyr of Gawane_) is
+still in dispute. There are difficulties in the way of accepting the
+conjecture that the poem is the "Awntyres of Arthure at the Tern
+Wathelyne" (see S.T.S., _Scottish Alliterative Poems_, 1897, and
+Introduction, pp. 11 et seq.), and little direct evidence in favour of
+the view that the reference is to the greatest of middle English
+romances, _Sir Gawain and the Grene Knight_. The third may be safely
+accepted as the well-known _Pistil_ [Epistle] _of Swete Susan_, printed
+by Laing (_Select Remains_, 1822) and by the S.T.S. (_Scottish
+Alliterative Poems, u.s._).
+
+  See, in addition to the works named, above, G. Neilson's _Sir Hew of
+  Eglintoun and Huchown of the Awle Ryale_ (Glasgow, 1901), which
+  contains a full record of references to the historical Sir Hew of
+  Eglintoun; _Huchown of the Awle Ryale, the Alliterative Poet_
+  (Glasgow, 1902) by the same; J. T. T. Brown's _Huchown of the Awle
+  Ryale and his Poems_ (Glasgow, 1902), in answer to the foregoing. See
+  also the correspondence in the _Athenaeum_, 1900-1901, and the review
+  of Mr Neilson's pamphlets, ib. (Nov. 22, 1902); and J. H. Millar's
+  _Literary History of Scotland_ (1903), pp. 8-14.
+
+
+
+
+HUCHTENBURG, the name of two brothers who were Dutch painters in the
+second half of the 17th century. Both were natives of Haarlem. Jacob,
+the elder, of whom very little is known, studied under Berghem, and went
+early to Italy, where he died young about 1667. His pictures are
+probably confounded with those of his brother. In Copenhagen, where
+alone they are catalogued, they illustrate the style of a Dutchman who
+transfers Berghem's cattle and flocks to Italian landscapes and
+marketplaces.
+
+John van Huchtenburg (1646-1733), born at Haarlem it is said in 1646,
+was first taught by Thomas Wyk, and afterwards induced to visit the
+chief cities of Italy, where, penetrating as far as Rome, he met and
+dwelt with his brother Jacob. After the death of the latter he wandered
+homewards, taking Paris on his way, and served under Van der Meulen,
+then employed in illustrating for Louis XIV. the campaign of 1667-1668
+in the Low Countries. In 1670 he settled at Haarlem, where he married,
+practised and kept a dealer's shop. His style had now merged into an
+imitation of Philip Wouvermans and Van der Meulen, which could not fail
+to produce pretty pictures of hunts and robber camps, the faculty of
+painting horses and men in action and varied dress being the chief point
+of attraction. Later Huchtenburg ventured on cavalry skirmishes and
+engagements of regular troops generally, and these were admired by
+Prince Eugene and William III., who gave the painter sittings, and
+commissioned him to throw upon canvas the chief incidents of the battles
+they fought upon the continent of Europe. When he died at Amsterdam in
+1733, Huchtenburg had done much by his pictures and prints to make
+Prince Eugene, King William and Marlborough popular. Though clever in
+depicting a _mêlée_ or a skirmish of dragoons, he remained second to
+Philip Wouvermans in accuracy of drawing, and inferior to Van der Meulen
+in the production of landscapes. But, nevertheless, he was a clever and
+spirited master, with great facility of hand and considerable natural
+powers of observation.
+
+  The earliest date on his pictures is 1674, when he executed the
+  "Stag-Hunt" in the Museum of Berlin, and the "Fight with Robbers" in
+  the Lichtenstein collection at Vienna. A "Skirmish at Fleurus" (1690)
+  in the Brussels gallery seems but the precursor of larger and more
+  powerful works, such as the "Siege of Namur" (1695) in the Belvedere
+  at Vienna, where William III. is seen in the foreground accompanied by
+  Max Emmanuel, the Bavarian elector. Three years before, Huchtenburg
+  had had sittings from Prince Eugene (Hague museum) and William III.
+  (Amsterdam Trippenhuis). After 1696 he regularly served as court
+  painter to Prince Eugene, and we have at Turin (gallery) a series of
+  eleven canvases all of the same size depicting the various battles of
+  the great hero, commencing with the fight of Zentha against the Turks
+  in 1697, and concluding with the capture of Belgrade in 1717. Had the
+  duke of Marlborough been fond of art he would doubtless have possessed
+  many works of our artist. All that remains at Blenheim, however, is a
+  couple of sketches of battles, which were probably sent to Churchill
+  by his great contemporary. The pictures of Huchtenburg are not very
+  numerous now in public galleries. There is one in the National
+  Gallery, London, another at the Louvre. But Copenhagen has four,
+  Dresden six, Gotha two, and Munich has the well-known composition of
+  "Tallart taken Prisoner at Blenheim in 1704."
+
+
+
+
+HUCKABACK,[1] the name given to a type of cloth used for towels. For
+this purpose it has perhaps been more extensively used in the linen
+trade than any other weave. One of the chief merits of a towel is its
+capacity for absorbing moisture; plain and other flat-surfaced cloths do
+not perform this function satisfactorily, but cloths made with
+huckaback, as well as those made with the honeycomb and similar weaves,
+are particularly well adapted for this purpose. The body or foundation
+of the cloth is plain and therefore sound in structure (see designs A
+and B in figure), but at fixed intervals some of the warp threads float
+on the surface of the cloth, while at the same time a number of weft
+threads float on the back. Thus the cloth has a somewhat similar
+appearance on both sides. Weave A is the ordinary and most used huck or
+huckaback, while weave B, which is usually woven with double weft, is
+termed the Devon or medical huck. The cloths made by the use of these
+weaves were originally all linen, but are too often adulterated with
+inferior fibres.
+
+[Illustration]
+
+
+FOOTNOTE:
+
+  [1] Skeat, _Etym. Dict._ (1898), says, "The word bears so remarkable
+    resemblance to Low Ger. _hukkebak_, Ger. _huckeback_, pick-a-back,
+    that it seems reasonable to suppose that it at first meant 'peddler's
+    ware.'" The _New English Dictionary_ does not consider that the
+    connexion can at present be assumed.
+
+
+
+
+HUCKLEBERRY, in botany, the popular name in the north-eastern United
+States of the genus _Gaylussacia_, small branching shrubs resembling in
+habit the English bilberry (_Vaccinium_), to which it is closely allied,
+and bearing a similar fruit. The common huckleberry of the northern
+states is _G. resinosa_; while _G. brachycera_ and _G. dumosa_ are known
+respectively as box and dwarf huckleberry. The name _Gaylussacia_
+commemorates the famous French chemist Gay-Lussac.
+
+
+
+
+HUCKNALL TORKARD, a town in the Rushcliffe parliamentary division of
+Nottinghamshire, England; 132 m. N.N.W. from London by the Great Central
+railway, served also by the Great Northern and Midland railways. Pop.
+(1901) 15,250. The church of St Mary Magdalene contains the tomb of Lord
+Byron. There are extensive collieries in the vicinity, and the town has
+tobacco and hosiery works. Small traces are found of Beauvale Abbey, a
+Carthusian foundation of the 14th century, in the hilly, wooded district
+W. of Hucknall; and 3 m. N. is Newstead Abbey, in a beautiful situation
+on the border of Sherwood Forest. This Augustinian foundation owed its
+origin to Henry II. It came into the hands of the Byron family in 1540,
+and the poet Byron resided in it at various times until 1818. There
+remain the Early English west front of the church, a Perpendicular
+cloister and the chapter-house; while in the mansion, wholly restored
+since Byron's time, and in the demesne, many relics of the poet are
+preserved. To the S. of Hucknall are traces of Gresley Castle, of the
+14th century.
+
+
+
+
+HUCKSTER, a dealer or retailer of goods in a small way. The word, in
+various forms, is common to many Teutonic languages. In Early English it
+is found as _howkester_, _hokester_, _huxter_; in early modern Dutch as
+_heuker_, and Medieval Low German as _hoker_; but the ultimate origin is
+unknown. Huckster apparently belongs to that series of words formed from
+a verb,--as brew, brewer; but the noun "huckster" is found in use before
+the verb to huck. Hawker and pedlar are nearly synonymous in meaning,
+but "huckster" may include a person in a small way of trade in a settled
+habitation, while a hawker or pedlar invariably travels from place to
+place offering his wares. In a contemptuous sense, huckster is used of
+any one who barters, or makes gain or profit in underhand or mean ways,
+or who over-reaches another, to get advantage for himself.
+
+
+
+
+HUDDERSFIELD, a municipal, county and parliamentary borough in the West
+Riding of Yorkshire, England, 190 m. N.N.W. from London. Pop. (1901)
+95,047. It is served by the Lancashire & Yorkshire and London & North
+Western railways, and has connexion with all the important railway
+systems of the West Riding, and with the extensive canal system of
+Lancashire and Yorkshire. It is well situated on a slope above the river
+Colne, a tributary of the Calder. It is built principally of stone, and
+contains several handsome streets with numerous great warehouses and
+business premises, many of which are of high architectural merit. Of the
+numerous churches and chapels all are modern, and some of considerable
+beauty. The parish church of St Peter, however, though rebuilt in 1837,
+occupies a site which is believed to have carried a church since the
+11th century. The town hall (1880) and the corporation offices (1877)
+are handsome classic buildings; the Ramsden Estate buildings are a very
+fine block of the mixed Italian order. The market hall (1880) surmounted
+by a clock-tower is in geometrical Decorated style. The cloth-hall dates
+from 1784, when it was erected as a clothiers' emporium. It is no longer
+used for any such purpose, but serves as an exchange news-room. The
+Armoury, erected as a riding-school, was the headquarters of a volunteer
+corps, and is also used for concerts and public meetings. The chief
+educational establishments are the Huddersfield College (1838), a
+higher-grade school, the technical school and several grammar-schools,
+of which Longwood school was founded in 1731. The Literary and
+Scientific Society possesses a museum. Of the numerous charitable
+institutions, the Infirmary, erected in 1831, is housed in a building of
+the Doric order. The chief open spaces are Greenhead and Beaumont parks,
+the last named presented to the town by Mr H. F. Beaumont in 1880. There
+is a sulphurous spa in the district of Lockwood.
+
+Huddersfield is the principal seat of the fancy woollen trade in
+England, and fancy goods in silk and cotton are also produced in great
+variety. Plain cloth and worsteds are also manufactured. There are silk
+and cotton spinning-mills, iron foundries and engineering works. Coal is
+abundant in the vicinity. The parliamentary borough returns one member.
+The county borough was created in 1888. The municipal borough is under a
+mayor, 15 aldermen and 45 councillors. Area, 11,859 acres.
+
+Huddersfield (_Oderesfelte_) only rose to importance after the
+introduction of the woollen trade in the 17th century. After the
+Conquest William I. granted the manor to Ilbert de Laci, of whom the
+Saxon tenant Godwin was holding as underlord at the time of the Domesday
+Survey. In Saxon times it had been worth l00s., but after being laid
+waste by the Normans was still of no value in 1086. From the Lacys the
+manor passed to Thomas Plantagenet, duke of Lancaster, through his
+marriage with Alice de Lacy, and so came to the crown on the accession
+of Henry IV. In 1599 Queen Elizabeth sold it to William Ramsden, whose
+descendants still own it. Charles II. in 1670 granted to John Ramsden a
+market in Huddersfield every Wednesday with the toll and other profits
+belonging. By the beginning of the 18th century Huddersfield had become
+a "considerable town," chiefly owing to the manufacture of woollen
+kersies, and towards the end of the same century the trade was increased
+by two events--the opening of navigation on the Calder in 1780, and in
+1784 that of the cloth-hall or piece-hall, built and given to the town
+by Sir John Ramsden, baronet. Since 1832 the burgesses have returned
+members to parliament. The town possesses no charter before 1868, when
+it was created a municipal borough.
+
+
+
+
+HUDSON, GEORGE (1800-1871), English railway financier, known as the
+"railway king," was born in York in March 1800. Apprenticed to a firm of
+linendrapers in that city, he soon became a successful merchant, and in
+1837 was elected lord mayor of York. Having inherited, in 1827, a sum of
+£30,000, he invested it in North Midland Railway shares, and was shortly
+afterwards appointed a director. In 1833 he had founded and for some
+time acted as manager of the York Banking Company. He had for long been
+impressed with the necessity of getting the railway to York, and he took
+an active part in securing the passing of the York and North Midland
+Bill, and was elected chairman of the new company--the line being opened
+in 1839. From this time he turned his undivided attention to the
+projection of railways. In 1841 he initiated the Newcastle and
+Darlington line. With George Stephenson he planned and carried out the
+extension of the Midland to Newcastle, and by 1844 had over a thousand
+miles of railway under his control. In this year the mania for railway
+speculation was at its height, and no man was more courted than the
+"railway king." All classes delighted to honour him, and, as if a
+colossal fortune were an insufficient reward for his public services,
+the richest men in England presented him with a tribute of £20,000.
+Deputy-lieutenant for Durham, and thrice lord mayor of York, he was
+returned in the Conservative interest for Sunderland in 1845, the event
+being judged of such public interest that the news was conveyed to
+London by a special train, which travelled part of the way at the rate
+of 75 m. an hour. Full of rewards and honours, he was suddenly ruined by
+the disclosure of the Eastern Railway frauds. Sunderland clung to her
+generous representative till 1859, but on the bursting of the bubble he
+had lost influence and fortune at a single stroke. His later life was
+chiefly spent on the continent, where he benefited little by a display
+of unabated energy and enterprise. Some friends gave him a small annuity
+a short time before his death, which took place in London, on the 14th
+of December 1871. His name has long been used to point the moral of
+vaulting ambition and unstable fortune. The "big swollen gambler," as
+Carlyle calls him in one of the _Latter-Day Pamphlets_, was savagely and
+excessively reprobated by the world which had blindly believed in his
+golden prophecies. He certainly ruined scrip-holders, and disturbed the
+great centres of industry; but he had an honest faith in his own
+schemes, and, while he beggared himself in their promotion, he succeeded
+in overcoming the powerful landed interest which delayed the adoption of
+railways in England long after the date of their regular introduction
+into America.
+
+
+
+
+HUDSON, HENRY, English navigator and explorer. Nothing is known of his
+personal history excepting such as falls within the period of the four
+voyages on which his fame rests. The first of these voyages in quest of
+new trade and a short route to China by way of the North Pole, in
+accordance with the suggestion of Robert Thorne (d. 1527), was made for
+the Muscovy Company with ten men and a boy in 1607. Hudson first coasted
+the east side of Greenland, and being prevented from proceeding
+northwards by the great ice barrier which stretches thence to
+Spitzbergen sailed along it until he reached "Newland," as Spitzbergen
+was then called, and followed its northern coast to beyond 80° N. lat.
+On the homeward voyage he accidentally discovered an island in lat. 71°
+which he named Hudson's Touches, and which has since been identified
+with Jan Mayen Island. Molineux's chart, published by Hakluyt about
+1600, was Hudson's blind guide in this voyage, and the polar map of 1611
+by Pontanus illustrates well what he attempted, and the valuable results
+both negative and positive which he reached. He investigated the trade
+prospects at Bear Island, and recommended his patrons to seek higher
+game in Newland; hence he may be called the father of the English
+whale-fisheries at Spitzbergen.
+
+Next year Hudson was again sent by the Muscovy Company to open a passage
+to China, this time by the north-east route between Spitzbergen and
+Novaya Zemlya, which had been attempted by his predecessors and
+especially by the Dutch navigator William Barents. This voyage lasted
+from the 22nd of April to the 26th of August 1608. He raked the Barents
+Sea in vain between 75° 30´ N.W. and 71° 15´ S.E. for an opening through
+the ice, and on the 6th of July, "voide of hope of a north-east passage
+(except by the Waygats, for which I was not fitted to trie or prove),"
+he resolved to sail to the north-west, and if time and means permitted
+to run a hundred leagues up Lumley's Inlet (Frobisher Strait) or Davis's
+"overfall" (Hudson Strait). But his voyage being delayed by contrary
+winds he was finally compelled to return without accomplishing his wish.
+The failure of this second attempt satisfied the Muscovy Company, which
+thenceforward directed all its energies to the profitable Spitzbergen
+trade.
+
+Towards the end of 1608 Hudson "had a call" to Amsterdam, where he saw
+the celebrated cosmographer the Rev. Peter Plancius and the cartographer
+Hondius, and after some delay, due to the rivalry which was exhibited in
+the attempt to secure his services, he undertook for the Dutch East
+India Company his important third voyage to find a passage to China
+either by the north-east or north-west route. With a mixed crew of
+eighteen or twenty men he left the Texel in the "Half-Moon" on the 6th
+of April, and by the 5th of May was in the Barents Sea, and soon
+afterwards among the ice near Novaya Zemlya, where he had been the year
+before. Some of his men becoming disheartened and mutinous (it is now
+supposed that he had arrived two or three months too early), he lost
+hope of effecting anything by that route, and submitted to his men, as
+alternative proposals, either to go to Lumley's Inlet and follow up
+Waymouth's light, or to make for North Virginia and seek the passage in
+about 40° lat., according to the letter and map sent him by his friend
+Captain John Smith. The latter plan was adopted, and on the 14th of May
+Hudson set his face towards the Chesapeake and China. He touched at
+Stromo in the Faroe Islands for water, and on the 15th of June off
+Newfoundland the "Half-Moon" "spent overboard her foremast." This
+accident compelled him to put into the Kennebec river, where a mast was
+procured, and some communication and an unnecessary encounter with the
+Indians took place. Sailing again on the 26th of July, he began on the
+28th of August the survey where Smith left off, at 37° 36´ according to
+his map, and coasted northwards. On the 3rd of September, in 40° 30´, he
+entered the fine bay of New York, and after having gone 150 m. up the
+river which now bears his name to near the position of the present
+Albany, treating with the Indians, surveying the country, and trying the
+stream above tide-water, he became satisfied that this course did not
+lead to the South Sea or China, a conclusion in harmony with that of
+Champlain, who the same summer had been making his way south through
+Lake Champlain and Lake St Sacrement (now Lake George). The two
+explorers by opposite routes approached within 20 leagues of each other.
+On the 4th of October the "Half-Moon" weighed for the Texel, and on the
+7th of November arrived at Dartmouth, where she was seized and detained
+by the English government, Hudson and the other Englishmen of the ship
+being commanded not to leave England, but rather to serve their own
+country. The voyage had fallen short of Hudson's expectations, but it
+served many purposes perhaps as important to the world. Among other
+results it exploded Hakluyt's myth, which from the publication of Lok's
+map in 1582 to the 2nd charter of Virginia in May 1609 he had lost no
+opportunity of promulgating, that near 40° lat. there was a narrow
+isthmus, formed by the sea of Verrazano, like that of Tehuantepec or
+Panama.
+
+Hudson's confidence in the existence of a North-West Passage had not
+been diminished by his three failures, and a new company was formed to
+support him in a fourth attempt, the principal promoters being Sir
+Thomas Smith (or Smythe), Sir Dudley Digges and John (afterwards Sir
+John) Wolstenholme. He determined this time to carry out his old plan of
+searching for a passage up Davis's "overfall"--so-called in allusion to
+the overfall of the tide which Davis had observed rushing through the
+strait. Hudson sailed from London in the little ship "Discovery" of 55
+tons, on the 17th of April 1610, and entered the strait which now bears
+his name about the middle of June. Sailing steadily westward he entered
+Hudson Bay on the 3rd of August, and passing southward spent the next
+three months examining the eastern shore of the bay. On the 1st of
+November the "Discovery" went into winter quarters in the S.W. corner of
+James Bay, being frozen in a few days later, and during the long winter
+months which were passed there only a scanty supply of game was secured
+to eke out the ship's provisions. Discontent became rife, and on the
+ship breaking out of the ice in the spring Hudson had a violent quarrel
+with a dissolute young fellow named Henry Greene, whom he had befriended
+by taking him on board, and who now retaliated by inciting the
+discontented part of the crew to put Hudson and eight others (including
+the sick men) out of the ship. This happened on the 22nd of June 1611.
+Robert Bylot was elected master and brought the ship back to England.
+During the voyage home Greene and several others were killed in a fight
+with the Eskimo, while others again died of starvation, and the feeble
+remnant which reached England in September were thrown into prison. No
+more tidings were ever received of the deserted men.
+
+Although it is certain that the four great geographical landmarks which
+to-day serve to keep Hudson's memory alive, namely the Hudson Bay,
+Strait, Territory and River, had repeatedly been visited and even drawn
+on maps and charts before he set out on his voyages, yet he deserves to
+take a very high rank among northern navigators for the mere extent of
+his discoveries and the success with which he pushed them beyond the
+limits of his predecessors. The rich fisheries of Spitzbergen and the
+fur industry of the Hudson Bay Territory were the immediate fruit of his
+labours.
+
+  See _Henry Hudson, the Navigator_ (Hakluyt Society, 1860); and T. A.
+  Janvier, _Henry Hudson_ (1909). In 1909 a great celebration of the
+  tercentenary was held in the United States.
+
+
+
+
+HUDSON, JOHN (1662-1719), English classical scholar, was born at Wythop
+in Cumberland. He was educated at Oxford, where the remainder of his
+life was spent. In 1701 he was appointed Bodley's librarian, and in 1711
+principal of St Mary's Hall. His political views stood in the way of his
+preferment in the church and university. He died on the 26th of November
+1719. As an editor and commentator he enjoyed a high reputation both at
+home and abroad. His works, chiefly editions of classical authors,
+include the following: Velleius Paterculus (1693); Thucydides (1696);
+_Geographiae Veteris Scriptores Graeci minores_ (1698-1712) containing
+the works and fragments of 21 authors and the learned, though diffuse,
+dissertations of H. Dodwell--a rare and valuable work, which in spite of
+its faulty text was not superseded until the appearance of C. W.
+Müller's edition in the Didot series: the editio princeps of Moeris, _De
+Vocibus Atticis et Hellenicis_ (1712); Josephus (1720, published
+posthumously by his friend Anthony Hall, the antiquary), a correct and
+beautifully printed edition, with variorum notes and translation.
+
+  See Wood, _Athenae Oxonienses_, iv.; introduction to the edition of
+  Josephus; W. Hutchinson, _History of Cumberland_ (1794).
+
+
+
+
+HUDSON, a city and the county-seat of Columbia county, New York, U.S.A.,
+on the E. side of the Hudson river, about 114 m. N. of New York City and
+about 28 m. S. of Albany. Pop. (1890) 9970; (1900) 9528, of whom 1155
+were foreign-born; (1910 census) 11,417. It is served by the Boston &
+Albany, the New York Central & Hudson River and the (electric) Albany &
+Hudson railways, by river steamboats, and by a steam ferry to Athens and
+Catskill across the river. The city is picturesquely situated on the
+slope of Prospect Hill; and Promenade Park, on a bluff above the
+steamboat landing, commands a fine view of the river and of the Catskill
+Mountains. Among the public buildings and institutions are a fine city
+hall, the Columbia County Court House, a public library, a Federal
+building, a State Training School for Girls, a State Firemen's Home, an
+Orphan Asylum, a Home for the Aged and a hospital. The city's
+manufactures include hosiery and knit goods, Portland cement (one of the
+largest manufactories of that product in the United States being here),
+foundry and machine shop products, car wheels, ice tools and machinery,
+ale, beer, bricks and tiles and furniture. The value of the factory
+products in 1905 was $4,115,525, an increase of 58.1% over that in 1900.
+The municipality owns and operates the water-works. Hudson, which was
+originally known as Claverack Landing, was for many years merely a
+landing with two rude wharfs and two small storehouses, to which farmers
+in the neighbourhood brought their produce for shipment on the river.
+Late in 1783 the place was settled by an association of merchants and
+fishermen from Rhode Island, Nantucket and Martha's Vineyard. The
+present name was adopted in 1784, and the city was chartered in 1785.
+For many years Hudson had a considerable foreign commerce and whaling
+interests, but these were practically destroyed by the war of 1812.
+
+
+
+
+HUDSON BAY (less often, but more correctly, Hudson's Bay), an inland sea
+in the N.E. of Canada, extending from 78° to 95° W. and from 51° to 70°
+N. On the east it is connected with the Atlantic Ocean by Hudson Strait,
+and on the north with the Arctic Ocean by Fox Channel and Fury and Hecla
+Strait. Its southern extremity between 55° and 51° N. is known as James
+Bay. It is 590 m. in width, and 1300 from S. to N., including James Bay
+(350 m.) and Fox Channel (350 m.). The customary use of the term
+includes James Bay, but not Fox Channel. The average depth of water is
+about 70 fathoms, deepening at the entrance of Hudson Strait to 100
+fathoms. James Bay is much shallower, and unfit for shipping save for a
+central channel leading to the mouth of the Moose river. The centre and
+west of the main bay are absolutely free from shoals, rocks or islands,
+but down its east coast extend two lines of small islands, one close to
+shore, the other at 70 to 100 m. distance, and comprising a number of
+scattered groups (the Ottawa Islands, the Sleepers, the Belchers, &c.).
+
+Into Hudson and James Bays flow numerous important rivers, so much so
+that the water of the latter is rather brackish than salt. Beginning at
+the north-west, the chief of these are Churchill, Nelson (draining Lake
+Winnipeg, and the numerous inland rivers of which it is the basin),
+Hayes (the old boat route of the _voyageurs_ to Winnipeg), Severn,
+Albany, Moose, Rupert river (draining Lake Mistassini), Nottaway, East
+Main, Great Whale and Little Whale.
+
+Save for some high bluffs on the east and north-east, the shores of the
+bay are low. Around much of James Bay extend marshes and swampy ground.
+Geologically the greater part of the Hudson Bay district belongs to the
+Laurentian system, though there are numerous outcrops of later
+formation; Cambro-Silurian on the south and west, and to the north of
+Cape Jones (the north-eastern extremity of James Bay) a narrow belt of
+Cambrian rocks, of which the islands are composed. Coal, plumbago, iron
+and other minerals have been found in various districts near the coast.
+The climate is harsh, though vegetables and certain root crops ripen in
+the open air as far north as Fort Churchill; cattle flourish, and are
+fed chiefly on the native grasses; spruce, balsam and poplar grow to a
+fair size as far as the northern limit of James Bay. Caribou, musk ox
+and other animals are still found in large numbers, and there is an
+abundance of feathered game--ducks, geese, loons and ptarmigan; hunting
+and fishing form the chief occupations of the Indians and Eskimo who
+live in scattered bands near the shore. The bay abounds with fish, of
+which the chief are cod, salmon, porpoise and whales. The last have long
+been pursued by American whalers, whose destructive methods have so
+greatly depleted the supply that the government of Canada is anxious to
+declare the bay a _mare clausum_.
+
+Hudson Strait is about 450 m. long with an average breadth of 100 m.,
+narrowing at one point to 45. Its shores are high and bold, rarely less
+in height than 1000 ft., save on the coast of Ungava Bay, a deep
+indentation on the south-east. No islands or rocks impede navigation.
+Its depth is from 100 to 200 fathoms. Owing to the violence of the
+tides, which rise to a height of 35 ft., it never absolutely freezes
+over.
+
+  After three centuries of exploration, the navigability of Hudson Bay
+  and Strait remains a vexed question. To Canada it is one of great
+  commercial interest, and numerous expeditions have been made and
+  reports issued by the Geological Survey. From Winnipeg to Liverpool
+  via Churchill is over 500 m. less than via Montreal, and from Edmonton
+  to Liverpool almost 1000 m. less. Were navigation open for a
+  sufficient time, such a route for the grain of the Canadian and
+  American west would be of enormous advantage. But the inlet from the
+  Arctic sends down masses of heavy ice, which drift about in the bay
+  and the strait. Past the mouth of the strait flows a stream often over
+  100 m. wide, of berg and floe ice, carried by the Arctic current.
+  Owing to the proximity of the Magnetic Pole (in Boothia) the compass
+  often refuses to work. For sailing ships, such as the Hudson's Bay
+  Company has long employed, the season for safe navigation is from the
+  15th of July to the 1st of October. In over 200 years very few serious
+  accidents have occurred to the company's ships within these limits. It
+  is claimed that specially built and protected steamers would be safe
+  from the 15th of June till the 1st of November, and the problem may be
+  solved by ice-breaking vessels of great power. The only good harbour
+  available is Fort Churchill, at the mouth of the Churchill river,
+  which is large and easy of access. Moose Factory (at the foot of James
+  Bay) and York Factory (at the mouth of the Nelson) are mere
+  roadsteads. Marble Island, south of Chesterfield Inlet, where the
+  whalers winter, is too far north for regular shipping.
+
+  The Cabots entered the strait in 1498, and during the next century a
+  series of Elizabethan mariners; but the bay was not explored until
+  1610, when Henry Hudson pushed through the ice and explored to the
+  southern limit of James Bay.
+
+  See Lieutenant Gordon, R.N., _Reports on the Hudson's Bay Expeditions_
+  (1884, 5, 6); William Ogilvie, _Exploratory Survey to Hudson's Bay in
+  1890_ (Ottawa, 1891); R. F. Stupart, _The Navigation of Hudson's Bay
+  and Straits_ (Toronto, 1904).
+
+
+
+
+
+
+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th
+Edition, Volume 13, Slice 7, by Various
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+<pre>
+
+The Project Gutenberg EBook of Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th Edition,
+Volume 13, Slice 7, by Various
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th Edition, Volume 13, Slice 7
+       "Horticulture" to "Hudson Bay"
+
+Author: Various
+
+Release Date: March 2, 2012 [EBook #39029]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Marius Masi, Don Kretz and the Online
+Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net
+
+
+
+
+
+
+</pre>
+
+
+
+<table border="0" cellpadding="10" style="background-color: #dcdcdc; color: #696969; " summary="Transcriber's note">
+<tr>
+<td style="width:25%; vertical-align:top">
+Transcriber&rsquo;s note:
+</td>
+<td class="norm">
+A few typographical errors have been corrected. They
+appear in the text <span class="correction" title="explanation will pop up">like this</span>, and the
+explanation will appear when the mouse pointer is moved over the marked
+passage. Sections in Greek will yield a transliteration
+when the pointer is moved over them, and words using diacritic characters in the
+Latin Extended Additional block, which may not display in some fonts or browsers, will
+display an unaccented version. <br /><br />
+<a name="artlinks">Links to other EB articles:</a> Links to articles residing in other EB volumes will
+be made available when the respective volumes are introduced online.
+</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+<div style="padding-top: 3em; ">&nbsp;</div>
+
+<h2>THE ENCYCLOP&AElig;DIA BRITANNICA</h2>
+
+<h2>A DICTIONARY OF ARTS, SCIENCES, LITERATURE AND GENERAL INFORMATION</h2>
+
+<h3>ELEVENTH EDITION</h3>
+<div style="padding-top: 3em; ">&nbsp;</div>
+
+<hr class="full" />
+<h3>VOLUME XIII SLICE VII<br /><br />
+Horticulture to Hudson Bay</h3>
+<hr class="full" />
+<div style="padding-top: 3em; ">&nbsp;</div>
+
+<p class="center1" style="font-size: 150%; font-family: 'verdana';">Articles in This Slice</p>
+<table class="reg" style="width: 90%; font-size: 90%; border: gray 2px solid;" cellspacing="8" summary="Contents">
+
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar1">HORTICULTURE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar67">HOVE</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar2">HORTON, CHRISTIANA</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar68">HOVENDEN, THOMAS</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar3">HORTON, ROBERT FORMAN</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar69">HOW, WILLIAM WALSHAM</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar4">HORTON, SAMUEL DANA</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar70">HOWARD</a> (family)</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar5">HORUS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar71">HOWARD, CATHERINE</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar6">HORWICH</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar72">HOWARD, JOHN</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar7">HOSANNA</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar73">HOWARD, OLIVER OTIS</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar8">HOSE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar74">HOWARD, SIR ROBERT</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar9">HOSEA</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar75">HOWARD, LORD WILLIAM</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar10">HOSE-PIPE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar76">HOWARD OF EFFINGHAM, WILLIAM HOWARD</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar11">HOSHANGABAD</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar77">HOWE, ELIAS</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar12">HOSHEA</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar78">HOWE, JOHN</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar13">HOSHIARPUR</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar79">HOWE, JOSEPH</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar14">HOSIERY</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar80">HOWE, JULIA WARD</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar15">HOSIUS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar81">HOWE, RICHARD HOWE</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar16">HOSIUS, STANISLAUS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar82">HOWE, SAMUEL GRIDLEY</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar17">HOSKINS, JOHN</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar83">HOWE, WILLIAM HOWE</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar18">HOSMER, HARRIET GOODHUE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar84">HOWEL DDA</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar19">HOSPICE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar85">HOWELL, JAMES</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar20">HOSPITAL</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar86">HOWELLS, WILLIAM DEAN</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar21">HOSPITIUM</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar87">HOWITT WILLIAM</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar22">HOSPODAR</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar88">HOWITZER</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar23">HOST</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar89">HOWLER</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar24">HOSTAGE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar90">HOWRAH</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar25">HOSTE, SIR WILLIAM</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar91">HOWSON, JOHN SAUL</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar26">HOSTEL</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar92">HOWTH</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar27">HOSTIUS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar93">HÖXTER</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar28">HOSUR</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar94">HOY</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar29">HOTCH-POT</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar95">HOYLAKE</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar30">HÔTEL-DE-VILLE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar96">HOYLAND NETHER</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar31">HÔTEL-DIEU</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar97">HOYLE, EDMUND</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar32">HOTHAM, SIR JOHN</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar98">HOZIER, PIERRE D&rsquo;</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar33">HOTHAM, WILLIAM HOTHAM</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar99">HRABANUS MAURUS MAGNENTIUS</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar34">HOTHO, HEINRICH GUSTAV</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar100">HRÓLFR KRAKI</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar35">HOTI-MARDAN</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar101">HROSVITHA</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar36">HOTMAN, FRANÇOIS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar102">HSÜAN TSANG</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar37">HOT SPRINGS</a> (Arkansas, U.S.A.)</td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar103">HUAMBISAS</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar38">HOT SPRINGS</a> (Virginia, U.S.A.)</td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar104">HUANCAVELICA</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar39">HOTTENTOTS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar105">HUÁNUCO</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar40">HOTTINGER, JOHANN HEINRICH</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar106">HUARAZ</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar41">HOUBRAKEN, JACOBUS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar107">HUARTE DE SAN JUAN</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar42">HOUDENC, RAOUL DE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar108">HUASTECS</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar43">HOUDETOT</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar109">HUBER, FRANÇOIS</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar44">HOUDETOT, ELISABETH DE BELLEGARDE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar110">HUBER, JOHANN NEPOMUK</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar45">HOUDON, JEAN ANTOINE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar111">HUBER, LUDWIG FERDINAND</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar46">HOUFFALIZE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar112">HUBERT, ST</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar47">HOUGHTON, RICHARD MONCKTON MILNES</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar113">HUBERTUSBURG</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar48">HOUGHTON-LE-SPRING</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar114">HUBLI</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar49">HOUND</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar115">HÜBNER, EMIL</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar50">HOUNSLOW</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar116">HÜBNER, JOSEPH ALEXANDER</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar51">HOUR</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar117">HUC, ÉVARISTE RÉGIS</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar52">HOUR ANGLE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar118">HUCBALD</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar53">HOUR-GLASS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar119">HU-CHOW-FU</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar54">HOURI</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar120">HUCHOWN</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar55">HOURS, CANONICAL</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar121">HUCHTENBURG</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar56">HOUSE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar122">HUCKABACK</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar57">HOUSEHOLD, ROYAL</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar123">HUCKLEBERRY</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar58">HOUSEL</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar124">HUCKNALL TORKARD</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar59">HOUSELEEK</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar125">HUCKSTER</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar60">HOUSING</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar126">HUDDERSFIELD</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar61">HOUSMAN, LAURENCE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar127">HUDSON, GEORGE</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar62">HOUSSAYE, ARSÈNE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar128">HUDSON, HENRY</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar63">HOUSTON, SAM</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar129">HUDSON, JOHN</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar64">HOUSTON</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar130">HUDSON</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar65">HOUWALD, CHRISTOPH ERNST</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar131">HUDSON BAY</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar66">HÒVA</a></td> <td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page741" id="page741"></a>741</span></p>
+<p><span class="bold">HORTICULTURE<a name="ar1" id="ar1"></a></span> (Lat. <i>hortus</i>, a garden), the art and science
+of the cultivation of garden plants, whether for utilitarian or
+for decorative purposes. The subject naturally divides itself
+into two sections, which we here propose to treat separately,
+commencing with the science, and passing on to the practice
+of the cultivation of flowers, fruits and vegetables as applicable
+to the home garden. The point of view taken is necessarily,
+as a rule, that of a British gardener.</p>
+
+<p class="pt2 center sc">Part I.&mdash;Principles or Science of Horticulture</p>
+
+<p>Horticulture, apart from the mechanical details connected
+with the maintenance of a garden and its appurtenances, may
+be considered as the application of the principles of plant physiology
+to the cultivation of plants from all parts of the globe,
+and from various altitudes, soils and situations. The lessons
+derived from the abstract principles enunciated by the physiologist,
+the chemist and the physicist require, however, to be
+modified to suit the special circumstances of plants under cultivation.
+The necessity for this modification arises from the fact
+that such plants are subjected to conditions more or less unnatural
+to them, and that they are grown for special purposes
+which are at variance, in degree at any rate, with their natural
+requirements.</p>
+
+<p>The life of the plant (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Plants</a></span>) makes itself manifest in
+the processes of growth, development and reproduction. By
+growth is here meant mere increase in bulk, and by development
+the series of gradual modifications by which a plant,
+originally simple in its structure and conformation, becomes
+eventually complicated, and endowed with distinct parts or
+organs. The reproduction of the higher plants takes place
+either asexually by the formation of buds or organs answering
+thereto, or sexually by the production of an embryo plant
+within the seed. The conditions requisite for the growth,
+development and reproduction of plants are, in general terms,
+exposure, at the proper time, to suitable amounts of light, heat
+and moisture, and a due supply of appropriate food. The
+various amounts of these needed in different cases have to be
+adjusted by the gardener, according to the nature of the plant,
+its &ldquo;habit&rdquo; or general mode of growth in its native country,
+and the influence to which it is there subjected, as also in accordance
+with the purposes for which it is to be cultivated, &amp;c.
+It is but rarely that direct information on all these points can be
+obtained; but inference from previous experience, especially
+with regard to allied forms, will go far to supply such deficiencies.
+Moreover, it must be remembered that the conditions most
+favourable to plants are not always those to which they are
+subjected in nature, for, owing to the competition of other
+forms in the struggle for existence, liability to injury from
+insects, and other adverse circumstances, plants may actually
+be excluded from the localities best suited for their development.
+The gardener therefore may, and does, by modifying, improve
+upon the conditions under which a plant naturally exists. Thus
+it frequently happens that in our gardens flowers have a beauty
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page742" id="page742"></a>742</span>
+and a fragrance, and fruits a size and savour denied to them
+in their native haunts. It behooves the judicious gardener,
+then, not to be too slavish in his attempts to imitate natural
+conditions, and to bear in mind that such attempts sometimes
+end in failure. The most successful gardening is that which
+turns to the best account the plastic organization of the plant,
+and enables it to develop and multiply as perfectly as possible.
+Experience, coupled with observation and reflection, as well
+as the more indirect teachings of tradition, are therefore of
+primary importance to the practical gardener.</p>
+
+<p>We propose here to notice briefly the several parts of a flowering
+plant, and to point out the rationale of the cultural procedures
+connected with them (see the references to separate articles
+at the end of article on <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Botany</a></span>).</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p><i>The Root.</i>&mdash;The root, though not precluded from access of air,
+is not directly dependent for its growth on the agency of light.
+The efficiency of drainage, digging, hoeing and like operations is
+accounted for by the manner in which they promote aeration of
+the soil, raise its temperature and remove its stagnant water. Owing
+to their growth in length at, or rather in the immediate vicinity of,
+their tips, roots are enabled to traverse long distances by surmounting
+some obstacles, penetrating others, and insinuating themselves
+into narrow crevices. As they have no power of absorbing solid
+materials, their food must be of a liquid or gaseous character.
+It is taken up from the interstices between the particles of soil
+exclusively by the finest subdivisions of the fibrils, and in many
+cases by the extremely delicate thread-like cells which project from
+them and which are known as root-hairs. The importance of the
+root-fibres, or &ldquo;feeding roots&rdquo; justifies the care which is taken by
+every good gardener to secure their fullest development, and to
+prevent as far as possible any injury to them in digging, potting
+and transplanting, such operations being therefore least prejudicial
+at seasons when the plant is in a state of comparative rest.</p>
+
+<p><i>Root-Pruning and Lifting.</i>&mdash;In apparent disregard of the general
+rule just enunciated is the practice of root-pruning fruit trees,
+when, from the formation of wood being more active than that of
+fruit, they bear badly. The contrariety is more apparent than real,
+as the operation consists in the removal of the coarser roots, a
+process which results in the development of a mass of fine feeding
+roots. Moreover, there is a generally recognised quasi-antagonism
+between the vegetative and reproductive processes, so that, other
+things being equal, anything that checks the one helps forward
+the other.</p>
+
+<p><i>Watering.</i>&mdash;So far as practical gardening is concerned, feeding
+by the roots after they have been placed in suitable soil is confined
+principally to the administration of water and, under certain circumstances,
+of liquid or chemical manure; and no operations
+demand more judicious management. The amount of water required,
+and the times when it should be applied, vary greatly
+according to the kind of plant and the object for which it is grown,
+the season, the supply of heat and light, and numerous other conditions,
+the influence of which is to be learnt by experience only.
+The same may be said with respect to the application of manures.
+The watering of pot-plants requires especial care. Water should as
+a rule be used at a temperature not lower than that of the surrounding
+atmosphere, and preferably after exposure for some time
+to the air.</p>
+
+<p><i>Bottom-Heat.</i>&mdash;The &ldquo;optimum&rdquo; temperature, or that best suited
+to promote the general activity of roots, and indeed of all vegetable
+organs, necessarily varies very much with the nature of the plant,
+and the circumstances in which it is placed, and is ascertained by
+practical experience. Artificial heat applied to the roots, called by
+gardeners &ldquo;bottom-heat,&rdquo; is supplied by fermenting materials
+such as stable manure, leaves, &amp;c., or by hot-water pipes. In winter
+the temperature of the soil, out of doors, beyond a certain depth is
+usually higher than that of the atmosphere, so that the roots are
+in a warmer and more uniform medium than are the upper parts
+of the plant. Often the escape of heat from the soil is prevented by
+&ldquo;mulching,&rdquo; <i>i.e.</i> by depositing on it a layer of litter, straw, dead
+leaves and the like.</p>
+
+<p>The <i>Stem</i> and its subdivisions or branches raise to the light and
+air the leaves and flowers, serve as channels for the passage to them
+of fluids from the roots, and act as reservoirs for nutritive substances.
+Their functions in annual, biennial and herbaceous perennial plants
+cease after the ripening of the seed, whilst in plants of longer duration
+layer after layer of strong woody tissue is formed, which enables
+them to bear the strains which the weight of foliage and the exposure
+to wind entail. The gardener aims usually at producing stout,
+robust, short-jointed stems, instead of long lanky growths defective
+in woody tissue. To secure these conditions free exposure to light
+and air is requisite; but in the case of coppices and woods, or
+where long straight spars are needed by the forester, plants are
+allowed to grow thickly so as to ensure development in an upward
+rather than in a lateral direction. This and like matters will, however,
+be more fitly considered in dealing hereafter with the buds
+and their treatment.</p>
+
+<p><i>Leaves.</i>&mdash;The work of the leaves may briefly be stated to consist
+of the processes of nutrition, respiration and transpiration. Nutri tion
+(assimilation) by the leaves includes the inhalation of air, and
+the interaction under the influence of light and in the presence of
+chlorophyll of the carbon dioxide of the air with the water received
+from the root, to form carbonaceous food. Respiration in plants,
+as in other organisms, is a process that goes on by night as well as
+by day and consists in plants in the breaking up of the complex
+carbonaceous substances formed by assimilation into less complex
+and more transportable substances. This process, which is as
+yet imperfectly understood, is attended by the consumption of
+oxygen, the liberation of energy in the form of heat, and the exhalation
+of carbon dioxide and water vapour. Transpiration is
+loss of water by the plant by evaporation, chiefly from the minute
+pores or stomata on the leaves. In xerophytic plants (<i>e.g.</i> cacti,
+euphorbias, &amp;c.) from hot, dry and almost waterless regions where
+evaporation would be excessive, the leaf surface, and consequently
+the number of stomata, are reduced to a minimum, as it would be
+fatal to such plants to exhale vapour as freely in those regions as the
+broad-leaved plants that grow in places where there is abundance of
+moisture. Although transpiration is a necessary accompaniment of
+nutrition, it may easily become excessive, especially where the plant
+cannot readily recoup itself. In these circumstances &ldquo;syringing&rdquo;
+and &ldquo;damping down&rdquo; are of value in cooling the temperature of
+the air in hothouses and greenhouses and increasing its humidity,
+thereby checking excessive transpiration. Shading the glass with
+canvas or washes during the summer months has the same object
+in view. Syringing is also beneficial in washing away dirt and
+insects.</p>
+
+<p><i>Buds.</i>&mdash;The recognition of the various forms of buds and their
+modes of disposition in different plants is a matter of the first
+consequence in the operations of pruning and training. Flower-buds
+are produced either on the old wood, <i>i.e.</i> the shoots of the
+past year&rsquo;s growth, or on a shoot of the present year. The peach,
+horse-chestnut, lilac, morello cherry, black currant, rhododendron
+and many other trees and shrubs develop flower-buds for the next
+season speedily after blossoming, and these may be stimulated into
+premature growth. The peculiar short, stunted branches or &ldquo;spurs&rdquo;
+which bear the flower-buds of the pear, apple, plum, sweet cherry,
+red currant, laburnum, &amp;c., deserve special attention. In the rose,
+passion-flower, clematis, honeysuckle, &amp;c., in which the flower-buds
+are developed at the ends of the young shoot of the year,
+we have examples of plants destitute of flower-buds during the
+winter.</p>
+
+<p><i>Propagation by Buds.</i>&mdash;The detached leaf-buds (<i>gemmae</i> or <i>bulbils</i>),
+of some plants are capable under favourable conditions of forming
+new plants. The edges of the leaves of <i>Bryophyllum calycinum</i>
+and of <i>Cardamine pratensis</i>, and the growths in the axils of the
+leaves of <i>Lilium bulbiferum</i>, as well as the fronds of certain ferns
+(<i>e.g.</i> <i>Asplenium bulbiferum</i>), produce buds of this character. It is
+a matter of familiar observation that the ends of the shoots of
+brambles take root when bent down to the ground. In some instances
+buds form on the roots, and may be used for purposes of
+propagation, as in the Japan quince, the globe thistle, the sea holly,
+some sea lavenders, <i>Bocconia</i>, <i>Acanthus</i>, &amp;c. Of the tendency in buds
+to assume an independent existence gardeners avail themselves in
+the operations of striking &ldquo;cuttings,&rdquo; and making &ldquo;layers&rdquo; and
+&ldquo;pipings,&rdquo; as also in budding and grafting. In taking a slip or
+cutting the gardener removes from the parent plant a shoot having
+one or more buds or &ldquo;eyes,&rdquo; in the case of the vine one only, and
+places it in a moist and sufficiently warm situation, where, as
+previously mentioned, undue evaporation from the surface is prevented.
+For some cuttings, pots filled with light soil, with the
+protection of the propagating-house and of bell-glasses, are requisite;
+but for many of our hardy deciduous trees and shrubs no such
+precautions are necessary, and the insertion of a short shoot about
+half its length into moist and gritty ground at the proper season
+suffices to ensure its growth. In the case of the more delicate plants,
+the formation of roots is preceded by the production from the
+cambium of the cuttings of a succulent mass of tissue, the <i>callus</i>.
+It is important in some cases, <i>e.g.</i> zonal pelargoniums, fuchsias,
+shrubby calceolarias, dahlias, carnations, &amp;c., to retain on the
+cutting some of its leaves, so as to supply the requisite food for
+storage in the callus. In other cases, where the buds themselves
+contain a sufficiency of nutritive matter for the young growths, the
+retention of leaves is not necessary. The most successful mode of
+forming roots is to place the cuttings in a mild bottom-heat, which
+expedites their growth, even in the case of many hardy plants whose
+cuttings strike roots in the open soil. With some hard-wooded
+trees, as the common white-thorn, roots cannot be obtained without
+bottom-heat. It is a general rule throughout plant culture that
+the activity of the roots shall be in advance of that of the leaves.
+Cuttings of deciduous trees and shrubs succeed best if planted
+early in autumn while the soil still retains the solar heat absorbed
+during summer. For evergreens August or September, and for
+greenhouse and stove-plants the spring and summer months, are
+the times most suitable for propagation by cuttings.</p>
+
+<p><i>Layering</i> consists simply in bending down a branch and keeping
+it in contact with or buried to a small depth in the soil until roots
+are formed; the connexion with the parent plant may then be
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page743" id="page743"></a>743</span>
+severed. Many plants can be far more easily propagated thus than
+by cuttings.</p>
+
+<p><i>Grafting</i> or &ldquo;<i>working</i>&rdquo; consists in the transfer of a branch, the
+&ldquo;graft&rdquo; or &ldquo;scion,&rdquo; from one plant to another, which latter is
+termed the &ldquo;stock.&rdquo; The operation must be so performed that the
+growing tissues, or cambium-layer of the scion, may fit accurately
+to the corresponding layer of the stock. In <i>budding</i>, as with roses
+and peaches, a single bud only is implanted. <i>Inarching</i> is essentially
+the promotion of the union of a shoot of one plant to that of another
+of the same or allied species or variety. The outer bark of each
+being removed, the two shoots are kept in contact by ligature until
+union is established, when the scion is completely severed from its
+original attachments. This operation is varied in detail according
+to the kind of plant to be propagated, but it is essential in all cases
+that the affinity between the two plants be near, that the union be
+neatly effected, and that the ratio as well as the season of growth
+of stock and scion be similar.</p>
+
+<p>The selection of suitable stocks is a matter still requiring much
+scientific experiment. The object of grafting is to expedite and
+increase the formation of flowers and fruit. Strong-growing pears,
+for instance, are grafted on the quince stock in order to restrict
+their tendency to form &ldquo;gross&rdquo; shoots and a superabundance of
+wood in place of flowers and fruit. Apples, for the same reason, are
+&ldquo;worked&rdquo; on the &ldquo;paradise&rdquo; or &ldquo;doucin&rdquo; stocks, which from
+their influence on the scion are known as dwarfing stocks. Scions
+from a tree which is weakly, or liable to injury by frosts, are
+strengthened by engrafting on robust stocks. Lindley has pointed
+out that, while in Persia, its native country, the peach is probably
+best grafted on the peach, or on its wild type the almond, in England,
+where the summer temperature of the soil is much lower than that
+of Persia, it might be expected, as experience has proved, to be
+most successful on stocks of the native plum.</p>
+
+<p>The soil in which the stock grows is a point demanding attention.
+From a careful series of experiments made in the Horticultural
+Society&rsquo;s Garden at Chiswick, it was found that where the soil is
+loamy, or light and slightly enriched with decayed vegetable matter,
+the apple succeeds best on the doucin stock, and the pear on the
+quince; and where it is chalky it is preferable to graft the apple
+on the crab, and the pear on the wild pear. For the plum on loamy
+soils the plum, and on chalky and light soils the almond, are the
+most desirable stocks, and for the cherry on loamy or light rich
+soils the wild cherry, and on chalk the &ldquo;mahaleb&rdquo; stock.</p>
+
+<p>The form and especially the quality of fruit is more or less affected
+by the stock upon which it is grown. The Stanwick nectarine, so
+apt to crack and not to ripen when worked in the ordinary way, is
+said to be cured of these propensities by being first budded close
+to the ground, on a very strong-growing Magnum Bonum plum,
+worked on a Brussels stock, and by then budding the nectarine on
+the Magnum Bonum about a foot from the ground. The fruit of
+the pear is of a higher colour and smaller on the quince stock than
+on the wild pear; still more so on the medlar. On the mountain ash
+the pear becomes earlier.</p>
+
+<p>The effects produced by stock on scion, and more particularly
+by scion on stock, are as a rule with difficulty appreciable. Nevertheless,
+in exceptional cases modified growths, termed &ldquo;graft-hybrids,&rdquo;
+have been obtained which have been attributed to the
+commingling of the characteristics of stock and scion (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Hybridism</a></span>).
+Of these the most remarkable example is <i>Cytisus Adami</i>, a tree
+which year after year produces some shoots, foliage and flowers
+like those of the common laburnum, others like those of the very
+different looking dwarf shrub <i>C. purpureus</i>, and others again intermediate
+between these. We may hence infer that <i>C. purpureus</i>
+was grafted or budded on the common laburnum, and that the
+intermediate forms are the result of graft-hybridization. Numerous
+similar facts have been recorded. Among gardeners the general
+opinion is against the possibility of graft-hybridization. The
+wonder, however, seems to be that it does not occur more frequently,
+seeing that fluids must pass from stock to scion, and matter elaborated
+in the leaves of the scion must certainly to some extent enter the
+stock. It is clear, nevertheless, from examination that as a rule
+the wood of the stock and the wood of the scion retain their external
+characters year by year without change. Still, as in the laburnum
+just mentioned, in the variegated jasmine and in <i>Abutilon Darwinii</i>,
+in the copper beech and in the horse-chestnut, the influence of a
+variegated scion has occasionally shown itself in the production
+from the stock of variegated shoots. At a meeting of the Scottish
+Horticultural Association (see <i>Gard. Chron.</i>, Jan. 10, 1880, figs. 12-14)
+specimens of a small roundish pear, the &ldquo;Aston Town,&rdquo; and of the
+elongated kind known as &ldquo;Beurré Clairgeau,&rdquo; were exhibited.
+Two more dissimilar pears hardly exist. The result of working the
+Beurré Clairgeau upon the Aston Town was the production of fruits
+precisely intermediate in size, form, colour, speckling of rind and
+other characteristics. Similar, though less marked, intermediate
+characters were obvious in the foliage and flowers.</p>
+
+<p>Double grafting (French, <i>greffe sur greffe</i>) is sufficiently explained
+by its name. By means of it a variety may often be propagated,
+or its fruit improved in a way not found practicable under ordinary
+circumstances. For its successful prosecution prolonged experiments
+in different localities and in gardens devoted to the purpose are
+requisite.</p>
+
+<p><i>Planting.</i>&mdash;By removal from one place to another the growth of
+every plant receives a check. How this check can be obviated or
+reduced, with regard to the season, the state of atmosphere, and the
+condition and circumstances of the plant generally, is a matter to
+be considered by the practical gardener.</p>
+
+<p>As to season, it is now admitted with respect to deciduous trees
+and shrubs that the earlier in autumn planting is performed the
+better; although some extend it from the period when the leaves
+fall to the first part of spring, before the sap begins to move. If
+feasible, the operation should be completed by the end of November,
+whilst the soil is still warm with the heat absorbed during summer.
+Attention to this rule is specially important in the case of rare
+and delicate plants. Early autumn planting enables wounded
+parts of roots to be healed over, and to form fibrils, which will be
+ready in spring, when it is most required, to collect food for the
+plant. Planting late in spring should, as far as possible, be avoided,
+for the buds then begin to awaken into active life, and the draught
+upon the roots becomes great. It has been supposed that because
+the surface of the young leaves is small transpiration is correspondingly
+feeble; but it must be remembered, not only that their newly-formed
+tissue is unable without an abundant supply of sap from the
+roots to resist the excessive drying action of the atmosphere, but
+that, in spring, the lowness of the temperature at that season in
+Great Britain prevents the free circulation of the sap. The comparative
+dryness of the atmosphere in spring also causes a greater
+amount of transpiration then than in autumn and winter. Another
+fact in favour of autumnal planting is the production of roots in
+winter.</p>
+
+<p>The best way of performing transplantation depends greatly on
+the size of the trees, the soil in which they grow, and the mechanical
+appliances made use of in lifting and transporting them. The
+smaller the tree the more successfully can it be removed. The more
+argillaceous and the less siliceous the soil the more readily can balls
+of earth be retained about the roots. All planters lay great stress
+on the preservation of the fibrils; the point principally disputed is
+to what extent they can with safety be allowed to be cut off in
+transplantation. Trees and shrubs in thick plantations, or in
+sheltered warm places, are ill fitted for planting in bleak and cold
+situations. During their removal it is important that the roots
+be covered, if only to prevent desiccation by the air. Damp days
+are therefore the best for the operation; the dryest months are the
+most unfavourable. Though success in transplanting depends much
+on the humidity of the atmosphere, the most important requisite
+is warmth in the soil; humidity can be supplied artificially, but
+heat cannot.</p>
+
+<p><i>Pruning</i>, or the removal of superfluous growths, is practised in
+order to equalize the development of the different parts of trees,
+or to promote it in particular directions so as to secure a certain
+form, and, by checking undue luxuriance, to promote enhanced
+fertility. In the rose-bush, for instance, in which, as we have seen,
+the flower-buds are formed on the new wood of the year, pruning
+causes the old wood to &ldquo;break,&rdquo; <i>i.e.</i> to put forth a number of new
+buds, some of which will produce flowers at their extremities. The
+manner and the time in which pruning should be accomplished, and
+its extent, vary with the plant, the objects of the operation, <i>i.e.</i>
+whether for the production of timber or fruit, the season and
+various other circumstances. So much judgment and experience
+does the operation call for that it is a truism to say that bad pruning
+is worse than none. The removal of weakly, sickly, overcrowded
+and gross infertile shoots is usually, however, a matter about which
+there can be few mistakes when once the habit of growth and the
+form and arrangement of the buds are known. Winter pruning
+is effected when the tree is comparatively at rest, and is therefore
+less liable to &ldquo;bleeding&rdquo; or outpouring of sap. Summer pruning or
+pinching off the tips of such of the younger shoots as are not required
+for the extension of the tree, when not carried to too great an extent,
+is preferable to the coarser more reckless style of pruning. The
+injury inflicted is less and not so concentrated; the wounds are
+smaller, and have time to heal before winter sets in. The effects
+of badly-executed pruning, or rather hacking, are most noticeable
+in the case of forest trees, the mutilation of which often results in
+rotting, canker and other diseases. Judicious and timely thinning
+so as to allow the trees room to grow, and to give them sufficiency
+of light and air, will generally obviate the need of the pruning-saw,
+except to a relatively small extent.</p>
+
+<p><i>Training</i> is a procedure adopted when it is required to grow plants
+in a limited area, or in a particular shape, as in the case of many
+plants of trailing habit. Judicious training also may be of importance
+as encouraging the formation of flowers and fruit. Growth
+in length is mainly in a vertical direction, or at least at the ends of
+the shoots; and this should be encouraged, in the case of a timber
+tree, or of a climbing plant which it is desired should cover a wall
+quickly; but where flowers or fruit are specially desired, then,
+when the wood required is formed, the lateral shoots may often be
+trained more or less downward to induce fertility. The refinements
+of training, as of pruning, may, however, be carried too far; and not
+unfrequently the symmetrically trained trees of the French excite
+admiration in every respect save fertility.</p>
+
+<p><i>Sports or Bud Variations.</i>&mdash;Here we may conveniently mention
+certain variations from the normal condition in the size, form or
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page744" id="page744"></a>744</span>
+disposition of buds or shoots on a given plant. An inferior variety
+of pear, for instance, may suddenly produce a shoot bearing fruit of
+superior quality; a beech tree, without obvious cause, a shoot
+with finely divided foliage; or a camellia an unwontedly fine flower.
+When removed from the plant and treated as cuttings or grafts,
+such sports may be perpetuated. Many garden varieties of flowers
+and fruits have thus originated. The cause of their production is
+very obscure.</p>
+
+<p><i>Formation of Flowers.</i>&mdash;Flowers, whether for their own sake or
+as the necessary precursors of the fruit and seed, are objects of the
+greatest concern to the gardener. As a rule they are not formed
+until the plant has arrived at a certain degree of vigour, or until a
+sufficient supply of nourishment has been stored in the tissues of
+the plant. The reproductive process of which the formation of the
+flower is the first stage being an exhaustive one, it is necessary that
+the plant, as gardeners say, should get &ldquo;established&rdquo; before it
+flowers. Moreover, although the green portions of the flower do
+indeed perform the same office as the leaves, the more highly coloured
+and more specialized portions, which are further removed from the
+typical leaf-form, do not carry on those processes for which the
+presence of chlorophyll is essential; and the floral organs may,
+therefore, in a rough sense, be said to be parasitic upon the green
+parts. A check or arrest of growth in the vegetative organs seems
+to be a necessary preliminary to the development of the flower.</p>
+
+<p>A diminished supply of water at the root is requisite, so as to check
+energy of growth, or rather to divert it from leaf-making. Partial
+starvation will sometimes effect this; hence the grafting of free-growing
+fruit trees upon dwarfing stocks, as before alluded to,
+and also the &ldquo;ringing&rdquo; or girdling of fruit trees, <i>i.e.</i> the removal
+from the branch of a ring of bark, or the application of a tight
+cincture, in consequence of which the growth of the fruits above
+the wound or the obstruction is enhanced. On the same principle
+the use of small pots to confine the roots, root-pruning and lifting
+the roots, and exposing them to the sun, as is done in the case
+of the vine in some countries, are resorted to. A higher temperature,
+especially with deficiency of moisture, will tend to throw a plant
+into a flowering condition. This is exemplified by the fact that
+the temperature of the climate of Great Britain is too low for the
+flowering, though sufficiently high for the growth of many plants.
+Thus the Jerusalem artichoke, though able to produce stems and
+tubers abundantly, only flowers in exceptionally hot seasons.</p>
+
+<p><i>Forcing.</i>&mdash;The operation of forcing is based upon the facts just
+mentioned. By subjecting a plant to a gradually increasing temperature,
+and supplying water in proportion, its growth may be accelerated;
+its season of development may be, as it were, anticipated;
+it is roused from a dormant to an active state. Forcing therefore
+demands the most careful adjustment of temperature and supplies
+of moisture and light.</p>
+
+<p>Deficiency of light is less injurious than might at first be expected,
+because the plant to be forced has stored up in its tissues, and
+available for use, a reserve stock of material formed through the
+agency of light in former seasons. The intensity of the colour of
+flowers and the richness of flavour of fruit are, however, deficient
+where there is feebleness of light. Recent experiments show that
+the influence of electric light on chlorophyll is similar to that of
+sunlight, and that deficiencies of natural light may to some extent
+be made good by its use. The employment of that light for forcing
+purposes would seem to be in part a question of expense. The
+advantage hitherto obtained from its use has consisted in the
+rapidity with which flowers have been formed and fruits ripened
+under its influence, circumstances which go towards compensating
+for the extra cost of production.</p>
+
+<p><i>Retardation.</i>&mdash;The art of retarding the period of flowering in certain
+plants consists, in principle, in the artificial application of cold
+temperatures whereby the resting condition induced by low winter
+temperature is prolonged. For commercial purposes, crowns of lily
+of the valley, tulip and other bulbs, and such deciduous woody
+plants as lilac and deciduous species of rhododendron, while in a
+state of rest, are packed in wet moss and introduced into cold-storage
+chambers, where they may be kept in a state of quiescence,
+it desired, throughout the following summer. The temperature of
+the cold chamber is varied from the freezing-point of water, to a
+few degrees lower, according to the needs of the plants under treatment.
+When required for use they are removed to cool sheds to
+thaw, and are then gradually inured to higher temperatures. The
+chief advantages of retarded plants are:&mdash;(<i>a</i>) they may be flowered
+almost at will; (<i>b</i>) they are readily induced to flower at those
+times when unretarded plants refuse to respond to forcing. Cold-storage
+chambers form a part of the equipment of most of the
+leading establishments where flowers are grown for market.</p>
+
+<p><i>Double Flowers.</i>&mdash;The taste of the day demands that &ldquo;double
+flowers&rdquo; should be largely grown. Though in many instances, as
+in hyacinths, they are less beautiful than single ones, they always
+present the advantage of being less evanescent. Under the vague
+term &ldquo;double&rdquo; many very different morphological changes are
+included. The flower of a double dahlia, <i>e.g.</i> offers a totally different
+condition of structure from that of a rose or a hyacinth. The double
+poinsettia, again, owes its so-called double condition merely to the
+increased number of its scarlet involucral leaves, which are not
+parts of the flower at all. It is reasonable, therefore, to infer that
+the causes leading to the production of double flowers are varied.
+A good deal of difference of opinion exists as to whether they are
+the result of arrested growth or of exuberant development, and
+accordingly whether restricted food or abundant supplies of nourishment
+are the more necessary for their production. It must suffice
+here to say that double flowers are most commonly the result of the
+substitution of brightly-coloured petals for stamens or pistils or
+both, and that a perfectly double flower where all the stamens
+and pistils are thus metamorphosed is necessarily barren. Such a
+plant must needs be propagated by cuttings. It rarely happens,
+however, that the change is quite complete throughout the flower,
+and so a few seeds may be formed, some of which may be expected
+to reproduce the double-blossomed plants. By continuous selection
+of seed from the best varieties, and &ldquo;roguing&rdquo; or eliminating plants
+of the ordinary type, a &ldquo;strain&rdquo; or race of double flowers is gradually
+produced.</p>
+
+<p><i>Formation of Seed&mdash;Fertilization.</i>&mdash;In fertilization&mdash;the influence
+in flowering plants of the male-cell in the pollen tube upon the egg-cell
+in the ovule (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Botany</a></span>)&mdash;there are many circumstances of
+importance horticulturally, to which, therefore, brief reference must
+be made. Flowers, generally speaking, are either self-fertilized,
+cross-fertilized or hybridized. Self-fertilization occurs when the
+pollen of a given flower affects the egg-cell of the same individual
+flower. Cross-fertilization varies both in manner and degree. In
+the simplest instances the pollen of one flower fertilizes the ovules
+of another on the same plant, owing to the stamens arriving at
+maturity in any one flower earlier or later than the pistils.</p>
+
+<p>Cross-fertilization must of necessity occur when the flowers are
+structurally unisexual, as in the hazel, in which the male and female
+flowers are monoecious, or separate on the same plant, and in the
+willow, in which they are dioecious, or on different plants. A
+conspicuous example of a dioecious plant is the common aucuba, of
+which for years only the female plant was known in Britain. When,
+through the introduction of the male plant from Japan, its fertilization
+was rendered possible, ripe berries, before unknown, became
+common ornaments of the shrub.</p>
+
+<p>The conveyance of pollen from one flower to another in cross-fertilization
+is effected naturally by the wind, or by the agency of
+insects and other creatures. Flowers that require the aid of insects
+usually offer some attraction to their visitors in the shape of bright
+colour, fragrance or sweet juices. The colour and markings of a
+flower often serve to guide the insects to the honey, in the obtaining
+of which they are compelled either to remove or to deposit pollen.
+The reciprocal adaptations of insects and flowers demand attentive
+observation on the part of the gardener concerned with the growing
+of grapes, cucumbers, melons and strawberries, or with the raising
+of new and improved varieties of plants. In wind-fertilized plants
+the flowers are comparatively inconspicuous and devoid of much
+attraction for insects; and their pollen is smoother and smaller,
+and better adapted for transport by the wind, than that of insect-fertilized
+plants, the roughness of which adapts it for attachment
+to the bodies of insects.</p>
+
+<p>It is very probable that the same flower at certain times and
+seasons is self-fertilizing, and at others not so. The defects which
+cause gardeners to speak of certain vines as &ldquo;shy setters,&rdquo; and of
+certain strawberries as &ldquo;blind,&rdquo; may be due either to unsuitable
+conditions of external temperature, or to the non-accomplishment,
+from some cause or other, of cross-fertilization. In a vinery, tomato-house
+or a peach-house it is often good practice at the time of
+flowering to tap the branches smartly with a stick so as to ensure
+the dispersal of the pollen. Sometimes more delicate and direct
+manipulation is required, and the gardener has himself to convey
+the pollen from one flower to another, for which purpose a small
+camel&rsquo;s-hair pencil is generally suitable. The degree of fertility
+varies greatly according to external conditions, the structural and
+functional arrangements just alluded to, and other causes which
+may roughly be called constitutional. Thus, it often happens that
+an apparently very slight change in climate alters the degree of
+fertility. In a particular country or at certain seasons one flower
+will be self-sterile or nearly so, and another just the opposite.</p>
+
+<p><i>Hybridization.</i>&mdash;Some of the most interesting results and many of
+the gardener&rsquo;s greatest triumphs have been obtained by hybridization,
+<i>i.e.</i> the crossing of two individuals not of the same but of
+two distinct species of plants, as, for instance, two species of
+rhododendron or two species of orchid (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Hybridism</a></span>). It is
+obvious that hybridization differs more in degree than in kind from
+cross-fertilization. The occurrence of hybrids in nature explains the
+difficulty experienced by botanists in deciding on what is a species,
+and the widely different limitations of the term adopted by different
+observers in the case of willows, roses, brambles, &amp;c. The artificial
+process is practically the same in hybridization as in cross-fertilization,
+but usually requires more care. To prevent self-fertilization,
+or the access of insects, it is advisable to remove the stamens and
+even the corolla from the flower to be impregnated, as its own pollen
+or that of a flower of the same species is often found to be &ldquo;prepotent.&rdquo;
+There are, however, cases, <i>e.g.</i> some passion-flowers and
+rhododendrons, in which a flower is more or less sterile with its
+own, but fertile with foreign pollen, even when this is from a distinct
+species. It is a singular circumstance that reciprocal crosses are
+not always or even often possible; thus, one rhododendron may
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page745" id="page745"></a>745</span>
+afford pollen perfectly potent on the stigma of another kind, by the
+pollen of which latter its own stigma is unaffected.</p>
+
+<p>The object of the hybridizer is to obtain varieties exhibiting
+improvements in hardihood, vigour, size, shape, colour, fruitfulness,
+resistance to disease or other attributes. His success depends not
+alone on skill and judgment, for some seasons, or days even, are
+found more propitious than others. Although promiscuous and
+hap-hazard procedures no doubt meet with a measure of success,
+the best results are those which are attained by systematic work with
+a definite aim.</p>
+
+<p>Hybrids are sometimes less fertile than pure-bred species, and
+are occasionally quite sterile. Some hybrids, however, are as
+fertile as pure-bred plants. Hybrid plants may be again crossed,
+or even re-hybridized, so as to produce a progeny of very mixed
+parentage. This is the case with many of our roses, dahlias, begonias,
+pelargoniums, orchids and other long or widely cultivated garden
+plants.</p>
+
+<p><i>Reversion.</i>&mdash;In modified forms of plants there is frequently a
+tendency to &ldquo;sport&rdquo; or revert to parental or ancestral characteristics.
+So markedly is this the case with hybrids that in a
+few generations all traces of a hybrid origin may disappear. The
+dissociation of the hybrid element in a plant must be obviated by
+careful selection. The researches of Gregor Johann Mendel (1822-1884),
+abbot of the Augustinian monastery at Brünn, in connexion
+with peas and other plants, apparently indicate that there is a
+definite natural law at work in the production of hybrids. Having
+crossed yellow and green seeded peas both ways, he found that the
+progeny resulted in <i>all yellow</i> coloured seeds. These gave rise in due
+course to a second generation in which there were three yellows to
+one green. In the third generation the yellows from the second
+generation gave the proportion of one pure yellow, two impure
+yellows, and one green; while the green seed of the second generation
+threw only green seeds in the third, fourth and fifth generations.
+The pure yellow in the third generation also threw pure yellows in the
+fourth and fifth and succeeding generations. The impure yellows,
+however, in the next generation gave rise to one pure yellow, one pure
+green, to two impure yellows, and so on from generation to generation.
+Accordingly as the green or the yellow predominated in the
+progeny it was termed &ldquo;dominant,&rdquo; while the colour that disappeared
+was called &ldquo;recessive.&rdquo; It happened, however, that a
+recessive colour in one generation becomes the dominant in a succeeding
+one.</p>
+
+<p><i>Germination.</i>&mdash;The length of the period during which seeds
+remain dormant after their formation is very variable. The conditions
+for germination are much the same as for growth in general.
+Access to light is not required, because the seed contains a sufficiency
+of stored-up food. The temperature necessary varies according to
+the nature and source of the seed. Some seeds require prolonged
+immersion in water to soften their shells; others are of so delicate a
+texture that they would dry up and perish if not kept constantly
+in a moist atmosphere. Seeds buried too deeply receive a deficient
+supply of air. As a rule, seeds require to be sown more deeply in
+proportion to their size and the lightness of the soil.</p>
+
+<p>The time required for germination in the most favourable circumstances
+varies very greatly, even in the same species, and in
+seeds taken from one pod. Thus the seeds of <i>Primula japonica</i>,
+though sown under precisely similar conditions, yet come up at
+very irregular intervals of time. Germination is often slower where
+there is a store of available food in the perisperm, or in the endosperm,
+or in the embryo itself, than where this is scanty or wanting.
+In the latter case the seedling has early to shift for itself, and to
+form roots and leaves for the supply of its needs.</p>
+
+<p><i>Selection.</i>&mdash;Supposing seedlings to have been developed, it is
+found that a large number of them present considerable variations,
+some being especially robust, others peculiar in size or form. Those
+most suitable for the purpose of the gardener are carefully selected
+for propagation, while others not so desirable are destroyed; and
+thus after a few generations a fixed variety, race or strain superior
+to the original form is obtained. Many garden plants have originated
+solely by selection; and much has been done to improve our breeds
+of vegetables, flowers and fruit by systematic selection.</p>
+
+<p>Large and well-formed seeds are to be preferred for harvesting.
+The seeds should be kept in sacks or bags in a dry place, and if from
+plants which are rare, or liable to lose their vitality, they are advantageously
+packed for transmission to a distance in hermetically
+sealed bottles or jars filled with earth or moss, without the addition
+of moisture.</p>
+
+<p>It will have been gathered from what has been said that seeds
+cannot always be depended on to reproduce exactly the characteristics
+of the plant which yielded them; for instance, seeds of the
+greengage plum or of the Ribston pippin will produce a plum or
+an apple, but not these particular varieties, to perpetuate which
+grafts or buds must be employed.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(M. T. M.; W. R. W.)</div>
+
+<p class="pt2 center sc">Part II.&mdash;The Practice of Horticulture</p>
+
+<p>The details of horticultural practice naturally range under
+the three heads of flowers, fruits and vegetables (see also <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Fruit
+and Flower Farming</a></span>). There are, however, certain general
+aspects of the subject which will be more conveniently noticed
+apart, since they apply alike to each department. We shall
+therefore first treat of these under four headings: formation
+and preparation of the garden, garden structures and edifices,
+garden materials and appliances, and garden operations.</p>
+
+<p class="pt2 center">I. <i>Formation and Preparation of the Garden.</i></p>
+
+<p><i>Site.</i>&mdash;The site chosen for the mansion will more or less
+determine that of the garden, the pleasure grounds and flower
+garden being placed so as to surround or lie contiguous to it,
+while the fruit and vegetable gardens, either together or separate,
+should be placed on one side or in the rear, according to fitness
+as regards the nature of the soil and subsoil, the slope of the
+surface or the general features of the park scenery. In the
+case of villa gardens there is usually little choice: the land
+to be occupied is cut up into plots, usually rectangular, and
+of greater or less breadth, and in laying out these plots there
+is generally a smaller space left in the front of the villa residence
+and a larger one behind, the front plot being usually devoted
+to approaches, shrubbery and plantations, flower beds being
+added if space permits, while the back or more private plot
+has a piece of lawn grass with flower beds next the house, and a
+space for vegetables and fruit trees at the far end, this latter
+being shut off from the lawn by an intervening screen of evergreens
+or other plants. Between these two classes of gardens
+there are many gradations, but our remarks will chiefly apply
+to those of larger extent.</p>
+
+<p>The almost universal practice is to have the fruit and vegetable
+gardens combined; and the flower garden may sometimes
+be conveniently placed in juxtaposition with them. When the
+fruit and vegetable gardens are combined, the smaller and choicer
+fruit trees only should be admitted, such larger-growing hardy
+fruits as apples, pears, plums, cherries, &amp;c., being relegated to
+the orchard.</p>
+
+<p>Ground possessing a gentle inclination towards the south
+is desirable for a garden. On such a slope effectual draining
+is easily accomplished, and the greatest possible benefit is
+derived from the sun&rsquo;s rays. It is well also to have an open
+exposure towards the east and west, so that the garden may
+enjoy the full benefit of the morning and evening sun, especially
+the latter; but shelter is desirable on the north and north-east,
+or in any direction in which the particular locality may happen
+to be exposed. In some places the south-western gales are so
+severe that a belt of trees is useful as a break wind and shelter.</p>
+
+<p><i>Soil and Subsoil.</i>&mdash;A hazel-coloured loam, moderately light
+in texture, is well adapted for most garden crops, whether
+of fruits or vegetables, especially a good warm deep loam resting
+upon chalk; and if such a soil occurs naturally in the selected
+site, but little will be required in the way of preparation. If
+the soil is not moderately good and of fair depth, it is not so
+favourable for gardening purposes. Wherever the soil is not
+quite suitable, but is capable of being made so, it is best to remedy
+the defect at the outset by trenching it all over to a depth
+of 2 or 3 ft., incorporating plenty of manure with it. A heavy
+soil, although at first requiring more labour, generally gives far
+better results when worked than a light soil. The latter is
+not sufficiently retentive of moisture and gets too hot in
+summer and requires large quantities of organic manures
+to keep it in good condition. It is advantageous to possess
+a variety of soils; and if the garden be on a slope it will
+often be practicable to render the upper part light and dry,
+while the lower remains of a heavier and damper nature.</p>
+
+<p>Natural soils consist of substances derived from the decomposition
+of various kinds of rocks, the bulk consisting of
+clay, silica and lime, in various proportions. As regards preparation,
+draining is of course of the utmost importance.
+The ground should also be trenched to the depth of 3 ft. at
+least, and the deeper the better so as to bring up the subsoil&mdash;whether
+it be clay, sand, gravel, marl, &amp;c.&mdash;for exposure to
+the weather and thus convert it from a sterile mass into a living
+soil teeming with bacteria. In this operation all stones larger
+than a man&rsquo;s fist must be taken out, and all roots of trees and of
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page746" id="page746"></a>746</span>
+perennial weeds carefully cleared away. When the whole
+ground has been thus treated, a moderate liming will, in general,
+be useful, especially on heavy clay soils. After this, supposing
+the work to have occupied most of the summer, the whole may
+be laid up in ridges, to expose as great a surface as possible
+to the action of the winter&rsquo;s frost.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>Argillaceous or clay soils are those which contain a large percentage
+(45-50) of clay, and a small percentage (5 or less) of lime.
+These are unfitted for garden purposes until improved by draining,
+liming, trenching and the addition of porous materials, such as
+ashes, burnt ballast or sand, but when thoroughly improved they
+are very fertile and less liable to become exhausted than most other
+soils. Loamy soils contain a considerable quantity (30-45%)
+of clay, and smaller quantities of lime, humus and sand. Such
+soils properly drained and prepared are very suitable for orchards,
+and when the proportion of clay is smaller (20-30%) they form
+excellent garden soils, in which the better sort of fruit trees luxuriate.
+Marly soils are those which contain a considerable percentage
+(10-20) of lime, and are called clay marls, loamy marls and sandy
+marls, according as these several ingredients preponderate. The
+clay marls are, like clay soils, too stiff for garden purposes until
+well worked and heavily manured; but loamy marls are fertile
+and well suited to fruit trees, and sandy marls are adapted for
+producing early crops. Calcareous soils, which may also be heavy,
+intermediate or light, are those which contain more than 20% of
+lime, their fertility depending on the proportions of clay and sand
+which enter into their composition; they are generally cold and wet.
+Vegetable soils or moulds, or humus soils, contain a considerable
+percentage (more than 5) of humus, and embrace both the rich
+productive garden moulds and those known as peaty soils.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>The nature of the subsoil is of scarcely less importance than
+that of the surface soil. Many gardeners are still afraid to disturb
+an unsuitable subsoil, but experienced growers have proved
+that by bringing it up to the surface and placing plenty of
+manure in the bottoms of the various trenches, the very best
+results are attained in the course of a season or so. An uneven
+subsoil, especially if retentive, is most undesirable, as water
+is apt to collect in the hollows, and thus affect the upper soil.
+The remedy is to make the plane of its surface agree with that
+of the ground. When there is a hard pan this should be broken
+up with the spade or the fork, and have plenty of manure mixed
+with it. When there is an injurious preponderance of metallic
+oxides or other deleterious substances, the roots of trees would
+be affected by them, and they must therefore be removed. When
+the subsoil is too compact to be pervious to water, effectual
+drainage must be resorted to; when it is very loose, so that it
+drains away the fertile ingredients of the soil as well as those
+which are artificially supplied, the compactness of the stratum
+should be increased by the addition of clay, marl or loam. The
+best of all subsoils is a dry bed of clay overlying sandstone.</p>
+
+<p><i>Plan.</i>&mdash;In laying out the garden, the plan should be prepared
+in minute detail before commencing operations. The form
+of the kitchen and fruit garden should be square or oblong,
+rather than curvilinear, since the working and cropping of
+the ground can thus be more easily carried out. The whole
+should be compactly arranged, so as to facilitate working,
+and to afford convenient access for the carting of the heavy
+materials. This access is especially desirable as regards the
+store-yards and framing ground, where fermenting manures
+and tree leaves for making up hot beds, coals or wood for fuel
+and ingredients for composts, together with flower-pots and
+the many necessaries of garden culture, have to be accommodated.
+In the case of villas or picturesque residences,
+gardens of irregular form may be permitted; when adapted
+to the conditions of the locality, they associate better with
+surrounding objects, but in such gardens wall space is usually
+limited.</p>
+
+<p>The distribution of paths must be governed by circumstances.
+Generally speaking, the main paths for cartage should be 8 ft.
+wide, made up of 9 in. hard core covered by 4 in. of gravel
+or ash, with a gentle rise to centre to throw off surface water.
+The smaller paths, not intended for cartage, should be 4 ft.
+to 6 ft. wide, according to circumstances, made up of 6 in.
+hard core and 3 in. of gravel or ash, and should be slightly
+raised at centre.</p>
+
+<p>A considerable portion of the north wall is usually covered
+in front with the glazed structures called forcing-houses, and to
+these the houses for ornamental plants are sometimes attached;
+but a more appropriate site for the latter is the flower garden,
+when that forms a separate department. It is well, however,
+that everything connected with the forcing of fruits or flowers
+should be concentrated in one place. The frame ground, including
+melon and pine pits, should occupy some well-sheltered
+spot in the slips, or on one side of the garden, and adjoining to
+this may be found a suitable site for the compost ground, in
+which the various kinds of soils are kept in store, and in which
+also composts may be prepared.</p>
+
+<p>As walls afford valuable space for the growth of the choicer
+kinds of hardy fruits, the direction in which they are built
+is of considerable importance. In the warmer parts of the
+country the wall on the north side of the garden should be so
+placed as to face the sun at about an hour before noon, or a
+little to the east of south; in less favoured localities it should
+be made to face direct south, and in still more unfavourable
+districts it should face the sun an hour after noon, or a little
+west of south. The east and west walls should run parallel
+to each other, and at right angles to that on the north side,
+in all the most favoured localities; but in colder or later ones,
+though parallel, they should be so far removed from a right angle
+as to get the sun by eleven o&rsquo;clock. On the whole, the form of
+a parallelogram with its longest sides in the proportion of about
+five to three of the shorter, and running east and west, may be
+considered the best form, since it affords a greater extent of
+south wall than any other.</p>
+
+<table class="flt" style="float: right; width: 370px;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:318px; height:229px" src="images/img746.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption1"><span class="sc">Fig. 1.</span>&mdash;Plan of Garden an acre in area.</td></tr></table>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>Fig. 1 represents a garden of one acre and admits of nearly double
+the number of trees on the south aspect as compared with the east
+and west; it allows a greater number of espalier or pyramid trees
+to face the south; and it admits of being divided into equal principal
+compartments, each of
+which forms nearly a
+square. The size of course
+can be increased to any
+requisite extent. That of
+the royal gardens at Frogmore,
+760 ft. from east to
+west and 440 ft. from
+north to south, is nearly
+of the same proportions.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>The spaces between
+the walls and the outer
+fence are called &ldquo;slips.&rdquo;
+A considerable extent is
+sometimes thus enclosed,
+and utilized for the
+growth of such vegetables as potatoes, winter greens and sea-kale,
+for the small bush fruits, and for strawberries. The
+slips are also convenient as affording a variety of aspects,
+and thus helping to prolong the season of particular vegetable
+crops.</p>
+
+<p><i>Shelter.</i>&mdash;A screen of some kind to temper the fury of the
+blast is absolutely necessary. If the situation is not naturally
+well sheltered, the defect may be remedied by masses of forest
+trees disposed at a considerable distance so as not to shade the
+walls or fruit trees. They should not be nearer than, say, 50 yds.,
+and may vary from that to 100 or 150 yds. distance according
+to circumstances, regard being had especially to peculiarities
+occasioned by the configuration of the country, as for instance to
+aerial currents from adjacent eminences. Care should be taken,
+however, not to hem in the garden by crowded plantations, shelter
+from the prevailing strong winds being all that is required, while
+the more open it is in other directions the better. The trees
+employed for screens should include both those of deciduous
+and of evergreen habit, and should suit the peculiarities of local
+soil and climate. Of deciduous trees the sycamore, wych-elm,
+horse-chestnut, beech, lime, plane and poplar may be used,&mdash;the
+abele or white poplar, <i>Populus alba</i>, being one of the most rapid-growing
+of all trees, and, like other poplars, well suited for
+nursing other choicer subjects; while of evergreens, the holm
+oak, holly, laurel (both common and Portugal), and such conifers
+as the Scotch, Weymouth and Austrian pines, with spruce and
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page747" id="page747"></a>747</span>
+silver firs and yews, are suitable. The conifers make the most
+effective screens.</p>
+
+<p>Extensive gardens in exposed situations are often divided
+into compartments by hedges, so disposed as to break the force
+of high winds. Where these are required to be narrow as well
+as lofty, holly, yew or beech is to be preferred; but, if there
+is sufficient space, the beautiful laurel and the bay may be
+employed where they will thrive. Smaller hedges may be
+formed of evergreen privet or of tree-box. These subordinate
+divisions furnish, not only shelter but also shade, which, at
+certain seasons, is peculiarly valuable.</p>
+
+<p>Belts of shrubbery may be placed round the slips outside
+the walls; and these may in many cases, or in certain parts,
+be of sufficient breadth to furnish pleasant retired promenades,
+at the same time that they serve to mask the formality of the
+walled gardens, and are made to harmonize with the picturesque
+scenery of the pleasure ground.</p>
+
+<p><i>Water Supply.</i>&mdash;Although water is one of the most important
+elements in plant life, we do not find one garden in twenty where
+even ordinary precautions have been taken to secure a competent
+supply. Rain-water is the best, next to that river or pond
+water, and last of all that from springs; but a chemical analysis
+should be made of the last before introducing it, as some spring
+waters contain mineral ingredients injurious to vegetation. Iron
+pipes are the best conductors; they should lead to a capacious
+open reservoir placed outside the garden, and at the highest
+convenient level, in order to secure sufficient pressure for effective
+distribution, and so that the wall trees also may be effectually
+washed. Stand-pipes should be placed at intervals beside the
+walks and in other convenient places, from which water may at
+all times be drawn; and to which a garden hose can be attached,
+so as to permit of the whole garden being readily watered.
+The mains should be placed under the walks for safety, and also
+that they may be easily reached when repairs are required.
+Pipes should also be laid having a connexion with all the various
+greenhouses and forcing-houses, each of which should be provided
+with a cistern for aerating the daily supplies. In fact,
+every part of the garden, including the working sheds and
+offices, should have water supplied without stint.</p>
+
+<p><i>Fence.</i>&mdash;Gardens of large extent should be encircled by an
+outer boundary, which is often formed by a sunk wall or ha-ha
+surrounded by an invisible wire fence to exclude ground game,
+or consists of a hedge with low wire fence on its inner side.
+Occasionally this sunk wall is placed on the exterior of the
+screen plantations, and walks lead through the trees, so that
+views are obtained of the adjacent country. Although the
+interior garden receives its form from the walls, the ring fence
+and plantations may be adapted to the shape and surface of
+the ground. In smaller country gardens the enclosure or outer
+fence is often a hedge, and there is possibly no space enclosed
+by walls, but some divisional wall having a suitable aspect is
+utilized for the growth of peaches, apricots, &amp;c., and the hedge
+merely separates the garden from a paddock used for grazing.
+The still smaller gardens of villas are generally bounded by a wall
+or wood fence, the inner side of which is appropriated to fruit
+trees. For the latter walls are much more convenient and
+suitable than a boarded fence, but in general these are too low to
+be of much value as aids to cultivation, and they are best covered
+with bush fruits or with ornamental plants of limited growth.</p>
+
+<p><i>Walks.</i>&mdash;The best material for the construction of garden
+walks is good binding gravel. The ground should be excavated
+to the depth of a foot or more&mdash;the bottom being made firm and
+slightly concave, so that it may slope to the centre, where a drain
+should be introduced; or the bottom may be made convex and
+the water allowed to drain away at the sides. The bottom 9 in.
+should be filled in compactly with hard, coarse materials, such
+as stones, brickbats, clinkers, burned clay, &amp;c., on which should
+be laid 2 or 3 in. of coarse gravel, and then 1 or 2 in. of firm
+binding gravel on the surface. The surface of the walks should be
+kept well rolled, for nothing contributes more to their elegance
+and durability.</p>
+
+<p>All the principal lines of walk should be broad enough to allow
+at least three persons to walk abreast; the others may be
+narrower, but a multitude of narrow walks has a puny effect.
+Much of the neatness of walks depends upon the material of
+which they are made. Gravel from an inland pit is to be preferred;
+though occasionally very excellent varieties are found
+upon the sea-coast. Gravel walks must be kept free from weeds,
+either by hand weeding, or by the use of one of the many weed
+killers now on the market. In some parts of the country the
+available material does not bind to form a close, even surface,
+and such walks are kept clean by hoeing.</p>
+
+<p>Grass walks were common in English gardens during the prevalence
+of the Dutch taste, but, owing to the frequent humidity
+of the climate, they have in a great measure been discarded.
+Grass walks are made in the same way as grass lawns. When the
+space to be thus occupied is prepared, a thin layer of sand or poor
+earth is laid upon the surface and over this a similar layer of
+good soil. This arrangement is adopted in order to prevent
+excessive luxuriance in the grass. In many modern gardens
+pathways made of old paving stones lead from the house to
+different parts. They give an old-fashioned and restful appearance
+to a garden, and in the interstices charming little plants like
+thyme, <i>Ionopsidium acaule</i>, &amp;c., are allowed to grow.</p>
+
+<p><i>Edgings.</i>&mdash;Walks are separated from the adjoining beds and
+borders in a variety of ways. If a living edging is adopted,
+by far the best is afforded by the dwarf box planted closely
+in line. It is of extremely neat growth, and when annually
+clipped will remain in good order for many years. Very good
+edgings, but of a less durable character, are formed by thrift
+(<i>Armeria vulgaris</i>), double daisy (<i>Bellis perennis</i>), gentianella
+(<i>Gentiana acaulis</i>) and London pride (<i>Saxifraga umbrosa</i>),
+<i>Cerastium tomentosum</i>, <i>Stachys lavata</i> and the beautiful evergreen
+<i>Veronica rupestris</i> with sheets of bright blue flowers
+close to the ground, or by some of the finer grasses very carefully
+selected, such as the sheep&rsquo;s fescue (<i>Festuca ovina</i>) or its
+glaucous-leaved variety. Indeed, any low-growing herbaceous
+plant, susceptible of minute division, is suitable for an edging.
+Amongst shrubby plants suitable for edgings are the evergreen
+candytuft (<i>Iberis sempervirens</i>), <i>Euonymus radicans variegata</i>,
+ivy, and <i>Euonymus microphyllus</i>&mdash;a charming little evergreen
+with small serrated leaves. Edgings may also be formed of
+narrow slips of sandstone flag, slate, tiles or bricks. One
+advantage of using edgings of this kind, especially in kitchen
+gardens, is that they do not harbour slugs and similar vermin,
+which all live edgings do, and often to a serious extent, if they
+are left to grow large. In shrubberies and large flower-plots,
+verges of grass-turf, from 1 to 3 ft. in breadth, according to the
+size of the border and width of the walk, make a very handsome
+edging, but they should not be allowed to rise more than an
+inch and a half above the gravel, the grass being kept short by
+repeated mowings, and the edges kept trim and well-defined
+by frequently clipping with shears and cutting once or twice a
+year with an edging iron.</p>
+
+<p class="pt2 center">II. <i>Garden Structures.</i></p>
+
+<p><i>Walls.</i>&mdash;The position to be given to the garden walls has
+been already referred to. The shelter afforded by a wall, and the
+increased temperature secured by its presence, are indispensable
+in the climate of Great Britain, for the production of all the
+finer kinds of outdoor fruits; and hence the inner side of a north
+wall, having a southern aspect, is appropriated to the more
+tender kinds. It is, indeed, estimated that such positions
+enjoy an increased temperature equal to 7° of latitude&mdash;that
+is to say, the mean temperature within a few inches of the wall
+is equal to the mean temperature of the open plain 7° farther
+south. The eastern and western aspects are set apart for fruits
+of a somewhat hardier character.</p>
+
+<p>Where the inclination of the ground is considerable, and the
+presence of high walls would be objectionable, the latter may
+be replaced by sunk walls. These should not rise more than
+3 ft. above the level of the ground behind them. As dryness is
+favourable to an increase of heat, such walls should be either
+built hollow or packed behind to the thickness of 3 or 4 ft.
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page748" id="page748"></a>748</span>
+with rubble stones, flints, brickbats or similar material, thoroughly
+drained at bottom. For mere purposes of shelter a height of
+6 or 7 ft. will generally be sufficient for the walls of a garden,
+but for the training of fruit trees it is found that an average
+height of 12 ft. is more suitable. In gardens of large size the
+northern or principal wall may be 14 ft., and the side walls 12 ft. in
+height; while smaller areas of an acre or so should have the
+principal walls 12 and the side walls 10 ft. in height. As brick
+is more easily built hollow than stone, it is to be preferred for
+garden walls. A 14-in. hollow wall will take in its construction
+12,800 bricks, while a solid 9-in. one, with piers, will take 11,000;
+but the hollow wall, while thus only a little more costly, will
+be greatly superior, being drier and warmer, as well as more
+substantial. Bricks cannot be too well burnt for garden walls;
+the harder they are the less moisture will they absorb. Many
+excellent walls are built of stone. The best is dark-coloured
+whinstone, because it absorbs very little moisture, or in Scotland
+Caithness pavement 4 in. thick. The stones can be cut (in the
+quarries) to any required length, and built in regular courses.
+Stone walls should always be built with thin courses for convenience
+of training over their surface. Concrete walls, properly coped
+and provided with a trellis, may in some places be cheapest, and
+they are very durable. Common rubble walls are the worst of all.</p>
+
+<p>The coping of garden walls is important, both for the preservation
+of the walls and for throwing the rain-water off their surfaces.
+It should not project less than from 2 to 2½ in., but in wet
+districts may be extended to 6 in. Stone copings are best,
+but they are costly, and Portland cement is sometimes substituted.
+Temporary copings of wood, which may be fixed
+by means of permanent iron brackets just below the stone coping,
+are extremely useful in spring for the protection of the blossoms
+of fruit trees. They should be 9 in. or 1 ft. wide, and should
+be put on during spring before the blossom buds begin to expand;
+they should have attached to them scrim cloth (a sort of thin
+canvas), which admits light pretty freely, yet is sufficient to
+ward off ordinary frosts; this canvas is to be let down towards
+evening and drawn up again in the morning. These copings
+should be removed when they are of no further utility as protectors,
+so that the foliage may have the full benefit of rain
+and dew. Any contrivance that serves to interrupt radiation,
+though it may not keep the temperature much above freezing,
+will be found sufficient. Standard fruit trees must be left to
+take their chance; and, indeed from the lateness of their flowering,
+they are generally more injured by blight, and by drenching
+rains, which wash away the pollen of the flowers, than by the
+direct effects of cold.</p>
+
+<p><i>Espalier Rails.</i>&mdash;Subsidiary to walls as a means of training
+fruit trees, espalier rails were formerly much employed, and
+are still used in many gardens. In their simplest form, they
+are merely a row of slender stakes of larch or other wood driven
+into the ground, and connected by a slight rod or fillet at top.
+The use of iron rails has now been almost wholly discontinued
+on account of metallic substances acting as powerful conductors
+of both heat and cold in equal extremes. Standards from
+which galvanized wire is tightly strained from one end to the
+other are preferable and very convenient. Trees trained to
+them are easily got at for all cultural operations, space is saved,
+and the fruit, while freely exposed to sun and air, is tolerably
+secure against wind. They form, moreover, neat enclosures
+for the vegetable quarters, and, provided excess of growth
+from the centre is successfully grappled with, they are productive
+in soils and situations which are suitable.</p>
+
+<p><i>Plant Houses.</i>&mdash;These include all those structures which are
+more intimately associated with the growth of ornamental
+plants and flowers, and comprise conservatory, plant stove,
+greenhouse and the subsidiary pits and frames. They should
+be so erected as to present the smallest extent of opaque surface
+consistent with stability. With this object in view, the early
+improvers of hot-house architecture substituted metal for wood
+in the construction of the roofs, and for the most part dispensed
+with back walls; but the conducting power of the metal caused
+a great irregularity of temperature, which it was found difficult
+to control; and, notwithstanding the elegance of metallic
+houses, this circumstance, together with their greater cost,
+has induced most recent authorities to give the preference to
+wood. The combination of the two, however, shows clearly
+that, without much variation of heat or loss of light, any extent
+of space may be covered, and houses of any altitude constructed.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>The earliest notice we have of such structures is given in the Latin
+writers of the 1st century (Mart. <i>Epigr.</i> viii. 14 and 68); the
+<span class="grk" title="Adônidos kêpoi">&#7944;&#948;&#8032;&#957;&#953;&#948;&#959;&#962; &#954;&#8134;&#960;&#959;&#953;</span>, to which allusion is made by various Greek authors,
+have no claim to be mentioned in this connexion. Columella
+(xi. 3, 51, 52) and Pliny (<i>H.N.</i> xix. 23) both refer to their use in
+Italy for the cultivation of the rarer and more delicate sorts of plants
+and trees. Seneca has given us a description of the application of
+hot water for securing the necessary temperature. The botanist
+Jungermann had plant houses at Altdorf in Switzerland; those of
+Loader, a London merchant, and the conservatory in the Apothecaries&rsquo;
+Botanic Garden at Chelsea, were among the first structures
+of the kind erected in British gardens. These were, however, ill
+adapted for the growth of plants, as they consisted of little else than
+a huge chamber of masonry, having large windows in front, with
+the roof invariably opaque. The next step was taken when it became
+fashionable to have conservatories attached to mansions, instead of
+having them in the pleasure grounds. This arrangement brought
+them within the province of architects, and for nearly a century
+utility and fitness for the cultivation of plants were sacrificed, as still
+is often the case, to the unity of architectural expression between
+the conservatory and the mansion.</p>
+</div>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:431px; height:312px" src="images/img748.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 2.</span>&mdash;Lean-to Plant House.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>Plant houses must be as far as possible impervious to wet and
+cold air from the exterior, provision at the same time being
+made for ventilation, while the escape of warm air from the interior
+must also be under control. The most important part of the
+enclosing material is necessarily glass. But as the rays of light,
+even in passing through transparent glass, lose much of their
+energy, which is further weakened in proportion to the distance
+it has to travel, the nearer the plant can be placed to the glass
+the more perfectly will its functions be performed; hence the
+importance of constructing the roofs at such an angle as will
+admit the most light, especially sunlight, at the time it is most
+required. Plants in glass houses require for their fullest development
+more solar light probably than even our best hot-houses
+transmit&mdash;certainly much more than is transmitted through
+the roofs of houses as generally constructed.</p>
+
+<p>Plant houses constructed of the best Baltic pine timber are
+very durable, but the whole of the parts should be kept as light
+as possible. In many houses, especially those where ornament
+is of no consequence, the rafters are now omitted, or only used
+at wide intervals, somewhat stouter sash-bars being adopted, and
+stout panes of glass (usually called 21-oz.) 12 to 18 in. wide, made
+use of. Such houses are very light; being also very close, they
+require careful ventilation. The glass roof is commonly designed
+so as to form a uniform plane or slope from back to front in lean-to
+houses (fig. 2), and from centre to sides in span-roofed houses.
+To secure the greatest possible influx of light, some horticulturists
+recommend curvilinear roofs; but the superiority of these is
+largely due to the absence of rafters, which may also be dispensed
+with in plain roofs. They are very expensive to build
+and maintain. Span and ridge-and-furrow roofs, the forms now
+mostly preferred, are exceedingly well adapted for the admission
+of light, especially when they are glazed to within a few inches
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page749" id="page749"></a>749</span>
+of the ground. They can be made, too, to cover in any extent
+of area without sustaining walls. Indeed, it has been proposed
+to support such roofs to a great extent upon suspension principles,
+the internal columns of support being utilized for conducting
+the rain-water off the roof to underground drains or reservoirs.
+The lean-to is the least desirable form, since it scarcely admits of
+elegance of design, but it is necessarily adopted in many cases.</p>
+
+<p>In glazing, the greater the surface of glass, and the less space
+occupied by rafters and astragals as well as overlaps, the greater
+the admission of light. Some prefer that the sash-bars should
+be grooved instead of rebated, and this plan exposes less putty
+to the action of the weather. The simple bedding of the glass,
+without the use of over putty, seems to be widely approved; but
+the glass may be fixed in a variety of other ways, some of which
+are patented.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>The <i>Conservatory</i> is often built in connexion with the mansion,
+so as to be entered from the drawing-room or boudoir. But when
+so situated it is apt to suffer from the shade of the building, and
+is objectionable on account of admitting damp to the drawing-room.
+Where circumstances will admit, it is better to place it at some
+distance from the house, and to form a connexion by means of a
+glass corridor. In order that the conservatory may be kept gay with
+flowers, there should be a subsidiary structure to receive the plants
+as they go out of bloom. The conservatory may also with great
+propriety be placed in the flower garden, where it may occupy an
+elevated terrace, and form the termination of one of the more important
+walks.</p>
+
+<p>Great variety of design is admissible in the conservatory, but it
+ought always to be adapted to the style of the mansion of which it
+is a prominent appendage. Some very pleasing examples are to be
+met with which have the form of a parallelogram with a lightly-rounded
+roof; others of appropriate character are square or nearly
+so, with a ridge-and-furrow roof. Whatever the form, there must be
+light in abundance; and the shade both of buildings and of trees
+must be avoided. A southern aspect, or one varying to south-east or
+south-west, is preferable; if these aspects cannot be secured, the
+plants selected must be adapted to the position. The central part of
+the house may be devoted to permanent plants; the side stages and
+open spaces in the permanent beds should be reserved for the
+temporary plants.</p>
+
+<table class="flt" style="float: right; width: 400px;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:347px; height:260px" src="images/img749a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 3.</span>&mdash;Section of Greenhouse.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>The <i>Greenhouse</i> is a structure designed for the growth of such
+exotic plants as require to be kept during winter in a temperature
+considerably above the freezing-point. The best form is the
+span-roofed,
+a single span being better even than a series of spans such
+as form the ridge-and-furrow roof. For plant culture, houses at a
+comparatively low pitch are better than higher ones where the plants
+have to stand at a greater distance from the glass, and therefore in
+greater gloom. Fig. 3 represents a convenient form of greenhouse.
+It is 20 ft. wide and
+12 ft. high, and may
+be of any convenient
+length. The side
+walls are surmounted
+by short upright
+sashes which open
+outwards by machinery
+a, and the
+roof is provided with
+sliding upper sashes
+for top ventilation.
+The upper sashes
+may also be made to
+lift, and are in many
+respects more convenient
+to operate.
+In the centre is a
+two-tier stage 6 ft.
+wide, for plants, with a pathway on each side 3 ft. wide, and a
+side stage 4 ft. wide, the side stages being flat, and the centre stage
+having the middle portion one-third of the width elevated 1 ft.
+above the rest so as to lift up the middle row of plants nearer
+the light. Span-roofed houses of this character should run north
+and south so as to secure an equalization of light, and should
+be warmed by two flow, and one or two return 4-in. hot-water pipes,
+carried under the side stages along each side and across each end.
+Where it is desired to cultivate a large number of plants, it is much
+better to increase the number of such houses than to provide larger
+structures. The smaller houses are far better for cultural purposes,
+while the plants can be classified, and the little details of management
+more conveniently attended to. Pelargoniums, cinerarias, calceolarias,
+cyclamens, camellias, heaths, roses and other specialities might thus
+have to themselves either a whole house or part of a house, the conditions
+of which could then be more accurately fitted to the wants of
+the inmates.</p>
+
+<p>The lean-to house is in most respects inferior to the span-roofed;
+one of the latter could be converted into two of the former of opposite
+aspects by a divisional wall along the centre. Except where space
+does not permit a span-roofed building to be introduced, a lean-to
+is not to be recommended; but a house of this class may often be
+greatly improved by adopting a half-span or hipped roof&mdash;that is,
+one with a short slope behind and a longer in front.</p>
+
+<table class="flt" style="float: left; width: 370px;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figleft1"><img style="width:324px; height:272px" src="images/img749b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 4.</span>&mdash;Section of Plant Stove.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>Where the cultivation of large specimens has to be carried on, a
+span-roofed house of greater height and larger dimensions may
+sometimes prove useful; but space for this class of plants may
+generally be secured in a house of the smaller elevation, simply by
+lowering or removing altogether the staging erected for smaller
+plants, and allowing the larger ones to stand on or nearer the floor.
+The <i>Plant Stove</i> differs in no respect from the greenhouse except
+in having a greater extent of hot-water pipes for the purpose of
+securing a greater degree of heat, although, as the plants in stove
+houses often attain a
+larger size, and many of
+them require a bed of
+coco-nut fibre, tan or
+leaf mould to supply
+them with bottom heat,
+a  somewhat  greater
+elevation may perhaps
+be occasionally required
+in some of the houses.
+For the smaller plants,
+and for all choicer subjects,
+the smaller size
+of house already recommended
+for greenhouses,
+namely 20 ft. wide and
+12 ft. high, with a side
+table of 4 ft. on each side,
+a pathway of 3 ft. and a
+central stage on two levels
+of 6 ft. wide, will be preferable, because more easily managed as to the
+supply of heat and moisture. It will be seen (fig. 4) that along the
+ridge of the roof a raised portion or lantern light <i>b</i>, <i>b</i> is introduced,
+which permits of the fixing of two continuous ventilators, one along
+each side, for the egress of heated and foul air, openings <i>a</i>, <i>a</i> being
+also provided in the side walls opposite the hot-water pipes for the
+admission of pure cold air. This type of house is also very suitable
+for greenhouse plants, but would not need so much heating apparatus.
+Three or four rows of flow and return pipes respectively will be required
+on each side, according to the heat proposed to be maintained.</p>
+
+<p>In their interior fittings plant stoves require more care than greenhouses,
+which are much drier, and in which consequently the staging
+does not so soon decay. In stoves the stages should be of slate or
+stone where practicable, and the supports of iron. These should be
+covered with a layer of 2 or 3 in. of some coarse gritty material, such
+as pounded spar, or the shell sand obtained on the sea-coast, on which
+the pots are to stand; its use is to absorb moisture and gradually
+give it out for the benefit of the plants. The pathways should be
+paved with tiles, brick or stone, or made of concrete and cement, and
+the surface should be gently rounded so that the water required for
+evaporation may drain to the sides while the centre is sufficiently
+dry to walk upon; they should also have brick or stone edgings to
+prevent the water so applied soaking away at the sides and thus
+being wasted.</p>
+</div>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:458px; height:343px" src="images/img749c.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 5.</span>&mdash;Lean-to Vinery.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p><i>Fruit Houses.</i>&mdash;The principal of these are the vinery, peach
+house, cucumber and melon house and orchard house. These,
+or a portion of them,
+especially the vineries
+and peacheries, are
+frequently brought
+together into a range
+along the principal
+interior or south wall
+of the garden, where
+they are well exposed
+to sun and light, an
+ornamental plant
+house being sometimes
+introduced into the centre of the range in order to give
+effect to the outline of the buildings. When thus associated,
+the houses are usually of the lean-to class, which have the
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page750" id="page750"></a>750</span>
+advantage of being more easily warmed and kept warm than
+buildings having glass on both sides, a matter of great importance
+for forcing purposes.</p>
+
+<table class="flt" style="float: right; width: 350px;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:298px; height:274px" src="images/img750a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 6.</span>&mdash;Hip-Roofed Vinery.</td></tr></table>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>The <i>Vinery</i> is a house devoted to the culture of the grape-vine,
+which is by far the most important exotic fruit cultivated in English
+gardens. When forming part of a range a vinery would in most cases
+be a lean-to structure, with a sharp pitch (45-50°) if intended for
+early forcing, and a flatter roof (40°) with longer rafters if designed
+for the main and late crops. (1) The <i>lean-to</i> (fig. 5) is the simplest
+form, often erected against some existing wall, and the best for early
+forcing, being warmer on account of the shelter afforded by the back
+wall. In this house the principal part of the roof is a fixture, ventilation
+being provided for by small lifting sashes against the back wall,
+and by the upright front sashes being hung on a pivot so as to swing
+outwards on the lower side.
+The necessary heat is provided
+by four 4-in. hot-water
+pipes, which would perhaps
+be best placed if all laid
+side by side, while the vines
+are planted in front and
+trained upwards under the
+roof. A second set of vines
+may be planted against the
+back wall, and will thrive
+there until the shade of the
+roof becomes too dense. (2)
+The <i>hip-roofed</i> or three-quarter
+span (fig. 6) is a
+combination of the lean-to
+and the span-roofed, uniting
+to a great degree the advantages
+of both, being
+warmer than the span and
+lighter than the lean-to. The heating and ventilating arrangements
+are much the same as in the lean-to, only the top sashes which open
+are on the back slope, and therefore do not interfere so much with
+the vines on the front slope. In both this and the lean-to the aspect
+should be as nearly due south as possible. Houses of this form are
+excellent for general purposes, and they are well adapted both for
+muscats, which require a high temperature, and for late-keeping
+grapes. (3) The <i>span-roofed</i> (fig. 7), the most elegant and ornamental
+form, is especially adapted for isolated positions; indeed, no other
+form affords so much roof space for the development of the vines.
+The amount of light admitted being very great, these houses answer
+well for general purposes and for the main crop. The large amount of
+glass or cooling surface, however, makes it more difficult to keep up
+a high and regular temperature in them, and from this cause they
+are not so well adapted for very early or very late crops. They are
+best, nevertheless, when grapes and ornamental plants are grown in
+the same house, except, indeed, in very wet and cold districts, where,
+in consequence of its greater warmth, the lean-to is to be preferred.
+This type of house, cheaply constructed, is in general use for raising
+grapes for market.</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:453px; height:331px" src="images/img750b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 7.</span>&mdash;Span-Roofed Vinery.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>The <i>Peach House</i> is a structure in which the ripening of the fruit
+is accelerated by the judicious employment of artificial heat. For
+early forcing, as in vineries, the lean-to form is to be preferred, and
+the house may have a tolerably sharp pitch. A width of 7 or 8 ft.,
+with the glass slope continued down to within a foot or two of the
+ground, and without any upright front sashes, will be suitable for
+such a house, which may also be conveniently divided into compartments
+of from 30 to 50 ft. in length according to the extent of
+the building, small houses being preferable to larger ones. As a very
+high temperature is not required, two or three pipes running the
+whole length of the house will suffice. The front wall should be built
+on piers and arches to allow the roots to pass outwards into a prepared
+border, the trees being planted just within the house. Abundant
+means of ventilation should be provided.</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:446px; height:453px" src="images/img750c.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 8.</span>&mdash;Peach House.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>For more general purposes the house represented in fig. 8 will be
+found more useful. One set of trees is planted near the front, and
+trained to an arched trellis <i>b</i>.
+Another set is planted at the
+back, and trained on a trellis
+c, which is nearly upright, and
+leans against the back wall;
+or the back wall itself may
+be used for training. There
+are no upright front sashes,
+but to facilitate ventilation
+there are ventilators d in the
+front wall, and the upper roof
+sashes are made to move up
+and down for the same object. Two or three hot-water pipes
+are placed near the front wall. The back wall is usually planted
+with dwarf and standard trees alternately, the latter being temporary,
+and intended to furnish the upper part of the trellis, while the permanent
+dwarfs arc gradually filling up the trellis from below. In any
+case the front trellis should stop conveniently short of the top of the
+sashes if there are trees against the back wall, in order to admit light
+to them. They would also be better carried up nearly parallel to
+the roof, and at about 1 ft. distant from it, supposing there were no
+trees at the back.</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:514px; height:431px" src="images/img750d.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 9.</span>&mdash;Forcing House.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>A span-roofed house, being lighter than a lean-to, would be so
+much the better for peach culture, especially for the crop grown just
+in anticipation of those from the open walls since a high temperature
+is not required. A low span, with dwarf side walls, and a lantern
+ventilator along the ridge, the height in the centre being 9 ft., would
+be very well adapted for the purpose. The trees should be planted
+inside and trained up towards the ridge on a trellis about a foot from
+the glass, the walls being arched to permit the egress of the roots.
+A trellis path should run along the centre, and movable pieces of
+trellis should be provided to prevent trampling on the soil while
+dressing and tying in the young wood.</p>
+
+<p>The <i>Forcing House</i>.&mdash;Whenever continuous supplies of cucumbers,
+melons and tomatoes are required, it is most convenient to grow them
+in properly constructed forcing houses. Span-roofed houses (fig. 9)
+arc probably the most useful for the purpose. They are usually
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page751" id="page751"></a>751</span>
+12 to 14 ft. wide, by 10 to 12 ft. high, and of any convenient length.
+Heating is effected by means of hot-water pipes below the beds, and
+against the side ventilators. The walls bordering the central paths
+are arched or clotted to admit heat from the chambers below the
+beds. Side pipes are occasionally dispensed with, heat being obtained
+by means of slots at the back of the beds, communicating with the
+chambers. The beds are also of use for plunging pot plants. Ventilation
+is provided at sides and top.</p>
+
+<p>Pits and frames of various kinds are frequently used for the cultivation
+of cucumbers and melons, as well as hot beds covered by
+ordinary garden frames. In these cases the first supply of heat is
+derived from the hot bed made up within the pit. When the heat
+of the original bed subsides, linings of fermenting dung must be
+added, and these must be kept active by occasional turnings and the
+addition of fresh material as often as required. It is better, however,
+to effect both top and bottom heating by hot-water pipes.</p>
+
+<p><i>Orchard Houses</i> are span-roofed or lean-to structures, in which
+various fruits are cultivated without the aid of artificial heat.
+Peaches, nectarines, apricots, cherries and the more tender varieties
+of plums and pears succeed well in houses of this kind. The types of
+houses in general use are substantially as shown in fig. 7, for span-roofed,
+and as fig. 5, for lean-to; in each case without the heating
+apparatus. The orchard house is among the most generally useful
+of all garden structures. These houses require careful management
+in early summer so as to induce the more delicate varieties of peaches
+and nectarines to complete and ripen their growth before cold, sunless
+weather sets in.</p>
+
+<p>In commercial establishments where utility is of more importance
+than ornament, the glass houses and hot water apparatus are not of
+so elaborate a type as indicated in the foregoing remarks, and in
+many cases excellent produce is grown in structures more or less
+dilapidated. In some places movable greenhouses have been erected
+for market purposes, so that the soil may be exposed to the sweetening
+effect of the weather, when the glass roof is moved to an adjoining
+patch.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><i>Pits and Frames.</i>&mdash;These are used both for the summer
+growth and winter protection of various kinds of ornamental
+plants, for the growth of such fruits as cucumbers, melons and
+strawberries, and for the forcing of vegetables. When heat is
+required, it is sometimes supplied by means of fermenting dung,
+or dung and leaves, or tanner&rsquo;s bark, but it is much more economically
+provided by hot-water pipes. Pits of many different
+forms have been designed, but it may be sufficient here to
+describe one or two which can be recommended for general
+purposes.</p>
+
+<table class="flt" style="float: right; width: 380px;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:331px; height:229px" src="images/img751a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 10.</span>&mdash;Ventilated Plant Pit.</td></tr></table>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>An excellent pit for wintering bedding-out plants or young greenhouse
+stock is shown at fig. 10. It is built upon the pigeon-hole
+principle as high as the
+ground level <i>a</i>, <i>a</i>, and
+above that in 9-in.
+brickwork. At a distance
+of 9 in. retaining
+walls <i>b</i>, <i>b</i> are built up
+to the ground level,
+and the spaces between
+the two are
+covered by thick
+boarding, which is to
+be shut down as
+shown at <i>c</i> in cold
+weather to exclude
+frost, and opened as
+shown at <i>d</i> in mild
+weather to promote
+a free circulation of air through the pit. The height of the pit
+might be reduced according to the size of the plants; and, to
+secure the interior against frost, flow and return hot-water pipe e
+should pass along beneath the staging, which should be a strong
+wooden trellis supported by projections in the brickwork. The
+water which drains from the plants or is spilt in watering would fall
+on the bottom, which should be made porous to carry it away. For
+many plants this under current of ventilation would be exceedingly
+beneficial, especially when cold winds prevented the sashes from
+being opened. A pit of this character may be sunk into the ground
+deeper than is indicated in the figure if the subsoil is dry and gravelly,
+bat in the case of a damp subsoil it should rather be more elevated,
+as the soil could easily be sloped up to meet the retaining wall.</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:359px; height:130px" src="images/img751b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 11.</span>&mdash;Hot-Bed Three-Light Frame.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p><i>Frames.</i>&mdash;Frames (fig. 11) should be made of the best red deal,
+1¼ in. thick. A convenient size is 6 ft. wide, 24 in. high at the back
+and 15 in front; and they are usually 12 ft. long, which makes three
+lights and sashes, though they can be made with two lights or one
+light for particular purposes. Indeed, a one-light frame is often
+found very convenient for many purposes. The lights should be
+2 in. thick, and glazed with 21 oz. sheet glass, in broad panes four or
+five to the breadth of a light, and of a length which will work in
+conveniently and economically, very long panes being undesirable
+from the havoc caused by accidents, and very short ones being
+objectionable as multiplying the chances of drip, and the exclusion
+of light by the numerous lappings; panes about 12 in. long are of
+convenient size for garden lights of this character. In all gardens
+the frames and lights should be of one size so as to be interchangeable,
+and a good supply of extra lights (sashes) may always be turned to
+good account for various purposes.</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:359px; height:137px" src="images/img751c.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 12.</span>&mdash;Span-Roof Frame.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>Span-roof garden frame (fig. 12) may under some circumstances be
+useful as a substitute for the three-light frame. It is adapted for
+storing plants in winter, for nursing small plants in summer and for
+the culture of melons and other crops requiring glass shelter. These
+frames are made 11 in. high in front, 22 at the back and 32 at the
+ridge, with ends of 1½-in. red deal; the sashes, which are 2 in. thick,
+open by gearing, the front and back separately. The lights are
+hinged so that they can be turned completely back when necessary.
+This more direct and ready access to the plants within is one of the
+principal recommendations of this form of pit.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><i>Mushroom House.</i>&mdash;Mushrooms may be grown in sheds and
+cellars, or even in protected ridges in the open ground, but a
+special structure is usually devoted to them. A lean-to against
+the north side of the garden wall will be found suitable for the
+purpose, though a span-roofed form may also be adopted,
+especially if the building stands apart.</p>
+
+<table class="flt" style="float: right; width: 370px;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:323px; height:473px" src="images/img751d.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 13.</span>&mdash;Lean-to Mushroom House.</td></tr></table>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>The internal arrangement of a lean-to mushroom house is shown in
+fig. 13. The length may vary from 30 ft. to 60 ft.; a convenient
+width is 10 ft., which admits of a 3½ ft. central path, and beds 3 ft.
+wide on each side. The
+shelves should be of slate
+<i>a</i>, <i>a</i>, supported by iron
+uprights <i>b</i>, <i>b</i>, each half
+having a front ledge of
+bricks set on edge in
+cement <i>c</i>, <i>c</i>. The slabs of
+slate forming the shelves
+should not be too closely
+fitted, as a small interval
+will prevent the accumulation
+of moisture at the
+bottom of the bed. They
+may be supported by iron
+standards or brick piers,
+back and front, bearing
+up a flat bar of iron on
+which the slates may
+rest; the use of the bar
+will give wider intervals
+between the supports,
+which will be found convenient
+for filling and
+emptying the beds. The
+roof may be tiled or
+slated; but, to prevent
+the injurious influence
+of hot sun, there should
+be an inner roof or ceiling
+<i>d</i>, the space between
+which and the outer roof
+<i>e</i> should be packed with
+sawdust. A hot-water pipe <i>f</i> should run along both sides of the
+pathway, close to the front ledge of the lowest beds. The different
+shelves can be planted in succession; and the lower ones, especially
+those on the floor level, as being most convenient, can be utilized
+for forcing sea-kale and rhubarb.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><i>The Fruit Room.</i>&mdash;This important store should be dark,
+moderately dry, with a steady, moderately cool atmosphere,
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page752" id="page752"></a>752</span>
+and with the means of giving sufficient ventilation to keep the air
+sweet. It should also be sufficiently commodious to permit of the
+fruit being arranged in single layers on the shelves or trays. A
+type of building which is becoming increasingly popular for this
+purpose, and which is in many respects superior to the older, and
+often more expensive structures, is built of wood, with or without
+brick foundations, and is thickly thatched with reeds or other
+non-conducting material externally&mdash;on walls and roof&mdash;while
+the interior is matchboarded. Ventilation is afforded at the
+ends, usually by tilting laths, operated by a cord. Two doors
+are provided at one end&mdash;an inner, and an outer&mdash;the inner
+being glazed at the top to admit light. They are generally span-roofed,
+about 6 ft. high at the eaves, and 8 or 10 ft. high at the
+ridge, according to width.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>The length and breadth of these stores should be governed by the
+amount and character of the storage accommodation to be provided.
+If intended for storage only, a width of 9 ft. 6 in. would suffice, but if
+intended to combine display with storage, the internal diameter
+should be about 13 ft. In the former type, the walls are fitted with
+four rows of shelves, about 3 ft. wide, and about 1 ft. 6 in. apart.
+The shelves are of deal strips, 2 or 3 in. wide, laid about 1 in. apart
+for ventilation. These are being superseded, however, by sliding-out
+trays of convenient lengths and about 9 in. deep, working on fixed
+framework. By this means the storage accommodation is nearly
+doubled and the fruit is more easily manipulated. The central
+gangway is about 3 ft. 6 in. wide. In the latter a central exhibition
+bench about 3 ft. wide and of convenient height is provided. Gangways
+2½ ft. wide flank this, while the shelves or drawers with which
+the walls are fitted are about 2½ ft. wide.</p>
+
+<p><i>Care of the Fruit Room.</i>&mdash;This consists mainly in the storing only
+of such fruits as are dry and in proper condition; in judicious
+ventilation, especially in the presence of large quantities of newly-gathered
+fruit; in the prompt removal of all decaying fruit; and in
+the exclusion of vermin. It is also advisable to wash all woodwork
+and gangways annually with a weak solution of formalin, or other
+inodorous germicide.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><i>Heating Apparatus.</i>&mdash;Plant houses were formerly heated in
+a variety of ways&mdash;by fermenting organic matter, such as dung,
+by smoke flues, by steam and by hot water circulating in iron
+pipes. The last-named method has proved so satisfactory in
+practice that it is now in general use for all ordinary purposes.
+The water is heated by a furnace, and is conveyed from the boiler
+into the houses by a main or &ldquo;flow&rdquo; pipe, connected by means
+of syphon branches with as many pipes as it is intended to serve.
+When cooled it is returned to the boiler by another main or
+&ldquo;return&rdquo; pipe. Heat is regulated in the structures by means of
+valves on the various branch pipes. The flow pipe is attached
+to the boiler at its highest point, to take the heated water as it
+ascends. The return pipe is connected with the boiler at or near
+its lowest point. The highest points of the pipes are fitted with
+small taps, for the removal of air, which would retard circulation
+if allowed to remain. Heating by hot water may be said to
+depend, in part, on the influence of gravity on water being to
+some extent overcome by heating in a boiler. It ascends the
+flow pipe by convection, where its onward journey would
+speedily end if it were not for the driving force of other molecules
+of water following, and the suction set up by the gravitation into
+the boiler of the cooled water by the return pipe. The power
+of water to conduct heat is very low. The conducting power
+of the iron in which it is conveyed is high. It is, however, probable
+that conduction is to some extent a factor in the process.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>Pipes.&mdash;It is a mistake to stint the quantity of piping, since it is
+far more economical and better for the plants to have a larger
+surface heated moderately than a smaller surface heated excessively.
+In view of the fact that air expands, becomes lighter and rises, under
+the influence of heat, the pipes should be set near the floor. If
+intended to raise the temperature of the structure, they should be
+set on iron or brick supports just clear of walls, earth or other heat-absorbing
+bodies. Those intended to provide bottom heat, however,
+are set in (<i>a</i>) water tanks running under the beds, or (<i>b</i>) in enclosed
+dry chambers under the beds, or are (<i>c</i>) embedded in the soil or
+plunging material. The first-named method is distinctly superior to
+the others. Pipes of 2 in., 3 in., 4 in. and 6 in. diameters are mostly
+used, the 4 in. size being the most convenient for general purposes.
+The joints are packed or caulked with tow, smeared with a mixture
+of white and red lead. Flanged joints are made to bolt together on
+washers of vulcanized rubber.</p>
+
+<p><i>Boilers.</i>&mdash;There are numerous types of boilers in use, illustrative
+of efforts to secure as much exposure as possible to the action of the
+flames. The water-tube type, with multiple waterways, consists of a
+number of separate tubes joined together in various ways. Some of
+these are built in the form of a blunt cone, and are known as conical
+tubular boilers. Others are built with the tubes arranged horizontally,
+and are known as horizontal tubular boilers. The majority of
+the latter are more or less saddle-shaped. Boilers with a single
+waterway are of three principal types, the Cornish, the saddle and the
+conical. The Cornish is cylindrical with the furnace occupying about
+half the length of the cylinder. The saddle is so named from its
+supposed resemblance to a saddle. It is set to span the furnace,
+additional exposure to heat being secured in a variety of ways by
+flues. Exposure in the conical boiler is direct on its inner surface,
+and is supplemented by flues. Tubular boilers, especially the
+horizontal types, are very powerful and economical. The Cornish
+type is a rather slow and steady boiler, and is much used for providing
+heat for large areas. The saddle boiler is very commonly
+employed to provide heat for moderately sized and small areas.
+Both are powerful and economical. Conical boilers are more expensive
+to set by reason of their shape, and are not so convenient to
+manipulate as the horizontal kinds. All the above types require a
+setting of masonry. Portable boilers are convenient for heating
+small areas, and are less expensive to <span class="correction" title="amended from instal">install</span> than those described
+above. They are less economical, however, owing to loss of heat from
+their exposed surfaces. What are called sectional boilers as used in
+America and on the Continent are being introduced to British
+gardens. Portions can be added or taken away according to the
+amount of heating surface required.</p>
+
+<p><i>Water Supply.</i>&mdash;Wastage of water in the boilers should be made
+good automatically from a cistern controlled by means of a ball-cock.
+It should be placed as high above the boiler as practicable. The feed
+should connect with the return pipe near the point at which it enters
+the boiler.</p>
+
+<p><i>Stokeholds.</i>&mdash;These have usually to be excavated to admit of the
+boilers being set below the level of the pipes they are intended to
+serve. In consequence of their depth, the draining of stokeholds often
+presents difficulties. Care should be taken to allow sufficient room
+to properly manipulate the fires and to store fuel. It is important
+that the ventilation should be as efficient as practicable, especially
+where coke fuel is to be used.</p>
+
+<p><i>Stoking.</i>&mdash;The management of the furnaces is relatively easy, and
+consists in adapting the volume and intensity of the fires to particular
+needs. It involves the keeping dean of flues, ashpits and especially
+the fires themselves. Where coke or ordinary hard coal are used, the
+removal of clinkers should be done systematically, and the fires
+stirred. Anthracite coal fires should not be stirred more than is
+absolutely necessary, and should not be fed in driblets. They require
+more draught than coke fires, but care must be taken not to give too
+much, as excessive heat is likely to melt or soften the fire-bars.
+Draught is regulated in the ashpit by opening or closing the bottom
+door of the furnace and by the damper on the smoke shaft. The latter
+must be of a fairly good height, according to circumstances, to secure
+a good draught.</p>
+
+<p><i>Solar Heat.</i>&mdash;The importance of sun heat to the general well-being
+of plant life, its influence on the production of flowers and the
+ripening of edible fruits, has long been appreciated in horticulture.
+The practice of &ldquo;closing up&rdquo; early in the afternoon, <i>i.e.</i> the closing
+of ventilators (accompanied by syringing and damping of surfaces to
+produce a humid atmosphere) has for its object the conservation of
+as much solar heat as practicable.</p>
+
+<p><i>Ventilation.</i>&mdash;This consists in the admission of air for the purpose
+of preventing stagnation of the atmosphere and for the regulation of
+temperature. Means of affording ventilation in all plant houses
+should be provided in at least two places&mdash;as near the floor as
+practicable, and at the top. Mechanical contrivances whereby
+whole sets of ventilators may be operated simultaneously are now
+in common use, and are much more convenient and economical than
+the older method of working each ventilator separately. Efficient
+ventilating can only be effected by the exercise of common sense and
+vigilance, and care must be taken to avoid cold draughts through the
+houses.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p class="pt2 center">III. <i>Garden Materials and Appliances.</i></p>
+
+<p><i>Soils and Composts.</i>&mdash;The principal soils used in gardens,
+either alone, or mixed to form what are called composts, are&mdash;loam,
+sand, peat, leaf-mould and various mixtures and combinations
+of these made up to suit the different subjects under
+cultivation.</p>
+
+<p><i>Loam</i> is the staple soil for the gardener; it is not only used
+extensively in the pure and simple state, but enters into most
+of the composts prepared specially for his plants. For garden
+purposes loam should be rather unctuous or soapy to the touch
+when moderately dry, not too clinging nor adhesive, and should
+readily crumble when a compressed handful is thrown on the
+ground. If it clings together closely it is too heavy and requires
+amelioration by the admixture of gritty material; if it has
+little or no cohesion when squeezed tightly in the hand, it is
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page753" id="page753"></a>753</span>
+too light, and needs to be improved by the addition of heavier
+or clayey material. Sound friable loam cut one sod deep from
+the surface of a pasture, and stacked up for twelve months in
+a heap or ridge, is invaluable to the gardener. When employed
+for making vine borders, loam of a somewhat heavier nature can
+be used with advantage, on account of the porous materials
+which should accompany it. For stone fruits a calcareous
+loam is best; indeed, for these subjects a rich calcareous loam
+used in a pure and simple state cannot be surpassed. Somewhat
+heavy loams are best for potting pine apples, for melons and
+strawberries, fruit trees in pots, &amp;c., and may be used with the
+addition of manures only; but for ornamental plants a loam
+of a somewhat freer texture is preferable and more pleasant
+to work. Loam which contains much red matter (iron) should
+be avoided.</p>
+
+<p><i>Sand</i> is by itself of little value except for striking cuttings,
+for which purpose fine clean sharp silver sand is the best; and
+a somewhat coarser kind, if it is gritty, is to be preferred to
+the comminuted sands which contain a large proportion of
+earthy matter. River sand and the sharp grit washed up
+sometimes by the road side are excellent materials for laying
+around choice bulbs at planting time to prevent contact with
+earth which is perhaps manure-tainted. Sea sand may be
+advantageously used both for propagating purposes and for
+mixing in composts. For the growth of pot plants sand is an
+essential part of most composts, in order to give them the needful
+porosity to carry off all excess of moisture from the roots. If
+the finer earthy sands only are obtainable, they must be rendered
+sharper by washing away the earthy particles. Washed sand
+is best for all plants like heaths, which need a pure and lasting
+peaty compost.</p>
+
+<p><i>Peat</i> soil is largely employed for the culture of such plants
+as rhododendrons, azaleas, heaths, &amp;c. In districts where
+heather and gritty soil predominate, the peat soil is poor and
+unprofitable, but selections from both the heathy and the
+richer peat soils, collected with judgment, and stored in a dry
+part of the compost yard, are essential ingredients in the cultivation
+of many choice pot plants, such as the Cape heaths and
+many of the Australian plants. Many monocotyledons do well
+in peat, even if they do not absolutely require it.</p>
+
+<p><i>Leaf-mould</i> is eminently suited for the growth of many free-growing
+plants, especially when it has been mixed with stable
+manure and has been subjected to fermentation for the formation
+of hot beds. It any state most plants feed greedily upon
+it, and when pure or free from decaying wood or sticks it is a
+very safe ingredient in composts; but it is so liable to generate
+fungus, and the mycelium or spawn of certain fungi is so injurious
+to the roots of trees, attacking them if at all sickly or weakened
+by drought, that many cultivators prefer not to mix leaf-mould
+with the soil used for permanent plants, as peaches or choice
+ornamental trees. For quick growing plants, however, as
+for example most annuals cultivated in pots, such as balsams,
+cockscombs, globe-amaranths and the like, for cucumbers,
+and for young soft-wooded plants generally, it is exceedingly
+useful, both by preventing the consolidation of the soil and as
+a manure. The accumulations of light earth formed on the
+surface in woods where the leaves fall and decay annually are
+leaf-mould of the finest quality. Leaves collected in the autumn
+and stored in pits or heaps, and covered with a layer of soil,
+make beautiful leaf-mould at the end of about twelve months,
+if frequently drenched with water or rain during this period.</p>
+
+<p><i>Composts</i> are mixtures of the foregoing ingredients in varying
+proportions, and in combination with manures if necessary,
+so as to suit particular plants or classes of plants. The chief
+point to be borne in mind in making these mixtures is not to
+combine in the same compost any bodies that are antagonistic
+in their nature, as for example lime and ammonia. In making
+up composts for pot plants, the fibrous portion should not be
+removed by sifting, except for small-sized pots, but the turfy
+portions should be broken up by hand and distributed in smaller
+or larger lumps throughout the mass. When sifting is had
+recourse to, the fibrous matter should be rubbed through the
+meshes of the sieve along with the earthy particles. Before being
+used the turfy ingredients of composts should lie together in
+a heap only long enough for the roots of the herbage to die, not
+to decompose.</p>
+
+<p><i>Manures</i> (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Manure</a></span>).&mdash;These are of two classes, organic
+and inorganic&mdash;the former being of animal and vegetable, the
+latter of mineral origin. The following are organic manures:</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p><i>Farm-yard manure</i> consists of the mixed dung of horses and cattle
+thrown together, and more or less soaked with liquid drainings of the
+stable or byre. It is no doubt the finest stimulant for the growth of
+plants, and that most adapted to restore the fertile elements which
+the plants have abstracted from exhausted soils. This manure is
+best fitted for garden use when in a moderately fermented state.</p>
+
+<p><i>Horse dung</i> is generally the principal ingredient in all hot bed
+manure; and, in its partially decomposed state, as afforded by exhausted
+hot beds, it is well adapted for garden use. It is most
+beneficial on cold stiff soils. It should not be allowed to lie too long
+unmoved when fresh, as it will then heat violently, and the ammonia
+is thus driven off. To avoid this, it should be turned over two or
+three times if practicable, and well moistened&mdash;preferably with
+farm-yard drainings.</p>
+
+<p><i>Cow dung</i> is less fertilizing than horse dung, but being slower in
+its action it is more durable; it is also cooler, and therefore better
+for hot dry sandy soils. Thoroughly decayed, it is one of the best of
+all manures for mixing in composts for florists&rsquo; flowers and other
+choice plants.</p>
+
+<p><i>Pig dung</i> is very powerful, containing more nitrogen than horse
+dung; it is therefore desirable that it should undergo moderate
+fermentation, which will be secured by mixing it with litter and a
+portion of earth. When weeds are thrown to the pigs, this fermentation
+becomes specially desirable to kill their seeds.</p>
+
+<p><i>Night-soil</i> is an excellent manure for all bulky crops, but requires
+to be mixed with earth or peat, or coal-ashes, so as both to deodorize
+it and to ensure its being equally distributed. Quicklime should not
+be used, as it dispels the greater part of the ammonia. When
+prepared by drying and mixing with various substances, night-soil
+is sold as desiccated night-soil or native guano, the value of which
+depends upon the materials used for admixture.</p>
+
+<p><i>Malt-dust</i> is an active manure frequently used as a top-dressing,
+especially for fruit trees in pots. It is rapid in its action, but its
+effects are not very permanent. <i>Rape dust</i> is somewhat similar in its
+character and action.</p>
+
+<p><i>Bones</i> are employed as a manure with decided advantage both to
+vegetable crops and to fruit trees, as well as to flowers. For turnips
+bone manure is invaluable. The effects of bones are no doubt
+mainly due to the phosphates they contain, and they are most
+effectual on dry soils. They are most quickly available when dissolved
+in sulphuric acid.</p>
+
+<p><i>Guano</i> is a valuable manure now much employed, and may be
+applied to almost every kind of crop with decided advantage. It
+should be mixed with six or eight times its weight of loam or ashes,
+charred peat, charcoal-dust or some earthy matter, before it is
+applied to the soil, as from its causticity it is otherwise not unlikely
+to kill or injure the plants to which it is administered. Peruvian
+guano is obtained from the excreta of South American sea-birds, and
+fish guano from the waste of fish. Both are remarkable for the
+quantity of nitrates and phosphates they contain.</p>
+
+<p><i>Pigeon dung</i> approaches guano in its power as manure. It should
+be laid up in ridges of good loamy soil in alternate layers to form a
+compost, which becomes a valuable stimulant for any very choice
+subjects if cautiously used. The dung of the domestic fowl is very
+similar in character.</p>
+
+<p><i>Horn</i>, <i>hoof-parings</i>, <i>woollen rags</i>, <i>fish</i>, <i>blubber</i> and <i>blood</i>, after treatment
+with sulphuric acid, are all good manures, and should be utilized
+if readily obtainable.</p>
+
+<p><i>Liquid manure</i>, consisting of the drainings of dung-heaps, stables,
+cowsheds, &amp;c., or of urine collected from dwelling houses or other
+sources, is a most valuable and powerful stimulant, and can be
+readily applied to the roots of growing plants. The urine should be
+allowed to putrefy, as in its decomposition a large amount of ammonia
+is formed, which should then be fixed by sulphuric acid or gypsum;
+or it may be applied to the growing crops after being freely diluted
+with water or absorbed in a compost heap. Liquid manures can be
+readily made from most of the solid manures when required, simply
+by admixture with water. When thus artificially compounded,
+unless for immediate use, they should be made strong for convenience
+of storage, and applied as required much diluted.</p>
+
+<p>The following are inorganic manures:</p>
+
+<p><i>Ammonia</i> is the most powerful and one of the most important of
+the constituents of manures generally, since it is the chief source
+whence plants derive their nitrogen. It is largely supplied in all the
+most fertilizing of organic manures, but when required in the inorganic
+state must be obtained from some of the salts of ammonia, as
+the sulphate, the muriate or the phosphate, all of which, being
+extremely energetic, require to be used with great caution. These
+salts of ammonia may be used at the rate of from 2 to 3 cwt. per acre
+as a top-dressing in moist weather. When dissolved in water they
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page754" id="page754"></a>754</span>
+form active liquid manures. The most commonly used nitrogenous
+manures are nitrate of soda, nitrate of potash and sulphate of
+ammonia, the prices of which are constantly fluctuating.</p>
+
+<p><i>Potash</i> and <i>soda</i> are also valuable inorganic manures in the form
+of carbonates, sulphates, silicates and phosphates, but the most
+valuable is the nitrate of potash. The price, however, is generally so
+high that its use is practically nil, except in small doses as a liquid
+manure for choice pot plants. Cheaper substitutes, however, are
+now found in sulphate of potash, and muriate of potash and kainit.
+The two last-named must not be applied direct to growing crops, but
+to the soil some weeks in advance of sowing or cropping. The
+manures of this class are of course of value only in cases where the
+soil is naturally deficient in them. On this account the salts of soda
+are of less importance than those of potash. The value of wood ashes
+as a manure very much depends upon the carbonate and other
+salts of potash which they contain.</p>
+
+<p><i>Phosphoric acid</i>, in the form of phosphates, is a most valuable
+plant food, and is absorbed by most plants in fairly large quantities
+from the soil. It induces the earlier production of flowers and
+fruits. In a natural state it is obtained from bones, guano and
+wood ashes; and in an artificial condition from basic slag or Thomas&rsquo;s
+phosphate, coprolites and superphosphate of lime.</p>
+
+<p><i>Lime</i> in the caustic state is beneficially applied to soils which
+contain an excess of inert vegetable matter, and hence may be used
+for the improvement of old garden soils saturated with humus, or
+of peaty soils not thoroughly reclaimed. It does not supply the
+place of organic manures, but only renders that which is present
+available for the nourishment of the plants. It also improves the
+texture of clay soils.</p>
+
+<p><i>Gypsum</i>, or sulphate of lime, applied as a top-dressing at the rate
+of 2 to 3 cwt. per acre, has been found to yield good results,
+especially on light soils. It is also employed in the case of liquid
+manures to fix the ammonia.</p>
+
+<p><i>Gas lime</i>, after it has been exposed to the air for a few months is
+an excellent manure on heavy soils. In a fresh state it is poisonous
+and fatal to vegetation, and is often used for this reason to dress land
+infested with wireworms, grubs, club-root fungus, &amp;c.</p>
+
+<p><i>Burnt clay</i> has a very beneficial effect on clay land by improving
+its texture and rendering soluble the alkaline substances it contains.
+The clay should be only slightly burnt, so as to make it crumble
+down readily; in fact, the fire should not be allowed to break
+through, but should be constantly repressed by the addition of
+material. The burning should be effected when the soil is dry.</p>
+
+<p><i>Vegetable refuse</i> of all kinds, when smother-burned in a similar
+way, becomes a valuable mechanical improver of the soil; but the
+preferable course is to decompose it in a heap with quicklime and
+layers of earth, converting it into leaf-mould. Potato haulms, and
+club-rooted cabbage crops should, however, never be mixed with
+ordinary clean vegetable refuse, as they would be most likely to
+perpetuate the terrible diseases to which they are subject. The
+refuse of such plants should be burned as early as possible. The ash
+may be used as manure.</p>
+
+<p><i>Soot</i> forms a good top-dressing; it consists principally of charcoal,
+but contains ammonia and a smaller proportion of phosphates and
+potash, whence its value as a manure is derived. It should be kept
+dry until required for use. It may also be used beneficially in preventing
+the attacks of insects, such as the onion gnat and turnip fly,
+by dusting the plants or dressing the ground with it.</p>
+
+<p><i>Common salt</i> acts as a manure when used in moderate quantities,
+but in strong doses is injurious to vegetation. It suits many of
+the esculent crops, as onions, beans, cabbages, carrots, beet-root,
+asparagus, &amp;c.; the quantity applied varies from 5 to 10 bushels
+per acre. It is used as a top-dressing sown by the hand. Hyacinths
+and other bulbs derive benefit from slight doses, while to asparagus
+as much as 20 &#8468; to the rood has been used with beneficial effect.
+At the rate of from 6 to 10 bushels to the acre it may be used on
+garden lawns to prevent worm casts. For the destruction of weeds
+on gravel walks or in paved yards a strong dose of salt, applied
+either dry or in a very strong solution, is found very effective,
+especially a hot solution, but after a time much of it becomes washed
+down, and the residue acts as a manure; its continued application is
+undesirable, as gravel so treated becomes pasty.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><i>Garden Tools, &amp;c.</i>&mdash;Most of these are so well known that we
+shall not discuss them here. They are, moreover, illustrated
+and described in the catalogues of most nurserymen and dealers
+in horticultural sundries.</p>
+
+<p><i>Tallies or Labels.</i>&mdash;The importance of properly labelling plants
+can hardly be over-estimated. For ordinary purposes labels of
+wood of various sizes (sold in bundles) are the most convenient.
+These should be wiped with a little white paint or linseed oil, and
+written with a soft lead pencil before the surface becomes dry.
+Copying-ink pencils should not be used, as water will wash away
+the writing. For permanent plants, as trees, roses, &amp;c., metallic
+labels with raised type are procurable from dealers, and are
+neat, durable and convenient. Permanent labels may also be
+made from sheet lead, the names being punched in by means
+of steel type. For stove and greenhouse plants, orchids, ferns,
+&amp;c., labels made of xylonite, zinc and other materials are
+also used.</p>
+
+<p class="pt2 center">IV. <i>Garden Operations.</i></p>
+
+<p><i>Propagation.</i>&mdash;The increase of plants, so far as the production
+of new individuals of particular kinds is concerned, is one of
+the most important and constantly recurring of gardening operations.
+In effecting this, various processes are adopted, which
+will now be described.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>1. <i>By Seeds.</i>&mdash;This may be called the natural means of increasing
+the number of any particular kind of plant, but it is to be remembered
+that we do not by that means secure an exact reproduction
+of the parent, especially in the case of plants raised or evolved in the
+course of generations by hybridization and selection. We may get
+a progeny very closely resembling it, yet each plant possessing a
+distinct individuality of its own; or we may get a progeny very
+unlike the parent, or a mixed progeny showing various degrees of
+divergence. Many seeds will grow freely if sown in a partially
+ripened state; but as a general rule seeds have to be kept for some
+weeks or months in store, and hence they should be thoroughly
+ripened before being gathered. They should be sown in fine rich soil,
+and such as will not readily get consolidated. In the case of outdoor
+crops, if the soil is inclined to be heavy, it is a good plan to cover all
+the smaller seeds with a light compost. Very small seeds should only
+have a sprinkling of light earth or of sand, and sometimes only a thin
+layer of soft moss to exclude light and preserve an equable degree
+of moisture. Somewhat larger seeds sown indoors may be covered
+to the depth of one-eighth or one-fourth of an inch, according to
+their size. Outdoor crops require to be sown, the smaller seeds
+from ½ to 1 in., and the larger ones from 2 to 4 in. under the
+surface, the covering of the smaller ones especially being light
+and open. Many seeds grow well when raked in; that is, the
+surface on which they are scattered is raked backwards and forwards
+until most of them are covered. Whatever the seeds, the ground
+should be made tolerably firm both beneath and above them; this
+may be done by treading in the case of most kitchen garden crops,
+which are also better sown in drills, this admitting the more readily
+of the ground being kept clear from weeds by hoeing. All seeds
+require a certain degree of heat to induce germination. For tropical
+plants the heat of a propagating house&mdash;75° to 80°, with a bottom
+heat of 80° to 90°&mdash;is desirable, and in many cases absolutely
+necessary; for others, such as half-hardy annuals, a mild hot bed,
+or a temperate pit ranging from 60° to 70°, is convenient; while of
+course all outdoor crops have to submit to the natural temperature
+of the season. It is very important that seeds should be sown when
+the ground is in a good working condition, and not clammy with
+moisture.</p>
+
+<p>2. <i>By Offsets.</i>&mdash;This mode of increase applies specially to bulbous
+plants, such as the lily and hyacinth, which produce little bulbs on
+the exterior round their base. Most bulbs do so naturally to a
+limited but variable extent; when more rapid increase is wanted the
+heart is destroyed, and this induces the formation of a larger number
+of offsets. The stem bulbs of lilies are similar in character to the
+offsets from the parent bulb. The same mode of increase occurs in
+the gladiolus and crocus, but their bulb-like permanent parts are
+called corms, not bulbs. After they have ripened in connexion with
+the parent bulb, the offsets are taken off, stored in appropriate
+places, and at the proper season planted out in nursery beds.</p>
+
+<p>3. <i>By Tubers.</i>&mdash;The tuber is a fleshy underground stem, furnished
+with eyes which are either visible, as in the potato and in some
+familiar kinds of <i>Tropaeolum</i> (<i>T. tuberosum</i>) and of <i>Oxalis</i> (<i>O. crenata</i>),
+or latent, as in the Chinese yam (<i>Dioscorea Batatas</i>). When used
+for propagation, the tubers are cut up into what are called &ldquo;sets,&rdquo;
+every portion having an eye attached being capable of forming an
+independent plant. The cut portions of bulky sets should be suffered
+to lie a short time before being planted, in order to dry the surface
+and prevent rotting; this should not, however, be done with such
+tropical subjects as caladiums, the tubers of which are often cut up
+into very small fragments for propagation, and of course require to
+be manipulated in a properly heated propagating pit. No eyes are
+visible in the Chinese yam, but slices of the long club-shaped tubers
+will push out young shoots and form independent plants, if planted
+with ordinary care.</p>
+
+<p>4. <i>By Division.</i>&mdash;Division, or partition, is usually resorted to in
+the case of tufted growing plants, chiefly perennial herbs; they
+may be evergreen, as chamomile or thrift, or when dormant may
+consist only of underground crowns, as larkspur or lily-of-the-valley;
+but in either case the old tufted plant being dug up may
+be divided into separate pieces, each furnished with roots, and,
+when replanted, generally starting on its own account without much
+check. Suffruticose plants and even small shrubs may be propagated
+in this way, by first planting them deeper than they are ordinarily
+grown, and then after the lapse of a year, which time they require to
+get rooted, taking them up again and dividing them into parts or
+separate plants. Box-edging and southernwood are examples.
+The same ends may sometimes be effected by merely working fine
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page755" id="page755"></a>755</span>
+soil in amongst the base of the stems, and giving them time to throw
+out roots before parting them.</p>
+
+<p>5. <i>By Suckers.</i>&mdash;Root suckers are young shoots from the roots of
+plants, chiefly woody plants, as may often be seen in the case of the
+elm and the plum. The shoots when used for propagation must be
+transplanted with all the roots attached to them, care being taken
+not to injure the parent plant. If they spring from a thick root it is
+not to be wantonly severed, but the soil should be removed and the
+sucker taken off by cutting away a clean slice of the root, which will
+then heal and sustain no harm. Stem suckers are such as proceed
+from the base of the stem, as is often seen in the case of the currant
+and lilac. They should be removed in any case; when required for
+propagation they should be taken with all the roots attached to
+them, and they should be as thoroughly disbudded below ground as
+possible, or they are liable to continue the habit of suckering. In
+this case, too, the soil should be carefully opened and the shoots removed
+with a suckering iron, a sharp concave implement with long
+iron handle (fig. 14). When the number of roots is limited, the tops
+should be shortened, and some care in watering and mulching should
+be bestowed on the plant if it is of value.</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:383px; height:50px" src="images/img755a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 14.</span>&mdash;Suckering Iron.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>6. <i>By Runners.</i>&mdash;The young string-like shoots produced by the
+strawberry are a well-known example of runners. The process of
+rooting these runners should be facilitated by fixing them close down
+to the soil, which is done by small wooden hooked pegs or by stones;
+hair-pins, short lengths of bent wire, &amp;c., may also be used. After
+the roots are formed, the strings are cut through, and the runners
+become independent plants.</p>
+
+<p>7. <i>By Proliferous Buds.</i>&mdash;Not unlike the runner, though growing
+in a very different way, are the bud-plants formed on the fronds of
+several kinds of ferns belonging to the genera <i>Asplenium</i>, <i>Woodwardia</i>,
+<i>Polystichum</i>, <i>Lastrea</i>, <i>Adiantum</i>, <i>Cystopteris</i>, &amp;c. In some of these
+(<i>Adiantum caudatum</i>, <i>Polystichum lepidocaulon</i>) the rachis of the
+frond is lengthened out much like the string of the strawberry
+runner, and bears a plant at its apex. In others (<i>Polystichum
+angulare proliferum</i>) the stipes below and the rachis amongst the
+pinnae develop buds, which are often numerous and crowded. In
+others again (<i>Woodwardia orientalis</i>, <i>Asplenium bulbiferum</i>), buds are
+numerously produced on the upper surface of the fronds. These will
+develop on the plant if allowed to remain. For propagation the
+buibiferous portion is pegged down on the surface of a pot of suitable
+soil; if kept close in a moist atmosphere, the little buds will soon
+strike root and form independent plants. In <i>Cystopteris</i> the buds
+are deciduous, falling off as the fronds acquire maturity, but, if
+collected and pressed into the surface of a pot of soil and kept close,
+they will grow up into young plants the following season. In some
+genera of flowering plants, and notably in Bryophyllum, little plants
+form on various parts of the leaves. In some Monocotyledons, ordinarily
+in Chlorophytum, and exceptionally in Phalaenopsis and others,
+new plants arise on the flower stems.</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:427px; height:275px" src="images/img755b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 15.</span>&mdash;Propagation by Layers&mdash;<i>a</i>, tonguing; <i>b</i>, ringing.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>8. <i>By Layers.</i>&mdash;Layering consists in preparing the branch of a
+plant while still attached to the parent, bending it so that the part
+operated on is brought under ground, and then fixing it there by
+means of a forked peg. Some plants root so freely that they need
+only pegging down; but in most cases the arrest of the returning sap
+to form a callus, and ultimately young roots, must be brought about
+artificially, either by twisting the branch, by splitting it, by girding
+it closely with wire, by taking off a ring of bark, or by &ldquo;tonguing.&rdquo;
+In tonguing the leaves are cut off the portion which has to be brought
+under ground, and a tongue or slit is then cut from below upwards
+close beyond a joint, of such length that, when the cut part of the
+layer is pegged an inch or two (or in larger woody subjects 3 or 4 in.)
+below the surface, the elevation of the point of the shoot to an upright
+position may open the incision, and thus set it free, so that it may
+be surrounded by earth to induce it to form roots. The whole
+branch, except a few buds at the extremity, is covered with soil.
+The best seasons for these operations are early spring and mid-summer,
+that is, before the sap begins to flow, and after the first
+flush of growth has passed off. One whole summer, sometimes two,
+must elapse before the layers will be fully rooted in the case of woody
+plants; but such plants as carnations and picotees, which are
+usually propagated in this way, in favourable seasons take only a
+few weeks to root, as they are layered towards the end of the blooming
+season in July, and are taken off and planted separately early in
+the autumn. Fig. 15 shows a woody plant with one layer prepared
+by tonguing and another by ringing.</p>
+
+<p>In general, each shoot makes one layer, but in plants like the
+<i>Wistaria</i> or <i>Clematis</i>, which make long shoots, what is called serpentine
+layering may be adopted; that is, the shoot is taken alternately
+below and above the surface, as frequently as its length permits.
+There must, however, be a joint at the underground part where it is
+to be tongued and pegged, and at least one sound bud in each exposed
+part, from which a shoot may be developed to form the top of
+the young plant.</p>
+
+<p>9. <i>By Circumposition.</i>&mdash;When a plant is too high or its habit does
+not conveniently admit of its being layered, it may often be increased
+by what is called circumposition, the soil being carried up to the
+branch operated on. The branch is to be prepared by ringing or
+notching or wiring as in layering, and a temporary stand made to
+support the vessel which is to contain the soil. The vessel may be a
+flower-pot sawn in two, so that the halves may be bound together
+when used, or it may be a flower-pot or box with a side slit which
+will admit the shoot; this vessel is to be filled compactly with suitable
+porous earth, the opening at the slit being stopped by pieces of
+slate or tile. The earth must be kept moist, which is perhaps best
+done by a thick mulching of moss, the moss being also bound closely
+over the openings in the vessel, and all being kept damp by frequent
+syringings. Gardeners often dispense with the pot, using sphagnum
+moss and leaf-mould only when propagating india-rubber plants,
+perpetual carnations, dracaenas, &amp;c.</p>
+
+<p>10. <i>By Grafts.</i>&mdash;Grafting is so extensively resorted to that it is impossible
+here to notice all its phases. It is perhaps of most importance
+as the principal means of propagating our hardy kinds of fruit,
+especially the apple and the pear; but the process is the same with
+most other fruits and ornamental hardy trees and shrubs that are
+thus propagated. The stocks are commonly divided into two
+classes:&mdash;(1) free stocks, which consist of seedling plants, chiefly
+of the same genus or species as the trees from which the scions are
+taken; and (2) dwarfing stocks, which are of more diminutive
+growth, either varieties of the same species or species of the same or
+some allied genus as the scion, which have a tendency to lessen the
+expansion of the engrafted tree. The French Paradise is the best
+dwarfing stock for apples, and the quince for pears. In determining
+the choice of stocks, the nature of the soil in which the grafted trees
+are to grow should have full weight. In a soil, for example, naturally
+moist, it is proper to graft pears on the quince, because this plant
+not only thrives in such a soil, but serves to check the luxuriance
+thereby produced. The scions should always be ripened portions of
+the wood of the preceding year, selected from healthy parents; in
+the case of shy-bearing kinds, it is better to obtain them from the
+fruitful branches. The scions should be taken off some weeks before
+they are wanted, and half-buried in the earth, since the stock at the
+time of grafting should in point of vegetation be somewhat in advance
+of the graft. During winter, grafts may be conveyed long distances,
+if carefully packed. If they have been six weeks or two months
+separated from the parent plant, they should be grafted low on the
+stock, and the earth should be ridged up round them, leaving only
+one bud of the scion exposed above ground. The best season for
+grafting apples and similar hardy subjects in the open air is in March
+and April; but it may be commenced as soon as the sap in the stock
+is fairly in motion.</p>
+
+<p><i>Whip-grafting</i> or <i>Tongue-grafting</i> (fig. 16) is the most usual mode
+of performing the operation when there is no great difference in
+thickness between the stock and scion. The stock is headed off by
+an oblique transverse cut as shown at <i>a</i>, a slice is then pared off the
+side as at <i>b</i>, and on the face of this a tongue or notch is made, the cut
+being in a downward direction; the scion <i>c</i> is pared off in a similar
+way by a single clean sharp cut, and this is notched or tongued in the
+opposite direction as the figure indicates; the two are then fitted
+together as shown at <i>d</i>, so that the inner bark of each may come in
+contact at least on one side, and then tied round with damp soft
+bast as at <i>e</i>; next some grafting clay is taken on the forefinger and
+pushed down on each side so as to fill out the space between the
+top of the stock and the graft, and a portion is also rubbed over
+the ligatures on the side where the graft is placed, a handful of the
+clay is then taken, flattened out, and rolled closely round the whole
+point of junction, being finished off to a tapering form both above and
+below, as shown by the dotted line <i>f</i>. To do this deftly, the hands
+should be plunged from time to time in dry ashes, to prevent the clay
+from sticking to them. Various kinds of grafting wax are now
+obtainable, and are a great improvement upon the clay process.
+Some cold mastics become very pliable with the warmth of the hands.
+They are best applied with a piece of flat wood; or very liquid waxes
+may be applied with a brush.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page756" id="page756"></a>756</span></p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:418px; height:354px" src="images/img756a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 16.</span>&mdash;Whip-grafting or Tongue-grafting.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p><i>Cleft-grafting</i> (fig. 17) is another method in common use. The
+stock <i>a</i> is cleft down from the horizontal cut <i>d</i> (but not nearly so
+much as the sketch would indicate), and the scion, when cut to a thin
+wedge form, as shown at <i>c</i> and <i>e</i>, is inserted into the cleft; the whole
+is then bound up and clayed as in the former case. This is not so
+good a plan as whip-grafting; it is improved by sloping the stock
+on one side to the size of the graft.</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter" colspan="2"><img style="width:459px; height:269px" src="images/img756b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 17.</span>&mdash;Cleft-grafting.</td>
+<td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 18.</span>&mdash;Crown-Grafting.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p><i>Crown-grafting</i> or <i>Rind-grafting</i> (fig. 18) is preferable to cleft-grafting,
+inasmuch as it leaves no open spaces in the wood. The
+stock <i>b</i> is cut off horizontally or nearly so in January or February.
+At grafting time a slit is cut in the bark <i>f</i>, <i>f</i>, a wedge-shaped piece of
+iron or a small chisel being inserted to raise the bark; the scion is
+then cut to the same wedge-shaped form <i>g</i>, <i>h</i>, and inserted in the space
+opened for it between the alburnum and the bark, after which it is
+tied down and clayed or waxed over in the manner already described.</p>
+
+<p><i>Side-grafting</i> is performed like whip-grafting, the graft being
+inserted on the side of a branch and not at the cut end of the stock.
+It may be practised for the purpose of changing a part of the tree,
+and is sometimes very useful for filling out vacant spaces, in trained
+trees especially.</p>
+
+<p><i>Inarching</i> is another form of side-grafting. Here the graft is fixed
+to the side of the stock, which is planted or potted close to the plant
+to be worked. The branches are applied to the stock while yet
+attached to the parent tree, and remain so until united. In the
+case of trained trees, a young shoot is sometimes inarched to its
+parent stem to supply a branch where one has not been developed
+in the ordinary way.</p>
+
+<p>For the propagation by grafts of stove and greenhouse plants the
+process adopted is whip-grafting or a modification of it. The parts
+are, however, sometimes so small that the tongue of the graft is
+dispensed with, and the two stems simply pared smooth and bound
+together. In this way hardy rhododendrons of choice sorts, greenhouse
+azaleas, the varieties of the orange family, camellias, roses, rare
+conifers, clematises and numerous other plants are increased.
+Raffia&mdash;which has taken the place of bast&mdash;is generally used for
+tying, and grafting wax is only used occasionally with such plants
+under glass. All grafting of this kind is done in the propagating
+house, at any season when grafts are obtainable in a fit state&mdash;the
+plants when operated on being placed in close frames warmed to a
+suitable temperature. Roses and clematis, however, are generally
+grafted from January to March and April.</p>
+
+<p><i>Root-grafting</i> is sometimes resorted to where extensive increase is
+an object, or where stem-grafting or other means of propagation are
+not available. In this case the scion is grafted directly on to a
+portion of the root of some appropriate stock, both graft and stock
+being usually very small; the grafted root is then potted so as to
+cover the point of junction with the soil, and is plunged in the bed
+of the propagating house, where it gets the slight stimulus of a
+gentle bottom heat. Dahlias (fig. 19), paeonies, and Wistarias may be
+grafted by inserting young shoots into the neck of one of the fleshy
+roots of each kind respectively&mdash;the best method of doing so being
+to cut a triangular section near the upper end of the root, just large
+enough to admit the young shoot when slightly pared away on two
+sides to give it a similar form. In the case of large woody plants thus
+worked (fig. 20) the grafted roots, after the operation is completed,
+are planted in nursery beds, so that the upper buds only are exposed
+to the atmosphere, as shown in the figure.</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter" colspan="2"><img style="width:530px; height:490px" src="images/img756c.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 19.</span>&mdash;Root-grafting<br />of Dahlia.</td>
+<td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 20.</span>&mdash;Root-grafting of<br />Woody Plant.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>11. <i>By Buds.</i>&mdash;Budding is the inserting of a bud of a choice variety
+cut with a portion of bark into the bark of the stock of an inferior
+nature where it is bound gently but firmly. Stone fruits, such as
+peaches, apricots, plums, cherries, &amp;c., are usually propagated in this
+way, as well as roses and many other plants. In the propagating
+house budding may be done at any season when the sap is in motion;
+but for fruit trees, roses, &amp;c., in the open air, it is usually done in July
+or August, when the buds destined for the following year are completely
+formed in the axils of the leaves, and when the bark separates
+freely from the wood it covers. Those buds are to be preferred, as
+being best ripened, which occur on the middle portion of a young
+shoot, and which are quite dormant at the time.</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:449px; height:296px" src="images/img756d.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 21.</span>&mdash;Shield-budding.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>The simplest and most generally practised form of budding is that
+called <i>shield-budding</i> or <b>T</b>-<i>budding</i> (fig. 21). The operator should be
+provided with a sharp budding knife having a thin ivory or bone
+handle, for raising the bark of the stock. A horizontal incision is
+made in the bark quite down to the wood, and from this a perpendicular
+slit is drawn upwards to the extent of perhaps an inch, so that
+the slit has a resemblance to the letter <b>T</b>, as at <i>a</i>. A bud is then cut
+by a clean incision from the tree intended to be propagated, having a
+portion of the wood attached to it, and so that the whole may be
+about 1 in. long, as at <i>d</i>. The bit of wood e must be gently withdrawn,
+care being taken that the bud adheres wholly to the bark or shield,
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page757" id="page757"></a>757</span>
+as it is called, of which f is a side view. The bark on each side of the
+perpendicular slit being then cautiously opened, as at <i>b</i>, with the
+handle of the knife, the bud and shield are inserted as shown at <i>c</i>.
+The upper tip of the shield is cut off horizontally, and brought to fit
+the bark of the stock at the transverse incision. Slight ties of soft
+cotton wool or worsted, or moist raffia, are then applied. In about a
+month or six weeks the ligatures may be removed or slit with the
+knife to allow for the swelling stem, when, if the operation has been
+successful, the bud will be fresh and full, and the shield firmly
+united to the wood. In the following spring a strong shoot will be
+thrown out, and to prevent its being blown out by the wind, must be
+fastened to a stake, or to the lower portion of the old stock which
+has been left for the purpose.</p>
+
+<p>To be successful the operation should be performed with a quick
+and light hand, so that no part of the delicate tissues be injured, as
+would happen if they were left for a time exposed, or if the bud were
+forced in like a wedge. The union is effected as in grafting, by means
+of the organizable sap or cambium, and the less this is disturbed until
+the inner bark of the shield is pressed and fixed against it the better.
+Trees to be grown in the form of a bush are usually budded low down
+on the stem of the stock as near the root as possible to obviate the
+development of wild suckers later on. Standard trees, however, are
+budded on a sturdy young shoot close to the top. In either case the
+stocks should have been carefully planted at least the previous
+November when the work is to be done in the open air the following
+July or August.</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:450px; height:383px" src="images/img757a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 22.</span>&mdash;Propagation by Cuttings.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>12. <i>By Branch Cuttings.</i>&mdash;Propagation by cuttings is the mode
+of increase most commonly adopted, next to that by seeds. It is
+effected by taking a portion from a branch or shoot of the plant,
+and placing it in the soil. There are great differences to be observed
+in the selection and treatment of cuttings. Sometimes soft green
+leafy shoots, as in <i>Verbena</i> (fig. 22, <i>a</i>), are used; sometimes the shoots
+must be half-ripened, and sometimes fully matured. So of the mode
+of preparation; some will root if cut off or broken off at any point
+and thrust into wet earth or sand in a warm place (fig. 22, <i>a</i>); others
+require to be cut with the utmost care just below a joint or leaf-base,
+and by a keen blade so as to sever the tissues without tearing or
+bruising; and others again after being cut across may be split up for
+a short distance, but there seems to be no particular virtue in this.
+It is usual and in most cases necessary to cut away the lower portion
+of a cutting up to just below the node or joint (fig. 22, <i>b</i>, <i>d</i>, <i>e</i>). The
+internodal parts will not often divide so as to form separate individual
+plants; sometimes, however, this happens; it is said that the
+smallest piece of <i>Torenia asiatica</i>, for instance, will grow. Then as to
+position, certain cuttings grow readily enough if planted outdoors in
+the open soil, some preferring shade, others sunshine, while less
+hardy subjects must be covered with a bell-glass, or must be in a close
+atmosphere with bottom heat, or must have the aid of pure silver
+sand to facilitate their rooting (fig. 22, <i>c</i>). Cuttings should in all
+cases be taken from healthy plants, and from shoots of a moderate
+degree of vigour. It is also important to select leafy growths, and
+not such as will at once run up to flower. Young shoots which have
+become moderately firm generally make the best cuttings, but sometimes
+the very softest shoots strike more readily. For all indoor
+plants in a growing state spring is a good time for taking cuttings, but
+at any time during the summer months is also favourable if cuttings
+are obtainable.</p>
+
+<p>Cuttings of deciduous plants should be taken off after the fall
+of the leaf. These cuttings should be about 6 in. to 1 ft. in length, and
+should be planted at once in the ground so as to leave only the top
+with the two or three preserved buds exposed. If a clean stem,
+however, is desired, a longer portion may be left uncovered. Gooseberries,
+currants, roses and many hardy deciduous trees and shrubs
+are easily propagated in this way if the cuttings are inserted in well-drained
+soil about the end of October or early in November.</p>
+
+<p>Cuttings of growing plants are prepared by removing with a sharp
+knife, and moderately close, the few leaves which would otherwise
+be buried in the soil; they are then cut clean across just below a
+joint; the fewer the leaves thus removed, however, the better,
+as if kept from being exhausted they help to supply the elaborated
+sap out of which the roots are formed. Free-rooting subjects strike
+in any lightish sandy mixture; but difficult subjects should have
+thoroughly well-drained pots, a portion of the soil proper for the
+particular plants made very sandy, and a surfacing of clean sharp
+silver sand about as deep as the length of the cutting.</p>
+
+<table class="flt" style="float: right; width: 430px;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:377px; height:437px" src="images/img757b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 23.</span>&mdash;Leaf Cuttings.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>Such difficult plants as heaths are reared in silver sand, a stratum
+of which is placed over the sandy peat soil in a specially prepared
+cutting pot, and
+thus the cuttings,
+though rooting in
+the sand under a
+bell-glass, find at
+once on the emission
+of roots congenial
+soil for
+them to grow in
+(fig. 22, <i>c</i>).</p>
+
+<p>Hardy plants,
+such as pinks,
+pansies, &amp;c., are
+propagated by
+cuttings planted
+during early summer
+in light rich
+soil. The cuttings
+of pinks are called
+pipings (fig. 22, <i>d</i>),
+and are planted
+about June, while
+pansies may be
+renewed in this
+way both in spring
+and in autumn.</p>
+
+<p>13. <i>By Leaf
+Cuttings.</i>&mdash;Many
+plants may be propagated
+by planting
+their leaves or portions of the leaves as cuttings, as, for example,
+the <i>Gloxinia</i> (fig. 23, <i>a</i>) and <i>Gesnera</i>, the succulent <i>Sempervivum</i>,
+<i>Echeveria</i>, <i>Pachyphytum</i> and their allies, and such hard-leaved plants
+as <i>Theophrasta</i> (fig. 23, <i>b</i>). The leaves are best taken off with the
+base whole, and should be planted in well-drained sandy soil; in
+due time they form roots, and ultimately from some latent bud
+a little shoot which forms the young plant. The treatment is
+precisely like that of branch cuttings. Gloxinias, begonias, &amp;c., grow
+readily from fragments of the leaves cut clean through the thick
+veins and ribs, and planted edgewise like cuttings. This class of
+subjects may also be fixed flat on the surface of the cutting pot, by
+means of little pegs or hooks, the
+main ribs being cut across at intervals,
+and from these points roots,
+and eventually young tubers, will be
+produced (fig. 24).</p>
+
+<table class="flt" style="float: left; width: 290px;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figleft1"><img style="width:233px; height:162px" src="images/img757c.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption1"><span class="sc">Fig. 24.</span>&mdash;Leaf-Propagation of Begonia.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>14. <i>By Root Cuttings.</i>&mdash;Some
+plants which are not easily increased
+by other means propagate readily
+from root cuttings. Amongst the
+indoor plants which may be so
+treated, <i>Bouvardia</i>, <i>Pelargonium</i>,
+<i>Aralia</i> and <i>Wigandia</i> may be mentioned.
+The <i>modus operandi</i> is to
+turn the plant out of its pot,
+shake away the soil so as to free
+the roots, and then select as many pieces of the stouter roots as may
+be required. These are cut up into half-inch lengths (more or less),
+and inserted in light sandy soil round the margin of a cutting pot, so
+that the upper end of the root cutting may be level with the soil or
+only just covered by it. The pots should be watered so as to settle the
+soil, and be placed in the close atmosphere of the propagating pit or
+frame, where they will need scarcely any water until the buds are
+seen pushing through the surface.</p>
+
+<p>There are various herbaceous plants which may be similarly
+treated, such as sea-kale and horseradish, and, among ornamental
+plants, the beautiful autumn-blooming <i>Anemone japonica</i>, <i>Bocconia
+cordata</i>, <i>Dictamnus Fraxinella</i>&mdash;the burning bush; the sea hollies
+(<i>Eryngium</i>), the globe thistle (<i>Echinops ritro</i>), the Oriental poppy
+(Papaver orientale), the sea lavender (<i>Statice latifolia</i>), <i>Senecio pulcher</i>,
+&amp;c. The sea-kale and horseradish require to be treated in the open
+garden, where the cut portions should be planted in lines in well-worked
+soil; but the roots of the others should be planted in pots
+and kept in a close frame with a little warmth till the young shoots
+have started.</p>
+
+<p>Various hardy ornamental trees are also increased in this way, as
+the quince, elm, robinia and mulberry, and the rose amongst shrubs.
+The most important use to which this mode of propagation is put is,
+however, the increase of roses, and of the various plums used as
+stocks for working the choicer stone fruits. The method in the
+latter case is to select roots averaging the thickness of the little
+finger, to cut these into lengths of about 3 or 4 in., and to plant them
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page758" id="page758"></a>758</span>
+in lines just beneath the surface in nursery beds. The root cuttings
+of rose-stocks are prepared and treated in a similar way.</p>
+
+<table class="flt" style="float: right; width: 385px;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:335px; height:547px" src="images/img758a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 25.</span>&mdash;Cutting of Single Eye.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>15. <i>By Cuttings of Single Eyes.</i>&mdash;This mode of propagation is
+by cutting the ripened young branches into short lengths, each containing
+one well-matured bud or eye, with a short portion of the
+stem above and below.
+It is a common mode of
+propagating vines, the
+eyes being in this case
+cut from the ripened
+leafless wood. The eyes
+(fig. 25, <i>a</i>) are planted
+just below the surface in
+pots of light soil, which
+are placed in a hot bed
+or propagating pit, and
+in due time each pushes
+up a young shoot which
+forms the future stem,
+while from about its
+base the young roots are
+produced (fig. 25, <i>b</i>)
+which convert it into
+an independent plant.
+In the case of plants
+with persistent leaves,
+the stem may be cut
+through just above and
+below the bud, retaining
+the leaf which is left on
+the cutting, the old
+wood and eye being
+placed beneath the soil
+and the leaf left exposed.
+In this way the
+india-rubber tree (<i>Ficus
+elastica</i>), for example,
+and many other tender
+plants may be increased
+with the aid of a brisk
+bottom heat. Many of
+the free-growing soft-wooded plants may also be grown from cuttings
+of single joints of the young wood, where rapid increase is
+desired; and in the case of opposite-leaved plants two cuttings
+may often be made from one joint by splitting the stem longitudinally,
+each cutting consisting of a leaf and a perfect bud
+attached to half the thickness of the stem.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><i>Planting and Transplanting.</i>&mdash;In preparing a fruit tree for
+transplantation, the first thing to be done is to open a trench
+round it at a distance of from 3 to 4 ft., according to size. The
+trench should be opened to about two spades&rsquo; depth, and any
+coarse roots which may extend thus far from the trunk may be
+cut clean off with a sharp knife. The soil between the trench
+and the stem is to be reduced as far as may seem necessary or
+practicable by means of a digging fork, the roots as soon as they
+are liberated being fixed on one side and carefully preserved.
+By working in this way all round the ball, the best roots will be
+got out and preserved, and the ball lightened of all superfluous
+soil. The tree will then be ready to lift if carefully prized up from
+beneath the ball, and if it does not lift readily, it will probably
+be found that a root has struck downwards, which will have to
+be sought out and cut through. Whenever practicable, it is best
+to secure a ball of earth round the roots. On the tree being lifted
+from its hole the roots should be examined, and all which have
+been severed roughly with the spade should have the ends cut
+smooth with the knife to facilitate the emission of fibres. The
+tree can then be transported to its new position. The hole for its
+reception should be of sufficient depth to allow the base of the
+ball of earth, or of the roots, to stand so that the point whence the
+uppermost roots spring from the stem may be 2 or 3 in. below
+the general surface level. Then the bottom being regulated so
+as to leave the soil rather highest in the centre, the plant is to
+be set in the hole in the position desired, and steadied there by
+hand. Next the roots from the lower portion of the ball are to
+be sought out and laid outwards in lines radiating from the stem,
+being distributed equally on all sides as nearly as this can be done;
+some fine and suitable good earth should be thrown amongst
+the roots as they are thus being placed, and worked in well
+up to the base of the ball. The soil covering the roots may be
+gently pressed down, but the tree should not be pulled up and
+down, as is sometimes done, to settle the soil. This done,
+another set of roots higher up the ball must be laid out in the
+same way, and again another, until the whole of the roots, thus
+carefully laid, are embedded as firmly as may be in the soil, which
+may now receive another gentle treading. The stem should
+next be supported permanently, either by one stake or by three,
+according to its size. The excavation will now be filled up about
+two-thirds perhaps; and if so the tree may have a thorough
+good watering, sufficient to settle the soil closely about its roots.
+After twenty-four hours the hole may be levelled in, with
+moderate treading, if the water has soaked well in, the surface
+being left level and not sloping upwards towards the stem of the
+tree. In transplanting trees of the ornamental class, less need
+be attempted in respect to providing new soil, although the soil
+should be made as congenial as practicable. Generally speaking,
+fruit trees are best transplanted when three or four years of age,
+in which time they will have acquired the shape given by the
+nurseryman, who generally transplants his stock each autumn
+to produce large masses of root fibres. Nowadays, however,
+quite large trees, chiefly of an ornamental character, and perhaps
+weighing several tons, are lifted with a large ball of soil attached
+to the roots, by means of a special tree-lifting machine, and are
+readily transferred from one part of the garden to another, or
+even for a distance of several miles, without serious injury.
+The best season for transplanting deciduous trees is during
+the early autumn months. As regards evergreens opinions are
+divided, some preferring August and September, others April
+or May. They can be successfully planted at either period, but
+for subjects which are at all difficult to remove the spring
+months are to be preferred.</p>
+
+<p>In transplanting smaller subjects, such as plants for the flower
+garden, much less effort is required. The plant must be lifted
+with as little injury to its rootlets as possible, and carefully set
+into the hole, the soil being filled in round it, and carefully
+pressed close by the hand. For moving small plants the garden
+trowel is a very convenient tool, but we are inclined to give the
+preference to the hand-fork. For larger masses, such as strong-growing
+herbaceous plants, a spade or digging-fork will be
+requisite and the soil may be trodden down with the feet.</p>
+
+<p>When seedlings of vigorous plants have to be &ldquo;pricked out,&rdquo;
+a dibble or dibber is the best implement to be used. The ground
+being prepared and, if necessary, enriched, and the surface made
+fine and smooth, a hole is made with the dibble deep enough and
+large enough to receive the roots of the seedling plants without
+doubling them up, and the hole is filled in by working the soil close
+to the plant with the point of the dibble. The pricking out of
+seedlings in pots in the propagating pit is effected in a similar
+way. The plants, indeed, often require to be removed and set
+from ½ in. to 1 in. apart before they have become sufficiently
+developed to admit of being handled with any degree of facility,
+and for these a pointed stick of convenient size is used as a dibble.
+In delicate cases, such as seedling gloxinias and begonias, it is
+best to lift the little seedling on the end of a flattish pointed
+stick, often cleft at the apex, pressing this into the new soil where
+the plant is to be placed, and liberating it and closing the earth
+about it by the aid of a similar stick held in the other hand.</p>
+
+<table class="flt" style="float: right; width: 220px;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:163px; height:160px" src="images/img758b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption1"><span class="sc">Fig. 26.</span>&mdash;Section of Pot showing Crocks.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p><i>Potting and Repotting.</i>&mdash;Garden pots are made with a comparatively
+large hole in the bottom, and those of the largest size
+have also holes at the side near the bottom; these openings
+are to prevent the soil becoming saturated
+or soured with superabundant
+water. To prepare the pot for the
+plant, a broadish piece of potsherd,
+called a &ldquo;crock,&rdquo; is placed over the
+large hole, and if there be side holes
+they also are covered. The bottom
+crock is made from a piece of a broken
+garden pot, and is laid with the convex
+side upwards; then comes a layer
+of irregular pieces of crock of various
+sizes, about 1 in. deep in a 5-in. pot,
+2 in. in an 11-in. or 12-in. pot, &amp;c. The mode of crocking a
+pot is shown in fig. 26. A few of the coarser lumps from the outer
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page759" id="page759"></a>759</span>
+edge of the heap of potting soil are spread over the crocks.
+The same end, that of keeping the finer particles of the soil from
+mixing with the drainage crocks, may be attained by shaking
+in a little clean moss. A handful or two of the soil is then put
+in, and on this the plant with its roots spread out is to be set, a
+trifle higher than the plant should stand in the pot when finished
+off; more soil is to be added, and the whole pressed firmly with
+the fingers, the base of the stem being just below the pot-rim,
+and the surface being smoothed off so as to slope a little outwards.
+When finished off, the pots should be watered well, to settle the
+soil; but they should stand till the water has well drained away,
+since, if they are moved about while the fresh soil is very wet,
+there will be a risk of its becoming puddled or too much consolidated.
+Larger plants do not need quite such delicate treatment,
+but care should be taken not to handle the roots roughly.
+The soil for these may be somewhat coarser, and the amount of
+drainage material more ample. Larger bodies of soil also require
+to be more thoroughly consolidated before watering; otherwise
+they would settle down so as to leave an unsightly void at the
+pot-rim.</p>
+
+<p>Some plants, especially when potted temporarily, may be
+dealt with in a simpler way. A single crock may be used in some
+cases, and in others no crock at all, but a handful of half-decayed
+leaves or half-decayed dung thrown into the bottom of the pot.
+This mode of potting does well for bulbs, such as hyacinths,
+which are either thrown away or planted out when the bloom
+is over. The bedding plants generally may be potted in this way,
+the advantage being that at planting-out time there is less risk
+of disturbing the roots than if there were potsherds to remove.
+Plants of this character should be potted a little less firmly than
+specimens which are likely to stand long in the pot, and indeed the
+soil should be made comparatively light by the intermixture
+of leaf-mould or some equivalent, in order that the roots may run
+freely and quickly into it.</p>
+
+<p>For epiphytal plants like orchids the most thorough drainage
+must be secured by the abundant use of potsherds, small pots
+being sometimes inserted inside the larger ones, or by planting
+in shallow pots or pans, so that there shall be no large mass of soil
+to get consolidated. For most of these the lightest spongy but
+sweet turfy peat must be used, this being packed lightly about
+the roots, and built up above the pot-rim, or in some cases freely
+mixed before use with chopped sphagnum moss and small pieces
+of broken pots or nodules of charcoal. The plants under these
+conditions often require to be supported by wooden pegs or sticks.
+Some of the species grow better when altogether taken out of
+the soil and fixed to blocks of wood, but in this case they require
+a little coaxing with moss about the roots until they get established.
+In other cases they are planted in open baskets of wood
+or wire, using the porous peat and sphagnum compost. Both
+blocks and baskets are usually suspended from the roof of the
+house, hanging free, so that no accumulation of water is possible.
+These conditions of orchid-growing have undergone great changes
+of late years, and the plants are grown much as other stove and
+greenhouse plants in ordinary pots with composts not only of peat
+but of leaf-mould, and fibres from osmunda and polypodium
+ferns.</p>
+
+<p>When repotting is adopted as a temporary expedient, as in
+the case of bedding-out plants which it is required to push forward
+as much as possible, it will suffice if provision is made to
+prevent the drainage hole from getting blocked, and a rich light
+compost is provided for the encouragement of the roots. When,
+however, a hard-wooded plant has to be repotted, the case is
+different; it may stand without further potting for one year
+or two years or more, and therefore much more care is necessary.
+The old ball of earth must be freed from all or most of the old
+crocks without doing injury to the roots, and the sharp edge of
+the upper surface gently rubbed off. If there be any sour or
+sodden or effete soil into which the roots have not run, this
+should be carefully picked out with a pointed stick. The ball
+is to be set on the new soil just high enough that when finished
+the base of the stem may be somewhat below the pot-rim, and
+the space between the old ball and the sides of the pot is to
+be filled in gradually with the prepared compost, which is from
+time to time to be pressed down with a blunt-ended flat piece
+of wood called a potting-stick, so as to render the new soil as
+solid as the old. The object of this is to prevent the plant from
+starving by the water applied all running off by way of the new
+soil, and not penetrating the original ball of earth. When this
+amount of pressure is necessary, especially in the case of loamy
+composts, the soil itself should be rather inclined to dryness, and
+should in no case be sufficiently moist to knead together into a
+pasty mass. In ordinary cases the potting soil should be just so
+far removed from dryness that when a handful is gently pressed
+it may hang together, but may lose its cohesion when dropped.</p>
+
+<p>When plants are required to stand in ornamental china pots
+or vases, it is better, both for the plants and for avoiding risk
+of breakage, to grow them in ordinary garden pots of a size that
+will drop into the more valuable vessels. Slate pots or tubs,
+usually square, are sometimes adopted, and are durable and
+otherwise unobjectionable, only, their sides being less porous, the
+earth does not dry so rapidly, and some modification of treatment
+as to watering is necessary. For large conservatory specimens
+wooden tubs, round or square, are frequently used; these should
+be coated with pitch inside to render them more durable.</p>
+
+<p>Various other contrivances take the place of garden pots for
+special purposes. Thus shallow square or oblong wooden
+boxes, made of light, inexpensive wood, are very useful for seed-sowing,
+for pricking out seedlings, or for planting cuttings.
+When the disturbance of the roots incidental to all transplanting
+is sought to be avoided, the seed or plant is started in some
+cases in squares of turf (used grassy-side downwards), which can
+when ready be transferred to the place the plant is to occupy.
+Cucumber and melon plants and vines reared from eyes are sometimes
+started in this way, both for the reason above mentioned
+and because it prevents the curling of the roots apt to take
+place in plants raised in pots. Strips of turf are sometimes used
+for the rearing of early peas, which are sown in a warmish house
+or frame, and gradually hardened so as to bear exposure before
+removal to the open air.</p>
+
+<p><i>Watering.</i>&mdash;The guiding principle in watering plants is to do
+it thoroughly when it is required, and to abstain from giving
+a second supply till the first has been taken up.</p>
+
+<p>When watering becomes necessary for kitchen-garden crops,
+the hose should be laid on and the lines of esculents allowed to
+drink their fill, if fresh succulent vegetables are desired. So also,
+if well-swelled and luscious fruits, such as strawberries, are
+required, there must be no parching at the roots. This applies
+even more strongly to conservatory borders and to forcing-houses
+than to the outside fruit-tree borders, because from these
+the natural rain supply is in most cases more distinctly cut off.
+In the case of forcing-houses, the water should be heated before
+being applied to the borders containing the roots of the trees.</p>
+
+<p>In the watering of pot plants the utmost care is requisite if
+the plant be a shy-growing or valuable one, and yet it is almost
+impossible to give any intelligible instruction for performing
+the operation. The roots should never be suffered either to get
+thoroughly dry or to get sodden with excess of water. An adept
+will know by the ring of the pot on striking it with his knuckles
+whether water is wanted or not, according as it rings loud and
+clear or dull and heavy. With very choice subjects watering
+may be necessary two or three times a day in drying summer
+weather. It is a wrong though common practice to press the
+surface of the soil in the pot in order to feel if it is moist enough,
+as this soon consolidates it, and prevents it from getting the full
+benefit of aeration.</p>
+
+<p>In all heated houses the water used should be warmed at
+least up to the temperature of the atmosphere, so as to avoid
+chilling the roots. This is also necessary in the case of water
+used for syringing the plants, which should be done two or three
+times a day in all stoves and forcing-houses, especially during
+the period when the young growth is being developed. The
+damping of all absorbent surfaces, such as the floors or bare
+walls, &amp;c., is frequently necessary several times a day in the
+growing season, so as to keep up a humid atmosphere; hence
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page760" id="page760"></a>760</span>
+the advantage of laying the floors a little rounded, as then the
+water draws off to the sides against the kerbstone, while the
+centre remains dry for promenaders.</p>
+
+<p>In cooler structures it becomes necessary in the dull season
+of the year to prevent the slopping of water over the plants
+or on the floor, as this tends to cause &ldquo;damping off,&rdquo;&mdash;the
+stems assuming a state of mildewy decay, which not infrequently,
+if it once attacks a plant, will destroy it piece by piece. For
+the same reason cleanliness and free ventilation under favourable
+weather conditions are of great importance.</p>
+
+<p><i>Pruning.</i>&mdash;Pruning is a very important operation in the
+fruit garden, its object being twofold&mdash;(1) to give form to the
+tree, and (2) to induce the free production of flower buds as the
+precursors of a plentiful crop of fruit. To form a standard tree,
+either the stock is allowed to grow up with a straight stem, by
+cutting away all side branches up to the height required, say
+about 6 ft., the scion or bud being worked at that point, and
+the head developed therefrom; or the stock is worked close
+to the ground, and the young shoot obtained therefrom is allowed
+to grow up in the same way, being pruned in its progress to
+keep it single and straight, and the top being cut off when the
+desired height is reached, so as to cause the growth of lateral
+shoots. If these are three or four in number, and fairly balanced
+as to strength and position, little pruning will be required.
+The tips of unripened wood should be cut back about one-third
+their length at an outwardly placed bud, and the chief pruning
+thereafter required will be to cut away inwardly directed shoots
+which cross or crowd each other and tend to confuse the centre
+of the tree. Bushy heads should be thinned out, and those
+that are too large cut back so as to remodel them. If the shoots
+produced are not sufficient in number, or are badly placed, or
+very unequal in vigour, the head should be cut back moderately
+close, leaving a few inches only of the young shoots, which should
+be pruned back to buds so placed as to furnish shoots in the
+positions desired. When worked at the top of a stem formed
+of the stock, the growth from the graft or bud must be pruned
+in a similar way. Three or four leading shoots should be selected
+to pass ere long into boughs and form a well-balanced framework
+for the tree; these boughs, however, will soon grow beyond
+any artificial system the pruner may adopt.</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:443px; height:420px" src="images/img760a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 27.</span>&mdash;Dwarf-Tree Pruning.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>To form a dwarf or bush fruit tree the stock must be worked
+near the ground, and the young shoot produced from the scion
+or bud must be cut back to whatever height it is desired the
+dwarf stem should be, say 1½ to 2 ft. The young shoots produced
+from the portion of the new wood retained are to form the
+framework of the bush tree, and must be dealt with as in the
+case of standard trees. The growth of inwardly directed shoots
+is to be prevented, and the centre kept open, the tree assuming
+a cup-shaped outline. Fig. 27, reduced from M. Hardy&rsquo;s
+excellent work, <i>Traité de la taille des arbres fruitiers</i>, will give
+a good idea how these dwarf trees are to be manipulated, <i>a</i>
+showing the first year&rsquo;s development from the maiden tree after
+being headed back, and <i>b</i> the form assumed a year or two later.</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:409px; height:702px" src="images/img760b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 28.</span>&mdash;Pyramid Pruning.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>In forming a pyramidal tree, the lateral growths, instead of
+being removed, as in the standard tree, are encouraged to
+the utmost; and in order to strengthen them the upper part
+of the leading shoot is removed annually, the side branches
+being also shortened somewhat as the tree advances in size.
+In fig. 28, reduced from M. Hardy&rsquo;s work, <i>a</i> shows a young
+tree with its second year&rsquo;s growth, the upright shoot of the maiden
+tree having been moderately headed back, being left longer
+if the buds near the base promise to break freely, or cut shorter
+if they are weak and wanting in vigour. The winter pruning,
+carried out with the view to shape the tree into a well-grown
+pyramid, would be effected at the places marked by a cross line.
+The lowest branch would have four buds retained, the end one
+being on the lower side of the branch. The two next would be
+cut to three buds, which here also are fortunately so situated
+that the one to be left is on the lower side of the branches.
+The fourth is not cut at all owing to its shortness and weakness,
+its terminal bud being allowed to grow to draw strength into it.
+The fifth is an example where the bud to which the shoot should
+be cut back is badly placed; a shoot resulting from a bud left
+on the upper side is apt instead of growing outwards to grow erect,
+and lead to confusion in the form of the tree; to avoid
+this it is tied down in its proper place during the summer by a
+small twig. The upper shoots are cut closer in. Near the base
+of the stem are two prominent buds, which would produce two
+vigorous shoots, but these would be too near the ground, and
+the buds should therefore be suppressed; but, to strengthen
+the lower part, the weaker buds just above and below the lowest
+branch should be forced into growth, by making a transverse
+incision close above each. Fig. 28, <i>b</i>, shows what a similar tree
+would be at the end of the third year&rsquo;s growth.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page761" id="page761"></a>761</span></p>
+
+<p>In order to bring a young tree into the cordon shape, all its
+side branches are shortened back, either to form permanent
+spurs, as in the case of pears, or to yield annual young shoots,
+as in peaches and nectarines. The single-stemmed cordon may
+be trained horizontally, obliquely at any required angle, or
+vertically if required, the first two arrangements being preferable.
+If a double cordon is required, the original young stem must be
+headed back, and the two best shoots produced must be selected,
+trained right and left, and treated as for the single cordon.</p>
+
+<p>The forms chiefly adopted for trees trained to walls and
+espalier rails are the fan-shaped, the half-fan and the horizontal,
+with their various modifications.</p>
+
+<p>The maiden tree is headed down, and two shoots led away
+right and left. Two laterals should be allowed to grow from
+the upper side of them, one from near the base, the other from
+near the middle, all others being pinched out beyond the second
+or third leaf during summer, but cut away to the last bud in
+winter. The tree will thus consist of six shoots, probably 3 ft.
+to 4 ft. long, which are not to be pruned unless they are unequal
+in strength, a defect which is rather to be remedied by summer
+pinching than by winter pruning. The second year three young
+shoots are to be left on each of the six, one close to the base,
+one about the middle, and one at the point, the rest being rubbed
+off. These three shoots will produce laterals, of which one or
+two may be selected and laid in; and thus a number of moderately
+strong fertile shoots will be obtained, and at the end of
+the season a comparatively large tree will be the result.</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter" colspan="2"><img style="width:471px; height:150px" src="images/img761a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 29.</span>&mdash;Pruning for Fan-<br />shaped Tree.</td>
+<td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 30.</span>&mdash;The same&mdash;<br />third year.</td></tr></table>
+
+<table class="flt" style="float: right; width: 360px;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:306px; height:207px" src="images/img761b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 31.</span>&mdash;The same&mdash;fourth year.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>The method of pruning formerly adopted for the formation
+of a fan-shaped tree was to head down the maiden plant to
+about two eyes, so placed as to yield a young shoot on each
+side (fig. 29), the supernumerary shoots being rubbed off while
+quite young, and the reserved shoots trained against the wall
+during the summer so as to get them well matured. The next
+year they were cut back again; often nearly to the base, in
+order that the lower pair of these shoots might each produce
+two well-placed young shoots, and the upper pair three young
+shoots. The tree would thus consist of ten shoots, to be laid
+out at regular distances, and then if closely cut the frame-work
+of the tree would be as in fig. 30. These main shoots were not
+again to be shortened back, but from each of them three young
+shoots were to be selected and trained in two, on the upper side,
+one near the base, and the other halfway up, and one on the lower
+side placed about midway between these two; these with the
+leading shoot, which was also to be nailed in, made four branches
+of the current year from each of the ten main branches, and
+the form of the tree would therefore be that of fig. 31. The
+other young shoots
+produced were
+pinched off while
+quite young, to throw
+all the strength of
+the tree into those
+which were to form
+its basis, and to secure
+abundant light and
+air. In after years
+the leading shoot was
+not to be cut back, but
+all the lateral shoots
+were to be shortened, and from these year by year other shoots
+were to be selected to fill up the area occupied by the tree.</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter" colspan="2"><img style="width:416px; height:108px" src="images/img761c.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 32.</span>&mdash;Pruning for<br />Horizontally trained Tree.</td>
+<td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 33.</span>&mdash;The same&mdash;<br />third year.</td></tr></table>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:422px; height:284px" src="images/img761d.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 34.</span>&mdash;The same&mdash;fifth year.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>In pruning for a horizontal tree the young maiden tree has
+to be headed back nearly to its base, and from the young shoots
+three are to be selected, the two best-placed lower ones to form
+an opposite or nearly opposite pair of main branches, and the
+best-placed upper one to continue the erect stem (fig. 32). This
+upper shoot is at the next winter pruning to be cut down to
+within about a foot of the point whence it sprung, and its buds
+rubbed off except the upper one for a leader, and one on each
+side just below it to furnish another pair of side shoots; these
+being trained in position, the tree would appear as in fig. 33.
+The same course is to be followed annually till the space is filled.
+Sometimes in very favourable soils and with vigorous trees
+two pairs of branches may be obtained in one season by summer-stopping
+the erect shoots and selecting others from the young
+growths thus induced, but more commonly the trees have to
+be built up by forming one pair of branches annually. The
+shoots are not at first lowered to the horizontal line, but are
+brought down gradually and tied to thin stakes; and while
+the tree is being formed weak shoots may be allowed to grow
+in a more erect position than it is ultimately intended they
+should occupy. Thus in four or five years the tree will have
+acquired something of the character of fig. 34, and will go on
+thus increasing until the space is filled.</p>
+
+<p>The half-fan is a combination of the two forms, but as regards
+pruning does not materially differ from the horizontal, as two
+opposite side branches are produced in succession upwards
+till the space is filled, only they are not taken out so abruptly,
+but are allowed to rise at an acute angle and then to curve
+into the horizontal line.</p>
+
+<p>In all the various forms of cordons, in horizontal training,
+and in fan and half-fan training, the pruning of the main branches
+when the form of the tree is worked out will vary in accordance
+with the kind of fruit under treatment. Thus in the peach,
+nectarine, apricot, plum and cherry, which are commonly
+trained fan-fashion, the first three (and also the morello cherry
+if grown) will have to be pruned so as to keep a succession of
+young annual shoots, these being their fruit-bearing wood.
+The others are generally pruned so as to combine a moderate
+supply of young wood with a greater or less number of fruit
+spurs. In the pear and apple the fruit is borne principally on
+spurs, and hence what is known as spur-pruning has to be
+adopted, the young shoots being all cut back nearly to their
+base, so as to cause fruit buds to evolve from the remaining
+eyes or buds. Cordons of apples and pears have to be similarly
+treated, but cordons of peaches and nectarines are pruned so as
+to provide the necessary annual succession of young bearing
+wood.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page762" id="page762"></a>762</span></p>
+
+<p>Fruit trees trained as espaliers, fans or cordons against walls,
+trellises or fences, are not only pruned carefully in the winter
+but must be also pruned during the early summer months.
+Many of the smaller, useless shoots are rubbed out altogether;
+the best are allowed to grow perhaps a foot or more in length,
+and then either have the tips pinched out with the finger and
+thumb, or the ends may be cracked or broken, and allowed
+to hang down, but are not detached completely. This is called
+summer pruning, and is an important operation requiring
+knowledge on the part of the gardener to perform properly.
+Shoots of peaches, nectarines and morello cherries are &ldquo;laid
+in,&rdquo; that is, placed in between fruiting shoots where there is the
+space to be ripened for next year&rsquo;s crop.</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:165px; height:218px" src="images/img762a.jpg" alt="" /></td>
+<td class="figcenter"><img style="width:156px; height:148px" src="images/img762b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption" colspan="2"><span class="sc">Fig. 35.</span>&mdash;Summer Pruning for Spurs.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p><i>Summer Pruning</i> should be performed while the shoots are yet
+young and succulent, so that they may in most cases be nipped
+off with the thumb-nail. It is very necessary in the case of trees
+trained to a flat surface, as a wall or espalier rail, to prevent
+undue crowding. In some cases, as, for example, with peaches,
+the superfluous shoots are wholly removed, and certain selected
+shoots reserved to supply bearing wood for next year. In others,
+as pears, the tops of the young shoots are
+removed, leaving three or four leaves
+and their buds at the base, to be developed
+into fruit buds by the additional
+nourishment thus
+thrown into them
+(fig. 35, <i>a</i>). One
+or two may push
+out a late summer
+growth, <i>b</i>; this
+will serve as a
+vent for the vigour
+of the tree, and
+if the lowermost only go to the formation of a fruit spur, the
+object will have been gained. They are cut to the last dormant
+bud in winter.</p>
+
+<p>But summer pruning has been much extended since the
+introduction of restricted growth and the use of dwarfing stocks.
+Orchard-house trees, and also pyramidal and bush trees of apples,
+pears and plums, are mainly fashioned by summer pruning;
+in fact, the less the knife is used upon them, except in the
+necessary cutting of the roots in potted trees, the better. In
+the case of orchard-house plants no shoots are suffered to lengthen
+out, except as occasionally wanted to fill up a gap in the outline
+of the tree. On the contrary, the tops of all young shoots are
+pinched off when some three or four leaves are formed, and this
+is done again and again throughout the season. When this
+pruning is just brought to a balance with the vigour of the roots,
+the consequence is that fruit buds are formed all over the tree,
+instead of a thicket of sterile and useless wood. Pyramidal
+and bush trees out of doors are, of course, suffered to become
+somewhat larger, and sufficient wood must be allowed to grow
+to give them the form desired; but after the first year or two,
+when the framework is laid out, they are permitted to extend
+very slowly, and never to any great extent, while the young
+growths are continually nipped off, so as to clothe the branches
+with fruit buds as closely placed as will permit of their healthy
+development.</p>
+
+<p>The nature of the cut itself in pruning is of more consequence,
+especially in the case of fruit trees, than at first sight may appear.
+The branches should be separated by a clean cut at an angle of
+about 45°, just at the back of a bud, the cut entering on a level
+with the base of the bud and passing out on a level with its
+top (fig. 36, <i>a</i>), for when cut in this way the wound becomes
+rapidly covered with new wood, as soon as growth recommences,
+whereas if the cut is too close the bud is starved, or if less close an
+ugly and awkward snag is left. Fig 36, <i>b</i> and <i>c</i>, are examples of
+the former, and <i>d</i>, <i>e</i>, <i>f</i> of the latter. In fact there is only one
+right way to cut a shoot and that is as shown at <i>a</i>.</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:377px; height:170px" src="images/img762c.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 36.</span>&mdash;Cuts&mdash;Good and Bad.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>The <i>Pruning of flowering plants</i> is generally a much lighter
+matter than the pruning of fruit trees. If a young seedling
+or cutting of any soft-wooded plant is to be bushy, it must have
+its top nipped out by the thumb-nail or pruning-scissors at a
+very early stage, and this stopping must be repeated frequently.
+If what is called a well-furnished plant is required, an average
+of from 2 to 3 in. is all the extension that must be permitted&mdash;sometimes
+scarcely so much&mdash;before the top is nipped out; and
+this must be continued until the desired size is attained, whether
+that be large or small. Then generally the plant is allowed to
+grow away till bloom or blooming shoots are developed. To
+form a pyramidal plant, which is a very elegant and useful
+shape to give to a decorative pot plant, the main stem should
+be encouraged to grow upright, for a length perhaps of 6 or 8 in.
+before it is topped; this induces the formation of laterals, and
+favours their development. The best-placed upper young shoot
+is selected and trained upright to a slender stake, and this also
+is topped when it has advanced 6 or 8 in. further, in order to
+induce the laterals on the second portion to push freely. This
+process is continued till the required size is gained. With all the
+difficult and slow-growing plants of the hard-wooded section, all
+the pruning must be done in this gradual way in the young wood
+as the plant progresses.</p>
+
+<table class="flt" style="float: right; width: 425px;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:375px; height:179px" src="images/img762d.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 37.</span></td></tr></table>
+
+<p>Some plants, like pelargoniums, can only be kept handsomely
+formed and well furnished by cutting them down severely every
+season, after the blooming is over. The plants should be prepared
+for this by keeping them rather dry at the root, and after cutting
+they must stand with little or no water till the stems heal over,
+and produce young shoots, or &ldquo;break,&rdquo; as it is technically termed.
+The appearance of a specimen pelargonium properly pruned is
+shown in fig. 37, in which <i>a</i> shows a young plant, the head of
+which has been
+taken off to form
+a cutting, and
+whose buds are
+ready to break
+into young
+shoots. Three
+shoots will be
+produced, and
+these, after
+growing from 4
+to 6 in. in length,
+should be stopped by pinching out the point, this giving rise to
+lateral shoots. These will blossom in due course, and, after being
+ripened thoroughly by full exposure to the sun, should be cut
+back as shown at <i>b</i>. This is the proper foundation for a good
+specimen, and illustrates how all such subjects should be pruned
+to keep them stocky and presentable in form.</p>
+
+<p><i>Root-pruning</i> is most commonly practised in fruit-tree cultivation.
+It is often resorted to as a means of restoring fertility in
+plants which have become over rank from an excess of nourishment
+in the soil, or sterile from want of it. The effect of root-pruning
+in the first case is to reduce the supply of crude sap to the
+branches, and consequently to cause a check in their development.
+In the second case all roots that have struck downwards
+into a cold uncongenial subsoil must be pruned off if they cannot
+be turned in a lateral direction, and all the lateral ones that
+have become coarse and fibreless must also be shortened back by
+means of a clean cut with a sharp knife, while a compost of rich
+loamy soil with a little bone-meal, and leaf-mould or old manure,
+should be filled into the trenches from which the old sterile
+soil has been taken. The operation is best performed early in
+autumn, and may be safely resorted to in the case of fruit trees
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page763" id="page763"></a>763</span>
+of moderate age, and even of old trees if due care be exercised.
+In transplanting trees all the roots which may have become
+bruised or broken in the process of lifting should be cut clean
+away behind the broken part, as they then more readily strike
+out new roots from the cut parts. In all these cases the cut
+should be a clean sloping one, and made in an upward and outward
+direction.</p>
+
+<p>The root-pruning of pot-plants is necessary in the case of many
+soft-wooded subjects which are grown on year after year&mdash;pelargoniums
+and fuchsias, for example. After the close pruning
+of the branches to which they are annually subjected, and when
+the young shoots have shot forth an inch or two in length, they are
+turned out of their pots and have the old soil shaken away from
+their roots, the longest of which, to the extent of about half the
+existing quantity, are then cut clean away, and the plants
+repotted into small pots. This permits the growing plant to be
+fed with rich fresh soil, without having been necessarily transferred
+to pots of unwieldy size by the time the flowering stage
+is reached.</p>
+
+<p><i>Ringing.</i>&mdash;One of the expedients for inducing a state of fruitfulness
+in trees is the ringing of the branches or stem, that is,
+removing a narrow annular portion of the bark, by which means,
+it is said, the trees are not only rendered productive, but the
+quality of the fruit is at the same time improved. The advantage
+depends on the obstruction given to the descent of the sap.
+The ring should be cut out in spring, and be of such a width that
+the bark may remain separated for the season. A tight ligature
+of twine or wire answers the same end. The advantages of the
+operation may generally be gained by judicious root pruning,
+and it is not at all adapted for the various stone fruits.</p>
+
+<table class="flt" style="float: right; width: 420px;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:372px; height:221px" src="images/img763a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 38.&mdash;Diagram illustrating Branch
+Distribution.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p><i>Training.</i>&mdash;What is called training is the guiding of the
+branches of a tree or plant in certain positions which they would
+not naturally assume, the object being partly to secure their
+full exposure to light, and partly to regulate the flow and distribution
+of the sap. To secure the former object, the branches
+must be so fixed as to shade each other as little as possible; and
+to realize the
+second, the
+branches must
+have given to
+them an upward
+or downward
+direction, as they
+may require to
+be encouraged
+or repressed.
+Something of the
+same vegetative
+vigour which is
+given to a plant
+or tree by hard
+pruning is afforded by training in an upward direction so as
+to promote the flow of the sap; while the repression effected
+by summer pruning is supplemented by downward training,
+which acts as a check. One main object is the preservation
+of equilibrium in the growth of the several parts of the tree;
+and for this various minor details deserve attention. Thus
+a shoot will grow more vigorously whilst waving in the air
+than when nailed close to the wall; consequently a weak
+shoot should be left free, whilst its stronger antagonist should
+be restrained; and a luxuriant shoot may be retarded for
+some time by having its tender extremity pinched off to allow
+a weaker shoot to overtake it.</p>
+
+<p>By the prudent use of the knife, fruit trees may be readily
+trained into the forms indicated below, which are amongst the
+best out of the many which have been devised.</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter" colspan="2"><img style="width:405px; height:335px" src="images/img763b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 39.</span>&mdash;Pyramidal Training.</td>
+<td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 40.</span>&mdash;Training <i>en quenouille</i>.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>The training of standard and bush trees in the open ground has
+been already referred to under the section <i>Pruning</i>. When the
+growth of pyramids is completed, the outline is something like
+that of fig. 39, and very pretty trees are thus formed. It is
+better, however, especially if the tendency to bear fruit is rather
+slack, to adopt what the French call <i>en quenouille</i> training
+(fig. 40), which consists in tying or weighting the tips of the
+branches so as to give them all a downward curve. Pear trees
+worked on the quince stock, and trained en quenouille, are
+generally very fertile.</p>
+
+<p>Wall trees, it must be evident, are placed in a very unnatural
+and constrained position, and would in fact soon be reduced to a
+state of utter confusion if allowed to grow unrestricted; hence
+the following modes of training have been adopted.</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:386px; height:235px" src="images/img763c.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 41.</span>&mdash;Horizontal Training.</td></tr></table>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:399px; height:230px" src="images/img763d.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 42.</span>&mdash;Forms of Horizontal Training.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p><i>Horizontal Training</i> (fig. 41) has long been a favourite form in
+England. There is one principal ascending stem, from which
+the branches depart at right angles, at intervals of about a foot.
+Horizontal training is best adapted to the apple and the pear;
+and for the more twiggy growing slender varieties, the forms
+shown in fig. 42 have been recommended. In these the horizontal
+branches are placed wider, 18 to 20 in. apart, and the smaller
+shoots are trained between them, either on both sides, as at <i>a</i>,
+or deflexed from the lower side, as at <i>b</i>. The latter is an excellent
+method of reclaiming neglected trees. Every alternate
+branch should be taken away, and the spurs cut off, after which
+the young shoots are trained in, and soon produce good fruit.</p>
+
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:440px; height:236px" src="images/img764a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 43.</span>&mdash;Fan Training.</td></tr></table>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:413px; height:236px" src="images/img764b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 44.</span>&mdash;Modified Fan Training.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>In <i>Fan Training</i> (fig. 43) there is no leading stem, but the
+branches spring from the base and are arranged somewhat like
+the ribs of a fan. This mode of training is commonly adopted
+for the peach, nectarine, apricot and morello cherry, to which
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page764" id="page764"></a>764</span>
+it is best adapted. Though sometimes adopted, it is not so
+well suited as the horizontal form for apples and pears, because,
+when the branches reach the top of the wall, where they must
+be cut short, a hedge of young shoots is inevitable. A modification
+of the fan shape (fig. 44) is sometimes adopted for stone
+fruits, such as the plum and apricot. In this the object is to
+establish a number of mother branches, and on these to form a
+series of subordinate members, chiefly composed of bearing wood.
+The mother branches or limbs should not be numerous, but
+well marked, equal in strength and regularly disposed. The
+side branches should be pretty abundant, short and not so
+vigorous as to rival the leading members.</p>
+
+<p>The <i>Half-fan</i> mode of training, which is intermediate between
+horizontal and fan training, is most nearly allied to the former,
+but the branches leave the stem at an acute angle, a disposition
+supposed to favour the more equal distribution of the sap. Sometimes,
+as in fig. 45, two vertical stems are adopted, but there is no
+particular advantage in this, and a single-stemmed tree is more
+manageable. The half-fan form is well adapted for such fruits
+as the plum and the cherry; and, indeed, for fruits of vigorous
+habit, it seems to combine the advantages of both the foregoing.</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:408px; height:246px" src="images/img764c.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 45.</span>&mdash;Half-Fan Training.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>Trees must be fixed to the walls and buildings against which
+they are trained by means of nails and shreds (neat medicated
+strips are now sold for this purpose), or in cases where it is
+desired to preserve the wall surface intact, by permanent nails
+or studs driven in in regular order. Sometimes the walls are
+furnished with galvanized wires, but this has been objected to
+as causing cankering of the shoots, for which, however, painting
+is recommended as a remedy. By crossing the tying material
+between the wire and the wood, however, and so preventing
+them from coming in contact, there is no danger. If they are
+adopted, the wires should be a few inches away from the wall, to
+allow free circulation of air between it and the tree, and thus
+avoid the scorching or burning of leaves and fruits during the
+summer months in very hot places. Care should be taken that
+the ties or fastenings do not eventually cut into the bark as the
+branches swell with increased age. When shreds and nails are
+used, short thick wire nails and &ldquo;medicated shreds&rdquo; are the
+best; the ordinary cast iron wall nails being much too brittle
+and difficult to drive into the wall. It must be remembered that
+nails spoil a wall sooner or later, whereas a wire trellis is not only
+much neater, but enables the gardener to tie his trees up much
+more quickly.</p>
+
+<p>For tying plants to trellises and stakes soft tarred string or
+raffia (the fibre from the Raphia palm of Madagascar) is used.</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:459px; height:517px" src="images/img764d.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 46.</span>&mdash;Clematis trained on Balloon-Shaped Trellis.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>In training greenhouse plants the young branches should be
+drawn outwards by means of ties fastened to a string or wire
+under the pot-rim; the centre then fills up, and slender stakes
+are used as required; but the fewer these are in number the
+better. Climbers are trained from the bottom around or across
+trellises, of which the cylindrical or the balloon-shaped, or
+sometimes the flat oval or circular, are the best forms. The size
+should be adapted to the habit of the plant, which should cover
+the whole by the time flowers are produced. Bast fibre and
+raffia fibre are to be preferred for light subjects of this character,
+as they can be split to any degree of fineness. Very durable
+trellises for greenhouse climbers are made of slender round iron
+rods for standards, having a series of hooks on the inner edge,
+into which rings of similar metal are dropped; the rings may be
+graduated so as to form a broad open top, or may be all of the
+same size, when the trellis will assume the cylindrical form.
+Fig. 46 shows a pot specimen of clematis trained, over a
+balloon-shaped
+trellis.</p>
+
+<p>The training of certain bedding plants over the surface of
+the soil is done by small pegs of birch wood or bracken, by
+loops of wire or cheap hair-pins, or sometimes by loops of raffia
+having the ends fixed in the soil by the aid of the dibble. The
+object is to fill up the blank space as quickly and as evenly as
+possible.</p>
+
+<p><i>Forcing</i> is the accelerating, by special treatment, of the growth
+of certain plants, which are required to be had in leaf, in flower
+or in fruit before their natural season,&mdash;as, for instance, the leaves
+of mint at Eastertide or the leafstalks of sea-kale and rhubarb
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page765" id="page765"></a>765</span>
+at Christmas, the flowers of summer in the depth of winter, or
+some of the choicest fruits perfected so much before their normal
+period as to complete, with the retarded crops of winter, the circle
+of the seasons.</p>
+
+<p>In the management of artificial heat for this purpose, a
+considerable degree of caution is required. The first stages
+of forcing should, of course, be very gentle, so that the whole
+growth of the plants may advance in harmony. The immediate
+application of a very hot atmosphere would unduly force the
+tops, while the roots remained partially or wholly inactive; and
+a strong bottom heat, if it did not cause injury by its excess, would
+probably result in abortive growth.</p>
+
+<p>Any sudden decrease of warmth would be very prejudicial
+to the progress of vegetation through the successive stages of
+foliation, inflorescence and fructification. But it is not necessary
+that one unvarying range of temperature should be kept up at
+whatever pains or risk. Indeed, in very severe weather it is
+found better to drop a little from the maximum temperature by
+fire heat, and the loss so occasioned may be made good by a little
+extra heat applied when the weather is more genial. Night
+temperatures also should always be allowed to drop somewhat,
+the heat being increased again in the morning. In other words,
+the artificial temperature should increase by day and decrease
+by night, should rise in summer and fall in winter, should, in
+short, imitate as nearly as possible the varying influence of the
+sun.</p>
+
+<p>For the growth of flowers generally, and for that of all fruits,
+every ray of light to be obtained in the dull winter season is
+required, and therefore every possible care should be taken to
+keep the glass clean. A moist genial atmosphere too is essential,
+a point requiring unremitting attention on account of the
+necessity of keeping up strong fires. With moisture as with heat,
+the cultivator must hold his hand somewhat in very severe or
+very dull weather; but while heat must not drop so as to chill
+the progressing vegetation, so neither must the lack of moisture
+parch the plants so as to check their growth.</p>
+
+<p>There are some few subjects which when forced do not require
+a light house. Thus amongst flowers the white blossoms of the
+lilac, so much prized during winter, are produced by forcing
+purple-flowered plants in darkness. Rhubarb and sea-kale among
+esculents both need to be forced in darkness to keep them crisp
+and tender, and mushrooms also are always grown in dark
+structures. In fact, a roomy mushroom house is one of the most
+convenient of all places for forcing the vegetables just referred
+to. The lilac would be better placed in a dark shed heated to
+about 70° or 80°, in which some dung and leaves could be
+allowed to lie and ferment, giving off both a genial heat
+and moisture.</p>
+
+<p>One of the most important preliminaries to successful forcing
+is the securing to the plants a previous state of rest. The
+thorough ripening of the preceding season&rsquo;s wood in fruit trees
+and flowering plants, and of the crown in perennial herbs like
+strawberries, and the cessation of all active growth before the
+time they are to start into a new growth, are of paramount importance.
+The ripening process must be brought about by free
+exposure to light, and by the application of a little extra heat with
+dryness, if the season should be unfavourable; and both roots
+and tops must submit to a limitation of their water supply.
+When the ripening is perfected, the resting process must be
+aided by keeping the temperature in which they await the forcing
+process as low as each particular subject can bear. (See <i>Retardation</i>
+above.)</p>
+
+<p class="pt2 center">V. <i>Flowers.</i></p>
+
+<p><i>Flower Garden and Pleasure Grounds.</i>&mdash;Wherever there is a
+flower garden of considerable magnitude, and in a separate
+situation, it should be constructed on principles of its own.
+The great object must be to exhibit to advantage the graceful
+forms and glorious hues of flowering plants and shrubs. Two
+varieties of flower gardens have chiefly prevailed in Britain.
+In one the ground is turf, out of which flower-beds, of varied
+patterns, are cut; in the other the flower-beds are separated
+by gravel walks, without the introduction of grass. When
+the flower garden is to be seen from the windows, or any other
+elevated point of view, the former is to be preferred; but where
+the surface is irregular, and the situation more remote, and
+especially where the beauty of flowers is mainly looked to, the
+choice should probably fall on the latter.</p>
+
+<p>The flower garden may include several different compartments.
+Thus, for example, there is the &ldquo;Rock Garden,&rdquo; which should
+consist of variously grouped masses of large stones, those which
+are remarkable for being figured by water-wearing, or containing
+petrifactions or impressions, or showing something of natural
+stratification, being generally preferred. In the cavities between
+the stones, filled with earth, alpine or trailing plants are inserted,
+and also some of the choicest flowers. In proper situations, a
+small pool of water may be introduced for the culture of aquatic
+plants. In these days the rock-garden is a most important
+feature, and it requires a good deal of care and skill to arrange
+the boulders, walks, pools or streams in natural and artistic
+fashion. The selection of suitable alpines, perennials and
+shrubs and trees also necessitates considerable knowledge
+on the part of the gardener. A separate compartment laid out
+on some regular plan is often set apart for roses, under the name
+of the &ldquo;Rosery.&rdquo; A moist or rather a shady border, or a section
+of the pleasure ground supplied with bog earth, may be devoted
+to what is called the &ldquo;American Garden,&rdquo; which, as it includes
+the gorgeous rhododendrons and azaleas, forms one of the
+grandest features of the establishment during the early summer,
+while if properly selected the plants are effective as a garden
+of evergreens at all seasons. The number of variegated and
+various-coloured hardy shrubs is now so great that a most
+pleasant plot for a &ldquo;Winter Garden&rdquo; may be arrayed with plants
+of this class, with which may be associated hardy subjects which
+flower during that season or very early spring, as the Christmas
+rose, and amongst bulbs the crocus and snowdrop. Later the
+spring garden department is a scene of great attraction; and
+some of the gardens of this character, as those of Cliveden and
+Belvoir, are among the most fascinating examples of horticultural
+art. The old-fashioned stereotyped flower garden
+that one met with almost everywhere is rapidly becoming a
+thing of the past, and grounds are now laid out more in accordance
+with their natural disposition, their climatic conditions
+and their suitability for certain kinds of plants. Besides the
+features already mentioned there are now bamboo gardens,
+Japanese gardens, water gardens and wall gardens, each
+placed in the most suitable position and displaying its own
+special features.</p>
+
+<table class="flt" style="float: right; width: 300px;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:244px; height:255px" src="images/img765.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 47.</span>&mdash;Turf-Beater.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p><i>Lawns.</i>&mdash;In the formation of lawns the ground must be
+regularly broken up so that it may settle down evenly, any deep
+excavations that may have to be filled in being very carefully
+rammed down to prevent subsequent settlement. The ground
+must also be thoroughly cleared of the roots of all coarse, perennial
+weeds, and be worked to a fine
+tilth ready for turfing or sowing.
+The more expeditious
+method is of course to lay
+down turf, which should be free
+from weeds, and is cut usually
+in strips of 1 ft. wide, 3 ft. long,
+and about 1 in. in thickness.
+This must be laid very evenly
+and compactly, and should then
+be beaten down firmly with the
+implement called a turf-beater
+(fig. 47). When there is a large
+space to cover, it is much the
+cheaper plan to sow the lawn
+with grass-seeds, and equally effective, though the sward takes
+much longer to thicken. It is of the utmost importance that
+a good selection of grasses be made, and that pure seeds
+should be obtained (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Grass and Grassland</a></span>). The following
+sorts can be recommended, the quantities given being those
+for sowing an acre of ground:&mdash;</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page766" id="page766"></a>766</span></p>
+
+<table class="ws f90" summary="Contents">
+<tr><td class="tcl"><i>Cynosurus cristatus</i>&mdash;Crested Dog&rsquo;s-tail</td> <td class="tcr">6 &#8468;</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><i>Festuca duriuscula</i>&mdash;Hard Fescue</td> <td class="tcr">3 &#8468;</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><i>Festuca ovina</i>&mdash;Sheep&rsquo;s Fescue</td> <td class="tcr">3 &#8468;</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><i>Lolium perenne tenue</i></td> <td class="tcr">18 &#8468;</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><i>Poa nemoralis sempervirens</i>&mdash;Evergreen Meadow-grass</td> <td class="tcr">3 &#8468;</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><i>Poa trivialis</i>&mdash;Trivial Meadow-grass</td> <td class="tcr">3 &#8468;</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><i>Trisetum flavescens</i>&mdash;Yellow Oat-grass</td> <td class="tcr">2 &#8468;</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><i>Trifolium repens</i>&mdash;Dutch Clover</td> <td class="tcr">6 &#8468;</td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<p>The seeds should be thoroughly mixed, and very evenly sown,
+after which the surface should be raked over to bury them, and
+then rolled down while dry so as to finish it off smooth and level.
+When thus sown, lawns require to be promptly weeded. During
+the growing season established lawns should be mown at least
+once a week. They should be occasionally rolled, and towards
+autumn they require frequent sweepings to remove worm-casts.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p><span class="sc">Hardy Annuals.</span>&mdash;Annual plants are those which grow up
+from seed, flower, ripen seed, and die in the course of one season&mdash;one
+year. They are useful in the mixed garden, for though in some
+cases they are of short duration, many of them are possessed of much
+beauty of hue and elegance of form. Annuals may be divided into
+three classes: the <i>hardy</i>, which are sown at once in the ground
+they are to occupy; the <i>half-hardy</i>, which succeed best when aided
+at first by a slight hot bed, and then transplanted into the open air;
+and the <i>tender</i>, which are kept in pots, and treated as greenhouse
+or stove plants, to which departments they properly belong. Some
+of the more popular annuals, hardy and half-hardy, have been very
+much varied as regards habit and the colour of the flowers, and
+purchases may be made in the seed shops of such things as China
+asters, stocks, Chinese and Indian pinks, larkspurs, phloxes and
+others, amongst which some of the most beautiful of the summer
+flowers may be found.</p>
+
+<p>The hardy annuals may be sown in the open ground during
+the latter part of March or beginning of April, as the season may
+determine, for the weather should be dry and open, and the soil in
+a free-working condition before sowing is attempted. In favourable
+situations and seasons some of the very hardiest, as <i>Silene pendula</i>,
+Saponaria, Nemophila, Gilia, &amp;c., may be sown in September or
+October, and transplanted to the beds or borders for very early spring
+flowering. Those sown in spring begin to flower about June. The
+plants, if left to flower where they are sown, should be thinned out
+while young, to give them space for proper development. It is
+from having ample room that pricked out transplanted seedlings
+often make the finest plants. The soil should be rich and light.</p>
+
+<p>The half-hardy series are best sown in pots or pans under glass in
+mild heat, in order to accelerate germination. Those of them which
+are in danger of becoming leggy should be speedily removed to a
+cooler frame and placed near the glass, the young plants being
+pricked off into fresh soil, in other pots or pans or boxes, as may
+seem best in each case. All the plants must be hardened off gradually
+during the month of April, and may generally be planted out some
+time in May, earlier or later according to the season.</p>
+
+<p>The class of tender annuals, being chiefly grown for greenhouse
+decoration, should be treated much the same as soft-wooded plants,
+being sown in spring, and grown on rapidly in brisk heat, near the
+glass, and finally hardened off to stand in the greenhouse when in
+flower.</p>
+
+<p>We add a select list of some of the more distinct annuals desirable
+for general cultivation as decorative plants for the open air:&mdash;</p>
+
+<p><i>Acroclinium roseum</i>: half-hardy, 1 ft., rose-pink or white; everlasting.</p>
+
+<p><i>Agrostis pulchella</i>: hardy, 6 in.; a most graceful grass for bouquets.</p>
+
+<p><i>Amberboa moschata atropurpurea</i> (Sweet Sultan): hardy, 1½ ft.,
+purple: musk-scented.</p>
+
+<p><i>Antirrhinum majus</i> (Snapdragon): hardy, 6 in. to 2 ft., white,
+yellow and red. This plant is perennial, but is best treated as an
+annual.</p>
+
+<p><i>Arnebia cornuta</i>: hardy, 1½ to 2 ft. yellow.</p>
+
+<p><i>Bartonia aurea</i>: hardy, 2 ft., golden yellow; showy and free.</p>
+
+<p><i>Brachycome iberidifolia</i>: half-hardy, 1 ft., blue or white with dark
+disk.</p>
+
+<p><i>Calendula officinalis Meteor</i>: hardy, 1 ft., orange striped with
+yellow.</p>
+
+<p><i>Calliopsis</i> or <i>Coreopsis bicolor</i> (<i>tinctoria</i>): hardy, 2 to 3 ft., yellow
+and chestnut-brown.</p>
+
+<p><i>Calliopsis</i> or <i>Coreopsis Drummondii</i>: hardy, 1 to 2 ft., golden
+yellow with red disk.</p>
+
+<p><i>Callistephus hortensis</i> or <i>chinensis</i> (the China aster): half-hardy,
+6 in. to 1½ ft.; there arc several groups of various colours. The
+species itself is a very handsome plant.</p>
+
+<p><i>Campanula Loreyi</i>: hardy, 1½ ft., purplish-lilac or white.</p>
+
+<p><i>Campanula macrostyla</i>: hardy, 1 to 2 ft., purple, beautifully veined.</p>
+
+<p><i>Carnations</i>, <i>Marguerite</i>: half-hardy, 9 to 12 in., colours various.</p>
+
+<p><i>Centaurea Cyanus</i>: hardy, 3 ft., blue, purple, pink or white;
+showy.</p>
+
+<p><i>Centranthus macrosiphon</i>: hardy, 1½ to 2 ft., rosy-carmine.</p>
+
+<p><i>Centranthus ruber</i> (known as Pretty Betsy and Red Valerian):
+hardy, 2 to 3 ft., red.</p>
+
+<p><i>Chrysanthemum carinatum</i>: a charming half-hardy annual, 2 to
+3 ft. high, with several varieties, of which C. Burridgeanum with zones
+of white, crimson and yellow is best.</p>
+
+<p><i>C. coronarium</i>, a yellow-flowered species requires similar treatment.</p>
+
+<p><i>Clarkia pulchella</i>: hardy, 1½ ft., rosy-purple; some varieties very
+handsome.</p>
+
+<p><i>Collinsia bicolor</i>: hardy, 1½ ft., white and purple; pretty.</p>
+
+<p><i>Collinsia verna</i>: hardy, 1 ft., white and azure; sow as soon as
+ripe.</p>
+
+<p><i>Convolvulus tricolor atroviolacea</i>: hardy, 1 ft., white, blue and
+yellow. This is the <i>Convolvulus minor</i> of gardens.</p>
+
+<p><i>Cosmos bipinnatus</i>: half-hardy, 3 ft., rose, purple, white; requires
+sunny spots.</p>
+
+<p><i>Dianthus chinensis</i> (Indian pink): half-hardy, 6 in. to 1 ft., various
+shades of red and white.</p>
+
+<p><i>Delphinium Ajacis</i> and <i>Delphinium Consolida</i> (Larkspurs): hardy,
+3 ft., various colours.</p>
+
+<p><i>Erysimum Peroffskianum</i>: hardy, 2 ft., deep orange; in erect
+racemes.</p>
+
+<p><i>Eschscholtzia californica</i>: hardy, 1½ ft., yellow with saffron eye.</p>
+
+<p><i>Eschscholtzia crocea flore-pleno</i>: hardy, 1½ ft., orange yellow;
+double.</p>
+
+<p><i>Eutoca viscida</i>: hardy, 2 ft., bright blue, with white hairy centre.</p>
+
+<p><i>Gaillardia Drummondii</i> (<i>picta</i>): half-hardy, 1½ ft., crimson, yellow
+margin.</p>
+
+<p><i>Gilia achilleaefolia</i>: hardy, 2 ft., deep blue; in large globose heads.</p>
+
+<p><i>Godetia Lindleyana</i>: hardy, 2 to 3 ft., rose-purple, with crimson
+spots.</p>
+
+<p><i>Godetia Whitneyi</i>: hardy, 1 ft., rosy-red, with crimson spots. The
+variety <i>Lady Albemarle</i> is wholly crimson, and very handsome.</p>
+
+<p><i>Gypsophila elegans</i>: hardy, 1½ ft., pale rose; branched very
+gracefully.</p>
+
+<p><i>Helianthus cucumerifolius</i>: hardy, 3 to 4 ft., golden yellow, black
+disk; branching, free and bold without coarseness.</p>
+
+<p><i>Helichrysum bracteatum</i>: half-hardy, 2 ft., the incurved crimson,
+rose and other forms very handsome.</p>
+
+<p><i>Hibiscus Trionum</i> (<i>africanus</i>): hardy, 1½ ft., cream colour, dark
+purple centre.</p>
+
+<p><i>Iberis umbellata</i> (Candytuft): hardy, 1 ft., white, rose, purple,
+crimson. Some new dwarf white and flesh-coloured varieties are very
+handsome.</p>
+
+<p><i>Kaulfussia amelloides</i>: hardy, 1 ft., blue or rose; the var.
+kermesina is deep crimson.</p>
+
+<p><i>Kochia scoparia</i> (Belvedere or lawn cypress): hardy, graceful
+green foliage, turning purple in autumn.</p>
+
+<p><i>Königa maritima</i> (Sweet Alyssum): hardy, 1 ft., white; fragrant,
+compact.</p>
+
+<p><i>Lathyrus odoratus</i> (Sweet Pea): hardy; there are two races,
+dwarf and tall, the latter&mdash;far and away the most beautiful&mdash;requires
+support; various colours; numerous immensely popular forms.</p>
+
+<p><i>Lavatera trimestris</i>: hardy, 3 ft., pale-rose, showy malvaceous
+flowers.</p>
+
+<p><i>Leptosiphon densiflorus</i>: hardy in light soil, 1 ft., purplish or
+rosy-lilac.</p>
+
+<p><i>Leptosiphon roseus</i>: hardy in light soil, 6 in., delicate rose; fine in
+masses.</p>
+
+<p><i>Linaria bipartita splendida</i>: hardy, 1 ft., deep purple.</p>
+
+<p><i>Linum grandiflorum</i>: hardy, 1 ft., splendid crimson; var.
+roseum is pink.</p>
+
+<p><i>Lupinus luteus</i>: hardy, 2 ft., bright yellow, fragrant.</p>
+
+<p><i>Lupinus mutabilis Cruickshanksii</i>: hardy, 4 ft., blue and yellow;
+changeable.</p>
+
+<p><i>Lupinus nanus</i>: hardy, 1 ft., bluish-purple; abundant flowering.</p>
+
+<p><i>Lychnis Coeli-rosa</i>: hardy, 1½ ft., rosy-purple, with pale centre;
+pretty.</p>
+
+<p><i>Lychnis oculata cardinalis</i>: hardy, 1½ ft., rosy-crimson; very
+brilliant.</p>
+
+<p><i>Malcolmia maritima</i> (Virginian Stock): hardy, 6 in., lilac, rose or
+white.</p>
+
+<p><i>Malope trifida</i>: hardy, 3 ft., rich glossy purplish-crimson; showy.
+<i>M. grandiflora</i> is a finer plant in every way.</p>
+
+<p><i>Matthiola annua</i> (Ten-week Stock and its variety, the intermediate
+stock): half-hardy, 1 to 2 ft., white, rose and red.</p>
+
+<p><i>Matthiola graeca</i> (Wallflower-lvd. Stock): hardy, 1 ft., various as
+in Stock.</p>
+
+<p><i>Mesembryanthemum tricolor</i>: half-hardy, 3 in., pink and crimson,
+with dark centre.</p>
+
+<p><i>Mimulus cupreus</i>: half-hardy, 6 in., coppery red, varying considerably.</p>
+
+<p><i>Mimulus luteus tigrinus</i>: half-hardy, 1 ft., yellow spotted with
+red; var. <i>duplex</i> has hose-in-hose flowers.</p>
+
+<p><i>Mirabilis Jalapa</i>: half-hardy, 3 ft., various colours; flowers
+evening-scented.</p>
+
+<p><i>Nemesia floribunda</i>: hardy, 1 ft., white and yellow; pretty and
+compact.</p>
+
+<p><i>Nemophila insignis</i>: hardy, 6 in., azure blue, with white centre.</p>
+
+<p><i>Nemophila maculata</i>: hardy, 6 in., white, with violet spots at the
+edge.</p>
+
+<p><i>Nicotiana affinis</i>: half-hardy, 2 to 3 ft., white.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page767" id="page767"></a>767</span></p>
+
+<p><i>Nicotiana Sanderae</i>: half-hardy, 2 to 3 ft., white, crimson,
+scarlet, &amp;c.</p>
+
+<p><i>Nigella hispanica</i>: hardy, 1½ ft., pale blue, white or dark purple.</p>
+
+<p><i>Oenothera odorata</i>: hardy, 2 to 3 ft., yellow; fragrant.</p>
+
+<p><i>Omphalodes linifolia</i> (Venus&rsquo;s Navelwort): hardy, 1 ft., white.</p>
+
+<p><i>Papaver Rhoeas flore-pleno</i>: hardy, 2 ft., scarlet and other colours;
+showy.</p>
+
+<p><i>Papaver somniferum flore-pleno</i>: hardy, 3 ft., white, lilac, rose,
+&amp;c.; petals sometimes fringed.</p>
+
+<p><i>Petunia violacea hybrida</i>: half-hardy, 1½ ft., various colours; sow
+in heat.</p>
+
+<p><i>Pharbitis hispida</i>: hardy, 6 ft., various; the many-coloured
+twining <i>Convolvulus major</i>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Phlox Drummondii</i>: half-hardy, 1 ft., various colours.</p>
+
+<p><i>Platystemon californicus</i>: hardy, 1 ft., sulphur yellow; neat and
+distinct.</p>
+
+<p><i>Portulaca splendens</i>: half-hardy, 6 in., crimson, rose, yellow, white,
+&amp;c., single and double; splendid prostrate plants for sunny rockwork.</p>
+
+<p><i>Pyrethrum Parthenium aureum</i>: half-hardy, 1 ft.; grown for its
+golden foliage, and much used for bedding.</p>
+
+<p><i>Reseda odorata</i> (Mignonette): hardy, 1 ft., greenish, but exquisitely
+fragrant; there are some choice new sorts.</p>
+
+<p><i>Rhodanthe maculata</i>: half-hardy, 1½ ft., rosy-pink or white;
+larger flower-heads than the next.</p>
+
+<p><i>Rhodanthe Manglesii</i>: half-hardy, 1 ft., rosy-pink; a drooping
+everlasting.</p>
+
+<p><i>Salpiglossis sinuata</i>: half-hardy, 2 to 3 ft., yellow, purple, crimson,
+&amp;c.; much varied and beautifully veined.</p>
+
+<p><i>Sanvitalia procumbens flore-pleno</i>: half-hardy, 6 in., golden yellow;
+procumbent.</p>
+
+<p><i>Saponaria calabrica</i>: hardy, 6 to 8 in., bright rose pink or white;
+continuous blooming, compact-growing.</p>
+
+<p><i>Scabiosa atropurpurea</i>: hardy, 1 to 2 ft., rose, white, lilac, crimson,
+&amp;c.</p>
+
+<p><i>Schizanthus pinnatus</i>: hardy, 1 to 2 ft., purple-lilac, prettily
+blotched; curiously lobed flowers.</p>
+
+<p><i>Schizopetalon Walkeri</i>: hardy, 1 ft., white, sweet-scented at night;
+curiously fringed petals.</p>
+
+<p><i>Senecio elegans</i>: half-hardy, 1½ ft., white, rose or purple; the
+various double forms are showy.</p>
+
+<p><i>Silene pendula</i>: hardy, 1 ft., bright rose pink; very showy in
+masses; var. <i>compacta</i> forms close dense tufts.</p>
+
+<p><i>Silene Pseudo-Atocion</i>: hardy, 1 ft., rose pink; free-flowering.</p>
+
+<p><i>Specularia Speculum</i>: hardy, 6 in., reddish-violet; free-flowering.</p>
+
+<p><i>Sphenogyne speciosa</i>: half-hardy, 1 ft., orange-yellow, with black
+ring around the disk.</p>
+
+<p><i>Statice Bonduelli</i> (Sea Lavender): half-hardy, 1½ ft., yellow.</p>
+
+<p><i>S. Limonum</i>: bluish purple.</p>
+
+<p><i>S. sinuata</i>: white, blue, yellow.</p>
+
+<p><i>S. Suworowi</i>: lilac.</p>
+
+<p><i>Tagetes signata</i>: half-hardy, 1½ ft., golden yellow; continuous
+blooming, with elegant foliage. The French and African marigolds,
+favourites of some, are allied to this.</p>
+
+<p><i>Tropaeolum aduncum</i> (Canary creeper): half-hardy, 10 ft., yellow,
+fringed; an elegant climber.</p>
+
+<p><i>Tropaeolum majus</i> (the nasturtium of gardens): hardy. There are
+two races, dwarf and tall, various shades of red and yellow.</p>
+
+<p><i>Waitzia aurea</i>: half-hardy, 1½ ft., golden yellow; a showy
+everlasting.</p>
+
+<p><i>Xeranthemum annuum flore-pleno</i>: hardy, 2 ft., lilac-purple;
+floriferous.</p>
+
+<p><i>Zinnia elegans</i>: half-hardy, 1 to 2 ft., various colours.</p>
+
+<p><span class="sc">Hardy Biennials.</span>&mdash;Biennials live through one winter period.
+They require to be sown in the summer months, about June or July,
+in order to get established before winter; they should be pricked out
+as soon as large enough, and should have ample space so as to become
+hardy and stocky. They should be planted in good soil, but not of
+too stimulating a character. Those that are perfectly hardy are best
+planted where they are to flower in good time during autumn.
+This transplanting acts as a kind of check, which is rather beneficial
+than otherwise. Of those that are liable to suffer injury in winter,
+as the Brompton and Queen Stocks, a portion should be potted and
+wintered in cold frames ventilated as freely as the weather will
+permit.</p>
+
+<p>The number of biennials is not large, but a few very desirable
+garden plants, such as the following, occur amongst them:&mdash;</p>
+
+<p><i>Agrostemma coronaria</i> (Rose Campion): hardy, 1½ ft., bright
+rose-purple or rose and white.</p>
+
+<p><i>Beta Cicla variegata</i>: hardy, 2 ft., beautifully coloured leaves and
+midribs, crimson, golden, &amp;c.</p>
+
+<p><i>Campanula Medium</i> (Canterbury Bell): hardy, 2 ft., blue, white,
+rose, &amp;c. The double-flowered varieties of various colours are very
+handsome.</p>
+
+<p><i>Campanula Medium calycanthema</i>: hardy, 2 ft., blue or white;
+hose-in-hose flowered.</p>
+
+<p><i>Catananche coerulea</i>: hardy, 2 to 3 ft., blue or white.</p>
+
+<p><i>Celsia cretica</i>: hardy, 4 to 5 ft., yellow, with two dark spots near
+centre; in spikes.</p>
+
+<p><i>Cheiranthus Cheiri</i> (Wallflower): hardy, 1½ to 2 ft., red, purple,
+yellow, &amp;c.; really a perennial but better as a biennial.</p>
+
+<p><i>Coreopsis grandiflora</i>: hardy, 2 to 3 ft., bright yellow; the finest
+member of the genus.</p>
+
+<p><i>Dianthus barbatus</i> (Sweet William): hardy, 1 to 1½ ft., crimson,
+purple, white or parti-coloured.</p>
+
+<p><i>Dianthus chinensis</i> (Indian Pink): half-hardy, 1 ft., various;
+flower earlier if treated as biennials; must be protected from frost.</p>
+
+<p><i>Digitalis purpurea</i> (Foxglove): hardy, 3 to 5 ft., rosy-purple or
+white; beautifully spotted; the variety called <i>gloxinioides</i> has
+regular, erect flowers.</p>
+
+<p><i>Echium pomponium</i>: hardy, 4 ft., rosy-pink.</p>
+
+<p><i>Hedysarum coronarium</i> (French Honeysuckle): hardy, 2 to 3 ft.,
+scarlet or white; fragrant.</p>
+
+<p><i>Hesperis tristis</i> (Night-scented Rocket): hardy, 3 ft., dull purplish;
+fragrant at night.</p>
+
+<p><i>Lunaria biennis</i> (Honesty): hardy, 2 to 3 ft., purple; the silvery
+dissepiment attractive among everlastings.</p>
+
+<p><i>Matthiola incana</i> (two groups, the Brompton and the Queen
+stocks): hardy, 2 to 2½ ft., white, red and purple.</p>
+
+<p><i>Meconopsis.</i> Charming members of the poppy family, of which
+<i>M. aculeata</i>, purple; <i>M. grandis</i>, purple; <i>M. heterophylla</i>, coppery-orange;
+<i>M. nepalensis</i>, golden yellow; <i>M. integrifolia</i>, yellow;
+<i>M. simplicifolia</i>, violet purple, are grown with care in sheltered spots,
+and in rich, very gritty soil.</p>
+
+<p><i>Michauxia campanuloides</i>, a remarkable bell flower, 3 to 8 ft. high,
+white tinged purple. Requires rich loam in warm sheltered spots.</p>
+
+<p><i>Oenothera biennis</i> and <i>O. Lamarckiana</i> (Evening primrose): hardy,
+5 ft., bright yellow; large.</p>
+
+<p><i>Scabiosa caucasica</i>: hardy, 3 ft., blue, white.</p>
+
+<p><i>Silene compacta</i>: half-hardy, 3 to 6 inches, bright pink; clustered
+as in S. Armeria.</p>
+
+<p><i>Verbascum Blattaria</i>: hardy, 3 to 4 ft., yellowish, with purple hairs
+on the filaments; in tall spikes.</p>
+
+<p><span class="sc">Hardy Herbaceous Perennials.</span>&mdash;This term includes not only
+those fibrous-rooted plants of herbaceous habit which spring up from
+the root year after year, but also those old-fashioned subjects known
+as florists&rsquo; flowers, and the hardy bulbs. Some of the most beautiful
+of hardy flowering plants belong to this class. When the length of
+the flowering season is considered, it will be obvious that it is impossible
+to keep up the show of a single border or plot for six months
+together, since plants, as they are commonly arranged, come dropping
+into and out of flower one after another; and even where a certain
+number are in bloom at the same time, they necessarily stand apart,
+and so the effects of contrast, which can be perceived only among
+adjacent objects, are lost. To obviate this defect, it has been recommended
+that ornamental plants should be formed into four or five
+separate suites of flowering, to be distributed over the garden.
+Not to mention the more vernal flowers, the first might contain the
+flora of May; the second that of June; the third that of July; and
+the fourth that of August and the following months. These compartments
+should be so intermingled that no particular class may be
+entirely absent from any one quarter of the garden.</p>
+
+<p>Before beginning to plant, it would be well to construct tables or
+lists of the plants, specifying their respective times of flowering,
+colours and heights. To diversify properly and mingle well together
+the reds, whites, purples, yellows and blues, with all their intervening
+shades, requires considerable taste and powers of combination;
+and ascertained failures may be rectified at the proper time the next
+season. The one great object aimed at should be to present an
+agreeable contrast&mdash;a floral picture; and, as at particular seasons a
+monotony of tint prevails, it is useful at such times to be in possession
+of some strong glaring colours. White, for instance, should be much
+employed in July, to break the duller blues and purples which then
+preponderate. Orange, too, is very effective at this season. On the
+other hand, yellows are superabundant in autumn, and therefore reds
+and blues should then be sought for. The flower-gardener should
+have a small nursery, or reserve garden, for the propagation of the
+finer plants, to be transferred into the borders as often as is required.</p>
+
+<p>As a rule, all the fibrous-rooted herbaceous plants flourish in good
+soil which has been fairly enriched with manure, that of a loamy
+character being the most suitable. Many of them also grow satisfactorily
+in a peaty soil if well worked, especially if they have a cool
+moist subsoil. Pentstemons and phloxes, amongst others, succeed well
+in soil of this character, but the surface must be well drained; the former
+are rather apt to perish in winter in loamy soil, if at all close and heavy.
+The herbaceous border should be a distinct compartment varying
+from 6 to 10 ft. in width, and perhaps backed up by evergreens under
+certain conditions. Such a border will take in about four lines of
+plants, the tallest being placed in groups at the back and in the centre,
+and the others graduated in height down to the front. In the front
+row patches of the white arabis, the yellow alyssum, white, yellow,
+blue, or purple violas, and the purple aubrietia, recurring at intervals
+of 5 or 6 yards on a border of considerable length, carry the eye
+forwards and give a balanced kind of finish to the whole. The same
+might be done with dianthuses or the larger narcissi in the second
+row, with paeonies, columbines and phloxes in the third, and with
+delphiniums, aconitums and some of the taller yellow composites as
+helianthus and rudbeckia at the back. Spring and autumn flowers,
+as well as those blooming in summer, should be regularly distributed
+throughout the border, which will then at no season be devoid of
+interest in any part. Many of the little alpines may be brought into
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page768" id="page768"></a>768</span>
+the front line planted between suitable pieces of stone, or they
+may be relegated to a particular spot, and placed on an artificial
+rockery. Most of the hardy bulbs will do well enough in the border,
+care being taken not to disturb them while leafless and dormant.</p>
+
+<p>Some deep-rooting perennials do not spread much at the surface,
+and only require refreshing from time to time by top-dressings.
+Others, as the asters, spread rapidly; those possessing this habit
+should be taken up every second or third year, and, a nice patch being
+selected for replanting from the outer portions, the rest may be either
+thrown aside, or reserved for increase; the portion selected for
+replanting should be returned to its place, the ground having meanwhile
+been well broken up. Some plants are apt to decay at the base,
+frequently from exposure caused by the lifting process going on
+during their growth; these should be taken up annually in early
+autumn, the soil refreshed, and the plants returned to their places,
+care being taken to plant them sufficiently deep.</p>
+
+<p>Only a section of some of the best of the decorative hardy perennials
+can be noted, before we pass on to those popular subjects of
+this class which have been directly influenced by the hybridizer and
+improver. Many more might be added to the subjoined list:&mdash;</p>
+
+<p><i>Acaena.</i>&mdash;Neat trailing plants adapted for rockwork, thriving in
+sandy soil. <i>A. microphylla</i> and <i>A. myriophylla</i> have pretty spiny
+heads of flowers.</p>
+
+<p><i>Acantholimon.</i>&mdash;Pretty dwarf tufted plants, with needle-shaped
+leaves, adapted for rockwork. <i>A. glumaceum</i> and <i>A. venustum</i> bear
+bright pink flowers in July and August. Light sandy loam.</p>
+
+<p><i>Acanthus.</i>&mdash;Bold handsome plants, with stately spikes, 2 to 3 ft.
+high, of flowers with spiny bracts. <i>A. mollis</i>, <i>A. latifolius</i>, and <i>A.
+longifolius</i> are broad-leaved sorts; <i>A. spinosus</i> and <i>A. spinosissimus</i>
+have narrower spiny toothed leaves.</p>
+
+<p><i>Achillea.</i>&mdash;Handsome composite plants, the stronger ones of easy
+culture in common soil. <i>A. Eupatorium</i> and <i>filipendula</i>, 3 to 4 ft.,
+have showy yellow corymbose flowers; <i>A. rosea</i>, 2 ft., rosy-crimson;
+and <i>A. Ptarmica flore-pleno</i>, 2 ft., double white flowers. Others
+suitable for front lines or rockwork are <i>A. tomentosa</i>, 9 in., bright
+yellow; <i>A. aegyptiaca</i>, 1 ft., silvery leaves and yellow flowers;
+<i>A. umbellata</i>, 8 in., silvery leaves and white flowers; and <i>A. Clavennae</i>,
+6 in., with silvery leaves and pure white flowers.</p>
+
+<p><i>Aconitum.</i>&mdash;Handsome border plants, the tall stems crowned by
+racemes of showy hooded flowers. <i>A. Camarum</i>, 3 to 4 ft., has deep
+purple flowers in August; <i>A. sinense</i>, 1½ to 2 ft., has large dark
+purple flowers in September; <i>A. variegatum</i>, 3 ft., has the flowers
+white edged with blue; <i>A. autumnale</i>, 3 ft., has pale blue flowers;
+<i>A. Anthora</i>, 1 to 2 ft., yellow; and <i>A. japonicum</i>, 2½ ft., deep blue
+flowers, produced in September and October. <i>A. Wilsoni</i>, a new
+species from China, 6 ft. high, with bluish-purple flowers.</p>
+
+<p><i>Adenophora.</i>&mdash;Bell-shaped flowers. <i>A. stylosa</i>, 2 ft., pale blue,
+elegant; <i>A. denticulata</i>, 1½ ft., dark blue; and in <i>A. liliifolia</i>, 1½ ft.,
+pale blue, sweet-scented&mdash;all blooming during summer. Light soil.</p>
+
+<p><i>Adonis.</i>&mdash;<i>A. vernalis</i>, 1 ft., has large bright yellow stellate flowers
+in April. Deep light soil. <i>A. amurensis</i> is a fine Chinese species.</p>
+
+<p><i>Ajuga.</i>&mdash;Free growing, dwarf and showy. <i>A. reptans</i>, 8 in., has
+creeping runners, which <i>A. genevensis</i> has not; both bear handsome
+spikes of blue labiate flowers. Ordinary soil.</p>
+
+<p><i>Allium.</i>&mdash;Hardy bulbs of the garlic family, some species of which
+are ornamental; the inflorescence is umbellate. In <i>A. azureum</i>,
+1 to 2 ft., the flowers are deep-blue; in <i>A. Moly</i>, 1 ft., golden yellow;
+in <i>A. neapolitanum</i>, 1½ ft., white, very handsome; in <i>A. triquetrum</i>,
+8 in., white with green central stripes; in <i>A. pedemontanum</i>, 9 in.,
+reddish-violet, very beautiful, the umbels nodding.</p>
+
+<p><i>Alstroemeria.</i>&mdash;Beautiful plants with fleshy tuberous roots, which
+are the better if not often disturbed. <i>A. aurantiaca</i>, 2 to 3 ft.,
+orange streaked with red, in July and August; <i>A. chilensis</i>, 2 to 3 ft.,
+blood-red, streaked with yellow, affording many varieties. Deep
+sandy loam or peat. Should be planted at least 6 or 8 in. deep.</p>
+
+<p><i>Althaea rosea.</i>&mdash;The hollyhock is a noble perennial, 6 to 15 ft.
+high, with flowers of every colour except blue. Requires rich loamy
+soil and plenty of space.</p>
+
+<p><i>Alyssum.</i>&mdash;Showy rockwork or front row border plants of easy
+culture in any light soil; the plants should be frequently renewed
+from cuttings. <i>A. saxatile</i>, with greyish leaves, and deep yellow
+flowers, produced in April and May, and the dwarfer <i>A. montanum</i>
+are useful.</p>
+
+<p><i>Amaryllis.</i>&mdash;Noble half-hardy bulbs, for planting near the front
+wall of a hothouse or greenhouse; the soil must be deep, rich and
+well drained. <i>A. Belladonna</i>, the Belladonna Lily, 3 ft., has large
+funnel-shaped flowers in September, of a delicate rose colour. The
+variety <i>A. blanda</i> has paler flowers, almost white.</p>
+
+<p><i>Anchusa.</i>&mdash;Pretty boraginaceous herbs, easily grown. <i>A. italica</i>,
+3 to 4 ft., has blue star-like flowers. <i>A. sempervirens</i>, 1½ ft., rich
+blue, is well suited for rough borders.</p>
+
+<p><i>Androsace.</i>&mdash;Pretty dwarf rock plants, requiring rather careful
+management and a gritty soil. <i>A. Vitaliana</i>, yellow; <i>A. Wulfeniana</i>,
+purplish-crimson; <i>A. villosa</i>, white or pale rose; <i>A. lactea</i>, white
+with yellow eye; <i>A. lanuginosa</i>, delicate rose; and <i>A. Chamaejasme</i>,
+delicate rose, are some of the best.</p>
+
+<p><i>Anemone.</i>&mdash;The Japanese kinds, <i>A. japonica</i>, flowers white and
+purple, are very easily grown and are particularly fine in autumn.
+The scarlet <i>A. fulgens</i>, and <i>A. coronaria</i>, the poppy anemone, are
+useful for the front, or in nooks in the rockery; while the common
+hepatica (<i>A. hepatica</i>) with its bright blue flowers should also have a
+place.</p>
+
+<p><i>Antennaria.</i>&mdash;Composite plants, with everlasting flowers. <i>A.
+margaritacea</i>, 1½ to 2 ft., has white woolly stems and leaves, and
+white flower-heads.</p>
+
+<p><i>Anthericum.</i>&mdash;Charming border flowers. <i>A. Liliastrum</i>, St Bruno&rsquo;s
+Lily, 1½ ft., bears pretty white sweet-scented flowers in May; <i>A.
+Hookeri</i> (<i>Chrysobactron</i>), 2 ft., with long racemes of bright golden
+yellow flowers, requires cool peaty soil.</p>
+
+<p><i>Aquilegia.</i>&mdash;The Columbine family, consisting of beautiful border
+flowers in great variety, ranging from 1 to 2 or 3 ft. in height. Besides
+the common purple <i>A. vulgaris</i> with its numerous varieties, double
+and single, there are of choice sorts <i>A. alpina</i> and <i>A. pyrenaica</i>, blue;
+<i>A. glandulosa</i>, <i>A. jucunda</i>, and <i>A. coerulea</i>, blue and white; <i>A.
+leptoceras</i>, blue and yellow; <i>A. canadensis</i>, <i>A. Skinneri</i>, and <i>A.
+truncata</i> (<i>californica</i>), scarlet and yellow; <i>A. chrysantha</i>, yellow;
+and <i>A. fragrans</i>, white or flesh-colour, very fragrant. Light rich
+garden soil.</p>
+
+<p><i>Arabis.</i>&mdash;Dwarf close-growing evergreen cruciferous plants,
+adapted for rockwork and the front part of the flower border, and
+of the easiest culture. <i>A. albida</i> forms a conspicuous mass of greyish
+leaves and white blossoms. There is also a charming double variety.
+<i>A. lucida</i>, which is also white-flowered, bears its bright green leaves
+in rosettes, and has a variety with prettily gold-margined leaves.</p>
+
+<p><i>Arenaria.</i>&mdash;Evergreen rock plants of easy culture. <i>A. graminifolia</i>,
+and <i>A. laricifolia</i> are tufted, with grassy foliage and white flowers,
+while <i>A. balearica</i>, a creeping rock plant, has tiny leaves and solitary
+white flowers.</p>
+
+<p><i>Armeria.</i>&mdash;The Thrift or Sea-Pink, of which the common form <i>A.
+maritima</i> is sometimes planted as an edging for garden walks; there
+are three varieties, the common pale pink, the deep rose, and the
+white, the last two being the most desirable. <i>A. cephalotes</i>, 1½ ft.,
+is a larger plant, with tufts of linear lance-shaped leaves, and
+abundant globular heads of deep rose flowers, in June and July.</p>
+
+<p><i>Asclepias.</i>&mdash;<i>A. tuberosa</i> is a handsome fleshy-rooted plant, very
+impatient of being disturbed, and preferring good peat soil; it
+grows 1 to 1½ ft. high, and bears corymbs of deep yellow and orange
+flowers in September. <i>A. incarnata</i>, 2 to 4 ft., produces deep rose
+sweet-scented flowers towards the end of summer.</p>
+
+<p><i>Asperula odorata.</i>&mdash;The woodruff, a charming white-flowered
+plant with leaves in circles. Well adapted for carpeting the border
+or rockery.</p>
+
+<p><i>Asphodelus.</i>&mdash;Handsome liliaceous plants, with fleshy roots, erect
+stems, and showy flowers, thriving in any good garden soil. <i>A.
+albus</i>, 4 ft., <i>A. aestivus</i>, 4 ft., and <i>A. ramosus</i>, 4 ft., have all long
+tapering keeled leaves, and simple or branched spikes of white
+flowers; <i>A. luteus</i>, 2 ft., has awl-shaped leaves and dense spikes
+of fragrant yellow flowers; <i>A. capillaris</i> is similar to <i>A. luteus</i>, but
+more slender and elegant.</p>
+
+<p><i>Aster.</i>&mdash;A very large family of autumn-blooming composites, including
+some ornamental species, all of the easiest culture. Of
+these, <i>A. alpinus</i>, 1 ft., and <i>A. Amellus</i>, 1½ ft., with its var. <i>bessarabicus</i>,
+have broadish blunt leaves, and large starry bluish flowers;
+<i>A. longifolius formosus</i>, 2 ft., bright rosy lilac; <i>A. elegans</i>, 3 to 5 ft.,
+small pale purple or whitish; <i>A. laxus</i>, 2 ft., purplish-blue; <i>A.
+pendulus</i>, 2½ ft., white, changing to rose; <i>A. pyrenaeus</i>, 2 to 3 ft.,
+lilac-blue; <i>A. turbinellus</i>, 2 to 3 ft., mauve-coloured, are showy
+border plants; and <i>A. Novae Angliae</i>, 5 to 6 ft., rosy-violet; <i>A.
+cyaneus</i>, 5 ft., blue-lilac; and <i>A. grandiflorus</i>, 3 ft., violet, are
+especially useful from their late-flowering habit.</p>
+
+<p><i>Astilbe.</i>&mdash;<i>A. japonica</i>, 1 to 1½ ft., better known as <i>Hoteia japonica</i>
+or <i>Spiraea japonica</i>, thrives in peaty or sandy soil; its glossy
+tripinnate leaves, and feathery panicles of white flowers early in
+summer, are very attractive. It proves to be a fine decorative pot-plant,
+and invaluable for forcing during the spring.</p>
+
+<p><i>Astragalus.</i>&mdash;Showy pea-flowered plants, the smaller species
+adapted for rockwork; sandy soil. <i>A. dasyglottis</i>, 6 in., has bluish-purple
+flowers in August and September; and <i>A. monspessulanus</i>,
+8 in., crimson-purple in July; while <i>A. hypoglottis</i>, 6 in., produces
+in summer compact heads of pretty flowers, which are either purple
+or white. There are many very ornamental kinds.</p>
+
+<p><i>Aubrietia.</i>&mdash;Beautiful dwarf spring-blooming rock plants, forming
+carpety tufts of flowers of simple cruciferous form. <i>A. delioidea</i> is
+of a deep lilac-blue; <i>A. Campbelliae</i> is more compact and rather
+darker, approaching to purple; <i>A. grandiflora</i> and <i>graeca</i> are rather
+larger, but of a lighter hue. Light sandy soil.</p>
+
+<p><i>Bambusa.</i>&mdash;The bamboo family are elegant arborescent grasses
+(see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Bamboo</a></span>).</p>
+
+<p><i>Baptisia.</i>&mdash;Stoutish erect-growing, 2 to 3 ft., with smooth foliage
+and spikes of pea-like flowers. <i>B. australis</i> is purplish-blue,
+<i>B. alba</i>, white, <i>B. exaltata</i>, deep blue; all flowering in the summer
+months.</p>
+
+<p><i>Bellis.</i>&mdash;<i>B. perennis flore-pleno</i>, the Double Daisy, consists of
+dwarf showy plants 3 to 4 in. high, flowering freely in spring if grown
+in rich light soil, and frequently divided and transplanted. The
+white and pink forms, with the white and red quilled, and the variegated-leaved
+<i>aucubaefolia</i>, are some of the best.</p>
+
+<p><i>Bocconia.</i>&mdash;Stately poppyworts, 6 to 8 ft. <i>B. cordata</i> has heart-shaped
+lobed leaves, and large panicles of small flesh-coloured
+flowers. Sometimes called <i>Macleaya</i>. Deep sandy loam.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page769" id="page769"></a>769</span></p>
+
+<p><i>Brodiaea.</i>&mdash;Pretty bulbous plants. <i>B. grandiflora</i>, 1 ft., has large
+bluish-purple flowers; <i>B. coccinea</i>, 2 to 3 ft., has tubular campanulate
+nodding flowers of a rich crimson with green tips. Sandy loam.</p>
+
+<p><i>Bulbocodium.</i>&mdash;Pretty spring-flowering crocus-like bulbs. <i>B.
+vernum</i>, 4 to 6 in. high, purplish-lilac, blooms in March. Good
+garden soil.</p>
+
+<p><i>Buphthalmum.</i>&mdash;Robust composite herbs with striking foliage, for
+the back of herbaceous or shrubbery borders. <i>B. cordifolium</i>, 4 ft.,
+has large cordate leaves, and heads of rich orange flowers in cymose
+panicles in July. Also called <i>Telekia speciosa</i>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Calandrinia.</i>&mdash;Showy dwarf plants for sunny rockwork, in light
+sandy soil. <i>C. umbellata</i>, 3 to 4 in., much branched, with narrow
+hairy leaves, and corymbs of magenta-crimson flowers in the summer
+months.</p>
+
+<p><i>Calochortus.</i>&mdash;Beautiful bulbous plants, called mariposa lilies,
+requiring warm sheltered spots in rich gritty and well-drained soil.
+There are several species known, the best being <i>albus</i>, <i>elegans</i>,
+<i>luteus</i>, <i>Plummerae</i>, <i>splendens</i>, <i>Purdyi</i>, <i>venustus</i> and <i>Weedi</i>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Caltha.</i>&mdash;Showy marsh plants, adapted for the margins of lakes,
+streamlets or artificial bogs. <i>C. palustris flore-pleno</i>, 1 ft., has double
+brilliant yellow flowers in May.</p>
+
+<p><i>Calystegia.</i>&mdash;Twining plants with running perennial roots. <i>C.
+pubescens flore-pleno</i>, 8 to 10 ft., has showy double-pink convolvuloid
+flowers in July; <i>C. dahurica</i> is a handsome single-flowered summer-blooming
+kind, with rosy-coloured flowers.</p>
+
+<p><i>Camassia esculenta.</i>&mdash;A beautiful bulbous plant 2 to 3 ft. high
+with large pale blue flowers. Also a white variety.</p>
+
+<p><i>Campanula.</i>&mdash;Beautiful, as well as varied in habit and character.
+They are called bell-flowers. <i>C. pulla</i>, 6 in., purplish, nodding, on
+slender erect stalks; <i>C. turbinata</i>, 9 in., purple, broad-belled;
+<i>C. carpatica</i>, 1 ft., blue, broad-belled; <i>C. nobilis</i>, 1½ ft., long-belled,
+whitish or tinted with chocolate; <i>C. persicifolia</i>, 2 ft., a fine border
+plant, single or double, white or purple, blooming in July; and
+<i>C. pyramidalis</i>, 6 ft., blue or white, in tall branching spikes, are
+good and diverse. There are many other fine sorts.</p>
+
+<p><i>Centaurea.</i>&mdash;Bold-habited composites of showy character; common
+soil. <i>C. babylonica</i>, 5 to 7 ft., has winged stems, silvery leaves,
+and yellow flower-heads from June to September; <i>C. montana</i>,
+3 ft., deep bright blue or white.</p>
+
+<p><i>Centranthus.</i>&mdash;Showy free-flowering plants, for rockwork, banks,
+or stony soil. <i>C. ruber</i>, 2 ft., branches and blooms freely all summer,
+and varies with rosy, or crimson, or white flowers. It clothes the
+chalk cuttings on some English railways with a sheet of colour in
+the blooming season.</p>
+
+<p><i>Cheiranthus.</i>&mdash;Pretty rock plants, for light stony soils. <i>C. alpinus</i>,
+6 in., grows in dense tufts, and bears sulphur-yellow flowers in May.
+<i>C. ochroleucus</i> is similar in character.</p>
+
+<p><i>Chionodoxa.</i>&mdash;Charming dwarf hardy bulbous plants of the
+liliaceous order, blooming in the early spring in company with <i>Scilla
+sibirica</i>, and of equally easy cultivation. <i>C. Luciliae</i>, 6 in., has star-shaped
+flowers of a brilliant blue with a white centre. <i>C. gigantea</i>
+is the finest of the few known species. It blooms from February to
+April.</p>
+
+<p><i>Chrysanthemum.</i>&mdash;Apart from the florist&rsquo;s varieties of <i>C. indicum</i>
+there are a few fine natural species. One of the best for the flower
+border is <i>C. maximum</i> and its varieties&mdash;all with beautiful white
+flowers having yellow centres. <i>C. latifolium</i> is also a fine species.</p>
+
+<p><i>Colchicum.</i>&mdash;Showy autumn-blooming bulbs (corms), with crocus-like
+flowers, all rosy-purple or white. <i>C. speciosum</i>, <i>C. autumnale</i>,
+single and double, <i>C. byzantinum</i>, and <i>C. variegatum</i> are all worth
+growing.</p>
+
+<p><i>Convallaria.</i>&mdash;<i>C. majalis</i>, the lily of the valley, a well-known
+sweet-scented favourite spring flower, growing freely in rich garden
+soil; its spikes, 6 to 9 in. high, of pretty white fragrant bells, are
+produced in May and June. Requires shady places, and plenty of
+old manure each autumn.</p>
+
+<p><i>Coreopsis.</i>&mdash;Effective composite plants, thriving in good garden
+soil. <i>C. auriculata</i>, 2 to 3 ft., has yellow and brown flowers in July
+and August; <i>C. lanceolata</i>, 2 to 3 ft., bright yellow, in August;
+next to the biennial <i>C. grandiflora</i> it is the best garden plant.</p>
+
+<p><i>Corydalis.</i>&mdash;Interesting and elegant plants, mostly tuberous,
+growing in good garden soil. <i>C. bracteata</i>, 9 in., has sulphur-coloured
+flowers in April, and <i>C. nobilis</i>, 1 ft., rich yellow, in May; <i>C. solida</i>,
+with purplish, and <i>C. tuberosa</i>, with white flowers, are pretty spring-flowering
+plants, 4 to 6 in. high. <i>C. thalictrifolia</i>, 1 ft., yellow, May
+to October.</p>
+
+<p><i>Cyclamen.</i>&mdash;Charming tuberous-rooted plants of dwarf habit,
+suitable for sheltered rockeries, and growing in light gritty soil.
+<i>C. europaeum</i>, reddish-purple, flowers in summer, and <i>C. hederae-folium</i>
+in autumn.</p>
+
+<p><i>Cypripedium.</i>&mdash;Beautiful terrestrial orchids, requiring to be
+planted in peat soil, in a cool and rather shady situation. <i>C. spectabile</i>,
+1½ to 2 ft., white and rose colour, in June, is a lovely species,
+as is <i>C. Calceolus</i>, 1 ft., yellow and brown, in May; all are full of
+interest and beauty.</p>
+
+<p><i>Delphinium.</i>&mdash;The Larkspur family, tall showy plants, with spikes
+of blue flowers in July. Distinct sorts are <i>D. grandiflorum</i> and <i>D.
+grandiflorum flore-pleno</i>, 2 to 3 ft., of the richest dazzling blue,
+flowering on till September; <i>D. chinense</i>, 2 ft., blue, and its double-flowered
+variety, are good, as is <i>D. Barlowi</i>, 3 ft., a brilliant double
+blue-purple. <i>D. nudicaule</i>, 2 ft., orange-scarlet, very showy, is best
+treated as a biennial, its brilliant flowers being produced freely
+in the second year from the seed.</p>
+
+<p><i>Dianthus.</i>&mdash;Chiefly rock plants with handsome and fragrant
+flowers, the smaller sorts growing in light sandy soil, and the larger
+border plants in rich garden earth. Of the dwarfer sorts for rock
+gardens, <i>D. alpinus</i>, <i>D. caesius</i>, <i>D. deltoides</i>, <i>D. dentosus</i>, <i>D. neglectus</i>,
+<i>D. petraeus</i>, and <i>D. glacialis</i> are good examples; while for borders
+or larger rockwork <i>D. plumarius</i>, <i>D. superbus</i>, <i>D. Fischeri</i>, <i>D.
+cruentus</i>, and the clove section of <i>D. Caryophyllus</i> are most desirable.</p>
+
+<p><i>Dicentra.</i>&mdash;Very elegant plants, of easy growth in good soil.
+<i>D. spectabilis</i>, 2 to 3 ft., has paeony-like foliage, and gracefully
+drooping spikes of heart-shaped pink flowers, about May, but it
+should have a sheltered place, as it suffers from spring frosts and
+winds; <i>D. formosa</i> and <i>D. eximia</i>, 1 ft., are also pretty rosy-flowered
+species.</p>
+
+<p><i>Dictamnus.</i>&mdash;<i>D. Fraxinella</i> is a very characteristic and attractive
+plant, 2 to 3 ft., with bold pinnate leaves, and tall racemes of irregular-shaped
+purple or white flowers. It is everywhere glandular,
+and strongly scented.</p>
+
+<p><i>Digitalis.</i>&mdash;Stately erect-growing plants, with long racemes of
+pouch-shaped drooping flowers. The native D. purpurea, or foxglove,
+3 to 5 ft., with its dense racemes of purple flowers, spotted
+inside, is very showy, but is surpassed by the garden varieties that
+have been raised. It is really a biennial, but grows itself so freely
+as to become perennial in the garden. An erect flowered form is
+called <i>gloxinioides</i>. The yellow-flowered <i>D. lutea</i> and <i>D. grandiflora</i>
+are less showy. Good garden soil, and frequent renewal from seeds.</p>
+
+<p><i>Doronicum.</i>&mdash;Showy composites of free growth in ordinary soil.
+<i>D. caucasicum</i> and <i>D. austriacum</i>, 1 to 1½ ft., both yellow-flowered,
+bloom in spring and early summer. <i>D. plantagineum excelsum</i>,
+3 to 5 ft. high, is the best garden plant.</p>
+
+<p><i>Draba.</i>&mdash;Good rockwork cruciferous plants. <i>D. alpina</i>, <i>D. aizoides</i>,
+<i>D. ciliaris</i>, <i>D. Aizoon</i>, and <i>D. cuspidata</i> bear yellow flowers in early
+spring; <i>D. cinerea</i> and <i>D. ciliata</i> have white flowers. Gritty well-drained
+soil.</p>
+
+<p><i>Dracocephalum.</i>&mdash;Handsome labiate plants, requiring a warm
+and well-drained soil. <i>D. argunense</i>, 1½ ft., <i>D. austriacum</i>, 1 ft.,
+<i>D. grandiflorum</i>, 1 ft., and <i>D. Ruyschianum</i>, 1½ ft., with its var.
+japonicum, all produce showy blue flowers during the summer
+months.</p>
+
+<p><i>Echinacea.</i>&mdash;Stout growing showy composites for late summer and
+autumn flowering, requiring rich deep soil, and not to be often disturbed.
+<i>E. angustifolia</i>, 3 to 4 ft., light purplish-rose, and <i>E. intermedia</i>,
+3 to 4 ft., reddish-purple, are desirable kinds. <i>E. purpurea</i>
+(often called Rudbeckia) is the showiest species. Height 3 to 4 ft.,
+with rosy-purple flowers.</p>
+
+<p><i>Eomecon chionanthus.</i>&mdash;A lovely poppywort about 1 ft. high,
+with pure white flowers 2 to 3 in. across. Root-stocks thick, creeping.</p>
+
+<p><i>Epimedium.</i>&mdash;Pretty plants, growing about 1 ft. high, with
+elegant foliage, and curious flowers. <i>E. macranthum</i>, white flowers,
+and <i>E. rubrum</i>, red, are distinctly spurred; <i>E. pinnatum</i> and <i>E.
+Perralderianum</i>, yellow, less so. They bloom in spring, and prefer
+a shady situation and a peaty soil.</p>
+
+<p><i>Eranthis hyemalis.</i>&mdash;A charming tuberous rooted plant, called
+winter aconite. Flowers bright yellow, January to March, close to
+the ground.</p>
+
+<p><i>Eremurus.</i>&mdash;Noble plants with thick rootstocks, large sword-like
+leaves, and spikes of flowers from 3 to 10 ft. high. They require
+warm sunny spots and rich gritty soil. The best kinds are <i>robustus</i>,
+pink, 6 to 10 ft.; <i>himalaicus</i>, 4 to 8 ft., white; <i>Aitchisoni</i>, 3 to 5 ft.,
+red; <i>Bungei</i>, 2 to 3 ft., yellow; and <i>aurantiacus</i>, 2 to 3 ft., orange-yellow.
+There are now several hybrid forms.</p>
+
+<p><i>Erigeron.</i>&mdash;Composite plants, variable in character. <i>E. purpureus</i>,
+1½ ft., with pink flower-heads, having narrow twisted ray-florets;
+<i>E. Roylei</i>, 1 ft., dark blue; and <i>E. pulchellus</i>, 1 ft., rich orange,
+flowering during the summer, are among the best kinds. Good
+ordinary garden soil.</p>
+
+<p><i>Erinus.</i>&mdash;<i>E. alpinus</i> is a beautiful little alpine for rockwork,
+3 to 6 in., of tufted habit, with small-toothed leaves, and heads of
+pinkish-purple or, in a variety, white flowers, early in summer.
+Sandy well-drained soil.</p>
+
+<p><i>Erodium.</i>&mdash;Handsome dwarf tufted plants. <i>E. Manescavi</i>, 1 to
+1½ ft., has large purplish-red flowers in summer; <i>E. Reichardi</i>, a
+minute stemless plant, has small heart-shaped leaves in rosette-like
+tufts, and white flowers striped with pink, produced successively.
+Light soil.</p>
+
+<p><i>Eryngium.</i>&mdash;Very remarkable plants of the umbelliferous order,
+mostly of an attractive character. <i>E. amethystinum</i>, 2 ft., has the
+upper part of the stem, the bracts, and heads of flowers all of an
+amethystine blue. Some of more recent introduction have the
+aspect of the pine-apple, such as <i>E. bromeliaefolium</i>, <i>E. pandanifolium</i>,
+and <i>E. eburneum</i>. Deep light soil.</p>
+
+<p><i>Erythronium.</i>&mdash;<i>E. dens-canis</i>, the Dog&rsquo;s Tooth Violet, is a pretty
+dwarf bulbous plant with spotted leaves, and rosy or white flowers
+produced in spring, and having reflexed petals. Mixed peaty and
+loamy soil, deep and cool. Several charming American species are
+now in cultivation.</p>
+
+<p><i>Euphorbia.</i>&mdash;Plants whose beauty resides in the bracts or floral
+leaves which surround the inconspicuous flowers. <i>E. aleppica</i>, 2 ft.,
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page770" id="page770"></a>770</span>
+and <i>E. Characias</i>, 2 to 3 ft., with green bracts, are fine plants for
+rockwork or sheltered, corners.</p>
+
+<p><i>Ferula.</i>&mdash;Gigantic umbelliferous plants, with magnificent foliage,
+adapted for shrubbery borders or open spots on lawns. They have
+thick fleshy roots, deeply penetrating, and therefore requiring deep
+soil, which should be of a light or sandy character. <i>F. communis</i>,
+<i>F. glauca</i>, and <i>F. tingitana</i>, the last with glossy lozenge-shaped
+leaflets, grow 8 to 10 ft. high; <i>F. Ferulago</i>, with more finely cut
+leaves, grows 5 to 6 ft. high. They flower in early spring, and all
+have a fine appearance when in bloom, on account of their large
+showy umbels of yellow flowers.</p>
+
+<p><i>Fritillaria.</i>&mdash;A large genus of liliaceous bulbs, the best known of
+which is the crown imperial (<i>F. imperialis</i>) and the snake&rsquo;s head
+(<i>F. Meleagris</i>). There are many charming species grown, such as
+<i>aurea</i>, <i>pudica</i>, <i>recurva</i>, <i>sewerzowi</i>, <i>askabadensis</i>, &amp;c.</p>
+
+<p><i>Funkia.</i>&mdash;Pretty liliaceous plants, with simple conspicuously
+longitudinal-ribbed leaves, the racemose flowers funnel-shaped and
+deflexed. <i>F. Sieboldiana</i>, 1 ft., has lilac flowers; <i>F. grandiflora</i>,
+18 in., is white and fragrant; <i>F. coerulea</i>, 18 in., is violet-blue; <i>F.
+albo-marginata</i>, 15 in., has the leaves edged with white, and the flowers
+lilac. Rich garden soil.</p>
+
+<p><i>Gaillardia.</i>&mdash;Showy composite plants, thriving in good garden soil.
+<i>G. aristata</i>, 2 ft., has large yellow flower-heads, 2 or 3 in. across, in
+summer; <i>G. Baeselari</i> and <i>G. Loiselii</i> have the lower part of the ray-florets
+red, the upper part yellow.</p>
+
+<p><i>Galanthus.</i>&mdash;The Snowdrop. Early spring-flowering amaryllidaceous
+bulbs, with pretty drooping flowers, snow-white, having the tips
+of the enclosed petals green. The common sort is <i>G. nivalis</i>, which
+blossoms on the first break of the winter frosts; <i>G. Imperoti</i>, <i>G.
+Elwesi</i> and <i>G. plicatus</i> have larger flowers.</p>
+
+<p><i>Galax aphylla.</i>&mdash;A neat little rock plant, 6 to 8 in. high, with
+pretty round leaves and white flowers. Requires moist peaty soil.</p>
+
+<p><i>Galega officinalis.</i>&mdash;A strong-growing leguminous plant, 2 to 5 ft.
+high, with pinnate leaves, and masses of pinkish purple pea-like
+flowers. Also a white variety. Grows anywhere.</p>
+
+<p><i>Galtonia candicans.</i>&mdash;~A fine bulbous plant, 3 to 4 ft. high, with
+drooping white flowers.</p>
+
+<p><i>Gaura.</i>&mdash;<i>G. Lindheimeri</i>, 3 to 5 ft., is much branched, with elegant
+white and red flowers of the onagraceous type, in long slender
+ramose spikes during the late summer and autumn months. Light
+garden soil; not long-lived.</p>
+
+<p><i>Gentiana.</i>&mdash;Beautiful tufted erect-stemmed plants preferring a
+strong rich loamy soil. <i>G. acaulis</i>, known as the Gentianella, forms
+a close carpet of shining leaves, and in summer bears large erect
+tubular deep blue flowers. <i>G. Andrewsii</i>, 1 ft., has, during summer,
+large deep blue flowers in clusters, the corollas closed at the mouth;
+<i>G. asclepiadea</i>, 18 in., purplish-blue, flowers in July.</p>
+
+<p><i>Geranium.</i>&mdash;Showy border flowers, mostly growing to a height
+of 1½ or 2 ft., having deeply cut leaves, and abundant saucer-shaped
+blossoms of considerable size. <i>G. ibericum</i>, <i>platypetalum</i>,
+<i>armenum</i> and <i>Endressi</i> are desirable purple- and rose-flowered sorts;
+<i>G. sanguineum</i>, a tufted grower, has the flowers a deep rose colour;
+and the double-flowered white and blue forms of <i>G. pratense</i> and
+<i>G. sylvaticum</i> make pretty summer flowers. Good garden soil.</p>
+
+<p><i>Gerbera.</i>&mdash;A South African genus of composites requiring very
+warm sunny spots and rich gritty soil. <i>G. Jamesoni</i>, with large
+scarlet marguerite-like flowers, and <i>G. viridiflora</i>, with white flowers
+tinged with lilac, are best known. Numerous hybrids have been
+raised, varying in colour from creamy white to salmon, pink, yellow,
+red and orange.</p>
+
+<p><i>Geum.</i>&mdash;Pretty rosaceous plants. The single and double flowered
+forms of <i>G. chiloense</i> and its varieties <i>grandiflorum</i> and <i>miniatum</i>,
+2 ft., with brilliant scarlet flowers; <i>G. coccineum</i>, 6 to 12 in., scarlet,
+and <i>G. montana</i>, 9 in., yellow, are among the best sorts. Good
+garden soil.</p>
+
+<p><i>Gillenia trifoliata</i>.&mdash;A pretty rosaceous plant about 2 ft. high.
+Flowers white in graceful panicles; flourishes in a mixture of sandy
+peat and loam.</p>
+
+<p><i>Gunnera.</i>&mdash;Remarkable rhubarb-like plants with huge lobed
+leaves, often 6 ft. across. They should be grown near water as they
+like much moisture, and a good loamy soil. <i>G. manicata</i> and <i>G.
+scabra</i> are the two kinds grown.</p>
+
+<p><i>Gynerium.</i>&mdash;The Pampas-Grass, a noble species, introduced from
+Buenos Aires; it forms huge tussocks, 4 or 5 ft. high, above which
+towards autumn rise the bold dense silvery plumes of the inflorescence.
+It does best in sheltered nooks.</p>
+
+<p><i>Gypsophila.</i>&mdash;Interesting caryophyllaceous plants, thriving in
+dryish situations. <i>G. paniculata</i>, 2 ft., from Siberia, forms a dense
+semi-globular mass of small white flowers from July onwards till
+autumn, and is very useful for cutting.</p>
+
+<p><i>Haberlea rhodopensis.</i>&mdash;A pretty rock plant with dense tufts of
+leaves and bluish-lilac flowers. It likes fibrous peat in fissures of the
+rocks.</p>
+
+<p><i>Helenium.</i>&mdash;Showy composites of free growth in lightish soil.
+<i>H. autumnale</i>, 4 ft., bears a profusion of yellow-rayed flower-heads
+in August and September.</p>
+
+<p><i>Helianthemum.</i>&mdash;Dwarf subshrubby plants well suited for rockwork,
+and called Sun-Roses from their blossoms resembling small wild
+roses and their thriving best in sunny spots. Some of the handsomest
+are <i>H. roseum</i>, <i>mutabile</i>, <i>cupreum</i> and <i>rhodanthum</i>, with red
+flowers; <i>H. vulgare flore-pleno</i>, <i>grandiflorum</i> and <i>stramineum</i>, with
+yellow flowers; and <i>H. macranthum</i> and <i>papyraceum</i>, with the
+flowers white.</p>
+
+<p><i>Helianthus.</i>&mdash;The Sunflower genus, of which there are several
+ornamental kinds. <i>H. multiflorus</i>, 4 ft., and its double-flowered
+varieties, bear showy golden yellow flower-heads in profusion, and
+are well adapted for shrubbery borders; <i>H. orgyalis</i>, 8 ft., has drooping
+willow-like leaves. Many other showy species.</p>
+
+<p><i>Helichrysum.</i>&mdash;Composite plants, with the flower-heads of the
+scarious character known as Everlastings. <i>H. arenarium</i>, 6 to 8 in.,
+is a pretty species, of dwarf spreading habit, with woolly leaves and
+corymbs of golden yellow flowers, about July.</p>
+
+<p><i>Helleborus.</i>&mdash;Charming very early blooming dwarf ranunculaceous
+herbs. <i>H. niger</i> or Christmas Rose, the finest variety of which is
+called <i>maximus</i>, has white showy saucer-shaped flowers; <i>H. orientalis</i>,
+1 ft., rose-coloured; <i>H. atrorubens</i>, 1 ft., purplish-red; and
+<i>H. colchicus</i>, 1 ft., deep purple. Deep rich loam.</p>
+
+<p><i>Hemerocallis.</i>&mdash;The name of the day lilies of which <i>H. fulva</i>,
+<i>H. disticha</i>, <i>H. flava</i>, <i>H. Dumortieri</i> and <i>H. aurantiaca major</i> are the
+most showy, all with yellow or orange flowers. They flourish in
+any garden soil.</p>
+
+<p><i>Hepatica.</i>&mdash;Charming little tufted plants requiring good loamy
+soil, and sometimes included with Anemone. <i>H. triloba</i>, 4 in., has
+three-lobed leaves, and a profusion of small white, blue, or pink
+single or double flowers, from February onwards; <i>H. angulosa</i>,
+from Transylvania, 6 to 8 in., is a larger plant, with sky-blue flowers.</p>
+
+<p><i>Hesperis.</i>&mdash;<i>H. matronalis</i>, 1 to 2 ft., is the old garden Rocket, of
+which some double forms with white and purplish blossoms are
+amongst the choicest of border flowers. They require a rich loamy
+soil, not too dry, and should be divided and transplanted into fresh
+soil annually or every second year, in the early autumn season.</p>
+
+<p><i>Heuchera.</i>&mdash;<i>H. sanguinea</i> and its varieties are charming and
+brilliant border plants with scarlet flowers in long racemes. Rich
+and well-drained soil.</p>
+
+<p><i>Hibiscus.</i>&mdash;Showy malvaceous plants. <i>H. Moscheutos</i>, rose-coloured,
+and <i>H. palustris</i>, purple, both North American herbs,
+3 to 5 ft. high, are suitable for moist borders or for boggy places
+near the margin of lakes.</p>
+
+<p><i>Iberis.</i>&mdash;The Candytuft, of which several dwarf spreading subshrubby
+species are amongst the best of rock plants, clothing the
+surface with tufts of green shoots, and flowering in masses during
+May and June. The best are <i>I. saxatilis</i>, 6 to 10 in.; <i>I. sempervirens</i>,
+12 to 15 in.; and <i>I. Pruitii</i> (variously called <i>coriacea</i>, <i>carnosa</i>,
+<i>correaefolia</i>), 12 in.</p>
+
+<p><i>Incarvillea.</i>&mdash;<i>I. Delavayi</i> is the best species for the open air. It
+grows 2 ft. high and has large tubular rosy carmine blossoms. It
+likes rich sandy loam and sunny spots.</p>
+
+<p><i>Lathyrus.</i>&mdash;Handsome climbing herbs, increased by seeds or
+division. <i>L. grandiflorus</i>, 3 ft., has large rose-coloured flowers with
+purplish-crimson wings, in June; <i>L. latifolius</i>, the everlasting pea,
+6 ft., has bright rosy flowers in the late summer and autumn; the
+vars. <i>albus</i>, white, and <i>superbus</i>, deep rose, are distinct. Ordinary
+garden soil.</p>
+
+<p><i>Lavatera.</i>&mdash;<i>L. thuringiaca</i>, 4 ft., is a fine erect-growing malvaceous
+plant, producing rosy-pink blossoms freely, about August and
+September. Good garden soil.</p>
+
+<p><i>Leucojum.</i>&mdash;Snowflake. Pretty early-blooming bulbs, quite hardy.
+<i>L. vernum</i>, 6 in., blooms shortly after the snowdrop, and should
+have a light rich soil and sheltered position; <i>L. carpaticum</i>, flowers
+about a month later; <i>L. pulchellum</i>, 1½ ft., blooms in April and
+May; and <i>L. aestivum</i>, 2 ft., in May. All have white pendant
+flowers, tipped with green.</p>
+
+<p><i>Liatris.</i>&mdash;Pretty composites with the flower-heads collected into
+spikes. <i>L. pumila</i>, 1 ft., <i>L. squarrosa</i>, 2 to 3 ft., <i>L. spicata</i>, 3 to 4 ft.,
+<i>L. pycnostachya</i>, 3 to 4 ft., all have rosy-purplish flowers. Deep,
+cool, and moist soil.</p>
+
+<p><i>Lilium.</i>&mdash;See <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Lily</a></span>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Linaria.</i>&mdash;Toadflax. Pretty scrophulariads, of which <i>L. alpina</i>,
+3 to 6 in., with bluish-violet flowers having a brilliant orange spot,
+is suitable for rockwork; <i>L. dalmatica</i>, 4 ft., and <i>L. genistifolia</i>, 3 ft.,
+both yellow-flowered, are good border plants; <i>L. vulgaris</i>, the
+common British toad-flax, and its regular peloriate form, are very
+handsome and free flowering during the summer months.</p>
+
+<p><i>Linum.</i>&mdash;Flax. <i>L. alpinum</i>, 6 in., large, dark blue; <i>L. narbonnense</i>,
+1½ ft., large, blue; <i>L. perenne</i>, 1½ ft., cobalt blue; and <i>L.
+arboreum</i> (<i>flavum</i>), 1 ft., yellow, are all pretty. The last is liable
+to suffer from damp during winter, and some spare plants should be
+wintered in a frame. It is really shrubby in character.</p>
+
+<p><i>Lithospermum.</i>&mdash;<i>L. prostratum</i>, 3 in., is a trailing evergreen herb,
+with narrow hairy leaves, and paniculate brilliant blue flowers in
+May and June. Well adapted for rockwork or banks of sandy soil.</p>
+
+<p><i>Lupinus.</i>&mdash;Showy erect-growing plants with papilionaceous
+flowers, thriving in good deep garden soil. <i>L. polyphyllus</i>, 3 ft.,
+forms noble tufts of palmate leaves, and long spikes of bluish-purple
+or white flowers in June and July; <i>L. arboreus</i> is subshrubby,
+and has yellow flowers.</p>
+
+<p><i>Lychnis.</i>&mdash;Brilliant erect-growing caryophyllaceous plants, thriving
+best in beds of peat earth or of deep sandy loam. <i>L. chalcedonica</i>,
+3 ft., has dense heads of bright scarlet flowers, both single and
+double, in June and July; <i>L. fulgens</i>, 1 ft., vermilion; <i>L. Haageana</i>,
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page771" id="page771"></a>771</span>
+1½ ft., scarlet; and <i>L. grandiflora</i>, 1 to 2 ft., with clusters of scarlet,
+crimson, pink and white flowers. All large-flowered and showy,
+but require a little protection in winter.</p>
+
+<p><i>Lysimachia.</i>&mdash;The best known is the Creeping Jenny, <i>L. Nummularia</i>,
+much used for trailing over rockeries and window boxes,
+with bright yellow flowers. The variety <i>aurea</i> with golden leaves
+is also popular. Other species that grow from 2 to 3 ft. high, and
+are good border plants, are <i>L. clethroides</i>, with white spikes of
+flowers; <i>L. vulgaris</i>, <i>L. thyrsiflora</i>, <i>L. ciliata</i>, <i>L. verticillata</i> and
+<i>L. punctata</i>, all yellow.</p>
+
+<p><i>Malva.</i>&mdash;<i>M. moschata</i>, 2 ft., with a profusion of pale pink or white
+flowers, and musky deeply cut leaves, though a British plant, is
+worth introducing to the flower borders when the soil is light and
+free.</p>
+
+<p><i>Meconopsis.</i>&mdash;The Welsh poppy, <i>M. cambrica</i>, 1 to 2 ft. high,
+yellow, and <i>M. Wallichi</i>, from the Himalayas, 4 to 6 ft. high with
+pale blue flowers, are the best known perennials of the genus. The
+last-named, however, is best raised from seeds every year, and treated
+like the biennial kinds.</p>
+
+<p><i>Mertensia.</i>&mdash;<i>M. virginica</i>, 1 to 1½ ft., azure blue, shows flowers in
+drooping panicles in May and June. It does best in shady peat
+borders.</p>
+
+<p><i>Mimulus.</i>&mdash;Monkey-flower. Free-blooming, showy scrophulariaceous
+plants, thriving best in moist situations. <i>M. cardinalis</i>,
+2 to 3 ft., has scarlet flowers, with the limb segments reflexed; <i>M.
+luteus</i> and its many garden forms, 1 to 1½ ft., are variously coloured
+and often richly spotted; and <i>M. cupreus</i>, 8 to 10 in., is bright
+coppery-red. <i>M. moschatus</i> is the Musk-plant, of which the variety
+<i>Harrisoni</i> is a greatly improved form, with much larger yellow
+flowers.</p>
+
+<p><i>Monarda.</i>&mdash;Handsome labiate plants, flowering towards autumn,
+and preferring a cool soil and partially shaded situation. <i>M. didyma</i>,
+2 ft., scarlet or white; M. fistulosa, 3 ft., purple; and <i>M. purpurea</i>,
+2 ft., deep purple, are good border flowers.</p>
+
+<p><i>Muscari.</i>&mdash;Pretty dwarf spring-flowering bulbs. <i>M. botryoides</i>
+(Grape Hyacinth), 6 in., blue or white, is the handsomest; <i>M.
+moschatum</i> (Musk Hyacinth), 10 in., has peculiar livid greenish-yellow
+flowers and a strong musky odour; <i>M. monstrosum</i> (Feather
+Hyacinth) bears sterile flowers broken up into a feather-like mass.
+Good garden soil.</p>
+
+<p><i>Myosotidium nobile.</i>&mdash;A remarkable plant, 1½ to 2 ft. high, with
+large blue forget-me-not-like flowers. Requires gritty peat soil and
+cool situations, but must be protected from frost in winter.</p>
+
+<p><i>Myosotis.</i>&mdash;Forget-me-not. Lovely boraginaceous plants. M.
+dissitiflora, 6 to 8 in., with large, handsome and abundant sky-blue
+flowers, is the best and earliest, flowering from February onwards;
+it does well in light cool soils, preferring peaty ones, and should be
+renewed annually from seeds or cuttings. <i>M. rupicola</i>, 2 to 3 in.,
+intense blue, is a fine rock plant, preferring shady situations and
+gritty soil; <i>M. sylvatica</i>, 1 ft., blue, pink or white, used for spring
+bedding, should be sown annually in August.</p>
+
+<p><i>Narcissus.</i>&mdash;See <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Narcissus</a></span>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Nepeta.</i>&mdash;<i>N. Mussinii</i>, 1 ft., is a compactly spreading greyish-leaved
+labiate, with lavender-blue flowers, and is sometimes used for
+bedding or for marginal lines in large compound beds.</p>
+
+<p><i>Nierembergia.</i>&mdash;<i>N. rivularis</i>, 4 in., from La Plata, has slender,
+creeping, rooting stems, bearing stalked ovate leaves, and large
+funnel-shaped white flowers, with a remarkably long slender tube;
+especially adapted for rockwork, requiring moist sandy loam.</p>
+
+<p><i>Nymphaea.</i>&mdash;See <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Water-Lily</a></span>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Oenothera.</i>&mdash;The genus of the Evening Primrose, consisting of
+showy species, all of which grow and blossom freely in rich deep
+soils. <i>Oe. missouriensis</i> (<i>macrocarpa</i>), 6 to 12 in., has stout trailing
+branches, lance-shaped leaves and large yellow blossoms; <i>Oe.
+taraxacifolia</i>, 6 to 12 in., has a stout crown from which the trailing
+branches spring out, and these bear very large white flowers, changing
+to delicate rose; this perishes in cold soils, and should therefore be
+raised from seed annually. Of erect habit are <i>Oe. speciosa</i>, 1 to 2 ft.,
+with large white flowers; <i>Oe. fruticosa</i>, 2 to 3 ft., with abundant
+yellow flowers; and <i>Oe. serotina</i>, 2 ft., also bright yellow.</p>
+
+<p><i>Omphalodes.</i>&mdash;Elegant dwarf boraginaceous plants. <i>O. verna</i>,
+4 to 6 in., a creeping, shade-loving plant, has bright blue flowers
+in the very early spring; <i>O. Luciliae</i>, 6 in., has much larger lilac-blue
+flowers, and is an exquisite rock plant for warm, sheltered spots.
+Light sandy soil.</p>
+
+<p><i>Onosma.</i>&mdash;<i>O. taurica</i>, 6 to 8 in., is a charming boraginaceous plant
+from the Caucasus, producing hispid leaves and cymose heads of
+drooping, tubular, yellow flowers. It is of evergreen habit, and
+requires a warm position on the rockwork and well-drained sandy
+soil; or a duplicate should be sheltered during winter in a cold, dry
+frame.</p>
+
+<p><i>Ornithogalum.</i>&mdash;The Star of Bethlehem. <i>O. arabicum</i> can only
+be grown in the warmest parts of the kingdom, and then requires
+protection in winter. Other species, all bulbous, are <i>O. nutans</i>,
+<i>O. pyramidale</i>, <i>O. pyrenaicum</i>, and the common Star of Bethlehem,
+<i>O. umbellatum</i>; all are easily grown, and have white flowers.</p>
+
+<p><i>Ostrowskya magnifica.</i>&mdash;A magnificent bellflower from Bokhara,
+4 to 5 ft. high, and white flowers tinted and veined with lilac, 3 to
+5 in. across. Requires rich, gritty loam of good depth, as it produces
+tuberous roots 1 to 2 ft. long.</p>
+
+<p><i>Ourisia.</i>&mdash;Handsome scrophulariaceous plants, from Chile, thriving
+in moist, well-drained peaty soil, and in moderate shade. <i>O. coccinea</i>,
+1 ft., has erect racemes of pendent crimson flowers.</p>
+
+<p><i>Papaver.</i>&mdash;The Poppy. Very showy plants, often of strong growth,
+and of easy culture in ordinary garden soil. <i>P. orientale</i>, 3 ft., has
+crimson-scarlet flowers, 6 in. across, and the variety <i>bracteatum</i>
+closely resembles it, but has leafy bracts just beneath the blossom.
+<i>P. alpinum</i>, 6 in., white with yellow centre; <i>P. nudicaule</i>, 1 ft.,
+yellow, scented, and <i>P. pilosum</i>, 1 to 2 ft., deep orange, are ornamental
+smaller kinds.</p>
+
+<p><i>Pentstemon.</i>&mdash;The popular garden varieties have sprung from <i>P.
+Hartwegii</i> and <i>P. Cobaea</i>. Other distinct kinds are <i>P. campanulatus</i>,
+1½ ft., pale rose, of bushy habit; <i>P. humilis</i>, 9 in., bright blue;
+<i>P. speciosus</i>, <i>cyananthus</i> and <i>Jaffrayanus</i>, 2 to 3 ft., all bright blue;
+<i>P. barbatus</i>, 3 to 4 ft., scarlet, in long terminal panicles; <i>P. Murrayanus</i>,
+6 ft., with scarlet flowers and connate leaves; and <i>P. Palmeri</i>,
+3 to 4 ft., with large, wide-tubed, rose-coloured flowers.</p>
+
+<p><i>Petasites.</i>&mdash;<i>P. fragrans</i>, the Winter Heliotrope, though of weedy
+habit, with ample cordate coltsfoot-like leaves, yields in January
+and February its abundant spikes, about 1 ft. high, of greyish
+flowers scented like heliotrope; it should have a corner to itself.</p>
+
+<p><i>Phlomis.</i>&mdash;Bold and showy labiates, growing in ordinary soil.
+<i>P. Russelliana</i> (<i>lunariaefolia</i>), 4 ft., yellow, and <i>P. tuberosa</i>, 3 ft.,
+purplish-rose, both with downy hoary leaves, come in well in broad
+flower borders.</p>
+
+<p><i>Phygelius.</i>&mdash;<i>P. capensis</i> from South Africa is hardy south of the
+Thames and in favoured localities. Flowers tubular scarlet, on
+branching stems, 2 to 3 ft. high. Requires light, rich soil.</p>
+
+<p><i>Physalis.</i>&mdash;<i>P. Alkekengi</i> from South Europe has long been known
+in gardens for its bright orange-red globular calyxes. It has been
+surpassed by the much larger and finer <i>P. Francheti</i> from Japan;
+the brilliant calyxes are often 3 in. in diameter in autumn. Grows
+in any garden soil.</p>
+
+<p><i>Physostegia.</i>&mdash;Tall, autumn-blooming labiates, of easy growth in
+ordinary garden soils. <i>P. imbricata</i>, 5 to 6 ft., has pale purple
+flowers in closely imbricated spikes.</p>
+
+<p><i>Phytolacca.</i>&mdash;Ornamental strong-growing perennials requiring
+much space. <i>P. acinosa</i>, from the Himalayas, 3 to 4 ft., with
+whitish flowers in erect spikes. <i>P. decandra</i>, the North American
+Poke Weed or Red Ink plant, grows 5 to 10 ft. high, has fleshy
+poisonous roots, erect purple stems and white flowers. <i>P. icosandra</i>,
+from Mexico, 2 to 3 ft., pinky white. The foliage in all cases is
+handsome. Ordinary garden soil.</p>
+
+<p><i>Platycodon.</i>&mdash;<i>P. grandiflorum</i>, 6 to 24 in. high, is a fine Chinese
+perennial with flattish, bell-shaped flowers, 2 to 3 in. across, and
+purple in colour. The variety <i>Mariesi</i> (or <i>pumilum</i>) is dwarf, with
+larger, deeper-coloured flowers. Requires rich sandy loam.</p>
+
+<p><i>Podophyllum.</i>&mdash;Ornamental herbs with large lobed leaves. <i>P.
+Emodi</i>, 6 to 12 in. high, from the Himalayas, has large white or pale-rose
+flowers, and in autumn bright red, hen&rsquo;s-egg-like fruits. <i>P.
+peltatum</i>, the North American mandrake, has large umbrella-like
+leaves and white flowers; <i>P. pleianthum</i>, from China, purple. They
+all require moist, peaty soil in warm, sheltered nooks.</p>
+
+<p><i>Polemonium.</i>&mdash;Pretty border flowers. <i>P. coeruleum</i> (Jacob&rsquo;s
+Ladder), 2 ft., has elegant pinnate leaves, and long panicles of blue
+rotate flowers. The variety called variegatum has very elegantly
+marked leaves, and is sometimes used as a margin or otherwise in
+bedding arrangements. Good garden soil.</p>
+
+<p><i>Polygonatum.</i>&mdash;Elegant liliaceous plants, with rhizomatous stems.
+<i>P. multiflorum</i> (Solomon&rsquo;s Seal), 2 to 3 ft., with arching stems, and
+drooping white flowers from the leaf axils, is a handsome border
+plant, doing especially well in partial shade amongst shrubs, and
+also well adapted for pot culture for early forcing. Good garden
+soil.</p>
+
+<p><i>Polygonum.</i>&mdash;A large family, varying much in character, often
+weedy, but of easy culture in ordinary soil. <i>P. vacciniifolium</i>, 6 to
+10 in., is a pretty prostrate subshrubby species, with handsome
+rose-pink flowers, suitable for rockwork, and prefers boggy soil;
+<i>P. affine</i> (<i>Brunonis</i>), 1 ft., deep rose, is a showy border plant, flowering
+in the late summer; <i>P. cuspidatum</i>, 8 to 10 ft., is a grand object for
+planting where a screen is desired, as it suckers abundantly, and its
+tall spotted stems and handsome cordate leaves have quite a noble
+appearance. Other fine species are <i>P. baldschuanium</i>, a climber,
+<i>P. sphaerostachyum</i>, <i>P. lanigerum</i>, <i>P. polystachyum</i> and <i>P. sachalinense</i>,
+all bold and handsome.</p>
+
+<p><i>Potentilla.</i>&mdash;The double varieties are fine garden plants obtained
+from <i>P. argyrophylla atrosanguinea</i> and <i>P. nepalensis</i>. The colours
+include golden-yellow, red, orange-yellow, crimson, maroon and
+intermediate shades. They all flourish in rich sandy soil.</p>
+
+<p><i>Primula.</i>&mdash;Beautiful and popular spring flowers, of which many
+forms are highly esteemed in most gardens. <i>P. vulgaris</i>, 6 in.,
+affords numerous handsome single- and double-flowered varieties,
+with various-coloured flowers for the spring flower-beds and
+borders. Besides this, <i>P. Sieboldii</i> (<i>cortusoides amoena</i>), 1 ft.,
+originally deep rose with white eye, but now including many varieties
+of colour, such as white, pink, lilac and purple; <i>P. japonica</i>, 1 to
+2 ft., crimson-rose; <i>P. denticulata</i>, 1 ft., bright bluish-lilac, with
+its allies <i>P. erosa</i> and <i>P. purpurea</i>, all best grown in a cold frame;
+<i>P. viscosa</i>, 6 in., purple, and its white variety nivalis, with <i>P. pedemontana</i>
+and <i>P. spectabilis</i>, 6 in., both purple; and the charming
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page772" id="page772"></a>772</span>
+little Indian <i>P. rosea</i>, 3 to 6 in., bright cherry-rose colour, are but a
+few of the many beautiful kinds in cultivation.</p>
+
+<p><i>Pulmonaria.</i>&mdash;Handsome dwarf, boraginaceous plants, requiring
+good deep garden soil. <i>P. officinalis</i>, 1 ft., has prettily mottled leaves
+and blue flowers; <i>P. sibirica</i> is similar in character, but has broader
+leaves more distinctly mottled with white.</p>
+
+<p><i>Pyrethrum.</i>&mdash;Composite plants of various character, but of easy
+culture. <i>P. Parthenium eximium</i>, 2 ft., is a handsome double white
+form of ornamental character for the mixed border; <i>P. uliginosum</i>,
+5 to 6 ft., has fine large, white, radiate flowers in October; <i>P.
+Tchihatchewii</i>, a close-growing, dense evergreen, creeping species,
+with long-stalked, white flower-heads, is adapted for covering slopes
+in lieu of turf, and for rockwork.</p>
+
+<p><i>Ramondia.</i>&mdash;<i>R. pyrenaica</i>, 3 to 6 in., is a pretty dwarf plant,
+requiring a warm position on the rockwork and a moist, peaty soil
+more or less gritty; it has rosettes of ovate spreading root-leaves,
+and large purple, yellow-centred, rotate flowers, solitary, or two to
+three together, on naked stalks.</p>
+
+<p><i>Ranunculus.</i>&mdash;The florists&rsquo; ranunculus is a cultivated form of
+<i>R. asiaticus</i> (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Ranunculus</a></span>). <i>R. amplexicaulis</i>, 1 ft., white;
+<i>R. aconitifolius</i>, 1 to 2 ft., white, with its double variety <i>R. aconitifolius
+flore-pleno</i> (Fair Maids of France); and <i>R. acris flore-pleno</i>
+(Bachelor&rsquo;s Buttons), 2 ft., golden yellow, are pretty. Of dwarfer
+interesting plants there are <i>R. alpestris</i>, 4 in., white; <i>R. gramineus</i>,
+6 to 10 in., yellow; <i>R. parnassifolius</i>, 6 in., white; and <i>R. rutaefolius</i>,
+4 to 6 in., white with orange centre.</p>
+
+<p><i>Rodgersia.</i>&mdash;Handsome herbs of the saxifrage family. <i>R. podophylla</i>
+with large bronzy-green leaves cut into 5 large lobes, and
+tall branching spikes 3 to 4 ft. high&mdash;the whole plant resembling one
+of the large meadow sweets. <i>R. aesculifolia</i>, yellowish-white; <i>R.
+Henrici</i>, deep purple; <i>R. pinnata</i>, fleshy pink; and <i>R. sambucifolia</i>,
+white, are recently introduced species from China. They require
+rich sandy peat and warm sheltered spots.</p>
+
+<p><i>Romneya.</i>&mdash;<i>R. Coulteri</i>, a fine Californian plant, with large white
+flowers on shoots often as high as 7 ft.; <i>R. trichocalyx</i> is similar.
+Both require very warm, sunny spots and rich, sandy soil, and
+should not be disturbed often.</p>
+
+<p><i>Rudbeckia.</i>&mdash;Bold-habited composite plants, well suited for
+shrubbery borders, and thriving in light loamy soil. The flower-heads
+have a dark-coloured elevated disk. <i>R. Drummondii</i>, 2 to
+3 ft., with the ray-florets reflexed, yellow at the tip and purplish-brown
+towards the base; <i>R. fulgida</i>, 2 ft. golden-yellow with dark
+chocolate disk, the flower-heads 2 to 3 in. across; and <i>R. speciosa</i>,
+2 to 3 ft., orange-yellow with blackish-purple disk, the flower-heads
+3 to 4 in. across, are showy plants.</p>
+
+<p><i>Sagittaria.</i>&mdash;Graceful water or marsh plants with hastate leaves,
+and tuberous, running and fibrous roots. <i>S. japonica plena</i>; <i>S.
+lancifolia</i>, <i>S. macrophylla</i> and <i>S. sagittifolia</i>, are among the best
+kinds, all with white flowers.</p>
+
+<p><i>Salvia.</i>&mdash;The Sage, a large genus of labiates, often very handsome,
+but sometimes too tender for English winters. <i>S. Sclarea</i>, 5 to 6 ft.,
+is a very striking plant little more than a biennial, with branched
+panicles of bluish flowers issuing from rosy-coloured bracts; <i>S.
+patens</i>, 2 ft., which is intense azure, has tuberous roots, and may be
+taken up, stored away and replanted in spring like a dahlia. <i>S.
+pratensis</i>, 2 ft., blue, a showy native species, is quite hardy; the
+variety lupinoides has the centre of the lower lip white.</p>
+
+<p><i>Saxifraga.</i>&mdash;A very large genus of rock and border plants of easy
+culture. The Megasea group, to which <i>S. ligulata</i>, <i>S. cordifolia</i> and
+<i>S. crassifolia</i> belong, are early-flowering kinds of great beauty,
+with fleshy leaves and large cymose clusters of flowers of various
+shades of rose, red and purple. Another very distinct group with
+silvery foliage&mdash;the crustaceous group&mdash;contains some of our
+choicest Alpines. Of these <i>S. caesia</i>, <i>S. calyciflora</i>, <i>S. Cotyledon</i> are
+among the best known. Some of the species look more like lichens
+than flowering plants. The green moss-like saxifrages are also a
+very distinct group, with dense tufted leaves which appear greener
+in winter than in summer. The flowers are borne on erect branching
+stems and are chiefly white in colour. <i>Saxifraga umbrosa</i> (London
+Pride) and <i>S. Geum</i> belong to still another group, and are valuable
+alike on border and rockery. <i>S. peltata</i> is unique owing to its large
+peltate leaves, often 1 ft. to 18 in. across, with stalks 1 to 2 ft. long.
+Flowers in April, white or pinkish. Likes plenty of water and a
+moist peaty soil or marshy place. <i>S. sarmentosa</i>, the well-known
+&ldquo;mother of thousands,&rdquo; is often grown as a pot plant in cottagers&rsquo;
+windows.</p>
+
+<p><i>Scilla.</i>&mdash;Beautiful dwarf bulbous plants, thriving in well-worked
+sandy loam, or sandy peat. <i>S. bifolia</i>, 3 in., and <i>S. sibirica</i>, 4 in.,
+both intense blue, are among the most charming of early spring
+flowers; <i>S. patula</i>, 6 to 8 in., and <i>S. campanulata</i>, 1 ft., with
+tubular greyish-blue flowers, freely produced, are fine border plants,
+as is the later-blooming <i>S. peruviana</i>, 6 to 8 in., dark blue or white.</p>
+
+<p><i>Sedum.</i>&mdash;Pretty succulent plants of easy growth, and mostly
+suitable for rockwork. They are numerous, varied in the colour of
+both leaves and foliage, and mostly of compact tufted growth.
+<i>S. spectabile</i>, 1 to 1½ ft., pink, in great cymose heads, is a fine plant
+for the borders, and worthy also of pot-culture for greenhouse
+decoration. Mention may also be made of the common <i>S. acre</i>
+(Stonecrop), 3 in., yellow, and its variety with yellow-tipped leaves.</p>
+
+<p><i>Sempervivum.</i>&mdash;House-Leek. Neat-growing, succulent plants,
+forming rosettes of fleshy leaves close to the ground, and rapidly
+increasing by runner-like offsets; they are well adapted for rockwork,
+and do best in sandy soil. The flowers are stellate, cymose,
+on stems rising from the heart of the leafy rosettes. <i>S. arachnoideum</i>,
+purplish, <i>S. arenarium</i>, yellow, <i>S. globiferum</i> and <i>S. Laggeri</i>, rose,
+grow when in flower 3 to 6 in. high; <i>S. calcareum</i>, rose colour, and
+<i>S. Boutignianum</i>, pale rose, both have glaucous leaves tipped with
+purple; <i>S. Heuffelii</i>, yellow, with deep chocolate leaves, and <i>S.
+Wulfeni</i>, sulphur-yellow, are from 8 to 12 in. high.</p>
+
+<p><i>Senecio.</i>&mdash;A large genus with comparatively few good garden
+plants. Large and coarse-growing kinds like <i>S. Doria</i>, <i>S. macrophyllus</i>
+and <i>S. sarracenicus</i> are good for rough places; all yellow-flowered.
+<i>S. pulcher</i> is a charming plant, 2 to 3 ft. high, with rosy-purple
+flower-heads, having a bright orange centre. It likes a warm
+corner and moist soil. <i>S. clivorum</i>, from China, has large roundish
+leaves and orange-yellow flowers. It flourishes near water and in
+damp places.</p>
+
+<p><i>Shortia.</i>&mdash;<i>S. galacifolia</i>, a beautiful tufted plant 2 to 3 in. high,
+with roundish crenate leaves, on long stalks, and white funnel-shaped
+flowers in March and April. <i>S. uniflora</i> from Japan is closely
+related. The leaves of both assume rich purple-red tints in autumn.
+Warm sunny situations and rich sandy loam and peat are required.</p>
+
+<p><i>Silene.</i>&mdash;Pretty caryophyllaceous plants, preferring sandy loam,
+and well adapted for rockwork. <i>S. alpestris</i>, 6 in., white, and <i>S.
+quadridentata</i>, 4 in., white, are beautiful tufted plants for rockwork
+or the front parts of borders; <i>S. maritima flore-pleno</i>, 6 in., white,
+<i>S. Elizabethae</i>, 4 in., bright rose, and <i>S. Schafta</i>, 6 in., purplish-rose,
+are also good kinds.</p>
+
+<p><i>Sisyrinchium.</i>&mdash;Pretty dwarf iridaceous plants, thriving in peaty
+soil. <i>S. grandiflorum</i>, 10 in., deep purple or white, blooms about
+April, and is a fine plant for pot-culture in cold frames.</p>
+
+<p><i>Sparaxis.</i>&mdash;Graceful bulbous plants from South Africa. <i>S. grandiflora</i>,
+with deep violet-purple, and <i>S. tricolor</i>, with rich orange-red,
+flowers are best known. <i>S. pulcherrima</i>, a lovely species, 3 to 6 ft.
+high, with drooping blood-red blossoms, is now referred to the genus
+<i>Dierama</i>. A warm, light, but rich soil in sheltered spots required.</p>
+
+<p><i>Spiraea.</i>&mdash;Vigorous growing plants of great beauty, preferring
+good, deep, rather moist soil; the flowers small but very abundant,
+in large corymbose or spicate panicles. <i>S. Aruncus</i>, 4 ft., white;
+<i>S. astilbioides</i>, 2 ft., white; <i>S. Filipendula</i>, 1½ ft., and <i>S. Ulmaria</i>,
+3 ft., both white; <i>S. palmata</i>, 2 ft., rosy-crimson; and <i>S. venusta</i>,
+3 ft., carmine rose, are some of the best.</p>
+
+<p><i>Statice.</i>&mdash;Pretty plants with broad, radical leaves, and a much-branched
+inflorescence of numerous small flowers. <i>S. latifolia</i>, 2 ft.,
+greyish-blue; <i>S. tatarica</i>, 1 ft., lavender-pink; <i>S. speciosa</i>, 1½ ft.,
+rose colour; and <i>S. eximia</i>, 1½ ft., rosy-lilac&mdash;are good border plants.
+<i>S. bellidifolia</i>, 9 in., lavender; <i>S. emarginata</i>, 6 in., purple; <i>S.
+globulariaefolia</i>, 9 in., white; and <i>S. nana</i>, 4 in.&mdash;are good sorts for
+the rockery.</p>
+
+<p><i>Stenactis.</i>&mdash;<i>S. speciosa</i>, 1 to 2 ft., is a showy composite, of easy
+culture in good garden soil; it produces large corymbs of flower-heads,
+with numerous narrow blue ray-florets surrounding the
+yellow disk. Now more generally known as Erigeron.</p>
+
+<p><i>Stipa.</i>&mdash;<i>S. pennata</i> (Feather Grass), 1½ ft., is a very graceful-habited
+grass, with stiff slender erect leaves, and long feathery
+awns to the seeds.</p>
+
+<p><i>Stokesia.</i>&mdash;<i>S. cyanea</i>, 2 ft., is a grand, autumn-flowering, composite
+plant, with blue flower-heads, 4 in. across. Sandy loam and warm
+situation.</p>
+
+<p><i>Symphytum.</i>&mdash;Rather coarse-growing but showy boraginaceous
+plants, succeeding in ordinary soil. <i>S. caucasicum</i>, 2 ft., with blue
+flowers changing to red, is one of the finer kinds for early summer
+blooming.</p>
+
+<p><i>Thalictrum.</i>&mdash;Free-growing but rather weedy ranunculaceous
+plants, in many cases having elegantly cut foliage. <i>T. aquilegifolium</i>,
+2 ft., purplish from the conspicuous stamens, the leaves glaucous,
+is a good border plant; and <i>T. minus</i> has foliage somewhat resembling
+that of the Maidenhair fern. Ordinary garden soil.</p>
+
+<p><i>Tiarella.</i>&mdash;<i>T. cordifolia</i>, the foam flower, is very ornamental in
+border or rockery. Leaves heart-shaped lobed and toothed;
+flowers white starry; ordinary garden soil.</p>
+
+<p><i>Tigridia.</i>&mdash;Lovely bulbous plants called tiger flowers, useful in
+the warmest parts of the kingdom for the border in rich but gritty
+soil. <i>T. Pavonia</i>, the peacock tiger flower, from Mexico, grows 1
+to 2 ft. high, with plaited sword-like leaves, and large flowers about
+6 in. across, having zones of violet and yellow blotched with purple
+and tipped with scarlet. There are many varieties, all charming.</p>
+
+<p><i>Trillium.</i>&mdash;<i>T. grandiflorum</i>, the wood-lily of North America, is
+the finest. It has large white flowers and grows freely in peaty soil
+in shady borders. There are several other species, some with
+purplish flowers.</p>
+
+<p><i>Tritonia.</i>&mdash;A genus of South African plants with fibrous-coated
+corms or solid bulbs, often known as montbretas. <i>T. crocata</i>, 2 ft.,
+orange-yellow, <i>T. crocosmiaeflora</i>, 2 to 2½ ft., orange-scarlet, and
+<i>T. Pottsi</i>, 3 to 4 ft., bright yellow, are the best-known varieties, of
+which there are many subsidiary ones, some being very large and
+free in flowering. A rich, gritty soil, and warm, sunny situations are
+best for these plants.</p>
+
+<p><i>Triteleia.</i>&mdash;Charming spring-flowering bulbs, thriving in any good
+sandy soil. <i>T. Murrayana</i>, 8 in., lavender-blue, and <i>T. uniflora</i>,
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page773" id="page773"></a>773</span>
+6 in., white, are both pretty plants of the easiest culture, either for
+borders or rockeries.</p>
+
+<p><i>Tritoma.</i>&mdash;Splendid stoutish-growing plants of noble aspect,
+familiarly known as the Poker plant, from their erect, rigid spikes
+of flame-coloured flowers; sometimes called Kniphofia. <i>T. Uvaria</i>,
+3 to 4 ft., bright orange-red, passing to yellow in the lower flowers,
+is a fine autumnal decorative plant. They should be protected
+from frosts by a covering of ashes over the crown during winter.</p>
+
+<p><i>Trollius.</i>&mdash;Showy ranunculaceous plants, of free growth, flowering
+about May and June. <i>T. europaeus</i>, 18 in., lemon globular; <i>T.
+asiaticus</i>, 2 ft., deep yellow; and <i>T. napellifolius</i>, 2 to 2½ ft.,
+golden yellow, are all fine showy kinds. Rich and rather moist
+soil.</p>
+
+<p><i>Tulipa.</i>&mdash;Splendid dwarfish bulbs, thriving in deep, sandy, well-enriched
+garden soil, and increased by offsets. They bloom during
+the spring and early summer months. <i>T. Gesneriana</i>, the parent
+of the florists&rsquo; tulip, 12 to 18 in., crimson and other colours;
+<i>T. Eichleri</i>, 1 ft., crimson with dark spot; <i>T. Greigi</i>, 1 ft., orange
+with dark spot edged with yellow, and having dark spotted leaves;
+<i>T. oculus solis</i>, 1 ft., scarlet with black centre; and <i>T. sylvestris</i>,
+12 to 18 in., bright yellow, are showy kinds.</p>
+
+<p><i>Veratrum.</i>&mdash;Distinct liliaceous plants with bold ornamental leaves
+regularly folded and plaited. <i>V. album</i>, 3 to 5 ft., has whitish
+blossoms in dense panicles, 1 to 2 ft. long. <i>V. nigrum</i>, 2 to 3 ft., has
+blackish-purple flowers, also <i>V. Maacki</i>, 2 ft. Rich sandy loam and
+peat.</p>
+
+<p><i>Verbascum.</i>&mdash;Showy border flowers of erect spire-like habit, of
+the easiest culture. <i>V. Chaixii</i>, 4 to 5 ft., yellow, in large pyramidal
+panicles; <i>V. phoeniceum</i>, 3 ft., rich purple or white; and <i>V. formosum</i>,
+6 ft., golden yellow in dense panicles, are desirable species.</p>
+
+<p><i>Veronica.</i>&mdash;The Speedwell family, containing many ornamental
+members; all the hardy species are of the easiest cultivation in
+ordinary garden soil. The rotate flowers are in close, erect spikes,
+sometimes branched. <i>V. crassifolia</i>, 2 ft., dark blue; <i>V. incarnata</i>,
+1½ ft., flesh-colour; <i>V. corymbosa</i>, 1½ ft., pale blue in corymbosely-arranged
+racemes; <i>V. gentianoides</i>, 2 ft., grey with blue streaks;
+<i>V. spicata</i>, blue, and its charming white variety <i>alba</i>; and <i>V.
+virginica</i>, 5 ft., white, are distinct.</p>
+
+<p><i>Vinca.</i>&mdash;Periwinkle. Pretty rock plants, growing freely in ordinary
+soil. <i>V. herbacea</i>, of creeping habit, with purplish-blue flowers;
+<i>V. minor</i>, of trailing habit, blue; and <i>V. major</i>, 1 to 2 ft. high, also
+trailing, are suitable for the rock garden. The last two are evergreen,
+and afford varieties which differ in the colour of their flowers,
+while some are single and others double.</p>
+
+<p><i>Viola.</i>&mdash;Violet. Charming dwarf plants, mostly evergreen and of
+tufted habit, requiring well-worked rich sandy soil. <i>V. calcarata</i>,
+6 in., light blue; <i>V. cornuta</i>, 6 to 8 in., blue; <i>V. lutea</i>, 4 in., yellow;
+<i>V. altaica</i>, 6 in., yellow or violet with yellow eye; <i>V. palmaensis</i>,
+6 to 8 in., lavender-blue; <i>V. pedata</i>, 6 in., pale blue; and <i>V. odorata</i>,
+the Sweet Violet, in its many single and double flowered varieties,
+are all desirable.</p>
+
+<p><i>Yucca.</i>&mdash;Noble subarborescent liliaceous plants, which should be
+grown in every garden. They do well in light, well-drained soils,
+and have a close family resemblance, the inflorescence being a
+panicle of white, drooping, tulip-shaped flowers, and the foliage
+rosulate, sword-shaped and spear-pointed. Of the more shrubby-habited
+sorts <i>Y. gloriosa</i>, <i>recurvifolia</i> and <i>Treculeana</i> are good and
+distinct; and of the dwarfer and more herbaceous sorts <i>Y. filamentosa</i>,
+<i>flaccida</i> and <i>angustifolia</i> are distinct and interesting kinds,
+the first two flowering annually.</p>
+
+<p>The taste for cultivation of the class of plants, of which the foregoing
+list embraces some of the more prominent members, is on the
+increase, and gardens will benefit by its extension.</p>
+
+<p><span class="sc">Hardy Trees and Shrubs.</span>&mdash;Much of the beauty of the pleasure
+garden depends upon the proper selection and disposition of ornamental
+trees and shrubs. We can only afford space here for lists of
+some of the better and more useful and ornamental trees and shrubs,
+old and new.</p>
+
+<p>The following list, which is not exhaustive, furnishes material
+from which a selection may be made to suit various soils and situations.
+The shrubs marked * are climbers.</p>
+
+<p class="pt1 center"><i>Hardy Deciduous Trees.</i></p>
+
+<table class="ws" summary="Contents">
+<tr><td class="tcl">Acer&mdash;Maple.</td> <td class="tcl">Larix&mdash;Larch.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Aesculus&mdash;Horse-Chestnut.</td> <td class="tcl">Liriodendron&mdash;Tulip-tree.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Ailantus&mdash;Tree of Heaven.</td> <td class="tcl">Magnolia.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Alnus&mdash;Alder.</td> <td class="tcl">Morus&mdash;Mulberry.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Amygdalus&mdash;Almond.</td> <td class="tcl">Negundo&mdash;Box-Elder.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Betula&mdash;Birch.</td> <td class="tcl">Ostrya&mdash;Hop Hornbeam.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Carpinus&mdash;Hornbeam.</td> <td class="tcl">Paulownia.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Carya&mdash;Hickory.</td> <td class="tcl">Planera.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Castanea&mdash;Sweet Chestnut.</td> <td class="tcl">Platanus&mdash;Plane.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Catalpa.</td> <td class="tcl">Populus&mdash;Poplar.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Celtis&mdash;Nettle Tree.</td> <td class="tcl">Prunus (Plums, Cherries, &amp;c.).</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Cercis&mdash;Judas Tree.</td> <td class="tcl">Ptelea&mdash;Hop Tree.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Cotoneaster (some species).</td> <td class="tcl">Pyrus&mdash;Pear, &amp;c.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Crataegus&mdash;Thorn.</td> <td class="tcl">Quercus&mdash;Oak.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Davidia.</td> <td class="tcl">Rhus&mdash;Sumach.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Diospyros.</td> <td class="tcl">Robinia&mdash;Locust Tree.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Fagus&mdash;Beech.</td> <td class="tcl">Salix&mdash;Willow.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Fraxinus&mdash;Ash.</td> <td class="tcl">Sophora.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Ginkgo&mdash;Maidenhair Tree.</td> <td class="tcl">Taxodium&mdash;Deciduous Cypress.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Gleditschia&mdash;Honey Locust.</td> <td class="tcl">Tilia&mdash;Lime.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Gymnocladus&mdash;Kentucky Coffee Tree.</td> <td class="tcl">Ulmus&mdash;Elm.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Juglans&mdash;Walnut.</td> <td class="tcl">Virgilia.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Kolreuteria.</td> <td class="tcl">Xanthoceras.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Laburnum.</td> <td class="tcl">&nbsp;</td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<p class="pt1 center"><i>Hardy Evergreen Trees.</i></p>
+
+<table class="ws" summary="Contents">
+<tr><td class="tcl">Abies&mdash;Silver Fir.</td> <td class="tcl">Libocedrus.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Araucaria&mdash;Chili Pine.</td> <td class="tcl">Magnolia grandiflora.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Arbutus&mdash;Strawberry Tree.</td> <td class="tcl">Picea&mdash;Spruce Fir.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Biota&mdash;Arbor Vitae.</td> <td class="tcl">Pinus&mdash;Pine.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Buxus&mdash;Box.</td> <td class="tcl">Quercus Ilex&mdash;Holm-Oak.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Cedrus&mdash;Cedar.</td> <td class="tcl">Retinospora.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Cephalotaxus.</td> <td class="tcl">Sciadopitys&mdash;Umbrella Pine.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Cryptomeria&mdash;Japan Cedar.</td> <td class="tcl">Sequoia (Wellingtonia).</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Cupressus&mdash;Cypress.</td> <td class="tcl">Taxus&mdash;Yew.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Ilex&mdash;Holly.</td> <td class="tcl">Thuiopsis.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Juniperus&mdash;Juniper.</td> <td class="tcl">Thuya&mdash;Arbor Vitae.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Laurus&mdash;Bay Laurel.</td> <td class="tcl">Tsuga.</td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<p class="pt1 center"><i>Hardy Deciduous Shrubs.</i></p>
+
+<table class="ws" summary="Contents">
+<tr><td class="tcl">Abelia.</td> <td class="tcl">Halesia&mdash;Snowdrop Tree.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Acer&mdash;Maple.</td> <td class="tcl">Hamamelis&mdash;Wych Hazel.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Amelanchier.</td> <td class="tcl">Hibiscus&mdash;Althaea frutex, &amp;c.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Ampelopsis.*</td> <td class="tcl">Hippophaë&mdash;Sea Buckthorn.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Amygdalopsis.</td> <td class="tcl">Hypericum&mdash;St John&rsquo;s Wort.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Aralia.</td> <td class="tcl">Jasminum*&mdash;Jasmine.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Aristolochia.*</td> <td class="tcl">Kerria.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Berberis&mdash;Berberry.</td> <td class="tcl">Lonicera*&mdash;Honeysuckle.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Bignonia*&mdash;Trumpet Flower.</td> <td class="tcl">Lycium.*</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Buddleia.</td> <td class="tcl">Magnolia.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Calophaca.</td> <td class="tcl">Menispermum*&mdash;Moonseed.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Calycanthus&mdash;Carolina Allspice.</td> <td class="tcl">Periploca.*</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Caragana.</td> <td class="tcl">Philadelphus&mdash;Mock Orange.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Chimonanthus.</td> <td class="tcl">Rhus&mdash;Wig Tree, &amp;c.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Clematis.*</td> <td class="tcl">Ribes&mdash;Flowering Currant.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Colutea&mdash;Bladder Senna.</td> <td class="tcl">Robinia&mdash;Rose Acacia, &amp;c.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Cornus&mdash;Dogwood.</td> <td class="tcl">Rosa&mdash;Rose.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Cotoneaster (some species).</td> <td class="tcl">Rubus*&mdash;Bramble.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Crataegus&mdash;Thorn.</td> <td class="tcl">Spartium&mdash;Spanish Broom.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Cydonia&mdash;Japan Quince.</td> <td class="tcl">Spiraea.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Cytisus&mdash;Broom, &amp;c.</td> <td class="tcl">Staphylaea&mdash;Bladder-Nut.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Daphne.</td> <td class="tcl">Symphoricarpus&mdash;Snowberry.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Deutzia.</td> <td class="tcl">Syringa&mdash;Lilac.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Edwardsia.</td> <td class="tcl">Tamarix&mdash;Tamarisk.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Euonymus europaeus&mdash;Spindle Tree.</td> <td class="tcl">Viburnum&mdash;Guelder Rose, &amp;c.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Forsythia.</td> <td class="tcl">Vitis*&mdash;Vine.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Fremontia.</td> <td class="tcl">Weigela.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Genista.</td> <td class="tcl">&nbsp;</td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<p class="pt1 center"><i>Hardy Evergreen Shrubs.</i></p>
+
+<table class="ws" summary="Contents">
+<tr><td class="tcl">Akebia.*</td> <td class="tcl">Hedera*&mdash;Ivy.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Arbutus.</td> <td class="tcl">Hypericum&mdash;St John&rsquo;s Wort.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Aucuba&mdash;Japan Laurel.</td> <td class="tcl">Ilex&mdash;Holly.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Azara.</td> <td class="tcl">Jasminum*&mdash;Jasmine.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Bambusa&mdash;Bamboo.</td> <td class="tcl">Kadsura.*</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Berberidopsis.*</td> <td class="tcl">Lardizabala.*</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Berberis&mdash;Berberry.</td> <td class="tcl">Laurus&mdash;Sweet Bay.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Buddleia.</td> <td class="tcl">Ligustrum&mdash;Privet.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Bupleurum.</td> <td class="tcl">Lonicera*&mdash;Honeysuckle.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Buxus&mdash;Box.</td> <td class="tcl">Osmanthus.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Ceanothus.</td> <td class="tcl">Pernettya.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Cerasus&mdash;Cherry-Laurel, &amp;c.</td> <td class="tcl">Phillyrea.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Cistus-Sun-Rose.</td> <td class="tcl">Photinia.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Cotoneaster.</td> <td class="tcl">Rhamnus Alaternus.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Crataegus Pyracantha&mdash;Fire Thorn.</td> <td class="tcl">Rhododendron&mdash;Rose-Bay.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Daphne.</td> <td class="tcl">Rosa*&mdash;Rose.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Desfontainea.</td> <td class="tcl">Ruscus.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Elaeagnus&mdash;Oleaster.</td> <td class="tcl">Skimmia.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Erica&mdash;Heath.</td> <td class="tcl">Smilax.*</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Escallonia.</td> <td class="tcl">Stauntonia.*</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Euonymus.</td> <td class="tcl">Ulex&mdash;Furze.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Fabiana.</td> <td class="tcl">Viburnum&mdash;Laurustinus.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Fatsia (Aralia).</td> <td class="tcl">Vinca&mdash;Periwinkle.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Garrya.</td> <td class="tcl">Yucca&mdash;Adam&rsquo;s Needle.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Griselinia.</td> <td class="tcl">&nbsp;</td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<p><span class="sc">Bedding Plants.</span>&mdash;This term is chiefly applied to those summer-flowering
+plants, such as ivy-leaved and zonal pelargoniums, petunias,
+dwarf lobelias, verbenas, &amp;c., which are employed in masses for
+filling the beds of a geometrical parterre. Of late years, however,
+more attention has been bestowed on arrangements of brilliant
+flowering plants with those of fine foliage, and the massing also of
+hardy early-blooming plants in parterre fashion has been very greatly
+extended. Bedding plants thrive best in a light loam, liberally
+manured with thoroughly rotten dung from an old hotbed or
+thoroughly decomposed cow droppings and leaf-mould.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page774" id="page774"></a>774</span></p>
+
+<p><i>Spring Bedding.</i>&mdash;For this description of bedding, hardy plants
+only must be used; but even then the choice is tolerably extensive.
+For example, there are the Alyssums, of which <i>A. saxatile</i> and <i>A.
+gemonense</i> are in cultivation; <i>Antennaria tomentosa</i>; the double
+white <i>Arabis albida</i>; Aubrietias, of which the best sorts are <i>A.
+Campbelliae</i> and <i>A. grandiflora</i>; the double <i>Bellis perennis</i> or Daisy;
+the Wallflowers, including <i>Cheiranthus Cheiri</i> (the Common Wallflower),
+<i>C. alpina</i> and <i>C. Marshallii</i>; Hepaticas, the principal of
+which are the varieties of <i>H. triloba</i>, and the blue <i>H. angulosa</i>;
+Iberis or Candytuft; <i>Lithospermum fruticosum</i>; Myosotis or Forget-me-not,
+including <i>M. alpestris</i>, <i>M. dissitiflora</i>, <i>M. azorica</i> and <i>M.
+sylvestris</i>; Phloxes, like <i>P. subulata</i>, with its varieties <i>setacea</i>,
+<i>Nelsoni</i>, <i>nivalis</i>; the single-flowered varieties of the Primrose,
+<i>Primula vulgaris</i>; the Polyanthuses; <i>Pyrethrum Parthenium
+aureum</i>, called Golden Feather; <i>Sempervivum calcareum</i>; the pink-flowered
+<i>Silene pendula</i>; self-coloured varieties of the Pansy, <i>V.
+tricolor</i>, and of <i>V. lutea</i> and <i>V. cornuta</i>, as well as some recent hybrids.
+Besides these there are the various spring-flowering bulbs, such as
+the varieties of Hyacinthus, Tulipa, Narcissus, Fritillaria, Muscari
+or Grape Hyacinth, Crocus, Scilla, Chionodoxa and Galanthus or
+Snowdrop.</p>
+
+<p><i>Summer Bedding.</i>&mdash;There is great variety amongst the plants
+which are used for bedding-out in the garden during the summer
+months, but we can note only some of the most important of them.
+Amongst them are the Ageratums, the old tall-growing sorts of
+which have been superseded by dwarfer blue and white flowered
+varieties; Alternantheras, the principal of which are <i>A. amoena</i>,
+<i>amoena spectabilis</i>, <i>magnifica</i>, <i>paronychioides major aurea</i> and
+<i>amabilis</i>; <i>Alyssum maritimum variegatum</i>; some of the dwarf
+varieties of <i>Antirrhinum majus</i>; <i>Arundo Donax variegata</i>; Begonias;
+Calceolarias; Cannas; <i>Centaurea ragusina</i>; Clematises, of which
+the hybrids of the <i>Jackmanni</i> type are best; <i>Dahlia variabilis</i>,
+and the single-flowered forms of <i>D. coccinea</i>; Echeverias, of
+which <i>E. secunda</i> and <i>E. metallica</i> are much employed; Gazanias;
+Heliotropes; Iresines; Lantanas; Lobelias; <i>Mesembryanthemum
+cordifolium variegatum</i>; Pelargoniums, of which the various classes
+of zonal or bedding varieties are unapproachable for effect and general
+utility; Petunias; Phloxes; <i>Polemonium coeruleum variegatum</i>;
+<i>Pyrethrum Parthenium aureum</i>, the well-known Golden Feather,
+especially useful as an edging to define the outline of beds upon
+grass; Tropaeolums, especially some of the varieties of <i>T. Lobbianum</i>;
+and Verbenas, the offspring of <i>Tweedieana</i>, <i>chamaedrifolia</i>
+and others. Few bulbs come into the summer flower gardens, but
+amongst those which should always be well represented are the
+Gladiolus, the Lilium, the Tigridia and the Montbretia.</p>
+
+<p><i>Subtropical Bedding.</i>&mdash;Foliage and the less common flowering
+plants may be used either in masses of one kind, or in groups arranged
+for contrast, or as the centres of groups of less imposing or
+of dwarfer-flowering subjects; or they may be planted as single
+specimens in appropriate open spaces, in recesses, or as distant
+striking objects terminating a vista.</p>
+
+<p><i>Carpet Bedding</i> consists in covering the surface of a bed, or a
+series of beds forming a design, with close, low-growing plants, in
+which certain figures are brought out by means of plants of a different
+habit or having different coloured leaves. Sometimes, in addition
+to the carpet or ground colour, individual plants of larger size and
+handsome appearance are dotted symmetrically over the beds, an
+arrangement which is very telling. Some of the best plants for
+carpeting the surface of the beds are: <i>Antennaria tomentosa</i> and
+<i>Leucophytum Browni</i>, white; <i>Sedum acre</i>, <i>dasyphyllum</i>, <i>corsicum</i>
+and <i>glaucum</i>, grey; and <i>Sedum Lydium</i>, <i>Mentha Pulegium gibraltarica</i>,
+<i>Sagina subulata</i> and <i>Herniaria glabra</i>, green. The Alternantheras,
+Amaranthuses, Iresines and <i>Coleus Verschaffelti</i> furnish high
+and warm colours; while <i>Pyrethrum Parthenium aureum</i> yields
+greenish-yellow: <i>Thymus citriodorus aureus</i>, yellowish; <i>Mesembryanthemum
+cordifolium variegatum</i>, creamy yellow; Centaureas
+and others, white; <i>Lobelia Erinus</i>, blue; and the succulent Echeverias
+and Sempervivums, glaucous rosettes, which last add much
+to the general effect. In connexion with the various designs such
+fine plants as <i>Agave americana</i>, <i>Dracaena indivisa</i> are often used as
+centre-pieces.</p>
+
+<p><span class="sc">Greenhouse Plants.</span>&mdash;These are plants requiring the shelter of
+a glass house, provided with a moderate degree of heat, of which
+45° Fahr. may be taken as the minimum in winter. The house
+should be opened for ventilation in all mild weather in winter, and
+daily throughout the rest of the year. The following is a select list
+of genera of miscellaneous decorative plants (orchids, palms and
+ferns excluded; climbers are denoted by *; bulbous and tuberous
+plants by &dagger;):</p>
+
+<table class="ws" summary="Contents">
+<tr><td class="tcl">Abutilon</td> <td class="tcl">Coleus</td> <td class="tcl">Lachenalia&dagger;</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Acacia</td> <td class="tcl">Coprosma</td> <td class="tcl">Lantana</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Agapanthus</td> <td class="tcl">Cordyline</td> <td class="tcl">Lapageria*</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Agathaea</td> <td class="tcl">Correa</td> <td class="tcl">Lilium&dagger;</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Agave</td> <td class="tcl">Cuphea</td> <td class="tcl">Lophospermum*</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Alonsoa</td> <td class="tcl">Cyclamen&dagger;</td> <td class="tcl">Mandevillea*</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Aloysia</td> <td class="tcl">Cyperus</td> <td class="tcl">Manettia*</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Amaryllis&dagger;</td> <td class="tcl">Cytisus</td> <td class="tcl">Mutisia*</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Ardisia</td> <td class="tcl">Darwinia (Genetyllis)</td> <td class="tcl">Myrsiphyllum*</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Asparagus</td> <td class="tcl">Diosma</td> <td class="tcl">Maurandya*</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Aspidistra</td> <td class="tcl">Dracaena</td> <td class="tcl">Nerine&dagger;</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Asystasia (Mackaya)</td> <td class="tcl">Eccremocarpus*</td> <td class="tcl">Nerium</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Azalea</td> <td class="tcl">Epacris</td> <td class="tcl">Pelargonium</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Bauera</td> <td class="tcl">Epiphyllum</td> <td class="tcl">Petunia</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Begonia&dagger;</td> <td class="tcl">Erica</td> <td class="tcl">Pimelia</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Blandfordia</td> <td class="tcl">Eriostemon</td> <td class="tcl">Plumbago*</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Bomarea*</td> <td class="tcl">Erythrina</td> <td class="tcl">Polianthes&dagger;</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Boronia</td> <td class="tcl">Eucalyptus</td> <td class="tcl">Primula</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Bougainvillea*</td> <td class="tcl">Eupatorium</td> <td class="tcl">Rhododendron</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Bouvardia</td> <td class="tcl">Eurya</td> <td class="tcl">Richardia (Calla)&dagger;</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Brugmansia</td> <td class="tcl">Ficus</td> <td class="tcl">Salvia</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Calceolaria</td> <td class="tcl">Fuchsia</td> <td class="tcl">Sarracenia</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Camellia</td> <td class="tcl">Grevillea</td> <td class="tcl">Solanum</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Campanula</td> <td class="tcl">Haemanthus&dagger;</td> <td class="tcl">Sparmannia</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Canna</td> <td class="tcl">Heliotropium</td> <td class="tcl">Statice</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Celosia</td> <td class="tcl">Hibiscus</td> <td class="tcl">Strelitzia</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Cestrum*</td> <td class="tcl">Hoya*</td> <td class="tcl">Streptocarpus</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Chorizema*</td> <td class="tcl">Hydrangea</td> <td class="tcl">Swainsonia</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Chrysanthemum</td> <td class="tcl">Impatiens</td> <td class="tcl">Tacsonia*</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Cineraria</td> <td class="tcl">Jasminum*</td> <td class="tcl">Tecoma</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Clianthus</td> <td class="tcl">Justicia</td> <td class="tcl">Tradescantia</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Clivia</td> <td class="tcl">Kalosanthes</td> <td class="tcl">Vallota&dagger;</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Cobaea*</td> <td class="tcl">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcl">&nbsp;</td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<p><span class="sc">Stove Plants.</span>&mdash;For the successful culture of stove plants two
+houses at least, wherein different temperatures can be maintained,
+should be devoted to their growth. The minimum temperature
+during winter should range at night from about 55° in the cooler
+to 65° in the warmer house, and from 65° to 75° by day, allowing a
+few degrees further rise by sun heat. In summer the temperature
+may range 10° higher by artificial heat, night and day, and will
+often by sun heat run up to 90° or even 95°, beyond which it should
+be kept down by ventilation and frequent syringing and damping
+down of the pathways. During the growing period the atmosphere
+must be kept moist by damping the walls and pathways, and by
+syringing the plants according to their needs; when growth is
+completed less moisture will be necessary. Watering, which, except
+during the resting period, should generally be copious, is best done
+in the forenoon; while syringing should be done early in the morning
+before the sun becomes too powerful, and late in the afternoon to
+admit of the foliage drying moderately before night. The following
+is a select list of genera of stove plants (climbers are denoted by *,
+bulbous and tuberous plants by &dagger;):</p>
+
+<table class="ws" summary="Contents">
+<tr><td class="tcl">Acalypha</td> <td class="tcl">Cyanophyllum (Miconia)</td> <td class="tcl">Musa</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Achimenes&dagger;</td> <td class="tcl">Cycas</td> <td class="tcl">Nelumbium&dagger;</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Aeschynanthus</td> <td class="tcl">Dieffenbachia</td> <td class="tcl">Nepenthes</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Allamanda*</td> <td class="tcl">Dipladenia*</td> <td class="tcl">Nymphaea&dagger;</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Alocasia&dagger;</td> <td class="tcl">Dracaena</td> <td class="tcl">Oxera*</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Amaryllis&dagger;</td> <td class="tcl">Eranthemum</td> <td class="tcl">Pancratium&dagger;</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Anthurium</td> <td class="tcl">Eucharis&dagger;</td> <td class="tcl">Pandanus</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Aphelandra</td> <td class="tcl">Euphorbia</td> <td class="tcl">Passiflora*</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Aralia</td> <td class="tcl">Ficus</td> <td class="tcl">Pavetta</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Ardisia</td> <td class="tcl">Franciscea</td> <td class="tcl">Petraea*</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Arisaema&dagger;</td> <td class="tcl">Gardenia</td> <td class="tcl">Pleroma*</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Aristolochia*</td> <td class="tcl">Gesnera</td> <td class="tcl">Poinsettia</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Ataccia</td> <td class="tcl">Gloriosa*</td> <td class="tcl">Rondeletia</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Begonia</td> <td class="tcl">Gloxinia&dagger;</td> <td class="tcl">Sanchezia</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Bertolonia</td> <td class="tcl">Heliconia&dagger;</td> <td class="tcl">Schubertia*</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Bignonia*</td> <td class="tcl">Hoffmannia</td> <td class="tcl">Scutellaria</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Bromeliads</td> <td class="tcl">Ipomaea*</td> <td class="tcl">Stephanotis</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Cactus</td> <td class="tcl">Ixora</td> <td class="tcl">Tabernaemontana</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Caladium&dagger;</td> <td class="tcl">Jacobinia</td> <td class="tcl">Terminalia</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Calathea</td> <td class="tcl">Jasminum*</td> <td class="tcl">Thunbergia</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Centropogon</td> <td class="tcl">Luculia</td> <td class="tcl">Torenia</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Cissus*</td> <td class="tcl">Maranta</td> <td class="tcl">Thyrsacanthus</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Clerodendron*</td> <td class="tcl">Medinilla</td> <td class="tcl">Tydaea</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Crinum&dagger;</td> <td class="tcl">Meyenia</td> <td class="tcl">Vinca</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Codiaeum (Croton)</td> <td class="tcl">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcl">&nbsp;</td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<p><span class="sc">Orchids.</span>&mdash;For the successful cultivation of a mixed collection
+of tropical orchids, it is necessary that two or three houses, in which
+different temperatures can be maintained, should be provided.
+The greater number of them are epiphytes or plants that grow on
+others without absorbing nourishment from them, and heat and
+moisture afford all or nearly all the nourishment they require. At
+one time it was thought the plants themselves were better for being
+associated with such objects as ferns and palms, but they are best
+grown by themselves.</p>
+
+<p>The East Indian orchid house takes in those species which are
+found in the warm parts of the eastern hemisphere, as well as those
+from the hottest parts of the western, and its temperature should
+range from about 70° to 80° during the summer or growing season
+and from 65° to 70° during winter. The Mexican or Brazilian orchid
+house accommodates the plants from the warm parts of South
+America, and its temperature should range from about 65° to 75°
+during summer and from 60° to 65° in winter. A structure called
+the cool orchid house is set apart for the accommodation of the many
+lovely mountain species from South America and India, such as
+<i>odontoglossums</i>, <i>masdevallias</i>, &amp;c., and in this the more uniform the
+temperature can be kept the better, that in summer varying between
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page775" id="page775"></a>775</span>
+60° and 65°, and in winter from 45° to 60°. A genial moist atmosphere
+must be kept up in the hottest houses during the growing
+season, with a free circulation of air admitted very cautiously by
+well-guarded ventilators. In winter, when the plants are at rest,
+little water will be necessary; but in the case of those plants which
+have no fleshy pseudobulbs to fall back upon for sustenance, they
+must not be suffered to become so dry as to cause the leaves to
+shrivel. In the Mexican house the plants will generally be able to
+withstand greater drought occasionally, being greatly assisted by
+their thick pseudobulbs. In the cool or odontoglossum house a
+considerable degree of moisture must be maintained at all times,
+for in these the plants keep growing more or less continuously.</p>
+
+<p>For potting or basketing purposes, or for plants requiring block-culture,
+the materials used are light fibrous peat, special leaf-mould,
+osmunda or polypodium fibre and living sphagnum moss, which
+supply free drainage for the copious supply of water required.
+Good turfy loam is also used for some, such as <i>cypripediums</i> and
+<i>calanthes</i>. Indeed the composts now used are varied considerably
+according to the particular group of orchids. The water should,
+however, be so used as not to run down into the sheathing bases of
+the leaves. While in flower, orchids may with advantage be removed
+to a drier and cooler situation, and may be utilized in the
+drawing-room or boudoir. Of late years not only have many fine
+hybrids been raised artificially between various species, but some
+remarkable bigeneric hybrids (between what are considered two
+distinct genera) have also been produced (indicated in the list
+below by *). To keep a valuable collection of orchids in good
+condition requires the services of an expert orchid grower.</p>
+
+<p>The following is a select list of genera in cultivation:&mdash;</p>
+
+<table class="ws" summary="Contents">
+<tr><td class="tcl">Acineta</td> <td class="tcl">Cymbidium</td> <td class="tcl">Peristeria</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Ada</td> <td class="tcl">Cypripedium</td> <td class="tcl">Pescatorea</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Aërides</td> <td class="tcl">Cyrtopodium</td> <td class="tcl">Phajus</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Angraecum</td> <td class="tcl">Dendrobium</td> <td class="tcl">Phaio-calanthe*</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Anguloa</td> <td class="tcl">Diacrium</td> <td class="tcl">Phalaenopsis</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Anoectochilus</td> <td class="tcl">Disa</td> <td class="tcl">Pilumna</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Ansellia</td> <td class="tcl">Epidendrum</td> <td class="tcl">Platyclinis</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Arachnanthe</td> <td class="tcl">Eulophia</td> <td class="tcl">Pleione</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Arpophyllum</td> <td class="tcl">Eulophiella</td> <td class="tcl">Pleurothallis</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Barkeria</td> <td class="tcl">Galeandra</td> <td class="tcl">Polystachya</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Batemannia</td> <td class="tcl">Gongora</td> <td class="tcl">Promenaea</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Bifrenaria</td> <td class="tcl">Grammatophyllum</td> <td class="tcl">Renanthera</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Brassavola</td> <td class="tcl">Habenaria</td> <td class="tcl">Restrepia</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Brassia</td> <td class="tcl">Houlletia</td> <td class="tcl">Rodriguezia</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Brasso-Cattleya*</td> <td class="tcl">Ionopsis</td> <td class="tcl">Saccolabium</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Broughtonia</td> <td class="tcl">Ipsea</td> <td class="tcl">Schomburgkia</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Bulbophyllum</td> <td class="tcl">Laelia</td> <td class="tcl">Scuticaria</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Burlingtonia</td> <td class="tcl">Laelio-Cattleya*</td> <td class="tcl">Sobralia</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Calanthe</td> <td class="tcl">Leptotes</td> <td class="tcl">Sophro-cattleya*</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Catasetum</td> <td class="tcl">Lissochilus</td> <td class="tcl">Sophronitis</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Cattleya</td> <td class="tcl">Lycaste</td> <td class="tcl">Spathoglottis</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Chysis</td> <td class="tcl">Masdevallia</td> <td class="tcl">Stanhopea</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Cirrhopetalum</td> <td class="tcl">Miltonia</td> <td class="tcl">Thunia</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Cochlioda</td> <td class="tcl">Mormodes</td> <td class="tcl">Trichopilia</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Coelia</td> <td class="tcl">Odontoglossum</td> <td class="tcl">Trichosma</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Coelogyne</td> <td class="tcl">Odontioda*</td> <td class="tcl">Vanda</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Comparettia</td> <td class="tcl">Oncidium</td> <td class="tcl">Zygo-colax*</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Cycnoches</td> <td class="tcl">Pachystoma</td> <td class="tcl">Zygopetalum</td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<p><span class="sc">Palms.</span>&mdash;These form charming table and drawing-room plants
+when quite young. When more fully developed, and long before
+their full growth is attained, they are among the most decorative
+plants known for the conservatory and for subtropical gardening.
+They are easily cultivated, but should not be allowed to become
+dry. The soil should consist of about 3 parts turfy loam, 1 part leaf
+mould, 1 part coarse silver sand, with enough chemical or other
+manure added to render the whole moderately rich. The older
+plants will occasionally require the roots pruned in order to keep
+them in as small pots as possible without being starved. This
+should be done early in the spring, and the plants heavily shaded
+until feeding roots are again produced. It is of advantage to afford
+stove culture while the plants are quite young. A little later most
+of the genera succeed well under moderately cool conditions.</p>
+
+<p>The following genera are among those most commonly cultivated:</p>
+
+<table class="ws" summary="Contents">
+<tr><td class="tcl">Acanthophoenix</td> <td class="tcl">Chamaerops</td> <td class="tcl">Martinezia</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Acanthorhiza</td> <td class="tcl">Cocos</td> <td class="tcl">Oreodoxa</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Areca</td> <td class="tcl">Corypha</td> <td class="tcl">Phoenix</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Bactris</td> <td class="tcl">Geonoma</td> <td class="tcl">Pritchardia</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Brahea</td> <td class="tcl">Hyophorbe</td> <td class="tcl">Rhapis</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Calamus</td> <td class="tcl">Kentia</td> <td class="tcl">Sabal</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Caryota</td> <td class="tcl">Latania</td> <td class="tcl">Stevensonia</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Ceroxylon</td> <td class="tcl">Livistonia</td> <td class="tcl">Thrinax</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Chamaedorea</td> <td class="tcl">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcl">&nbsp;</td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<p><span class="sc">Ferns.</span>&mdash;These popular plants are usually increased by means of
+their spores, the &ldquo;dust&rdquo; produced on the back of their fronds.
+The spores should be sown in well-drained pots or seed pans on the
+surface of a mixture of fibrous sifted peat and small broken crocks or
+sandstone; this soil should be firmly pressed and well-watered, and
+the spores scattered over it, and at once covered with propagating
+glasses or pieces of sheet glass, to prevent water or dry air getting
+to the surface. The pots should be placed in pans full of water,
+which they will absorb as required. A shady place is desirable,
+with temperature of 50° to 55° by night and 65° to 70° by day, or
+they may be set on a shelf in an ordinary propagating pit. The
+spores may be sown as soon as ripe, and when the young plants can
+be handled, or rather can be lifted with the end of a pointed flat
+stick, they should be pricked out into well-drained pots or pans
+filled with similar soil and should be kept moist and shady. As
+they become large enough, pot them singly in 3-in. pots, and when
+the pots are fairly filled with roots shift on into larger ones.</p>
+
+<p>The best time for a general repotting of ferns is in spring, just
+before growth commences. Those with creeping rhizomes can be
+propagated by dividing these into well-rooted portions, and, if a
+number of crowns is formed, they can be divided at that season.
+In most cases this can be performed with little risk, but the gleichenias,
+for example, must only be cut into large portions, as small
+divisions of the rhizomes are almost certain to die; in such cases,
+however, the points of the rhizomes can be led over and layered into
+small pots, several in succession, and allowed to remain unsevered
+from the parent plant until they become well-rooted. In potting
+the well-established plants, and all those of considerable size, the
+soil should be used in a rough turfy state, not sifted but broken,
+and one-sixth of broken crocks or charcoal and as much sand as will
+insure free percolation should be mixed with it.</p>
+
+<p>The stove ferns require a day temperature of 65° to 75°, but do
+not thrive in an excessively high or close dry atmosphere. They
+require only such shade as will shut out the direct rays of the sun,
+and, though abundant moisture must be supplied, the atmosphere
+should not be overloaded with it. Ferns should not be allowed to
+become quite dry at the root, and the water used should always be
+at or near the temperature of the house in which the plants are
+growing. Some ferns, as the different kinds of Gymnogramme and
+Cheilanthes, prefer a drier atmosphere than others, and the former
+do not well bear a lower winter temperature than about 60° by
+night. Most other stove ferns, if dormant, will bear a temperature
+as low as 55° by night and 60° by day from November to February.
+About the end of the latter month the whole collection should be
+turned out of the pots, and redrained or repotted into larger pots
+as required. This should take place before growth has commenced.
+Towards the end of March the night temperature may be raised to
+60°, and the day temperature to 70° or 75°, the plants being shaded
+in bright weather. Such ferns as Gymnogrammes, which have their
+surface covered with golden or silver powder, and certain species of
+scaly-surfaced Cheilanthes and Nothochlaena, as they cannot bear
+to have their fronds wetted, should never be syringed; but most
+other ferns may have a moderate sprinkling occasionally (not
+necessarily daily), and as the season advances, sufficient air and
+light must be admitted to solidify the tissues.</p>
+
+<p>Hardy British ferns belonging to such genera as Asplenium,
+Nephrodium, Aspidium, Scolopendrium, have become fairly popular
+of late years, and many charming varieties are now used in borders
+and rockeries. Spores may be sown as above described, but in a
+much lower temperature.</p>
+
+<p>The following is a select list of genera:&mdash;</p>
+
+<table class="ws" summary="Contents">
+<tr><td class="tcl">Acrostichum</td> <td class="tcl">Davallia</td> <td class="tcl">Osmunda</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Actiniopteris</td> <td class="tcl">Dicksonia</td> <td class="tcl">Onoclea</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Adiantum</td> <td class="tcl">Gleichenia</td> <td class="tcl">Phlebodium</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Alsophila</td> <td class="tcl">Gymnogramme</td> <td class="tcl">Platycerium</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Aspidium</td> <td class="tcl">Hymenophyllum</td> <td class="tcl">Polypodium</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Asplenium</td> <td class="tcl">Lastrea</td> <td class="tcl">Pteris</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Blechnum</td> <td class="tcl">Lomaria</td> <td class="tcl">Scolopendrium</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Cheilanthes</td> <td class="tcl">Lygodium</td> <td class="tcl">Todea</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Cibotium</td> <td class="tcl">Nephrodium</td> <td class="tcl">Trichomanes</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Cyathea</td> <td class="tcl">Nephrolepis</td> <td class="tcl">Woodwardia</td></tr>
+</table>
+</div>
+
+<p class="pt2 center">VI. <i>Fruits.</i></p>
+
+<p><i>Fruit-Tree Borders.</i>&mdash;No pains should be spared, in the preparation
+of fruit-tree borders, to secure their thorough drainage.
+In case of adhesive clayey subsoil this can generally be secured
+by placing over the sloping bottom a good layer of coarse rubbly
+material, communicating with a drain in front to carry off the
+water, while earthenware drain tubes may be laid beneath the
+rubble from 8 to 10 ft. apart, so as to form air drains, and
+provided with openings both at the side of the walk and also
+near the base of the wall. Over this rubbly matter, rough turfy
+soil, grass-side downwards, should be laid, and on this the good
+prepared soil in which the trees are to be planted.</p>
+
+<p>The borders should consist of 3 parts rich turfy loam,
+the top spit of a pasture, and 1 part light gritty earth, such
+as road-grit, with a small portion (one-sixth) of fine brick rubbish.
+They should not be less than 12 ft. in breadth, and may vary
+up to 15 or 18 ft., with a fall from the wall of about 1 in. in
+3 ft. The border itself should be raised a foot or more above
+the general level. The bottom of the border as well as that
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page776" id="page776"></a>776</span>
+of the drain must be kept lower than the general level of the
+subsoil, else the soakage will gather in all the little depressions
+of its surface. Fruit-tree borders should not be at all cropped
+with culinary vegetables, or very slightly so, as the process of
+digging destroys the roots of the trees, and drives them from
+near the surface, where they ought to be.</p>
+
+<p>Shallow planting, whether of wall trees or standards, is generally
+to be preferred, a covering of a few inches of soil being
+sufficient for the roots, but a surface of at least equal size to the
+surface of the hole should be covered with dung or litter so as
+to restrain evaporation and preserve moisture. In the case
+of wall trees, a space of 5 or 6 in. is usually left between the
+stem at the insertion of the roots and the wall, to allow for
+increase of girth. Young standard trees should be tied to
+stakes so as to prevent their roots being ruptured by the wind-waving
+of the stems and to keep them erect. The best time
+for planting fruit trees in the open air is from the end of September
+till the end of November in open weather.</p>
+
+<p>In the selection and distribution of fruit trees regard must of
+course be had to local situation and climate. The best walls
+having a south or south-east aspect are devoted to the peach,
+nectarine, apricot, dessert pears, plums and early cherries.
+Cherries and the generality of plums succeed very well either
+on an east or a west aspect. Morello cherries, apples and stewing
+pears succeed well on a north wall. In Scotland the mulberry
+requires the protection of a wall, and several of the finer apples
+and pears do not arrive at perfection without this help and a
+tolerably good aspect. The wall-trees intended to be permanent
+are called dwarfs, from their branches springing from near
+the ground. Between these, trees with tall stems, called riders,
+are planted as temporary occupants of the upper part of the
+wall. The riders should have been trained in the nursery into
+good-sized trees, in order that when planted out they may come
+into bearing as speedily as possible.</p>
+
+<p><i>Standard Fruit Trees</i> should not be planted, if it can be avoided,
+in the borders of the kitchen garden, but in the outer slips,
+where they either may be allowed to attain their full size or
+may be kept dwarfed. Each sort of fruit should be planted
+by itself, for the sake of orderly arrangement, and in order to
+facilitate protection when necessary by a covering of nets.
+Their produce is often superior in flavour to that of the same
+kind of fruit grown on walls.</p>
+
+<p><i>Orchard-house Trees.</i>&mdash;Peaches, nectarines, apricots, figs
+and dessert plums, cherries, apples and pears are commonly
+cultivated in the orchard-house. Peaches and nectarines are
+generally planted out, while the rest are more commonly cultivated
+in pots. This allows of the hardier pot plants being removed
+out of doors while those planted out are in need of the
+room. The pot plants are overhauled in the autumn, the roots
+pruned, a layer being cut off to allow new soil to be introduced.
+Surface dressing and feeding by liquid manure should also be
+afforded these plants while the fruit is swelling. Every effort
+should be made to complete the growth of peaches and nectarines
+while the sun is sufficiently strong to ripen them. Tomatoes
+are frequently employed to fill gaps in the orchard-house. Should
+it be provided with a central path, requiring shade, Hambro
+and Sweet-water grapes serve the purpose well, and in favourable
+seasons afford excellent crops of fruit.</p>
+
+<p class="pt2 center">VII. <i>Vegetables.</i></p>
+
+<p>Under this head are included those esculents which are largely
+eaten as &ldquo;vegetables&rdquo; or as &ldquo;salads.&rdquo; The more important
+are treated under their individual headings (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Artichoke</a></span>,
+<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Asparagus</a></span>, <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Bean</a></span>, &amp;c. &amp;c.). The culinary herbs used for
+flavouring and garnishing are for the most part dwarf perennial
+plants requiring to be grown on a rich soil in an open sunny
+aspect, or annuals for which a warm sheltered border is the most
+suitable place; and they may therefore be conveniently grown
+together in the same compartment&mdash;a herb garden. The
+perennials should be transplanted either every year or every
+second year. For winter use the tops of the most useful kinds
+of herbs should be cut when in flower or full leaf and quite
+dry, and spread out in an airy but shady place so as to part
+slowly with the moisture they contain and at the same time
+retain their aromatic properties. When quite dry they should
+be put into dry wide-mouthed bottles and kept closely corked.
+In this way such herbs as basil, marjoram, mint, sage, savory,
+thyme, balm, chamomile, horehound, hyssop and rue, as well
+as parsley, may be had throughout the season with almost the
+full flavour of the fresh herb.</p>
+
+<p><i>Intensive Cultivation.</i>&mdash;This name has been applied to the
+method of forcing early vegetables and salads during the winter
+and spring months in the market gardens in the neighbourhood
+of Paris. The system is now popularly known in England as
+&ldquo;French gardening.&rdquo; Although a few assert that it is an old
+English one that has been discarded in favour of superior methods,
+there seems to be little or no evidence in support of this contention.
+The system itself has been practised for about 300
+years in the &ldquo;marais&rdquo; gardens round Paris. At one time
+these gardens were in the centre of the city itself, but owing to
+modern improvements they have been gradually pushed out
+beyond the city boundaries farther and farther. Most of these
+gardens are small&mdash;not more than a couple of acres in extent,
+and the rent paid by the <i>maraîcher</i>, or market gardener, is very
+high&mdash;as much as £30 to £40 per acre.</p>
+
+<p>The French <i>maraîcher</i> does not use hot-water apparatus
+for forcing his plants into early growth. He relies mainly upon
+the best stable manure, a few shallow frames about 4½ ft. wide
+covered with lights, and a number of large bell glasses or
+&ldquo;cloches.&rdquo; The work is carried on from October till the end of
+March and April, after which, with the exception of melons, the
+cultures are carried on in the open air.</p>
+
+<p>The chief crops grown for early supplies, or &ldquo;primeurs&rdquo; as
+they are called, are special varieties of cos and cabbage lettuces,
+short carrots, radishes, turnips, cauliflowers, endives, spinach,
+onions, corn salad and celery. To these is added a very important
+crop of melons, a special large-fruited variety known as the
+Prescott Canteloup being the most favoured.</p>
+
+<p>It is astonishing how much produce is taken off one of these
+small intensive gardens during the year, and especially during
+the worst months when prices usually run fairly high. The
+fact that rents are so heavy around Paris is in itself an indication
+of the money that is realized by the growers not only in the Paris
+markets, but also in Covent Garden.</p>
+
+<p>During the winter season narrow beds are made up of manure,
+either quite fresh or mixed with old manure, according to the
+amount of heat required. These beds are covered with a few
+inches of the fine old mould obtained from the decayed manure
+of previous years. In the early stages seeds of carrots and
+radishes are sown simultaneously on the same beds, and over
+them young lettuces that have been raised in advance are
+planted. In this way three crops are actually on the same beds
+at the same time. Owing, however, to the difference in their
+vegetative growth, they mature one after the other instead of
+simultaneously. Thus with the genial warmth and moisture of the
+hotbeds, all crops grow rapidly, but the radishes mature first,
+then the lettuces are taken off in due course, thus leaving the
+beds to finish up with the carrots by themselves. Later on in the
+season, perhaps small cauliflowers will be planted along the
+margins of the beds where the carrots are growing, and will be
+developing into larger plants requiring more space by the time
+all the carrots have been picked and marketed. So on throughout
+the year with other crops, this system of intercropping or
+overlapping of one crop with another is carried out in a most
+ingenious manner, not only under glass lights, but also in the open
+air. Spinach, corn salad, radishes and carrots are the favourite
+crops for sowing between others such as lettuces and cauliflowers.</p>
+
+<p>Although enormous quantities of water are required during the
+summer season, great care must be exercised in applying water
+to the winter crops. When severe frost prevails the lights or
+cloches are rarely taken off except to gather mature specimens;
+and no water is given directly overhead to the plants for fear
+of chilling them and checking growth. They must secure their
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page777" id="page777"></a>777</span>
+supply of moisture from the rain that falls on the glass, and
+flows into the narrow pathways from 9 in. to 12 in. wide between
+each range of frames. As the beds are only about 4½ ft. wide,
+the water from the pathways is soaked up on each side by
+capillary attraction, and in this way the roots secure a sufficient
+supply.</p>
+
+<p>Besides an abundance of water in summer there must also
+be an enormous quantity of good stable manure available during
+the winter months. This is necessary not only to make up the
+required hotbeds in the first place, but also to fill in the pathways
+between the frames, wherever it is considered advisable to
+maintain the heat within the frames at a certain point. As it is
+impossible to use an ordinary wheelbarrow in these narrow
+pathways, the workman carries a specially made wicker basket
+called a &ldquo;hotte&rdquo; on his shoulders by means of two straps.
+In this way large quantities of manure are easily transported
+to any required spot, and although the work looks hard to an
+English gardener, the Frenchman says he can carry more
+manure with less fatigue in half a day than an Englishman can
+transport in a day with a wheelbarrow.</p>
+
+<p>This is merely an outline of the system, which is now being
+taken up in various parts of the United Kingdom, but not too
+rapidly. The initial expenses for frames, lights, cloches, mats
+and water-supply are in many cases prohibitive to men with
+the necessary gardening experience, while on the other hand
+those who have the capital lack the practical knowledge so
+essential to success.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>For full details of this system see <i>French Market-Gardening, with
+details of Intensive Cultivation</i>, by John Weathers (London, 1909).</p>
+
+<p class="pt2 center">VIII.&mdash;<i>Calendar of Garden Operations</i> (A) <i>for Great Britain.</i></p>
+
+<p class="pt1 center sc">January</p>
+
+<p><i>Kitchen Garden.</i>&mdash;Wheel out manure and composts during frosty
+weather; trench vacant ground not turned up roughly in autumn.
+Sow early peas in a cold frame for transplanting. Sow also first-crop
+peas, early in the month, and William I. towards the end; Early
+Seville and Early Longpod beans; and short-topped radish in two
+or three sowings, at a week&rsquo;s interval, all on a warm border; also
+Hardy Green and Brown cos lettuce in a frame or on south border.
+Plant shallots and Ashleaf potatoes on a warm border. Protect
+broccoli as it becomes fit for use, or remove to a dry shed or cellar;
+lettuces and endive, which are best planted in frames; and parsley
+in frames so as to be accessible.</p>
+
+<p><i>Fruit Garden.</i>&mdash;Plant fruit trees in open weather, if not done in
+autumn, which is the proper season, mulching over the roots to
+protect them from frost, and from drought which may occur in
+spring. Prune fruit trees in mild weather or in moderate frosts,
+nailing only in fine weather. Wash trees infested with insects with
+one of the many insecticides now obtainable. Take off grafts, and
+lay them aside in moist earth in a shady place.</p>
+
+<p><i>Forcing.</i>&mdash;Prepare manure for making up hotbeds for early
+cucumbers and melons, where pits heated with hot water are not in
+use; also for Ashleaf potatoes. Sow also in heat mustard and cress
+for salads, onions for salads; tomatoes, celery to be pricked out for
+an early crop; and Early Horn carrot and kidney-beans on slight
+hotbeds. Force asparagus, sea-kale and rhubarb, in hotbeds, in
+pits, in the mushroom-house or in the open garden by the use of
+covers surrounded with warm litter; for cucumbers a top heat of
+70°; for vines in leaf and flower a temperature ranging from 65°
+to 70°. Keep forced strawberries with swelling fruit well watered.
+Plant vine eyes for propagation in a brisk heat.</p>
+
+<p><i>Plant Houses.</i>&mdash;Give abundance of air to the greenhouse, conservatory
+and alpine frame in mild weather, but use little water.
+A supply of roses, kalmias, rhododendrons, &amp;c., and of hardy flowers
+and bulbs, as lily of the valley, hyacinths, tulips, daffodils, &amp;c.,
+should be kept up by forcing.</p>
+
+<p><i>Flower Garden.</i>&mdash;Plant out tubers and bulbs of border flowers,
+where neglected in autumn, deferring the finer florists&rsquo; flowers till
+next month. Transplant herbaceous plants in light soils, if not
+done in autumn; also deciduous trees, shrubs and hedges. Lay
+edgings in fine weather. Sow mignonette, stocks, &amp;c., in pots;
+sow sweet peas and a few hardy annuals on a warm border. Give
+auriculas and carnations abundance of air, but keep the roots rather
+dry to prevent damping off.</p>
+
+<p class="pt1 center sc">February</p>
+
+<p><i>Kitchen Garden.</i>&mdash;Sow successional crops of Early Seville beans,
+and William I., American Wonder or other peas in the beginning
+and end of the month; early cabbages to follow the last sowing in
+August; red cabbages and savoys towards the end. Sow also Early
+Horn carrot; Early Purple-top Munich turnip; onions for a full
+crop in light soils, with a few leeks and some parsley. Sow lettuce
+for succession, with radishes and Round-leaved spinach, twice in the
+course of the month; and small salads every fortnight. Plant
+Jerusalem artichokes, shallots, garlic, horse-radish and early
+potatoes. Transplant to the bottom of a south wall a portion of
+the peas sown in pots in frames in November and January for the
+first crop. Sow Brussels sprouts in gentle heat for an early crop.</p>
+
+<p><i>Fruit Garden.</i>&mdash;Prune apricots, peaches, nectarines and plums,
+before the buds are much swelled; finish pruning apples, pears,
+cherries, gooseberries, currants and raspberries, before the end of
+the month; also the dressing of vines. Keep the fruit-room free
+from spoiled fruit, and shut it close. Cut down the double-bearing
+raspberries to secure strong autumn-fruiting shoots. Head back
+stocks preparatory to grafting.</p>
+
+<p><i>Forcing.</i>&mdash;Sow melons and cucumbers on hotbeds and in pits.
+Sow carrots, turnips, early celery, also aubergines or egg-plants,
+capsicums, tomatoes and successional crops of kidney-beans;
+cauliflower and Brussels sprouts, in gentle heat, to be afterwards
+planted out. Plant early potatoes on slight hotbeds. Continue
+the forcing of asparagus, rhubarb and sea-kale. Commence or
+continue the forcing of the various choice fruits, as vines, peaches,
+figs, cherries, strawberries, &amp;c. Pot roots of mint and place in heat
+to produce sprigs for mint sauce. Be careful to protect the stems
+of vines that are outside the forcing-houses.</p>
+
+<p><i>Plant Houses.</i>&mdash;Let the greenhouse and conservatory have plenty
+of air in mild weather. Pot and start tuberous-rooted begonias and
+gloxinias. Pot young plants of Hippeastrum, and start the
+established ones. Propagate chrysanthemums in cool-house or
+vinery under hand lights or frames. Put plants of fuchsias, petunias,
+verbenas, heliotropes, salvias and other soft-wooded subjects, into
+a propagating house to obtain cuttings, &amp;c., for the flower garden.
+Sow stocks, dahlias and a few tender and half-hardy annuals, on
+a slight hotbed, or in pots. Propagate old roots of dahlias by
+cuttings of the young shoots in a hotbed. Sow petunias in heat,
+and prick out and harden for bedding out; also gloxinias to be
+grown on in heat till the flowering season.</p>
+
+<p><i>Flower Garden.</i>&mdash;In dry open weather plant dried roots, including
+most of the finer florists&rsquo; flowers; continue the transplanting of
+hardy biennial flowers and herbaceous plants. Sow in the last
+week mignonette, and hardy annuals, in a warm border, for subsequent
+transplanting.</p>
+
+<p class="pt1 center sc">March</p>
+
+<p><i>Kitchen Garden.</i>&mdash;Sow main crops of wrinkled marrow peas;
+Longpod and Windsor beans; cabbage, onions, leeks, Early Horn
+carrots, parsnips, salsafy, scorzonera, Brussels sprouts, borecoles,
+lettuces and spinach. In the beginning and also at the end of the
+month sow Early Strap-leaf and Early Snowball turnips and savoys.
+In the last fortnight sow asparagus, cauliflower and the various
+sweet and savoury herbs; also sea-kale, radishes, celery, celeriac
+and parsley. Small salads should be sown every ten days. Make
+up beds for mushrooms with well-prepared dung towards the end
+of the month. Plant early potatoes in the first week, and a main
+crop during the last fortnight. Sea-kale, asparagus and peas raised
+in frames may now be planted; also garlic and shallots. Full crops
+of cabbages should be planted out; also cauliflowers under hand-glasses.
+Propagate by slips, or by earthing up the old stems, the
+various pot-herbs.</p>
+
+<p><i>Fruit Garden.</i>&mdash;Finish the pruning of fruit trees before the middle
+of the month. Protect those coming into blossom. Begin grafting
+in the third week; dig and dress between the rows of gooseberries,
+currants and other fruit trees, if not already done. Kill wasps
+assiduously as soon as they appear.</p>
+
+<p><i>Forcing.</i>&mdash;Continue the forcing of melons, cucumbers, tomatoes
+and the various fruits. In the vinery and peach-house, attend to
+the keeping down of insects by syringing; and promote the growth
+of the young shoots, by damping the walls and paths morning and
+evening. Sow capsicum and tomato; also in slight heat such tender
+herbs as basil and marjoram.</p>
+
+<p><i>Plant Houses.</i>&mdash;More water may be given than formerly. Sow
+seeds of greenhouse and hothouse plants; also the different sorts of
+tender annuals; pot off those sown last month; sow cineraria for
+the earliest bloom; also Chinese primulas. Shift heaths and other
+hard-wooded subjects and stove-plants; plant tuberoses in pots
+for forcing. Begin to propagate greenhouse plants by cuttings; also
+coleuses by cuttings in heat, potting them off as soon as rooted.</p>
+
+<p><i>Flower Garden and Shrubbery.</i>&mdash;In the last week, sow hardy
+annuals in the borders, with biennials that flower the first season,
+as also perennials. Plant anemone and ranunculus roots and
+the corms of gladiolus. Transplant from the nursery to their final
+sites annuals sown in autumn, with biennials and herbaceous plants.
+Propagate perennials from root-slips and offsets. Continue to
+propagate the finer sorts of dahlias, both by cuttings and by division
+of the roots. Finish the pruning of all deciduous trees and hedges
+as soon as possible. Attend to the dressing of shrubberies; lay
+turf-edgings, and regulate the surface of gravel walks.</p>
+
+<p class="pt1 center sc">April</p>
+
+<p><i>Kitchen Garden.</i>&mdash;Sow asparagus, sea-kale, Turnip-rooted beet,
+salsafy, scorzonera, skirret, carrots and onions on heavy soils; also
+marrow peas, Longpod and Windsor beans, turnips, spinach, celery,
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page778" id="page778"></a>778</span>
+cabbage, savoys and Brussels sprouts for succession. Sow broccoli
+and kidney-beans both in the second and in the last week, and
+lettuces and small salads twice or thrice during the month; sow
+all herbs, if not done last month. Sow vegetable marrow. Plant
+cauliflower, cabbages, sea-kale, lettuce; and finish the planting of
+the main crops of potatoes; divide and replant globe-artichokes.
+Propagate all sorts of pot-herbs, and attend to the hoeing and
+thinning of spinach, onions, turnips, carrots, beet, &amp;c. Earth up
+cabbages, cauliflower, peas, beans and early potatoes. Stake up
+peas; blanch sea-kale and rhubarb in the open air by covering with
+straw or leaves.</p>
+
+<p><i>Fruit Garden.</i>&mdash;If vines have been neglected to be pruned, rub
+off the buds that are not wanted; this is safer than pruning now.
+Protect the finer sorts of fruit trees on the walls. The hardier
+orchard-house fruits should now be moved outdoors under temporary
+awnings, to give the choicer fruits more space,&mdash;the roots being
+protected by plunging the pots. Mulch all newly-planted fruit trees,
+watering abundantly in dry weather.</p>
+
+<p><i>Forcing.</i>&mdash;Continue the preparation of succession beds and pits
+for cucumbers and melons. Sow; pot tomatoes and capsicums for
+succession. Pollinate tomatoes by hand to ensure early fruit on
+plants intended for outdoor culture. In the forcing-houses, from
+the variable state of the weather, considerable vigilance is required
+in giving air. Keep down red spider (Acarus) in the more advanced
+houses by frequent syringings and a well-moistened atmosphere.
+Continue the usual operations of disbudding and thinning of fruit,
+and take care to keep up the proper temperatures.</p>
+
+<p><i>Plant Houses.</i>&mdash;Still sow tender annuals if required; also cinerarias
+and primulas. Proceed with all necessary shiftings. Propagate rare
+and fine plants by cuttings or grafting; increase bouvardias by
+cuttings, and grow on for winter flowering. Pot off tender annuals,
+and cuttings of half-hardy greenhouse plants put in during February
+to get them well established for use in the flower garden. Transfer
+chrysanthemums to sheltered positions out of doors, and provide
+means of protecting them from frost and cutting winds.</p>
+
+<p><i>Flower Garden and Shrubbery.</i>&mdash;Sow main or successional crops
+of annuals of all sorts&mdash;half-hardy annuals in warm borders, or on
+slight hotbeds. Biennials and perennials should be sown before
+the middle of the month. Plant out gladioli, if not done, tigridias
+and fine stocks. Finish the transplanting of herbaceous plants by
+the end of the first week. Cuttings of border chrysanthemums may
+now be dibbled in a warm spot out of doors. Protect stage auriculas
+and hyacinths from extremes of every description of weather; and
+tulips from hoar-frosts and heavy rains. Plant out tender deciduous
+trees and shrubs raised in pots; plant out tea-roses, mulching the
+roots. Remove part of the coverings of all tender shrubs and
+plants in the first week, and the remainder at the end of the month.
+Form and repair lawns and grass walks by laying turf and sowing
+perennial grass-seeds; mow the lawns frequently; plant evergreens.</p>
+
+<p class="pt1 center sc">May</p>
+
+<p><i>Kitchen Garden.</i>&mdash;Sow main crop of beet in the first week, small
+salads every week, radishes and lettuces thrice, spinach once a
+fortnight, carrots and onions for late drawing, kidney-beans in the
+first week and together with scarlet runners in the last fortnight;
+endive for an early crop; also peas and Longpod and Windsor
+beans, cauliflowers, Early York or Little Pixie cabbages, Brussels
+sprouts, borecole, broccoli, savoys and kale for late crops. Sow
+vegetable marrows and hardy cucumbers on a warm border in the
+last week; sow cardoons in trenches, or (in the north) in pots under
+glass shelter; sow chicory for salading. Continue hoeing and earthing
+up the several crops.</p>
+
+<p><i>Fruit Garden.</i>&mdash;Disbud peaches, nectarines and other early trees
+against the walls; also attend to the thinning of fruit. Give
+occasional washings with the engine to keep down insects. Pick
+caterpillars from gooseberries and wall trees on their first appearance.
+Remove from raspberries and strawberries all suckers and runners
+that are not wanted.</p>
+
+<p><i>Forcing.</i>&mdash;Plant melons and cucumbers on the hotbeds prepared
+for vegetables in February, and now free. Plant out vegetable
+marrows and pumpkins on dung-ridges, under hand-glasses. Sow
+late crops of cucumbers and melons.</p>
+
+<p><i>Plant Houses.</i>&mdash;Turn out hardy plants about the middle, and the
+more tender at the latter end of the month. Sow tender annuals
+for succession, potting and shifting those sown at an earlier period;
+sow cinerarias for succession; and a few hardy annuals and ten-week
+stock, &amp;c., for late crops. Pot off all rooted cuttings. Put
+in cuttings of the different desirable species which are now fit for
+that purpose. Plant out in rich soil Richardias, to be potted up in
+autumn for flowering. Bedding plants should be placed to harden
+in sheltered positions out of doors towards end of month. Towards
+the end of the month many of the main stock of chrysanthemums
+will be ready for the final potting.</p>
+
+<p><i>Flower Garden.</i>&mdash;Sow annuals for succession in the last week,
+also biennials and perennials in the nursery compartment, for
+planting out next year. Propagate plants of which more stock is
+required either by cuttings or by dividing the roots. Plant out,
+during the last week, dahlias, hardy pelargoniums, stocks and
+calceolarias, protecting the dahlias from slight frosts. By the end
+of the month, masses of the following plants may be formed with
+safety in warm localities:&mdash;pelargonium, heliotropium, fuchsia,
+petunia, nierembergia, salvia, verbena, bouvardia and lobelia.
+Protect tulips, ranunculuses and anemones from the mid-day sun,
+and from rains and winds. Remove the coverings from all tender
+plants in the open air.</p>
+
+<p><i>Shrubbery.</i>&mdash;Transplant all kinds of evergreens, this month and
+September being the proper seasons. The rarer conifers should
+be planted now and in June, after they have commenced to grow.
+Proceed with the laying down of lawns and gravel-walks, and keep
+the former regularly mown.</p>
+
+<p class="pt1 center sc">June</p>
+
+<p><i>Kitchen Garden.</i>&mdash;Sow kidney-beans for succession; also the
+wrinkled marrow peas and Seville Longpod and Windsor beans for
+late crops. Sow salading every ten days; also carrots, onions
+and radishes for drawing young; and chicory for salads; sow
+endive for a full crop. In the first week sow Early Munich and
+Golden Ball turnips for succession, and in the third week for a full
+autumn crop. Sow scarlet and white runner beans for a late crop,
+and cabbages for coleworts. Make up successional mushroom beds
+early in the month. Plant full crops of broccoli, Brussels sprouts,
+savoys, kales, leeks and early celery, with successional crops of
+cabbage and cauliflower. In the first fortnight of the month, plant
+hardy cucumbers for pickling, in a warm border, placing hand-glasses
+over them towards the end of the month. Plant out capsicums
+and tomatoes in sunny positions, and stake and tie securely.
+Pull and store winter onions, if ripe.</p>
+
+<p><i>Fruit Garden.</i>&mdash;Train and prune the summer shoots of wall and
+trellis and other trained trees. Mulch and water fruit trees and
+strawberries in dry weather, desisting when the fruit begins to ripen.
+Net over cherry-trees. Destroy aphides and other insects by
+syringing with tobacco water, or by fumigating, or by dusting with
+tobacco powder.</p>
+
+<p><i>Forcing.</i>&mdash;Proceed with planting melons, cucumbers and tomatoes.
+Keep up the necessary temperatures for the ripening of
+the various fruits. Ventilation will still require constant care.
+Tomatoes will now be fruiting freely; thin out judiciously,
+avoiding excessive pruning at one time. Attend to the gathering
+of fruit as it ripens.</p>
+
+<p><i>Plant Houses.</i>&mdash;These will now be occupied with tender greenhouse
+plants and annuals, and the more hardy plants from the stove.
+Shift, repot and propagate all plants that are desirable. Sow fragrant
+or showy annuals to flower in pots during winter; and grow on a
+set of decorative plants for the same object. Continue the final
+potting of chrysanthemums as the plants become ready.</p>
+
+<p><i>Flower Garden.</i>&mdash;Plant out dahlias and other tender subjects, if
+risk of frost is past. Take up bulbs and tuberous roots and dry
+them in the shade before removing them to the store-room. Fill
+up with annuals and greenhouse plants those beds from which the
+bulbs and roots have been raised. After this season, keep always
+a reserve of annuals in pots, or planted on beds of thin layers of
+fibrous matter, so as to be readily transplanted. Layer carnations
+and pipe pinks in the end of the month. Keep the lawns closely
+mown.</p>
+
+<p class="pt1 center sc">July</p>
+
+<p><i>Kitchen Garden.</i>&mdash;Watering will be necessary in each department,
+if the weather is hot and dry. In the first week, sow peas for the last
+crop of the season; also Longpod beans and French beans. In the
+last week, sow red globe or Chirk Castle turnip for a full winter crop,
+spinach for an early winter supply and Enfield Market cabbage
+for early summer use. Sow endive, for autumn and winter use, in
+the beginning and end of the month; also successional crops of
+lettuce and small salads. Make up successional mushroom beds.
+Plant full crops of celery, celeriac, endive about the middle and end
+of the month; late crops of broccoli, cauliflower and coleworts in the
+last week. Gather and dry herbs; also propagate these by slips
+and cuttings.</p>
+
+<p><i>Fruit Garden.</i>&mdash;Continue the pruning and training of wall and
+espalier trees, and the destruction of noxious insects. Pot strawberries
+for forcing next winter, and make new beds out of doors as
+soon as well-rooted runners can be obtained. Propagate the different
+sorts of stone fruit trees by budding on other trees or on prepared
+stocks. Gather fruits of all kinds as they ripen.</p>
+
+<p><i>Forcing.</i>&mdash;Prune melons and cucumbers, giving air and water and
+maintaining heat, &amp;c. Continue the routine treatment in the tomato-houses.
+Feed the plants artificially as soon as good crops are set;
+do not wait for signs of distress. The forcing-houses ought to have
+abundance of fresh air and moisture where required, along with the
+necessary heat.</p>
+
+<p><i>Plant Houses.</i>&mdash;Ventilation will be necessary to keep down excessive
+heat; and attention must be paid to potting, shifting and
+putting in cuttings, and giving abundance of water to the potted
+plants, both indoors and out. Sow seed of herbaceous calceolarias;
+shift heaths, if they require it; cut down pelargoniums past flowering,
+and plant the cuttings.</p>
+
+<p><i>Flower Garden and Shrubbery.</i>&mdash;Take up the remaining tuberous
+roots, such as anemones, ranunculuses, &amp;c., by the end of the first
+week; fill up their places, and any vacancies that may have occurred,
+with annuals or bedding plants from the reserve ground.
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page779" id="page779"></a>779</span>
+Repot auriculas, and sow auricula seed in boxes under glass. Propagate
+herbaceous and other plants that have gone out of flower,
+by means of cuttings and slips, especially those required for spring
+bedding; propagate also the various summer bedding plants increased
+by cuttings. Increase roses and American shrubs, by layering,
+budding or cuttings, and go on with the layering of carnations
+and picotees. Stake and tie up dahlias and strong herbaceous
+plants.</p>
+
+<p class="pt1 center sc">August</p>
+
+<p><i>Kitchen Garden.</i>&mdash;Sow winter and spring spinach in the beginning
+and about the end of the month; parsley and winter onions, for a
+full crop, in the first week; cabbages about the middle of the
+month, for planting out in spring; cauliflower in the first half
+(Scotland) and in the second half (England) of the month; Hardy
+Hammersmith and Brown Cos lettuce in the first and last week;
+small salads occasionally; and Black Spanish radish, for winter
+crops. Plant out kales and broccoli for late crops; plant celery
+(earthing up the advancing crops as required), endive for succession,
+and a few coleworts. Take up shallots, garlic, &amp;c.</p>
+
+<p><i>Fruit Garden.</i>&mdash;Proceed in training and regulating the summer
+shoots of all fruit trees as directed for the last three months. Net
+up, in dry weather, gooseberry and currant bushes, to preserve the
+fruit till late in the autumn. Make new strawberry beds if required.
+Preserve the ripening fruits on the wall and other trees from insects,
+and destroy wasp nests. Gather fruits as they ripen.</p>
+
+<p><i>Forcing.</i>&mdash;The routine of cultivation in hotbeds and pits may be
+continued. Sow tomatoes and cucumbers for a winter crop. Make
+up mushroom beds. In the forcing-houses, where the crops are past,
+part of the sashes may be removed, so as to permit thorough ventilation.</p>
+
+<p><i>Plant Houses.</i>&mdash;Attend to the propagation of all sorts of greenhouse
+plants by cuttings, and to the replacing in the greenhouse and
+stoves the more tender species, by the end of the month in ordinary
+seasons, but in wet weather in the second week. Sow half-hardy
+annuals, as Nemophila, Collinsia, Schizanthus, Rhodanthe, &amp;c., to
+flower during winter.</p>
+
+<p><i>Flower Garden and Shrubbery.</i>&mdash;Sow in the second and the last
+week, on a warm border of a light sandy soil, with an east aspect,
+any free-flowering hardy annuals as <i>Silene pendula</i>, Nemophila, &amp;c.,
+for planting in spring; and auricula and primula seeds in pots
+and boxes. Propagate, all sorts of herbaceous plants by rooted
+slips or suckers; take off layers of carnations, picotees and
+pansies. Plant cuttings of bedding plants, and of bedding pelargoniums
+in boxes for convenience of removal. Layer the tops of
+chrysanthemums, to obtain dwarf flowering plants. Transplant
+evergreens in moist weather, about the end of the month; and propagate
+them by layers and cuttings. Pot Neapolitan violets for
+forcing; or plant out on a mild hotbed. Clip box edgings.</p>
+
+<p class="pt1 center sc">September</p>
+
+<p><i>Kitchen Garden.</i>&mdash;Sow small salading for late crops; and lettuce
+and spinach, if not done last month, for spring crops. Plant endive
+and lettuce at the foot of a south wall to stand the winter; plant
+out cabbages from the chief autumn sowing. Plant cauliflowers on
+a warm border in spaces such as can be protected by hand-lights.
+Thin the winter spinach, when large enough, that it may have space
+to grow. If broccoli be too rank or tall to withstand the winter,
+lift and lay nearly up to the neck in the earth, the heads sloping
+towards the north. Lift onions, and lay them out to ripen on a
+dry border or gravel-walk. Lift potatoes and store them.</p>
+
+<p><i>Fruit Garden.</i>&mdash;Finish the summer pruning and training. Where
+the walls are heated, assist the maturing of peaches and nectarines,
+and the ripening of the young wood for next year, by fires during
+the day. Gather and lay up in the fruit-room with care the autumnal
+sorts of apples and pears. Prepare borders and stations for fruit
+trees during dry weather. Plant strawberries for a main crop.
+Repot orchard-house trees, disrooting if necessary.</p>
+
+<p><i>Forcing.</i>&mdash;Take care that late melons, cucumbers and tomatoes be
+not injured by getting too much water and too little air. Sow a few
+kidney beans for an early forced crop. Expel damp, and assist the
+ripening of late grapes and peaches with fires during the day.
+Prune early vines and peaches.</p>
+
+<p><i>Plant Houses.</i>&mdash;The various pot plants should now be put in
+their winter quarters. Keep up moderate temperatures in the stove,
+and merely repel frosts in the greenhouse, guarding against damp,
+by ventilation and by the cautious use of water. Pot hyacinths,
+tulips and other bulbs for forcing; and propagate half-hardy
+plants by cuttings. Begin the housing of the main stock of chrysanthemums.</p>
+
+<p><i>Flower Garden, &amp;c.</i>&mdash;Sow in the beginning of this month all half-hardy
+annuals required for early flowering; also mignonette in pots,
+thinning the plants at an early stage; the different species of primula;
+and the seeds of such plants as, if sown in spring, seldom come up
+the same season, but if sown in September and October, vegetate
+readily the succeeding spring. Put in cuttings of bedding pelargoniums
+in boxes, which may stand outdoors exposed to the sun, but
+should be sheltered from excessive rains. Continue the propagation
+of herbaceous plants, taking off the layers of carnations, picotees,
+pansies and chrysanthemums, by the end of the month; choice
+carnations and picotees may be potted and wintered in cold frames
+if the season is wet and ungenial. Plant evergreens; lay and
+put in cuttings of most of the hard-wooded sorts of shrubby
+plants.</p>
+
+<p class="pt1 center sc">October</p>
+
+<p><i>Kitchen Garden.</i>&mdash;Sow small salading and radishes in the first
+week, and lettuces in frames on a shallow hotbed for planting out in
+spring. If the winter prove mild they will be somewhat earlier
+than those sown next month or in January. Plant parsley in pots
+or boxes to protect under glass in case very severe weather occurs.
+Plant cabbages in beds or close rows till wanted in spring; and
+cauliflowers in the last week, to receive the protection of frames, or
+a sheltered situation. Store potatoes, beet, salsafy, scorzonera,
+skirret, carrots and parsnips, by the end of the month. Band and
+earth up cardoons.</p>
+
+<p><i>Fruit Garden.</i>&mdash;Such fruit trees as have dropped their leaves may
+be transplanted; this is the best season for transplanting (though
+with care it may be done earlier), whether the leaves have fallen or
+not. Protect fig-trees, if the weather proves frosty, as soon as they
+have cast their leaves. Plant out raspberries. The orchard-house
+trees should be got under glass before the end of the month. Gather
+and store all sorts of apples and pears, the longest-keeping sorts
+not before the end of the month, if the weather be mild.</p>
+
+<p><i>Forcing.</i>&mdash;Maintain the heat in hotbeds and pits by means of
+fresh dung linings. Give abundance of air in mild bright weather.
+Dress vines and peaches. Clean and repair the forcing-houses, and
+overhaul the heating apparatus to see it is in good working condition.
+Plant chicory in boxes or on hotbeds for blanching. Sow
+kidney beans. Make up successional winter mushroom beds.</p>
+
+<p><i>Plant Houses.</i>&mdash;Replace all sorts of greenhouse plants. Fill the
+pits with pots of stocks, mignonette and hardy annuals for planting
+out in spring, along with many of the hardy sorts of greenhouse
+plants; the whole ought to be thoroughly ventilated, except in
+frosty weather. From this time till spring keep succulent plants
+almost without water. Begin to force roses, hyacinths and a few
+other bulbs, for winter and early spring decoration. Plant hyacinths
+in glasses for windows. The last of the pot chrysanthemums should
+be housed by the end of the first week.</p>
+
+<p><i>Flower Garden.</i>&mdash;Sow a few pots of hardy annuals in a frame, or
+on a sheltered border, for successional spring use if required. Plant
+the greater part of the common border bulbs, as hyacinths, narcissi,
+crocuses and early tulips, about the end of the month, with a few
+anemones for early flowering. Transplant strong plants of biennials
+and perennials to their final situations; also the select plants used
+for spring bedding. Protect alpine plants, stage auriculas, and choice
+carnations and picotees with glass frames; and tea roses and other
+tender plants with bracken or other protective material. Take up,
+dry and store dahlias and all tender tubers at the end of the month;
+pot lobelias and similar half-hardy plants from the open borders.
+Transplant all sorts of hardy evergreens and shrubs, especially in dry
+soils, giving abundance of water. Put in cuttings of all sorts of evergreens,
+&amp;c. Plant out the hardier sorts of roses.</p>
+
+<p class="pt1 center sc">November</p>
+
+<p><i>Kitchen Garden.</i>&mdash;Trench up all vacant ground as soon as cleared
+of its crops, leaving the surface as rough as possible. Sow early peas
+and Early Dwarf Prolific beans in the second week, for an early
+crop; also in frames for transplanting. Protect endive, celery,
+artichoke and sea-kale with stable-litter or fern, or by planting the
+former in frames; take up late cauliflower, early broccoli and lettuces,
+and place them in sheltered pits or lay them in an open shed; earth
+up celery; manure and dress up asparagus beds.</p>
+
+<p><i>Fruit Garden.</i>&mdash;Plant all sorts of fruit trees in fine weather&mdash;the
+earlier in the month the better. Protect fig-trees. Commence
+pruning and nailing. Gather and store the latest apples and pears.
+Examine the fruit-room and remove all decayed fruit.</p>
+
+<p><i>Forcing.</i>&mdash;Keep up the requisite degree of heat in hotbeds and
+pits. Cucumbers and tomatoes will require more than ordinary
+attention. Force asparagus, rhubarb and sea-kale, in the mushroom-house,
+in pits, or in the open border under boxes or cases surrounded
+and covered by well-fermented stable dung and leaves. Sow Early
+Horn carrot; also kidney beans and radishes, on hotbeds. In the
+forcing-houses prune and train the trees; fork over and dress the
+borders of such houses as have not been already done.</p>
+
+<p><i>Plant Houses.</i>&mdash;The directions for the greenhouse and conservatory
+in January apply also to this month generally. Continue the forcing
+of roses, hyacinths, &amp;c. Houses containing large-flowered Japanese
+chrysanthemums will require to be kept dry, airy and moderately
+warm to prevent &ldquo;damping-off&rdquo; of petals.</p>
+
+<p><i>Flower Garden, &amp;c.</i>&mdash;Plant dried tubers of border flowers, but the
+finer sorts had better be deferred till spring. Plant tulips in the
+early part of the month. Put in cuttings of bedding calceolarias,
+choosing the shoots that will not run up to flower. Protect such
+half-hardy plants as are not already sheltered. Plant deciduous
+trees and shrubs so long as the weather continues favourable, and
+before the soil has parted with the solar heat absorbed during summer.
+Dig and dress such flower borders and shrubberies as may now be
+cleared of annuals and the stems of herbaceous plants.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page780" id="page780"></a>780</span></p>
+
+<p class="pt1 center sc">December</p>
+
+<p><i>Kitchen Garden.</i>&mdash;Collect and smother-burn all vegetable refuse,
+and apply it as a dressing to the ground. Sow a few peas and beans,
+in case of accident to those sown in November, drawing up the soil
+towards the stems of those which are above ground as a protection;
+earth up celery; blanch endive with flower-pots; sow radishes in a
+very sheltered place. Attend to trenching and digging in dry
+weather.</p>
+
+<p><i>Fruit Garden.</i>&mdash;Plant all sorts of fruit trees in mild weather.
+Proceed with pruning and nailing wall-trees. Examine the fruit-room
+every week, removing promptly all decaying fruit.</p>
+
+<p><i>Forcing.</i>&mdash;The same degree of attention to hotbeds and pits will be
+necessary as in the last month. Continue the forcing of asparagus,
+rhubarb and sea-kale, in pits and in the mushroom-house. Proceed
+with the usual routine of culture commenced last month. Make
+the necessary preparations to begin forcing early or succession crops
+by the last week of this or the first of next month.</p>
+
+<p><i>Plant Houses, Frames, &amp;c.</i>&mdash;Carnations and picotees in pots must
+be kept rather dry to prevent damping off. Heaths and Australian
+plants must be very sparingly watered, and kept with only fire heat
+enough to repel frost. Cut down plants of chrysanthemums, which
+should be placed in a cool pit, near the glass, in order to afford hard
+sturdy cuttings in February. Shy plants should be given gentle
+bottom heat to induce growth, which should be gently hardened by
+exposure under cooler conditions.</p>
+
+<p><i>Flower Garden, &amp;c.</i>&mdash;Plant shrubs in open weather. Prune shrubs.
+Sweep and roll the lawns, and put in repair the gravel-walks, keeping
+the surface frequently rolled.</p>
+<div class="author">(J. Ws.; W. R. W.)</div>
+
+<p class="pt2 center">(B) <i>For the United States</i> (<i>chiefly for the latitude of New York</i>).</p>
+
+<p class="pt1 center sc">January</p>
+
+<p><i>Flower Garden and Greenhouse.</i>&mdash;Little is to be done in either.
+In the greenhouse care must be used to protect against frost. Ventilate
+but little, and with care; raise the ventilating sash only high
+enough to let the heated air from the greenhouse drive back the
+outer air so as not to chill the plants. To destroy the red spider,
+syringe the plants copiously at night, and splash the paths with
+water. The aphis, or &ldquo;green fly,&rdquo; must also be destroyed; tobacco
+may be used. Various new preparations are coming on the market
+for the destruction of greenhouse pests. Several new effective
+preparations of tobacco have been brought into use. The white-fly
+is now a common pest in greenhouses, the nymphs being greenish
+scale-like objects on the under sides of the leaves, and adults very
+small white flies. The remedy is to spray with kerosene emulsion
+or whale-oil soap; or if on cucumbers or tomatoes, it is best to
+fumigate with hydrocyanic acid gas, using one ounce of potassium
+cyanide to each 1000 cubic ft. of space. (This material is very
+poisonous.) Many greenhouse insects can be kept more or less in
+check by careful and effective hosing of the plants at proper times.
+At this season roses, grape vines and other plants are often affected
+by mildew; an effectual remedy is to paint the hot-water pipes with
+a mixture of sulphur and lime, put on as thick as ordinary whitewash,
+once each week until it is checked; but care must be taken
+not to apply it on any surface at a higher temperature than 212°.
+Hyacinths and other bulbs that have been kept in a cellar or other
+dark cool place may now be brought into the light of the greenhouse
+or sitting-room, provided they have filled the pots with roots. If
+they are not well rooted, leave them until they are, or select such of
+them as are best, leaving the others. In the outside flower garden
+little can be done except that shrubs may be pruned, or new work,
+such as making walks or grading, performed, if weather permits. See
+that the ornamental plants and trees are not injured by heavy
+weights of ice or snow.</p>
+
+<p><i>Fruit Garden.</i>&mdash;Pruning, staking up or mulching can be done if the
+weather is such that the workmen can stand out. In all warm or
+comfortable days the fruit trees may be pruned.</p>
+
+<p><i>Grapery.</i>&mdash;Graperies used for the forcing of foreign grapes may be
+started, beginning at a temperature of 50° at night, with 10° or 15°
+higher during the day. The borders must be covered sufficiently
+deep with leaves or manure to prevent the soil from freezing, as it
+would be destruction to the vines to start the shoots if the roots were
+frozen; hence, when forcing is begun in January, the covering should
+be put on in November, before severe frosts begin.</p>
+
+<p><i>Vegetable Garden.</i>&mdash;But little can be done in the northern states
+except to prepare manure, and get sashes, tools, &amp;c., in working
+order; but in sections of the country where there is little or no frost
+the hardier kinds of seeds and plants may be sown and planted, such
+as asparagus, cabbage, cauliflower, carrot, leek, lettuce, onion, parsnip,
+peas, spinach, turnip, &amp;c. In any section where these seeds can
+be sown in open ground, it is an indication that hotbeds may be
+started for the sowing of such tender vegetables as tomatoes, egg
+and pepper plants, &amp;c.; though, unless in the extreme southern
+states, hotbeds should not be started before the beginning or middle
+of February. Make orders for the spring seeds.</p>
+
+<p class="pt1 center sc">February</p>
+
+<p><i>Flower Garden and Greenhouse.</i>&mdash;The directions for January will in
+the main apply to this month, except that now some of the hardier
+annuals may be sown in hotbed or greenhouse, and also the propagation
+of plants by cuttings may be done rather better now than in
+January, as the greater amount of light gives more vitality to the
+cutting.</p>
+
+<p><i>Fruit Garden.</i>&mdash;But little can be done in most of the northern
+states as yet, and in sections where there is no frost in the ground
+it is likely to be too wet to work; but in many southern states this
+will be the best month for planting fruit trees and plants of all kinds,
+particularly strawberries, raspberries, blackberries, pear and apple
+trees, while grape vines will do, though they will also do well quite a
+month later. Continue the pruning. Fruit trees for spring planting
+should be ordered, if not already done.</p>
+
+<p><i>Grapery.</i>&mdash;The graperies started last month at 50° at night may
+now be increased to 60°, with a correspondingly higher day temperature.
+Great care must be taken to syringe the leaves thoroughly at
+least once a day, and to deluge the paths with water, so as to produce
+a moist atmosphere. Paint the hot-water pipes with sulphur
+mixture, as recommended in January.</p>
+
+<p><i>Vegetable Garden.</i>&mdash;Leaves from the woods, house manure or
+refuse hops from breweries may be got together towards the latter
+part of this month, and mixed and turned to get &ldquo;sweetened&rdquo;
+preparatory to forming hotbeds. Cabbage, lettuce and cauliflower
+seeds, if sown early this month in hotbed or greenhouse, will make fine
+plants if transplanted into hotbed in March. This is preferable
+to the use of fall-sown plants. Manure that is to be used for the crop
+should be broken up as fine as possible, for the more completely
+manure of any kind can be mixed with the soil the better the crop
+will be, and, of course, if it is dug or ploughed in in large unbroken
+lumps it cannot be properly commingled.</p>
+
+<p class="pt1 center sc">March</p>
+
+<p><i>Flower Garden and Greenhouse.</i>&mdash;The long days and bright sunshine
+will now begin to tell on the plants under glass. Examine all
+plants that are vigorous and healthy; if the roots have matted the
+&ldquo;ball&rdquo; of earth they must be shifted into a larger-sized pot. Plants
+from cuttings struck last month may now be shifted, and the propagation
+of all plants that are likely to be wanted should be continued.
+Hardier kinds of annuals may be sown; it is best done in shallow
+boxes, say 2 in. deep.</p>
+
+<p><i>Lawns</i> can be raked off and mulched with short manure, or rich
+garden earth where manure cannot be obtained. Flower-beds on
+light soils may be dug up so as to forward the work of the coming
+busy spring season. Lawns may be benefited by a good dressing, in
+addition to the manure, of some reliable commercial fertilizer. If
+the lawn is thin in spots, these places may be raked over heavily and
+new grass seed sown.</p>
+
+<p><i>Fruit Garden.</i>&mdash;In many sections, planting may now be done with
+safety, provided the soil is light and dry, but not otherwise. Although
+a tree or plant will receive no injury when its roots are undisturbed
+in the soil should a frost come after planting, the same amount of
+freezing will, and very often does, greatly injure the plant if the roots
+are exposed.</p>
+
+<p><i>Grapery.</i>&mdash;The grapery started in January will have set its fruit,
+which should be thinned by one-third. The temperature may now
+be further advanced to 70° at night, with 15° higher in the daytime.
+The same precautions must be used against mildew and insects as
+given in January. Graperies wanted for succession may be started
+in February or this month.</p>
+
+<p><i>Vegetable Garden.</i>&mdash;This is a busy month. In localities where
+the frost is out of the ground, if it is not wet, seeds of the hardier
+vegetables can be sown. The list of seeds given for the southern
+states in January may now be used at the north, while for most of
+the southern states tender vegetables, such as egg plant, okra, sweet
+potatoes, melon, squash, potatoes, tomatoes, &amp;c., may be sown and
+planted. Hotbeds must now be all started. In March flower seeds
+and vegetable seeds may be sown in boxes or flats in the greenhouse,
+or in residence windows, or near the kitchen stove. Unless one has
+space under glass, or in hotbeds, in which the plants may be transplanted
+before they are set in the open ground, it is well not to start
+the seeds too early, inasmuch as the plants are likely to become too
+large or to be pot-bound, or to become drawn.</p>
+
+<p class="pt1 center sc">April</p>
+
+<p><i>Flower Garden and Greenhouse.</i>&mdash;Window and greenhouse plants
+require more water and ventilation. Due attention must be paid to
+shifting well-rooted plants into larger pots; and, if space is desired,
+many kinds of hardier plants can be safely put out in cold frames.
+Towards the end of the month it may be necessary slightly to shade
+the glass of the greenhouse. All herbaceous plants and hardy shrubs
+may be planted in the garden. The covering of leaves or litter should
+be taken off bulbs and tender plants that were covered up for winter,
+so that the beds can be lightly forked and raked. Sow tender annual
+flower seeds in boxes inside.</p>
+
+<p><i>Fruit Garden.</i>&mdash;Strawberries that have been covered up with straw
+or leaves should be relieved around the plants, leaving the covering
+between them. Special care must be exercised that the mulch be
+not left on too long; the plants should not become whitened or
+&ldquo;drawn.&rdquo; Raspberries, grape vines, &amp;c., that have been laid down
+may now be uncovered and tied up to stakes or trellises, and all new
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page781" id="page781"></a>781</span>
+plantations of these and other fruits may now be made. Fruit trees
+may be grafted.</p>
+
+<p><i>Vegetable Garden.</i>&mdash;Asparagus, rhubarb, spinach, &amp;c., should be
+uncovered., and the beds hoed or dug lightly. Hardier sorts of
+vegetable seeds and plants, such as beets, cabbage, cauliflower,
+celery, lettuce, onions, parsley, parsnips, peas, potatoes, radishes,
+spinach, turnip, &amp;c., should all be sown or planted by the middle of
+the month if the soil is dry and warm, and in all cases, where practicable,
+before the end of the month. It is essential, in sowing seeds
+now, that they be well firmed in the soil. Any who expect to get
+early cabbage, cauliflower, lettuce or radishes, while planting or
+sowing is delayed until the time of sowing tomato and egg plant in
+May, are sure to be disappointed of a full crop. Frequent rotation of
+crops should be practised in the vegetable garden, in order to head
+off insects and diseases; and also to make the best use of the land.
+Every three or four years the vegetable garden should be laid out in
+some new place; but if this cannot be done, the crops should be
+rotated on different parts of the old garden.</p>
+
+<p class="pt1 center sc">May</p>
+
+<p><i>Flower Garden and Greenhouse.</i>&mdash;Window and greenhouse plants
+should be in their finest bloom. Firing may be entirely dispensed
+with, though care must still be exercised in ventilating. If weather is
+cold and backward, however, and in very northern regions, care must
+be taken not to stop firing too soon, or the plants will mildew and
+become stunted. Every precaution must be used to keep the air
+moist. &ldquo;Moss culture&rdquo; may be tried, the common sphagnum or
+moss of the swamps, mixed with one-twentieth of its bulk of bone-dust,
+being laid as a mulch on the top of the earth of the flower-pots;
+its effect is to shield the pots from the sun, and at the same time
+stimulate the roots to come to the surface. By the end of the month
+all of the plants that are wanted for the summer decoration of the
+flower border may be planted out, first loosening a little the ball of
+earth at the roots. If the weather is dry, water freely after planting.
+When the greenhouse is not to be used during the summer months,
+camellias, azaleas and plants of that character should be set out of
+doors under partial shade; but most of the other plants usually
+grown in the conservatory or window garden in winter may be set
+in the open border. Flower-beds should be kept well hoed, and raked,
+to prevent the growth of weeds next month.</p>
+
+<p>Pelargoniums, pinks, monthly roses and all the half-hardy kinds of
+flowering plants should be planted early, but coleus, heliotrope and
+the more tender plants should be delayed until the end of the month.
+Annuals that have been sown in the greenhouse or hotbed may be
+planted out, and seeds of such sorts as mignonette, sweet alyssum,
+Phlox Drummondii, portulaca, &amp;c., may be sown in the beds or
+borders. The china aster is now one of the most popular of summer
+and fall plants. The seed may be sown in the north as late as the
+middle of May, or even the first of June, with good results for fall
+blooming. If the plants are started early in the greenhouse, they are
+likely to spend themselves before fall, and therefore a later sowing
+should be provided.</p>
+
+<p><i>Lawns</i> should be mown, and the edgings trimmed.</p>
+
+<p><i>Fruit Garden.</i>&mdash;The hay or leaf mulching on the strawberry beds
+should be removed and the ground deeply hoed (if not removed in
+April in the more forward places), after which it may be placed on
+again to keep the fruit clean and the ground from drying. Where it
+has not been convenient before, most of the smaller fruits may yet
+be planted during the first part of the month. Tobacco dust will
+dislodge most of the numerous kinds of slugs, caterpillars or worms
+that make their appearance on the young shoots of vines or trees.
+Fruit trees may be planted this month, if they were not planted in
+March or April. If they have been kept fresh and dormant, they
+should still be in good condition. The broken roots should be cut
+back to fresh wood, and the tops should be headed back in proportion.</p>
+
+<p><i>Vegetable Garden.</i>&mdash;Attention should be given to new sowings and
+plantings for succession. Crops sown last month will have to be
+thinned out if large enough. Hoe deeply all transplanted crops, such
+as cabbage, cauliflower, lettuce, &amp;c. Tender vegetables, such as
+tomatoes, egg and pepper plants, sweet potatoes, &amp;c., can be planted
+out. Seeds of Lima beans, sweet corn, melon, okra, cucumbers, &amp;c.,
+should be sown; and sow for succession peas, spinach, lettuce, beans,
+radishes, &amp;c., every ten days.</p>
+
+<p class="pt1 center sc">June</p>
+
+<p><i>Flower Garden and Greenhouse.</i>&mdash;Tropical plants can now be used
+to fill up the greenhouse during the summer months. It should be
+well shaded, and fine specimens of fancy caladiums, dracaenas,
+coleus, crotons, palms, ferns and such plants as are grown for the
+beauty of their foliage, will make a very attractive show. If these
+cannot be had, common geraniums may be used. The &ldquo;moss
+culture&rdquo; will be found particularly valuable for these plants. Hyacinths,
+tulips and other spring bulbs may be dug up, dried and placed
+away for next fall&rsquo;s planting, and their places filled with bedding
+plants, such as coleus, achyranthes, pelargoniums, and the various
+white and coloured leaf plants. It will be necessary to mow the lawn
+once a week, and sometimes oftener.</p>
+
+<p><i>Fruit Garden.</i>&mdash;The small fruits should be mulched about the roots,
+if this has not yet been done. If the fruit garden is large enough to
+admit of horse culture, it is best to keep the bush-fruits well cultivated
+during the season; this tillage conserves the moisture and helps to
+make a full and plump crop of berries. In small areas the mulching
+system is sometimes preferable.</p>
+
+<p><i>Vegetable Garden.</i>&mdash;Beets, beans, carrots, corn, cucumbers, lettuce,
+peas and radishes may be sown for succession. This is usually a busy
+month, as many crops have to be gathered, and, if hoeing is not
+promptly seen to, weeds are certain to give great trouble. Tomatoes
+should be tied up to trellises or stakes if fine-flavoured and handsome
+fruit is desired, for if left to ripen on the ground they are apt to have
+a gross earthy flavour.</p>
+
+<p class="pt1 center sc">July</p>
+
+<p><i>Flower Garden and Greenhouse.</i>&mdash;Watering, ventilating and fumigating
+(or the use of tobacco in other forms for destruction of aphides)
+must be attended to. The atmosphere of the greenhouse must be
+kept moist. Watch the plants that have been plunged out of doors,
+and see if any require repotting. All plants that require staking, such
+as dahlias, roses, gladioli and many herbaceous plants, should now
+be looked to. Carnations and other plants that are throwing up
+flower stems, if wanted to flower in winter, should be cut back, that
+is, the flower stems should be cut off to say 5 in. from the ground.</p>
+
+<p><i>Fruit Garden.</i>&mdash;If grape vines show any signs of mildew, dust
+them over with dry sulphur, selecting a still warm day. The fruit
+having now been gathered from strawberry plants, if new beds are to
+be formed, the system of layering the plants in small pots is the best.
+In general, field strawberries are not grown from potted layers, but
+from good strong layers that strike naturally in the field. In the
+north, spring planting of strawberries is generally advised for market
+conditions; although planting in early fall or late summer is
+successful when the ground is well prepared and when it does not
+suffer from drought. Where apples, pears, peaches, grapes, &amp;c., have
+set fruit thickly, thin out at least one-half to two-thirds of the young
+fruit.</p>
+
+<p><i>Vegetable Garden.</i>&mdash;The first ten days of this month will yet be
+time enough to sow sweet corn, beets, lettuce, beans, cucumbers and
+ruta-baga turnips. Such vegetables as cabbage, cauliflower, celery,
+&amp;c., wanted for fall or winter use, are best planted this month, though
+in some sections they will do later. Keep sweet potatoes hoed to
+prevent the vines rooting at the joints.</p>
+
+<p class="pt1 center sc">August</p>
+
+<p><i>Flower Garden and Greenhouse.</i>&mdash;But little deviation is required in
+these departments from the instructions for July. See that sufficient
+water is applied; the walks may be wet in the houses.</p>
+
+<p><i>Fruit Garden.</i>&mdash;Strawberries that have fruited will now be making
+&ldquo;runners,&rdquo; or young plants. These should be kept cut off close to the
+old plant, so that the full force of the root is expended in making the
+&ldquo;crowns&rdquo; or fruit buds for next season&rsquo;s crop. If plants are required
+for new beds, only the required number should be allowed to
+grow, and these may be layered in pots as recommended in July.
+The old stems of raspberries and blackberries that have borne fruit
+should be cut away, and the young shoots thinned to three or four
+canes to each hill or plant. If tied to stakes and topped when 4 or
+5 ft. high, they will form three or four branches on a cane, and will
+make stronger fruiting plants for next year.</p>
+
+<p><i>Vegetable Garden.</i>&mdash;Hoe deeply such crops as cabbage, cauliflower
+and celery. The earthing up of celery this month is not to be
+recommended, unless a little very early supply is wanted. Onions in
+many sections can be harvested. The proper condition is when the
+tops are turning yellow and falling down. They are dried best by
+placing them in a dry shed in thin layers. Sow spinach for fall use,
+but not yet for the winter crop. Red top, white globe, and yellow
+Aberdeen turnips should now be sown; ruta-baga turnips sown last
+month will need thinning, and in extreme southern states they may
+yet be sown.</p>
+
+<p class="pt1 center sc">September</p>
+
+<p><i>Flower Garden and Greenhouse.</i>&mdash;The flower-beds in the lawn should
+be at their best. If planted in &ldquo;ribbon lines&rdquo; or &ldquo;massing,&rdquo; strict
+attention must be given to pinching off the tops, so that the lines or
+masses will present an even surface. Tender plants will require to
+be put in the greenhouse or housed in some way towards the end of
+this month; but be careful to keep them as cool as possible during
+the day. Cuttings of bedding plants may now be made freely if
+wanted for next season, as young cuttings rooted in the fall make
+better plants for next spring&rsquo;s use than old plants, in the case of such
+soft-wooded plants as pelargoniums, fuchsias, verbenas, heliotropes,
+&amp;c.; with roses and plants of a woody nature, however, the old
+plants usually do best. Dutch bulbs, such as hyacinths, tulips,
+crocus, &amp;c., and most of the varieties of lilies, may be planted.
+Violets that are wanted for winter flowering will now be growing
+freely, and the runners should be trimmed off. Sow seeds of sweet
+alyssum, candytuft, daisies, mignonette, pansies, &amp;c. Visit the
+roadsides and woods for interesting plants to put in the hardy
+borders.</p>
+
+<p><i>Fruit Garden.</i>&mdash;Strawberry plants that have been layered in pots
+may yet be planted, or in southern districts the ordinary ground
+layers may be planted. The sooner in the month both are planted
+the better crop they will give next season; and, as these plants soon
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page782" id="page782"></a>782</span>
+make runners, it will be necessary to trim them off. Attend to raspberries
+and blackberries as advised for last month, if they have
+not already been attended to. All fruit trees should be gone over for
+borers before cold weather sets in; they also should have been gone
+over for the same purpose in May and June.</p>
+
+<p><i>Vegetable Garden.</i>&mdash;If cabbage, cauliflower and lettuce are wanted
+to plant in cold frames, the seed should be sown from about the 10th
+to the 20th of this month; but judgment should be exercised,
+for, if sown too early, cabbage and cauliflower are apt to run to seed.
+The best date for latitude of New York is September 15th. The
+main crop of spinach or sprouts that is wanted for winter or spring
+use should be sown about the same date. The earth should be drawn
+up to celery with a hoe preparatory to earthing up with a spade.
+Onions that were not harvested and dried last month must now be
+attended to. Turnips of the early or flat sorts may yet be sown the
+first week of this month in the northern states, and in the south
+from two to four weeks later.</p>
+
+<p class="pt1 center sc">October</p>
+
+<p><i>Flower Garden and Greenhouse.</i>&mdash;In northern sections of the United
+States, tender plants that are still outside should be got under cover
+as early as possible. Delay using fire heat as long as possible, unless
+the nights become so cold as to chill the plants inside the house.
+Roses, carnations, camellias, azaleas, pelargoniums and the hardier
+sorts of plants will do better if placed in a cold frame or pit until the
+middle of November than they would in an ordinary greenhouse.
+Look out for insects. Fall bulbs of all kinds may be planted. Take
+up summer-flowering bulbs and tubers, such as dahlias, tuberoses,
+gladioli, cannas, caladiums, tigridias, and dry them off thoroughly,
+stowing them away afterwards in some place free from frost and
+moisture during the winter. Before winter sets in see that the lawn
+is freely top-dressed. Be careful not to mow the grass too short in
+fall.</p>
+
+<p><i>Fruit Garden.</i>&mdash;Strawberries that have been grown from pot-grown
+layers may yet be planted in southern states; keep the runners
+trimmed off. Fruit trees and shrubs may be set out; but, if planting
+is deferred to the last of the month, the ground around the roots
+should be mulched to the thickness of 3 or 4 in. with straw, leaves or
+rough manure, as a protection against frost. The fruit garden must
+be protected from the ravages of mice in winter. Mice will nest about
+the plants if there is straw or other litter around them. Before
+winter, all tall grass and loose litter should be taken away; if this is
+not done, then the first snow should be tramped heavily around the
+plants, in order to destroy any nesting-places.</p>
+
+<p><i>Vegetable Garden.</i>&mdash;Celery will now be in full growth, and will
+require close attention to earthing up, and during the last part of the
+month the first lot may be stored away in trenches for winter. All
+vegetable roots not designed to be left in the ground during the
+winter should be dug up, such as beets, carrots, parsnips, sweet
+potatoes, &amp;c. The cabbage, cauliflower and lettuce plants grown
+from seed sown last month should be pricked out in cold frames. If
+lettuce is wanted for winter use, it may now be planted in the greenhouse
+or cold frame, and will be ready for use about Christmas. If
+asparagus or rhubarb is wanted for winter use, it should be taken
+up and stowed away in pit, frame, shed or cellar for a month or
+two. It may then be taken into the greenhouse and packed closely
+together under the stage, and will be fit for use from January to
+March, according to the temperature of the house. Vegetable
+gardens often become infested with diseases that are carried over
+from year to year in the old plants and litter; this is specially true
+of water-melons and of some diseases of tomatoes. It is well, therefore,
+to burn the tops of the plants in the fall, rather than to plough
+them under or to throw them on the compost heap.</p>
+
+<p class="pt1 center sc">November</p>
+
+<p><i>Flower Garden and Greenhouse.</i>&mdash;Plants intended to be grown
+inside should now all be indoors. Keep a sharp look-out for cold
+snaps, as they come very unexpectedly in November, and many
+plants are lost thereby. In cases where it is not convenient to use
+fire heat, 5° to 10° of cold can be resisted by covering the plants over
+with paper, and by using this before frost has struck the plants
+valuable collections may be saved. When fire heat is freely used, be
+careful to keep up the proper amount of moisture by sprinkling the
+paths with water. Little can be done in the flower garden, except to
+clean off all dead stalks, and straw up tender roses, vines, &amp;c., and,
+wherever there is time, to dig up and rake the borders, as it will
+greatly facilitate spring work. Cover up all beds in which there are
+hyacinths, tulips and other bulbs with a litter of leaves or straw to
+the depth of 2 or 3 in. If short, thoroughly-decayed manure can
+be spared, a good sprinkling spread over the lawn will help it to a
+finer growth next spring.</p>
+
+<p><i>Fruit Garden.</i>&mdash;Strawberry beds should be covered (in cold sections)
+with hay, straw or leaf mulching, to a depth not exceeding 2 in.
+Fruit trees and grape vines generally should be pruned; and, if the
+wood of the vine is wanted for cuttings, or scions of fruit trees for
+grafts, they should be tied in small bundles and buried in the ground
+until spring. They may be taken in December or January if preferred.</p>
+
+<p><i>Vegetable Garden.</i>&mdash;Celery that is to be stored for winter use should
+be put away before the end of the month in all sections north of
+Virginia; south of that it may be left in most places where grown
+throughout the winter if well covered up. The stalks of the asparagus
+bed should be cut off, and burned if there are berries on them, as the
+seeds scattered in the soil sometimes produce troublesome weeds.
+Mulch the beds with 2 or 3 in. of rough manure. All vegetable roots
+that are yet in the ground, and not designed to be left there over
+winter, must be dug up in this latitude before the middle of the
+month or they may be frozen in. Cover up onions, spinach, sprouts,
+cabbage or lettuce plants with a covering of 2 or 3 in. of leaves, hay,
+or straw, to protect them during the winter. Cabbages that have
+headed may usually be preserved against injury by frost until the
+middle of next month, by simply pulling them up and packing them
+closely in a dry spot in the open field with the heads down and roots
+up. On approach of cold weather in December they should be covered
+up with leaves as high as the tops of the roots, or, if the soil is light,
+it may be thrown over them, if leaves are not convenient. Cabbages
+will keep this way until March if the covering has not been put on
+too early. Plough all empty ground if practicable, and, whenever
+time will permit, do trenching and subsoiling. Cabbage, cauliflower
+and lettuce plants that are in frames should be regularly
+ventilated by lifting the sash on warm days, and on the approach
+of very cold weather they should be covered with straw mats or
+shutters. In the colder latitudes, and even in the middle states, it
+is absolutely necessary to protect cauliflower in this way, as it is much
+more tender than cabbage and lettuce plants.</p>
+
+<p class="pt1 center sc">December</p>
+
+<p><i>Flower Garden and Greenhouse.</i>&mdash;Close attention must be paid to
+protecting all tender plants, for it is not uncommon to have the care
+of a whole year spoiled by one night&rsquo;s neglect. Vigilance and extra
+hot fires will have to be kept up when the thermometer falls to 34°
+or 35° in the parlour or conservatory. It is well to set the plants
+under the benches or on the walks of the greenhouses; if they are in
+the parlour move them away from the cold point and protect them
+with paper; this will usually save them even if the thermometer
+falls to 24° or 26°. Another plan in the greenhouse is to dash water
+on the pipes or flues, which causes steam to rise to the glass and
+freeze there, stopping up all the crevices. With plants outside that
+require strawing up or to be mulched, this will have now to be
+finished.</p>
+
+<p><i>Fruit Garden.</i>&mdash;In sections where it is an advantage to protect
+grape vines, raspberries, &amp;c., from severe frost, these should be laid
+down as close to the ground as possible, and covered with leaves,
+straw or hay, or with a few inches of soil. Grapes may be pruned.
+Fruit trees may be pruned from now till March in the north.</p>
+
+<p><i>Vegetable Garden.</i>&mdash;Celery in trenches should receive the final
+covering for the winter, which is best done by leaves or light stable
+litter; in the latitude of New York it should not be less than 12 in.
+thick. Potatoes, beets, turnips or other roots in pits, the spinach
+crop in the ground, or any other article in need of protection, should
+be attended to before the end of the month; manure and compost
+heaps should be forwarded as rapidly as possible, and turned and
+mixed so as to be in proper condition for spring. Remove the snow
+that accumulates on cold frames or other glass structures, particularly
+if the soil which the glass covers was not frozen before the snow
+fell; it may remain on the sashes longer if the plants are frozen in,
+since they are dormant, and would not be injured if deprived of light
+for eight or ten days. If roots have been placed in cellars, attention
+must be given to ventilation, which can be done by making a wooden
+box, say 6 by 8 in., to run from the ceiling of the cellar to the eaves
+of the building above.</p>
+<div class="author">(L. H. B.; P. H.)</div>
+
+<p><span class="sc">Bibliography of Modern Works on Horticulture.</span>&mdash;W.
+Robinson, <i>Alpine Flowers</i>; Lord Redesdale (A. B. Freeman Mitford),
+<i>The Bamboo Garden</i>; J. Weathers, <i>Bulbous Plants</i> (33 col. plates);
+H. H. Cousins, <i>Chemistry of the Garden</i>; W. Watson, <i>Cactus Culture
+for Amateurs</i>; R. P. Brotherston and M. R. Smith, <i>Book of the
+Carnation</i>; J. Weathers, <i>Cottage and Allotment Gardening</i>; J. Veitch
+and Sons, <i>Manual of Coniferae</i>; W. Wells, <i>Culture of the Chrysanthemum</i>;
+Rev. S. E. Bourne, <i>Book of the Daffodil</i>; Geo. Nicholson,
+<i>Dictionary of Gardening</i> (5 vols.); W. Robinson, <i>The English Flower
+Garden</i>; Geo. Schneider, <i>Book of Choice Ferns</i> (3 vols.); W. Robinson,
+<i>Flora and Sylva</i> (3 vols.; col. plates by the late H. G. Moon);
+J. Weathers, <i>Flowering Trees and Shrubs</i> (33 col. plates); J. Weathers,
+<i>French Market-Gardening and Intensive Cultivation</i>; T. Smith,
+<i>French Gardening</i>; Geo. Bunyard and O. Thomas, <i>The Fruit
+Garden</i>; Josh. Brace, Fruit Trees in Pots; Dr R. Hogg, The Fruit
+Manual; M. C. Cooke, <i>Fungoid Pests of Cultivated Plants</i>; Thos. H.
+Mawson, <i>The Art and Craft of Garden-Making</i>; J. Weathers, <i>A
+Practical Guide to Garden Plants</i>; W. Watson, <i>The Gardeners&rsquo;
+Assistant</i>; C. H. Wright and D. Dewar, <i>The Gardeners&rsquo; Dictionary</i>;
+J. Weathers, <i>Garden Flowers for Town and Country</i> (33 col. plates);
+Chas. Baltet, <i>The Art of Grafting and Budding</i>; W. Thomson, <i>The
+Grape Vine</i>; Thos. Baines, <i>Greenhouse and Stove Plants</i>; R. Irwin
+Lynch, <i>The Book of the Iris</i>; G. Jekyll, <i>Lilies for English Gardens</i>;
+E. A. Ormerod, <i>Manual of Injurious Insects</i>; Dr A. B. Griffiths,
+<i>Manures for Fruit and other Trees</i>; F. W. Burbridge and J. G. Baker,
+<i>The Narcissus</i> (48 col. plates); H. A. Burberry, <i>The Orchid Cultivator&rsquo;s
+Handbook</i>; B. S. Williams, <i>The Orchid Grower&rsquo;s Manual</i>;
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page783" id="page783"></a>783</span>
+J. Veitch &amp; Sons, <i>Manual of Orchidaceous Plants</i>; Dr Paul Sorauer
+and F. E. Weiss, <i>Physiology of Plants</i>; W. Watson, <i>Orchids, their
+Culture and Management</i>; G. Massee, <i>Plant Diseases</i>; Rev. A.
+Foster-Melliar, <i>Book of the Rose</i>; Wm. Paul, <i>The Rose Garden</i> (20
+col. plates); G. Jekyll and E. Mawley, <i>Roses for English Gardens</i>;
+J. Weathers, <i>Roses for Garden and Greenhouse</i> (33 col. plates); <i>Nat.
+Rose Society, Handbook on Pruning Roses</i>; Rev. J. H. Pemberton,
+<i>Roses, their History, Development and Culture</i>; Very Rev. Dean Hole,
+<i>A Book about Roses</i>; J. Hoffmann, <i>The Amateur Gardener&rsquo;s Rose
+Book</i> (20 col. plates; translated from the German); A. Gaut,
+<i>Seaside Planting of Trees and Shrubs</i>; E. Beckett, <i>Book of the
+Strawberry</i>; W. Iggulden, <i>The Tomato</i>; J. Weathers, <i>Trees and
+Shrubs for English and Irish Gardens</i> (33 col. plates); Vilmorin et
+Cie., <i>The Vegetable Garden</i> (Eng. ed. by W. Robinson); A. F. Barron,
+<i>Vines and Vine Culture</i>; G. Jekyll, <i>Wall and Water Gardens</i>; W.
+Robinson, <i>The Wild Garden</i>; L. H. Bailey, <i>Practical Garden Book</i>
+(New York, 1908).</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(J. Ws.; W. R. W.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HORTON, CHRISTIANA<a name="ar2" id="ar2"></a></span> (<i>c.</i> 1696-<i>c.</i> 1756), English actress,
+first appeared in London as Melinda in <i>The Recruiting Officer</i>
+in 1714 at Drury Lane. Here she remained twenty years,
+followed by fifteen at Covent Garden. At both houses during
+this long career she played all the leading tragedy and comedy
+parts, and Barton Booth (who &ldquo;discovered&rdquo; her) said she was
+the best successor of Mrs. Oldfield. She was the original Mariana
+in Fielding&rsquo;s <i>Miser</i> (1733).</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HORTON, ROBERT FORMAN<a name="ar3" id="ar3"></a></span> (1855-&emsp;&emsp;), British Nonconformist
+divine, was born in London on the 18th of September
+1855. He was educated at Shrewsbury school and New College,
+Oxford, where he took first classes in classics. He was president
+of the Oxford Union in 1877. He became a fellow of his college
+in 1879, and lectured on history for four years. In 1880 he
+accepted an influential invitation to become pastor of the Lyndhurst
+Road Congregational church, Hampstead, and subsequently
+took a very prominent part in church and denominational
+work generally. He delivered the Lyman Beecher
+lectures at Yale in 1893; in 1898 he was chairman of the London
+Congregational Union; and in 1903 of the Congregational Union of
+England and Wales. In 1909 he took a prominent part in the
+75th anniversary celebration of Hartford Theological Seminary.
+His numerous publications include books on theological, critical,
+historical, biographical and devotional subjects.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HORTON, SAMUEL DANA<a name="ar4" id="ar4"></a></span> (1844-1895), American writer
+on bimetallism, was born in Pomeroy, Ohio, on the 16th of
+January 1844. He graduated at Harvard in 1864, and at the
+Harvard Law School in 1868, studied Roman law in Berlin in
+1869, and in 1871 was admitted to the Ohio bar. He practised
+law in Cincinnati, and then in Pomeroy until 1885, when he gave
+up law for the advancement of bimetallism. His attention had
+been turned to monetary questions by the &ldquo;greenback campaign&rdquo;
+of 1875 in Ohio, in which, as in former campaigns, he
+had spoken, particularly effectively in German, for the Republican
+party. He was secretary of the American delegation to the
+Monetary Conference which met in Paris in 1878, and edited
+the report of the delegation. To the conference of 1881 he was
+a delegate, and thereafter he spent much of his time in Europe,
+whither he was sent by President Harrison in 1889 as special
+commissioner to promote the international restoration of silver.
+He died in Washington, D.C., on the 23rd of February 1895.
+Horton&rsquo;s principal works were <i>The Silver Pound</i> (1887) and
+<i>Silver in Europe</i> (1890), a volume of essays.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HORUS<a name="ar5" id="ar5"></a></span> (Egyptian <i>H&#333;r</i>), the name of an Egyptian god,
+if not of several distinct gods. To all forms of Horus the falcon
+was sacred; the name H&#333;r, written with a standing figure of that
+bird, <img style="width:35px; height:37px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img783a.jpg" alt="" /> is connected with a root signifying &ldquo;upper,&rdquo; and
+probably means &ldquo;the high-flyer.&rdquo; The tame sacred falcon on
+its perch <img style="width:28px; height:37px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img783b.jpg" alt="" /> is the commonest symbol of divinity in early
+hieroglyphic writing; the commonest title of the king in the
+earliest dynasties, and his first title later, was that which named
+him Horus. Hawk gods were the presiding deities of Poi (Pe)
+and Nekhen, which had been the royal quarters in the capitals
+of the two primeval kingdoms of Upper and Lower Egypt, at Buto
+and opposite El Kab. A principal festival in very early times
+was the &ldquo;worship of Horus,&rdquo; and the kings of the prehistoric
+dynasties were afterwards called &ldquo;the worshippers of Horus.&rdquo;
+The Northern Kingdom in particular was under the patronage
+of Horus. He was a solar divinity, but appears very early in
+the Osiris cycle of deities, a son of Isis and probably of Osiris,
+and opponent of S&#275;th. On monuments of the Middle Kingdom
+or somewhat later we find besides H&#333;r the following special
+forms: Har-behtet, <i>i.e.</i> H&#333;r of Beht, the winged solar disk,
+god of Edfu (<i>Apollinopolis Magna</i>); Har-khentekthai, god of
+Athribis; Har-mesen (whose principal sacred animal was a
+lion), god of the Sethroite (?) nome; Har-khentemna, <i>i.e.</i> the
+blind (?) Horus (with a shrew-mouse) at Letopolis; Har-mert
+(&ldquo;of two eyes&rdquo;) at Pharbaethus; Har-akht, Ra-har-akht, or
+Har-m-akhi (Harikakhis, &ldquo;Hor of the horizon&rdquo;), the sun-god
+of Heliopolis.</p>
+
+<p>As a sun-god Horus not only worsted the hostile darkness and
+avenged his father, but also daily renewed himself. He was thus
+identical with his own father from one point of view. In the
+mythology, especially that of the New Kingdom, or of quite late
+times, we find the following standing epithets applied to more or
+less distinct forms or phases: Harendotes (Har-ent-yotf),
+<i>i.e.</i> &ldquo;H&#333;r, avenger of his father (Osiris)&rdquo;; Harpokhrates
+(Har-p-khrat), <i>i.e.</i> &ldquo;H&#333;r the child,&rdquo; with finger in mouth,
+sometimes seated on a lotus-flower; Harsiesis (Har-si-&#274;si),
+<i>i.e.</i> &ldquo;H&#333;r, son of Isis,&rdquo; as a child; Har-en-kh&#275;bi, &ldquo;H&#333;r in
+Chemmis,&rdquo; a child nursed by Isis in the papyrus marshes;
+Haroeris (Har-u&#275;r), <i>i.e.</i> &ldquo;the elder H&#333;r,&rdquo; at Ombos, &amp;c., human-headed
+or falcon-headed; Harsemteus (Har-sem-teu), <i>i.e.</i>
+&ldquo;H&#333;r, uniter of the two lands,&rdquo; and others.</p>
+
+<p>In the judgment scene Horus introduces the deceased to Osiris.
+To the Greeks Horus was equivalent to Apollo, but in the name
+of Hermopolis Parva (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Damanhur</a></span>), which must have been
+among the first of the Egyptian cities to be known to them, he
+was apparently identified with Hermes. Although the falcon
+was the bird most properly sacred to Horus, not only its varieties,
+but also the sparrow-hawk, kestrel and other small hawks were
+mummified in his honour in late times.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Egypt</a></span>: section <i>Religion</i>; Meyer, art. &ldquo;Horos&rdquo; in Röscher,
+<i>Lexicon der Griech. und Rom. Mythologie</i>.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(F. Ll. G.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HORWICH,<a name="ar6" id="ar6"></a></span> an urban district in the Westhoughton parliamentary
+division of Lancashire, England, 4 m. W.N.W. of
+Bolton, on the Lancashire and Yorkshire railway. Pop. (1901)
+15,084. It lies beneath the considerable elevation of Rivington
+Pike, where formerly was a great forest. It has extensive
+locomotive works, and there are large stone quarries in the
+district. Bleaching and cotton-spinning and the manufacture
+of fire-bricks and tiles are carried on.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HOSANNA,<a name="ar7" id="ar7"></a></span> the cry of praise or adoration shouted in recognition
+of the Messiahship of Jesus on his entry into Jerusalem
+(Matt. xxi. 9, 15; Mark xi. 9 sq.; John xii. 13), and since used
+in the Christian Church. It is also a Jewish liturgical term,
+and was applied specifically to the &ldquo;hosanna&rdquo; branches carried
+in procession in the Feast of Booths or Tabernacles, the seventh
+day of which was called the Hosanna-day (so also in Syrian
+usage; cf. &ldquo;Palm&rdquo; Sunday). This festival (for which see Lev.
+xxiii. 39 sqq.; 2 Macc. x. 7; Jos. <i>Ant.</i> xii. 10. 4, xiii. 13. 15; and
+the Talmudic tractate <i>Sukkah</i>) already suggested a Dionysiac
+celebration to Plutarch (<i>Symp.</i> iv. 6), and was associated with
+a ceremonial drawing of water which, it was believed, secured
+fertilizing rains in the following year; the penalty for abstinence
+was drought (cf. Zech. xiv. 16 seq.). The evidence (see further
+<i>Ency. Bib.</i> cols. 3354, 4880 seq.; I. Levy, <i>Rev. des Ét. juives</i>,
+1901, pp. 192 sqq.) points to rites of nature-worship, and it
+is possible that in these the term Hosanna had some other
+application.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>The old interpretation &ldquo;save, now!&rdquo; which may be a popular
+etymology, is based on Ps. cxviii. 25 (Heb. <i>h&#333;sh&#299;&lsquo;ah-nn&#257;</i>), but this
+does not explain the occurrence of the word in the Gospels, a complicated
+problem, on which see the articles of J. H. Thayer in Hastings&rsquo;s
+<i>Dict. Bib.</i>, and more especially T. K. Cheyne, <i>Ency. Bib.</i> s.v.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HOSE<a name="ar8" id="ar8"></a></span> (a word common to many Teutonic languages; cf.
+Dutch, <i>hoos</i>, stocking, Ger. <i>Hose</i>, breeches, tights; the
+ultimate origin is unknown), the name of an article of dress,
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page784" id="page784"></a>784</span>
+used as a covering for the leg and foot. The word has been
+used for various forms of a long stocking covering both the foot
+and leg (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Hosiery</a></span>), and this is the usual modern sense. But
+it also formerly meant a kind of gaiter covering the leg from the
+knee to the ankle only, of the long tight covering for the whole
+of the lower limbs, and later of the short puffed or slashed
+breeches worn with the doublet&mdash;at this period, from the early
+part of the 16th century onwards, comes the distinction between
+the &ldquo;hose&rdquo; or &ldquo;trunk hose&rdquo; and the stocking (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Costume</a></span>).
+The term is applied to certain objects resembling such a covering,
+as in its application to flexible rubber or canvas piping used
+for conveying water (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Hosepipe</a></span>), and in botany, to the
+&ldquo;sheath&rdquo; covering, <i>e.g.</i> the ear of corn. The term &ldquo;hose-in-hose&rdquo;
+is thus used in botany for a flower in which the corolla
+has become doubled, as though a second were inserted in the
+throat of the first; it occurs sometimes in the primrose.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HOSEA,<a name="ar9" id="ar9"></a></span> the son of Be&#275;r&#299;, the first in order of the minor
+prophets of the Old Testament. The name Hosea (<span title="Hoshea">&#1492;&#1493;&#1513;&#1506;</span>, LXX.
+<span class="grk" title="Ôsêe">&#8040;&#963;&#951;&#941;</span>, Vulg. <i>Osee</i>, and so the English version in Rom. ix. 25)
+ought rather to be written Hoshea, and is identical with that
+borne by the last king of Ephraim, and by Joshua in Num.
+xiii. 16, Deut. xxxii. 44. Of the life of Hosea<a name="fa1a" id="fa1a" href="#ft1a"><span class="sp">1</span></a> we know nothing
+beyond what can be gathered from his prophecies. That he
+was a citizen of the northern kingdom appears from the whole
+tenor of the book, but most expressly from i. 2, where &ldquo;the
+land,&rdquo; the prophet&rsquo;s land, is the realm of Israel, and vii. 5,
+where &ldquo;our king&rdquo; is the king of Samaria. The date at which
+Hosea flourished is given in the title, i. 1, by the reigning kings
+of Judah and Israel. He prophesied (i) in the days of Uzziah,
+Jotham, Ahaz and Hezekiah, kings of Judah; (2) in the days
+of Jeroboam the son of Joash, king of Israel. The dates indicated
+by the title, which may be regarded as editorial, are,
+for the four kings of the southern kingdom, 789-740, 739-734,
+733-721 and 720-693 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> respectively; and, for Jeroboam II.,
+782-743 (cf. <i>Ency. Bib.</i> col. 797-798). The book itself, however,
+plainly belongs to the period prior to 734 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> since, in that
+year, (<i>a</i>) the Syro-Ephraimitic war began, to which there is
+here no reference, nor is Assyria yet the open foe it then became;
+(<i>b</i>) Gilead became Tiglath-Pileser&rsquo;s (2 Kings xv. 29), whereas
+it is here described as still part of the territory of Israel (vi. 8;
+xii. 11; cf. the included place-names of v. 1). On the other hand,
+the prophet connects with the birth of his eldest child the
+approaching fall of the house of Jehu (i. 4), thus anticipating
+the death of Jeroboam II. in 743, and the period of anarchy
+which followed (2 Kings xv.). Thus the prophetic work of
+Hosea may be dated, with practical certainty, as beginning
+from some point previous to 743 and extending not later than
+734.<a name="fa2a" id="fa2a" href="#ft2a"><span class="sp">2</span></a> This is corroborated by the general character of the
+book. Of its two parts, i.-iii. reflects the wealth and prosperity
+of the reign of Jeroboam II., whilst iv.-xiv. contains frequent references
+to the social disorder and anarchy of the subsequent years.</p>
+
+<p>The first part of Hosea&rsquo;s prophetic work, corresponding to
+chs. i.-iii., lay in the years of external prosperity immediately
+preceding the catastrophe of the house of Jehu in or near the year
+743. The second part of the book is a summary of prophetic
+teaching during the subsequent troublous reign of Menahem,
+and, perhaps, that of his successor, Pekahiah, and must have
+been completed before 734 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> Apart from the narrative
+in chs. i.-iii., to which we shall presently recur, the book throws
+little or no light on the details of Hosea&rsquo;s life. It appears from
+ix. 7, 8, that his prophetic work was greatly embarrassed by
+opposition: &ldquo;As for the prophet, a fowler&rsquo;s snare is in all his
+ways, and enmity in the house of his God.&rdquo; The enmity which
+had its centre in the sanctuary probably proceeded from the
+priests (comp. Amos vii.), against whose profligacy and profanation
+of their office our prophet frequently declaims&mdash;perhaps
+also from the degenerate prophetic gilds which had their seats
+in the holy cities of the northern kingdom, and with whom
+Hosea&rsquo;s elder contemporary Amos so indignantly refuses to
+be identified (Amos vii. 14). In ch. iv. 5 Hosea seems to
+comprise priests and prophets in one condemnation, thus placing
+himself in direct antagonism to all the leaders of the religious
+life of his nation. He is not less antagonistic to the kings and
+princes of his day (vii. 3-7, viii. 4, viii. 10 Septuagint, x. 7-15,
+xiii. 11).<a name="fa3a" id="fa3a" href="#ft3a"><span class="sp">3</span></a> In view of the familiarity shown with the intrigues
+of rulers and the doings of priests, it has been conjectured that
+Hosea held a prominent position, or even (by Duhm) that he
+was himself a priest (Marti, p. 2).</p>
+
+<p>The most interesting problem of Hosea&rsquo;s history lies in the
+interpretation of the story of his married life (chs. i.-iii.). We
+read in these chapters that God&rsquo;s revelation to Hosea began
+when in accordance with a divine command he married a profligate
+wife, Gomer, the daughter of Diblaim. Three children were born
+in this marriage and received symbolical names, illustrative of
+the divine purpose towards Israel, which are expounded in ch.
+i. In ch. ii. the faithlessness of Israel to Jehovah (Yahweh),
+the long-suffering of God, the moral discipline of sorrow and
+tribulation by which He will yet bring back His erring people
+and betroth it to Himself for ever in righteousness, love and
+truth, are depicted under the figure of the relation of a husband
+to an erring spouse. The suggestion of this allegory lies in
+the prophet&rsquo;s marriage with Gomer, but the details are worked
+out quite independently, and under a rich multiplicity of figures
+derived from other sources. In the third chapter we return
+to the personal experience of the prophet. His faithless wife
+had at length left him and fallen, under circumstances which are
+not detailed, into a state of misery, from which Hosea, still
+following her with tender affection, and encouraged by a divine
+command, brought her back and restored her to his house,
+where he kept her in seclusion, and patiently watched over
+her for many days, yet not readmitting her to the privileges
+of a wife.</p>
+
+<p>In these experiences the prophet again recognizes a parallel
+to Yahweh&rsquo;s long-suffering love to Israel, and the discipline
+by which the people shall be brought back to God through a
+period in which all their political and religious institutions are
+overthrown. Throughout these chapters personal narrative
+and prophetic allegory are interwoven with a rapidity of transition
+very puzzling to the modern reader; but an unbiassed
+exegesis can hardly fail to acknowledge that chs. i. and iii.
+narrate an actual passage in the prophet&rsquo;s life. The names of the
+three children are symbolical, but Isaiah in like manner gave
+symbolical names to his sons, embodying prominent points
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page785" id="page785"></a>785</span>
+in his prophetic teaching (Shear-jashub, Isa. vii. 3, comp. x. 21;
+Maher-shalal-hash-baz, viii. 3). And the name of Gomer bath
+Diblaim is certainly that of an actual person, upon which all
+the allegorists, from the Targum, Jerome and Ephraem Syrus
+downwards, have spent their arts in vain, whereas the true symbolical
+names in the book are perfectly easy of interpretation.<a name="fa4a" id="fa4a" href="#ft4a"><span class="sp">4</span></a>
+That the ancient interpreters take the whole narrative as a mere
+parable is no more than an application of their standing rule that
+everything in the Biblical history is allegorical which in its literal
+sense appears offensive to propriety (comp. Jerome&rsquo;s proem to
+the book). But the supposed offence to propriety seems to rest
+on mistaken exegesis and too narrow a conception of the way
+in which the Divine word was communicated to the prophets.<a name="fa5a" id="fa5a" href="#ft5a"><span class="sp">5</span></a>
+There is no reason to suppose that Hosea knowingly married
+a woman of profligate character. The point of the allegory
+in i. 2 is plainly infidelity after marriage as a parallel to Israel&rsquo;s
+departure from the covenant God, and a profligate wife (<span title="eshet znunim">&#1488;&#1513;&#1514; &#1494;&#1504;&#1493;&#1504;&#1497;&#1501;</span>)
+is not the same thing with an open prostitute (<span title="zonna">&#1494;&#1493;&#1504;&#1492;</span>). The
+marriage was marred by Gomer&rsquo;s infidelity; and the struggle
+of Hosea&rsquo;s affection for his wife with this great unhappiness&mdash;a
+struggle inconceivable unless his first love had been pure and
+full of trust in the purity of its object&mdash;furnished him with a new
+insight into Yahweh&rsquo;s dealings with Israel. Then he recognized
+that the great calamity of his life was God&rsquo;s own ordinance and
+appointed means to communicate to him a deep prophetic lesson.
+The recognition of a divine command after the fact has its
+parallel, as Wellhausen observes, in Jer. xxxii. 8.</p>
+
+<p>It was in the experiences of his married life, and in the spiritual
+lessons opened to him through these, that Hosea first heard
+the revealing voice of Yahweh (i. 2).<a name="fa6a" id="fa6a" href="#ft6a"><span class="sp">6</span></a> Like Amos (Amos iii. 8),
+he was called to speak for God by an inward constraining voice,
+and there is no reason to think that he had any connexion with
+the recognized prophetic societies, or ever received such outward
+adoption to office as was given to Elisha. His position in Israel
+was one of tragic isolation. Amos, when he had discharged his
+mission at Bethel, could return to his home and to his friends;
+Hosea was a stranger among his own people, and his home was
+full of sorrow and shame. Isaiah in the gloomiest days of Judah&rsquo;s
+declensions had faithful disciples about him, and knew that there
+was a believing remnant in the land. Hosea knows no such
+remnant, and there is not a line in his prophecy from which
+we can conclude that his words ever found an obedient ear.</p>
+
+<p>As already stated, this prophecy falls into two clearly distinguished
+sections,<a name="fa7a" id="fa7a" href="#ft7a"><span class="sp">7</span></a> the former (i.-iii.), already dealt with,
+accounting for the general standpoint of the latter (iv.-xiv.).
+It is not possible to make any convincing subdivisions of this
+latter section (cf. G. A. Smith, i. p. 223) which is best regarded
+as a series of separate discourses on certain recurrent topics,
+viz. (<i>a</i>) the cultus, (<i>b</i>) the social disorder and immorality, (<i>c</i>)
+political tendencies (alliance with either Assyria or Egypt sought).<a name="fa8a" id="fa8a" href="#ft8a"><span class="sp">8</span></a>
+In regard to each of these topics, the attitude of the prophet
+involves the discernment of present guilt, and the assertion
+of future punishment. For him the present condition of the
+people contained no germ or pledge of future amendment, and
+he describes the impending judgment, not as a sifting process
+(Amos ix. 9, 10) in which the wicked perish and the righteous
+remain, but as the total wreck of the nation which has wholly
+turned aside from its God. In truth, while the idolatrous feasts of
+Ephraim still ran their joyous round, while the careless people
+crowded to the high places, and there in unbridled and licentious
+mirth flattered themselves that their many sacrifices ensured the
+help of their God against all calamity, the nation was already
+in the last stage of internal dissolution. To the prophet&rsquo;s eye
+there was &ldquo;no truth, nor mercy, nor knowledge of God in the
+land&mdash;nought but swearing, and lying, and killing, and stealing
+and adultery; they break out, and blood toucheth blood&rdquo;
+(iv. 1, 2). The root of this corruption lay in total ignorance of
+Yahweh, whose precepts were no longer taught by the priests,
+while in the national calf-worship, and in the local high places,
+this worship was confounded with the service of the Canaanite
+Baalim. Thus the whole religious constitution of Israel was
+undermined. And the political state of the realm was in Hosea&rsquo;s
+eyes not more hopeful. The dynasty of Jehu, still great and
+powerful when the prophet&rsquo;s labours began, is itself an incorporation
+of national sin. Founded on the bloodshed of Jezreel, it
+must fall by God&rsquo;s vengeance, and the state shall fall with it
+(i. 4, iii. 4). This sentence stands at the head of Hosea&rsquo;s predictions,
+and throughout the book the civil constitution of
+Ephraim is represented as equally lawless and godless with the
+corrupt religious establishment. The anarchy that followed
+on the murder of Zachariah appears to the prophet as the natural
+decadence of a realm not founded on divine ordinance. The
+nation had rejected Yahweh, the only helper. And now the
+avenging Assyrian<a name="fa9a" id="fa9a" href="#ft9a"><span class="sp">9</span></a> is at hand. Samaria&rsquo;s king shall pass away
+as foam on the water. Fortress and city shall fall before the
+ruthless invader, who spares neither age nor sex, and thistles shall
+cover the desolate altars of Ephraim.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>In our present book of Hosea, this condemnatory judgment on
+contemporary Israel culminates in a chapter of appeal for penitence,
+with promise of divine forgiveness. The question of the authenticity
+of this and of other &ldquo;restoration&rdquo; passages<a name="fa10a" id="fa10a" href="#ft10a"><span class="sp">10</span></a> forms the chief problem
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page786" id="page786"></a>786</span>
+for literary criticism presented by the book.<a name="fa11a" id="fa11a" href="#ft11a"><span class="sp">11</span></a> Amongst the more
+recent commentators, Davidson, G. A. Smith and Nowack regard
+Hosea xiv. as written by the prophet, though the second admits
+its chronological misplacement and the third its later expansion.
+On the other hand, it is altogether rejected by Cheyne, Wellhausen,
+Marti and Harper. These claim that the passage reflects the later
+standpoint of completed punishment, and is therefore inconsistent
+in the prophet who anticipates that punishment. But the case is
+different from that of the epilogue to Amos, since Hosea&rsquo;s personal
+experience covers forgiveness as well as discipline (Marti consistently,
+though without ground, rejects this experience also). There seems,
+therefore, to be no sufficient evidence for denying thoughts of
+restoration to Hosea, whilst it is highly probable that such passages
+would be amplified in a later age. Indeed, the importance of these
+passages for the interpretation of Hosea is apt to be overrated,
+for, as one of those rejecting them remarks, though Hosea &ldquo;promised
+nothing,&rdquo; yet he &ldquo;contributed a conception of Yahweh which made
+such a future not only possible but even probable&rdquo; (Harper, p. cliii.).
+We may therefore read the closing chapter as, at least, the explicit
+statement of a hope implicit in Hosea&rsquo;s teaching.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>Hosea could discern no faithful remnant in Ephraim, yet
+Ephraim in all his corruption is the son of Yahweh, a child
+nurtured with tender love, a chosen people, whose past history
+declares in every episode the watchful and patient affection
+of his father. And that father is God and not man, the Holy
+One who will not and cannot sacrifice His love even to the justest
+indignation (chap. xi.). To the prophet who knows this love of
+Yahweh, who has learned to understand it in the like experience
+of his own life, the very ruin of the state of Israel is a step in the
+loving guidance which makes the valley of trouble a door of hope
+(ii. 15), and the wilderness of tribulation as full of promise as
+the desert road from Egypt to Canaan was to Israel of old. Of the
+manner of Israel&rsquo;s repentance and conversion Hosea presents no
+clear image&mdash;nay, it is plain that on this point he had nothing to
+tell. The certainty that the people will at length return and
+seek Yahweh their God rests, not on any germ of better things
+in Israel, but on the invincible supremacy of Yahweh&rsquo;s love.
+And so the two sides of his prophetic declaration, the passionate
+denunciation of Israel&rsquo;s sin and folly, and the not less passionate
+tenderness with which he describes the final victory of divine
+love, are united by no logical bond. The unity is one of feeling
+only, and the sob of anguish in which many of his appeals to a
+heedless people seem to end turns once and again with sudden
+revulsion into the clear accents of evangelical promise, which in
+the closing chapter swell forth in pure and strong cadence out
+of a heart that has found its rest with God from all the troubles
+of a stormy life.</p>
+
+<p>The strongly emotional temperament of Hosea suggests comparison
+with that of Jeremiah, who like himself is the prophet
+of the decline and fall of a kingdom. The subsequent influence
+of Hosea on the literature of the Old and New Testaments is
+very marked. Not only is it seen in the conception of the
+relation between God and His people as a marriage, which
+he makes current coin (cf. Marti, p. 15), but still more in the
+fact that his conception of the divine character becomes the
+inspiration of the book of Deuteronomy and so of the whole
+canon of Scripture. &ldquo;In a special degree, the author of
+Deuteronomy is the spiritual heir of Hosea.&rdquo;<a name="fa12a" id="fa12a" href="#ft12a"><span class="sp">12</span></a></p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p><span class="sc">Recent Literature</span> (where references to older works will be
+found): Cheyne, &ldquo;Hosea&rdquo; in <i>Cambridge Bible</i> (1884); W. R.
+Smith, <i>The Prophets of Israel</i>,<span class="sp">2</span> with Cheyne&rsquo;s introduction (1895);
+G. A. Smith, &ldquo;The Book of the Twelve,&rdquo; i., in <i>The Expositor&rsquo;s Bible</i>
+(1896); Nowack, <i>Die Kleinen Propheten</i> (1897); Wellhausen, <i>Die
+Kleinen Propheten</i><span class="sp">3</span> (1898); Smend, <i>Alttest. Religionsgeschichte</i>,<span class="sp">2</span>
+pp. 204 f. (1899); Davidson, art. &ldquo;Hosea&rdquo; in Hastings&rsquo; <i>Dictionary
+of the Bible</i>, ii. pp. 419 f. (1900); Marti, art. &ldquo;Hosea&rdquo; in <i>Ency.
+Biblica</i>, ii. c. 2119 (1901) (a revision of the original article by W. R.
+Smith, in the <i>Ency. Britannica</i>, partially reproduced above); Marti,
+<i>Dodekapropheton</i> (1903); W. R. Harper, &ldquo;Amos and Hosea&rdquo; in
+<i>Inter. Critical Commentary</i> (1905) (with copious bibliography).</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(W. R. S.; H. W. R.*)</div>
+
+<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note">
+
+<p><a name="ft1a" id="ft1a" href="#fa1a"><span class="fn">1</span></a> <i>Traditions about Hosea.</i>&mdash;Be&#275;r&#299;, the prophet&rsquo;s father, is identified
+by the Rabbins with Be&#275;rah (1 Chron. v. 6), a Reubenite prince
+carried captive by Tiglath-Pileser. This view is already expressed
+by Jerome, <i>Quaest. in Paralip.</i>, and doubtless underlies the statement
+of the Targum to Chronicles that Be&#275;rah was a prophet. For
+it is a Jewish maxim that when a prophet&rsquo;s father is named, he, too,
+was a prophet, and accordingly a tradition of R. Simon makes
+Isa. viii. 19, 20 a prophecy of Be&#275;r&#299; (&#7730;imc&#7717;i in loc.; <i>Leviticus
+Rabba</i>, par. 15). According to the usual Christian tradition, however,
+Hosea was of the tribe of Issachar, and from an unknown town,
+Belemoth or Belemon (pseudo-Epiphanius, pseudo-Dorotheus,
+Ephraem Syr. ii. 234; <i>Chron. Pasch.</i>, Bonn ed., i. 276). As the
+tradition adds that he died there, and was buried in peace, the
+source of the story lies probably in some holy place shown as his
+grave. There are other traditions as to the burial-place of Hosea.
+A Jewish legend in the <i>Shalshelet haqqabala</i> (Carpzov, <i>Introd.</i>, pt. iii.
+ch. vii. § 3) tells that he died in captivity at Babylon, and was
+carried to Upper Galilee, and buried at <span title="Zefat">&#1510;&#1508;&#1514;</span>, that is, Safed (Neubauer,
+Géog. <i>du Talmud</i>, p. 227); and the Arabs show the grave of Nebi
+&rsquo;Osha, east of the Jordan, near Es-Salt (Baedeker&rsquo;s <i>Palestine</i>, p. 337;
+Burckhardt&rsquo;s <i>Syria</i>, p. 353).</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft2a" id="ft2a" href="#fa2a"><span class="fn">2</span></a> The supposed reference of viii. 9-10 to the tribute paid by
+Menahem to Tiglath-Pileser (2 Kings xv. 19), and dated, on the
+monuments, 738 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>, depends on a corrupt text: read v. 10 with
+Septuagint.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft3a" id="ft3a" href="#fa3a"><span class="fn">3</span></a> Some scholars hold that his attack is directed against the very
+principle of monarchy (Nowack, p. 8; Smend, p. 209: &ldquo;Hosea
+rejects the kingship in itself&rdquo;; Wellhausen, p. 125: &ldquo;The making
+of kings in Israel is for him, together with the heathen cultus, the
+fundamental evil&rdquo;). This view depends on a disputed interpretation
+of the reference to Gibeah (x. 9; cf. ix. 9); and on the words:
+&ldquo;I give thee kings in mine anger, and I take them away in my
+wrath&rdquo; (xiii. 11), which may refer to the rise and fall of contemporary
+kings (cf. Marti, ad loc). In any case, as Wellhausen himself
+says (p. 132): &ldquo;He does not start from a dogmatic theory, but
+simply from historical experience.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft4a" id="ft4a" href="#fa4a"><span class="fn">4</span></a> Theodorus Mops. remarks very justly, <span class="grk" title="kai to onoma kai ton patera
+legei, ôs mê plasma psilon ti dokoiê to legomenon, historia de alêthês tôn
+pragmatôn.">&#954;&#945;&#8054; &#964;&#8056; &#8004;&#957;&#959;&#956;&#945; &#954;&#945;&#8054; &#964;&#8056;&#957; &#960;&#945;&#964;&#941;&#961;&#945;
+&#955;&#941;&#947;&#949;&#953;, &#8033;&#962; &#956;&#8052; &#960;&#955;&#940;&#963;&#956;&#945; &#968;&#953;&#955;&#972;&#957; &#964;&#953; &#948;&#959;&#954;&#959;&#943;&#951; &#964;&#8056; &#955;&#949;&#947;&#972;&#956;&#949;&#957;&#959;&#957;,
+&#7985;&#963;&#964;&#959;&#961;&#943;&#945; &#948;&#8050; &#7936;&#955;&#951;&#952;&#8052;&#962; &#964;&#8182;&#957; &#960;&#961;&#945;&#947;&#956;&#940;&#964;&#969;&#957;</span>.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft5a" id="ft5a" href="#fa5a"><span class="fn">5</span></a> This explanation of the narrative, which is essentially Ewald&rsquo;s,
+is now generally accepted. It has the great advantage of supplying
+a psychological key to the conception of Israel or the land of Israel
+(i. 2) as the spouse of Yahweh, which dominates these chapters,
+but in the later part of the book gives way to the personification of
+the nation as God&rsquo;s son. This conception has, indeed, formal points
+of contact with notions previously current, and even with the ideas
+of Semitic heathenism. On the one hand, it is a standing Hebrew
+usage to represent the land as mother of its people, while the representation
+of worshippers as children of their god is found in Num.
+xxi. 29, where the Moabites are called children of Chemosh, and is
+early and widespread throughout the Semitic field (cf. <i>Trans. Bib.
+Arch.</i> vi. 438; <i>Jour. of Phil.</i> ix. 82). The combination of these
+two notions gives at once the conception of the national deity as
+husband of the land. On the other hand, the designation of Yahweh
+as Baal, which, in accordance with the antique view of marriage,
+means husband as well as lord and owner, was current among the
+Israelites in early times, perhaps, indeed, down to Hosea&rsquo;s age
+(ii. 16). Now it is highly probable that among the idolatrous
+Israelites the idea of a marriage between the deity and individual
+worshippers was actually current and connected with the immorality
+which Hosea often condemns in the worship of the local Baalim
+whom the ignorant people identified with Yahweh. For we have
+a Punic woman&rsquo;s name, <span title="areshetbaal">&#1488;&#1512;&#1513;&#1514;&#1489;&#1506;&#1500;</span>, &ldquo;the betrothed of Baal&rdquo; (Euting,
+Punische Steine, pp. 9, 15), and a similar conception existed among
+the Babylonians (Herod. i. 181, 182). But Hosea takes the idea of
+Yahweh as husband, and gives it an altogether different turn,
+filling it with a new and profound meaning, based on the psychical
+experiences of a deep human affection in contest with outraged
+honour and the wilful self-degradation of a spouse. It can hardly
+be supposed that all that lies in these chapters is an abstract study
+in the psychology of the emotions. It is actual human experience
+that gives Hosea the key to divine truth.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft6a" id="ft6a" href="#fa6a"><span class="fn">6</span></a> Davidson (<i>D.B.</i> ii. 422) remarks that &ldquo;it was not his misfortunes
+that gave Hosea his prophetic word. Israel&rsquo;s apostasy was
+plain to him, and he foreshadowed her doom in Jezreel, the name
+of his first child, before any misfortunes overtook him. At most,
+his misfortunes may at a later time have given a complexion to his
+prophetic thoughts.&rdquo; Wellhausen (p. 108) objects to the emergence
+of the call from the experience, on the ground that the name given
+to the first child gives no indication that Hosea had yet reached his
+specific message, the infidelity of his wife and of Israel, though it
+shows him already as a prophet. Marti (p. 15) agrees with Davidson
+in making the order (<i>a</i>) call, (<i>b</i>) marriage and birth of three children,
+(<i>c</i>) comprehension of the significance of the marriage for himself
+and for Israel. The statement made above must be interpreted of
+Hosea&rsquo;s <i>specific</i> message from Yahweh, as recorded in his book.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft7a" id="ft7a" href="#fa7a"><span class="fn">7</span></a> Marti disregards this generally accepted division, arguing that
+(<i>a</i>) i.-iii. was not written earlier than iv.-xiv., (<i>b</i>) iii. is not Hoseanic,
+(<i>c</i>) ii. is much more akin to iv.-xiv. than to i.-iii. (<i>Comm.</i> p. 1; cf.
+<i>Enc. Bib.</i> 2123 n.<span class="sp">3</span>). He holds that another wife, not Gomer, is
+intended in iii., which is an allegory referring to Israel, as Gomer
+referred to Judah. His arguments are not convincing.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft8a" id="ft8a" href="#fa8a"><span class="fn">8</span></a> So, practically, Davidson, <i>D.B.</i> ii. p. 423 seq., where the detailed
+references will be found.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft9a" id="ft9a" href="#fa9a"><span class="fn">9</span></a> This is too definite for the data; cf. Davidson, <i>l.c.</i> &ldquo;Hosea has
+no clear idea of the instrument or means of Israel&rsquo;s destruction.
+It is &lsquo;the sword&rsquo; (vii. 16, xi. 6), the &lsquo;enemy&rsquo; (viii. 3, v. 8-9);
+or it is natural, internal decay (vii. 8-9, ix. 16), the moth and
+rottenness (v. 12).&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft10a" id="ft10a" href="#fa10a"><span class="fn">10</span></a> <i>e.g.</i> i. 10-ii. 1, ii. 14 f., iii. 5, v. 15-vi. 3, xi. 10-11.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft11a" id="ft11a" href="#fa11a"><span class="fn">11</span></a> Apart from glosses and minor alterations, the only other critical
+problem of importance is that of the references to <i>Judah</i> scattered
+throughout the book (i. 7, iv. 15, v. 5, v. 10 f., vi. 4, 11, viii.
+14, x. 11, xi. 12). There is no inherent improbability in some
+mention of the sister kingdom; but some of the actual references
+do suggest interpolation, especially i. 7, where the deliverance of
+Judah from Sennacherib in 701 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> seems intended. Each case,
+as Wellhausen implies, is to be considered on its merits. On
+these and other suspected passages, cf. Cheyne, Intro. to W. R.
+Smith&rsquo;s <i>Prophets of Israel</i>, pp. xvii.-xxii.; Marti, p. 8; Harper,
+p. clix.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft12a" id="ft12a" href="#fa12a"><span class="fn">12</span></a> Driver, <i>Deuteronomy</i>, p. xxvii.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HOSE-PIPE,<a name="ar10" id="ar10"></a></span> or simply &ldquo;hose,&rdquo; the name given to flexible
+piping by means of which water may be conveyed from one
+place to another. One end of the pipe is connected to the source
+of the water, while the other end is free, so that the direction of
+the stream of water which issues from the pipe may be changed
+at will. The method of manufacture and the strength of the
+materials used depend naturally upon the particular use to
+which the finished article is to be put. Simple garden hose is
+often made of india-rubber or composition, but the hose intended
+for fire brigade and similar important purposes must be of a much
+more substantial material. The most satisfactory material is
+the best long flax, although cotton is also extensively used for
+many types of this fabric.</p>
+
+<p>The flax fibre, after having been carefully spun into yarn,
+is boiled twice and then beetled; these two processes remove
+all injurious matter, and make the yarn soft and lustrous. The
+yarn is then wound on to large bobbins, and made into a chain;
+the number of threads in the chain depends upon the size of the
+hose, which may be anything from half an inch to 15 in. or even
+more in diameter. When the chain is warped, it is beamed
+upon the weaver&rsquo;s beam, and the ends&mdash;either double or triple&mdash;are
+drawn through the leaves of the cambs of heddles, passed
+through the reed and finally tied to the cloth beam. The preparation
+of the warp for any kind of loom varies very little, but the
+weaving may vary greatly. In all cases the hose fabric is
+essentially circular, although it appears quite flat during the
+weaving operation.</p>
+
+<p>There are very few hand-made fabrics which can compete
+with the machine-made article, but the very best type of hose-pipe
+is certainly one of the former class. The cloth can be made
+much more cheaply in the power-loom than in the hand-loom, but,
+up to the present, no power-loom has been made which can weave
+as substantial a cloth as the hand-loom product; the weak
+part in all hose-pipes is where the weft passes round the sides from
+top to bottom of the fabric or vice versa, that is, the side corresponding
+to the selvages in an ordinary cloth; the hand-loom
+weaver can draw the weft tighter than is possible in the power-loom,
+hence the threads at the sides can be brought close together,
+and by this means the fabric is made almost, but not
+quite, as perfect here as in other parts. It is essential that the
+warp threads be held tightly in the loom, and to secure this, they
+pass alternately over and under three or four back rests before
+reaching the heddles or cambs, which are almost invariably
+made of wire. Although the warp yarn is made very soft and
+pliable by boiling and beetling, the weaver always tallows
+it in order to make it work more easily.</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter" colspan="2"><img style="width:529px; height:94px" src="images/img786.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 1.</span></td>
+<td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 2.</span></td></tr></table>
+
+<table class="flt" style="float: right; width: 275px;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:225px; height:217px" src="images/img787.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption1"><span class="sc">Fig. 3.</span>&mdash;Section through the Warp.</td></tr></table>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>The commonest type of hose-pipe is made on the double-plain
+principle of weaving, the cloth being perfectly plain but woven in
+such a manner that the pipe is without seams of any kind. Fig. 1
+is a design showing two repeats or eight shots in the way of the weft,
+and six repeats or twenty-four-threads in the way of the warp,
+consequently the weave is complete on four threads, or leaves, and
+four picks. Fig. 2 illustrates the method of interlacing the threads
+and the picks: this figure shows that twenty-three threads only are
+used, the first thread&mdash;shown shaded in fig. 1&mdash;having been left out.
+It is necessary to use a number of threads which is either one less
+or one more than some multiple of four&mdash;the number of threads in
+the unit weave. The sectional view (fig. 2), although indicating
+the crossings of the warp and the weft, is quite different from an
+actual section through the threads: the warp is almost invariably
+two or three ply, and in addition two or more of these twisted
+threads pass through the same heddle-eye in the camb; moreover,
+they are set very closely together&mdash;so closely, indeed, that the threads
+entirely conceal the weft; it is, therefore, impossible to give a correct
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page787" id="page787"></a>787</span>
+sectional view with satisfactory clearness, as the threads are so very
+rank, but fig. 3 gives some idea of the structure of the fabric. This
+view shows ninety-nine threads and one complete round of weft;
+this round is, of course, equal to two picks or shots&mdash;one pick for
+the top part of the cloth and one for the bottom part. A comparison
+of this figure with fig. 2 will,
+perhaps, make the description clearer.
+The weft in fig. 3 is thinner than the
+warp, but, in practice, it is always
+much thicker, and may consist of
+from two to seventy threads twisted
+together.</p>
+
+<p>Hose-pipes are also woven with the
+three-leaf twill on both sides, and
+occasionally with the four-leaf twill.
+These pipes, woven with the twill
+weaves, are usually lined with a pure
+rubber tube which is fixed to the
+inside of the cloth by another layer
+of rubber after the cloth leaves the
+loom. Such pipes have usually, but
+not invariably, a smoother inner surface
+than those which are unlined, hence, when they are used, less
+friction is presented to the flow of water, and there is less tendency
+for the pipe to leak. They are, therefore, suitable for
+hotels, public buildings and similar places where their temporary
+use will not result in undue damage to articles of furniture, carpets
+and general decoration.</p>
+
+<p>The greatest care must be observed in the weaving of these
+fabrics, the slightest flaw in the structure rendering the article
+practically useless. After the cloth has been woven, it is carefully
+examined, and then steeped in a chemical solution which acts as
+an antiseptic. The cloth is thus effectively preserved from mildew,
+and is, in addition, made more pliable. Finally the hose-pipe is dried
+artificially, and then fitted with the necessary couplings and nozzles.</p>
+
+<p>For a more detailed description of circular weaving see Woodhouse
+and Milne, <i>Textile Design: Pure and Applied</i>.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(T. Wo.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HOSHANGABAD,<a name="ar11" id="ar11"></a></span> a town and district of British India, in
+the Nerbudda division of the Central Provinces. The town
+stands on the left bank of the Nerbudda, 1009 ft. above the sea,
+and has a railway station. Pop. (1901), 14,940. It is supposed
+to have been founded by Hoshang Shah, the second of the Ghori
+kings of Malwa, in the 15th century; but it remained an insignificant
+place till the Bhopal conquest about 1720, when a
+massive stone fort was constructed, with its base on the river,
+commanding the Bhopal road. It sustained several sieges during
+the 18th century, and passed alternately into the hands of the
+Bhopal and Nagpur rulers. Since 1818 it has been the residence
+of the chief British officials in charge of the district. It has a
+government high school, and agricultural school and a brass-working
+industry.</p>
+
+<p>The <span class="sc">District of Hoshangabad</span> has an area of 3676 sq. m.
+Pop. (1901), 449,165, showing a decrease of 10% in the decade,
+due to famine. It may be described as a valley of varying
+breadth, extending for 150 m. between the Nerbudda river and
+the Satpura mountains. The soil consists chiefly of black basaltic
+alluvium, often more than 20 ft. deep; but along the banks of the
+Nerbudda the fertility of the land compensates for the tameness
+of the scenery. Towards the west, low stony hills and broken
+ridges cut up the level ground, while the Vindhyas and the
+Satpuras throw out jutting spurs and ranges. In this wilder
+country considerable regions are covered with jungle. On the
+south the lofty range which shuts in the valley is remarkable
+in mountain scenery, surpassing in its picturesque irregularity
+the Vindhyan chain in the north. Many streams take their
+rise amid its precipices, then, winding through deep glens, flow
+across the plain between sandy banks covered with low jungle till
+they swell the waters of the Nerbudda. None is of any importance
+except the Tawa, which is interesting to the geologist on
+account of the many minerals to be found along its course. The
+boundary rivers, the Nerbudda and Tapti, are the only considerable
+waters in Hoshangabad. The principal crops are
+wheat, millets and oil-seeds. The district is traversed throughout
+its length by the Great Indian Peninsula railway.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HOSHEA<a name="ar12" id="ar12"></a></span> (Heb. for &ldquo;deliverance&rdquo;), the last king of Israel,
+in the Bible. The attempt of his predecessor Pekah to take
+Jerusalem with the help of his ally Rasun (Rezin) of Damascus
+was frustrated by the intervention of Tiglath-Pileser IV.
+(see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Ahaz</a></span>), who attacked Gilead, Galilee and the north frontier,
+and carried off some of its population (cp. 1 Chron. v. 26).
+Pekah&rsquo;s resistance to Assyria led to a conspiracy in which
+he lost his life, and Hoshea the son of Elah became king
+(2 Kings xv. 27-30). The Assyrian king held him as his vassal
+(and indeed claims to have set him on the throne), and exacted
+from him a yearly tribute. Meanwhile, Damascus was besieged
+(733-732 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>), Ra&#7779;un was slain and the inhabitants deported
+(2 Kings xvi. 9; LXX. omits &ldquo;to Kir,&rdquo; but see Amos i. 5).
+The impending fate of Damascus is illustrated by Isaiah (vii. 16,
+viii. 4, xvii. 1-11), who also gives a vivid description of the
+impression left by the Assyrian army (v. 26-30). After the
+death of Tiglath-Pileser, Israel regained confidence (Isa. ix. 8-x. 4)
+and took steps to recover its independence. Its policy vacillated&mdash;&ldquo;like
+a silly dove&rdquo; (Hos. vii. 11), and at length negotiations
+were opened with Mizraim. The annual payment of tribute
+ceased and Shalmaneser IV. (who began to reign in 727 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>)
+at once laid siege to Samaria, which fell at the end of three years
+(722-721 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>). The achievement is claimed by his successor
+Sargon. Hoshea was killed, the land was again partly depopulated
+and a governor appointed (2 Kings xviii. 9-12; cp. xvii.
+1 sqq.). For other allusions to this period see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Hosea</a></span>, <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Isaiah</a></span>.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>2 Kings xvii. 3 and 5 imply <i>two</i> attacks by Shalmaneser: in the
+first of which Hoshea was imprisoned and perhaps blinded (Cheyne,
+emending, &ldquo;shut him up&rdquo; in <i>v.</i> 4), although in v. 6 he is still reigning;
+see on this Winckler, <i>Keilinschr. u. Alte Test.</i><span class="sp">3</span> p. 268; Burney,
+<i>Kings</i>, p. 328 seq.; Skinner, <i>Kings</i>, p. 372 seq. The chronological
+notes, moreover, are extremely confused; contrast xv. 30 with
+xvii. 1. The usual identification of So (or Seve), king of Mizraim,
+with Shabaka of Egypt is difficult, partly on chronological grounds
+(which Petrie, <i>History of Egypt</i>, pp. 277, 281 sqq. does not remove),
+and partly because the Ethiopian dominion in Egypt appears to be
+still weak and divided. The Assyrian records name a certain Sibi
+as <i>officer</i>, and also Piru (Pharaoh!) as <i>king</i> of Musri, and it is
+doubtful whether Hoshea&rsquo;s ally was a petty prince of Egypt or of
+a N. Arabian district (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Mizraim</a></span>). If the latter, Hoshea&rsquo;s policy
+becomes more intelligible; see Whitehouse, <i>Isaiah</i>, p. 17 seq.;
+<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Jews</a></span>: <i>History</i>; <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Philistines</a></span>. On the depopulation of Samaria
+and the introduction of colonists, see Winckler&rsquo;s objections,
+<i>Alttest. Untersuch.</i> pp. 95-107, with Burney&rsquo;s criticisms, <i>Kings</i>,
+p. 334 seq.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(S. A. C.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HOSHIARPUR,<a name="ar13" id="ar13"></a></span> a town of British India, in the Jullundur
+division of the Punjab. Pop. (1901), 17,549. It was founded,
+according to tradition, about the early part of the 14th century.
+In 1809 it was occupied by Ranjit Singh. The maharaja and
+his successors maintained a considerable cantonment 1 m. S.E.
+of the town, and the British government kept it up for several
+years after the annexation of the Punjab in 1849. There are
+manufactures of cotton goods, inlaid woodwork, lacquered ware,
+shoes and copper vessels.</p>
+
+<p>The <span class="sc">District of Hoshiarpur</span> comprises an area of 2244
+sq. m.; pop. (1901) 989,782, showing a decrease of 2% in the
+decade, compared with an increase of 12% during the previous
+decade. It falls into two nearly equal portions of hill and
+plain country. Its eastern face consists of the westward slope
+of the Solar Singhi Hills; parallel with that ridge, a line of
+lower heights belonging to the Siwalik range traverses the
+district from south to north, while between the two chains
+stretches a valley of uneven width, known as the Jaswan Dun.
+Its upper portion is crossed by the Sohan torrent, while the
+Sutlej sweeps into its lower end through a break in the hills,
+and flows in a southerly direction till it turns the flank of the
+central range, and debouches westwards upon the plains. This
+western plain consists of alluvial formation, with a general
+westerly slope owing to the deposit of silt from the mountain
+torrents in the sub-montane tract. The Beas has a fringe of
+lowland, open to moderate but not excessive inundations, and
+considered very fertile. A considerable area is covered by
+government woodlands, under the care of the forest department.
+Rice is largely grown, in the marshy flats along the banks of
+the Beas. Several religious fairs are held, at Anandpur, Mukerian
+and Chintpurni, all of which attract an enormous concourse
+of people. The district, owing to its proximity to the hills,
+possesses a comparatively cool and humid climate. Cotton
+fabrics are manufactured, and sugar, rice and other grains,
+tobacco and indigo are among the exports.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page788" id="page788"></a>788</span></p>
+
+<p>The country around Hoshiarpur formed part of the old Hindu
+kingdom of Katoch In Jullundur. The state was eventually
+broken up, and the present district was divided between the
+rajas of Ditarpur and Jaswan. They retained undisturbed
+possession of their territories until 1759, when the rising Sikh
+chieftains commenced a series of encroachments upon the hill
+tracts. In 1815 the aggressive maharaja, Ranjit Singh, forced
+the ruler of Jaswan to resign his territories in exchange for
+an estate on feudal tenure; three years later the raja of Ditarpur
+met with similar treatment. By the close of the year 1818 the
+whole country from the Sutlej to the Beas had come under
+the government of Lahore, and after the first Sikh war in 1846
+passed to the British government. The deposed rajas of Ditarpur
+and Jaswan received cash pensions from the new rulers, but
+expressed bitter disappointment at not being restored to their
+former sovereign position. Accordingly the outbreak of the
+second Sikh war, in 1848 found the disaffected chieftains ready
+for rebellion. They organized a revolt, but the two rajas and
+the other ringleaders were captured, and their estates confiscated.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HOSIERY,<a name="ar14" id="ar14"></a></span> a term used to designate all manufactured textile
+fabrics which in their process of manufacture have been built
+on the principle of looping or loop structure. The origin of the
+term is obvious, being derived from &ldquo;hose&rdquo; or stocking, this
+being one of the earliest garments made by the process of
+knitting (<i>q.v.</i>). While it still forms one of the staples of the
+trade, it is only one of a very numerous and diversified range
+of applications of the entire industry. The elastic structure
+of knitting makes it very adaptable for all kinds of body or
+underwear. There is scarcely a single textile article manufactured
+but can be reproduced on the knitting or loop structure principle.
+The art of knitting is of very modern origin as compared with
+that of weaving. No certain allusion to the art occurs before
+the beginning of the 15th century. In an act of parliament
+of Henry VII. (1488) knitted woollen caps are mentioned. It
+is supposed that the art was first practised in Scotland, and
+thence carried into England, and that caps were made by knitting
+for some period before the more difficult feat of stocking-making
+was attempted. In an act of Edward VI. (1553) &ldquo;knitte hose,
+knitte peticotes, knitte gloves and knitte sleeves&rdquo; are enumerated,
+and the trade of hosiers, among others, included in an act
+dated 1563. Spanish silk stockings were worn on rare occasions
+by Henry VIII., and the same much-prized articles are also
+mentioned in connexion with the wardrobe of Edward VI.</p>
+
+<p>Knitting, or loop formation by mechanical means, is divided
+into two distinct principles&mdash;frame-work knitting and warp
+knitting. Both principles may be employed in the formation
+of a large variety of plain and fancy stitches or a combination
+of the two.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p><i>Frame-work Knitting</i> in its simplest form consists of rows of
+loops supporting each other&mdash;built from one continuous thread of
+yarn and running from one side of the fabric to the other and back
+(fig. 1). It is on this principle of stitch that the greatest amount
+of hosiery is built (hose, shirts, pants).</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:201px; height:242px" src="images/img788a.jpg" alt="" /></td>
+<td class="figcenter"><img style="width:213px; height:130px" src="images/img788b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl f90" style="width: 50%"><span class="sc">Fig. 1.</span>&mdash;The Stitch or Loop
+Structure of Plain Knitting
+(back of fabric).</td>
+<td class="tcl f90"><span class="sc">Fig. 2.</span>&mdash;A Single Thread
+formed into a Chain of
+Crocket Work, showing the
+Loop Structure of the plain
+Warp-knitted Fabric. It
+is built up as shown in the
+diagram by a number of
+threads running up the fabric.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p class="pt2"><i>Warp Knitting</i> in its simplest form consists of rows of loops, but
+the number of threads employed are equal to the number of loops
+in the width of the fabric. Thus it will be seen that the threads
+run lengthwise of the fabric (fig. 2). This principle gives greater
+scope for reproducing designs in openwork and colour than that of
+frame-work knitting. For this reason it is largely used in the shawl,
+glove and fancy hosiery industries.</p>
+
+<table class="flt" style="float: right; width: 420px;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:373px; height:513px" src="images/img788c.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 3.</span>&mdash;Hand Stocking Frame.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:353px; height:225px" src="images/img788d.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 4.</span></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption1">
+<p>A, The leads into which the needles (B) are cast.</p>
+<p>D, The old loops or work.</p>
+<p>C, The new loops formed and brought under the beards.</p></td></tr></table>
+
+<p><i>Machinery.</i>&mdash;In hand knitting the implements employed (a few
+needles or wires) are very simple and inexpensive. In the manufacturing
+industry
+the most complex
+and ingenious
+machinery is used.
+In 1589 the Rev.
+William Lee, a
+graduate of St
+John&rsquo;s College,
+Cambridge, while
+acting as curate (or
+vicar) of Calverton,
+Nottinghamshire,
+introduced his
+stocking-frame.
+This machine was
+the first mechanical
+means employed to
+produce a looped or
+knitted fabric. This
+frame or machine of
+Lee&rsquo;s was the origin
+of all the hosiery
+and lace machines
+at present in use.
+One of the most
+remarkable points
+about his invention
+was its completeness
+and adaptability
+for the work
+for which its inventor
+intended it. The
+main principles of
+Lee&rsquo;s frame are embodied
+in most of the rotary or power frames of the present day.
+Fig. 3 shows a hand frame of the present day.</p>
+
+<p>In hand knitting an indefinite number of loops are skewered on
+a wire or pin, but, in Lee&rsquo;s frame, an individual hooked or bearded
+needle is employed for the support and formation of each loop in
+the breadth of the fabric. This needle consists of a shank with a
+terminal spring-pointed hook (or beard), the point of which can be
+pressed at will into a groove or eye in the shank. For method by
+which the loops are formed on the needles of the frame see fig. 4.
+This shows a few of Lee&rsquo;s hooked or bearded needles having the old
+loops or work hanging round the needle shanks. The thread of
+yarn which is to form the new row of loops is laid over the needle
+shanks and waved or looped between each pair of needles. This
+waving or looping ensures sufficient yarn being drawn and loops of
+a uniform size being made, so that a regular and level fabric will be
+produced. The looping or waving is obtained by having thin plates
+of shaped metal, called sinkers, which have a nose-shaped point
+and hang between
+the needles. When
+looping they have
+an  individual
+movement downwards
+between the
+needles, and as
+they fall the nose-shaped
+point carries
+the yarn down,
+thus forming the
+new loop (fig. 5).
+The size of the loop
+is regulated by the
+distance the sinker
+is allowed to fall.
+After the thread
+of yarn has been
+looped between
+the needle shanks
+by the sinkers, the
+loops are brought
+forward under the needle beards or hooks. A presser bar is
+now brought down to close or press all the points of the needle
+beards into the eye in the shank. Thus all the hook ends of the
+needles are temporarily closed, with the newly formed loops under
+them. While in this position, the old loops hanging round the
+shank are brought forward and landed on to the top of the needle
+beard and off the needle altogether, being thus left hanging round,
+or supported by the loops newly formed. The needle beards are now
+released, and the loops drawn back along the shanks to be in position
+for next new course of loops. The foregoing is only an outline of
+how the loops are formed on the needles. It is not necessary here
+to enter into a description of the complex mechanical movements
+of Lee&rsquo;s stocking-frame. The first fabric made by Lee was of a
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page789" id="page789"></a>789</span>
+flat, even-selvedged nature, so that garments had to be cut to
+shape from the fabric. He soon learned to fashion or shape the
+garment at will, during the process of making, by transferring loops
+at the edges, inwards to narrow, or outwards to widen. This process
+at the present day is known as fashioning, and all garments of the
+best make are shaped or fashioned in this manner. After Lee had
+practised his new art for a few years at Calverton he removed to
+London, but on his receiving no help or encouragement from Queen
+Elizabeth or her successor, King James, he was induced to cross over
+to France with his frames. There he built up a flourishing industry
+at Rouen, under the patronage of the French king, Henry IV.
+Through the murder of this monarch he lost his patronage and died
+of want about the year 1610. He was buried in an unknown grave
+in Paris.</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:519px; height:498px" src="images/img789a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 5.&mdash;Formation of a Loop on a Hand Frame.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl f90">
+<p>1, Bearded needle cast in the lead. A, Lead; B, Shank; C, Eye;
+D, Beard.</p>
+
+<p>2, The thread is laid over the needles and formed into loops between
+the needles by means of the sinkers, those new-formed loops
+being brought under the needle beards (as at 3).</p>
+
+<p>4, The beards pressed or closed to allow the old loops to be passed
+on to the top.</p>
+
+<p>5, The old loops knocked off the needles and left hanging round the
+newly formed loops.</p></td></tr></table>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:920px; height:646px" src="images/img789c.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 7.&mdash;Eight at once, 130 gauge, full-fashioned, seamless bosom, sloped shoulder underwear frame,
+Cotton&rsquo;s patents. (William Cotton, Ltd., Loughborough.)</td></tr></table>
+
+<table class="flt" style="float: right; width: 220px;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:163px; height:114px" src="images/img789b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 6.&mdash;A 1/1 Rib
+Stitch.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>A number of improvements had been made on Lee&rsquo;s frame during
+the 18th century. The one of greatest importance was the rib
+machine invented by Jedediah Strutt of Belper in 1758. It was
+not what could be actually termed an improvement on Lee&rsquo;s frame,
+but an addition to it. Lee&rsquo;s frame was not altered in any way,
+Strutt&rsquo;s machine being added to it, and the two being worked in
+conjunction produced a fabric of a more elastic nature and alike
+on both sides (fig. 6). Strutt&rsquo;s machine consisted of a set of needles
+placed at right angles to and between Lee&rsquo;s
+plain needles, with the result that, when
+knitting, the frame needles drew their loops
+to one side and the machine needles their
+loops to the opposite side of the fabric. The
+first offshoot from frame-work knitting was
+the invention of the hand warp loom in
+1775. It was improved by the addition of
+the Dawson wheel by William Dawson in
+1791. This machine is the origin of the
+various complex machines now working on
+this principle. Some of these have Jacquard mechanism attached,
+and nearly all of them are driven by motive power. About the
+middle of the 19th century close on 50,000 of Lee&rsquo;s hand frames
+were in use, finding employment for nearly 100,000 persons. Many
+attempts had been made previously to transform Lee&rsquo;s frame into
+a power or rotary frame. One of the first and most successful was
+that invented by Luke Barton in 1857. This frame was fitted with
+self-acting mechanism for fashioning, and was practically Lee&rsquo;s
+frame having rotary shafts with cams added to give the various
+movements, this type of frame being known as straight bar rotary
+frames. In 1864 William Cotton of Loughborough altered this
+frame by reversing the positions of the needles and sinkers. Although
+made by various builders it is still known as the &ldquo;Cotton Patent
+Rotary Frame&rdquo; (fig. 7). Since 1864 a great number of important
+improvements and additions have been made to this frame. Single
+frames are built which will turn off one dozen pairs of hose at once,
+with the attention of one person. One of the most important
+inventions in connexion with the hosiery trade was the latch, tumbler,
+or self-acting needle invented by Matthew Townsend and
+David Moulding of Leicester in 1858. Previous to this
+Lee&rsquo;s type of needle was the only one in use. This latch-needle
+(fig. 8) consists of a stem having a butt at lower
+end by which it receives its knitting action from cams,
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page790" id="page790"></a>790</span>
+the upper end being turned into a hook. Near the hook end
+and attached to the stem by a pin is the spoon-shaped latch,
+which closes over the hook as required. Machines fitted with
+latch-needles
+have grooves in which the stem of the needle works. Cams,
+which act on the
+needle butts, give
+the needles their
+individual knitting
+action in rotation.
+This needle
+is self-acting, in
+that it is made to
+draw its own loop,
+sinkers being dispensed
+with.</p>
+
+<table class="flt" style="float: left; width: 410px;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figleft1"><img style="width:362px; height:242px" src="images/img790a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption1"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 8.&mdash;Various Shapes of the Latch Needle.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="figleft1"><img style="width:351px; height:264px" src="images/img790b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption1"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 9.&mdash;Individual Action of the Latch Needle.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>Fig. 9 shows the
+looping action of
+this needle. The
+needles when not
+knitting have a
+loop round their
+shank, thus holding
+the latch open. When about to knit, they are raised individually
+and in rotation (by the cams acting on the needle butts) to receive
+the new loop of yarn.</p>
+
+<p>Down till almost the middle of the 19th century only a flat web
+could be knitted in the machines in use, and for the finishing of
+stockings, &amp;c., it was necessary to seam up the selvedges of web
+shaped on the frame (fashioned work), or to cut and seam them
+from even web (cut work). The introduction of any device by
+which seamless garments could be fabricated was obviously a great
+desideratum, and it is a singular fact that a machine capable of
+doing this was patented in 1816 by Sir Marc I. Brunel. This frame
+was the origin of the French-German loop-wheel circular frame of
+the present day. Brunel&rsquo;s frame was greatly improved by Peter
+Claussen of Brussels and was shown at an exhibition in Nottingham
+in 1845. This frame had horizontal placed needles fixed on a rotating
+rim. A few years later Moses Mellor of Nottingham transformed this
+type of frame by altering the position of the needles to perpendicular.
+This is now known as the English loop-wheel circular frame. After
+the invention of the latch-needle there was a revolution in the
+hosiery machine-building industry, new types of machines being
+invented, fitted to
+work with latch-needles.
+Among
+others there was the
+latch-needle circular
+frame, invented by
+Thomas Thompson,
+which was the origin
+of the English latch-needle
+circular frame,
+a frame largely used
+for the production
+of wide circular
+fabric.</p>
+
+<p>A circular knitting
+machine of American
+origin is the type of
+machine on which is
+produced the seamless
+hosiery of to-day.
+Like the sewing machine it is largely used in the home as well as in
+the factory. From this machine all the circular automatic power
+machines for making plain and rib seamless hose and half hose
+have been developed. The &ldquo;flat&rdquo; or &ldquo;lamb&rdquo; type of machine,
+an American invention, was introduced by J. W. Lamb in 1863.
+This machine has two needle beds or rows of needles sloping at an
+angle of nearly 90°.</p>
+
+<p>A great many varieties of this type of machine have been invented
+for the production of all kinds of plain and fancy hosiery. It is
+built in small sizes to be wrought by hand or in large power machines.
+A large variety of sewing, seaming and linking machines are employed
+in the hosiery industry for the purpose of putting together
+or joining all kinds of hosiery and knitted goods. These machines
+have almost entirely superseded the sewing or joining of the garments
+by hand.</p>
+
+<p>The principle centres in Great Britain of the hosiery industry are
+Leicester and Nottingham and the surrounding districts. It is also
+an industry of some extent in the south of Scotland.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(T. B.*)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" style="clear: both;" />
+<p><span class="bold">HOSIUS<a name="ar15" id="ar15"></a></span>, or <span class="sc">Osius</span> (<i>c.</i> 257-359), bishop of Cordova, was born
+about <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 257, probably at Cordova, although from a passage
+in Zosimus it has sometimes been conjectured that he was
+believed by that writer to be a native of Egypt. Elected to
+the see of Cordova before the end of the 3rd century, he narrowly
+escaped martyrdom in the persecution of Maximian (303-305).
+In 305 or 306 he attended the council of Illiberis or Elvira (his
+name appearing second in the list of those present), and upheld
+its severe canons concerning such points of discipline as the
+treatment of the lapsed and clerical marriages. In 313 he appears
+at the court of Constantine, being expressly mentioned by
+name in a constitution directed by the emperor to Caecilianus
+of Carthage in that year. In 323 he was the bearer and possibly
+the writer of Constantine&rsquo;s letter to Bishop Alexander of Alexandria
+and Arius his deacon, bidding them cease disturbing
+the peace of the church; and, on the failure of the negotiations
+in Egypt, it was doubtless with the active concurrence of Hosius
+that the council of Nicaea was convened in 325. He certainly
+took part in its proceedings, and was one of the large number
+of &ldquo;confessors&rdquo; present; that he presided is a very doubtful
+assertion, as also that he was the principal author of the Nicene
+Creed. Still he powerfully influenced the judgment of the
+emperor in favour of the orthodox party. After a period of quiet
+life in his own diocese, Hosius presided in 343 at the fruitless
+synod of Sardica, which showed itself so hostile to Arianism;
+and afterwards he spoke and wrote in favour of Athanasius in
+such a way as to bring upon himself a sentence of banishment
+to Sirmium (355). From his exile he wrote to Constantius II.
+his only extant composition, a letter not unjustly characterized
+by the great French historian Sebastian Tillemont as displaying
+gravity, dignity, gentleness, wisdom, generosity and in fact
+all the qualities of a great soul and a great bishop. Subjected
+to continual pressure the old man, who was near his hundredth
+year, was weak enough to sign the formula adopted by the
+second synod of Sirmium in 357, which involved communion
+with the Arians but not the condemnation of Athanasius. He
+was then permitted to return to his diocese, where he died in 359.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See S. Tillemont, <i>Mémoires</i>, vii. 300-321 (1700); Hefele, <i>Conciliengeschichte</i>,
+vol. i.; H. M. Gwatkin, <i>Studies of Arianism</i>
+(Cambridge, 1882, 2nd ed., 1900); A. W. W. Dale, <i>The Synod of
+Elvira</i> (London, 1882); and article <i>s.v.</i> in Herzog-Hauck, <i>Realencyklopädie</i>
+(3rd ed., 1900), with bibliography.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HOSIUS, STANISLAUS<a name="ar16" id="ar16"></a></span> (1504-1579), Polish cardinal, was
+born in Cracow on the 5th of May 1504. He studied law at
+Padua and Bologna, and entering the church became in 1549
+bishop of Kulm, in 1551 bishop of Ermland, and in 1561 cardinal.
+Hosius had Jesuit sympathies and actively opposed the Protestant
+reformation, going so far as to desire a repetition of
+the St Bartholomew massacre in Poland. Apart from its being
+&ldquo;the property of the Roman Church,&rdquo; he regarded the Bible
+as having no more worth than the fables of Aesop. Hosius
+was not distinguished as a theologian, though he drew up the
+<i>Confessio fidei christiana catholica</i> adopted by the synod of
+Piotrkow in 1557. He was, however, supreme as a diplomatist
+and administrator. Besides carrying through many difficult
+negotiations, he founded the lyceum of Braunsberg, which
+became the centre of the Roman Catholic mission among
+Protestants. He died at Capranica near Rome on the 5th
+of August 1579.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>A collected edition of his works was published at Cologne in 1584.
+Life by A. Eichhorn (Mainz, 1854), 2 vols.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HOSKINS, JOHN<a name="ar17" id="ar17"></a></span> (d. 1664), English miniature painter, the
+uncle of Samuel Cooper, who received his artistic education in
+Hoskins&rsquo;s house. His finest miniatures are at Ham House,
+Montagu House, Windsor Castle, Amsterdam and in the Pierpont
+Morgan collection. Vertue stated that Hoskins had a son, and
+Redgrave added that the son painted a portrait of James II.
+in 1686 and was paid £10, 5s, although it is not supported
+by any reference in the State Papers. Some contemporary
+inscriptions on the miniatures at Ham House record them as
+the work of &ldquo;Old Hoskins,&rdquo; but the fact of the existence
+of a younger artist of the same name is settled by a miniature
+in the Pierpont Morgan collection, signed by Hoskins, and
+bearing an authentic engraved inscription on its contemporary
+frame to the effect that it represents the duke of Berwick at
+the age of twenty-nine in 1700. The elder Hoskins was buried
+on the 22nd of February 1664, in St Paul&rsquo;s, Covent Garden, and
+as there is no doubt of the authenticity of this miniature or of
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page791" id="page791"></a>791</span>
+the signature upon it, it is evident that he had a son who survived
+him thirty-six years and whose monogram we find upon this
+portrait. The frame of it has also the royal coat of arms debruised,
+the batons of a marshal of France, the collar of the
+Golden Fleece and the ducal coronet.</p>
+<div class="author">(G. C. W.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HOSMER, HARRIET GOODHUE<a name="ar18" id="ar18"></a></span> (1830-1908), American
+sculptor, was born at Watertown, Massachussetts, on the 9th
+of October 1830. She early showed marked aptitude for modelling,
+and studied anatomy with her father, a physician, and
+afterwards at the St Louis Medical College. She then studied
+in Boston until 1852, when, with her friend Charlotte Cushman,
+she went to Rome, where from 1853 to 1860 she was the pupil of
+the English sculptor John Gibson. She lived in Rome until a few
+years before her death. There she was associated with Nathaniel
+Hawthorne, Thorwaldsen, Flaxman, Thackeray, George Eliot and
+George Sand; and she was frequently the guest of the Brownings
+at Casa Guidi, in Florence. Among her works are &ldquo;Daphne&rdquo;
+and &ldquo;Medusa,&rdquo; ideal heads (1853); &ldquo;Puck&rdquo; (1855), a spirited
+and graceful conception which she copied for the prince of
+Wales, the duke of Hamilton and others; &ldquo;Oenone&rdquo; (1855),
+her first life-sized figure, now in the St Louis Museum of Fine
+Arts; &ldquo;Beatrice Cenci&rdquo; (1857), for the Mercantile Library
+of St Louis; &ldquo;Zenobia, Queen of Palmyra, in Chains&rdquo; (1859),
+now in the Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York City; &ldquo;A
+Sleeping Faun&rdquo; (1867); &ldquo;A Waking Faun&rdquo;; a bronze statue
+of Thomas H. Benton (1868) for Lafayette Park, St Louis;
+bronze gates for the earl of Brownlow&rsquo;s art gallery at Ashridge
+Hall; a Siren fountain for Lady Marian Alford; a fountain for
+Central Park, New York City; a monument to Abraham
+Lincoln; and, for the Columbian Exposition, Chicago, 1893,
+statues of the queen of Naples as the &ldquo;heroine of Gaëta,&rdquo; and
+of Queen Isabella of Spain. Miss Hosmer died at Watertown,
+Mass., on the 21st of February 1908.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HOSPICE<a name="ar19" id="ar19"></a></span> (Lat. <i>hospitium</i>, entertainment, hospitality, inn,
+<i>hospes</i>, host), the name usually given to the homes of rest and
+refuge kept by religious houses for pilgrims and guests. The
+most famous hospices are those of the Great and Little St
+Bernard Passes in the Alps.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HOSPITAL<a name="ar20" id="ar20"></a></span> (Lat. <i>hospitalis</i>, the adjective of <i>hospes</i>, host or
+guest), a term now in general use for institutions in which
+medical treatment is given to the sick or injured. The place
+where a guest was received, was in Lat. <i>hospitium</i> (Fr. <i>hospice</i>),
+but the terms <i>hospitalis</i> (sc. <i>domus</i>), <i>hospitale</i> (sc. <i>cubiculum</i>) and
+<i>hospitalia</i> (sc. <i>cubicula</i>) came into use in the same sense. Hence
+were derived on the one hand the Fr. <i>hospital</i>, <i>hôpital</i>, applied
+to establishments for temporary occupation by the sick for the
+purpose of medical treatment, and <i>hospice</i> to places for permanent
+occupation by the poor, infirm, incurable or insane; on the
+other, the form <i>hôtel</i>, which became restricted (except in the
+ease of <i>hôtel-Dieu</i>) to private or public dwelling-houses for
+ordinary occupation. In English, while &ldquo;hostel&rdquo; retained the
+earlier sense and &ldquo;hotel&rdquo; has become confined to that of a
+superior inn (<i>q.v.</i>), &ldquo;hospital&rdquo; was used both in the sense of a
+permanent retreat for the poor infirm or for the insane, and also
+for a regular institution for the temporary reception of sick
+cases; but modern usage has gradually restricted it mainly to
+the latter, other words, such as almshouse and asylum, being
+preferred in the former cases.</p>
+
+<p><i>The Origin of Hospitals.</i>&mdash;In spite of contrary opinions the
+germ of the hospital system may be seen in pre-Christian times
+(see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Charity and Charities</a></span>). Pinel goes so far as to declare
+that there were asylums distinctly set apart for the insane in
+the temples of Saturn in ancient Egypt. But this is probably
+an exaggeration, the real historical facts pointing to the existence
+of medical schools in connexion with the temples generally, to
+the knowledge that the priests possessed what medical science
+existed, and finally to the rite of &ldquo;Incubation,&rdquo; which involved
+the visit of sick persons to the temple, in the shade of which they
+slept, that the god might inform them by dreams of the treatment
+they ought to follow. The temples of Saturn are known
+to have existed some 4000 years before Christ; and that those
+temples were medical schools in their earliest form is beyond
+question. The reason why no records of these temples have
+survived is due to the fact that they were destroyed in a religious
+revolution which swept away the very name of Saturn from the
+monuments in the country. Professor Georg Ebers of Leipzig,
+whose possession of that important handbook of Egyptian
+medicine called the <i>Papyrus Ebers</i> constitutes him an authority,
+says the Heliopolis certainly had a clinic united to the temple.
+The temples of Dendera, Thebes and Memphis, are other examples.
+Those early medical works, the Books of Hermes, were
+preserved in the shrines. Patients coming to them paid contributions
+to the priests. The most famous temples in Greece for
+the cure of disease were those of Aesculapius at Cos and Trikka,
+while others at Rhodes, Cnidus, Pergamum and Epidaurus were
+less known but frequented. Thus it is clear that both in Egypt
+and in Greece the custom of laying the sick in the precincts of
+the temples was a national practice.</p>
+
+<p>Alexandria again was a famous medical centre. Before
+describing the European growth of the hospital system in
+modern times, to which its development in the Roman Empire
+is the natural introduction, it will be well to dispose very briefly
+of the facts relating to the hospital system in the East. Harun
+al-Rashid (<span class="scs">A.D.</span> 763-809) attached a college to every mosque,
+and to that again a hospital. He placed at Bagdad an asylum
+for the insane open to all believers; and there was a large number
+of public infirmaries for the sick without payment in that city.
+Benjamin, the Jewish traveller, notes an efficient scheme for the
+reception of the sick in <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 1173, which had long been in existence.
+The Buddhists no less than the Mahommedans had their hospitals,
+and as early as 260 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> the emperor Asoka founded the many
+hospitals of which Hindustan could then boast. The one at
+Surat, made famous by travellers, and considered to have been
+built under the emperor&rsquo;s second edict, is still in existence.
+These hospitals contained provision so extensive as to be quite
+comparable to modern institutions. In China the only records
+that remain are those of books of very early date dealing with
+the theory of medicine. To return to India, the hospitals of
+Asoka were swept away by a revival of Brahmanism, and a
+practical hiatus exists between the hospitals he introduced
+and those that were refounded by the British ascendancy.
+Hadrian&rsquo;s reign contains the first notice of a military hospital in
+Rome. At the beginning of the Christian era we hear of the
+existence of open surgeries (of various price and reputation),
+the specialization of the medical profession, and the presence
+of women practitioners, often as obstetricians. Iatria, or
+<i>tabernae-medicae</i>, are described by Galen and Placetus: many
+towns built them at their own cost. These iatria attended
+almost entirely to out-patients, and the system of medicine
+fostered by them continued without much development down
+to the middle of the 18th century. It is to be noted that these
+out-patients paid reasonable fees. In Christian days no establishments
+were founded for the relief of the sick till the time of
+Constantine. A law of Justinian referring to various institutions
+connected with the church mentions among them the Nosocomia,
+which correspond to our idea of hospitals. In <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 370 Basil
+had one built for lepers at Caesarea. St Chrysostom founded
+a hospital at Constantinople. At Alexandria an order of 600
+Parabolani attended to the sick, being chosen for the purpose
+for their experience by the prelate of the city (<span class="scs">A.D.</span> 416). Fabiola,
+a rich Roman lady, founded the first hospital at Rome possessed
+of a convalescent home in the country. She even became a nurse
+herself. St Augustine founded one at his see of Hippo. These
+Nosocomia fell indeed almost entirely into the hands of the
+church, which supported them by its revenues when necessary
+and controlled their administration. Salerno became famous as a
+school of medicine; its rosiest days were between <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 1000 and
+1050. Frederick II. prescribed the course for students there,
+and founded a rival school at Naples. At this period the connexion
+between monasteries and hospitals becomes a marked
+one. The crusaders also created another bond between the
+church and hospital development, as the route they traversed
+was marked by such foundations. Lepers were some of the
+earliest patients for whom a specialized treatment was recognized,
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page792" id="page792"></a>792</span>
+and in 1118 a leprosarium was built in London for isolation
+purposes. Russia seems the one country where the interconnexion
+of hospital and monastery was not to be observed.
+After the period already reached, the 13th century, hospitals
+became common enough to demand individual or at any rate
+national treatment.</p>
+
+<p><i>History of the Hospital Movement.</i>&mdash;We have now to consider
+the principles upon which the provision of the best form of
+medical care in hospitals can be secured for all classes of people.
+Though hospitals cannot be claimed as a direct result of Christianity,
+no doubt it softened the relations between men, and
+gradually tended to instil humanitarian views and to make
+them popular with the civilized peoples of the world. These
+principles, as civilization grew, education improved, and the
+tastes and requirements of the common people were developed,
+made men and women of many races realize that the treatment
+of disease in buildings set apart exclusively for the care of the
+sick was, in fact, a necessity in urban districts. The establishment
+of a hospital freed the streets of the abuses attendant upon
+beggars and other poor creatures, who made their ailments the
+chief ground of appeal for alms. As the knowledge of hygiene and
+of the doctrine of cleanliness and purity in regard not only to
+dwellings and towns, but also in relation to food of all descriptions,
+including water, became known and appreciated, hospitals
+were found to be of even greater importance, if that is possible,
+to the healthy in crowded communities, than to the sick.
+It took many centuries before sound hygiene really began to
+occupy the position of importance which it is now known to
+possess, not only in regard to the treatment and cure of disease,
+but to its prevention and eradication. So the history of the
+world shows, that, whereas a few of the larger towns in most
+countries contained hospitals of sorts, up to and including the
+middle ages, it was not until the commencement of the 18th
+century that inhabitants of important but relatively small towns
+of from 50,000 to 100,000 inhabitants began to provide themselves
+with a hospital for the care of the sick. Thus, twenty-three
+of the principal English counties appear to have had no general
+hospital prior to 1710, while London itself at that date, so
+far as the relief of the sick was concerned, was mainly, if not
+entirely, dependent upon St Bartholomew&rsquo;s and St Thomas&rsquo;s
+Hospitals. These facts are interesting to note, because we are
+enabled from them to deduce from recent events that hospital
+buildings in the past, though the planning of most of them
+was faulty to begin with and became more and more faulty as
+extensions were added to the original buildings, did in fact
+suffice to satisfy the requirements of the medical profession for
+nearly two centuries. In other words, under the old condition
+of affairs the life of a building devoted to the care of the sick
+might be considered as at least 150 years. To-day, under the
+conditions which modern science impose upon the management,
+probably few hospital buildings are likely to be regarded as
+efficient for the purpose of treating the sick for more than from
+30 to 50 years.</p>
+
+<p>The foregoing statement is based upon the history of British
+hospitals of importance throughout the country, but the same
+remark will apply in practice to hospital buildings almost
+everywhere throughout the world. In truth, hospitals have
+been more developed and improved in Great Britain than in
+other countries, though, since the last quarter of the 19th century,
+German scientists especially have added much to the efficiency
+of the accommodation for the sick, not only at hospitals but
+in private clinics, and many German ideas have been accepted
+and copied by other countries. In Great Britain hospitals for
+the treatment of general and special diseases are mainly maintained
+upon what is known as the voluntary system. On the
+European continent, hospitals as a rule are maintained by the
+state or municipalities, and this system is so fully developed in
+Sweden and elsewhere that a sound economical principle has
+been embroidered upon the hospital system, to the great physical
+and moral advantage of all classes of the community. The system
+referred to confers great benefits upon inhabitants in large towns
+by bringing the poor-law and voluntary institutions into more
+intimate association, although they may be managed by separate
+governing bodies. The plan pursued is to demand payment
+from all patients who are admitted to the hospital under a scale
+of charges divided into three or four grades. The first grade
+pays a substantial sum and obtains anything or everything the
+patient may care to have or to pay for, subject to the control
+of the medical attendant. The second pays much less, but
+a remunerative rate, for all they receive at the hospital; and
+the third and fourth classes are very poor people or paupers,
+who are paid for on a graduated scale by the poor-law authorities,
+or the communal government, or the municipality. Under this
+system well-to-do thrifty artisans and improvident paupers are
+all treated by one staff, controlled by one administration, and
+are located in immediate proximity to each other though in
+separate pavilions. We have no doubt, as the result of many
+years&rsquo; investigation and an accurate knowledge of the working of
+the system, that this is the true principle to enforce in providing
+adequate medical relief for large urban populations everywhere
+throughout the world. It should be accompanied by a system
+of government insurance, whereby all classes who desire to be
+thrifty may pay a small annual premium in the days of health,
+and secure adequate hospital treatment and care when ill.
+Provided that pay wings were added to the existing voluntary
+and municipal hospitals, it should be found that the relatively
+small annual premium of £3 per annum should enable the
+policyholders to defray the cost of medical treatment in a pay
+ward or at a consultation department of a great hospital as a
+matter of business. In the United States of America most large
+towns have great hospitals, usually known as city hospitals,
+administered and mainly supported by the municipality. Many
+such institutions have pay wards, but nowhere, so far as we have
+been able to discover, has the system of medical relief in its
+entirety been organized as yet upon the business system we have
+just referred to.</p>
+
+<p>As to the relative merits and demerits of the systems of
+government of municipal hospitals and voluntary hospitals a
+few words may be useful. There can be no doubt that the
+voluntary hospital in Great Britain has had a remarkable effect
+for good upon all classes in the making of modern England.
+The management of these institutions is frequently representative
+of all classes of the people, while the voluntary system, as the
+Hospital Sunday collections all over the country, and all over the
+English-speaking world, prove, has united all creeds in the good
+work of caring and providing for the sick and injured members
+of each community. Again the voluntary system makes for
+efficiency in the administration of all hospitals. Each voluntary
+hospital is dependent upon its popularity and efficiency, in
+large measure, for the financial support it receives. In this way
+an ill-managed voluntary hospital, or one which has ceased to
+fulfil any useful public purpose, is sure to disappear in due course
+under the voluntary system. Voluntary hospitals are always
+open to, as well as supported by, the public, and, owing largely
+to the example so prominently set by King Edward VII. and
+members of the royal family, more people every year devote
+some time in some way to the cause of the hospitals. Attached
+to the voluntary hospitals are the principal medical and nursing
+schools upon which the public depend for the supply of doctors
+and nurses. The education of students and nurses in a clinical
+hospital makes that hospital the most desirable place for everybody
+when they are really ill. In such a hospital no patient
+can be overlooked, no wrong or imperfect diagnosis can long
+remain undiscovered and unrectified, and nowhere else have
+the patients so continuous a guarantee that the treatment they
+receive will be of the best, while the provision made for their
+comfort and welfare, owing to the unceasing and ever varying
+quality of the criticism to which the work of everybody, from
+the senior physician to the humblest official, is subjected in a
+clinical hospital, is unequalled anywhere else. At a great
+voluntary hospital, not only do hundreds of medical students
+and nurses work in the wards, but thousands of people, in the
+persons of the patients&rsquo; friends, and those members of the public
+who take an interest in hospitals, pass through the wards in the
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page793" id="page793"></a>793</span>
+course of every year. Again, each voluntary hospital has to live
+by competition, a fact which guarantees that everything in the
+way of new treatment and scientific development shall in due
+course find its proper place within the walls of such an establishment.
+Open as they are to the full inspection of everybody
+whose knowledge and presence can promote efficiency, the
+voluntary hospitals have shown, especially since the last quarter
+of the 19th century, a continuous development and improvement.
+Here the patients are treated with invariable kindness
+and consideration, as human beings rather than cases, to the
+great benefit of the whole human family as represented by the
+officials, the patients and the students, with their relations and
+friends, the honorary medical officers, hundreds of medical
+practitioners and nurses, who receive their medical training
+in the hospitals, and the ever-increasing number of governors and
+supporters by whose contributions voluntary hospitals live.
+The great missionary and social value of the voluntary hospitals
+to the whole community cannot be questioned, and they have
+been of inestimable value to the churches by inculcating the
+higher principles of humanity, while removing the many acerbities
+which might otherwise prevail between rich and poor in large
+cities.</p>
+
+<p>The voluntary hospitals are attended, however, by certain disadvantages
+which do not attach to municipal institutions. A
+municipality which undertakes the provision of hospitals for
+the entire community is largely able to plan out the urban area,
+and to provide that each hospital site selected shall not only be
+suitable for the purpose, but that it shall be so chosen as to
+contribute to make the whole system of hospital provision easily
+accessible to all classes who may require its aid. The voluntary
+hospitals, on the contrary, have grown up without any comprehensive
+plan of the districts or any real regard to the convenience
+or necessities of their poorer inhabitants. Voluntary
+hospital sites were almost invariably selected to suit the convenience
+of the honorary medical staff and the general convenience
+of the hospital economy rather than to save the patients
+and their friends long journeys in search of medical aid. The
+best of the municipal systems too enables economy to be enforced
+in the administration by a plan which provides a central
+office in every town where the number of vacant beds in each
+hospital is known, so that the average of occupied beds in all
+the hospitals can be well maintained from an economical point
+of view. This speedy and ready inter-communication between
+all hospitals in a great city, which might perfectly well be secured
+under the voluntary system if the managers could only be brought
+into active co-operation, prevents delay in the admission of urgent
+cases, promotes the absence of waste by keeping the average of
+beds occupied in each establishment high and uniform, and has
+often proved a real gain to the poor by the diminution in cost to
+the patients and their friends, who under the best municipal
+systems can find a hospital within reasonable distance of their
+home in a large city wherever it may be placed. Another
+advantage of the municipal system should be that central control
+makes for economical administration. Unfortunately a close
+study of this question tends to prove that municipal hospitals
+for the most part have resulted in a dead monotony of relative
+inefficiency, often entailing great extravagance in buildings, and
+accompanied by much waste in many directions. Existing
+municipal hospital systems are attended by several grave
+disadvantages. The administration shows a tendency to lag
+and grow sleepy and inert. The absence of competition, and the
+freedom from continuous publicity and criticism such as the
+voluntary hospitals enjoy, make for inefficiency and indifferent
+work. Rate-supported hospitals, as a rule, are administered by
+permanent officials who reside in houses usually situated on
+the hospital sites, and who are paid salaries which attract the
+younger men, who, once appointed, tend to continue in office
+for a long period of years. This fixture of tenure is apt to cause
+a decline in the general interest in the work of the municipal
+hospital, due mainly to the absence of a continuous criticism
+from outside, and so the average of efficiency, both in regard to
+treatment and other important matters, may become lower
+and lower. Those who have habitually inspected great rate-supported
+hospitals must have met instances over and over
+again where a gentleman who has held office for twenty or thirty
+years has frankly stated that his income is fixed, that his habits
+have become crystallized, that he finds the work terribly monotonous,
+and yet, as he hopes ultimately to retire upon a pension,
+he has felt there was no course open to him but to continue in
+office, even though he may feel conscientiously that a change
+would be good for the patients, for the hospital and for himself.
+Under the voluntary system evils of this kind are seldom or
+never met with, nor have these latter establishments, within
+living memory, ever been so conducted as to exhibit the grave
+scandals which have marred the administration of rate-supported
+hospitals not only in Great Britain but in other parts of the
+world. We believe that the more thoroughly the advantages
+and disadvantages of rate-supported and voluntary hospitals for
+the care of the sick are weighed and considered, and the more
+accurate and full the knowledge which is added to the judgment
+upon which a decision can be based, the more certain will it be
+that every capable administrator will come to the conclusion
+that on the whole it is good for the sick and for the whole community
+that these establishments should, at any rate in Great
+Britain, be maintained upon the voluntary system. Of course
+it is essential to have rate-supported hospitals where cases of
+infectious disease and the poorest of the people who are dependent
+largely upon the poor-law for their maintenance can be cared for.
+It is satisfactory to be able to state that of late years the administration
+of both these types of rate-supported hospitals has
+greatly improved. The added importance now given all over
+the country to medical officers of health, and the disposition
+exhibited, both by parliament and government departments,
+to make the position of these officers more important and
+valuable than ever before, have tended largely to improve the
+administrative efficiency of hospitals for infectious diseases. No
+doubt the whole community would benefit if residents in every
+part of the country could be moved to take a personal interest
+in the infectious hospital in their immediate neighbourhood.
+Amongst the smaller of these establishments there has been so
+marked an inefficiency at times as to cause much avoidable
+suffering. The existence of such inefficiency casts a grave
+reflection upon the local authorities and others who are responsible
+for the evils which undoubtedly exist in various places
+at the present time. Unfortunately knowledge has not yet
+sufficiently spread to enable the public to overcome its fear and
+dread of infectious maladies. It is therefore very difficult to
+induce people to take an active interest in one of these hospitals,
+but we look forward to the time when, owing to the activity of
+the medical officers of health who have immediate charge of
+buildings of this kind, this difficulty may be overcome, when the
+avoidable dangers and risks and the appalling discomfort which
+a poor sufferer from a severe infectious disease in a rural district
+may suddenly have to encounter under existing circumstances,
+would be rendered impossible.</p>
+
+<p>The poor-law infirmary in large cities, so far as the buildings
+and equipment are concerned, very often leaves little to desire.
+Poor-law infirmaries lack, however, the stimulus and the checks
+and advantages which impartial criticism continuously applied
+brings to a great voluntary hospital. Such disadvantages might
+be entirely removed if parliament would decide to throw open
+every poor-law infirmary for clinical purposes, and to have connected
+with each such establishment a responsible visiting
+medical staff, consisting of the best qualified men to be found in
+the community which each hospital serves. The old prejudice
+against hospital treatment has disappeared, for the least intelligent
+members of the population now understand that, when
+a citizen is sick, there is no place so good as the wards of a well-administered
+hospital. Looking at the question of hospital
+provision in Great Britain, and indeed in all countries at the
+present time, it may be said, that there is everywhere evidence
+of improvement and development upon the right lines, so that
+never before in the history of the world has the lot of the sick
+man or woman been so relatively fortunate and safe as it is in
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page794" id="page794"></a>794</span>
+the present day. Probably it is not too much to say that to-day
+hospitals occupy the most important position in the social
+economy of nations.</p>
+
+<p><i>Classification of Hospitals.</i>&mdash;Having dealt with hospitals as a
+whole it may be well very briefly to classify them in groups, and
+explain as tersely as possible what they represent and how far it
+may be desirable to eliminate by consolidation or to increase by
+disintegration the number of special hospitals.</p>
+
+<p><i>General Hospitals.</i>&mdash;These establishments consist of two kinds,
+(<i>a</i>) clinical and (<i>b</i>) non-clinical, each of which, under the
+modern system, should include every department of medicine
+and surgery, and every appliance and means for the alleviation
+of suffering, the healing of wounds, the reduction of fractures,
+the removal of mal-formations and foreign growths, the surgical
+restoration of damaged and diseased organs and bones, and
+everything of every kind which experience and knowledge prove
+to be necessary to the rapid cure of disease. The clinical hospital
+means an institution to which a medical school is attached, where
+technical instruction is given by able and qualified teachers to
+medical students and others. A non-clinical hospital is one
+which is not attached to a medical school, and where no medical
+instruction is organized.</p>
+
+<p><i>Special Hospitals.</i>&mdash;Up to about 1840 the general hospital
+was, speaking generally, the only hospital in existence. Twenty
+years later, as the population increased and medical science
+became more and more active, some of the more ardent members
+of the medical profession, especially amongst the younger men,
+pressed continuously for opportunities to develop the methods of
+treatment in regard to special diseases for which neither accommodation
+nor appliances were at that time forthcoming in general
+hospitals. In a few cases, where the managers of the great
+general hospitals were men of action and initiative special
+departments were introduced, and an attempt was made to
+make them efficient. The conservative spirit which, on the
+whole, represents the British character for the most part, resulted,
+however, in a steady resistance being offered by the older
+members of the medical staffs and existing committees to the
+advocates of special departments. In the result, especially as
+such special departments as there were in connexion with general
+hospitals were too often starved for want of means and men for
+their development and improvement, the younger spirits called
+their friends together and began to start special hospitals.
+To-day every really efficient clinical general hospital has within
+its walls special departments of almost every description, which
+have been made as efficient and up-to-date as money and
+knowledge can make them. Unfortunately the causes already
+referred to led to the establishment of hundreds of the smaller
+special hospitals, many of which were started in unsuitable
+buildings, and some of which have ever since maintained a
+struggling existence. Others, on the contrary, through the
+energy of their original promoters and the excellence of the work
+they have done, have obtained a position of authority and
+reputation which has had a very important bearing for good
+upon the development of medical science in the treatment of
+disease. If the world had to-day to organize the very best
+system of hospital accommodation which could be evolved,
+there is no doubt that few or none of the special hospitals would
+find any place in that system. As matters stand, however,
+the special hospital has had to be accepted, and nothing which
+King Edward&rsquo;s Hospital Fund has done in London has met with
+greater popularity and professional approval than the labours
+which its council have undertaken in promoting the amalgamation
+of the smaller special hospitals of certain kinds, so as to secure
+the provision of one really efficient special hospital for each
+speciality. No doubt this policy of amalgamation will be steadily
+pursued, and in the course of years every great city will gradually
+reorganize its hospital methods so as to secure that, whether the
+patients are treated in a general hospital or in a special hospital,
+the average efficiency in every institution shall be as high and
+as good as possible.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>We will take now the special hospitals in detail.</p>
+
+<p><i>Cancer Hospitals.</i>&mdash;The justification for efficient cancer hospitals
+must be found in the circumstance that most scientific men of
+experience believe that, if adequate resources were placed at the
+disposal of the medical profession, the origin of cancer might be
+discovered, and so the human race would be freed from one of the
+most awful diseases which affect humanity. Pending such a discovery
+the experience of the cancer department connected with the
+Middlesex Hospital in London proves to demonstration that the
+provision of adequate and special accommodation for the exclusive
+treatment of cases of cancer is not only desirable but necessary on
+humanitarian grounds alone.</p>
+
+<p><i>Hospitals for Consumption.</i>&mdash;For many years it was held that this
+group of hospitals was not a necessity, and the patients were treated
+in the ordinary medical wards of the general hospitals. Since the
+contagious character of tuberculosis became known, and improved
+methods of treatment have been developed, every one agrees that
+this type of special hospital is desirable, though it is believed by the
+more advanced school of scientists that before long it may be happily
+rendered obsolete owing to the discovery of methods of treatment
+which will stay the disease at its commencement and restore the
+patient to health.</p>
+
+<p><i>Children&rsquo;s Hospitals.</i>&mdash;These hospitals were very much opposed
+at the outset. There can be no doubt that the children&rsquo;s ward or
+wards in a big voluntary hospital is a most valuable asset to the
+managers, so long as the children are treated in separate wards.
+There is no reason of course why a hospital should confine its work
+to the treatment of children, exclusively. Still this special hospital
+is popular with the public; it has led to many discoveries and
+developments in the treatment of children&rsquo;s diseases; on the whole
+the administration of these establishments has been good; and we
+believe they will continue to flourish, however many children&rsquo;s
+wards may be provided in general hospitals. Children&rsquo;s hospitals
+with country branches for the treatment of chronic ailments, such
+as hip disease, are a valuable addition to the relief of suffering in
+cities.</p>
+
+<p><i>Cottage Hospitals.</i>&mdash;These hospitals, established originally in
+1859 by Mr Albert Napper at Cranleigh, Surrey, have fulfilled a
+most useful function. Many of them are very efficient both in
+regard to equipment and treatment. They have become essential
+to the well-being and adequate medical care of rural populations,
+as they attract to the country some of the best members of the profession,
+who are able, with the aid of the cottage hospital, to keep
+themselves efficient and up-to-date, so that all classes of the community
+are benefited in this way by this type of hospital.</p>
+
+<p><i>Ear, Throat and Nose Hospitals.</i>&mdash;The history of this type of
+hospital bears out in every particular the reason we have given
+above for the establishment of special hospitals in the first instance.
+There can be no doubt that the best conducted throat hospitals
+have been beneficial to the poorer inhabitants of great cities.</p>
+
+<p><i>Fever Hospitals.</i>&mdash;Incidentally we have dealt with these institutions,
+which are usually supported out of the rates and administered
+by the medical officers of health, who are paid by the county or
+municipal authorities.</p>
+
+<p><i>Maternity and Lying-in Hospitals.</i>&mdash;This is one of the oldest
+types of special hospitals, and has done a great deal of good in its
+time. Owing to modern methods of treatment and hygienic developments
+the maternity hospital never occupied a stronger position
+than it does to-day.</p>
+
+<p><i>Mental Hospitals.</i>&mdash;In Great Britain the insane are provided for
+in asylums (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Insanity</a></span>, ad fin.), though such establishments, if
+properly conducted, are essentially hospitals. Scientific and public
+opinion tend towards the establishment of mental hospitals to
+which all acute cases of mental disease should be first relegated for
+treatment and diagnosis before they are consigned to a permanent
+lunatic hospital. Too little attention on an organized plan has
+been given to the continuous study of mental disease in its clinical
+and pathological aspects. It is probable, therefore, that the advent
+of the mental hospital may lead to important developments in
+treatment in many ways.</p>
+
+<p><i>Ophthalmic Hospitals.</i>&mdash;Of all special hospitals this is one which
+would probably be the least necessary, providing general hospitals
+everywhere were properly equipped and organized. No special
+hospital has probably been so abused in the material sense by the
+free relief of patients who could well afford to pay for their treatment
+at the ophthalmic hospital. Several of the existing ophthalmic
+hospitals have entailed an enormous expenditure, and their modern
+equipment is wonderfully efficient.</p>
+
+<p><i>Orthopaedic Hospitals.</i>&mdash;It is very doubtful whether this type o£
+hospital is really desirable or necessary. Its necessity may be
+advocated on the ground that orthopaedic cases may require prolonged
+treatment, and that the pressure upon the beds of general
+hospitals by acute cases is nowadays so great as to render the
+orthopaedic hospital more necessary than ever before.</p>
+
+<p><i>Paralysis and Epileptic Hospitals.</i>&mdash;Seeing that the percentage
+of those who are at present attacked by paralysis and nervous disease
+shows a continued tendency to increase under modern conditions of
+life in large cities, hospitals of this type are necessary, and London
+at any rate, like most foreign towns of importance, possesses, at
+present, far too little accommodation for this class of case.</p>
+
+<p><i>Skin and Photo-Therapy.</i>&mdash;Up to the end of the 19th century
+hospitals for diseases of the skin were a constant cause of scandal and
+criticism. The introduction of modern methods of treatment by
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page795" id="page795"></a>795</span>
+light and electricity, including photo-therapy, has given an importance
+to this department and treatment which it did not previously
+possess. We are of opinion that, on the whole, it is better and
+more economical to treat these cases in properly equipped departments
+of general hospitals than in separate institutions.</p>
+
+<p><i>Women&rsquo;s Hospitals.</i>&mdash;These hospitals are not absolutely necessary,
+but considering their popularity with the women themselves, and
+that several of them have done excellent work, remembering too
+that women constitute the majority of the population, there seems
+to be some reason for their continuance.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><i>The Evolution of the Modern Hospital.</i>&mdash;The evolution of
+the modern hospital affords one of the most marvellous evidences
+of the advance of scientific and humanitarian principles which
+the world has ever seen. At the outset hospitals were probably
+founded by the healthy more for their own comfort than out of
+any regard for the sick. Nowadays the healthy, whilst they
+realize that the more efficient they can make the hospital,
+the more certain, in the human sense, is their own chance of
+prolonged life and health, are, as the progress of the League
+of Mercy has shown in recent years, genuinely anxious for the
+most part to do something as individuals in the days of health
+in the cause of the sick. Formerly the hospital was merely
+a building or buildings, very often unsuitable for the purposes
+to which it was put, where sick and injured people were retained
+and more frequently than not died. In other words the hygienic
+condition, the methods of treatment and the hospital atmosphere
+were all so relatively unsatisfactory as to yield a mortality
+in serious cases of 40%. Nowadays, despite, or possibly
+because of, the fact that operative interference is the rule rather
+than the exception in the treatment of hospital patients, and in
+consequence of the introduction of antiseptic and aseptic methods,
+the mortality in hospitals is, in all the circumstances, relatively
+less, and probably materially less, than it is even amongst
+patients who are attended in their own homes. Originally
+hospitals were unsystematic, crowded, ill-organized necessities
+which wise people refused to enter, if they had any voice in the
+matter. At the present time in all large cities, and in crowded
+communities in civilized countries, great hospitals have been
+erected upon extensive sites which are so planned as to constitute
+in fact a village with many hundreds of inhabitants.
+This type of modern hospital has common characteristics.
+A multitude of separate buildings are dotted over the site,
+which may cover 20 acres or upwards. In one such institution,
+within an area of 20 acres, there are 6 m. of
+drains, 29 m. of water and steam pipes, 3 m. of roof
+gutters, 42 m. of electric wires, and 42 separate buildings,
+which to all intents and purposes constitute a series of
+distinct, isolated hospitals, in no case containing more than
+forty-six patients. On the continent of Europe buildings of
+this class are usually of one storey; in the United States,
+owing to the difficulty of obtaining suitable sites and for
+reasons of economy, some competent authorities strenuously
+advocate high buildings with many storeys for town hospitals.
+In England the majority have two to three storeys each, the
+ward unit containing a ward for twenty beds and two
+isolation wards for one and two beds respectively. The two
+storeys in modern fever hospitals, however, are absolutely
+distinct&mdash;that is, there is no internal staircase going from one
+ward to the others, for each is entered separately from the
+outside. This system carries to its extreme limits the principle
+of separating the patients as much as possible into small groups;
+the acute cases are usually treated in the upper ward, and
+as they become convalescent are removed downstairs. In
+this way the necessity for an entirely separate convalescent
+block is done away with and the patients are kept under the
+same charge nurse, an arrangement which promotes necessary
+discipline. The unit of these hospitals is the pavilion, not the
+ward, and consists of an acute ward, a convalescent ward,
+separation wards, nurses&rsquo; duty rooms, store-rooms for linen,
+an open-air balcony upstairs into which beds can be wheeled
+in suitable weather, and a large airing-ground for convalescent
+patients directly accessible from the downstairs ward. Each
+of the pavilions is raised above the ground level, so that air
+can circulate freely underneath. The wall, floor and air spaces
+in the scarlet fever wards of one of these hospitals are respectively
+12 ft., 156 ft. and 2028 ft. per bed; and in the enteric and
+diphtheria wards they have been increased to 15 ft., 195 ft.
+and 2535 ft. respectively. The provision of so large a floor
+and linear space, especially in the diphtheria wards, is an experiment
+the effect of which will be watched with considerable
+interest. A building of this type is a splendid example of the
+separate pavilion hospital, and is doing great service in the
+treatment of fevers wherever it has been introduced. Some
+idea of a hospital village, some of the wards of which we have
+been describing, may be gathered from the circumstances
+that it costs from £300,000 to £400,000, that it usually contains
+from 500 to 700 beds, and that the staff numbers from 350 to
+500 persons. The medical superintendent lives in a separate
+house of his own. The nurses are provided with a home, consisting
+of several blocks of buildings under the control of the
+matron; the charge nurses usually occupy the main block;
+where the dining and general sitting-rooms are placed; the
+day assistant-nurses another block; and lastly, by a most
+excellent arrangement, the night nurses, 80 to 120 in number,
+have one whole block entirely given up to their use. The female
+servants have a second home under the control of the housekeeper,
+and the male servants occupy a third home under the
+supervision of the steward. The two main ideas aimed at are
+to disconnect the houses occupied by the staff from the infected
+area, and to place the members of each division of the staff
+together, but in separate buildings, under their respective heads.
+These objects are highly to be commended, as they have important
+bearings upon the well-being and discipline of the whole establishment
+and constitute a lesson for all who have to do with buildings
+where a great number of people are constantly employed.</p>
+
+<p><i>The Hospital City.</i>&mdash;We have shown that the modern hospital
+where an adequate site is available under the most favourable
+conditions has developed into a hospital village. No one who
+is familiar with the existing disadvantages of many of the
+sites and their surroundings of town hospitals in many a large
+city can have any doubt that, if the well-being of the patients
+and the good of the whole community, combined with economical
+and administrative reasons, together with the provision of an
+adequate system for the instruction and training of medical
+students and nurses, are to be the first considerations with
+those responsible for the hospitals of the future, the time will
+come, and is probably not far distant, when each great urban
+community will provide for the whole of its sick by removing
+them to a hospital city, which will be situated upon a specially
+selected and most salubrious site some distance from the town
+itself. The atmosphere of a great city grows less and less suitable
+to the rapid and complete recovery of patients who may undergo
+the major operations or be suffering from the severe and acute
+forms of disease. Asepsis, it is true, has reduced the average
+residence in hospital from about 35 to less than 20 days. It
+has thereby added quite one million working days each year
+to the earning power of the artisan classes in London alone.
+Medical opinion is more and more favouring the provision of
+convalescent and suburban hospitals, to which patients suffering
+from open wounds may be removed from the city hospitals.
+This course, which entails much additional expenditure, is
+advocated to overcome the difficulty arising from the fact
+that, in operation and other cases, the patients cease to continue
+to make rapid progress towards recovery after the seventh
+or ninth day&rsquo;s residence in a city hospital. A change of such
+cases to the country restores the balance and completes the
+recovery with a rapidity often remarkable.</p>
+
+<p>Thinking out the problem here presented in all its bearings,
+realizing the great and ever-increasing cost of sites for hospitals
+in great cities, the heavy consequential taxes and charges which
+they have to meet there, and all the attendant disadvantages
+and drawbacks, the present writer has ventured upon an anticipation
+which he hopes may prove intelligent and well-founded.
+Nearly every difficulty in regard to the cost of hospitals and
+in respect to all the many problems presented by securing
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page796" id="page796"></a>796</span>
+the material required, under present systems, for the efficient
+training of students and nurses, would be removed by the
+erection of the Hospital City, which, he foresees, must ultimately
+be recognized by intelligent communities throughout the
+civilized world. Why should we not have, on a carefully selected
+site well away from the contaminations of the town, and
+adequately provided with every requisite demanded from the
+site of the most perfect modern hospital which the mind of
+man can conceive, a &ldquo;Hospital City&rdquo;? Here would be concentrated
+all the means for relieving and treating every form
+of disease to the abiding comfort of all responsible for their
+adequacy and success. At the present time all the traffic and all
+the citizens give way to fire engines and the ambulance in the
+public streets. Necessarily the means of transit to and from
+the &ldquo;Hospital City,&rdquo; and its rapidity, would be the most perfect
+in the world. So the members of the medical staff, the friends
+of the patients, and all who had business in the &ldquo;Hospital
+City,&rdquo; would find it easier and less exacting in time and energy
+to be attached to one of the hospitals located therein than to
+one situated in the centre of a big population in a crowded town.
+To meet the urgent and accident cases a few receiving houses,
+or outpost relief stations, with a couple of wards, would be
+situated in various quarters of the working city, where patients
+could be temporarily treated, and whence they could be removed
+to the &ldquo;Hospital City&rdquo; by an efficient motor ambulance service.
+The writer can see such a &ldquo;Hospital City&rdquo; established, can
+realize the comfort it will prove in practice to the medical profession,
+to the patients&rsquo; friends, to those who have to manage
+the hospitals and train the medical and nursing students, and
+indeed to all who may go there as well as to the whole community.
+The initial cost of hospital buildings should be reduced at
+once to a quarter or less of the present outlay. They could
+then be built of the cheapest but most suitable material, which
+would have many advantages, whilst the actual money forthcoming
+from the realization and sale of the existing hospital sites
+in many cities would, in all probability, produce a sum which in
+the whole might prove adequate, or nearly adequate, or even in
+some cases more than adequate, to defray the entire cost of
+building the &ldquo;Hospital City&rdquo; and of equipping it too. The
+cost of administration and working must be everywhere reduced
+to a minimum. The hygienic completeness of the whole city,
+its buildings and appliances, must expedite recovery to the
+maximum extent. In all probability the removal of the sick
+from contact with the healthy would tend in practice so to
+increase the healthiness of the town population, <i>i.e.</i> of the
+workers of the city proper, as to free them from some of the
+most burdensome trials which now cripple their resources and
+diminish materially the happiness of their lives. Probably
+the United States (where a city has sometimes sprung up in
+twelve months) may be the home where this idea may first
+find its realization in accomplished fact. The writer may
+never live to see such a city in actual working or in its entirety,
+but he makes bold to believe its adoption will one day solve
+the more difficult of the problems involved in providing adequately
+for the sick in crowded communities. He has formulated
+the idea because it seems desirable to encourage discussion as
+to the best method of checking the growing tendency to make
+hospital buildings everywhere too costly. If the idea of the
+&ldquo;Hospital City&rdquo; commends itself to the profession and the
+public, the practice of treating all the hospital accommodation
+in each city as a whole will gradually increase and spread,
+until most of the present pressing difficulties may disappear
+altogether. That is a consummation devoutly to be wished.</p>
+
+<p><i>The Problem of Hospital Administration.</i>&mdash;A study of the
+hospital problem in various countries, and especially in different
+portions of the English-speaking world, convinces the writer
+that, apart from local differences, the features presented are
+everywhere practically identical. A number of hospitals under
+independent administration, dependent in whole or in part
+on voluntary contributions, administered under different regulations
+originally representing the idiosyncracies of individual
+managers for the time being, without any standard of efficiency
+or any system of co-operation, which would bring the whole
+of the medical establishments of each or all of the great cities
+of the world under one administration which the combined
+wisdom and experience of hospital managers as a whole might
+agree to be the best, must mean in practice a material gain in
+every way to each and all of the hospitals and their supporters
+on economical, scientific and other grounds. Such an absence of
+system throughout the world has everywhere led to overlapping,
+to the perpetuation of many abuses, to the admission of an
+increasing number of patients whose social position does not
+entitle them to claim free medical relief at all, and, often too,
+to the admission of patients belonging to a humbler grade of
+society who are already provided for by the rates in institutions
+which they do not care to enter and who find their way to the
+wards of hospitals which were established to provide for patients
+of an entirely different social grade. These evils have continued
+to grow and increase almost everywhere, despite many and
+varied attempts to grapple with and remove them. Amongst
+these attempts we may mention the assembling of hospital
+conferences, the establishment of special funds and committees,
+and the holding of inquiries of various kinds in London and
+other British cities and also in the United States. The most
+remarkable proof of the impossibility of inducing those responsible
+to act together and enforce the necessary reforms is
+afforded by the historical fact that the famous Commission on
+Hospital Abuse, known as Sir William Fergusson&rsquo;s Commission,
+in 1871, after an exhaustive inquiry, made the following recommendations:
+(1) to improve the administration of poor-law
+medical relief; (2) to place all free dispensaries under the control
+of the poor-law authorities; (3) to establish an adequate system
+of provident dispensaries; (4) to curtail the unrestricted system
+of gratuitous relief, partly by the selection of cases possessing
+special clinical interest and partly by the exclusion of those
+who on social grounds are not entitled to gratuitous medical
+advice; (5) the payment of the medical staff engaged in both
+in- and out-patient work, and the payment of fees by patients
+in the pay wards and in the consultation departments of
+the voluntary hospitals. Other commissions have since been
+appointed, have reported, and have disappeared, with the result
+that nothing practical had been done up to 1910 in the way of
+reform. Yet it is an undoubted fact that, if the foregoing recommendations
+of Sir William Fergusson&rsquo;s Commission had
+been carried out in their entirety at the time they were made,
+practically all the abuses from which British hospitals afterwards
+suffered would have been removed, and the charitable public
+might have been saved several millions of pounds sterling.
+It may be well, therefore, briefly to indicate exactly what these
+changes amount to, and how they can be made effective at
+any time by those responsible for the working of a hospital.</p>
+
+<p>There is no doubt that all the facts available tend to prove that
+the voluntary hospitals are used to an increasing extent by persons
+able to make payment or partial payment for the treatment
+which they receive. The evidence and statistics demonstrating
+these facts may be readily gathered from a study of the Report
+(1909) and Evidence of the Royal Commission on the Poor Laws
+and Relief of Distress (Lord George Hamilton&rsquo;s Commission)
+and in the authorities mentioned at the end of this article. The
+underlying cause of the abuse was that no means existed whereby
+persons of moderate income could obtain efficient treatment
+and hospital care when ill at a rate which they could afford to
+pay. The system, or want of system, whereby medical relief is
+granted to practically all applicants by the voluntary hospitals
+grew up without any combined attempt to organize it efficiently
+or to check abuses. Such a system rests upon a wrong basis, and
+the best interests of every class of the population demand its
+abolition in favour of one which shall afford the maximum of
+justice (1) to the poor, (2) to those who can afford to pay in part
+or in whole the cost of their medical treatment and care at a
+hospital, (3) to the medical profession, (4) to the subscribers and
+supporters of voluntary hospitals, whose gifts should be strictly
+applied to the purposes they were intended to serve, and (5)
+to the ratepayers, who are entitled to a guarantee that the
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page797" id="page797"></a>797</span>
+maximum efficiency is secured by the poor-law system of
+medical relief. The remedy is very simple and easy of application.
+Every voluntary hospital, while admitting all accidents and
+urgent cases needing immediate attention, should institute a
+system whereby each applicant would be asked to prove that
+he or she was a fit object of charity. The only real attempt
+at reform, up to 1909, was the appointment by many of the larger
+hospitals of almoners to ascertain whether certain selected
+patients were in a position to pay or not. By putting the burden
+of proof of eligibility to receive free medical relief upon the
+patients and their friends, all abuse of every kind must speedily
+cease. There would be no hardship entailed upon the patients by
+such a system, as experience has proved, but, to make it effective,
+the system of providing for in- and out-patients in Great Britain
+requires radical change, for, in existing circumstance, if a
+voluntary hospital attempted to enforce this simple method, it
+would be met with the difficulty that, where it was found that
+a patient or his friends could pay at any rate something, no
+department connected with British hospitals existed&mdash;as is the
+case in regard to hospitals in the United States&mdash;enabling such
+in-patients to be transferred to accommodation provided in
+paying wards. In the same way, directly the out-patients
+were dealt with under such a system, it would be made apparent,
+where a case could be properly treated, under the poor law,
+that no plan of co-operation to secure this was organized under
+existing conditions. If the patient, being of a better class, were
+suffering from a minor ailment, and could be properly dealt with
+at a provident dispensary, the fees of which he could easily
+pay, the same absence of co-operation must make it practically
+impossible readily to enforce the system. When, again, an out-patient
+of the better class was entitled, from the severity of his
+ailment, to receive the advantages of a consultation by the
+medical staff, no method existed whereby this aid could be
+rendered to him, and his transfer afterwards to the care of a
+medical practitioner attached to some provident dispensary,
+or resident near the patient&rsquo;s home, could be properly carried
+out. It follows that adequate reform required that methods
+should be adopted with a view to some part or all the cost of
+treatment being provided by the patient or his friends through
+an entire reorganization of the system of medical relief not only
+at the voluntary hospitals, but under the poor-law system. The
+reforms required in regard to voluntary hospitals are that every
+large hospital shall have connected with the in-patient department,
+in separate buildings, but under the administration of
+the managers, pay wards for the reception of those patients who
+are able to pay some part or all of the cost of treatment; that,
+as regards out-patients, the existing out-patient department
+should be abolished; that in substitution for it each hospital
+should have a casualty department and a department for
+consultation. In the casualty department every applicant
+should be seen once, and be there disposed of by being handed on
+to the consultation department; if his case was sufficiently
+important, he should then be transferred to some provident
+or poor-law dispensary, or be referred to a private medical
+attendant. It would no doubt take time to overcome the incidental
+difficulties which would necessarily arise in effecting
+so radical a reform as is here contemplated, but if all voluntary
+hospitals adopted the same system, and were to be brought into
+active co-operation with provident dispensaries and poor-law
+dispensaries and private medical practitioners, the new system
+might be successfully introduced and made effective within
+twelve months, and probably within six months, from the date
+of its commencement. This opinion is based upon the assumption
+that the provident dispensaries would be standardized,
+and that every one of them would be brought up to a state of the
+highest efficiency. In the town of Northampton the Royal
+Victoria Dispensary has been worked with the maximum of
+success, so far as the patients and the medical practitioners are
+concerned. In London and in other large towns like Manchester
+and elsewhere the provident dispensary has not succeeded as
+it has done in Northampton, because so many members of the
+medical profession are not alive to the importance of making
+it their first business to provide that every patient connected
+with the provident dispensary who attends at the surgery of a
+private medical practitioner shall receive at least equal attention
+and accommodation to that afforded to every other private
+patient, whatever the fee he may pay. In the same way, poor-law
+dispensaries must be radically reformed. Everything which
+tends to excite a feeling of shame on the part of the patient
+attending the poor-law dispensary, such as the printing of the
+word &ldquo;pauper&rdquo; at the beginning of the space on which the
+patient&rsquo;s name is entered, must be abolished, and the class of
+medical service and all the arrangements for the treatment
+of the patients, however poor, at the poor-law dispensary,
+must be made at least as efficient as those provided by voluntary
+hospitals. There undoubtedly is considerable overlapping
+between the voluntary hospitals and the poor law in Great
+Britain. The Royal Commission on the Poor Laws and Relief
+of Distress (1909) deals with this point with a view to set up a
+standard of medical relief to be granted by each class and type
+of hospitals, provides for adequate co-operation between all
+classes of institutions; and these reforms may be commended.
+It is too often forgotten that the function of the poor law is the
+relief of destitution, while it should be the object and duty of
+each voluntary hospital and indeed of all hospitals other than
+poor-law institutions to apply their resources entirely to the
+prevention of destitution, by stepping in to grant free medical
+relief to the provident and thrifty when, through no fault of
+their own, they meet with an accident or are overtaken by
+disease. An adequate system of co-operation would preserve
+the privilege of the voluntary hospitals, which save such patients
+from the necessity of requiring the relief which it is the object
+of the poor law to supply.</p>
+
+<p>We have dealt with the relative advantages and disadvantages
+of rate-supported hospitals and voluntary hospitals. We
+should regard the establishment of a complete state-provided or
+rate-provided system of gratuitous medical relief, either for indoor
+patients or for out-door patients, or for both, as a grave evil.
+Such a system must eventually lead to the extinction of voluntary
+hospitals. If this disaster ever happens, it must result in the
+gravest evils, for it could not fail to injure the morale of all
+classes and tend to harden unnecessarily the relations between
+the rich and poor, who, under the voluntary system, have come
+to share each other&rsquo;s sufferings and to be animated by respect and
+confidence towards each other.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p><i>Hospital Construction. Locality and Site.</i>&mdash;Hospitals are required
+for the use of the community in a certain locality, and to be of use
+they must be within reach of the centre of population. Formerly
+the greater difficulty of locomotion made it necessary that they
+should be actually in the midst of towns and cities, and to some
+extent this continues to prevail. It is now proved to demonstration
+that this is not the best plan. Fresh and pure air being a prime
+necessity, as well as a considerable amount of space of actual area in
+proportion to population, it would certainly be better to place
+hospitals as much in the outskirts as is consistent with considerations
+of usefulness and convenience. In short, the best site would be open
+fields; but if that be impracticable, a large space, &ldquo;a sanitary
+zone&rdquo; as it is called by Tollet, should be kept permanently free
+between them and surrounding buildings, certainly never less than
+double the height of the highest building. In the selection of a site
+various factors must be taken into consideration. If the hospital
+is to be used as the clinical school of a university or medical college,
+then the most suitable ground available within easy reach of the
+university or college must be secured. If, on the other hand, the
+hospital is not to be used as a teaching school, a site more in the
+country should be favoured. In any case ample ground must be
+purchased to permit of the wards receiving the maximum of sunlight,
+an abundant supply of fresh air, and leave room for possible
+future extensions. The site should be self-contained; it should be
+in such a position as to prevent the hospital being shadowed by
+other buildings in the neighbourhood, and, unless the site is alongside
+a public park, it should be entirely surrounded by streets of
+from 40 to 60 ft. in width. It is also necessary to secure that adequate
+water mains serve the site, and that the system of sewers be
+ample for all sewage purposes.</p>
+
+<p>The difference between the expense of purchase of land in a town
+and in the environs is generally considerable, and this is therefore
+an additional reason for choosing a suburban locality. Even with
+existing hospitals it would be in most cases pecuniarily advantageous
+to dispose of the present building and site and retain only a receiving
+house in the town. St Thomas&rsquo;s in London, the Hôtel-Dieu in Paris
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page798" id="page798"></a>798</span>
+and the Royal Infirmary in Manchester, are all good examples
+where this might have been carried out. In none, however, has this
+been done; these hospitals have been rebuilt, at enormous outlay,
+in the cities as before, although not exactly in the same locality.</p>
+
+<p>As regards the actual site itself, where circumstances admit of
+choice, a dry gravelly or sandy soil should be selected, in a position
+where the ground water is low and but little subject to fluctuations
+of level, and where the means of drainage are capable of being
+effectually carried out. There should also be a cheerful sunny
+aspect and some protection from the coldest winds.</p>
+
+<p><i>Form of Building.</i>&mdash;A form of building must be selected which
+answers the following conditions: (<i>a</i>) the freest possible circulation
+of air round each ward, with no cul-de-sac or enclosed spaces where
+air can stagnate; (<i>b</i>) free play of sunlight upon each ward during
+some portion at least of the day; (<i>c</i>) the possibility of isolating any
+ward, or group of wards, effectually, in case of infectious disease
+breaking out; (<i>d</i>) the possibility of ventilating every ward independently
+of any other part of the establishment. Those conditions
+can only be fulfilled by one system, viz. a congeries of houses or
+pavilions, more or less connected with each other by covered ways,
+so as to facilitate convenient and economical administration. The
+older plans of huge blocks of buildings, arranged in squares or
+rectangles, enclosing spaces without free circulation of air, are
+obviously objectionable. Even when arranged in single lines or
+crosses they are not desirable, as the wards either communicate
+with each other or with common passages or corridors, rendering
+separation impossible. On this point it may be remarked that
+some of the buildings of the 18th century were more wisely constructed
+than many of those in the first half of the 19th century,
+and that the older buildings have been from time to time spoilt by
+ignorant additions made in later times.</p>
+
+<p>The question next arises, is it better to have pavilions of two or
+more storeys high, or to have single-storeyed huts or cottages
+scattered more widely? For the treatment of tuberculosis there
+can be no doubt that, for hygienic reasons, the <i>châlet</i> or single-patient
+hut is the best for the patients in the acute stages; for
+economical reasons the <i>châlet</i> has not been heretofore as popular as
+it deserves to be, but if the welfare of the patient is to be the first
+consideration there is no doubt that the <i>châlet</i> will ultimately prevail.
+It has the merit of being easily adapted to villages and houses
+where there is a garden, and in this way poor families may readily
+isolate and treat a member affected by tuberculosis at a cost within
+their means. For hospital purposes, so long as the system of placing
+hospital buildings in densely crowded areas prevails, many-storeyed
+buildings for hospital purposes are likely to continue. Should the
+proposal to institute a Hospital City ultimately prevail, then it is
+probable that the majority of the pavilions will be single-storeyed.
+Still some hospital authorities prefer the multiple-storeyed system
+for administrative reasons, contending that single-storeyed pavilions
+have no special advantages over two or three-storeyed buildings,
+whereas the difficulties in administration and service of a hospital
+building on the single-storey principle outweigh any argument
+against the two- or three-storey building, if it is properly designed
+and constructed. We hope that the time is approaching when
+architects and those members of the public who have to provide
+the money for hospital buildings will insist upon the erection of
+simple structures, costing little, so that the whole cost of hospital
+buildings may be, as it ought to be, reduced by at least half when
+compared with the expenditure of the past.</p>
+
+<p>The pavilions may be arranged in various ways; they may be
+joined at one end by a corridor, or may be divided by a central
+corridor at right angles to them. In fact, the plan is very elastic,
+and adapts itself to almost any circumstances. A certain distance,
+not less than twice the height of the pavilions, ought to be preserved
+between them. By this means free circulation of air and
+plenty of light are secured, whilst separation or isolation may be at
+once accomplished if required.</p>
+
+<p><i>Foundations, Building Materials, &amp;c.</i>&mdash;It is of the first consequence
+that a hospital should be dry; therefore the foundation and walls
+ought to be constructed so as to prevent the inroads of damp. An
+impervious foundation has the further advantage of preventing
+emanations from the soil rising up in consequence of the suction
+force produced by the higher temperature of the internal atmosphere
+of the building itself. There should be free ventilation in the basement,
+and the raising of the whole on arches is a good plan, now
+generally carried out in hot climates. If the pavilions are two or
+more storeys high, it is advisable to use fire-proof material as much
+as possible, but single-storeyed huts may be of wood. In any case
+effectual means of excluding damp must be employed. The interiors
+of wards ought to be rendered as non-absorbent as possible,
+by being covered with impervious coatings, such as glazed tiles
+(Parian, though much used, is apt to crack), silicate paint, which is
+preferable to tiles, or the like. The ceilings ought to be treated in
+the same way as the walls. There must be a concrete floor between
+each flat, experience showing that if a teak floor is laid hard on the
+concrete a very noisy floor is the result, but if the teak is laid on
+strips of wood, leaving a small space between the concrete and the
+floor, a more silent floor is obtained. For the floors themselves
+various materials have been suggested: in France there is a preference
+for flags (<i>dalles</i>), but in England wood is more liked; and
+indeed hard well-fitting wood, such as teak, oak or American willow,
+leaves nothing to be desired. The surface should be waxed and
+polished or varnished. Even deal floors can be rendered non-absorbent
+by waxing, by impregnating them with solid paraffin
+as recommended by Dr Langstaff.</p>
+
+<p><i>Shape and Arrangement of Wards.</i>&mdash;It is now generally agreed that
+wards should have windows on at least two opposite sides. Three
+main shapes have been proposed: (<i>a</i>) long wards with windows
+down each side, and (generally) one at the farther end with balcony;
+26 ft. is a good width for a ward of twelve or fourteen beds, but for
+larger wards of more than fourteen beds the width should be not less
+than 28 ft.; (<i>b</i>) wards nearly square, with windows on three sides;
+and (<i>c</i>) circular wards with windows all round. The first (<i>a</i>) is the
+form usually adopted in pavilions; (<i>b</i>) is recommended by Dr C. F.
+Folsom (<i>Plans for the Johns Hopkins Hospital</i>); and (<i>c</i>) has been
+suggested by Mr John Marshall, F.R.S. (<i>Nat. Assoc. for Promotion
+of Social Science</i>, 1878). Of these (<i>b</i>) seems the least to be commended,
+and (<i>c</i>), now comparatively common, has distinct advantages
+in an administrative sense, when the wards are constructed
+as to floor space so as to allow the same proportion of superficial
+space per bed in a circular ward to that which is contained in a
+rectangular ward, as is the case at the Great Northern Central
+Hospital, London. Some authorities object to a chimney-stack up
+the centre of the circular ward, urging that it prevents the nurses
+from having complete supervision over all the beds. In practice
+this objection seems to us to have little force, and it can be avoided
+by placing the fireplaces at the side of the circular ward, if desirable,
+though this adds somewhat to the cost of building.</p>
+
+<p>Each bed should be a little distance, say from 8 in. to 1 ft. from the
+wall, and each bed may be reckoned as 6½ ft. long; this gives 7½ ft. on
+each side. Between the ends of the beds about 10 ft. space is necessary,
+so that 25 or 26 ft. of total breadth may be taken as a favourable
+width. The wards of the Herbert Hospital are 26 ft.; but some
+exceed this, as, for instance, St Thomas&rsquo;s, London, and the New
+Royal infirmary, Edinburgh, 28; new Hôtel Dieu, 29; and Lariboisière,
+30. There seems no necessity for exceeding 26 for a ward of
+twelve or fourteen beds, but if the breadth be greater there ought
+to be more window space&mdash;the great difficulty being to get a wide
+space thoroughly ventilated. There ought to be only two rows of
+beds, one down each wall, with a window on each side of each bed.</p>
+
+<p>For ventilation two things are required&mdash;sufficient space and
+sufficiently frequent change or renewal of air. As regards space,
+this must be considered with reference both to total space and to
+lateral or floor space. Unless a minimum of floor space be laid
+down, we shall always be in danger of overcrowding, for cubic space
+may be supplied vertically with little or no advantage to the occupier.
+If we allow a minimum distance of 4 ft. between the beds and 10 ft.
+between the ends of the beds, this gives 100 sq. ft. of space per
+bed; less than this is undesirable. In severe surgical cases, fever
+cases and the like, a much larger space is required; and in the
+Edinburgh Infirmary 150 sq. ft. is allowed. Cubic space must be
+regulated by the means of ventilation; we can rarely change the
+air oftener than three times in an hour, and therefore the space
+ought to be at least one-third of the hourly supply. This ought not
+to be less than 4000 cubic ft. per bed, even in ordinary cases of sickness&mdash;and
+the third of that is 1333 cubic ft. of space. With 100 sq. ft.
+of floor space a ward of 13½ ft. high would supply this amount, and
+there is but little to be gained by raising the ceiling higher,&mdash;indeed
+12 ft. is practically enough. The experiments of Drs Cowles and
+Wood of Boston (see <i>Report of State Board of Health of Massachusetts
+for 1879</i>) show that above 12 ft. there is little or no movement in the
+air except towards the outlet ventilator; the space above is therefore
+of little value as ventilation space. Authorities nowadays,
+however, fix 10 ft. 6 in. as the maximum, and any height above this
+may be disregarded for purposes of ventilation. Additional height
+adds also to the cost of construction, increases the expense of warming,
+makes cleaning more difficult, and to some extent hampers
+ventilation. Whatever be the height of wards, the windows must
+reach to the ceiling, or there must be ventilators in the ceiling or
+at the top of the side walls. If this be not arranged for, a mass of
+foul air is apt to stagnate near the ceiling, and sooner or later to be
+driven down upon the inmates. The reasons for a large and constant
+renewal of air are, of course, the immediate removal and dilution of
+the organic matter given off by the inmates; as this is greater in
+quantity and more offensive and dangerous in sickness than in
+health, the change of air in the former case must be greater than in
+the latter. Hence in serious cases an amount of air practically
+unlimited is desirable&mdash;the aim of true ventilation being to approach
+as near as possible to the condition of pure external air. Without
+going too much into details, a few general rules may be laid down.
+(1) Fresh air ought, if possible, to be brought in at the lowest part
+of the ward, warmed if necessary; (2) foul air ought to be taken
+out at the highest part of the ward; (3) fresh air should reach each
+patient without passing over the bed of any other; (4) the vitiated
+air should be removed from each patient without passing over the
+bed of any other; (5) 4000 cubic ft. of fresh air per head per hour
+should be the minimum in ordinary cases of sickness, to be increased
+without limit in severer cases; (6) the air should move in no part of
+a ward at a greater rate than 1½ ft. per second, except at the point
+of entry, where it should not exceed 5 ft. per second, and at the
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page799" id="page799"></a>799</span>
+outlet, where the rate may be somewhat higher; about 64 sq. in.
+of inlet and outlet sectional area ought to be supplied per head as a
+minimum; (7) every opportunity ought to be taken of freely flushing
+the wards with air, by means of open windows, when this can be
+done with safety.</p>
+
+<p>Warming is a question of great importance in most climates,
+especially in such a climate as that of Great Britain, where every
+system of ventilation must involve either the warming of some
+portion of the incoming air, or the contriving its delivery without
+too great lowering of temperature; at the same time it cannot be
+too strongly insisted upon that the tendency is too much in the
+direction of allowing warmth to supersede freshness of air. There
+are very few cases of disease (if any) that are not more injured by
+foul air than by low temperature; and in the zymotic diseases,
+such as typhus, enteric fever, smallpox, &amp;c., satisfactory results
+have been obtained even in winter weather by almost open-air
+treatment. At the same time a reasonable warmth is desirable on
+all grounds if it can be obtained without sacrificing purity of atmosphere.
+For all practical purposes 60° to 63° F. is quite sufficient,
+and surgical and lying-in cases do well in lower temperatures.
+Various plans of warming have been recommended, but probably
+a combination is the best. It is inadvisable to do away altogether
+with radiant heat, although it is not always possible to supply
+sufficient warmth with open-air fire-places alone. A portion of the
+air may be warmed by being passed over a heating apparatus before
+it enters the ward, by having an air-chamber round the fire-place
+or stove, or by the use of radiators in the ward itself. In each case,
+however, the air must be supplied independently to each ward, so
+that no general system of air supply is applicable.</p>
+
+<p>The lighting of the ward at night will be most conveniently done by
+means of electricity in the form of a lamp for each bed, where gas
+is used each jet should have a special ventilator to carry off combustion
+products, as in the Edinburgh Infirmary.</p>
+
+<p><i>The Furniture of Wards</i> should be simple, clean and non-absorbent;
+the bedsteads of iron, mattresses hair, laid on spring
+bottoms without sacking. No curtains should be permitted.</p>
+
+<p>The water-supply ought to be on the constant system, and plentiful;
+50 gallons per head per diem may be taken as a fair minimum
+estimate.</p>
+
+<p>The closets ought to be of the simplest construction, the pans of
+earthenware all in one piece, the flushing arrangements simple but
+perfect, and the supply of water ample. Each ward should have its
+own closets, lavatories, &amp;c., built in small annexes, with a cross-ventilated
+vestibule separating them from the ward. All the pipes
+should be disconnected from the drains, the closets by intercepting
+traps, the sink and waste pipes by being made to pour their contents
+over trapped gratings. The soil pipes should be ventilated, and
+placed outside the walls, protected as may be necessary from frost.
+Each ward should have a movable bath, which can be wheeled to
+the patient&rsquo;s bedside.</p>
+
+<p>Each ward should have attached to it a small kitchen for any
+special cooking that may be required, a room for the physician or
+surgeon, and generally a room with one or two separate beds. No
+cooking should be done in the wards, nor ought washing, airing or
+drying of linen to be allowed there.</p>
+
+<p><i>Hospital Economics.</i>&mdash;There is no doubt that the voluntary
+system of hospital government is far more economical than any
+system of state or rate-supported hospitals. That the present
+condition of the voluntary hospitals in regard to economy is all
+that can be wished is not, of course, true. Still, resting as this
+system does upon the goodwill of the public for its continuance and
+maintenance, it is satisfactory to note that there is a continuous
+improvement in system and method, which makes for economy.
+It has taken many years to perfect and enforce the uniform system
+of hospital accounts, but this system with the co-operation of the
+great funds has produced economical results of the first importance.
+This system originated at the Queen&rsquo;s Hospital, Birmingham, in
+1869, and was devised by an eminent Birmingham accountant,
+William Laundy, and Sir Henry Burdett. It proved so fruitful in
+practice that six years later it was introduced at the &ldquo;Dreadnought&rdquo;
+Seamen&rsquo;s Hospital, the first London hospital to use it, and was then
+adopted spontaneously by a few of the best-administered hospitals
+where the managers were keen in enforcing economy. In 1891,
+in order to secure for comparative purposes an identical classification
+of the items and charges included in the system, a glossary or
+index of classification was prepared and published in the <i>Hospital
+Annual</i> of that year. This index enabled the same classification of
+the many items included in the expenditure of a great institution to
+be adopted generally. In the same year a committee of hospital
+secretaries, at the instigation of the Metropolitan Hospital Sunday
+Fund, revised and elaborated the index of classification, and the
+new index was adopted by a general meeting of hospital secretaries
+in January 1892. The Council of the Metropolitan Hospital Sunday
+Fund approved it, and the Uniform System of Accounts was formulated
+by that body for the use of the metropolitan hospitals.
+In 1906 the whole of this system was inquired into on behalf of the
+King&rsquo;s Fund by Mr John G. Griffiths, F.C.A., when a committee of
+hospital secretaries and representatives of the King&rsquo;s Fund prepared
+a further revision of the system. This was completed in the course
+of the year and adopted by the King&rsquo;s, the Hospital Sunday and the
+Hospital Saturday Funds. The publication of a book by Sir Henry
+Burdett led to the adoption of the system in several of the British
+Colonies, and as a result of the action taken in the British Empire
+the Uniform System of Accounts has recently been set up and
+adopted by the principal hospitals of the United States of America.
+The prince of Wales (George V.) testified to the value of this system in
+enforcing control over expenditure, and Sir Henry Burdett adapted
+it for the use of the authorities of all charities of every class. It is
+probable that no single reform has had a greater influence for good
+upon the administration of charitable institutions than the evolution
+and enforcement of the uniform system of accounts.</p>
+
+<p><i>Nursing.</i>&mdash;The arrangements for nursing the sick have greatly
+improved in recent times, although controversy still goes on as to
+the best method of carrying it out. In arranging for the nursing in
+a hospital both efficiency and economy have to be considered. No
+ward in a general hospital for acute cases should contain more than
+24 beds. In hospitals with clinical schools the proportion of nurses
+to patients should be about one nurse to every three patients, and
+if possible every ward should have a probationer on duty at night in
+addition to the night nurse. In all well-conducted hospitals it is
+now arranged that the nurses on night duty have a hot meal served
+in the general dining-room during the night, and this is only possible
+where a nurse and a probationer are allowed for each ward. The
+nurses&rsquo; quarters should be separate from the hospital proper, and
+connected by a conservatory or covered way. Each nurse should
+have a separate bedroom, measuring not less than 12 ft. long, 9 ft.
+broad and 10 ft. high. A bath should be allowed for every eight
+rooms, and the water-closets and sinks should, if possible, be in
+sanitary towers cut off from the main block of buildings.</p>
+
+<p>Circumstances must to a large extent determine the arrangement,
+but it seems desirable on the whole that the work of a nurse should
+be confined to a single ward at a time if possible. The duties of
+nurses ought also to be distinctly confined to attendance on the sick,
+and no menial work, such as scrubbing floors and the like, should
+be demanded of them; a proper staff of servants ought to be employed
+for such purposes. It is also desirable that a separate
+pavilion for lodging the nurses should be set apart, and that fair and
+reasonable time for rest and recreation should be allowed. Some
+discussion has taken place as to the advisability of placing the
+nursing of a hospital in the hands of a sisterhood or a separate
+corporation. It will, however, be admitted that the best plan is
+for the nursing staff of each hospital to be special and under one
+head within the establishment itself, even though it may be connected
+with some main institution outside. The nursing must, of
+course, be carried on in accordance with the directions and treatment
+of the physicians and surgeons.</p>
+
+<p><i>General.</i>&mdash;The kitchen, laundry, dispensary and other offices
+must be in a separate pavilion or pavilions, away from the wards,
+but within convenient access. A separate pavilion for isolation of
+infectious cases is desirable. This may be a wooden hut, or in
+some cases even a tent; either is probably preferable to a permanent
+block of buildings. A disinfecting chamber ought to be
+provided where heat can be applied to clothes and bedding, for the
+destruction both of vermin and of the germs of disease. It is advisable
+to expose all bedding and clothing to its influence after
+each occasion of wear. Although this may entail additional expense
+from the deterioration of fabric, it is worth the outlay to secure
+immunity from disease. This plan is rigidly followed at the Royal
+South Hants Infirmary at Southampton. It is of great importance
+that the wards should be periodically emptied and kept unoccupied
+for not less than one month in each year, and longer if possible.
+During such period thorough cleansing and flushing with air could
+be carried out, so as to prevent any continuous deposit of organic
+matter.</p>
+
+<p><i>Gate House or Admission Block.</i>&mdash;If the efficiency of a hospital
+and the regular and smooth working of its departments are to be
+secured, the proper management and control of the admission
+department is of the greatest importance. When one considers for
+a moment the number of applicants of all ages in various stages of
+disease, and the number of accident cases of every degree of severity
+who present themselves every day seeking admission, it will be
+evident that the most careful supervision must be exercised on the
+very threshold. It is essential that every precaution be taken against
+the admission of an unsuitable case, or the refusal, without careful
+examination, of any patient seeking admission. It is only necessary
+to instance the case of a patient with delirium tremens being admitted
+to a general ward at a late hour, or a case of infectious disease
+admitted through an overlook, or a case refused admission and
+expiring on the way home, in order to illustrate the danger and
+trouble which might arise should the supervision exercised over this
+department not be systematic, stringent and thorough.</p>
+
+<p>To secure this proper control it is necessary that the admission
+department should be designed on a definite plan suitable for the
+purposes in view. It is not sufficient to utilize any available rooms,
+say, in the basement of the building, where patients may be casually
+interviewed by a house surgeon or physician. This department
+should be as carefully designed and equipped as any other department
+of the hospital.</p>
+
+<p>Within recent years much more attention has been devoted to
+the details of construction than was formerly considered necessary,
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page800" id="page800"></a>800</span>
+but even in the best type of hospital there is still much to be desired
+in this respect. It is essential for an architect in designing any
+building to have before him an accurate idea of all the requirements,
+and the use to which each foot of space is to be put; for unless he
+is furnished with this information it is not possible for him to design
+his building so as to give effect to all the details which are so necessary.
+The following is an endeavour in a general way to enumerate
+the various points which an architect should have before him in
+designing the admission department of a general hospital:&mdash;</p>
+
+<p>The admission department should be conveniently placed on the
+ground floor of the hospital&mdash;or it may be a detached building&mdash;with
+a large court where ambulance wagons or other vehicles may
+easily pass each other on approaching or retiring from the institution.
+The entrance to the admission department for patients should,
+if possible, be entirely separate and distinct from that for the staff
+and students. An additional entrance should be provided for
+patients&rsquo; friends on visiting days, in order that they may be able
+to enter the hospital without passing through the patients&rsquo; entrance,
+or coming into contact with an accident case or other patient seeking
+admission. The main entrance door should be protected by a
+covered porch so that patients may be removed from the ambulance
+or cab to the examination room without being exposed to the weather
+or the gaze of inquisitive onlookers. This door should be sufficiently
+wide to allow two hand ambulances or barrows to pass should they
+require to be brought out to the ambulance or cab, and to facilitate
+this the floor of the entrance hall should be as nearly as possible on
+a level with that of the outside porch. Adjoining the entrance
+vestibule, lavatory accommodation
+should be provided for males and
+females who may accompany the
+patient. Lavatory accommodation
+should also be provided for porters
+on duty, and all lavatories should
+have a cut-off ventilating passage.</p>
+
+<p>A recess to store ambulance barrows
+should adjoin the entrance, and this
+recess must be in proportion to the size
+of the hospital, in order that a hand
+ambulance may always be available
+when an accident or urgent case
+arrives. The vestibule should lead into
+a large waiting-hall with an inquiry
+office at its entrance, provided with a
+telephone exchange, private exchange
+box, also letter and parcel racks. If
+possible a window of the inquiry office
+should command a view of the main
+entrance. A room should be provided
+for the medical officer on duty, so that
+a medical officer may be always at
+hand and that no delay will occur in
+attending to a patient on arrival.</p>
+
+<p>Leading off from this waiting-hall, well-lit examination rooms
+should be available for the thorough examination of patients, both
+male and female, the number of rooms, of course, varying with the
+size of the hospital and the amount of work to be done. Each of
+these rooms should be fitted with a wash-hand basin and sink, and
+a plentiful supply of hot and cold water.</p>
+
+<p>Two rooms, with recovery rooms adjoining, should be fitted up
+as small operating-rooms for the treatment of minor casualties.
+A special room should also be furnished with an X-ray outfit, and
+arrangements should be made whereby this room can be readily
+darkened so that suspected fractures, &amp;c. may be examined with
+the fluorescent screen.</p>
+
+<p>Adjoining the admission department two small wards should be
+provided for the accommodation of drunk or noisy cases unfit to
+be placed in the general wards. To these &ldquo;emergency wards&rdquo;
+must be attached the usual bathroom and lavatory accommodation,
+nurses&rsquo; room, ward kitchen and urine-test room or small lavatory.
+These wards should have double windows in order to prevent noise
+being heard outside if the wards are near other buildings.</p>
+
+<p>The interior walls of the admission department should, as far as
+possible, have a smooth and impervious surface, in order that they
+may be easily cleaned. All angles should be avoided and all corners
+rounded. Although glazed tiles are open to the criticism that they
+have numerous joints, they probably make the most suitable wall
+yet devised, as they can be easily washed down at very small cost.
+The corridors and waiting-hall should be tiled to a height of 6 ft.
+6 in., and the upper walls covered with Parian or Kean&rsquo;s cement,
+and be treated with three coats of flat paint and two coats of enamel,
+or, what is equally suitable and less costly, enamellette. The floors
+of the passages and corridors throughout the department should be
+covered with terrazzo, which is a mixture of Portland cement and
+marble chips. A margin of 1 ft. round the rooms should be treated
+in this way, and the terrazzo carried up this same distance on the
+wall to join the tiles. The remainder of the floors should be covered
+with hard wood, such as American maple or teak. As these floors
+require to be frequently washed, oak is not so suitable. Oak very
+soon becomes destroyed with water; the same trouble is experienced
+with pitch pine. The doors should also be made of a hard wood,
+preferably teak, and have no mouldings or grooves where dust can
+lodge. They should be wide enough to admit an ambulance barrow
+or bed with ease. In no case should the doors of an examination
+room be less than 3 ft. 6 in. in width.</p>
+
+<p>As an aid to a complete understanding of the varied work which
+has to be provided for, and the most effective method of carrying it
+out, the accompanying plans are given of an admission block designed
+to embody the
+main principles which
+govern the construction
+of such a department.</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:320px; height:272px" src="images/img800a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:737px; height:357px" src="images/img800b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption">Plans of Ground Floor and Basement of a Hospital.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>All accidents and
+patients seeking admission
+to this hospital enter
+through the central gateway,
+and on the left is
+shown the porters&rsquo; room,
+where a porter is always
+in readiness to attend to
+any applicant. This
+room has suitable accommodation
+for parcels,
+letters, telephones, &amp;c.,
+and adjoining it is a
+small lavatory for the
+use of porters. At the
+side of the porters&rsquo; room
+is the entrance to the central waiting-hall, which is lit from the
+roof. On one side of this hall are examination and dressing-rooms
+for males, with lavatory accommodation; and on the other side
+similar provision for females, with the addition of a nurses&rsquo; duty
+room. At the end of the central hall are two operating theatres,
+with recovery room adjoining each; one theatre for males, and the
+other for females. Between these theatres are rooms for sterilizers
+and dressings. An X-ray examination room is provided beyond the
+male examination room on the right of the hall. In the basement,
+under the entrance-hall and operating theatres are two bathrooms
+for males and two for females, with W.C.&rsquo;s for each. The remainder
+of the basement is used as a store for patients&rsquo; clothes, and a hot-air
+chamber is provided for purposes of disinfection. The basement
+can be reached by a lift or by a wide staircase which is situated at
+the end of the waiting-hall.</p>
+
+<p>In the above plan provision is made for a sitting-room for the
+medical officer on duty. This is a new and essential feature in the
+admission block unit of all hospitals in large cities, for it should
+secure that no patient is kept waiting for many minutes before being
+seen. One of the blots on the management of many hospitals is
+that regrettable delays often take place, and much dissatisfaction
+and avoidable suffering may arise from this difficulty in the administration
+of a general hospital. We have given this plan of a
+model gatehouse or admission block for a modern general hospital,
+because the block as it stands contains all the elements necessary
+for a receiving-house block in cities in connexion with a great
+Hospital city situated outside its area, in fulfilment of the suggestion
+for a Hospital city made above. Apart from its interest as a new
+feature which all new hospitals should adopt, the gatehouse or
+admission block has an importance in the wider sense, that it may
+come to form the key to the solution of the problem of how best to
+provide hospital accommodation for the poor in great cities under
+the best hygienic conditions, while protecting them from the misery
+and danger of prolonged delay in first treatment, especially in connexion
+with accidents and other cases of urgency.</p>
+
+<p><span class="sc">Bibliography.</span>&mdash;Sir H. Burdett, <i>Cottage Hospitals, General, Fever
+and Convalescent, their Construction, Management and Work</i> (London,
+1877, 1880 and 1896); Tollet, <i>Les Édifices hospitaliers depuis leur</i>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page801" id="page801"></a>801</span>
+<i>origine jusqu&rsquo;à nos jours</i> (Paris, 1892); Sir H. Burdett, <i>Hospitals
+and Asylums of the World</i>, with large portfolio of plans to a uniform
+scale (London, 1893) (a supplement is published every year bringing
+the information up to date, entitled <i>Burdett&rsquo;s Hospitals and Charities</i>);
+J. S. Billings, <i>The Principles of Ventilation, Heating and their Practical
+Application</i> (New York, 1893); Galton, <i>Healthy Hospitals</i> (London,
+1893); Tollet, <i>Les Hôpitaux au XIX<span class="sp">e</span> siècle</i> (Paris, 1894); Billings
+and Hurd, <i>Suggestions to Hospital and Asylum Visitors</i> (Philadelphia,
+1895); Oswald Kuhn, &ldquo;Hospitals,&rdquo; <i>Handbuch der Architektur</i>,
+4th part, 5th half-volume, part i. (Stuttgart, 1897); <i>Plans for the
+Johns Hopkins Hospital</i> (Baltimore, 1875); <i>Report of State Board
+of Health for Massachusetts for 1879</i>.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(H. Bt.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HOSPITIUM<a name="ar21" id="ar21"></a></span> (Gr. <span class="grk" title="xenia, proxenia">&#958;&#949;&#957;&#943;&#945;, &#960;&#961;&#959;&#958;&#949;&#957;&#943;&#945;</span>), &ldquo;hospitality,&rdquo; among the
+Greeks and Romans, was of a twofold character: (1) private;
+(2) public.</p>
+
+<p>(1) In Homeric times all strangers without exception were
+regarded as being under the protection of Zeus Xenios, the god of
+strangers and suppliants. It is doubtful whether, as is commonly
+assumed, they were considered as <i>ipso facto</i> enemies; they
+were rather guests. Immediately on his arrival, the stranger
+was clothed and entertained, and no inquiry was made as to
+his name or antecedents until the duties of hospitality had
+been fulfilled. When the guest parted from his host he was
+often presented with gifts (<span class="grk" title="xenia">&#958;&#941;&#957;&#953;&#945;</span>), and sometimes a die
+(<span class="grk" title="astragalos">&#7936;&#963;&#964;&#961;&#940;&#947;&#945;&#955;&#959;&#962;</span>) was broken between them. Each then took a
+part, a family connexion was established, and the broken die
+served as a symbol of recognition; thus the members of each
+family found in the other hosts and protectors in case of need.
+Violation of the duties of hospitality was likely to provoke
+the wrath of the gods; but it does not appear that anything
+beyond this religious sanction existed to guard the
+rights of a traveller. Similar customs seem to have existed
+among the Italian races. Amongst the Romans, private hospitality,
+which had existed from the earliest times, was more
+accurately and legally defined than amongst the Greeks, the
+tie between host and guest being almost as strong as that
+between patron and client. It was of the nature of a contract,
+entered into by mutual promise, the clasping of hands, and
+exchange of an agreement in writing (<i>tabula hospitalis</i>) or of
+a token (<i>tessera</i> or <i>symbolum</i>), and was rendered hereditary
+by the division of the tessera. The advantages thus obtained
+by the guest were, the right of hospitality when travelling and,
+above all, the protection of his host (representing him as his
+patron) in a court of law. The contract was sacred and inviolable,
+undertaken in the name of Jupiter Hospitalis, and could only
+be dissolved by a formal act.</p>
+
+<p>(2) This private connexion developed into a custom according
+to which a state appointed one of the citizens of a foreign state
+as its representative (<span class="grk" title="proxenos">&#960;&#961;&#972;&#958;&#949;&#957;&#959;&#962;</span>) to protect any of its citizens
+travelling or resident in his country. Sometimes an individual
+came forward voluntarily to perform these duties on behalf of
+another state (<span class="grk" title="etheloproxenos">&#7952;&#952;&#949;&#955;&#959;&#960;&#961;&#972;&#958;&#949;&#957;&#959;&#962;</span>). The proxenus is generally
+compared to the modern consul or minister resident. His
+duties were to afford hospitality to strangers from the state
+whose proxenus he was, to introduce its ambassadors, to procure
+them admission to the assembly and seats in the theatre, and
+in general to look after the commercial and political interests
+of the state by which he had been appointed to his office. Many
+cases occur where such an office was hereditary; thus the
+family of Callias at Athens were proxeni of the Spartans. We
+find the office mentioned in a Corcyraean inscription dating
+probably from the 7th century <span class="scs">B.C.</span>, and it continued to grow
+more important and frequent throughout Greek history. There
+is no proof that any direct emolument was ever attached to
+the office, while the expense and trouble entailed by it must
+often have been very great. Probably the honours which
+it brought with it were sufficient recompense. These consisted
+partly in the general respect and esteem paid to a proxenus,
+and partly in many more substantial honours conferred by
+special decree of the state whose representative he was, such
+as freedom from taxation and public burdens, the right of
+acquiring property in Attica, admission to the senate and popular
+assemblies, and perhaps even full citizenship. Public hospitium
+seems also to have existed among the Italian races; but the
+circumstances of their history prevented it from becoming so
+important as in Greece. Cases, however, occur of the establishment
+of public hospitality between two cities (Rome and Caere,
+Livy v. 50), and of towns entering into a position of clientship
+to some distinguished Roman, who then became patronus of
+such a town. Foreigners were frequently granted the right
+of public hospitality by the senate down to the end of the republic.
+The public hospes had a right to entertainment at the
+public expense, admission to sacrifices and games, the right of
+buying and selling on his own account, and of bringing an action
+at law without the intervention of a Roman patron.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>A full bibliography of the subject will be found in the article in
+Daremberg and Saglio, <i>Dictionnaire des antiquités</i>, to which may
+be added R. von Jhering, <i>Die Gastfreundschaft im Altertum</i> (1887);
+see also Smith&rsquo;s <i>Dictionary of Greek and Roman Antiquities</i> (3rd ed.,
+1890).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HOSPODAR,<a name="ar22" id="ar22"></a></span> a term of Slavonic origin, meaning &ldquo;lord&rdquo;
+(Russ. <i>gospodar</i>). It is a derivative of <i>gospod</i>, &ldquo;lord,&rdquo; and
+is akin to <i>gosudar</i>, which primarily means &ldquo;sovereign,&rdquo; and is
+now also used in Russia as a polite form of address, equivalent
+to &ldquo;sir.&rdquo; The pronunciation as <i>hospodar</i> of a word written
+<i>gospodar</i> in all but one of the Slavonic languages which retain
+the Cyrillic alphabet is not, as is sometimes alleged, due to the
+influence of Little Russian, but to that of Church Slavonic.
+In both of these <i>g</i> is frequently pronounced <i>h</i>. In Little Russian
+the title <i>hospodar</i> is specially applied to the master of a house
+or the head of a family. The rulers of Walachia and Moldavia
+were styled <i>hospodars</i> from the 15th century to 1866. At the
+end of this period, as the title had been held by many vassals
+of Turkey, its retention was considered inconsistent with the
+growth of Rumanian independence. It was therefore discarded
+in favour of <i>domn</i> (<i>dominus</i>, &ldquo;lord&rdquo;), which continued to be
+the official princely title up to the proclamation of a Rumanian
+kingdom in 1881.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HOST.<a name="ar23" id="ar23"></a></span> (1) (Through the O. Fr. <i>oste</i> or <i>hoste</i>, modern <i>hôte</i>,
+from Lat. <i>hospes</i>, a guest or host; <i>hospes</i> being probably from
+an original <i>hostipes</i>, one who feeds a stranger or enemy, from
+<i>hostis</i> and the root of <i>pascere</i>), one who receives another into
+his house and provides him with lodging and entertainment,
+especially one who does this in return for payment. The word
+is thus transferred, in biology, to an animal or plant upon which
+a parasite lives. (2) (From Lat. <i>hostis</i>, a stranger or enemy;
+in Med. Latin a military expedition), a very large gathering
+of men, armed for war, an army, and so used generally of any
+multitude. In biblical use the word is applied to the company
+of angels in heaven; or to the sun, moon and stars, the &ldquo;hosts
+of heaven,&rdquo; and also to translate &ldquo;Jehovah Sabaoth,&rdquo; the
+Lord God of hosts, the lord of the armies of Israel or of the hosts
+of heaven. (3) (From Lat. <i>hostia</i>, a victim or sacrifice), the
+sacrifice of Christ&rsquo;s body and blood in the Eucharist, more
+particularly the consecrated wafer used in the service of the
+mass in the Roman Church (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Eucharist</a></span>).</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HOSTAGE<a name="ar24" id="ar24"></a></span> (through Fr. <i>ostage</i>, modern <i>otage</i>, from Late
+Lat. <i>obsidaticum</i>, the state of being an obses or hostage; Med.
+Lat. <i>ostaticum</i>, <i>ostagium</i>), a person handed over by one of two
+belligerent parties to the other or seized as security for the
+carrying out of an agreement, or as a preventive measure against
+certain acts of war. The practice of taking hostages is very
+ancient, and has been used constantly in negotiations with
+conquered nations, and in cases such as surrenders, armistices
+and the like, where the two belligerents depended for its proper
+carrying out on each other&rsquo;s good faith. The Romans were
+accustomed to take the sons of tributary princes and educate
+them at Rome, thus holding a security for the continued loyalty
+of the conquered nation and also instilling a possible future
+ruler with ideas of Roman civilization. This practice was also
+adopted in the early period of the British occupation of India,
+and by France in her relations with the Arab tribes in North
+Africa.<a name="fa1b" id="fa1b" href="#ft1b"><span class="sp">1</span></a> The position of a hostage was that of a prisoner of war,
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page802" id="page802"></a>802</span>
+to be retained till the negotiations or treaty obligations were
+carried out, and liable to punishment (in ancient times), and even
+to death, in case of treachery or refusal to fulfil the promises
+made. The practice of taking hostages as security for the carrying
+out of a treaty between civilized states is now obsolete. The
+last occasion was at the treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle in 1748,
+when two British peers, Henry Bowes Howard, 11th earl of
+Suffolk, and Charles, 9th Baron Cathcart, were sent to France
+as hostages for the restitution of Cape Breton to France.</p>
+
+<p>In modern times the practice may be said to be confined
+to two occasions: (1) to secure the payment of enforced contributions
+or requisitions in an occupied territory and the
+obedience to regulations the occupying army may think fit to
+issue; (2) as a precautionary measure, to prevent illegitimate
+acts of war or violence by persons not members of the recognized
+military forces of the enemy. During the Franco-Prussian War
+of 1870, the Germans took as hostages the prominent people
+or officials from towns or districts when making requisitions and
+also when foraging, and it was a general practice for the mayor
+and <i>adjoint</i> of a town which failed to pay a fine imposed upon it
+to be seized as &ldquo;hostages&rdquo; and retained till the money was paid.
+The last case where &ldquo;hostages&rdquo; have been taken in modern
+warfare has been the subject of much discussion. In 1870
+the Germans found it necessary to take special measures to put
+a stop to train-wrecking by parties in occupied territory not
+belonging to the recognized armed forces of the enemy, an
+illegitimate act of war. Prominent citizens were placed on the
+engine of the train &ldquo;so that it might be understood that in every
+accident caused by the hostility of the inhabitants their compatriots
+will be the first to suffer.&rdquo; The measure seems to have
+been effective. In 1900 during the Boer War, by a proclamation
+issued at Pretoria (June 19th), Lord Roberts adopted the plan
+for a similar reason, but shortly afterwards (July 29) it was
+abandoned (see <i>The Times&rsquo; History of the War in S. Africa</i>,
+iv. 402). The Germans also, between the surrender of a town
+and its final occupation, took &ldquo;hostages&rdquo; as security against
+outbreaks of violence by the inhabitants. Most writers on
+international law have regarded this method of preventing such
+acts of hostility as unjustifiable, on the ground that the persons
+taken as hostages are not the persons responsible for the act;<a name="fa2b" id="fa2b" href="#ft2b"><span class="sp">2</span></a>
+that, as by the usage of war hostages are to be treated strictly
+as prisoners of war, such an exposure to danger is transgressing
+the rights of a belligerent; and as useless, for the mere temporary
+removal of important citizens till the end of a war cannot be
+a deterrent unless their mere removal deprives the combatants
+of persons necessary to the continuance of the acts aimed at
+(see W. E. Hall, <i>International Law</i>, 1904, pp. 418, 475). On the
+other hand it has been urged (L. Oppenheim, <i>International Law</i>,
+1905, vol. ii., &ldquo;War and Neutrality,&rdquo; pp. 271-273) that the acts,
+the prevention of which is aimed at, are not legitimate acts on
+the part of the armed forces of the enemy, but illegitimate acts
+by private persons, who, if caught, could be quite lawfully
+punished, and that a precautionary and preventive measure
+is more reasonable than &ldquo;reprisals.&rdquo; It may be noticed,
+however, that the hostages would suffer should the acts aimed at
+be performed by the authorized belligerent forces of the enemy.</p>
+
+<p>In France, after the revolution of Prairial (June 18, 1799),
+the so-called &ldquo;law of hostages&rdquo; was passed, to meet the insurrection
+in La Vendée. Relatives of <i>émigrés</i> were taken from disturbed
+districts and imprisoned, and were liable to execution
+at any attempt to escape. Sequestration of their property and
+deportation from France followed on the murder of a republican,
+four to every such murder, with heavy fines on the whole
+body of hostages. The law only resulted in an increase in the
+insurrection. Napoleon in 1796 had used similar measures to
+deal with the insurrection in Lombardy (<i>Correspondance de
+Napoléon I.</i> i. 323, 327, quoted in Hall, <i>International Law</i>).</p>
+
+<p>In May 1871, at the close of the Paris Commune, took place
+the massacre of the so-called hostages. Strictly they were not
+&ldquo;hostages,&rdquo; for they had not been handed over or seized as
+security for the performance of any undertaking or as a preventive
+measure, but merely in retaliation for the death of their leaders
+E. V. Duval and Gustave Flourens. It was an act of maniacal
+despair, on the defeat at Mont Valérien on the 4th of April and
+the entry of the army into Paris on the 21st of May. Among the
+many victims who were shot in batches the most noticeable were
+Monsignor Darboy, archbishop of Paris, the Abbé Deguery, curé
+of the Madeleine, and the president of the Court of Cassation,
+Louis Bernard Bonjean.</p>
+
+<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note">
+
+<p><a name="ft1b" id="ft1b" href="#fa1b"><span class="fn">1</span></a> The sultan of Bagiemi, in Central Africa, in 1906 sent his nephew
+to undergo military training with a squadron of Spahis, and at the
+same time to serve as a guarantee of his fidelity to the French
+(<i>Bulletin du Comité de l&rsquo;Afrique française</i>, Oct. 1906).</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft2b" id="ft2b" href="#fa2b"><span class="fn">2</span></a> Article 50 of the Hague War Regulations lays it down that
+&ldquo;no general penalty, pecuniary or otherwise, can be inflicted on the
+population on account of the acts of individuals for which it cannot
+be regarded as collectively responsible.&rdquo; The regulations, however,
+do not allude to the practice of taking hostage.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HOSTE, SIR WILLIAM<a name="ar25" id="ar25"></a></span> (1780-1828), British naval captain,
+was the son of Dixon Hoste, rector of Godwick and Tittleshill
+in Norfolk. He was born on the 26th of August 1780 at Ingoldsthorpe,
+and entered the navy in April 1793, under the special care
+of Nelson, who had a lively affection for him. He became
+lieutenant in 1798, and was appointed commander of the
+&ldquo;Mutine&rdquo; brig after the battle of the Nile, at which he was present
+as lieutenant of the &ldquo;Theseus.&rdquo; In 1802 he was promoted post
+captain by Lord St Vincent. During all his active career, he
+was employed in the Mediterranean and the Adriatic. From
+1808 to 1814 he held the command of a detached force of frigates,
+and was engaged in operations against the French who held
+Dalmatia at the time, and in watching, or, when they came out,
+fighting, the ships of the squadron formed at Venice by Napoleon&rsquo;s
+orders. The work was admirably done, and was also lucrative;
+and Hoste, although he occasionally complained that his exertions
+did not put much money in his pocket, made a fortune of at least
+£60,000 by the capture of Italian and Dalmatian merchant
+ships. He also made many successful attacks on the French
+military posts on shore. His most brilliant feat was performed
+on the 13th of March 1811. A Franco-Venetian squadron of six
+frigates and five small vessels, under the command of a French
+officer named Dubourdieu, assailed Hoste&rsquo;s small force of four
+frigates near the island of Lissa. The French officer imitated
+Nelson&rsquo;s attack at Trafalgar by sailing down on the English
+line from windward with his ships in two lines. But the rapid
+man&oelig;uvring and gunnery of Hoste&rsquo;s squadron proved how little
+virtue there is in any formation in itself. Dubourdieu was killed,
+one of the French frigates was driven on shore, and two of the
+Venetians were taken. After the action, which attracted a
+great deal of attention, Hoste returned to England, but in 1812
+he was back on his station, where he remained till the end of the
+war. During the peace he did not again go to sea, and he died
+on the 6th of December 1828. He married Lady Harriet Walpole
+in April 1817, and left three sons and three daughters.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>In 1833 his widow published his <i>Memoirs and Letters</i>. See also
+Marshall, <i>Roy. Nav. Biog.</i> vol. iii., and James, <i>Naval History</i>.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HOSTEL,<a name="ar26" id="ar26"></a></span> the old name for an inn (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Hospital</a></span>, ad init.);
+also employed at Oxford and Cambridge to designate the
+lodgings which were in ancient times occupied by students
+of the university and to a certain extent regulated by the
+authorities. In some English public schools what is known
+as the &ldquo;hostel&rdquo; system provides for an organization of the
+lodging accommodation under separate masterships.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HOSTIUS,<a name="ar27" id="ar27"></a></span> Roman epic poet, probably flourished in the 2nd
+century <span class="scs">B.C.</span> He was the author of a <i>Bellum Histricum</i> in at
+least seven books, of which only a few fragments remain. The
+poem is probably intended to celebrate the victory gained in
+129 by Gaius Sempronius Tuditanus (consul and himself an
+annalist) over the Illyrian Iapydes (Appian, <i>Illyrica</i>, 10; Livy,
+<i>epit.</i> 59). Hostius is supposed by some to be the &ldquo;doctus avus&rdquo;
+alluded to in Propertius (iv. 20. 8), the real name of Propertius&rsquo;s
+Cynthia, according to Apuleius (<i>Apologia</i> x.) and the scholiast
+on Juvenal (vi. 7), being Hostia (perhaps Roscia).</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>Fragments in E. Bährens, <i>Fragmenta poetarum Romanorum</i>
+(1884); A. Weichert, <i>Poetarum Latinorum reliquiae</i> (1830).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HOSUR,<a name="ar28" id="ar28"></a></span> a town of British India, in the Salem district of
+Madras, 24 m. E. of Bangalore. Pop. (1901) 6695. It contains
+an old fort, frequently mentioned in the history of the Mysore
+wars, and a fine castellated mansion built by a former collector.
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page803" id="page803"></a>803</span>
+Close by is the remount depôt, established in 1828, where
+Australian horses are acclimatized and trained for artillery
+and cavalry use in southern India.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HOTCH-POT,<a name="ar29" id="ar29"></a></span> or <span class="sc">Hotch-potch</span> (from Fr. <i>hocher</i>, to shake;
+used as early as 1292 as a law term, and from the 15th century
+in cookery for a sort of broth with many ingredients, and so
+used figuratively for any heterogeneous mixture), in English law,
+the name given to a rule of equity whereby a person, interested
+along with others in a common fund, and having already received
+something in the same interest, is required to surrender what
+has been so acquired into the common fund, on pain of being
+excluded from the distribution. &ldquo;It seemeth,&rdquo; says Littleton,
+&ldquo;that this word <i>hotch-pot</i> is in English a pudding; for in a
+pudding is not commonly put one thing alone, but one thing
+with other things together.&rdquo; The following is an old example
+given in Coke on Littleton: &ldquo;If a man seized of 30 acres
+of land in fee hath issue only two daughters, and he gives with
+one of them 10 acres in marriage to the man that marries her,
+and dies seized of the other 20; now she that is thus married,
+to gain her share of the rest of the land, must put her part
+given in marriage into hotch-pot; <i>i.e.</i> she must refuse to take
+the profits thereof, and cause her land to be so mingled with the
+other that an equal division of the whole may be made between
+her and her sister, as if none had been given to her; and thus
+for her 10 acres she shall have 15, or otherwise the sister will
+have the 20.&rdquo; In the common law this seems to have been
+the only instance in which the rule was applied, and the reason
+assigned for it is that, inasmuch as daughters succeeding to lands
+take together as coparceners and not by primogeniture, the
+policy of the law is that the land in such cases should be equally
+divided. The law of hotch-pot applies only to lands descending
+in fee-simple. The same principle is noticed by Blackstone
+as applying in the customs of York and London to personal
+property. It is also expressly enacted in the Statute of Distributions
+(§ 5) that no child of the intestate, except his heir-at-law,
+who shall have any estate in land by the settlement of the
+intestate, or who shall be advanced by the intestate in his
+lifetime by pecuniary portion equal to the distributive shares
+of the other children, shall participate with them in the surplus;
+but if the estate so given to such child by way of advancement
+be not equivalent to their shares, then such part of the surplus as
+will make it equal shall be allotted to him. It has been decided
+that this provision applies only to advancements by <i>fathers</i>, on
+the ground that the rule was founded on the custom of London,
+which never affected a widow&rsquo;s personal estate. The heir-at-law
+is not required to bring any land which he has by descent or
+otherwise from the deceased into hotch-pot, but advancements
+made to him out of the personal property must be brought
+in. The same principle is to be found in the <i>collatio bonorum</i>
+of the Roman law: emancipated children, in order to share
+the inheritance of their father with the children unemancipated,
+were required to bring their property into the common fund.
+It is also found in the law of Scotland.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HÔTEL-DE-VILLE,<a name="ar30" id="ar30"></a></span> the town hall of every French municipality.
+The most ancient example still in perfect preservation
+is that at St-Antonin (Tarn-et-Garonne) dating from the middle
+of the 12th century. Other fine town halls are those of Compiègne,
+Orléans, Saumur, Beaugency and St Quentin. The
+Hôtel de Ville in Paris built in the 16th century was burnt by
+the Commune in 1871 and has since been rebuilt on an extended
+site, the central portion of the main front being a reproduction
+of the old design. There is only one town hall in a French town,
+those erected for the mayors of the different arrondissements
+in Paris being called <i>mairies</i>.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HÔTEL-DIEU,<a name="ar31" id="ar31"></a></span> the name given to the principal hospital in
+any French town. The Hôtel-Dieu in Paris was founded in the
+year <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 660, has been extended at various times, and was
+entirely rebuilt between 1868-1878. One of the most ancient
+in France is at Angers, dating from 1153. The Hôtel-Dieu of
+Beaune (Côte-d&rsquo;Or), founded 1443, is one of the most interesting,
+as it retains the picturesque disposition of its courtyard, with
+covered galleries on two storeys and large dormer windows;
+and the great hall of the Hôtel-Dieu at Tonnerre, Yonne (1338),
+nearly 60 ft. wide and over 300 ft. long, is still preserved as part
+of the chief hospital of the town.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HOTHAM, SIR JOHN<a name="ar32" id="ar32"></a></span> (d. 1645), English parliamentarian,
+belonged to a Yorkshire family, and fought on the continent
+of Europe during the early part of the Thirty Years&rsquo; War. In
+1622 he was made a baronet, and he was member of parliament
+for Beverley in the five parliaments between 1625 and 1640,
+being sheriff of Yorkshire in 1635. In 1639 he was deprived
+by the king of his office of governor of Hull, and joining the
+parliamentary party refused to pay ship-money. In January
+1642 Hotham was ordered by the parliament to seize Hull,
+where there was a large store of munitions of war; this was
+at once carried out by his son John. Hotham took command
+of Hull and in April 1642 refused to admit Charles I. to the
+town. Later he promised his prisoner, Lord Digby, that he
+would surrender it to the king, but when Charles appeared
+again he refused a second time and drove away the besiegers.
+Meanwhile the younger Hotham was taking an active part in
+the Civil War in Yorkshire and Lincolnshire, but was soon at
+variance with other parliamentary leaders, especially with the
+Fairfaxes, and complaints about his conduct and that of his
+troops were made by Cromwell and by Colonel Hutchinson.
+Soon both the Hothams were corresponding with the earl of
+Newcastle, and the younger one was probably ready to betray
+Hull; these proceedings became known to the parliament,
+and in June 1643 father and son were captured and taken to
+London. After a long delay they were tried by court-martial,
+were found guilty and were sentenced to death. The younger
+Hotham was beheaded on the 2nd of January 1645, and in
+spite of efforts made by the House of Lords and the Presbyterians
+to save him, the elder suffered the same fate on the following
+day. Sir John Hotham had two other sons who were persons
+of some note: Charles Hotham (1615-<i>c.</i> 1672), rector of Wigan,
+a Cambridge scholar and author of <i>Ad philosophiam Teutonicam
+Manuductio</i> (1648); and Durant Hotham (1617-1691), who
+wrote a <i>Life of Jacob Boehme</i> (1654).</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HOTHAM, WILLIAM HOTHAM,<a name="ar33" id="ar33"></a></span> 1st Baron (1736-1813),
+British Admiral, son of Sir Beaumont Hotham (d. 1771), a
+lineal descendant of the above Sir John Hotham, was educated
+at Westminster School and at the Royal Naval Academy,
+Portsmouth. He entered the navy in 1751, and spent most of his
+midshipman&rsquo;s time in American waters. In 1755 he became
+lieutenant in Sir Edward Hawke&rsquo;s flagship the &ldquo;St George,&rdquo; and
+he soon received a small command, which led gradually to higher
+posts. In the &ldquo;Syren&rdquo; (20) he fought a sharp action with the
+French &ldquo;Télémaque&rdquo; of superior force, and in the &ldquo;Fortune&rdquo;
+sloop he carried, by boarding, a 26-gun privateer. For this
+service he was rewarded with a more powerful ship, and from
+1757 onwards commanded various frigates. In 1759 his ship
+the &ldquo;Melampe,&rdquo; with H.M.S. &ldquo;Southampton,&rdquo; fought a spirited
+action with two hostile frigates of similar force, one of which
+became their prize. The &ldquo;Melampe&rdquo; was attached to Keppel&rsquo;s
+squadron in 1761, but was in the main employed in detached
+duty and made many captures. In 1776, as a commodore,
+Hotham served in North American waters, and he had a great
+share in the brilliant action in the Cul de Sac of St Lucia (Dec.
+15th, 1778). Here he continued till the spring of 1781, when he
+was sent home in charge of a large convoy of merchantmen.
+Off Scilly Hotham fell in with a powerful French squadron,
+against which he could effect nothing, and many of the merchantmen
+went to France as prizes. In 1782 Commodore Hotham
+was with Howe at the relief of Gibraltar, and at the time of the
+Spanish armament of 1790 he flew his flag as rear-admiral
+of the red. Some time later he was made vice-admiral. As
+Hood&rsquo;s second-in-command in the Mediterranean he was engaged
+against the French Revolutionary navy, and when his chief
+retired to England the command devolved upon him. On March
+12th, 1794 he fought an indecisive fleet action, in which the brunt
+of the fighting was borne by Captain Horatio Nelson, and some
+months later, now a full admiral, he again engaged, this time
+under conditions which might have permitted a decisive victory;
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page804" id="page804"></a>804</span>
+of this affair Nelson wrote home that it was a &ldquo;miserable action.&rdquo;
+A little later he returned to England, and in 1797 he was made
+a peer of Ireland under the title of Baron Hotham of South
+Dalton, near Hull. He died in 1813. Hotham lacked the fiery
+energy and genius of a Nelson or a Jervis, but in subordinate
+positions he was a brave and capable officer.</p>
+
+<p>As Hotham died unmarried his barony passed to his brother,
+Sir Beaumont Hotham (1737-1814), who became 2nd Baron
+Hotham in May 1813. Beaumont, who was a baron of the
+exchequer for thirty years, died on the 4th of March 1814, and
+was succeeded as 3rd baron by his grandson Beaumont Hotham
+(1794-1870), who was present at the battle of Waterloo, being
+afterwards a member of parliament for forty-eight years. He died
+unmarried in December 1870 and was succeeded by his nephew,
+Charles (1836-1872), and then by another nephew, John (1838-1907).
+In 1907 his cousin Frederick William (b. 1863) became
+the 6th baron.</p>
+
+<p>Other distinguished members of this family were the 2nd
+baron&rsquo;s son, Sir Henry Hotham (1777-1833), a vice-admiral, who
+saw a great deal of service during the Napoleonic wars; and Sir
+William Hotham (1772-1848), a nephew of the 1st baron, who
+served with Duncan in 1797 off Camperdown and elsewhere.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See Charnock, <i>Biographia navalis</i>, vi. 236.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HOTHO, HEINRICH GUSTAV<a name="ar34" id="ar34"></a></span> (1802-1873), German historian
+of art, was born at Berlin in 1802, and died in his native city on
+Christmas day 1873. During boyhood he was affected for two
+years with blindness consequent on an attack of measles. But
+recovering his sight he studied so hard as to take his degree at
+Berlin in 1826. A year of travel spent in visiting Paris, London
+and the Low Countries determined his vocation. He came home
+delighted with the treasures which he had seen, worked laboriously
+for a higher examination and passed as &ldquo;docent&rdquo; in
+aesthetics and art history. In 1829 he was made professor at
+the university of Berlin. In 1833 G. F. Waagen accepted him
+as assistant in the museum of the Prussian capital; and in 1858
+he was promoted to the directorship of the print-room. During
+a long and busy life, in which his time was divided between
+literature and official duties, Hotho&rsquo;s ambition had always been
+to master the history of the schools of Germany and the Netherlands.
+Accordingly what he published was generally confined
+to those countries. In 1842-1843 he gave to the world his account
+of German and Flemish painting. From 1853 to 1858 he revised
+and published anew a part of this work, which he called &ldquo;The
+school of Hubert van Eyck, with his German precursors and
+contemporaries.&rdquo; His attempt later on to write a history of
+Christian painting overtasked his strength, and remained
+unfinished. Hotho is important in the history of aesthetics
+as having developed Hegel&rsquo;s theories; but he was deficient in
+knowledge of Italian painting.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HOTI-MARDAN,<a name="ar35" id="ar35"></a></span> or <span class="sc">Mardan</span>, a frontier cantonment of British
+India in the Peshawar district of the North-West Frontier
+Province, situated 15 m. N. of Nowshera. Pop. (1901) 3572.
+It is notable as the permanent headquarters of the famous
+corps of Guides, and also contains a cavalry brigade belonging
+to the 1st division of the northern army.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HOTMAN, FRANÇOIS<a name="ar36" id="ar36"></a></span> (1524-1590), French publicist, eldest
+son of Pierre Hotman, was born on the 23rd of August 1524,
+at Paris, his family being of Silesian origin. His name is latinized
+by himself Hotomanus, by others Hotomannus and Hottomannus.
+His father, a zealous Catholic, and a counsellor of
+the parlement of Paris, destined him for the law, and sent him
+at the age of fifteen to the university of Orleans. He obtained
+his doctorate in three years, and became a pleader at Paris. The
+arts of the barrister were not to his taste; he turned to the study
+of jurisprudence and literature, and in 1546 was appointed
+lecturer in Roman Law at the university of Paris. The fortitude
+of Anne Dubourg under torture gained his adhesion to the
+cause of Reform. Giving up a career on which he had entered
+with high repute, he went in 1547 to Lyons, and thence to Geneva
+and to Lausanne, where, on the recommendation of Calvin, he
+was appointed professor of belles-lettres and history, and
+married Claudine Aubelin, a refugee from Orleans. On the
+invitation of the magistracy, he lectured at Strassburg on law
+in 1555, and became professor in 1556, superseding François
+Baudouin, who had been his colleague in Paris. His fame was
+such that overtures were made to him by the courts of Prussia
+and Hesse, and by Elizabeth of England. Twice he visited
+Germany, in 1556 accompanying Calvin to the Diet at Frankfort.
+He was entrusted with confidential missions from the Huguenot
+leaders to German potentates, carrying at one time credentials
+from Catherine de Medici. In 1560 he was one of the principal
+instigators of the conspiracy of Amboise; in September of that
+year he was with Antoine of Navarre at Nérac. In 1562 he
+attached himself to Condé. In 1564 he became professor of civil
+law at Valence, retrieving by his success the reputation of its
+university. In 1567 he succeeded Cujas in the chair of jurisprudence
+at Bourges. Five months later his house and library
+were wrecked by a Catholic mob; he fled by Orleans to Paris,
+where L&rsquo;Hôpital made him historiographer to the king. As
+agent for the Huguenots, he was sent to Blois to negotiate the
+peace of 1568. He returned to Bourges, only to be again driven
+away by the outbreak of hostilities. At Sancerre, during its siege,
+he composed his <i>Consolatio</i> (published in 1593). The peace of 1570
+restored him to Bourges, whence a third time he fled, in consequence
+of the St Bartholomew massacre (1572). In 1573, after
+publishing his <i>Franco-Gallia</i>, he left France for ever with his
+family, and became professor of Roman law at Geneva. On
+the approach of the duke of Savoy he removed to Basel in 1579.
+In 1580 he was appointed councillor of state to Henry of Navarre.
+The plague sent him in 1582 to Montbéliard; here he lost his wife.
+Returning to Geneva in 1584 he developed a kind of scientific
+turn, dabbling in alchemy and the research for the philosopher&rsquo;s
+stone. In 1589 he made his final retirement to Basel, where he
+died on the 12th of February 1590, leaving two sons and four
+daughters; he was buried in the cathedral.</p>
+
+<p>Hotman was a man of pure life, real piety (as his <i>Consolatio</i>
+shows) and warm domestic virtues. His constant removals were
+inspired less by fear for himself than by care for his family, and
+by a temperament averse to the conditions of warfare, and a
+constitutional desire for peace. He did much for 16th-century
+jurisprudence, having a critical knowledge of Roman sources, and
+a fine Latin style. He broached the idea of a national code of
+French law. His works were very numerous, beginning with
+his <i>De gradibus cognationis</i> (1546), and including a treatise on
+the Eucharist (1566); a treatise (<i>Anti-Tribonien</i>, 1567) to show
+that French law could not be based on Justinian; a life of
+Coligny (1575); a polemic (<i>Brutum fulmen</i>, 1585) directed
+against a bull of Sixtus V., with many other works on law,
+history, politics and classical learning. His most important
+work, the <i>Franco-Gallia</i> (1573), was in advance of his age, and
+found favour neither with Catholics nor with Huguenots in its
+day; yet its vogue has been compared to that obtained later by
+Rousseau&rsquo;s <i>Contrat Social</i>. It presented an ideal of Protestant
+statesmanship, pleading for a representative government and
+an elective monarchy. It served the purpose of the Jesuits in
+their pamphlet war against Henry IV.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See Bayle, Dictionnaire; R. Dareste, <i>Essai sur F. Hotman</i> (1850);
+E. Grégoire, in <i>Nouvelle Biog. générale</i> (1858).</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(A. Go.*)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HOT SPRINGS,<a name="ar37" id="ar37"></a></span> a city of Arkansas, U.S.A., the county-seat of
+Garland county, at the easterly base of the Ozark mountains,
+55 m. by rail W.S.W. of Little Rock. Pop. (1880) 3554; (1890)
+8086; (1900) 9973, of whom 3102 were of negro descent and
+561 were foreign-born; (1910 census) 14,434. The transient
+population numbers more than 100,000 annually. Hot Springs
+is served by the Chicago, Rock Island &amp; Pacific, the Little Rock
+&amp; Hot Springs Western, and the St Louis, Iron Mountain &amp;
+Southern railways. The city lies partly in several mountain
+ravines and partly on a plateau. A creek, flowing through the
+valley but walled over, empties into the Ouachita river several
+miles from Hot Springs. The elevation of the surrounding hills
+is about 1200 ft. above the sea and 600 above the surrounding
+country. The scenery is beautiful, and there is a remarkable
+view from a steel tower observatory, 150 ft. high, on the top
+of Hot Springs mountain. The climate is delightful. The
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page805" id="page805"></a>805</span>
+average rainfall for the year is about 55 in. The springs are
+about forty-four in number, rising within an area of 3 acres
+on the slope of Hot Springs mountain. They are all included
+within a reservation held by the United States government,
+which (since 1903) exercises complete jurisdiction. The daily
+flow from the springs used is more than 800,000 gallons. Their
+temperature varies from 95° to 147° F. The waters are tasteless
+and inodorous, and contain calcium and magnesium bicarbonates,
+combinations of hydrogen and silicon, and of iodides, bromides
+and lithium. The national government maintains at Hot
+Springs an army and navy hospital, and a bath-house open
+gratuitously to indigent bathers. The business of Hot Springs
+consists mainly in caring for its visitors. Fruit-raising and
+small gardening characterize its environs. There are sulphur,
+lithia and other springs near the city, and an ostrich farm and
+an alligator farm in the suburbs. The finest of the novaculite
+rocks of central Arkansas are quarried near the city. The total
+value of its factory product in 1905 was $597,029, an increase
+of 213.1% since 1900.</p>
+
+<p>The Springs were first used by the itinerant trappers. They
+were visited about 1800 by French hunters; and by members
+of the Lewis and Clark party in 1804 under instructions from
+President Thomas Jefferson. The permanent occupation of the
+town site dates only from 1828, though as early as 1807 a
+temporary settlement was made. In 1876 Hot Springs was
+incorporated as a town, and in 1879 it was chartered as a city.
+In 1832 Congress created a reservation, but the right of the
+government as against private claimants was definitely settled
+only in 1876, by a decision of the United States Supreme Court.
+The city was almost destroyed by fire in 1878, and was greatly
+improved in the rebuilding.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HOT SPRINGS,<a name="ar38" id="ar38"></a></span> a hamlet and health-resort in Cedar Creek
+District, Bath county, Virginia, U.S.A., 25 m. by rail (a branch
+of the Chesapeake &amp; Ohio railway) N. by E. of Covington and
+near the N.W. border of the state. It lies in a narrow valley,
+about 2200-2500 ft. above the sea, with rugged mountains on
+either side. Pop. of the district (1900) 1761; (1910) 2472. The
+mean summer temperature is only 69° F., and the summer nights
+are always cool. There is a good golf-course. Mineral waters
+(with magnesia, soda-lithia and alum) issue from several springs,
+some at a temperature as high as 106° F., and are used both for
+drinking and for bathing. The Warm Sulphur Springs (about
+98° F.) are 5 m. N.; Healing Springs (85° F.) are 2½ m. S. of
+Hot Springs; and a few miles to the S.E., in Rockbridge county,
+are Rockbridge and Jordan Alum Springs.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HOTTENTOTS,<a name="ar39" id="ar39"></a></span> an African people of western Cape Colony and
+the adjoining German territory, formerly widely spread throughout
+South Africa. The name is that given them by the early
+Dutch settlers at the Cape, being a Dutch word of an onomatopoeic
+kind to express stammering, in reference to the staccato pronunciation
+and clicks of the native language. Some early writers
+termed them Hodmadods or Hodmandods, and others Hot-nots
+and Ottentots&mdash;all corruptions of the same word. Their name
+for themselves was Khoi-Khoin (men of men), or Quae Quae,
+Kwekhena, t&rsquo;Kuhkeub, the forms varying according to the
+several dialects. Early authorities believed them to be totally
+distinct from all other African races. The researches of Gustav
+Fritsch, Dr E. T. Hamy, F. Shrubsall and others have demonstrated,
+however, that they are not so much a distinct or independent
+variety of mankind as the result of a very old cross
+between two other varieties&mdash;the Bantu Negro (containing
+a distinct Hamitic element) and the Bushman. Hamy calls them
+simply &ldquo;Bushman-Bantu half-breeds,&rdquo; the Bushman element
+being seen in the leathery colour, compared to that of the &ldquo;sere
+and yellow leaf&rdquo;; in the remarkably prominent cheekbones
+and pointed chin, giving the face a peculiarly triangular shape;
+and lastly, in such highly specialized characters as the <i>tablier</i>
+and the <i>steatopygia</i> of the women. The cranial capacity is also
+nearly the same (1331 c.c. in the Bushman, 1365 c.c. in the
+Hottentot), and on these anatomical grounds Shrubsall concludes
+that the two are essentially one race, allowing for the undeniable
+strain of Bantu blood in the Hottentot. This view is further
+strengthened by the vast range in prehistoric times of the
+Hottentot variety, which, since the time of Martin H. K. Lichtenstein
+(1800-1804), was known to have comprised the whole of
+Africa south of the Zambezi, and has since been extended as
+far north as the equatorial lake region.</p>
+
+<p>Fritsch divides the Hottentots into three bodies; the Cape
+Hottentots, from the Cape peninsula eastward to Kaffraria,
+the Koranna, chiefly on the right bank of the Orange river, but
+also found on the Harts and the Vaal, and the Namaqua in the
+western portion of South Africa. Of these all save the last
+mentioned have ceased to exist in any racial purity. The name
+which the Namaqua give to themselves is <i>Khoi-Khoin</i>, and this
+name must be distinguished from that of the Berg-Damara or
+<i>Hau-Khoin</i>, since the latter are physically of Bantu origin
+though they have borrowed their speech from the Hottentots.
+While the Namaqua preserve the racial type and speech, the
+other so-called Hottentots are more or less Hottentot-Dutch
+or Hottentot-Bantu half-breeds, mainly of debased Dutch
+speech, although the Koranna still here and there speak a
+moribund Hottentot jargon flooded with Dutch and English
+words and expressions. When the Cape Colony became a part
+of the British empire the protection given to the natives
+arrested the process of extermination with which the Hottentots
+were then threatened, but it did not promote racial purity.
+Sir John Barrow, describing the condition of the Hottentots in
+1798, estimated their number at about 15,000 souls. In 1806
+the official return gave a Hottentot population of 9784 males
+and 10,642 females. In 1824 they had increased to 31,000.
+At the census of 1865 they numbered 81,589, but by this time
+the official classification &ldquo;Hottentot&rdquo; signified little more
+than a half-breed. The returns for 1904 showed a &ldquo;Hottentot&rdquo;
+population of 85,892. Very few of these were pure-bred Hottentots,
+while the official estimate of those in which Hottentot blood
+was strongly marked was 56,000.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p><i>Customs and Culture.</i>&mdash;The primitive character of the race having
+greatly changed, the best information as to their original manners
+and customs is therefore to be found in the older writers. All these
+agree in describing the Hottentots as a gentle and friendly people.
+They held in contempt the man who could eat, drink or smoke alone.
+They were hospitable to strangers, even to the point of impoverishing
+themselves. Although mentally and physically indolent, they were
+active in the care of their cattle and, within certain limits, clever
+hunters. They were of a medium height, the females rather smaller
+than the men, slender but well proportioned, with small hands and
+feet. Their skin was of a leathery brown colour; their face oval,
+with prominent cheekbones; eyes dark brown or black and wide
+apart; nose broad and thick and flat at the root; chin pointed
+and mouth large, with thick turned-out lips. Their woolly hair grew
+in short thick curly tufts and the beard was very scanty. Amongst
+the women abnormal developments of fat were somewhat common;
+and cases occurred of extraordinary elongation of the <i>labia minora</i>
+and of the <i>praeputium clitoridis</i>.<a name="fa1c" id="fa1c" href="#ft1c"><span class="sp">1</span></a></p>
+
+<p>Their dress was a skin cloak (kaross) worn across the shoulders
+and a smaller one across the loins. They wore these cloaks all the
+year round, turning the hairy side inward in winter and outward in
+summer; they slept in them at night, and when they died they were
+buried in them. They had suspended around their necks little bags
+or pouches, containing their knives, their pipes and tobacco or
+dakka (<i>Cannabis</i>, or hemp), and an amulet of burnt wood. On their
+arms were rings of ivory. Sometimes they wore sandals and carried
+a jackal&rsquo;s tail fastened on a stick, which served as handkerchief
+and fan. The women wore, besides the kaross, a little apron to
+which were hung their ornaments; and underneath this one or
+two fringed girdles; and a skin cap. Both sexes smeared themselves
+and even their dress with an ointment made of soot, butter or fat,
+and the powdered leaves of a shrub called by them <i>bucchu</i> (<i>Diosma
+crenata</i>).</p>
+
+<p>Their villages were usually on meadow grounds. They never
+entirely exhausted the grass but kept moving from one pasture to
+another. The huts were in circles, the area of which varied with
+the pastoral wealth of the community. In the centre of the huts
+a hole served for a fire-place, and at each side of this small excavations
+an inch or two deep were made in the ground in which both sexes,
+rolled up in their karosses, slept. A few earthen vessels, well-made
+bowls of wood, tortoise shells for spoons and dishes, calabashes,
+bamboos and skins for holding milk and butter, and mats of rushes
+interwoven with bast, were all their furniture. Their weapons
+were primarily bows and arrows, but they also possessed assegais,
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page806" id="page806"></a>806</span>
+and knob-kerries. To women much respect was shown; the most
+sacred oath a Hottentot could take was to swear by his sister or
+mother; yet the females ate apart from the men and did all the
+work of the kraal with the exception of the tending of cattle and of
+the curing of the hides; the men, however, assisted in the erection of
+the framework of the huts. The usual food of the Hottentots was
+milk, the flesh of the buffalo, hippopotamus, antelope or other
+game, and edible roots and bulbs or wild fruits. On the coast fish
+captured by hooks and lines or spears were also eaten. Cows&rsquo; milk
+was commonly drunk by both sexes, but ewes&rsquo; milk only by the
+women, and when cows&rsquo; milk was scarce the women were obliged to
+keep to ewes&rsquo; milk or water. Milk was drunk fresh, and not allowed
+to turn sour as among the Bantu. Meats were eaten either roasted
+or boiled, but for the most part half raw, without salt, spices or
+bread. From some meats they carefully abstained, such as swine&rsquo;s
+flesh. Hares and rabbits were forbidden to the men, but not to the
+women; the pure blood of beasts and the flesh of the mole were
+forbidden to the women, but not to the men.</p>
+
+<p>In occupation they were essentially cattle-breeders, and showed
+great skill in this pursuit, especially the Namaqua, who were capable
+of training the horns of their cattle so that they grew in spirals.
+Their social pleasures consisted in feasting, smoking, dancing and
+singing. Dances were held every first quarter of the moon and
+lasted all night, often for eight days in succession. Every signal
+event of life, and every change of abode and condition was celebrated
+with a feast. On the formation of a new kraal an arbour was constructed
+in the centre, and the women and children adorned and
+perfumed it with flowers and branches of trees and odoriferous herbs.
+The fattened ox was killed and cooked, and the men ate of it in the
+arbour, while the women sitting apart regaled themselves with broth.
+Upon such occasions the only intoxicant was tobacco or dakka.</p>
+
+<p>Circumcision, which is common to the Kaffir tribes, was unknown
+to the Hottentots, but when a youth entered upon manhood a
+ceremony was performed. One of the elders, using a knife of quartz,
+made incisions in the young man&rsquo;s body, afterwards besprinkling
+them with urine. When a man killed his first elephant, hippopotamus
+or rhinoceros, similar marks were made on his body, and
+were regarded as insignia of honour. Finger mutilation was common,
+especially among women; this consisted in the removal of one or
+two joints of the little finger, and, sometimes, the first joint of the
+next. The reason for this is doubtful; it may have been a sign of
+mourning, or, especially in the case of children, it may have been
+regarded as magically protective. Marriages were by arrangement
+between the man and the girl&rsquo;s parents, the consent of the girl
+herself being a matter of little consideration. If accepted, the suitor,
+accompanied by all his kindred, drove two or three fat oxen to the
+house of his bride. There her relations welcomed the visitors;
+the oxen were slain, and the bridal feast took place. The nuptial
+ceremony was concluded by an elder besprinkling the happy pair.
+Among the southern Hottentots these ancient usages have ceased;
+but they are continued among some tribes north of the Orange
+river. Polygamy was allowed: divorce was common. Family
+names were perpetuated in a peculiar manner&mdash;the sons took the
+family name of the mother, the daughters that of the father. The
+children were very respectful to their parents, by whom they were
+kindly and affectionately treated. Yet the aged father or mother
+was sometimes put in the bush and left to die. Namaqua says this
+was done by very poor people if they had no food for their parents.
+But even when there was food enough, aged persons, especially
+women, who were believed to be possessed of the evil spirit, were so
+treated.</p>
+
+<p>The Hottentots had few musical instruments. One named the
+&ldquo;gorah&rdquo; was formed by stretching a piece of the twisted entrails
+of a sheep from end to end of a thin hollow stick about 3 ft. in length
+in the manner of a bow and string. At one end there was a piece
+of quill fixed into the stick, to which the mouth of the player was
+applied. The &ldquo;rommel-pot&rdquo; was a kind of drum shaped like a
+bowl and containing water to keep the membrane moist. Reeds
+several feet long were used as flutes.</p>
+
+<p><i>Government and Laws.</i>&mdash;The system of government was patriarchal.
+Each tribe had its hereditary &ldquo;khu-khoi&rdquo; or &ldquo;gao-ao&rdquo; or chief,
+and each kraal its captain. These met in council whenever any great
+matters had to be decided. The post was honorary, and the councillors
+were held in great reverence, and were installed in office
+with solemnities and feasting. In certain tribes the hind part of
+every bullock slaughtered was sent to the chief, and this he distributed
+among the males of the village. He also collected sufficient
+milk at the door of his hut to deal out amongst the poor. A part of
+every animal taken in hunting was exacted by the chief, even
+though it was in a state of putrefaction when brought to him.
+The captains, assisted by the men of each kraal, settled disputes
+regarding property and tried criminals. A murderer was beaten or
+stoned to death; but if one escaped and was at large for a whole
+year, he was allowed to go unpunished. Adultery seldom occurred;
+if any one found parties in the act and killed them he was no
+murderer, but on the contrary received praise for his deed. Women
+found offending were burnt. Theft, especially cattle-stealing, was
+severely punished. The thief was bound hand and foot, and left
+on the ground without food for a long time; then, if his offence
+was slight, he received some blows with a stick, but if the case was
+an aggravated one, he was severely beaten, and then unloosed and
+banished from the kraal. The family of even the worst criminal
+suffered nothing on his account in reputation, privilege or property.
+The duel was an institution. If any one was insulted he challenged
+his enemy by offering him a handful of earth. If the latter seized
+the hand and the dust fell to the ground, the challenge was accepted.
+If it was not accepted, the challenger threw the dust in his foe&rsquo;s
+face. The duel took place by kicking, with clubs, or with the spear
+and shield.</p>
+
+<p><i>Religious Ideas.</i>&mdash;The religious ideas of the Hottentots were very
+obscure. François le Vaillant says they had &ldquo;neither priests nor
+temples, nor idols, nor ceremonials, nor any traces of the notion of
+a deity.&rdquo; Other authorities state that they believed in a benevolent
+deity or &ldquo;Great Captain,&rdquo; whom they named Tik-guoa (<i>Tsu-goab</i>).
+There were other &ldquo;captains&rdquo; of less power, and a black captain
+named Gauna, the spirit of evil. The moon was a secondary divinity,
+supposed to govern the weather; and its appearance each month
+was hailed with dancing and singing.<a name="fa2c" id="fa2c" href="#ft2c"><span class="sp">2</span></a> George Schmidt, the first
+missionary to the Hottentots, says they also celebrated the annual
+appearance of the Pleiades above the eastern horizon. As soon as
+the constellation appeared, all the mothers ascended the nearest
+hill, carrying their babies, whom they taught to stretch their arms
+towards the friendly stars. Some of the tribes are said to worship
+a being whom they name Tusib, the rain god. An old Namaqua was
+once heard to say &ldquo;The stars are the souls of the deceased,&rdquo; and a
+Hottentot form of imprecation is &ldquo;Thou happy one, may misfortune
+fall on thee from the star of my grandfather.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>Such as it was, the Hottentot religion was largely ancestor-worship.
+Their deified hero was named <i>Heitsi-Eibib</i>; and of him endless
+stories are told. The one most generally accepted is that he was a
+notable warrior of great physical strength, who once ruled the
+Khoi-Khoin, and that in a desperate struggle with one of his enemies,
+whom he finally overcame, he received a wound in the knee, from
+which event he got the name of &ldquo;Wounded knee.&rdquo; He had extraordinary
+powers during life, and after death he continued to be
+invoked as one who could still relieve and protect. According to
+the tradition preserved among the Namaqua, Heitsi-Eibib came
+from the east. Therefore they make the doors of their huts towards
+the east, and those who possess waggons and carts put their vehicles
+alongside the mat-house with the front turned towards the east.
+All the graves are in true west-easterly direction, so that the face of
+the deceased looks towards the east. The spirit of Heitsi-Eibib is
+supposed to exist in the old burial places, and, whenever a heathen
+Hottentot passes them, he throws stones on the spot as an offering,
+at the same time invoking the spirit&rsquo;s blessing and protection.
+Johann Georg von Hahn asserts that there are many proofs which
+justify the conclusion that Heitsi-Eibib and Tsu-goab (the supreme
+being) were identical. Both were benevolent. Both were believed
+to have died and risen again. They killed the bad beings and
+restored peace on earth; they promised men immortality, understood
+the secrets of nature, and could foretell the future.<a name="fa3c" id="fa3c" href="#ft3c"><span class="sp">3</span></a></p>
+
+<p>Various ceremonies were practised to ward off the evil influence of
+ghosts and spectres, and charms were freely employed. If a Khoi-Khoi
+went out hunting his wife kindled a fire, and assiduously
+watched by it to keep it alive; if the fire should be extinguished her
+husband would not be lucky. If she did not make a fire, she went
+to the water and kept on throwing it about on the ground, believing
+that thereby her husband would be successful in getting game.
+Charms, consisting of bones, burnt wood, and roots of particular
+shrubs cut into small pieces, were generally worn round the neck.
+There was also a belief that in every fountain there was a snake,
+and that as long as the snake remained there water would continue
+to flow, but that if the snake was killed or left the fountain it would
+cease. Offerings were sometimes made to the spirit of the fountain.
+In common with the Bushmen, the Hottentots venerated the
+<i>mantis fausta</i>, a local variety of the insect known as &ldquo;the praying
+mantis&rdquo; (<i>mantis religiosa</i>). P. Kolbe saw sacrifices made in its
+honour when it appeared inside a kraal; to kill it was strictly
+forbidden. The Hottentots had great faith in witch-doctors, or
+sorcerers. When called to a sick-bed these ordered the patient to
+lie on his back, and then pinched, cuffed, and beat him all over until
+they expelled the illness. After that they produced a bone, small
+snake, frog or other object which they pretended to have extracted
+from the patient&rsquo;s body. If the treatment did not succeed, the person
+was declared incurably bewitched. If death occurred, the corpse
+was interred on the day of decease. It was wrapt in skins, and
+placed in the ground in the same position it once occupied in the
+mother&rsquo;s womb. Death was generally regarded in a very stoical
+manner.</p>
+
+<p><i>Language.</i>&mdash;The existence of a fundamental connexion between
+the language of the Hottentot and that of the Bushman was
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page807" id="page807"></a>807</span>
+suggested by Dr Bleek and is supported by further evidence advanced
+by Bertin.</p>
+
+<p>The Hottentot language was regarded by the early travellers and
+colonists as an uncouth and barbarous tongue. The Portuguese
+called the native manner of speaking stammering; and the Dutch
+compared it to the &ldquo;gobbling of a turkey-cock.&rdquo; These phonetic
+characteristics arose from the common use of &ldquo;clicks,&rdquo;&mdash;sounds
+produced by applying the tongue to the teeth or to various parts of
+the gums or roof of the mouth, and suddenly jerking it back.
+Three-fourths of the syllabic elements of the language begin with
+these clicks, and combined with them are several hard and deep
+gutturals and nasal accompaniments. The difficulty a European
+has in acquiring an accurate pronunciation is not so much in producing
+the clicking sound singly as in following it immediately
+with another letter or syllable. The four recognized clicks, with
+the symbols generally adopted to denote them, are as follows:
+dental = |; palatal = &#9839;; lateral = ||; cerebral = !. According to
+Tindall, one of the best grammarians of the language, the dental
+click (similar to a sound of surprise or indignation) is produced by
+pressing the top of the tongue against the upper front teeth, and
+then suddenly and forcibly withdrawing it. The palatal click
+(like the crack of a whip) is produced by pressing the tongue with
+as flat a surface as possible against the termination of the palate at
+the gums, so that the top of the tongue touches the upper front
+teeth and the back of the tongue lies towards the palate, and then
+forcibly withdrawing the tongue. The cerebral click (compared to
+the popping of the cork of a bottle of champagne) is produced by
+curling up the tip of the tongue against the roof of the palate, and
+withdrawing it suddenly and forcibly. The lateral click (similar
+to the sound used in stimulating a horse to action) is articulated
+by covering with the tongue the whole of the palate and producing
+the sound as far back as possible; Europeans imitate it by placing
+the tongue against the side teeth and then withdrawing it. The
+easiest Hottentot clicks, the dental and cerebral, have been adopted
+by the Kaffirs; and it is a striking circumstance, in evidence of
+the past Hottentot influence upon the Kaffir languages, that the
+clicking decreases amongst these tribes almost in proportion to
+their distance from the former Hottentot domain.</p>
+
+<p>The language in its grammatical structure is beautiful and regular.
+Dr Bleek describes it as having the distinctive features of the suffix-pronominal
+order or higher form of languages, in which the pronouns
+are identical with and borrowed from the derivative suffixes of the
+nouns. The words are mostly monosyllables, always ending, with
+two exceptions, in a vowel or nasal sound. Among the consonants
+neither <i>l</i>, nor <i>f</i> nor <i>v</i> is found. There are two <i>g</i>&rsquo;s, <i>g</i> hard and <i>g</i> guttural,
+and a deeper guttural <i>kh</i>. Diphthongs abound. There is no article,
+but the definite or indefinite sense of a noun is determined by the
+gender. In the fullest known dialect (that spoken by the Namaqua)
+nouns are formed with eight different suffixes, which in nouns designating
+persons distinguish masc. sing. (-<i>b</i>), masc. plur. (-<i>ku</i>), masc.
+dual (<i>kha</i>), fem. sing, (-<i>s</i>), fem. plur. (-<i>ti</i>), com. sing. (-<i>i</i>), com. plur.
+(-<i>u</i>), com. dual (-<i>ra</i>). The adjective is either prefixed to a noun
+or referred to it by a suffixed pronoun. This grammatical division
+of the nouns according to gender led to the classification of the
+language as &ldquo;sex-denoting,&rdquo; thus suggesting its relationship, in
+original structure, with the Galla and others.</p>
+
+<p>There are four dialectical varieties of the language, each with
+well-marked characteristics: the Nama dialect, spoken by the
+Namaqua as well as by the Hau-Khoin or Hill Damara; the Kora
+dialect, spoken by the Koranna, or Koraqua, dwelling about the
+middle and upper part of the Orange, Vaal and Modder rivers;
+the Eastern dialect, spoken by the Gona or Gonaqua on the borders
+of Kaffirland; and the Cape dialect, now no longer spoken but
+preserved in the records of early voyagers and settlers. Of the Nama
+dialect there are three grammars: Wallmann&rsquo;s (1857) and Hahn&rsquo;s
+in German, and Tindall&rsquo;s (1871) in English, the last being the best;
+and the four Gospels, with a large amount of missionary literature,
+have been published in it.</p>
+
+<p>The vocabulary is not limited merely to the expression of the
+rude conceptions that are characteristic of primitive races. It
+possesses such words as <i>koi</i>, human being; <i>khoi-si</i>, kindly or friendly;
+<i>koi-si-b</i>, philanthropist; <i>khoi-si-s</i>, humanity; &#9839; <i>ei</i>, to think;
+&#9839; <i>ei-s</i>, thought; <i>amo</i>, eternal; <i>amo-si-b</i>, eternity; <i>tsa</i>, to feel;
+<i>tsa-b</i>, feeling, sentiment; <i>tsa-kha</i>, to condole; <i>ama</i>, true; <i>ama-b</i>,
+the truth; <i>anu</i>, sacred; <i>anu-si-b</i>, holiness; <i>esa</i>, pretty; <i>anu-xa</i>,
+full of beauty.</p>
+
+<p><i>Literature and History.</i>&mdash;Much traditionary literature&mdash;fables,
+myths and legends&mdash;existed amongst the Hottentots,&mdash;a fact first
+made known by Sir James Alexander, who in his journeyings through
+Great Namaqualand in 1835 jotted down the stories told him
+around the camp fire by his Hottentot followers. These Hottentot
+tales generally have much of the character of fables; some are in
+many points identical with northern nursery tales, and suggestive
+of European origin or of contact with the white man; but the
+majority bear evidence of being true native products. Bleek&rsquo;s
+<i>Reynard the Fox in South Africa</i> (1864) contains a translation of a
+legend written down from the lips of the Namaqua by the Rev.
+G. Krönlein, which is regarded as an excellent specimen of the
+national style. Another legend relating to the moon and the hare
+conveys the idea of an early conception of the hope of immortality.
+It is found in various versions, and, like many other stories, occurs
+in Bushman as well as in Hottentot mythology.</p>
+
+<p>The earliest accounts of the Hottentots occur in the narratives of
+Vasco da Gama&rsquo;s first voyage to India round the Cape in 1497-1498.
+In 1510 the Portuguese viceroy, Francisco d&rsquo;Almeida, count of
+Abrantes, met his death in a dispute with the natives. Till the 17th
+century they were believed to be cannibals, but with the occupation
+of the Cape by the Dutch, in 1652, more accurate knowledge was
+obtained. A century of Dutch rule resulted in the Hottentots
+becoming a nation of slaves and in serious danger of extermination,
+and thus the arrival of the English in 1795 was welcomed by them.
+In 1828 an ordinance was passed declaring &ldquo;all Hottentots and other
+free persons of colour&rdquo; entitled to all and every right to which any
+other British subjects were entitled. (See <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Cape Colony</a></span>: <i>History</i>;
+and <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">South Africa</a></span>.)</p>
+
+<p><span class="sc">Bibliography.</span>&mdash;A. de Quatrefages, <i>Les Pygmées</i> (1887); G. W.
+Stow, <i>The Native Races of South Africa</i> (1905); E. T. Hamy, &ldquo;Les
+Races nègres,&rdquo; in <i>L&rsquo;Anthropologie</i> (1897), pp. 257 et sqq.; F.
+Shrubsall, &ldquo;Crania of African Bush Races,&rdquo; in <i>Jour. Anthrop. Inst.</i>
+(November 1897); W. H. J. Bleek, <i>A Comparative Grammar of
+South African Languages</i> (1862); and &ldquo;Die Hottentotten Stämme,&rdquo;
+in <i>Petermanns Mit.</i> (1858), pp. 49 et sqq.; G. Fritsch, <i>Die Eingebornen
+Süd-Afrikas</i> (1872), and &ldquo;Schilderungen der Hottentotten,&rdquo; in
+<i>Globus</i> (1875), pp. 374 et sqq.; G. Bertin, &ldquo;The Bushmen and their
+Language,&rdquo; in <i>Jour. R. Asiat. Soc.</i> xviii., part i., and reprint;
+P. Kolbe or Kolben, <i>Present State of the Cape of Good Hope</i>; Sir
+John Barrow, <i>Travels in South Africa</i> (1801-1804).</p>
+</div>
+
+<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note">
+
+<p><a name="ft1c" id="ft1c" href="#fa1c"><span class="fn">1</span></a> See paper by Messrs Flower and Murie in <i>Journ. Comp. Anat.
+and Physiology</i> (1867); and Fritsch, <i>Die Eingebornen Süd-Afrikas</i>
+(Breslau, 1873).</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft2c" id="ft2c" href="#fa2c"><span class="fn">2</span></a> An interesting notice of this form of worship occurs in the
+journal of an expedition which the Dutch governor, Ryk van Tulbagh,
+sent to the Great Namaqua in 1752, which reached as far as the
+Kamob or Lion river (about 27° S. lat.).</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft3c" id="ft3c" href="#fa3c"><span class="fn">3</span></a> On the religion and antiquities see Theophilus Hahn&rsquo;s papers,
+&ldquo;Graves of the Heitsi-Eibib,&rdquo; in <i>Cape Monthly Magazine</i> (1879).
+and &ldquo;Der hottentottische Zai-goab und der griechische Zeus,&rdquo; in
+<i>Zeitschr. für Geogr.</i> (Berlin, 1870).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HOTTINGER, JOHANN HEINRICH<a name="ar40" id="ar40"></a></span> (1620-1667), Swiss philologist
+and theologian, was born at Zürich on the 10th of March
+1620. He studied at Geneva, Groningen and Leiden, and after
+visiting France and England was in 1642 appointed professor
+of church history in his native town. The chair of Hebrew
+at the Carolinum was added in 1643, and in 1653 he was appointed
+professor ordinarius of logic, rhetoric and theology.
+He gained such a reputation as an Oriental scholar that the
+elector palatine in 1655 appointed him professor of Oriental
+languages and biblical criticism at Heidelberg. In 1661, however,
+he returned to Zürich, where in 1662 he was chosen principal of
+the university. In 1667 he accepted an invitation to succeed
+Johann Hoornbeck (1617-1666) as professor in the university
+of Leiden, but he was drowned with three of his children by the
+upsetting of a boat while crossing the river Limmat. His chief
+works are <i>Historia ecclesiastica Nov. Test.</i> (1651-1667); <i>Thesaurus
+philologicus seu clavis scripturae</i> (1649; 3rd ed. 1698); <i>Etymologicon
+orientale, sive lexicon harmonicum heptaglotton</i> (1661).
+He also wrote a Hebrew and an Aramaic grammar.</p>
+
+<p>His son, <span class="sc">Johann Jakob Hottinger</span> (1652-1735), who became
+professor of theology at Zürich in 1698, was the author of a work
+against Roman Catholicism, <i>Helvetische Kirchengeschichte</i> (4 vols.,
+1698-1729); and his grandson, <span class="sc">Johann Heinrich Hottinger</span>
+(1681-1750), who in 1721 was appointed professor of theology
+at Heidelberg, wrote a work on dogmatics, <i>Typus doctrinae
+christianae</i> (1714).</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HOUBRAKEN, JACOBUS<a name="ar41" id="ar41"></a></span> (1698-1780), Dutch engraver,
+was born at Dort, on the 25th of December 1698. All that his
+father, Arnold Houbraken (1660-1719), bequeathed to him was
+a fine constitution and a pure love for work. In 1707 he came
+to reside at Amsterdam, where for years he had to struggle
+incessantly against difficulties. He commenced the art of
+engraving by studying the works of Cornelis Cort, Suyderhoef,
+Edelinck and the Visschers. He devoted himself almost entirely
+to portraiture. Among his best works are scenes from the
+comedy of <i>De Ontdekte Schijndeugd</i>, executed in his eightieth
+year, after Cornelis Troost, who was called by his countrymen
+the Dutch Hogarth. He died on the 14th of November 1780.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See A. Ver Hull, <i>Jacobus Houbraken et son &oelig;uvre</i> (Arnhem, 1875),
+where 120 engraved works are fully described.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HOUDENC<a name="ar42" id="ar42"></a></span> (or <span class="sc">Houdan</span>), <b>RAOUL DE,</b> 12th-century French
+trouvère, takes his name from his native place, generally
+identified with Houdain (Artois), though there are twelve places
+bearing the name in one or other of its numerous variants.
+It has been suggested that he was a monk, but from the scattered
+hints in his writings it seems more probable that he followed the
+trade of jongleur and recited his chansons, with small success
+apparently, in the houses of the great. He was well acquainted
+with Paris, and probably spent a great part of his life there.
+His undoubted works are: <i>Le Songe d&rsquo;enfer</i>, <i>La Voie de paradis</i>,
+<i>Le Roman des eles</i> (pr. by A. Scheler in <i>Trouvères belges</i>, New
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page808" id="page808"></a>808</span>
+Series, 1897) and the romance of <i>Méraugis de Portlesguez</i>,
+edited by M. Michelant (1869) and by Dr M. Friedwagner
+(Halle, 1897). Houdenc was an imitator of Chrétien de Troyes;
+and Huon de Méri, in his <i>Tournoi de l&rsquo;antéchrist</i> (1226) praises
+him with Chrétien in words that seem to imply that both were
+dead. <i>Méraugis de Portlesguez</i>, the hero of which perhaps
+derives his name from Lesguez, the port of Saint Brieuc in
+Brittany, is a <i>roman d&rsquo;aventures</i> loosely attached to the Arthurian
+cycle.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See Gaston Paris in <i>Hist. litt. de la France</i>, xxx. 220-237;
+W. Zingerlé, <i>Über Raoul de Houdenc und seine Werke</i> (Erlangen,
+1880); and O. Boerner, <i>Raoul de Houdenc. Eine stilistische Untersuchung</i>
+(1885).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HOUDETOT,<a name="ar43" id="ar43"></a></span> a French noble family, taking its name from
+the lordship of Houdetot, between Arques and St Valéry.
+Louis de Houdetot went with Robert, duke of Normandy, to
+Palestine in 1034, and the various branches of the family trace
+descent from Richard I. de Houdetot (fl. 1229), who married
+Marie de Montfort. Charles Louis de Houdetot received a
+marquisate in 1722, and on his son Claude Constance César,
+lieutenant-general in the French army, was conferred the
+hereditary title of count in 1753. His wife (see below) was
+the Madame de Houdetot of Rousseau&rsquo;s <i>Confessions</i>. Their son
+César Louis Marie François Ange, comte de Houdetot (1749-1825),
+was governor of Martinique (1803-1809) and lieutenant-general
+(1814) under the Empire. His son Frédéric Christophe, comte
+de Houdetot (1778-1859), was director-general of indirect
+imposts in Prussia after Jena, and prefect of Brussels in 1813.
+He acquiesced in the Restoration, but had to resign from the
+service after the Hundred Days. He became a peer of France
+in 1819, and under the Second Empire he was returned by the
+department of Calvados to the Corps Législatif. His half-brother,
+Charles Île-de-France, comte de Houdetot (1789-1866), was
+wounded at Trafalgar and transferred to the army, in which he
+served through the Napoleonic wars. He retired at the Restoration,
+but returned to the service in 1823, and in 1826 became
+aide-de-camp to the duke of Orleans, becoming lieutenant-general
+in 1842. He sat in the Chamber of Deputies from 1837 to 1848,
+when he followed Louis Philippe into exile. A third brother,
+César François Adolphe, comte de Houdetot (1799-1869), was
+a well-known writer on military and other subjects.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HOUDETOT, ELISABETH FRANÇOISE SOPHIE DE LA LIVE DE BELLEGARDE,<a name="ar44" id="ar44"></a></span>
+<span class="sc">Comtesse de</span> (1730-1813), was born in
+1730. She married the comte de Houdetot (see above) in 1748.
+In 1753 she formed with the marquis de Saint Lambert (<i>q.v.</i>)
+a connexion which lasted till his death. Mme de Houdetot
+has been made famous by the chapter in Rousseau&rsquo;s <i>Confessions</i>
+in which he describes his unreciprocated passion for her. When
+questioned on the subject she replied that he had much exaggerated.
+A view differing considerably from Rousseau&rsquo;s
+is to be found in the <i>Mémoires</i> of Mme d&rsquo;Epinay, Mme de
+Houdetot&rsquo;s sister-in-law.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>For a discussion of her relations with Rousseau see Saint-Marc-Girardin
+in the <i>Revue des deux mondes</i> (September 1853).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HOUDON, JEAN ANTOINE<a name="ar45" id="ar45"></a></span> (1740-1828), French sculptor,
+was born at Versailles on the 18th of March 1740. At the age
+of twelve he entered the École royale de Sculpture, and at
+twenty, having learnt all that he could from Michel Ange Slodtz
+and Pigalle, he carried off the prix de Rome and left France for
+Italy, where he spent the next ten years of his life. His brilliant
+talent, which seems to have been formed by the influence of that
+world of statues with which Louis XIV. peopled the gardens of
+Versailles rather than by the lessons of his masters, delighted
+Pope Clement XIV., who, on seeing the St Bruno executed
+by Houdon for the church of St Maria degli Angeli, said &ldquo;he
+would speak, were it not that the rules of his order impose silence.&rdquo;
+In Italy Houdon had lived in the presence of that second
+Renaissance with which the name of Winckelmann is associated,
+and the direct and simple treatment of the Morpheus which he
+sent to the Salon of 1771 bore witness to its influence. This
+work procured him his &ldquo;agrégation&rdquo; to the Academy of Painting
+and Sculpture, of which he was made a full member in 1775.
+Between these dates Houdon had not been idle; busts of
+Catharine II., Diderot and Prince Galitzin were remarked at the
+Salon of 1773, and at that of 1775 he produced, not only his
+Morpheus in marble, but busts of Turgot, Gluck (in which the
+marks of small-pox in the face were reproduced with striking
+effect) and Sophie Arnould as Iphigeneia (now in the Wallace
+Collection, London), together with his well-known marble relief,
+&ldquo;Grive suspendue par les pattes.&rdquo; He took also an active part
+in the teaching of the academy, and executed for the instruction
+of his pupils the celebrated Écorché still in use. To every Salon
+Houdon was a chief contributor; most of the leading men of
+the day were his sitters; his busts of d&rsquo;Alembert, Prince Henry
+of Prussia, Gerbier, Buffon (for Catharine of Russia) and Mirabeau
+are remarkable portraits; and in 1778, when the news of
+Rousseau&rsquo;s death reached him, Houdon started at once for
+Ermenonville, and there took a cast of the dead man&rsquo;s face, from
+which he produced the grand and life-like head now in the Louvre.
+In 1779 his bust of Molière, at the Théâtre Français, won universal
+praise, and the celebrated draped statue of Voltaire, in the
+vestibule of the same theatre, was exhibited at the Salon of 1781,
+to which Houdon also sent a statue of Marshal de Tourville, commissioned
+by the king, and the Diana executed for Catharine II.
+This work was refused; the jury alleged that a statue of Diana
+demanded drapery; without drapery, they said, the goddess
+became a &ldquo;suivante de Vénus,&rdquo; and not even the proud and
+frank chastity of the attitude and expression could save the
+Diana of Houdon (a bronze reproduction of which is in the
+Louvre) from insult. Three years later he went to America, there
+to carry out a statue of Washington. With Franklin, whose bust he
+had recently executed, Houdon left France in 1785, and, staying
+some time with Washington at Mount Vernon, he modelled
+the bust, with which he decided to go back to Paris, there
+to complete the statue destined for the capitol of the State
+of Virginia. After his return to his native country Houdon
+executed for the king of Prussia, as a companion to a statue of
+Summer, La Frileuse, a naif embodiment of shivering cold,
+which is one of his best as well as one of his best-known works.
+The Revolution interrupted the busy flow of commissions, and
+Houdon took up a half-forgotten project for a statue of St
+Scholastica. He was immediately denounced to the convention,
+and his life was only saved by his instant and ingenious adaptation
+of St Scholastica into an embodiment of Philosophy. Under
+Napoleon, of whom in 1806 he made a nude statue now at Dijon,
+Houdon received little employment; he was, however, commissioned
+to execute the colossal reliefs intended for the decoration
+of the column of the &ldquo;Grand Army&rdquo; at Boulogne (which
+ultimately found a different destination); he also produced a
+statue of Cicero for the senate, and various busts, amongst
+which may be cited those of Marshal Ney, of Josephine and of
+Napoleon himself, by whom Houdon was rewarded with the
+legion of honour. He died at Paris on the 16th of July 1828.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See memoir by Émile Délerot and Arsène Legrelle in <i>Mémoires
+de la société des sciences morales ... de Seine-et-Oise</i>, iv. 49
+et seq. (1857); Anatole de Montaiglon and Georges Duplessis in
+<i>Revue universelle des arts</i>, i. and ii. (1855-1856); Hermann
+Dierks, <i>Houdons Leben und Werke</i> (Gotha, 1887); Albert Terrade,
+<i>Autour de la statue de Jean Houdon</i> (Versailles, 1892); P. E. Mangeant,
+<i>Sur une statuette de Voltaire par J. Houdon</i> (Paris, 1896).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HOUFFALIZE,<a name="ar46" id="ar46"></a></span> a small town occupying an elevated position
+(nearly 1100 ft.) in the extreme south-east of the province of
+Luxemburg, Belgium, much visited during the summer on
+account of its fine bracing air. There are the ruins of an old
+castle, and some remains of the still older abbey of Val Ste
+Catherine. The parish church dates from the 13th or 14th
+century. It contains two old black marble tombs to Thierry of
+Houffalize and Henri his son, the latter killed at Woeringen in
+1288. Houffalize is on the eastern Ourthe, and is connected
+by a steam tramway with Bourcy on the line from Libramont
+to Bastogne, Spa and Liége. Pop. (1904) 1486.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HOUGHTON, RICHARD MONCKTON MILNES,<a name="ar47" id="ar47"></a></span> <span class="sc">1st Baron</span>
+(1809-1885), English poet and man of letters, son of Robert
+Pemberton Milnes, of Fryston Hall, Yorkshire, and the Hon.
+Henrietta Monckton, daughter of the fourth Lord Galway, was
+born in London on the 19th of June 1809. He was educated
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page809" id="page809"></a>809</span>
+privately, and entered Trinity College, Cambridge, in 1827.
+There he was at once drawn into a literary set, and became a
+member of the famous &ldquo;Apostles&rdquo; Club, which then included
+Tennyson, Hallam, Trench, J. W. Blakesley, afterwards dean of
+Lincoln, and others. After taking his degree, Milnes travelled
+abroad, spending some time at Bonn University. Thence
+he went to Italy and Greece, and published in 1834 a volume
+of <i>Memorials of a Tour in some Parts of Greece</i>, describing his
+experiences. He returned to London in 1837, and was in that
+year elected to Parliament as member for Pontefract. His
+parliamentary career was marked by much strenuous activity.
+He interested himself particularly in the question of copyright
+and the conditions of reformatory schools. He left Peel&rsquo;s party
+over the Corn Law controversy, and was afterwards identified
+in politics with Palmerston, at whose instance he was made a
+peer in 1863. His literary career was industrious and cultured,
+without being exceptionally distinguished. Church matters
+had always a claim upon him: he wrote a striking tract in
+1841, which was praised by Newman; and took part in the
+discussion about &ldquo;Essays and Reviews,&rdquo; defending the tractarian
+position in <i>One Tract More</i> (1841). He published two volumes
+of verse in 1838, <i>Memorials of Residence upon the Continent and
+Poems of Many Years</i>, <i>Poetry for the People in 1840</i> and <i>Palm
+Leaves</i> in 1844. He also wrote a <i>Life and Letters of Keats</i> in 1848,
+the material for which was largely provided by the poet&rsquo;s friend,
+Charles Armitage Brown. Milnes also contributed largely to
+the reviews. His poetry is meditative and delicate; some of
+his ballads were among the most popular of their day, and all
+his work was marked by refinement. But his chief distinctions
+were his keen sense of literary merit in others, and the judgment
+and magnanimity with which he fostered it. He was surrounded
+by the most brilliant men of his time, many of whom he had been
+the first to acclaim. His chief title to remembrance rests on the
+part he played, as a man of influence in society and in moulding
+public opinion on literary matters, in connexion with his large
+circle of talented friends. He secured a pension for Tennyson,
+helped to make Emerson known in Great Britain, and was one
+of the earliest champions of Swinburne. He helped David Gray
+and wrote a preface for <i>The Luggie</i>. He was, in the old sense of
+the word, a patron of letters, and one who never abused the
+privileges of his position. Milnes married in 1851 the Hon.
+Annabel Crewe (d. 1874). He died at Vichy on the 11th
+of August 1885, and was buried at Fryston. His son, the
+second Baron Houghton, was created Earl of Crewe (<i>q.v.</i>) in
+1895.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See <i>The Life, Letters and Friendships of Richard Monckton Milnes,
+first Lord Houghton</i> (1890), by Sir T. Wemyss Reid.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HOUGHTON-LE-SPRING,<a name="ar48" id="ar48"></a></span> an urban district in the Houghton-le-Spring
+parliamentary division of Durham, England, 6 m. N.E.
+of the city of Durham. Pop. (1901) 7858. It is well situated
+at the head of a small valley branching from that of the Wear.
+St Michael&rsquo;s church is a cruciform Early English and Decorated
+building, with a picturesque embattled rectory adjoining.
+Bernard Gilpin, &ldquo;the Apostle of the North,&rdquo; was rector of this
+parish from 1556 to 1583, and the founder of the grammar school.
+The principal public buildings are a town hall, market house
+and church institute. Houghton Hall is a fine mansion of the
+late 16th century. In the orchard stands a tomb, that of the
+puritan Sir Robert Hutton (d. 1680), of whom a curious tradition
+states that he desired burial beside his war-horse, the body of
+which was denied interment in consecrated ground. The main
+road from Durham to Sunderland here passes through a remarkable
+cutting in the limestone 80 ft. deep. The district affords
+frequent evidence of ice activity in the glacial period. The
+town is the centre of a large system of electric tramways. The
+population is mainly dependent on the neighbouring collieries,
+but limestone quarrying is carried on to some extent.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HOUND,<a name="ar49" id="ar49"></a></span> a dog, now used, except in poetry, only of dogs of
+the chase, and particularly of the breed used in hunting the fox,
+the &ldquo;hound&rdquo; <i>par excellence</i>. Other breeds have a defining
+word prefixed, <i>e.g.</i> boar-hound, stag-hound, &amp;c. (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Dog</a></span>).
+The O. Eng. <i>hund</i> is the common Teutonic name for the animal,
+cf. Du. <i>hond</i>, Ger. <i>Hund</i>, &amp;c., and is cognate with Sansk. <i>çvan</i>,
+Gr. <span class="grk" title="kyôn">&#954;&#973;&#969;&#957;</span>, Lat. <i>canis</i>, Ir. and Gael. <i>cu</i>.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HOUNSLOW,<a name="ar50" id="ar50"></a></span> a town in the Brentford parliamentary division
+of Middlesex, England, 12½ m. W. by S. of St Paul&rsquo;s Cathedral,
+London, on the District and London &amp; South Western railways.
+Pop. (1901) 11,377. It has grown into an extensive residential
+suburb of London. Its situation at the junction of two great
+roads from the west of England made it an important coaching
+station, and some 500 coaches formerly passed through it daily.
+A priory of friars of the Holy Trinity was founded at Hounslow
+in 1296, and existed till the dissolution of the monasteries.
+The priory chapel was used as a church till 1830, after which
+its place was taken by the existing church of the Holy Trinity
+(1835). Hounslow Heath, west of the town, had, according to
+the survey of 1546, an area of 4293 acres. It was the site of
+Roman and British camps, and in the wars of the 17th century
+was the scene of several important military rendezvous. It
+was a favourite resort of highwaymen, whose bodies were
+exposed on gibbets along the road. In 1784 the base-line of the
+first trigonometrical survey in England was laid down on the
+heath. In 1793 large cavalry barracks were erected upon it,
+and it is also the site of extensive powder mills. It began to be
+enclosed towards the end of the reign of George III. In Osterley
+Park, N.E. of Hounslow, Sir Thomas Gresham built a mansion
+in 1577, and this was rebuilt with great magnificence by Francis
+and Robert Child <i>c.</i> 1770. Hounslow is divided between the
+parishes of Heston and Isleworth. Pop. of urban district of
+Heston and Isleworth (1901) 30,863.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HOUR,<a name="ar51" id="ar51"></a></span> the twenty-fourth part of a civil day, the twelfth
+part of a natural day or night, a space of time of sixty minutes&rsquo;
+duration. The word is derived through the O. Fr. <i>ure</i>, <i>ore</i>,
+<i>houre</i>, mod. <i>heure</i>, from Lat. <i>hora</i>, Gr. <span class="grk" title="hôra">&#8037;&#961;&#945;</span>, season, time of day,
+hour (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Calendar</a></span>).</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HOUR ANGLE,<a name="ar52" id="ar52"></a></span> the angular distance of a heavenly body from
+the meridian, as measured around the celestial pole. It is
+equal to the angle at the pole between the hour circle through
+the body and the meridian, but is usually expressed in time.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HOUR-GLASS,<a name="ar53" id="ar53"></a></span> a device for measuring intervals of time, also
+known as sand-glass, and as log-glass when used in conjunction
+with the common log for ascertaining the speed of a ship. It
+consists of two pear-shaped bulbs of glass, united at their apices
+and having a minute passage formed between them. A quantity
+of sand (or occasionally of mercury) is enclosed in the bulbs,
+and the size of the passage is so proportioned that this sand will
+completely run through from one bulb to another in the time
+it is desired to measure&mdash;<i>e.g.</i> an hour or a minute. Instruments
+of this kind, which have no great pretensions to accuracy, were
+formerly common in churches. In the English House of Commons,
+as a preliminary to a division, a two-minute sand-glass is still
+turned, and while the sand is running the &ldquo;division bells&rdquo; are
+set in motion in every part of the building, to give members
+notice that a division is at hand.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HOURI,<a name="ar54" id="ar54"></a></span> the term for a beautiful virgin who awaits the
+devout Mahommedan in Paradise. The word is the French
+representative of the Pers. <i>h&#363;r&#299;</i>, Arab, <i>hawr&#257;&lsquo;</i>, a black-eyed
+virgin, from <i>hawira</i>, to be black-eyed, like a gazelle.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HOURS, CANONICAL,<a name="ar55" id="ar55"></a></span> certain portions of the day set apart by
+rule (canon) of the church for prayer and devotion. The Jewish
+custom of praying three times a day, <i>i.e.</i> at the third, sixth and
+ninth hours, was perpetuated in the early Christian Church
+(Acts ii. 15, iii. 1, x. 9), and to these were added midnight (when
+Paul and Silas sang in prison), and the beginning of day and of
+night. Ambrose, Augustine and Hilary commended the example
+of the psalmist who gave praise &ldquo;seven times a day&rdquo; (Ps. cxix.
+164). The seventh (Compline, <i>Completorium</i>) was added by
+Benedict. These hours were adopted especially in the monasteries
+as a part of the canonical life, and spread thence to the cathedral
+and collegiate chapters.</p>
+
+<p>Since the 6th century the number and order of the hours have
+been fixed thus: matins, lauds, prime, terce, sext, none,
+vespers, compline.</p>
+
+<p><i>Matins</i> theoretically belongs to midnight, but in Italy it is
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page810" id="page810"></a>810</span>
+said about 7 or 8 <span class="scs">A.M.</span> and in France often on the preceding
+evening in accordance with the statement &ldquo;evening and morning
+were one day.&rdquo; At matins is said the <i>Venite</i> (Ps. xcv.) and a
+hymn, followed by a <i>Nocturna</i> or night-watch (on Sundays three)
+which consists of twelve psalms. After the <i>nocturna</i> comes a
+lesson divided into three parts, one biblical and two patristic, and
+finally the <i>Te Deum</i>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Lauds</i> is proper to sunrise, but is mostly grouped with matins.
+It consists of four psalms, a canticle, psalms 148-150, a hymn,
+the Benedictus (Luke i. 68-79) and prayers.</p>
+
+<p><i>Prime</i> (6 <span class="scs">A.M.</span>), <i>Terce</i> (9 <span class="scs">A.M.</span>), <i>Sext</i> (noon) and <i>None</i> (3 <span class="scs">P.M.</span>)
+are called the Little Day Hours, are often said together, and
+are alike in character, consisting of a hymn and some sections
+of Ps. cxix., followed by a prayer. On Sundays the Athanasian
+Creed is said at prime.</p>
+
+<p><i>Vespers</i> or <i>Evensong</i> consists of five varying psalms, a hymn,
+the <i>Magnificat</i> (Luke i. 46-55) and prayers. It belongs theoretically
+to sunset.</p>
+
+<p><i>Compline</i>, technically 9 <span class="scs">P.M.</span>, but usually combined with
+vespers, is a prayer for protection during the darkness. It consists
+of the general confession, four fixed psalms, a hymn, the
+<i>Nunc dimittis</i> (Luke ii. 29-32), prayers and a Commemoration
+of the Virgin.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>The term &ldquo;canonical hours&rdquo; is also used of the time during which
+English marriages may be solemnized without special licence, <i>i.e.</i>
+between 8 <span class="scs">A.M.</span> and 3 <span class="scs">P.M.</span></p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HOUSE<a name="ar56" id="ar56"></a></span> (O. Eng. <i>hús</i>, a word common to Teutonic languages,
+cf. Dut. <i>huis</i>, Ger. <i>Haus</i>; in Gothic it is only found in <i>gudhûs</i>,
+a temple; it may be ultimately connected with the root of
+&ldquo;hide,&rdquo; conceal), the dwelling-place of a human being (treated,
+from the architectural point of view, below), or, in a transferred
+sense, of an animal, particularly of one whose abode, like that
+of the beaver, is built by the animal itself, or, like that of the
+snail, resembles in some fancied way a human dwelling. Apart
+from the numerous compound uses of the word, denoting the
+purpose for which a building is employed, such as custom-house,
+lighthouse, bakehouse, greenhouse and the like, there may be
+mentioned the particular applications to a chamber of a legislative
+body, the Houses of Parliament, House of Representatives, &amp;c.;
+to the upper and lower assemblies of convocation; and to the
+colleges at a university; the heads of these foundations, known
+particularly as master, principal, president, provost, rector, &amp;c.,
+are collectively called heads of houses. At English public
+schools a &ldquo;house&rdquo; is the usual unit of the organization. In the
+&ldquo;houses&rdquo; the boys sleep, have their &ldquo;studies&rdquo; and their meals,
+if the school is arranged on the &ldquo;boarding-house&rdquo; system.
+The houses have their representative teams in the school games,
+but have no place in the educational class-system of the school.
+It may be noticed that in Scotland the words &ldquo;house&rdquo; and
+&ldquo;tenement&rdquo; are used in a way distinct from the English use,
+&ldquo;tenement&rdquo; being applied to the large block containing
+&ldquo;houses,&rdquo; portions, <i>i.e.</i>, occupied by separate families. &ldquo;The
+House&rdquo; is the name colloquially given to such different institutions
+as the London Stock Exchange, the House of Commons or
+Lords and to a workhouse.</p>
+
+<p>In the transferred sense, &ldquo;house&rdquo; is used of a family, genealogically
+considered, and of the audience at a public meeting or
+entertainment, especially of a theatre. A &ldquo;house-physician&rdquo;
+and &ldquo;house-surgeon&rdquo; is a member of the resident medical staff
+of a hospital. In astrology the twelve divisions into which the
+heavens are divided, and through which the planets pass, are
+known as houses, the first being called the &ldquo;house of life.&rdquo;
+The word &ldquo;house,&rdquo; &ldquo;housing,&rdquo; used of the trappings of a horse,
+especially of a covering for the back and flanks, attached to the
+saddle, is of quite distinct origin. In medieval Latin it appears
+as <i>hucia</i>, <i>houssia</i> and <i>housia</i> (see Ducange, <i>Glossarium</i>, s.v.
+<i>housia</i>), and comes into English from the O. Fr. <i>huche</i>, modern
+<i>housse</i>. It has been supposed to have been adopted, at the time
+of the crusades, from the Arabic <i>yushiah</i>, a covering.</p>
+
+<p>Architecturally considered, the term &ldquo;house&rdquo; is given to a
+building erected for habitation, in contradistinction to one built
+for secular or ecclesiastical purposes. The term extends, therefore,
+to a dwelling of any size, from a single-room building to one
+containing as many rooms as a palace; thus in London some
+of the largest dwellings are those inhabited by royalty, such as
+Marlborough House, or others by men of rank, such as Devonshire
+House, Bridgewater House, Spencer House, &amp;c.; and even
+those which, formerly built as habitations, have subsequently
+been devoted to other purposes, such as Somerset House and
+Burlington House, retain the term. In Paris the larger houses
+thus named would be called <i>hôtel</i>.</p>
+
+<p>So far as the history of domestic architecture is concerned, the
+earliest houses of which remains have been found are those of the
+village of Kahun in Egypt, which were built for the workmen
+employed in the building of the pyramid at Illahun, and deserted
+on its completion. They varied in size from the habitations of
+the chief inspectors to the single room of the ordinary labourer,
+and were built in unburnt brick with open courts in the larger
+examples, to give light and air to the rooms round. The models
+found in 1907 at Deir-Rifa opposite Assiut in Upper Egypt,
+by Flinders Petrie, and assumed by him to be those of &ldquo;soul-houses,&rdquo;
+suggest that the early type of building consisted of a
+hut, to which later a porch or lean-to, with two poles in front,
+has been added; subsequently, columns replaced the poles, and
+a flat roof with parapet, suggesting the primitive forms of the
+Egyptian temple.</p>
+
+<p>The only remains of early houses found in Mesopotamia are
+those within the precincts of the Temple of Bel, at Nippur,
+occupied by the king; but beyond the fact that the walls were
+built in unburnt brick and were sometimes of great thickness,
+nothing is known.</p>
+
+<p>The houses in Crete would seem to have been small in area,
+but this was compensated for in height, as the small plaques
+found in the palace at Cnossus show houses in two or three
+storeys, with gable roofs and windows subdivided by mullions and
+transomes, corresponding with those of the 15th to 17th centuries
+in England. The stone staircase in the palace rising through
+two storeys shows that even at this early period the houses in
+towns had floors superposed one above the other; to a certain
+extent the same extension existed in the later Greek houses found
+in Delos, in two of which there was clear evidence of wooden
+staircases leading within to the roof or to an upper storey.
+The largest series hitherto discovered is that at Priene in Asia
+Minor, where the remains of some thirty examples were found,
+varying in dimensions, but all based on the same plan; this
+consisted of an entrance passage leading to an open court, on
+the north side of which, and therefore facing south, was an open
+portico, corresponding to the <i>prostas</i> in Vitruvius (vi. 7), and in
+the rear two large rooms, one of which might be the oecus or
+sitting-room, and the other the thalamos or chief bedroom.
+Other rooms round the court were the triclinium, or dining
+room, and cubicula or bedchambers. The largest of these
+houses occupied an area measuring 75 × 30 ft. Those found in
+Delos, though fewer in number, are of much greater importance,
+the house in the street of the theatre having twelve rooms
+exclusive of the entrance passage and the great central court,
+surrounded on all four sides by a peristyle; in this house the
+oecus measured 26 × 18 ft. In a second example the prostas
+consisted of a long gallery, the whole width of the site, which was
+lighted by windows at each end, the sills of which were raised
+8 ft. or 9 ft. from the floor.</p>
+
+<p class="pt2 noind f90 sc">Plate II.</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:413px; height:404px" src="images/img810a.jpg" alt="" /></td>
+<td class="figcenter"><img style="width:412px; height:407px" src="images/img810b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl f80"><i>Photo, Neurdein.</i></td>
+<td class="tcl f80"><i>Photo, F. Frith &amp; Co.</i></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 4.</span>&mdash;MUSICIAN&rsquo;S HOUSE, REIMS.</td>
+<td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 5.</span>&mdash;JEW&rsquo;S HOUSE, LINCOLN.</td></tr></table>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:842px; height:653px" src="images/img810c.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl f80"><i>Photo, Neurdein.</i></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 6.</span>&mdash;HÔTEL DE CLUNY, PARIS.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p class="pt2 noind f90 sc">Plate II.</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:844px; height:556px" src="images/img810d.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl f80"><i>Photo, Neurdein.</i></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 7.</span>&mdash;HÔTEL DE JACQUES C&OElig;UR, BOURGES, FAÇADE.</td></tr></table>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:424px; height:561px" src="images/img810e.jpg" alt="" /></td>
+<td class="figcenter"><img style="width:344px; height:557px" src="images/img810f.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl f80">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="tcl f80"><i>Photo. F. Frith &amp; Co.</i></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 8.</span>&mdash;HALF-TIMBERED HOUSE AT HILDESHEIM.</td>
+<td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 9.</span>&mdash;HOUSE OF JOHN HARVARD&rsquo;S MOTHER, STRATFORD-ON-AVON.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>The remains of the houses found in the Peiraeus are of the
+same simple plan as those at Priene, and suggest that the Greek
+house was considered to be the private residence only for the
+members of the family, and without any provision for entertaining
+guests as in Rome and Pompeii. From the descriptions given
+by Vitruvius (ii. 8) it may be gathered that in his time many
+of the houses in Rome were built in unburnt brick, the walls of
+which, if properly protected at the top with a course of burnt
+brick projecting over the face of the brickwork, and coated
+inside and outside with stucco, were considered to be more
+lasting than those built in soft stone. Vitruvius refers also to
+Greek houses thus built, and states that in the house of Mausolus,
+at Halicarnassus, the walls were of unburnt brick, and the
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page811" id="page811"></a>811</span>
+plastering with which they were covered was so polished that
+they sparkled like glass. In Rome, however, he points out, such
+walls ought to be forbidden, as they are not fit to carry an
+upper storey, unless they are of great thickness, and as upper
+storeys become necessary in a crowded city such walls would
+occupy too much space. The houses in Pompeii (<i>q.v.</i>) were
+built in rubble masonry with clay mortar, and their walls were
+protected at the top by burnt brick courses and their faces with
+stucco; they were, however, of a second- or third-rate class
+compared with those in Rome, the magnificence of which is
+attested in the descriptions given by various writers and substantiated
+by the remains occasionally found in excavations.
+Vitruvius refers to upper storeys, which were necessary in
+consequence of the limited area in Rome, and representations
+in mosaic floors and in bas-relief sculpture have been found on
+which two or three storeys are indicated. The plans of many
+Roman houses are shown on the <i>Marble Plan</i>, and they resemble
+those of Pompeii, but it is probable that the principal reception
+rooms were on an upper storey, long since destroyed. The house
+of Livia on the Palatine Hill was in two storeys, and the decoration
+was of a much finer character than those of Pompeii; this
+house and the House of the Vestals might be taken as representative
+of the Roman house in Rome itself. In those built in colder
+climates, as in England and Germany, account has to be taken
+of the special provision required for warming the rooms by
+hypocausts, of which numerous examples have been found,
+with rich mosaic floors over them.</p>
+
+<p>Of the houses in succeeding centuries, those found in the
+cities of central Syria, described in the article <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Architecture</a></span>,
+are wonderfully perfect, in consequence of their desertion at
+the time of the Mahommedan invasion in the 7th century.
+Very little is known of the houses in Europe during the dark
+ages, owing to the fact that they were generally built in wood,
+with thatched roofs. The only examples in stone which have
+been preserved are those in the island of Skellig Michael, Kerry,
+which were constructed like the beehive tombs at Mycenae
+with stone courses overlapping inside until they closed in at the
+top. These houses or cells were rectangular inside and round
+or oval outside, with a small low door at one end, and an opening
+above to let the smoke out.</p>
+
+<p>The houses, even in large towns like London, were built mainly
+in wood, in some cases down to the 17th century; in the country,
+the smaller houses were constructed with trunks of trees in
+pairs, one end of the trunk being sunk in the ground, the other
+bent over and secured by a ridge piece, thus forming a pointed
+arch, the opening of which was about 11 ft. The pairs were
+fixed 16 ft. apart, and the space included constituted a bay, any
+requisite increase in the size of the house being made by doubling
+or trebling the bays. The roofs were thatched with straw on
+battens, and sometimes with a collar beam carrying a floor,
+which constituted an upper storey. The end walls were closed
+with wooden studs and wattle-and-<span class="correction" title="amended from dab">daub</span> filling. The pairs of
+trees were known as forks or crucks. Vitruvius (ii. 1) suggests
+a similar kind of building in ancient times, except that the
+interlaced twigs were covered with clay, so as to carry off the
+rain. In Yorkshire there was another type of house, known as
+a coit, which was a dwelling-house and barn (shippon) united;
+the latter contained the cow-stalls with loft above, and the
+former was in two storeys, with a ladder inside the room leading
+to the upper floor.<a name="fa1d" id="fa1d" href="#ft1d"><span class="sp">1</span></a></p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:505px; height:447px" src="images/img811.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 1.</span>&mdash;Houses at Cluny.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>Passing now to structures of a less ephemeral character, the
+earliest houses of which there still remain substantial relics are
+those built in stone (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Manor House</a></span>). The Jew&rsquo;s House at
+Lincoln, 12th century, is one of the best-known examples, and
+still preserves its street front in stone, with rich entrance doorway
+and first-floor windows lighting the principal room, which
+seems invariably in those early houses to have been on the first
+floor, the ground floor being used for service and stores (see
+Plate I. fig. 5). To the 13th century belongs the old Rectory
+House at West Dean, Sussex, and to the 14th century the
+Parsonage House at Market Deeping, Lincolnshire. The principal
+examples of the domestic architecture of this early period in the
+country are castles, manor houses and farm buildings, as town
+houses occupied sites too valuable to be left untouched; this,
+however, is not the case in France, and particularly in the
+south, where streets of early houses are still to be found in good
+preservation, such as those at Cluny (fig. 1) and Cordes (Tarn),
+and others at Montferrand, Cahors, Figeac, Angers, Provins,
+Sarlat (fig. 2), St Emilion, Périgueux, Soissons and Beauvais,
+dating from the 12th to the 14th centuries. One of the most
+remarkable examples is the Musician&rsquo;s House at Reims (see
+Plate I., fig. 4), with large windows on the first floor, between
+which are niches with life-size figures of musicians seated in
+them. Generally speaking, the ground storeys of these houses,
+which in many cases were occupied by shops, have been transformed,
+but occasionally the old shop fronts remain, as in
+Dinan, Morlaix and other old towns in Brittany. Houses of
+the first Renaissance of great beauty exist in Orleans, such as
+the house of Agnes Sorel; and the example in the Market Place
+illustrated in fig. 3; in Tours, Tristan&rsquo;s house in brick with stone
+quoins and dressings to windows; in Rouen, Caen, Bayeux,
+Toulouse, Dijon and, in fact, in almost every town throughout
+France. Of houses of large dimensions, which in France are
+termed <i>hôtels</i>, there are also many other fine examples, the best
+known of which are the hôtel de Jacques C&oelig;ur (see Plate II.,
+fig. 7), at Bourges, and the hôtel de Cluny at Paris (see
+Plate I., fig. 6). In the 15th and 16th centuries in France,
+owing to the value of the sites in towns, the houses rose to many
+storeys, the upper of which were built in half-timber, sometimes
+projecting on corbels and richly carved; of these numerous
+examples exist at Rouen, Beauvais, Bayeux and other towns in
+Normandy and Brittany. Of such structures in English towns
+(see Plate II. fig. 9) there are still preserved some examples
+in York, Southampton, Chester, Shrewsbury, Stratford-on-Avon,
+and many smaller towns; the greatest development in
+half-timber houses in England is that which is found more
+particularly throughout Kent, Sussex and Surrey, in houses of
+modest dimensions, generally consisting of ground and first floor
+only, with sometimes additional rooms in the roof; in these the
+upper storey invariably projects in front of the lower, giving
+increased dimensions to the rooms in the former, but adopted in
+order to protect the walls of the ground storey from rain, which
+in the upper storey was effected by the projecting eaves of the
+roof. In the north and west of England, where stone could
+be obtained at less cost than brick, and in the east of England,
+where brick, often imported from the Low Countries, was largely
+employed, the ordinary houses were built in those materials,
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page812" id="page812"></a>812</span>
+and in consequence of their excellent construction many houses
+of the 16th and 17th centuries have remained in good preservation
+down to the present day; they are found in the Cotswolds
+generally, and (among small towns) at Broadway in Worcestershire
+and (of brick) throughout Essex and Suffolk. Among the
+larger half-timber houses built in the 15th and 16th centuries,
+mention may be made of Bramhall Hall, near Manchester;
+Speke Hall, near Liverpool (see Plate III., fig. 10); The Oaks;
+West Bromwich; and Moreton Old Hall, Cheshire, one of the
+most elaborate of the series (see Plate III., fig. 11).</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:385px; height:768px" src="images/img812a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 2.</span>&mdash;House at Sarlat.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>On the borders of the Rhine, as at Bacharach and Rhense,
+and throughout Germany, hall-timber houses of the most
+picturesque character are found in every town, large and small,
+those of Hildesheim (see Plate II., fig. 8) dating from the 15th
+and 16th centuries, and in some cases rising to a great height
+with four or five storeys, not including those in the lofty roofs.
+Houses in stone from the 12th to the 16th century are found in
+Cologne, Metz, Trier, Hanover and Münster in Westphalia,
+where again there are whole streets remaining; and in brick
+at Rostock, Stralsund, Lübeck, Greifswald and Dantzig, forming
+a very remarkable series of 15th and 16th-century work.</p>
+
+<p>Of half-timber work in Italy there are no examples, but
+sometimes (as at Bologna) the rooms of the upper floors are
+carried on arcades, and sometimes on corbels, as the casa dei
+Carracci in the same town. The principal feature of the Italian
+house is the courtyard in the rear, with arcades on one or more
+sides, the front in stone or brick, or both combined, being of the
+greatest simplicity (examples in San Gimignano and Pisa). At
+Viterbo are small houses in stone, two of which have external
+stone staircases of fine design, and the few windows on the
+ground floor suggest that the rooms there were used only for stores.
+Houses with external staircases, but without any architectural
+pretensions, are found throughout the Balkan provinces.</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:384px; height:757px" src="images/img812b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 3.</span>&mdash;Detail of house at Orleans.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>The introduction of the purer Italian style into England in the
+17th century created a great change in domestic architecture.
+Instead of the projecting wings and otherwise picturesque
+contour of the earlier work the houses were made square or
+rectangular on plan, in two or three storeys, crowned with a
+modillion cornice carrying a roof of red tiles; the only embellishments
+of the main front were the projecting courses of stone
+on the quoins and architraves round the windows, and flat
+pilasters carrying a hood or pediment flanking the entrance
+doorway. In the larger mansions more thought was bestowed
+on the introduction of porticoes (scarcely necessary in the
+English climate), with sometimes great flights of steps up to the
+principal floor, which was raised above a basement with cold
+and dark passages; a great saloon in the centre of the block,
+lighted from above, took the place of the great entrance hall of
+the Tudor period, and the rooms frequently led one out of the
+other, without an independent entrance door. On the other hand,
+in the ordinary houses, the deficiency in external ornament
+was amply made up for by the comfort in the interior and the
+decoration of the staircase and other rooms. Towards the close
+of the century the square mullioned and transomed windows,
+with opening casements, gave way to sash windows, introduced
+from Holland, and these with moulded and stout sash-bars gave
+a certain character to the outside of the houses, which are valued
+now for their quiet unpretentious character and excellent construction.
+In the closes of many English cathedrals, on the
+outskirts of London, and in some of the older squares, as Lincoln&rsquo;s
+Inn Fields and Queen Square, are examples of this style of
+house. The substitution of thin sash-bars in the 19th century,
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page813" id="page813"></a>813</span>
+and their omission occasionally, in favour of plate-glass, deprived
+the house-front of one of its chief attractions; but the old
+English casements and oriels or bow-windows have been again
+introduced, and a return has been made to the style which
+prevailed in the beginning of the 18th century, commonly known
+as that of Queen Anne.</p>
+
+<p class="pt2 noind f90 sc">Plate III.</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:841px; height:511px" src="images/img812c.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl f80"><i>Photo, Frith &amp; Co.</i></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 10.</span>&mdash;SPEKE HALL, NEAR LIVERPOOL.</td></tr></table>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:842px; height:576px" src="images/img812d.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl f80"><i>Photo, F. Frith &amp; Co.</i></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 11.</span>&mdash;MORETON OLD HALL, NEAR CONGLETON, CHESHIRE.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p class="pt2 noind f90 sc">Plate IV.</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:854px; height:529px" src="images/img812e.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl f80">From Garner and Stratton, <i>Domestic Architecture of England during the Tudor Period</i>, 1910. By permission of B. T. Batsford.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 12.</span>&mdash;SOUTH COURT OF SUTTON PLACE, SURREY, 1525.</td></tr></table>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:856px; height:530px" src="images/img812f.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl f80">From <i>Gotch, Architecture of the Renaissance in England</i>, 1894. By permission of B. T. Batsford.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 13.</span>&mdash;MOYNS PARK, ESSEX, 1580.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p class="pt2 noind f90 sc">Plate V.</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:848px; height:516px" src="images/img814a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl f80">From Belcher and Macartney, <i>Later Renaissance Architecture in England</i>, 1901. By permission of B. T. Batsford.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 14.</span>&mdash;HAM HOUSE, PETERSHAM, 1610.</td></tr></table>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:842px; height:518px" src="images/img814b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl f80">From Gotch, <i>Architecture of the Renaissance in England</i>, 1894. By permission of B. T. Batsford.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 15.</span>&mdash;BRAMSHILL, HAMPSHIRE, 1612.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p class="pt2 noind f90 sc">Plate VI.</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:822px; height:546px" src="images/img814c.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl f80">From Belcher and MaCartney, <i>Later Renaissance Architecture in England</i>, By permission of B. T. Batsford.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 16.</span>&mdash;THE EARL OF BURLINGTON&rsquo;S VILLA, CHISWICK. EIGHTEENTH CENTURY.</td></tr></table>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:820px; height:529px" src="images/img814d.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl f80">From the same source as above.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 17.</span>&mdash;HOUSES IN CAVENDISH SQUARE, LONDON. EIGHTEENTH CENTURY.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>Perhaps in one respect the greatest change which has been
+made in the English house is the adoption of &ldquo;flats&rdquo;; commenced
+some time in the &rsquo;fifties in Ashley Gardens, Westminster,
+they have spread throughout London. In consequence of the
+great value of the sites on which they are sometimes built, to
+which must be added the cost of the houses pulled down to
+make way for them, the question of expense in material and
+rich decoration has not always been worth considering, so that
+frontages in stone, with the classic orders brought in with
+many varieties of design, have given the character of a palace
+to a structure in which none of the rooms exceeds the modest
+height of 10 ft. The increasing demand for these, however,
+shows that they meet, so far as their accommodation and comfort
+are concerned, the wants and tastes of the upper and middle
+classes. In some of the London streets, where shops occupy the
+ground floor, a far finer type of house has been erected than that
+which could have been afforded for the shopkeeper&rsquo;s residence
+above, as in old times, so that London promises in time to
+become a city of palaces. The same change in the aspects of
+its streets has long been evident in Paris, but there is one feature
+in the latter city which has never yet found its way into London,
+much to the surprise of French visitors, viz. the <i>porte-cochère</i>,
+through which the occupants of the house can in wet weather
+drive and be landed in a covered hall or vestibule. This requires,
+of course, a small court at the back, so small that one wonders
+sometimes how it is possible for the carriage to turn round in it.
+The <i>porte-cochère</i> also, from its dimensions, is a feature of more
+importance than the ordinary street doorway, even when a
+portico of some kind is added; on the other hand, the strict
+regulations in Paris as regards the projection of cornices and
+other decorative accessories gives to the stranger the appearance
+of monotony in their design, which certainly cannot be said of
+the houses in flats lately built in London. Within recent years
+an old English feature, known as the bow-window, has been
+introduced into Paris, the primary object of which does not
+seem yet to have been thoroughly understood by the French
+architect. An English bow-window, by its slight projection in
+front of the main wall, increases greatly the amount of light
+entering the room, and it is generally placed between solid piers
+of stone or brick. The French architects, however, project
+their piers on immense corbels, and then sink their windows
+with deep external reveals, so that no benefit accrues to the
+room, so far as the increased light is concerned. In Paris, since
+1900, there has been a tendency to introduce a style of design in
+French houses which is known as &ldquo;l&rsquo;art nouveau,&rdquo; a style
+which commenced in furniture as a reaction against the revival
+of the Empire and Louis XIV. and XVI. periods, and was then
+extended to house fronts; this style has unfortunately spread
+through the various towns in France and apparently to Germany,
+again as a reaction against the formal classic style of the latter
+half of the 19th century. It is probable that in Italy and Spain
+&ldquo;l&rsquo;art nouveau&rdquo; may meet with the same success, and for the
+same reasons, so that in the latter country it will be a revival,
+with modifications, of the well-known Churrigueresque style,
+the most debased Rococo style which has ever existed. In
+England it has never met with any response.</p>
+<div class="author">(R. P. S.)</div>
+
+<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note">
+
+<p><a name="ft1d" id="ft1d" href="#fa1d"><span class="fn">1</span></a> A complete description of these houses will be found in <i>The
+Evolution of the English House</i>, by S. O. Addy.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HOUSEHOLD, ROYAL.<a name="ar57" id="ar57"></a></span> In all the medieval monarchies of
+western Europe the general system of government sprang from,
+and centred in, the royal household. The sovereign&rsquo;s domestics
+were his officers of state, and the leading dignitaries of the
+palace were the principal administrators of the kingdom. The
+royal household itself had, in its turn, grown out of an earlier and
+more primitive institution. It took its rise in the <i>comitatus</i>
+described by Tacitus, the chosen band of <i>comites</i> or companions
+who, when the Roman historian wrote, constituted the personal
+following, in peace as well as in war, of the Teutonic chieftain. In
+England before the Conquest the <i>comitatus</i> had developed or
+degenerated into the thegnhood, and among the most eminent and
+powerful of the king&rsquo;s thegns were his dishthegn, his bowerthegn,
+and his horsethegn or staller. In Normandy at the time of the
+Conquest a similar arrangement, imitated from the French
+court, had long been established, and the Norman dukes, like
+their overlords the kings of France, had their seneschal or
+steward, their chamberlain and their constable. After the
+Conquest the ducal household of Normandy was reproduced in
+the royal household of England; and since, in obedience to
+the spirit of feudalism, the great offices of the first had been
+made hereditary, the great offices of the second were made
+hereditary also, and were thenceforth held by the grantees and
+their descendants as grand-serjeanties of the crown. The consequence
+was that they passed out of immediate relation to the
+practical conduct of affairs either in both state and court or in
+the one or the other of them. The steward and chamberlain of
+England were superseded in their political functions by the
+justiciar and treasurer of England, and in their domestic functions
+by the steward and chamberlain of the household. The marshal
+of England took the place of the constable of England in the
+royal palace, and was associated with him in the command of
+the royal armies. In due course, however, the marshalship as
+well as the constableship became hereditary, and, although the
+constable and marshal of England retained their military
+authority until a comparatively late period, the duties they had
+successively performed about the palace had been long before
+transferred to the master of the horse. In these circumstances
+the holders of the original great offices of state and the household
+ceased to attend the court except on occasions of extraordinary
+ceremony, and their representatives either by inheritance or by
+special appointment have ever since continued to appear at
+coronations and some other public solemnities, such as the
+opening of the parliament or trials by the House of Lords.<a name="fa1e" id="fa1e" href="#ft1e"><span class="sp">1</span></a></p>
+
+<p>The materials available for a history of the English royal
+household are somewhat scanty and obscure. The earliest
+record relating to it is of the reign of Henry II. and is contained
+in the <i>Black Book of the Exchequer</i>. It enumerates the various
+inmates of the king&rsquo;s palace and the daily allowances made to
+them at the period at which it was compiled. Hence it affords
+valuable evidence of the antiquity and relative importance of the
+court offices to which it refers, notwithstanding that it is silent
+as to the functions and formal subordination of the persons who
+filled them.<a name="fa2e" id="fa2e" href="#ft2e"><span class="sp">2</span></a> In addition to this record we have a series of far
+later, but for the most part equally meagre, documents bearing
+more or less directly on the constitution of the royal household,
+and extending, with long intervals, from the reign of Edward III.
+to the reign of William and Mary.<a name="fa3e" id="fa3e" href="#ft3e"><span class="sp">3</span></a> Among them, however, are
+what are known as the <i>Black Book of the Household</i> and the
+<i>Statutes of Eltham</i>, the first compiled in the reign of Edward IV.
+and the second in the reign of Henry VIII., from which a good
+deal of detailed information may be gathered concerning the
+arrangements of the court in the 15th and 16th centuries. The
+<i>Statutes of Eltham</i> were meant for the practical guidance merely
+of those who were responsible for the good order and the sufficient
+supply of the sovereign&rsquo;s household at the time they were issued.
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page814" id="page814"></a>814</span>
+But the <i>Black Book of the Household</i>, besides being a sort of
+treatise on princely magnificence generally, professes to be based
+on the regulations established for the governance of the court by
+Edward III., who, it affirms, was &ldquo;the first setter of certeynties
+among his domesticall meyne, upon a grounded rule&rdquo; and
+whose palace it describes as &ldquo;the house of very policie and
+flowre of England&rdquo;; and it may therefore possibly, and even
+probably, take us back to a period much more remote than that
+at which it was actually put together.<a name="fa4e" id="fa4e" href="#ft4e"><span class="sp">4</span></a> Various orders, returns
+and accounts of the reigns of Elizabeth, James I., Charles I.,
+Charles II., and William and Mary throw considerable light on
+the organization of particular sections of the royal household in
+times nearer to our own.<a name="fa5e" id="fa5e" href="#ft5e"><span class="sp">5</span></a> Moreover, there were several parliamentary
+inquiries into the expenses of the royal household in
+connexion with the settlement or reform of the civil list during
+the reigns of George III., George IV. and William IV.<a name="fa6e" id="fa6e" href="#ft6e"><span class="sp">6</span></a> But they
+add little or nothing to our knowledge of the subject in what
+was then its historical as distinguished from its contemporary
+aspects. So much, indeed, is this the case that, on the accession
+of Queen Victoria, Chamberlayne&rsquo;s <i>Present State of England</i>,
+which contains a catalogue of the officials at the court of Queen
+Anne, was described by Lord Melbourne the prime minister as the
+&ldquo;only authority&rdquo; which the advisers of the crown could find for
+their assistance in determining the appropriate constitution and
+dimensions of the domestic establishment of a queen regnant.<a name="fa7e" id="fa7e" href="#ft7e"><span class="sp">7</span></a></p>
+
+<p>In its main outlines the existing organization of the royal
+household is essentially the same as it was under the Tudors or
+the Plantagenets. It is now, as it was then, divided into three
+principal departments, at the head of which are severally the
+lord steward, the lord chamberlain and the master of the horse,
+and the respective provinces of which may be generally described
+as &ldquo;below stairs,&rdquo; &ldquo;above stairs&rdquo; and &ldquo;out of doors.&rdquo; The
+duties of these officials, and the various officers under their
+charge are dealt with in the articles under those headings. When
+the reigning sovereign is a queen, the royal household is in some
+other respects rather differently arranged from that of a king and
+a queen consort. When there is a king and a queen consort there
+is a separate establishment &ldquo;above stairs&rdquo; and &ldquo;out of doors&rdquo;
+for the queen consort. She has a lord chamberlain&rsquo;s department
+of her own, and all the ladies of the court from the mistress of the
+robes to the maids of honour are in her service. At the commencement
+of the reign of Queen Victoria the two establishments
+were combined, and on the whole considerably reduced. On the
+accession of Edward VII. the civil list was again reconstituted;
+and while the household of the king and his consort became larger
+than during the previous reign, there was a tendency towards
+increased efficiency by abolishing certain offices which were
+either redundant or unnecessary.</p>
+
+<p>The royal households of such of the continental monarchies
+of Europe as have had a continuous history from medieval times
+resemble in general outlines that described above. There are,
+common to many, certain great offices, which have become,
+in course of time, merely titular and sometimes hereditary.
+In most cases, as the name of the office would suggest, they were
+held by those who discharged personal functions about the
+sovereign. Gradually, in ways or for reasons which might vary
+in each individual case, the office alone survived, the duties either
+ceasing to be necessary, or being transferred to officers of less
+exalted station and permanently attached to the sovereign&rsquo;s
+household. For example, in Prussia, there are certain great
+titular officers, such as the Oberstmarschall (great chamberlain);
+the Oberstjägermeister (grand master of the hunt); the Oberstschenk
+(grand cup-bearer) and the Obersttruchsess (grand
+carver), while, at the same time, there are also departments which
+correspond, to a great extent&mdash;both as to offices and their
+duties&mdash;to those of the household of the English sovereigns.
+This is a feature which must necessarily be reproduced in any
+monarchical country, whatever the date of its foundation,
+to a more or less limited extent, and varying in its constitution
+with the needs or customs of the particular countries.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See also <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Lord Steward</a></span>; <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Lord Chamberlain</a></span>; <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Master of the
+Horse</a></span>; <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Privy Purse</a></span>; and <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Civil List</a></span>.</p>
+</div>
+
+<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note">
+
+<p><a name="ft1e" id="ft1e" href="#fa1e"><span class="fn">1</span></a> The great officers of state and the household whom we have
+particularly mentioned do not of course exhaust the catalogue of
+them. We have named those only whose representatives are still
+dignitaries of the court and functionaries of the palace. If the
+reader consults Hallam (<i>Middle Ages</i>, i. 181 seq.), Freeman (<i>Norman
+Conquest</i>, i. 91 seq., and v. 426 seq.) and Stubbs (<i>Const. Hist.</i> i. 343,
+seq.), he will be able himself to fill in the details of the outline we
+have given above.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft2e" id="ft2e" href="#fa2e"><span class="fn">2</span></a> The record in question is entitled <i>Constitutio Domus Regis de
+Procurationibus</i>, and is printed by Hearne (<i>Liber Niger Scaccarii</i>,
+i. 341 sq.). It is analysed by Stubbs (<i>Const. Hist.</i> vol. i. note 2,
+p. 345).</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft3e" id="ft3e" href="#fa3e"><span class="fn">3</span></a> <i>A Collection of Ordinances and Regulations for the Government of
+the Royal Household, made in Divers Reigns from King Edward III. to
+King William and Queen Mary</i>, printed for the Society of Antiquaries,
+(London, 1790). See also Pegge&rsquo;s <i>Curialia</i>, published partly before
+and partly after this volume; and Carlisle&rsquo;s <i>Gentlemen of the Privy
+Chamber</i>, published in 1829. Pegge and Carlisle, however, deal with
+small and insignificant portions of the royal establishment.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft4e" id="ft4e" href="#fa4e"><span class="fn">4</span></a> <i>Liber niger domus Regis Edward IV.</i> and <i>Ordinances for the
+Household made at Eltham in the seventeenth year of King Henry
+VIII., <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 1526</i>, are the titles of these two documents. The earlier
+documents printed in the same collection are <i>Household of King
+Edward III. in Peace and War from the eighteenth to the twenty-first
+year of his reign</i>; <i>Ordinances of the Household of King Henry IV.
+in the thirty-third year of his reign, <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 1455</i>, and <i>Articles ordained
+by King Henry VII. for the Regulation of his Household, <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 1494</i>.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft5e" id="ft5e" href="#fa5e"><span class="fn">5</span></a> <i>The Book of the Household of Queen Elizabeth as it was ordained
+in the forty-third year of her Reign delivered to our Sovereign Lord
+King James, &amp;c.</i>, is simply a list of officers&rsquo; names and allowances.
+It seems to have been drawn up under the curious circumstances
+referred to in <i>Archaeologia</i> (xii. 80-85). For the rest of these
+documents see <i>Ordinances and Regulations, &amp;c.</i>, pp. 299, 340, 347,
+352, 368 and 380.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft6e" id="ft6e" href="#fa6e"><span class="fn">6</span></a> Burke&rsquo;s celebrated Act &ldquo;for enabling His Majesty to discharge
+the debt contracted upon the civil list, and for preventing the same
+from being in arrear for the future, &amp;c.,&rdquo; 22 Geo. III. c. 82, was
+passed in 1782. But it was foreshadowed in his great speech on
+&ldquo;Economical Reform&rdquo; delivered two years before. Since the
+beginning of the 19th century select committees of the House of
+Commons have reported on the civil list and royal household in
+1803, 1804, 1815, 1831 and 1901.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft7e" id="ft7e" href="#fa7e"><span class="fn">7</span></a> Torrens&rsquo;s <i>Memoirs of William, second Viscount Melbourne</i>,
+ii-303.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HOUSEL,<a name="ar58" id="ar58"></a></span> the English name, until the time of the Reformation,
+for the Eucharist. The word in O. Eng. was <i>húsel</i>. Its proper
+meaning is &ldquo;sacrifice,&rdquo; and thus the word <i>hunsl</i> appears in
+Ulfilas&rsquo; Gothic version of Matt. ix. 13, &ldquo;I will have mercy and
+not sacrifice.&rdquo; The ultimate origin is doubtful. The <i>New
+English Dictionary</i> connects it with a Teutonic stem meaning
+&ldquo;holy&rdquo;; from which is derived the Lithuanian <i>szwe&#324;tas</i>, and
+Lettish <i>swéts</i>. Skeat refers it to a root meaning &ldquo;to kill,&rdquo;
+which may connect it with Gr. <span class="grk" title="kainein">&#954;&#945;&#943;&#957;&#949;&#953;&#957;</span>.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HOUSELEEK,<a name="ar59" id="ar59"></a></span> <i>Sempervivum</i>, a genus of ornamental evergreen
+plants belonging to the natural order <i>Crassulaceae</i>. About
+30 species are known in gardens, some of which are hardy
+perennial herbs, and grow well in dry or rocky situations; the
+others are evergreen shrubs or undershrubs, fit only for cultivation
+in the greenhouse or conservatory. The genus <i>Sempervivum</i>
+is distinguished from the nearly allied <i>Sedum</i> by having more
+than five (about 12) petals, and by the glands at the base of the
+ovary being laciniated if present. The common houseleek,
+<i>S. tectorum</i> (Ger. <i>Hauswurzel</i>, Fr. <i>joubarbe</i>), is often met with in
+Britain on roofs of outhouses and wall-tops, but is not a native.
+Originally it was indigenous in the Alps, but it is now widely
+dispersed in Europe, and has been introduced into America.
+The leaves are thick, fleshy and succulent, and are arranged
+in the form of a rosette lying close to the soil. The plant propagates
+itself by offsets on all sides, so that it forms after a time
+a dense cushion or aggregation of rosettes. The flowering stem,
+which is of rather rare occurrence, is about 1 ft. high, reddish,
+cylindrical and succulent, and ends in a level-topped cyme, reflexed
+at the circumference, of reddish flowers, which bloom
+from June to September. The houseleek has been known
+variously as the houselick, homewort or great houseleek. <i>Sedum
+acre</i> (stone-crop) is styled the little houseleek. In Germany it is
+sometimes called <i>Donnerkraut</i>, from being supposed to protect
+the house on which it grows from thunder. The leaves are said to
+contain malic acid in considerable quantity, and have been eaten
+as salad, like <i>Portulaca</i>. <i>S. glutinosum</i> and <i>S. balsamiferum</i>,
+natives respectively of Madeira and the Canary Islands, contain
+a very viscous substance in large quantity, and are used for the
+preparation of bird-lime; fishermen in Madeira, after dipping
+their nets in an alkaline solution, rub them with this substance,
+rendering them as tough as leather. <i>S. montanum</i>, indigenous
+in Central Europe, according to Gmelin, causes violent purging;
+<i>S. arboreum</i>, <span class="grk" title="to mega aeizôon">&#964;&#8056; &#956;&#7952;&#947;&#945; &#7936;&#949;&#943;&#950;&#969;&#959;&#957;</span> of Dioscorides, is employed in
+Cyprus, the East, and northern Africa as an external remedy for
+malignant ulcers, inflammations and burns, and internally for
+mucous discharges.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HOUSING.<a name="ar60" id="ar60"></a></span> The housing of the poorer classes has become
+a pressing problem in all populous Western countries, and has
+engaged, in a varying but constantly increasing measure, the
+attention of legislative and administrative bodies and of philanthropic
+individuals and societies. The general interest was
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page815" id="page815"></a>815</span>
+signalized by an International Congress held in London in 1907.
+The recognition of the problem is due in the first instance to the
+science of public health, the rise of which dates from the second
+quarter of the 19th century; and in the second instance to the
+growth of urban populations consequent on the development
+of manufacturing industries and of trading and transporting
+agencies, both of which tend to mass increasing numbers of people
+in convenient centres. To have a clear view of the subject it
+is necessary to distinguish these factors and their respective
+influence upon the problem. Urban congestion is quite secondary,
+and only important because and so far as it has a prejudicial
+effect upon health and strength. Further, the requirements on
+the scientific side, made on behalf of public health, are of very
+much wider application and more expansive than those which
+arise from the mere growth of urban population. That is obvious
+at once from the fact that they extend to rural housing, which
+has indeed become a prominent feature of the question in
+recent years. To ascribe the housing problem to the &ldquo;factory
+system,&rdquo; as some writers have done, is to put forward an inadequate
+and misleading view of it. It is, in fact, particularly
+acute in some places totally devoid of factories and least acute
+in some purely factory towns. If the factory system were
+abolished with all its effects the housing question would remain.
+But there is a more important distinction than extent of application.
+The requirements of public health are indeterminate and
+interminable; knowledge increases, or rather changes, and the
+standard constantly rises. It is the changing standard which
+gives most trouble; housing at one period thought good enough
+is presently condemned. Fifty years ago no house existed
+which would satisfy modern sanitary standards, and the mansions
+of the great were in some respects inferior to the worst quarters
+to-day. And to this process there is no end. It is quite conceivable
+that urban congestion might cease to be a difficulty at
+all. That actually happens in particular towns where the
+population is stationary or diminishing. One whole nation
+(France) has already reached that point, and others are moving
+towards it at varying rates. But even where the supply of
+houses exceeds the demand and many stand empty, the housing
+problem remains; condemnation of existing accommodation
+continues and the effort to provide superior houses goes on. In
+other words, there are two main aspects of the housing question,
+quality and quantity; they touch at various points and interact,
+but they are essentially distinct. The problem of quantity may
+be &ldquo;solved,&rdquo; that of quality has no finality.</p>
+
+<p>The importance attached to housing is much enhanced by
+the general tendency to lay stress on the material conditions
+of life, which characterizes the present age. Among material
+conditions environment takes a leading place, largely under the
+influence of the theory of evolution in a popular and probably
+erroneous form; and among the factors of environment the
+home assumes a more and more prominent position. There is
+reason in this, for whatever other provision be made for work
+or recreation the home is after all the place where people spend
+most of their time. Life begins there and generally ends there.
+At the beginning of life the whole time is spent there and home
+conditions are of paramount importance to the young, whose
+physical welfare has become the object of increasing care. But
+the usual tendency to run to extremes has asserted itself. It
+may be admitted that it is extremely difficult to raise the
+character and condition of those who live in thoroughly bad
+home surroundings, and that an indispensable or preliminary
+step is to improve the dwelling. But if in pursuit of this object
+other considerations are lost sight of, the result is failure. Bad
+housing is intimately connected with poverty; it is, indeed,
+largely a question of poverty now that the difference between
+good and bad housing is understood and the effects of the latter
+are recognized. The poorest people live under the worst housing
+conditions because they are the cheapest; the economic factor
+governs the situation. Poverty again is associated with bad
+habits, with dirt, waste, idleness and vice, both as cause and
+as effect. These factors cannot be separated in real life; they
+act and react upon each other in such a way that it is impossible
+to disentangle their respective shares in producing physical
+and moral evils. To lay all responsibility upon the structural
+environment is an error constantly exposed by experience.</p>
+
+<p>Defective quality embraces some or all of the following
+conditions&mdash;darkness, bad air, damp, dirt and dilapidation.
+Particular insanitary conditions independent of the structure
+are often associated; namely defects of water-supply, drainage,
+excrement and house refuse removal, back-yards and surrounding
+ground; they contribute to dirt, damp and bad air. Defective
+quantity produces high rents and overcrowding, both of
+which have a prejudicial effect upon health; the one by diminishing
+expenditure on other necessaries, the other by fouling the
+atmosphere and promoting the spread of infectious illness.
+The physical effects of these conditions have been demonstrated
+by comparative statistics of mortality general and
+special; among the latter particular stress is laid on the mortality
+of infants, that from consumption and from &ldquo;zymotic&rdquo; diseases.
+The statistical evidence has been especially directed to the
+effects of overcrowding, which can be stated with greater precision
+than other insanitary conditions. It generally takes the
+form of comparing the death-rates of different areas having widely
+contrasted densities of population or proportions of persons
+to a given space. It is not necessary to quote any of these
+figures, which have been produced in great abundance. They
+broadly establish a connexion between density and mortality;
+but the inference that the connexion can be reduced to a precise
+numerical statement and that the difference of mortality shown
+is all due to overcrowding or other housing conditions is highly
+fallacious. Many other factors ought to be taken into account,
+such as the age-distribution of the population, the birth-rate,
+the occupations, means, character and habits of the people,
+the geographical situation, the number of public institutions,
+hospitals, workhouses, asylums and so forth. The fallacious
+use of vital statistics for the purpose of proving some particular
+point has become so common that it is necessary to enter a
+warning against them; the subject of housing is a popular
+field for the exercise of that art, though there is no need of it.</p>
+
+<p>The actual state of housing in different countries and localities,
+the efforts made to deal with it by various agencies, the subsidiary
+points which arise in connexion with it and the results
+attained&mdash;all these heads embrace such a vast mass of facts
+that any attempt to treat them fully in detail would run to
+inordinate length. It must suffice to review the more salient
+points; and the most convenient way of doing so is to deal
+first with Great Britain, which has led the way historically
+in extent of need, in its recognition and in efforts to meet it,
+adding some notes upon other countries, in which the question
+is of more recent date and for which less information is available.</p>
+
+<p class="pt2 center sc">The United Kingdom</p>
+
+<p>The importance of housing and the need of improvement
+had by 1909 received public recognition in England for nearly
+70 years, a period coinciding almost exactly with the systematic
+study of sanitation or public health. The active movement
+definitely began about 1841 with voluntary effort in which
+Lord Shaftesbury was the most prominent and active figure.
+The motive was philanthropic and the object was to improve
+the condition of the working classes. It took the form of
+societies; one was the &ldquo;Metropolitan Association for Improving
+the Dwellings of the Industrial Classes,&rdquo; incorporated in 1845
+but founded in 1841; another was the &ldquo;Society for Improving
+the Condition of the Labouring Classes,&rdquo; originally the
+&ldquo;Labourers&rsquo; Friend Society,&rdquo; of which the Prince Consort
+became president. That fact and the statement of the Society
+concerning improved housing that &ldquo;the moral were almost
+equal to the physical benefits,&rdquo; sufficiently prove that public
+interest in the subject and a grasp of its significance already
+existed at that date. Legislation followed not long after and
+has continued at intervals ever since.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p><i>Legislation.</i>&mdash;Twenty-eight Housing and Health Acts, passed
+between 1851 and 1903, are enumerated by Mr Dewsnup, whose
+monograph on <i>The Housing Problem in England</i> is the fullest account
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page816" id="page816"></a>816</span>
+of the subject published. The first was the Shaftesbury Act of 1851
+for the establishment of lodging-houses for the working classes;
+the last was the Housing of the Working Classes Act of 1903. The
+Shaftesbury Act had in view the provision by local authorities of
+good lodging-houses for the better class of artisans, and particularly
+of single persons, male and female, though families were also contemplated.
+It was accompanied in the same year by another act,
+not included in the list of twenty-eight, for the regulation and control
+of common lodging-houses, from which Mr Dewsnup reasonably
+infers that the object of Lord Shaftesbury, who inspired both acts,
+was the separation of the casual and disorderly class frequenting
+common lodging-houses from the more regularly employed and
+respectable workers who were sometimes driven to use them for
+lack of other accommodation. At any rate this early legislation
+embodied the principle of differential treatment and showed a grasp
+of the problem not always visible in later procedure. The most
+important of the subsequent acts were those of 1855 and 1866, both
+intended to encourage private enterprise in the provision of working-class
+dwellings; the Torrens Act of 1868 (Artisans&rsquo; and Labourers&rsquo;
+Dwellings Act) for the improvement or demolition of existing
+buildings; the Cross Act of 1875 (Artisans&rsquo; and Labourers&rsquo; Dwellings
+Improvement Act), for extending that process to larger areas; the
+Public Health Act of 1875; the Housing of the Working Classes Act
+of 1885 following the report of the Royal Commission on the Housing
+of the Working Classes, of which King Edward, then prince of
+Wales, was a member; the Housing of the Working Classes Act of
+1890; the Public Health (London) Act of 1891. The acts of 1875
+(Public Health), of 1890 and of 1891 are still in force. The story of
+this half-century of legislation (which also includes a number of
+Scotch and Irish acts, local private acts and others bearing on the
+question) is one of tentative efforts first in one direction then in
+another, of laws passed, amended, extended, consolidated, superseded.
+Many of the enactments, originally of limited application,
+were subsequently extended, and the principal laws now in force
+apply to the whole of the United Kingdom. Two main objects can
+be distinguished&mdash;(1) the treatment of existing dwellings by demolition
+or improvement; (2) the construction of new ones. The
+second head is further subdivided into (<i>a</i>) municipal action, (<i>b</i>)
+private action. These objects have been alternately promoted by
+legislative measures conceived and carried out on no systematic
+plan, but gradually and continuously developed into an effective
+body of law, particularly with regard to the means of dealing with
+existing insanitary dwellings. The advancing requirements of
+public health are clearly traceable in the series of enactments directed
+to that end. The Nuisances Removal Act of 1855 took cognizance
+of premises in such a state as to be &ldquo;a nuisance or injurious to
+health,&rdquo; and made provision for obtaining an order to prohibit the
+use of such premises for human habitation. In the same act overcrowding
+obtained statutory recognition as a condition dangerous or
+prejudicial to health, and provision was made for compelling its
+abatement. The campaign against bad housing conditions thus
+inaugurated by the legislature was extended by subsequent acts in
+1860, 1866 and 1868, culminating in the Cross Act of 1875 for the
+demolition (and reconstruction) of large insanitary areas and the
+extremely important Public Health Act of the same year. The
+constructive policy, begun still earlier in 1851 by Lord Shaftesbury&rsquo;s
+Act, was concurrently pursued, and for some years more actively
+than the destructive; but after 1866 the latter became more prominent,
+and though the other was not lost sight of it fell into the
+background until revived by the Royal Commission of 1885 and the
+housing legislation which followed, particularly the Housing of the
+Working Classes Act of 1890, amending and consolidating previous
+acts.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>The laws in operation at the beginning of 1909 were the
+Public Health Acts of 1875 and 1891 (London), as amended by
+subsequent minor measures, and the Housing of the Working
+Classes Act of 1890, amended in 1894, 1900 and 1903. The
+Public Health Acts place upon the local sanitary authority
+the obligation of securing, under by-laws, the proper construction,
+draining and cleaning of streets, removal of house refuse and
+building of houses, including structural details for the prevention
+of damp and decay, the provision of sanitary conveniences and
+an adequate water-supply; also of inquiring into and removing
+nuisances, which include any premises in such a condition as
+to be a nuisance or injurious to health and any house so overcrowded
+as to be dangerous or injurious to health. For the
+purpose of carrying out these duties the local authority has the
+power of inspection, of declaring a building unfit for human
+habitation and of closing it by order. The Housing Acts give
+more extended power to the local authority to demolish insanitary
+dwellings and clear whole areas or &ldquo;slums,&rdquo; and also
+to construct dwellings for the working classes with or without
+such clearance; they also retain the older provisions for encouraging
+private enterprise in the erection of superior dwellings for
+the working classes. The procedure for dealing with insanitary
+property under these Acts is too intricate to be stated in detail;
+but, briefly, there are two ways of proceeding. In the first
+the local authority, on receiving formal complaint of an unhealthy
+area, cause an inspection to be made by their medical officer,
+and if the report in their opinion justifies action, they may
+prepare an &ldquo;improvement scheme,&rdquo; which is submitted to the
+Local Government Board. The Board holds an inquiry, and, if
+satisfied, issues a provisional order, which has to be confirmed
+by a special act of parliament, under which the local authority
+can proceed to demolish the houses concerned after paying
+compensation to the owners. This procedure, which is authorized
+by part i. of the act of 1890, is obviously both cumbrous and
+costly. The second way, provided for by part ii. of the act,
+is much simpler and less ambitious; it only applies to single
+houses or groups of houses. The medical officer in the course
+of his duty reports to the local authority any houses which are
+in his opinion unfit for human habitation; the local authority
+can then make an order to serve notices on the owners to repair
+the houses at their own expense. Failing compliance on the
+part of the owners, an order for closing the houses can be obtained;
+and if nothing is done at the end of three months an order for
+demolition can be made. Buildings injurious by reason of their
+obstructive character (<i>e.g.</i> houses built back to back so as to
+be without through ventilation and commonly called &ldquo;back-to-back&rdquo;
+houses) can be dealt with in a similar manner. Small
+areas containing groups of objectionable houses of either kind
+may be made the subject of an improvement scheme, as above.
+Where areas are dealt with under improvement schemes there
+is a certain obligation to re-house the persons displaced. Building
+schemes are provided for under part iii. of the act. Land may
+be compulsorily purchased for the purpose and the money
+required may be raised by loans under certain conditions. The
+provisions thus summarized were considerably modified by the
+&ldquo;Housing, Town Planning, &amp;c., Act,&rdquo; passed at the end of 1909.
+It rendered obligatory the adoption (previously permissive)
+of the housing provisions (part iii.) of the act of 1890 by local
+authorities, simplified the procedure for the compulsory purchase
+of land required for the purpose and extended the facilities for
+obtaining loans. It further gave power to the Local Government
+Board to compel local authorities to put in force the act of 1890
+in regard both to existing insanitary housing and the provision
+of new housing. Power was also given to county councils to
+act in default of rural district councils in regard to new housing.
+The procedure for dealing with insanitary houses by closing
+and demolition under part ii. (see above) was rendered more
+stringent. The general intention of the new act was partly
+to facilitate the administration of the previous one by local
+authorities and partly to provide means of compelling supine
+authorities to take action. Its town-planning provisions are
+noted below.</p>
+
+<p><i>Effects of Legislation.</i>&mdash;The efficacy of laws depends very largely
+on their administration; and when they are permissive and
+dependent on the energy and discretion of local bodies their
+administration varies greatly in different localities. That has
+been the case with the British housing and health laws, and is
+one cause of dissatisfaction with them. But in the aggregate
+they have effected very great improvement. Public action has
+chiefly taken effect in sanitary reform, which includes the
+removal of the worst housing, through demolition or alteration,
+and general sanitary improvements of various kinds. In some
+large towns the worst parts have been transformed, masses of
+old, narrow, crowded, dilapidated and filthy streets and courts
+have been swept away at one blow or by degrees; other parts
+have been reconstructed or improved. The extent to which
+this has been accomplished is not generally recognized. It
+is not easily demonstrated, and to realize it local knowledge,
+observation and memory are needed. The details of the story
+are hidden away in local annals and official reports; and writers
+on the subject are usually more concerned with what has not
+than with what has been done. Both the Public Health and the
+Housing Acts have had a share in the improvement effected.
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page817" id="page817"></a>817</span>
+The operation of the former is slow and gradual, but it is continuous
+and far more general than that of the latter. It embraces
+many details which are not usually taken into account in discussing
+housing, but which have as much bearing on the healthiness
+of the home as the structure itself. The Public Health Acts
+have further had a certain preventive influence in laying down
+a standard for the erection of new houses by the ordinary
+commercial agencies. Such houses are not ideal, because the
+commercial builder studies economy and the question of rent;
+but the standard has risen, and building plans involving insufficient
+light and air, such as once were general, have now
+for several years been forbidden almost everywhere. Supervision
+of commercial building is, in fact, vastly more important
+than the erection of dwellings by public or philanthropic agencies,
+because it affects a vastly larger proportion of the population.
+The influence of the Public Health Acts in improving the conditions
+of home life cannot be estimated or summarized, but it
+is reflected in the general death-rate, which fell steadily in the
+United Kingdom from 21.1 per 1000 in 1878 to 15.4 per 1000
+in 1907.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p><i>Insanitary Areas.</i>&mdash;The operation of the Housing Acts is
+more susceptible of being stated in figures, though no fully comprehensive
+information is available. The original Shaftesbury Act
+of 1851 for erecting municipal lodging-houses appears to have been
+practically inoperative and little or nothing was done for a good
+many years. In 1864, however, Liverpool obtained a private act
+and entered on the policy of improvement by the demolition of
+insanitary dwellings on a considerable scale, following it up in 1869
+by re-housing. In 1866 Glasgow, also under a private act, created
+an Improvement Trust, administered by the city council, and embarked
+on a large scheme of improvement. These seem to have
+been the earliest examples. The Torrens Act of 1868, which embodied
+the improvement policy, did not produce much effect. According
+to a parliamentary return, during the years 1883-1888, proceedings
+were only taken under this act in respect of about 2000 houses in
+London and four provincial towns. More advantage was taken of
+the Cross Act of 1875, which was intended to promote large improvement
+schemes. Between 1875 and 1885 23 schemes involving
+a total area of 51 acres and a population of about 30,000 were
+undertaken, in London; and 11 schemes in provincial towns. By
+far the most important of these, and the largest single scheme ever
+undertaken, was one carried out in Birmingham. It affected an
+area of 93 acres and involved a net cost of £550,000. Altogether
+between £4,000,000 and £5,000,000 were raised for improvement
+schemes under those acts. After the Housing Act of 1890 the
+clearance policy was continued in London and extended in the
+provinces. During the period 1891-1905 loans to the amount of
+about £2,300,000 were raised for improvement schemes by 28
+provincial towns in England and Wales. The largest of these were
+Leeds (£923,000), Manchester (£285,000), Liverpool (£178,000),
+Sheffield (£131,000), Brighton (£112,000). The Leeds scheme
+affected an area of 75 acres, which was cleared at a cost of £500,000.
+In London the area cleared was raised to a total of 104 acres; the
+gross cost, down to March 31, 1908, was £3,417,337, the net cost
+£2,434,096, and the number of persons displaced 48,525. Glasgow
+has under its Improvement Trust cleared an area of 88 acres with
+a population of 51,000. At the same time the policy of dealing
+with houses unfit for habitation singly or in small groups by compelling
+owners to improve them has been pursued by a certain
+number of local authorities. In the six years 1899-1904 action
+was taken each year on the average in respect of about 5000 houses
+by some 400 local authorities large and small outside London.
+Representations were made against 33,746 houses, 17,210 were
+rendered fit for habitation, closing orders were obtained against
+4220 and demolition orders against 748. These figures do not include
+cases in which action was taken under local acts and Public
+Health Acts. In Manchester, between 1885 and 1905, nearly 10,000
+&ldquo;back-to-back&rdquo; houses were closed and about half of them reopened
+after reconstruction. Hull, an old seaport town with a
+great deal of extremely bad housing, has made very effective use of
+the method of gradual improvement and has transformed its worst
+areas without appearing in any list of improvement schemes. In
+recent years this procedure has been systematically taken up in
+Birmingham and other places, and has been strongly advocated by
+Mr J. S. Nettlefold (<i>Practical Housing</i>) in preference to large improvement
+schemes on account of the excessive expense involved
+by the latter in buying up insanitary areas. In the six years 1902-1907
+Birmingham dealt with 4111 houses represented as unfit for
+habitation; 1780 were thoroughly repaired, 1005 were demolished;
+the rest were under notice or in course of repair at the end of the
+period. Among other towns which have adopted this policy are
+Liverpool, Cardiff, York, Warrington and two London boroughs.</p>
+
+<p><i>Building.</i>&mdash;On the constructive side the operation of the Housing
+Acts has been less extensive and much less general. In London
+alone has the erection of working-class dwellings by municipal
+action and organized private enterprise assumed large proportions.
+Philanthropic societies were first in the field and date from a period
+anterior to legislation, which however, stimulated their activity for
+many years by affording facilities. Fourteen organizations were in
+operation in London prior to 1890 and some of them on a large scale;
+others have since been formed. The earliest was the Metropolitan
+Association for Improving the Dwellings of the Industrial Classes,
+whose operations date from 1847; it has built 1441 tenements
+containing 5105 rooms. The largest of these enterprises are the
+Improved Industrial Dwellings Company (1864), which has built
+5421 tenements containing 19,945 rooms; the Peabody Fund
+(1864) with 5469 tenements containing 12,328 rooms; the Artisans&rsquo;,
+Labourers&rsquo; and General Dwellings Company (1867), with 1467
+tenements containing 3495 rooms, and 6195 cottage dwellings;
+the East-End Dwellings Company (1885) with 2096 tenements
+containing 4276 rooms; the Guinness Trust (1889) with 2574
+tenements containing 5338 rooms. The Artisans&rsquo; Dwellings Company
+alone has housed upwards of 50,000 persons. In addition to
+these there are the Rowton Houses (1892), which are hotels for
+working men, six in number, accommodating 5162 persons. So
+far as can be estimated, private enterprise has housed some 150,000
+persons in improved dwellings in London on a commercial basis.
+The early activity of the building companies was largely due to the
+policy of the Metropolitan Board of Works, which adopted extensive
+improvement schemes and sold the cleared sites to the companies,
+who carried out the re-housing obligations imposed by the law.
+Since the London County Council, which replaced the Board of
+Works in 1889, adopted the policy of undertaking its own re-housing,
+their activity has greatly diminished. The buildings erected by them
+are nearly all in the form of blocks of tenements; the Artisans&rsquo;
+Dwellings Company, which has built small houses and shops in
+outlying parts of London, is an exception. The tenement blocks are
+scattered about London in many quarters. For instance the Peabody
+Fund has 18 sets of dwellings in different situations, the
+Metropolitan Association has 14; the Artisans&rsquo; Dwellings Company
+has 10; the Guinness Trust has 8. In 1909 an important addition
+to the list of philanthropic enterprises in London was put in hand
+under the will of Mr W. R. Sutton, who left nearly £2,000,000 for
+the purpose of providing improved working-class dwellings. The
+erection of tenement blocks containing accommodation for 300
+families was begun on a site in the City Road. In only a few provincial
+towns has private enterprise contributed to improved housing
+in a similar manner and that not upon a large scale; among them are
+Newcastle, Leeds, Hull, Salford and Dublin.</p>
+
+<p><i>Municipal Building</i> has been more generally adopted. The
+following details are taken from Mr W. Thompson&rsquo;s <i>Housing up to
+Date</i>, which gives comprehensive information down to the end of
+1906. The number of local authorities which had then availed
+themselves of part iii. of the Housing Act of 1890, which provides
+for the erection of working-class dwellings, was 142. They were
+the London County Council, 12 Metropolitan Boroughs, 69 County
+Boroughs and Town Councils, 49 Urban District Councils and 12
+Rural District Councils. The dwellings erected are classified as
+lodging-houses, block dwellings, tenement houses, cottage flats and
+cottages. Lodging-houses have been built by 12 towns, of which
+8 are in England, 3 in Scotland (Glasgow, Aberdeen and Leith) and
+1 in Ireland (Belfast). The total number of beds provided was
+6218, of which Glasgow accounts for 2414, London for 1846, Manchester
+and Salford together for 648. Four other towns have built
+or are building municipal lodging-houses for which no details are
+available. The other municipal dwellings erected are summarized
+as follows:&mdash;</p>
+
+<table class="ws" summary="Contents">
+<tr><td class="tcc allb">Kind of Dwelling.</td> <td class="tcc allb">No. of Dwellings.</td> <td class="tcc allb">No. of Rooms.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Blocks</td> <td class="tcr rb">12,165</td> <td class="tcr rb">27,523</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Tenement Houses</td> <td class="tcr rb">2,507</td> <td class="tcr rb">6,068</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Cottage flats</td> <td class="tcr rb">2,004</td> <td class="tcr rb">5,747</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Cottages</td> <td class="tcr rb">3,830</td> <td class="tcr rb">17,611</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tcl allb">&emsp; Total</td> <td class="tcr allb">20,506</td> <td class="tcr allb">56,949</td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<p class="noind">It appears from these figures that municipal building has provided
+for a smaller number of persons in the whole of the United Kingdom
+than private enterprise in London alone. The principal towns
+which have erected dwellings in blocks are London (7786), Glasgow
+(2300), Edinburgh (596), Liverpool (501), Dublin (460) and Manchester
+(420). The great majority of such dwellings contain either
+two or three rooms. Tenement houses have been built in Liverpool
+(1424), Manchester (308), Sheffield (192), Aberdeen (128), and in
+seven other towns on a small scale. Such tenements are generally
+somewhat larger than those built in blocks; the proportion of three- and
+four-roomed dwellings is higher and only a small number consist
+of a single room. Cottage flats have been built in Dublin (528),
+West Ham (401), Battersea (320), Plymouth (238), East Ham (212),
+and on a small scale in Liverpool, Birmingham, Newcastle and seven
+other places. The majority of the cottage flats contain three or
+more rooms, a considerable proportion have four rooms. Cottages
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page818" id="page818"></a>818</span>
+have been built in 67 places, chiefly small towns and suburban
+districts. Of the large towns which have adopted this class of
+dwellings Salford stands first with 633 cottages; three London
+boroughs, all on the south side of the Thames, have built 234;
+Manchester has 228, Sheffield 173, Huddersfield 157, Birmingham
+103. The number of rooms in municipal cottages ranges from
+three to eight, but the great majority of these dwellings have four
+or five rooms.</p>
+
+<p>Some further details of municipal housing in particular towns are
+of interest. In London, the work of the London County Council
+down to March 31, 1908, not including three lodging-homes containing
+1845 cubicles, is given in the official volume of London Statistics,
+published by the Council, as follows:&mdash;</p>
+
+<p class="pt2 center"><i>Buildings Erected and in Course of Erection.</i></p>
+
+<table class="ws" summary="Contents">
+<tr><td class="tccm allb">No. of<br />Dwellings.</td> <td class="tccm allb">No. of<br />Rooms.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Cost of Land<br />and Building.</td> <td class="tccm allb">No. of Persons<br />in Occupation.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tcc allb">8,373</td> <td class="tcc allb">22,939</td> <td class="tcc allb">£2,438,263</td> <td class="tcc allb">26,687</td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<p class="noind">With regard to the cost, it is to be noted that the actual cost of the
+land purchased for improvement schemes was very much greater
+than that stated, having been written down to an arbitrary figure
+called &ldquo;housing valuation.&rdquo; The financial accounts of L.C.C.
+dwellings for the year ending March 31, 1908, are thus summarized:&mdash;</p>
+
+<p class="pt2 center"><i>London County Council Dwellings, Accounts 1907-1908.</i></p>
+
+<table class="ws" summary="Contents">
+<tr><td class="tccm allb">Gross<br />Rental.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Deductions for<br />Empties, &amp;c.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Net Receipts.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Expenditure<br />including<br />Interest.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Net<br />Returns.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tcc allb">£180,169</td> <td class="tcc allb">£19,455</td> <td class="tcc allb">£160,714</td> <td class="tcc allb">£157,141</td> <td class="tcc allb">£3,573</td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<p class="noind">It appears from this that if the actual commercial cost of the land
+were taken the housing of the Council would be run at a considerable
+annual loss. The occupations of the tenants are stated in the
+following proportions: labourers 789, clerks 312, policemen 251,
+shop assistants 202, warehousemen 183, printers 182, charwomen
+182, tailors 155, cabinetmakers 146, canvassers 122, cigarette
+makers 118, widows 116, tram drivers 110, postmen 107, packers 97,
+engineers 87, dressmakers 41, coachmen 31, motormen 26, milliners
+19. These proportional figures show that though a considerable
+number of labourers have been housed, the great majority of the
+occupants of London municipal dwellings are of a superior class.
+The mean weekly rent in London County Council dwellings is
+2s. 10½d. per room against 2s. 4d. in dwellings erected by other
+agencies. The most important feature of the County Council&rsquo;s
+policy in recent years has been the acquisition of suburban sites for
+the erection of cottages. There are four such sites, two on the
+south, one on the north and one on the west side of London; the
+total area is 349 acres, and the total accommodation contemplated
+is for 66,000 persons at an estimated cost of £3,105,840; the present
+accommodation is for about 8000. In addition to the housing
+provided by the County Council, fourteen London Borough Councils
+and the City Corporation had at the beginning of 1909 erected or
+adapted 3136 dwellings containing 7999 rooms.</p>
+
+<p>In Liverpool, down to 1907, about £920,000 had been spent in
+clearing insanitary areas and building new dwellings; the demolition
+of about 8000 houses and purchase of land cost about
+£500,000; and the erection of 2046 dwellings, containing 4961
+rooms, cost about £350,000. The size of the dwellings and the
+number of each class are: 1 room, 193; 2 rooms, 965; 3 rooms,
+719; 4 rooms, 167. The great majority are in tenement houses of
+three storeys. The mean weekly rent is 1s. 6½d. per room, but a
+large number are let at less. The net return on the total outlay is
+just over 1%, on the building outlay it is 2<span class="spp">2</span>&frasl;<span class="suu">3</span>%. The principal
+classes of persons occupying the dwellings are labourers 675, carters
+120, charwomen 103, firemen 93, porters 80, hawkers 64, sailors 45,
+scavengers 40. These all belong to the poorest classes, living by
+casual or irregular work. Liverpool has, in fact, succeeded more
+than any other town in providing municipal dwellings in which the
+really poor can afford to live.</p>
+
+<p>In Manchester 956 dwellings have been built at a total cost for
+building and improvement of £451,932; of the whole number 420
+are in blocks, 308 in tenement houses and 228 in cottages. The
+rents are much higher than in Liverpool; in the tenement houses
+the mean weekly rent is about 6d. per room more than in Liverpool.
+The gross profit on the block dwellings is 1<span class="spp">1</span>&frasl;<span class="suu">3</span>% on the capital outlay,
+on the tenement houses 3%, on the cottages 2<span class="spp">2</span>&frasl;<span class="suu">3</span>%. &ldquo;The total
+loss during the last seven to ten years, including loan charges, has
+amounted to about £54,240&rdquo; (Thompson).</p>
+
+<p>In Glasgow the corporation has built under improvement schemes
+2280 new dwellings containing 4013 rooms and 241 shops. The
+dwellings, which are all in blocks and centrally situated, are occupied
+chiefly by artisans; only 28% have been reserved for the poorest
+class of tenants. The total amount taken from the rates on this
+account in 30 years is £600,000. Dwellings valued at £400,000 for
+building and £300,000 for land give a net return of 3.06% on outlay;
+dwellings valued at £280,000 for land and building return
+3.03% on outlay; leaving the sinking fund charges to be defrayed
+out of rates.</p>
+
+<p>In Edinburgh insanitary areas have been bought for £107,023
+and new dwellings containing 1032 rooms have been built for £87,970.
+Nearly all the dwellings are of one or two rooms only. The rents
+charged average about 2s. a week per room; actual rents received
+average 1s. 4d. per room and they have to be subsidized out of the
+rates to the extent of 2s. 3d. per room to meet the cost of site.</p>
+
+<p>In Dublin provision has been or was in 1909 shortly to be made
+for housing 5394 families or 19,000 persons; of which 1041 families,
+or about one-fifth, are housed by the Corporation, the rest by
+companies and private persons. Altogether it was estimated that
+£500,000 would be spent under the act of 1890. Fifteen streets,
+containing 1665 houses, have been declared unhealthy areas by the
+medical officer, and between 1879 and 1909 more than 3000 houses
+were closed as unfit for habitation.</p>
+
+<p><i>Co-operative Building.</i>&mdash;Municipal and philanthropic housing by no
+means exhaust the efforts that have been made to provide working-class
+dwellings outside the ordinary building market. Their special
+function has been to substitute better dwellings for pre-existing
+bad ones, which is the most costly and difficult, as well as the most
+urgent, part of the problem in old towns. But in the provision of
+new dwellings alone they have been far surpassed by organized self-help
+in different forms. Down to 1906 there had been built 46,707
+houses by 413 co-operative societies at a cost of nearly £10,000,000.
+They are most numerous in the manufacturing towns and particularly
+in the north-western district of England. Of the whole
+number 8530 were owned by the societies which built them; 5577
+had been sold to members, and 32,600 had been built by members
+on money lent by the societies. These figures do not include the
+particular form of co-operative building known as co-partnership
+housing, which will be mentioned later on, or the operations of the
+so-called building societies, which are really companies lending
+money to persons on mortgage for the purpose of building. The
+difference between them and the co-operative societies which do
+the same thing is that the latter retain the element of co-operation
+by lending only to their own members, whereas the building societies
+deal in the open market. Their operations are on an immense
+scale; at the end of 1908 the invested funds of the registered building
+societies exceeded £72,000,000. An agency working on this
+scale, which far exceeds the operations of all the others put together,
+is obviously an important factor in housing. The number of houses
+built must help to relieve congestion, and since they are built to
+suit the owners or tenants they cannot be of the worst class. They
+also represent a form of thrift, and deserve notice on that account.</p>
+
+<p>The Small Dwellings Acquisition Act of 1899, which has not
+previously been mentioned, was intended to facilitate the building
+or purchase of small houses by their tenants by means of loans
+advanced by local authorities. Down to 1906 about £82,000 had
+been so advanced by 5 county boroughs, 17 urban councils and 1
+rural district council.</p>
+
+<p><i>Housing by Employers.</i>&mdash;No comprehensive information is available
+on this head, but it has not been an important factor in towns,
+being chiefly confined to agricultural, mining and suburban manufacturing
+districts. The former two belong to the subject of Rural
+Housing, which is separately discussed below; the third has an
+interest of its own on account of its connexion with &ldquo;model settlements.&rdquo;
+The building of houses for their workpeople by industrial
+employers has never been widely adopted in this country, but it
+has attracted considerable attention at two different periods. Sir
+Titus Salt was a pioneer in this direction, when he built his woollen
+mills at Saltaire, on the outskirts of Bradford, and housed his workpeople
+on the spot. That plan was maintained by his successors,
+who still own some 900 excellent and cheap cottages, and was
+adopted by a few other manufacturers in the same neighbourhood.
+Saltaire was a model settlement with many institutions for the
+benefit of the mill-hands, and as such it attracted much attention;
+but the example was not generally followed, and the interest lapsed.
+Recently it has been revived by the model settlements at Port
+Sunlight, near Liverpool, started about 1888, Bournville near
+Birmingham (1895), and Earswick, near York (1904), which are of a
+much more elaborate character. Elsewhere, employers setting down
+works in some new locality where no provision existed, have had to
+build houses for their workmen; but they have done so in a plain
+way, and this sort of housing has not assumed large proportions.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><i>Conditions in 1909.</i>&mdash;It has been said above that great improvements
+have been effected, and of that there is no doubt at all.
+Both quantity and quality are more satisfactory than they were,
+though both are still defective. The conditions vary greatly
+in different places, and no general indictment can be sustained.
+The common practice of citing some exceptionally bad cases,
+and by tacit inference generalizing from them to the whole
+country, is in nothing more misleading than in the matter of
+housing. Local differences are due to several causes&mdash;age,
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page819" id="page819"></a>819</span>
+population, occupations and means of the people, public opinion
+and municipal energy. The first three chiefly determine the
+difficulty and extent of the problem, the last two influence its
+treatment. The difficulty is greatest in towns which are old,
+have large populations and a high percentage of poor. Such
+pre-eminently are the large seaports, where much casual labour
+is employed. London, Liverpool, Glasgow, the Tyne, Hull,
+Sunderland are examples. Old inland towns having a large
+trading as well as an industrial element present the same features.
+Such are Manchester, Birmingham, Leeds, Sheffield and Bradford.
+In all these, and some others like them, the past has left a heavy
+legacy of bad housing by malconstruction and dilapidation,
+which has been increased by growth of population and overcrowding.
+They have attacked it with varying degrees of
+energy according to the prevalent local spirit and with varying
+results.</p>
+
+<p><i>Overcrowding.</i>&mdash;The one condition which permits of precise
+and comprehensive statement is overcrowding. A standard
+has been officially adopted in England based on the number of
+persons to a room in each dwelling; and the facts in relation
+to this standard are embodied in the census returns. It is a
+much better criterion than that of &ldquo;density&rdquo; or number of
+persons per acre, which is very deceptive; for an apparently
+low density may conceal much overcrowding within walls and
+an apparently high one may be comparatively guiltless. The
+room-density is the important thing in actual life. Some light
+is also thrown on this question by the number of rooms contained
+in each dwelling, and that is also given in the census. The
+standard of overcrowding is more than two persons to a room.
+In 1901 there were in England and Wales 2,667,506 persons
+or 8.2% of the population living in a state of overcrowding
+according to this definition. Their distribution is extremely
+irregular and capricious. In rural districts the proportion was
+only 5.8%, in urban districts 8.9%; but these summary
+figures give no idea of the actual state of things in different
+localities. In both rural districts and in towns the proportion
+of overcrowding varies in different localities from less than 1%
+to over 30% of the population. The towns are the most important
+and we shall confine attention chiefly to them. A list
+of 84 having a population of 50,000 and upwards, exclusive of
+London, is given by Mr Dewsnup. The overcrowding ranges
+from 34.54% in Gateshead and 32.42% in South Shields to
+0.97% in Northampton and 0.62% in Bournemouth. Of the
+whole number exactly one-half have less than 5%; 15 have less
+than 2% and 22 have 10% or more. Neither size nor character
+has much to do with the variation. Bournemouth, at the bottom
+of the list with 0.62%, is a residential place and health resort
+with a population of about 50,000; so is Tynemouth, which is
+nearly at the top, with 30.71%. The two largest towns, Liverpool
+and Manchester, are 26th and 32nd on the list, with only 7.94%
+and 6.28% respectively, or considerably less than the average;
+and on the other hand none of the first 17 towns with the highest
+proportion of overcrowding are of the largest size. Again, with
+regard to character, Leicester and Northampton, which are
+almost at the bottom of the list, with 1.04% and 0.97% respectively,
+are both purely industrial towns. The most striking facts
+are that the six towns, which alone have more than 20% of
+overcrowding, namely Gateshead (34.5), South Shields (32.4),
+Tynemouth (30.7), Newcastle (30.4), Sunderland (30.10),
+Plymouth (20.1) are all old seaports, that four of them at the
+head of the list are on the Tyne and the fifth on the Wear.
+This points strongly to special local conditions and it is borne out
+by the facts with regard to rural districts. Northumberland and
+Durham show a great excess of overcrowding over other counties;
+and some of their rural districts even surpass any of the towns.
+The highest of all is the district of Tynemouth, with 38.18% of
+overcrowding. The explanation lies in a special combination
+of large families and small houses prevalent in this area. All
+the rural districts are seats of coal-mining, and miners are the
+most prolific section of the population. They also live in small
+houses of a traditional and antiquated character, often of one
+storey only or built back to back. Many are built by colliery
+proprietors. Large families and small houses also prevail in the
+towns. Some of them contain coal-pits and the rest of their
+industrial population is engaged chiefly in engineering and
+shipbuilding works, occupations also usually associated with a
+high birth-rate. The men live as near their work as possible
+and the practice of living in flats or occupying part of a house
+prevails extensively.</p>
+
+<p>In London the number of persons living in overcrowded
+conditions in 1901 was 726,096 or 16.0% of the population.
+The proportion varied from 2.6% in Lewisham to 35.2% in
+Finsbury, but in 23 out of the 29 boroughs into which the county
+is divided it exceeded the urban mean for the whole country,
+and in 9 boroughs having an aggregate population of 1,430,000
+it was more than double the mean. Conditions in London are
+evidently untypical of English towns.</p>
+
+<p>In the light of the census figures it is clear that no large
+proportion of the English industrial population is living under
+conditions of serious overcrowding, outside the special districts
+mentioned and that the expression &ldquo;house famine&rdquo; cannot be
+properly applied to England or English towns in general. In the
+House of Commons, on the 16th of August 1909, the president of
+the Local Government Board, Mr John Burns, gave a list of the
+number of unoccupied houses and tenements in each of the
+London boroughs and in the eight largest provincial towns,
+including Glasgow; the total was 104,107. By a further
+analysis of the census returns Mr Dewsnup shows that a great
+deal of the overcrowding is of a comparatively mild character
+and that it is due to a relatively small excess of population.
+Bradford, for instance, is credited with 40,896 overcrowded
+persons, representing the high percentage of 14.61 of the
+population; but in the case of nearly 20,000 the excess over the
+standard is very slight, and the proportion of gross overcrowding
+comes down to 7.55%. Moreover, this serious overcrowding
+is produced by no more than 2.79 of the population, so that
+its cure presents no insuperable difficulty. The argument
+is confirmed by the very substantial diminution which actually
+took place <span class="correction" title="amended from betweeen">between</span> 1891 and 1901. The facts are so striking
+that they deserve to be presented in tabular form:&mdash;</p>
+
+<p class="pt2 center"><i>Percentage of Population Overcrowded.</i></p>
+
+<table class="ws f90" summary="Contents">
+<tr><td class="tcc allb">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcc allb">1891</td> <td class="tcc allb">1901</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">England and Wales</td> <td class="tcr rb">11.23</td> <td class="tcr rb">8.20</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb pt1">Gateshead</td> <td class="tcr rb pt1">40.78</td> <td class="tcr rb pt1">34.54</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Newcastle</td> <td class="tcr rb">35.08</td> <td class="tcr rb">30.47</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Sunderland</td> <td class="tcr rb">32.85</td> <td class="tcr rb">30.10</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Plymouth</td> <td class="tcr rb">26.27</td> <td class="tcr rb">20.19</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Halifax</td> <td class="tcr rb">21.31</td> <td class="tcr rb">14.49</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Bradford</td> <td class="tcr rb">20.61</td> <td class="tcr rb">14.61</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Huddersfield</td> <td class="tcr rb">19.89</td> <td class="tcr rb">12.88</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">London</td> <td class="tcr rb">19.70</td> <td class="tcr rb">16.01</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Leeds</td> <td class="tcr rb">16.46</td> <td class="tcr rb">10.08</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">St Helens</td> <td class="tcr rb">15.72</td> <td class="tcr rb">10.86</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Birmingham</td> <td class="tcr rb">14.27</td> <td class="tcr rb">10.32</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Burnley</td> <td class="tcr rb">12.74</td> <td class="tcr rb">7.14</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Sheffield</td> <td class="tcr rb">11.58</td> <td class="tcr rb">9.50</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Bolton</td> <td class="tcr rb">11.22</td> <td class="tcr rb">6.50</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Liverpool</td> <td class="tcr rb">10.96</td> <td class="tcr rb">7.94</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Oldham</td> <td class="tcr rb">10.13</td> <td class="tcr rb">7.42</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Salford</td> <td class="tcr rb">9.39</td> <td class="tcr rb">7.54</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">West Ham</td> <td class="tcr rb">9.34</td> <td class="tcr rb">9.27</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Wolverhampton</td> <td class="tcr rb">9.31</td> <td class="tcr rb">4.67</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Swansea</td> <td class="tcr rb">9.25</td> <td class="tcr rb">5.57</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Stockport</td> <td class="tcr rb">8.50</td> <td class="tcr rb">4.98</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Manchester</td> <td class="tcr rb">8.25</td> <td class="tcr rb">6.28</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Bristol</td> <td class="tcr rb">8.03</td> <td class="tcr rb">3.55</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Hull</td> <td class="tcr rb">7.86</td> <td class="tcr rb">6.12</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Blackburn</td> <td class="tcr rb">7.05</td> <td class="tcr rb">3.92</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Birkenhead</td> <td class="tcr rb">6.80</td> <td class="tcr rb">5.02</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Norwich</td> <td class="tcr rb">4.91</td> <td class="tcr rb">3.34</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Brighton</td> <td class="tcr rb">4.56</td> <td class="tcr rb">3.07</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Cardiff</td> <td class="tcr rb">4.31</td> <td class="tcr rb">2.92</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Preston</td> <td class="tcr rb">4.13</td> <td class="tcr rb">2.64</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Nottingham</td> <td class="tcr rb">3.62</td> <td class="tcr rb">3.65</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Croydon</td> <td class="tcr rb">2.76</td> <td class="tcr rb">2.74</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Derby</td> <td class="tcr rb">2.69</td> <td class="tcr rb">1.18</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Leicester</td> <td class="tcr rb">2.22</td> <td class="tcr rb">1.04</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb bb">Portsmouth</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">1.74</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">1.19</td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page820" id="page820"></a>820</span></p>
+
+<p>To what is this remarkable movement due? It is far too
+general to be attributed to the operation of the Housing Acts;
+for, though they have helped in some cases, a great diminution
+has occurred in many places in which no use has been made of
+them. Towns of all kinds and in all parts of the country exhibit
+the same movement in some degree; those which had little
+and those which had much overcrowding, the worst and the
+best. In London the <span class="correction" title="amended from precentage">percentage</span> fell by 3.7, and the number
+of persons overcrowded was reduced by 103,669 in spite of an
+increase of population of 324,798. In Gateshead a fall of 6.2%,
+in Newcastle one of 4.6% took place; while at the other end
+of the scale Leicester and Derby reduced their already very
+low proportions by more than one-half. Nottingham is the
+only exception in the whole list. And in 28 out of the 35 towns
+the decrease of overcrowding was absolute as well as relative
+in spite of a large increase of population. London has been
+cited. The other large towns may be tabulated with it, thus:&mdash;</p>
+
+<table class="ws f90" summary="Contents">
+<tr><td class="tccm allb">Town.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Increase of<br />Population.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Decrease of<br />Overcrowded<br />Persons.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">London</td> <td class="tcr rb">324,898</td> <td class="tcr rb">103,669</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Liverpool</td> <td class="tcr rb">166,978</td> <td class="tcr rb">2,381</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Manchester</td> <td class="tcr rb">38,504</td> <td class="tcr rb">7,545</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Birmingham</td> <td class="tcr rb">44,091</td> <td class="tcr rb">14,290</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Leeds</td> <td class="tcr rb">61,463</td> <td class="tcr rb">17,252</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Sheffield</td> <td class="tcr rb">56,550</td> <td class="tcr rb">1,388</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Bristol</td> <td class="tcr rb">107,367</td> <td class="tcr rb">6,105</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb bb">Bradford</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">63,406</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">3,696</td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<p>The very divergencies make the uniform diminution of overcrowding
+the more remarkable. The large increase of population
+in Liverpool and Bristol no doubt means extension of boundaries,
+which might have the effect of reducing the proportions of overcrowding,
+but it cannot account for the actual decrease of
+overcrowded persons. The change seems to be due to three
+factors all of which have been in general operation though in
+varying degrees. They are (1) the centrifugal movement promoted
+by improved locomotive facilities, (2) the declining
+birth-rate, (3) public health administration. (1) The first is the
+most important and the chief element has been tramways, of
+which a great extension accompanied by electrification took
+place in the decade. Thus the process of urbanization has been
+modified by one of suburbanization. Bristol is a prominent
+case; its overcrowding has been reduced by more than one-half
+without any large and costly municipal interference, mainly
+through the operation of ordinary economic forces. Tramways
+have made the outskirts accessible and builders have
+utilized the opportunity. They have built good
+houses, too, under supervision, and Bristol, though
+an old seaport and industrial town with much
+poverty, has the lowest general death-rate and
+the lowest infantile death-rate of all the great
+towns. (2) The birth-rate and the size of families
+are conditions which affect overcrowding in a
+very marked degree, though no attention is paid
+to them in that connexion. The case of the
+mining districts and the towns on the Tyne has
+been mentioned above; the same thing is seen
+in London, where all the most overcrowded districts
+(Finsbury, Stepney, Shoreditch and Bethnal
+Green) have high birth-rates, ranging from 31.3 to 36.4 per
+1000 in 1902-1906. The necessity imposed on poor parents
+of putting several children into a cheap and therefore small
+dwelling accounts for a large proportion of overcrowding, which
+automatically diminishes with a falling birth-rate. The ultimate
+advantage of this method of reducing overcrowding is a question
+on which opinions may differ, but there is no doubt about the
+fact. (3) Public health administration is the third general
+cause; it attracts no notice and works very gradually, but it
+does work. The last annual report (for 1907) of the medical
+officer to the London County Council says of overcrowding:
+&ldquo;There is reason for thinking that in recent years greater
+attention has been paid by sanitary authorities to the abatement
+of the nuisance, and Dr Newman states that in Finsbury there
+has been an enormous reduction in overcrowding, the reduction
+having been effected mainly in the years 1901-1905.&rdquo; The
+medical officers of the metropolitan boroughs reported in 1907
+2613 dwellings overcrowded in 23 boroughs and 3216 such
+dwellings remedied in 27 boroughs. It should not be forgotten
+that a good deal of overcrowding is voluntary. Families which
+have not enough room for their own members nevertheless take
+in lodgers; and in some places, of which London is the most
+conspicuous but not the only example, foreigners herd together
+thickly in a very small space.</p>
+
+<p>The improvement shown by the statistics of overcrowding is
+confirmed by those relating to the size of dwellings. Between
+1891 and 1901 the percentage of the population living in very
+small dwellings appreciably diminished thus&mdash;in 1-roomed
+dwellings, from 2.2 to 1.6%; in 2-roomed dwellings, from 8.3
+to 6.6%; in 3-roomed dwellings, from 11.1 to 9.8%; while the
+proportion living in dwellings of 5 rooms and upwards increased
+from 54.9 to 60.1%. This again is referable to the suburban
+movement and a higher standard of requirements. Six-roomed
+houses with a bathroom tend to replace the old four-roomed type.
+The general report accompanying the census says: &ldquo;However
+the tenement figures for England and Wales are compared it is
+impossible to avoid the conclusion that the comparison affords
+satisfactory evidence of distinct improvement in the housing of
+the people during the ten years 1891-1901.&rdquo; In short, the
+problem of quantity is only acute in a few places and steadily
+becoming less so.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>The foregoing facts apply only to England and Wales. In Scotland
+the state of things is much less satisfactory. No statistics of overcrowding
+are available, but the following comparative table shows
+how different the housing conditions are in the two countries:&mdash;</p>
+
+<p class="pt2 center"><i>Size of Dwellings, England and Scotland, 1901.</i></p>
+
+<table class="ws" summary="Contents">
+<tr><td class="tccm allb" rowspan="2">Dwelling.</td> <td class="tcc allb" colspan="2">Percentage of Population.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc allb">England.</td> <td class="tcc allb">Scotland.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">1 room</td> <td class="tcr rb">1.6</td> <td class="tcr rb">11.1</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">2 rooms</td> <td class="tcr rb">6.6</td> <td class="tcr rb">39.5</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">3 rooms</td> <td class="tcr rb">9.8</td> <td class="tcr rb">19.9</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">4 rooms</td> <td class="tcr rb">21.9</td> <td class="tcr rb">9.1</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb bb">5 rooms and over</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">60.1</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">20.4</td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<p class="noind">Over 50% of the population of Scotland live in tenements of one
+or two rooms; only 8.2% in England. A comparison of the largest
+towns in the two countries gives the following result:&mdash;</p>
+
+<p class="pt2 center"><i>Percentage of Population.</i></p>
+
+<table class="ws" summary="Contents">
+<tr><td class="tcc allb" colspan="3">Scotland.</td> <td class="tcc allb" colspan="3">England.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc allb">Town.</td> <td class="tcc allb">1 Room.</td> <td class="tcc allb">2 Rooms.</td> <td class="tcc allb">Town.</td> <td class="tcc allb">1 Room.</td> <td class="tcc allb">2 Rooms.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Glasgow</td> <td class="tcr rb">16.2</td> <td class="tcc rb">38.9</td> <td class="tcl rb">London</td> <td class="tcc rb">6.7</td> <td class="tcr rb">15.5</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Edinburgh</td> <td class="tcr rb">8.9</td> <td class="tcc rb">32.4</td> <td class="tcl rb">Liverpool</td> <td class="tcc rb">2.7</td> <td class="tcr rb">5.9</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Dundee</td> <td class="tcr rb">11.3</td> <td class="tcc rb">51.7</td> <td class="tcl rb">Manchester</td> <td class="tcc rb">0.8</td> <td class="tcr rb">4.01</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Aberdeen</td> <td class="tcr rb">6.1</td> <td class="tcc rb">33.2</td> <td class="tcl rb">Birmingham</td> <td class="tcc rb">0.3</td> <td class="tcr rb">2.4</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Greenock</td> <td class="tcr rb">11.3</td> <td class="tcc rb">47.6</td> <td class="tcl rb">Sheffield</td> <td class="tcc rb">0.4</td> <td class="tcr rb">4.0</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Kilmarnock</td> <td class="tcr rb">18.9</td> <td class="tcc rb">43.3</td> <td class="tcl rb">Bristol</td> <td class="tcc rb">1.6</td> <td class="tcr rb">5.7</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tcc allb">Mean</td> <td class="tcr allb">12.7</td> <td class="tcc allb">42.4</td> <td class="tcc allb">Mean</td> <td class="tcc allb">1.8</td> <td class="tcr allb">6.7</td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<p>The conditions in Scottish towns where very tall tenement houses
+are common, resemble those in other countries, in which overcrowding
+is far greater than in England. All these matters are comparative,
+and the superiority of conditions in England ought to be recognized.
+Yet, in Scotland, too, great improvements have been effected. In
+1861 there were 25,959 houses without windows; in 1901 only 130.
+These facts throw light on the long standing of the housing question,
+the change of standard and the improvement effected.</p>
+
+<p>In Ireland there is more overcrowding than in England, though
+probably less than in Scotland, with the possible exception of
+Dublin, which has a larger proportion of one-roomed dwellings than
+any Scottish town, namely, 24.7%. The percentage of population
+living in overcrowded conditions in the principal towns is&mdash;Dublin
+40.6, Limerick 31.7, Cork 23.4, Waterford 20.6, Londonderry 16.7,
+Belfast 8.2.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page821" id="page821"></a>821</span></p>
+
+<p><i>Sanitary Conditions.</i>&mdash;With regard to the quality of existing
+housing reference has already been made to the effect of the
+Public Health Acts and the general improvement in sanitation.
+The only numerical measure is afforded by the death-rates,
+which have fallen in England from 20.9 per 1000 in 1871-1875 to
+15.4 per 1000 in 1903-1907 and in the United Kingdom from
+21.3 to 15.7 per 1000 in the same period. The condition of the
+dwelling must be credited with a considerable share in this fall.
+There have, in fact, been great changes and all in the direction
+of improvement. The rise and development of sanitation, of
+house and main drainage and sewage disposal, the purification of
+water and provision of a constant service in the house, the
+removal of refuse, the segregation of infectious illness, sanitary
+inspection&mdash;all these, apart from the demolition of the worst
+housing and the provision of better, have raised the general
+healthiness of the dwellings of the people. In face of these facts
+and of the vital statistics, to say that the people are physically
+deteriorating through the influence of bad housing is to talk
+obvious nonsense, for all conditions have been improving for
+more than a generation. If physical deterioration is going on,
+of which there is no proof, either it is not caused by bad housing
+or there is less than there was. Deterioration may be caused by
+the continued process of urbanization and the congregating of an
+ever larger proportion of the population in towns; but that is a
+different question. If the town has any injurious influence it is
+not due to the sanitary condition of the houses, which is in general
+superior to that of houses in the country, but to the habits and
+occupations of the people or to the atmosphere and the mere
+aggregation. But much misapprehension prevails with regard to
+towns. The most distinctive and the most valuable feature of
+English housing is the general predominance of the small house or
+cottage occupied by a single family. Only in London and a few
+other towns do blocks of large tenement houses of the continental
+type exist, and even there they are comparatively few. In
+England and Wales 84% of the population live in dwellings of
+4 rooms and upwards, which means broadly separate houses.
+Now the prevalence of small houses involves spreading out and
+the covering of much ground with many little streets, which
+produce a monotonous effect; a smoky atmosphere makes them
+grimy and dull skies contribute to the general dinginess. The
+whole presents to the eye a vast area of dreary meanness and
+monotony. Thus the best feature of English national housing
+turns to its apparent disadvantage and the impression is gained
+by superficial observers that the bulk of our working-class
+populations lives in &ldquo;slums.&rdquo; The word &ldquo;slum&rdquo; has no precise
+meaning, but if it implies serious sanitary defects it is not applicable
+to most of our town housing. There are real slums still, but
+the bulk of the working class population do not live in them; they
+live in small houses, often of a mean and dingy exterior but in
+essential respects more sanitary than the large and often handsome
+blocks to be seen in foreign towns, which are not put down
+as slums because they do not look dirty. A smoky atmosphere is
+injurious to health, but it must be distinguished from defects of
+housing. Ideal houses in a smoky place soon look bad; inferior
+ones in a clean air look brighter and deceive the eye. The worst
+of the old housing has disappeared; the filthy, dilapidated, airless
+and sunless rookeries&mdash;the real slums&mdash;and the underground
+dwellings have been swept away in most cases, and what remains
+of them is not so bad as what has gone. But reform has been
+very regularly applied. Some towns have done much, others
+little. The large towns, in which the evil was most intense and
+most conspicuous in bulk, have as a class done far more than
+smaller ones in which the need perhaps was less great, but in
+which also a less healthy public spirit prevailed. The worst
+housing conditions to-day are probably to be found in old towns
+of small and medium size, in which the ratepayers have a great
+disinclination to spend money on anything, and the control of
+local affairs is apt to be in the hands of the owners of the most
+insanitary property. Nor is this state of things altogether confined
+to old places. Some of recent growth have been allowed,
+for the same reason, to spring up and develop without any regard
+to sanitary principles or the requirements of public health.
+There is therefore abundant scope for further reform and in not
+a few cases urgent need of it. On the other hand, we have a
+number of towns, particularly manufacturing towns, both large
+and small in the midlands and the north of England, which have
+already reached a good general standard of housing in all essential
+requirements, and only need the regular and steady exercise of
+vigilance by the public health service to remove such defects as
+still remain or may reveal themselves with the lapse of time.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p><i>Rents.</i>&mdash;Rent is a matter of great importance from every point
+of view, and that is now being realized. A quantity of official
+information on the subject has been collected and made available
+by an elaborate inquiry ordered by the Board of Trade in 1905 and
+published in 1908 (Cd. 3864). It relates to working class dwellings
+in the principal industrial towns in the United Kingdom, 94 in all:
+namely, 77 in England and Wales, 11 in Scotland and 6 in Ireland.
+The following tables give in a condensed form the chief statistical
+results obtained in October 1905:&mdash;</p>
+
+<p class="pt2 center"><i>Predominant Range of Weekly Rents.</i></p>
+
+<table class="ws" summary="Contents">
+<tr><td class="tccm allb" rowspan="2">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tccm allb" colspan="2">England and Wales.</td> <td class="tccm allb" rowspan="2">Scotland.</td> <td class="tccm allb" rowspan="2">Ireland.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tccm allb">London.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Provincial<br />towns.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">One room</td> <td class="tcc rb">..</td> <td class="tcc rb">..</td> <td class="tcc rb">2/- to 2/6</td> <td class="tcc rb">1/6 to 2/6</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Two rooms</td> <td class="tcc rb">4/6 to 7/6</td> <td class="tcc rb">3/- to 3/6</td> <td class="tcc rb">3/10 to 4/3</td> <td class="tcc rb">2/6 to 3/6</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Three rooms</td> <td class="tcc rb">6/- to 9/-</td> <td class="tcc rb">3/9 to 4/6</td> <td class="tcc rb">5/2 to 6/5</td> <td class="tcc rb">4/- to 5/-</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Four rooms</td> <td class="tcc rb">7/6 to 10/6</td> <td class="tcc rb">4/6 to 5/6</td> <td class="tcc rb">..</td> <td class="tcc rb">5/6 to 6/9</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Five rooms</td> <td class="tcc rb">9/- to 13/-</td> <td class="tcc rb">5/6 to 6/6</td> <td class="tcc rb">..</td> <td class="tcc rb">..</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb bb">Six rooms</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">10/6 to 15/6</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">6/6 to 7/9</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">..</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">..</td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<p>Rents are lowest in Ireland and next lowest in English provincial
+towns, considerably higher in Scotland and highest of all in London,
+for which further special details are given. It is divided into three
+zones (1) central, (2) middle, (3) outer, which have the following
+mean weekly rents:&mdash;</p>
+
+<p class="pt2 center"><i>London Mean Weekly Rents.</i></p>
+
+<table class="ws" summary="Contents">
+<tr><td class="tccm allb" rowspan="2">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tccm allb" colspan="3">Zone.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tccm allb">Central.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Middle.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Outer.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">One room</td> <td class="tcc rb">4/6</td> <td class="tcc rb">3/9</td> <td class="tcc rb">..</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Two rooms</td> <td class="tcc rb">7/-</td> <td class="tcc rb">6/-</td> <td class="tcc rb">..</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Three rooms</td> <td class="tcc rb">8/9</td> <td class="tcc rb">7/6</td> <td class="tcc rb">6/6</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Four rooms</td> <td class="tcc rb">..</td> <td class="tcc rb">9/-</td> <td class="tcc rb">7/9</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Five rooms</td> <td class="tcc rb">..</td> <td class="tcc rb">11/-</td> <td class="tcc rb">9/6</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb bb">Six  rooms</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">..</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">13/-</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">11/-</td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<p class="noind">In central London&mdash;which extends to Stepney in the East, Lambeth
+m the South, Islington in the North, and includes Westminster,
+Holborn, Finsbury, Marylebone, Shoreditch, most of Bethnal Green,
+Southwark and Bermondsey&mdash;the rent of a single room may be
+as high as 6s. or even 6s. 6d. (Holborn) a week. It is here that
+overcrowding is greatest, and block-tenements, philanthropic and
+municipal, most numerous. The rentals of the block dwellings have
+not been taken into account in the foregoing official statistics;
+they range as follows: 1 room, 2s. 6d. to 5s.; 2 rooms, 5s. to 8s.;
+three rooms, 6s. 6d. to 11s. The lowest rent for which a single
+room can be obtained in this area is 2s. 6d. a week. In no English
+town are rents nearly so high as in London. If 100 is taken as the
+index number for rent in London the nearest towns to it (Croydon
+and Plymouth) only reach 81, and one town on the list (Macclesfield)
+is as low as 32. The index number of twenty-one towns out of the
+whole is 50 or under, and these include a number of important
+industrial centres&mdash;Hull, Leicester, Blackburn, Northampton,
+Warrington, Coventry, Crewe and others. The index numbers of
+the great towns are: Liverpool 65, Manchester and Salford 62,
+Birmingham 59, Leeds 56, Sheffield 55, Bristol 53, Bradford 59,
+Hull 48; that is to say the level of rents in these towns is little
+more than half that in London. This is one more proof of the untypical
+character of London, and of the fallacy of generalizing from
+it to the rest of the country. Even in the overcrowded towns on
+Tyneside rents do not run to three-fourths of the London level.
+When the towns are divided into geographical groups the index
+numbers run thus: London 100, Northern Counties 62, Yorkshire
+56, Lancashire and Cheshire 54, Midlands 51, Eastern Counties 50,
+Southern Counties 61, Wales and Monmouth 60. Rents are always
+highest in capitals, and Edinburgh complies with the rule; but it is
+very slightly in advance of Glasgow, and in Scotland generally the
+range is much smaller than in England. Dublin, on the other hand,
+is differentiated from the other Irish towns as widely as London
+from English ones.</p>
+
+<p>A general and progressive rise in rents has been taking place for
+many years. The following index numbers for the great towns are
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page822" id="page822"></a>822</span>
+given in the second series of memoranda published by the Board of
+Trade in 1904 (Cd. 1761):&mdash;</p>
+
+<p class="pt2 center"><i>Relative Working-Class Rents.</i></p>
+
+<table class="ws" summary="Contents">
+<tr><td class="tcc">1880</td> <td class="tcc rb">86.6</td> <td class="tcc">1890</td> <td class="tcr">89.9</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc">1885</td> <td class="tcc rb">90.1</td> <td class="tcc">1900</td> <td class="tcr">100.0</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc">1895</td> <td class="tcc rb">96.3</td> <td class="tcc">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcr">&nbsp;</td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<p>The tendency to rise is attributable to increased cost of labour,
+due to higher wages and less work, increased cost of materials and
+higher rates. Weekly working-class rents generally include rates
+which are paid by the landlord. Housing reform has contributed
+to the rise, both directly and through the rates, on which it has
+thrown a heavy burden in various ways. When slums are cleared
+away and replaced by superior dwellings the new rents are generally
+higher than the old and this fact has proved a great difficulty. Most
+of the improved housing is beyond the means of those who need it
+most, and they seek other quarters resembling the old ones as nearly
+as possible. The example of Liverpool, which has the largest
+proportion of casual and ill-paid labour of all the great towns, and
+has been the most successful in providing new dwellings of a fair
+quality, centrally situated and not in blocks, at really low rates,
+shows that the problem is not insoluble; but as a rule too little
+attention is paid to the question of rent in housing reform, especially
+in building undertaken by municipalities. It is not ignored, but the
+importance attached to it by the poor is not realized. To them it is
+the first consideration after four walls, a roof and a fire-place;
+and 6d. a week makes a vast difference in their calculations. Reform
+which aims at raising the lowest classes of tenants by improving
+their dwellings defeats itself when it drives them away.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><i>Rural Housing.</i>&mdash;Little has hitherto been said about rural
+housing. It is of less importance than urban housing because
+it concerns a much smaller proportion of the population, and
+because in rural life the influence of inferior housing on health is
+offset by other conditions; but it has recently attracted much
+attention and was made the subject of inquiry by a Select Committee
+of the House of Commons in 1906. The report laid stress
+chiefly on the inaction of local rural authorities under the Public
+Health and Housing Acts, and on various obstacles in the way
+of improving existing houses and of providing more and better
+ones at rents which agricultural labourers can afford to pay.
+The available facts with regard to rural housing are scrappy and
+unsatisfactory. The word &ldquo;rural&rdquo; has no precise meaning and
+it includes several very different sections of the population; for
+instance, the inhabitants of suburbs, mining villages and mill
+villages as well as the real agricultural population. Complaint
+is made of both the quantity and the quality of rural housing.
+With regard to quantity it is said that in spite of migration to
+the towns there is a dearth of cottages through dilapidation and
+demolition without rebuilding. That may happen in particular
+localities, but there is no evidence to support a general allegation.
+Inquiries issued by the Board of Trade to agricultural correspondents
+brought the following replies: insufficient 56, sufficient
+111, more than sufficient 32. Similar inquiries of land agents and
+owners resulted thus: insufficient 9, sufficient 11, more than
+sufficient 4, variable 6. From which it appears that insufficiency
+exists but is not general. The official evidence with regard to
+overcrowding is that it is much less acute than in the towns.
+The proportion of the rural population in England living in
+overcrowded conditions in 1901 was 5.8%; if the rural mining
+districts, the exceptional overcrowding of which has been noted
+above, be eliminated, the rest cannot be very bad. Moreover,
+the percentage has appreciably diminished; in 1891 it was
+8.46. The complaint of bad quality is better founded. Some
+landowners take great pride in the state of their property, and
+excellent cottages may be found in model villages and elsewhere
+in many parts of the country; but much rural housing is of an
+extremely insanitary character. A good deal of evidence on this
+head has of late years been published In the reports of medical
+inspectors to the Local Government Board. And local authorities
+are very reluctant to set the law in motion against insanitary
+dwellings. On the other hand, they have in some cases hindered
+and prevented building by too rigid insistence on by-laws,
+framed with a view to urban housing and quite unsuited to rural
+conditions. A few rural authorities have taken action with
+regard to building schemes under Part III. of the Housing Act.
+A list of 31 in 17 counties is given in &ldquo;Housing up to Date&rdquo;; 13
+applications were refused and 13 granted by the respective county
+councils and others were dropped. Details are given by the
+same authority of 54 houses built by 17 rural district councils.
+Public action may thus be said to amount to nothing at all.
+Landowners, however, have borrowed under the Improvements
+of Lands Acts upwards of £1,250,000 for building labourers&rsquo;
+cottages; and this is probably only a fraction of the amount
+spent privately.</p>
+
+<p>In Ireland a special condition of affairs exists. A series
+of about a dozen acts, dating from 1881 and culminating in the
+Labourers (Ireland) Act of 1906, have been passed for promoting
+the provision of labourers&rsquo; cottages; and under them 20,634
+cottages had been built and some thousands more authorized
+previous to the act of 1906, which extended the pre-existing
+facilities. The principle is that of the English Housing Acts
+applied to rural districts, but the procedure is simpler and
+quicker. The law provides that a representation may be made
+to the local authority by three ratepayers or resident labourers
+that &ldquo;the existing house accommodation for agricultural
+labourers and their families is deficient having regard to the
+ordinary requirements of the district, or is unfit for human
+habitation owing to dilapidation, want of air, light, ventilation
+or other convenience or to any other sanitary defects,&rdquo; whereupon
+the local authority shall make an improvement scheme. It may
+also initiate a scheme without representation, or the Local
+Government Board may do so in default of the local authority.
+The scheme is published, an inquiry held, notice given and an
+order made with very much less delay and expense than under
+the English law. Land is purchased by agreement, or compulsorily
+and the money for land and building raised by loan.
+Loans amounting to about 3½ millions sterling had been raised
+down to 1906. The great majority of the cottages built are in
+Münster and Leinster. They must have at least 2 bedrooms
+and a kitchen, and the habitable rooms must be 8 ft. high. One
+of the most remarkable features is the low cost&mdash;about £150&mdash;at
+which these cottages have been built, including land and the
+expenses of procedure.</p>
+
+<p><i>Recent Developments.</i>&mdash;It is clear from a general review of
+the subject that the problem of housing the working classes in
+a satisfactory manner has proved more complex than was at
+one time realized. Experience has falsified hopes and led to a
+change of attitude. It is seen that there are limits to drastic
+interference with the normal play of economic forces and to
+municipal action on a large and ambitious scale. A reaction
+has set in against it. At the same time the problem is being
+attacked on other sides and from new points of departure.
+The tendency now is towards the more effectual application of
+gradual methods of improvement, the utilization of other means
+and the exercise of prevention in preference to cure. Under
+each of these heads certain movements may be noted.</p>
+
+<p>The most troublesome problem is the treatment of existing
+bad housing. In regard to this the policy of large improvement
+schemes under which extensive areas are bought up and
+demolished has had its day, and is not likely to be revived to any
+considerable extent. That is not only because it is extremely
+costly but also because it has in the main done its work. It
+has done what could not have been done otherwise, and has swept
+away the worst of the old housing <i>en masse</i>. To call it a failure
+because it is costly and of limited application would be as great a
+mistake as to regard it as a panacea. The procedure which seems
+to be coming into favour in place of it is that adopted in Birmingham
+and advocated by Mr J. S. Nettlefold (<i>Practical Housing</i>)
+coupled with a more general and effective use of the Public
+Health Acts. The principle is improvement in detail effected
+by pressure brought to bear on owners by public authority.
+The embodiment of this principle forms an important part of the
+Housing and Town Planning Bill introduced by the Local
+Government Board in 1908, which contained clauses empowering
+the central authority to compel apathetic local authorities
+to do their duty in regard to the closing of unfit houses, and
+authorizing local authorities both to issue closing orders and
+to serve notices on landlords requiring them &ldquo;to execute such
+works as the local authority may specify as being necessary to
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page823" id="page823"></a>823</span>
+make the house in all respects reasonably fit for human habitation.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>Among the other and less direct means to which attention
+is being turned is the policy of getting people away from the
+towns. The effect of improved travelling facilities in reducing
+urban overcrowding has been noted above. That object was
+not specifically contemplated in the building and electrification
+of tramways, and in the development of other means of cheap
+local travel, but the beneficial effect has caused them to be
+recognized as an important factor in relation to housing and to
+be more systematically applied in that connexion. A newer
+departure, however, is to encourage migration not to the outskirts
+of towns but altogether into the country by facilitating the
+acquisition of small holdings of land. This has been done by
+private landowners in an experimental way for some years, and
+in 1907 the policy was embodied in the Small Holdings Act,
+which gives county and borough councils power to purchase or
+hire land compulsorily and let it in holdings of not more than
+50 acres or £50 annual value. Failing action on their part the
+Board of Agriculture may frame schemes. Power is also
+conferred on the Board and on County Councils to establish
+co-operative agricultural societies and credit banks. These
+measures have been adopted from foreign countries, and particularly
+from Denmark and Germany. A very large number of
+applications for holdings have been made under this act, but it
+is too early to state the effects. They will depend on the success
+of tenants in earning a livelihood by agricultural produce.</p>
+
+<p>Another new and quite different departure is the attempt
+to establish a novel kind of town, called a &ldquo;Garden City,&rdquo;
+which shall combine the advantages of the town and the country.
+The principal points are the choice of a site, which must be
+sufficiently convenient to enable industries to be carried on,
+yet with rural surroundings, the laying out of the ground in
+such a way as to ensure plenty of open space and variety, the
+insistence on building of a certain standard and the limitation
+of size. One has been established at Letchworth in Hertfordshire,
+34 m. from London, and so far seems to be prospering. It consists
+of an area of 3800 acres, bought from the previous owners by a
+company registered in 1903 and entitled First Garden City Ltd.,
+with a capital of £300,000 in £5 shares. The interest is limited
+to a dividend of 5%, all further profits to be devoted to the
+benefit of the town. The estate is divided into a central urban
+area of 1200 and a surrounding agricultural belt of 2600 acres.
+The town is planned for an eventual population of 30,000 and
+at present (1909) has about 5000. Some London printing
+works and other small industrial establishments have been
+planted there, and a number of model cottages have been built.
+In this connexion another recent novelty has appeared in the
+shape of an exhibition of cottages. The idea, originated by
+Mr St Loe Strachey, was to encourage the art of designing and
+building cheap but good and convenient cottages, especially
+for the country. Two exhibitions have been held at Letchworth
+in 1905 and 1907, and others at Sheffield (1907) and Newcastle
+(1908). The two latter were held on municipal land, and it is
+proposed by the National Housing Reform Council to hold one
+every year.</p>
+
+<p>The &ldquo;Garden City&rdquo; has led to the &ldquo;Garden Suburb,&rdquo; an
+adaptation of the same idea to suburban areas. One was
+opened near Hampstead Heath in 1907: it consists of 240 acres,
+of which 72 have been reserved for working-class cottages with
+gardens. These developments, with which may be associated
+the model industrial villages, mentioned above, at Bournville,
+Port Sunlight and Earswick, represent an aspiration towards
+a higher standard of housing for families belonging to the upper
+ranks of the working classes; and the same movement is
+demonstrated in a still more interesting fashion by a particular
+form of co-operative activity known as Co-partnership Housing.
+The first complete example of this method of organization was
+the Ealing Tenants Limited, a society registered under the
+Industrial and Provident Societies Act in 1901, though the
+Tenant Co-operators Limited, formed in 1888, was a precursor
+on very nearly the same lines. The essential principle is self-help
+applied by combination to the provision of superior homes, and
+the chief material feature is the building of houses which are
+not only of good design and workmanship, but disposed on a
+systematic plan so as to utilize the ground to the best advantage.
+Land is bought and houses are built with combined capital to
+which each tenant contributes a substantial share; the houses
+are let at rents which will return 5% on share capital and 4%
+on loan capital after defraying all expenses, and the surplus
+profits are divided among the tenant members in proportion
+to the rents paid by them. Each tenant&rsquo;s share of profits is
+credited to him in shares until his share capital equals the value
+of the house he occupies, after which it is paid in cash. There
+is thus common ownership of the whole group, which forms a
+little community. This system has caught on in a remarkable
+way and has spread with great rapidity. In 1905 a central
+organizing body was formed called the Co-partnership Housing
+Council, for the purpose of promoting the formation of societies
+and assisting them with advice; it is supported by voluntary
+contributions. In 1909 twelve societies, including the original
+Tenant Co-operators, had been formed with a total investment
+of £536,300. They are situated at Ealing, Letchworth, Seven-oaks,
+Leicester, Manchester, Hampstead (two), Harborne near
+Birmingham, Fallings Park, Stoke-on-Trent, Wayford and
+Derwentwater. The rapidity with which the movement has
+developed and spread since the establishment of the Co-partnership
+Housing Council indicates great vitality, and since it is
+based on thoroughly sound lines it has probably a large future.
+It is the most interesting and in many respects the best of all
+recent developments. The Report of the Select Committee on
+Rural Housing mentioned above suggested that a Co-partnership
+Housing Society should be formed in every county in
+England.</p>
+
+<p>All the enterprises just described have one feature in common,
+namely, the laying out of sites on a plan which takes cognizance
+of the future, secures a due proportion of open space, variety in
+the arrangement of streets and the most advantageous disposition
+of the houses and other buildings. They go beyond sanitary
+requirements and take account of higher needs. They have
+lent force to the advocacy of municipal &ldquo;town-planning,&rdquo; as
+practised by several towns in Germany; and provision was made
+for this procedure in the Housing and Town Planning Act of
+1909. The act contains clauses giving local authorities power
+to prepare plans with reference to any land which appears
+likely to be used for building purposes within or near their own
+boundaries; and also to purchase land comprised in a town-planning
+scheme and either build on it themselves or let plots
+for building in accordance with the plan. The chief object is to
+safeguard the future, prevent the repetition of past defects
+and encourage a higher standard of housing.</p>
+
+<p>These new developments represent an upward movement at
+the higher end of the scale. They cater for the superior ranks
+of working classes, those who attach some importance to
+the aesthetic and moral influence of pleasant and wholesome
+surroundings, and are willing to sacrifice immediate gratifications
+to a higher end. They embody an aspiration, set an example and
+exercise an educative influence. But they have nothing to do
+with the housing of the really poor, which is the great difficulty;
+and their very attractiveness seems in some danger of drawing
+attention from it. Garden cities and suburbs will never house
+the poor or even the bulk of our working class population, and
+it would be a pity if the somewhat sentimental popularity of
+romantic schemes led to a distaste for the plodding effort which
+alone can effect a real cure of deep-seated social evils of long
+standing. All the new schemes and legislative proposals leave
+untouched the greatest difficulty of all, which lies not in the
+dwelling but in the tenant. It is comparatively easy to afford
+better opportunities to those who are willing to take advantage
+of them, but how to raise those who are not? The lesson taught
+by Miss Octavia Hill&rsquo;s classical experiment is, if not forgotten,
+certainly neglected in the presence of more showy efforts. Or
+perhaps it would be more true to say that half of it is neglected.
+Miss Hill was one of the pioneers in the comparatively modest
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page824" id="page824"></a>824</span>
+method of improving and reconstructing bad houses, which, as
+we have noted, is now being more generally recognized and
+pursued; but that was only half her work. She improved bad
+dwellings and made them decent, but she also managed them
+on business lines, by a system of inspection and rent collection
+which combined a judicious discipline with the stimulus of reward.
+This was done by means of personal service, which is the secret
+of all really effective work among the poor. Her words written
+years ago remain true to-day: &ldquo;The people&rsquo;s homes are bad
+partly because they are badly built and arranged; they are
+tenfold worse because the tenants&rsquo; habits and lives are what
+they are. Transplant them to-morrow to healthy and commodious
+homes and they will pollute and destroy them.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>The following is a list of the principal associations formed for the
+promotion of housing reform: Mansion House Council on the Dwellings
+of the Poor, Rural Housing and Sanitation Association, Workmen&rsquo;s
+National Housing Council, National Housing Reform Council,
+Co-partnership Tenants Housing Council. They are all of recent
+date, except the first. There are also local associations at Liverpool,
+Oldham, Rochdale, York, Plymouth, and elsewhere.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p class="pt2 center sc">Other Countries</p>
+
+<p>At the International Housing Congress organized by the
+National Housing Reform Council and held in London in 1907
+representatives were present from a number of foreign countries
+and a good deal of information was collected and published in
+the report of the Congress. Further detailed data have been
+supplied by foreign correspondents to Mr W. Thompson and
+published in <i>Housing up to Date</i>. The more important facts
+relating to the principal industrial countries are here condensed
+from this and other sources of information.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p><i>Austria.</i>&mdash;An act for encouraging the building of cheap working-class
+dwellings was passed in 1902; it provides for exemption from
+taxes for 24 years of working-class dwellings which fulfil certain
+conditions including sanitary requirements, a minimum area per
+room, minimum height, minimum door and window spaces, thickness
+of walls, a maximum number of inhabitants (one to 4 sq. metres in
+sleeping rooms), prohibition of lodgers, fixed rent and maximum
+profit. The municipalities are the authority for administering sanitary
+and housing laws; they have no power of compulsory purchase of
+land without a special law. There is excessive overcrowding in the
+large towns; in Vienna (1900) 43% of the population live in dwellings
+of 1 room or 1 room and a kitchen; in 60 provincial towns the proportion
+is 63%. Overcrowding is reckoned at more than 5 persons
+to a room and more than 9 to two rooms; the proportion of overcrowded
+on this basis is nearly one-fifth in Vienna and one-fourth in
+the provincial towns (Thompson).</p>
+
+<p><i>Belgium.</i>&mdash;An act was passed in 1889 instituting <i>Comités de
+Patronage</i>; since then other Acts relating to loan societies, and to
+inheritance and succession in the case of small properties. Comités
+de Patronage are semi-official bodies, but without legal power, whose
+function it is to study the subject of housing, to report to local
+authorities on existing conditions, to advise, to collect funds and
+promote the provision of good houses by any means in their power.
+They influence public opinion and stimulate the activity of local
+authorities which have the power to compel improvements and close
+dwellings unfit for habitation; they have led to the formation of
+numerous societies for erecting working-class dwellings. The latter
+are encouraged by the law in various ways; they are exempt from
+the payment of some government duties and partly exempt from
+others. Working men buying or building houses liable to registration
+fees up to from 72 to 171 francs are exempted from personal, provincial
+and communal taxes. The National Savings Bank of Belgium
+is empowered to lend money to working men for buying or building
+houses and to insure the lives of those doing so, to preserve the
+home for the family. In 1904 the number of workmen&rsquo;s homes
+exempted from taxation was 164,387, and the amount of taxation
+remitted considerably exceeded 3 million francs; workmen had
+acquired lands and houses valued at nearly £4,000,000; there were
+161 societies for building working-class dwellings; 30,000 workmen
+representing a population of 150,000 had become owners of property;
+and 70,000 representing a population of 350,000 had availed themselves
+of the law in obtaining exemptions and loans (O. Velghe).
+The foregoing results effected in 15 years are remarkable and indicate
+a great capacity for self-help on the part of Belgian workmen with
+suitable and well-considered assistance. But this movement, in
+common with those of a similar character in other countries, does not
+touch the problem of housing the very poor. No statistics of overcrowding
+are available, but the average number of persons to a
+dwelling is over 5 for the whole country and nearly 9 in Brussels.
+The communal administrations are the authorities for health and
+housing; they have power to abate nuisances but not to compel
+landowners to sell land for building, though they have the right to
+dispossession for &ldquo;public purposes.&rdquo; No town has constructed
+quarters devoted entirely to working-class dwellings and only one
+commune (St Giles) has built any. In towns the height of buildings
+is regulated by the width of streets; generally it is the width plus
+6 metres. The height of rooms and thickness of walls are prescribed
+by local regulations but not the area of rooms. The housing difficulty
+has been lessened in a notable degree by cheap transport facilities,
+including railroads, light railroads and tramways; a large proportion
+of the workpeople travel long distances to and from work. One-quarter
+travel on the State railways alone; fares are 1s. 6d. a week
+for a daily double journey of 20 m., 2s. for 44 m. and 2s. 6d. for
+66 m. The area of the labour market of Liége extends nearly to
+Ostend and out of 5830 workmen travelling over 1000 live more
+than 50 kilometres from Liége. Some journeys last 3 hours.</p>
+
+<p><i>France.</i>&mdash;The question of housing was publicly raised in France
+quite as early as in England on grounds of public health in connexion
+with the first visitation of cholera, and building societies were
+formed as early as 1851, but little was done until after 1889, when the
+<i>Société Française des Habitations à Bon Marché</i> was founded under
+the inspiration of M. Siegfried. This led to the formation of several
+societies, which increased rapidly after the passage of <i>la loi Siegfried</i>
+in 1894, for promoting the provision of working-class dwellings. In
+1902 a Public Health Act and in 1906 a Housing of the Working
+Classes Act were passed, and these three enactments with regulations
+made in 1907 govern the procedure. The act of 1906 embodies the
+Belgian system of Comités de Patronage, of which at least one was
+to be established in each department with grants in aid, and exemptions
+from certain taxes of working-class dwellings fulfilling
+specified conditions as to sanitation and rent. The law promotes
+the formation of Housing Societies by granting various facilities for
+the investment of money in building by public bodies and benevolent
+institutions by taking shares or by loans. Down to the end of 1906
+there had been lent for this purpose £233,000 by savings banks,
+£258,000 by the Caisse des Dépôts, and £14,000 by charitable institutions.
+The law does not authorize municipalities to build
+houses and none of the communes have acquired land for this purpose.
+Under the Public Health Act of 1902 towns can purchase land
+compulsorily in connexion with unhealthy areas. The Public Health
+and Housing Acts are administered by the local authority, which
+makes regulations for building and for laying out building land. A
+minimum height of 2.6 metres and a minimum cubical content of
+25 cubic metres are prescribed for rooms; there are no regulations
+for thickness of walls. Housing societies are under the Ministry of
+Works and a Superior Housing Council, which is a central advisory
+body. These societies are now numerous; there are 46 in Paris
+alone, but their operations are not on a large scale. One of them
+deserves special notice on account of its special object. It is called
+the <i>Société de logements pour familles nombreuses</i> and it builds special
+flats called <i>maisons des enfants</i> which are let at low rents only to
+persons with large families. In 1907 it had housed 168 families,
+averaging 6.8 persons, in two blocks at Belleville and Montmartre.
+The great defect in France is the large quantity of old, bad, insanitary
+housing. Real slums exist in all the old towns and in some of them,
+such as Marseilles and Lyons, on an extensive scale. Very little
+has hitherto been done to grapple with this difficulty. The standard
+of sanitation is altogether lower in France than in England, as is
+shown by the death-rates, and this holds good of the housing. But
+conditions vary widely in different parts of the country. They are
+better, generally speaking, in the industrial towns of the north,
+which are largely Flemish and distinguished by the prevalence of
+small houses after the English fashion, than in the central or southern
+districts where tall old tenement houses of six and seven storeys
+abound. There are no statistics and no standard of overcrowding;
+but the careful inquiry carried out by the Board of Trade and published
+in 1909 shows the extraordinary prevalence of tenements consisting
+of 1, 2 or 3 rooms. In 16 towns for which information was obtained
+the average proportion of dwellings containing less than 4 rooms
+was 75% of the whole; in some it was as high as 89% and in none
+lower than 61%. In 8 towns, including Paris, the number of one-roomed
+dwellings was more than a quarter of the whole, and in two
+towns (Brest and Fougères) it was more than half. Some corresponding
+statistics for English and German towns are given below in the
+section on Germany. According to the same report, the general
+accuracy of which has been confirmed by personal inquiries, made
+in 1909 by the writer in a number of towns, rents are decidedly
+lower in France. If the London level be taken as 100 that of Paris
+is only 78 and the other French towns are considerably lower, 21 out
+of 29 being less than half the London standard. A general comparison
+between a number of English and French towns shows the
+average level of French rents to be less than three-fourths of English
+ones. A noticeable feature of housing in France is the large number
+of dwellings built by employers in recent years. The mining companies,
+particularly in the Pas de Calais, have built whole groups of
+villages; the railway companies and various manufacturers have
+also done a great deal, chiefly in rural areas. Among the manufacturers
+MM. Schneider at Le Creusot and the textile mill-owners
+in the Vosges are noticeable. The houses provided are
+of a charming type, white with red roofs; the rooms are of good
+size, the rents low, and a large garden is usually attached to every
+house.</p>
+
+<p><i>Germany.</i>&mdash;In no country is the problem of housing more acute
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page825" id="page825"></a>825</span>
+than in Germany, where the increase of population, the growth of
+manufacturing industry and the urbanization of the people have
+proceeded at an exceptionally rapid pace in recent years and have
+combined with increasing wealth and a rising standard of living to
+force the question into prominence. Up to 1909 no uniform legislation
+for the empire had been framed and no central authority
+existed for dealing with housing; but the several states have their
+own public health and housing laws, and great activity has been
+developed in various directions. The most general difficulty is
+deficiency of quantity consequent on the rapid change in the distribution
+of the population. The proportion of the whole population
+living in the great towns increased from 7.2% to 16.2%, or more
+than doubled between 1890 and 1900; in England it only increased
+by about one-tenth. Slums are a much less conspicuous feature
+than in England because of the comparatively recent development
+of German towns, but where old quarters exist on a large scale, as
+in Hamburg, the conditions are quite as bad as anything in English
+towns, and call for similar measures. Public sanitation in Germany
+is still as a whole less advanced than in England; but in some
+cases it is superior and in general it is coming up rapidly; the
+administration of sanitary laws, as of others, is more effective and
+uniform, and less subject to evasion. This also contributes to the
+comparative absence of slums. And there is a third factor which
+has perhaps the greatest influence of all, and that is the superior
+manner in which German homes are kept. But the pressure of
+inadequate quantity is urgent; it has caused high rents, overcrowding,
+and the development of large barrack or block dwellings
+which are becoming the prevailing type. At the same time it has
+led to many and varied efforts to meet the difficulty. Isolated
+attempts go back to an early date. For instance a building society
+was formed in Berlin in 1849, Alfred Krupp began to build his
+&ldquo;colonies&rdquo; at Essen in 1863, Barmen started a society in 1871 and
+there were other cases; but general attention seems first to have
+been drawn to the subject by the reforming efforts of Pastor Bodelschwingh
+at Bielefeld about 1884 in connexion with his <i>Arbeiterheim</i>.
+In short housing reform in Germany is really a matter of the last
+20 years. The first efficient by-laws for regulating building in
+Berlin were not adopted till 1887; the previous regulations dating
+from 1853 permitted many abuses and under them a great deal of
+bad housing was constructed, especially after the establishment
+of the empire and the beginning of the great development of the
+capital.</p>
+
+<p>The worst feature is the general prevalence of dwellings containing
+a very small number of rooms&mdash;from 1 to 3&mdash;and consequent
+overcrowding. The following figures are extracted from the Report
+to the Board of Trade on Rents, Housing, &amp;c., in Germany (1908,
+Cd. 4032). They indicate the proportion of dwellings containing
+1, 2 or 3 rooms, or (in a few cases) the proportion of the population
+living in such dwellings. The towns are those for which the information
+is given. They are not selected as particularly bad
+specimens but as representative, and they include most of the
+capitals and chief industrial centres. The figures relate to the year
+1900, except in a few cases, in which they are taken from a municipal
+house census in 1905.</p>
+
+<p class="pt2 center"><i>Percentage of Dwellings or Population living in Dwellings containing</i></p>
+
+<table class="ws" summary="Contents">
+<tr><td class="tccm allb">Town.</td> <td class="tccm allb">1 Room.</td> <td class="tccm allb">2 Rooms.</td> <td class="tccm allb">3 Rooms.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Total under<br />4 Rooms.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Berlin</td> <td class="tcl rb">&ensp;8.0</td> <td class="tcc rb">37.2</td> <td class="tcc rb">30.6</td> <td class="tcl rb">75.8</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Aachen</td> <td class="tcl rb">13.7</td> <td class="tcc rb">32.0</td> <td class="tcc rb">21.9</td> <td class="tcl rb">67.6</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Barmen (pop.)</td> <td class="tcl rb">&ensp;1.5</td> <td class="tcc rb">24.3</td> <td class="tcc rb">28.8</td> <td class="tcl rb">54.6</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Bremen</td> <td class="tcl rb">&ensp;3.8(?)</td> <td class="tcc rb">26.8</td> <td class="tcc rb">26.1</td> <td class="tcl rb">56.7(?)</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Breslau (pop.)</td> <td class="tcl rb">&ensp;3.9</td> <td class="tcc rb">46.0</td> <td class="tcc rb">24.4</td> <td class="tcl rb">74.3</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Chemnitz (pop.)</td> <td class="tcl rb">&ensp;1.7</td> <td class="tcc rb">34.8</td> <td class="tcc rb">29.9</td> <td class="tcl rb">66.4</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Dantzig</td> <td class="tcl rb">&ensp;3.3</td> <td class="tcc rb">45.0</td> <td class="tcc rb">29.9</td> <td class="tcl rb">78.2</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Dortmund</td> <td class="tcl rb">&ensp;4.7</td> <td class="tcc rb">45.5</td> <td class="tcc rb">30.0</td> <td class="tcl rb">80.2</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Dresden</td> <td class="tcl rb">&ensp;0.8</td> <td class="tcc rb">&ensp;3.5</td> <td class="tcc rb">27.8</td> <td class="tcl rb">32.1</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Düsseldorf</td> <td class="tcl rb">&ensp;5.0</td> <td class="tcc rb">26.4</td> <td class="tcc rb">22.7</td> <td class="tcl rb">54.1</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Elberfeld</td> <td class="tcl rb">&ensp;8.4(?)</td> <td class="tcc rb">36.9</td> <td class="tcc rb">21.7</td> <td class="tcl rb">67.0(?)</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Essen</td> <td class="tcl rb">&ensp;2.9</td> <td class="tcc rb">35.4</td> <td class="tcc rb">30.0</td> <td class="tcl rb">68.3</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Hamburg</td> <td class="tcl rb">&ensp;1.0</td> <td class="tcc rb">&ensp;3.9</td> <td class="tcc rb">24.7</td> <td class="tcl rb">29.6</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Königshütte (pop.)</td> <td class="tcl rb">10.0</td> <td class="tcc rb">60.4</td> <td class="tcc rb">16.8</td> <td class="tcl rb">87.2</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Leipzig (pop.)</td> <td class="tcl rb">&ensp;0.4</td> <td class="tcc rb">&ensp;1.7</td> <td class="tcc rb">14.5</td> <td class="tcl rb">16.6</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Mannheim</td> <td class="tcl rb">&ensp;3.1</td> <td class="tcc rb">22.1</td> <td class="tcc rb">40.4</td> <td class="tcl rb">65.6</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Munich (pop.)</td> <td class="tcl rb">&ensp;4.6</td> <td class="tcc rb">24.1</td> <td class="tcc rb">28.4</td> <td class="tcl rb">57.1</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb bb">Plauen (pop.)</td> <td class="tcl rb bb">&ensp;1.3</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">14.2</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">21.8</td> <td class="tcl rb bb">36.3</td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<p class="noind">The figures must be read with a certain amount of caution, as they
+are not in every case compiled on a precisely uniform method with
+regard to inclusion of kitchens and attics. For this reason the
+position of Bremen and Elberfeld is probably more unfavourable
+than it ought to be. But broadly the table shows that in most of
+the large towns in Germany more than half, and in some cases more
+than three-quarters of the dwellings have less than 4 rooms. Leipzig
+is the most striking exception. If working-class quarters alone are
+taken it is found that dwellings of more than 3 rooms are so few
+as to be negligible. In Stuttgart, where housing is very dear, the
+percentages for working-class quarters are&mdash;1 room 21.0, 2 rooms
+51.8, 3 rooms 26.9; total under 4 rooms 98.7. Königshütte, the chief
+coal and iron centre in Silesia and a purely working-class town,
+shows the same state of things; 60% of the whole population live
+in dwellings of 2 rooms and 87% in less than four. It is interesting
+to compare English towns. The proportion of dwellings containing
+less than 4 rooms in London was (1901) 52.2%, in Berlin 75.8%;
+the proportion of the population living in such dwellings was&mdash;London
+38.7%, Berlin 71.5%. Not only is the proportion of small
+dwellings very much higher in Berlin but the proportion of the
+population living in them shows a far greater discrepancy. This
+indicates a much higher degree of overcrowding. The only point
+in which Berlin has the advantage is the smaller number of single-room
+dwellings. The proportions are London 14.7%, Berlin 8.0%.
+But it is to be observed that overcrowding is not so common in
+1-room dwellings, which are often occupied by a single person, as
+in those with 2 or 3 rooms, which are occupied by families, though
+probably the most extreme cases of overcrowding occur in particular
+1-room dwellings. In the English county boroughs the proportion of
+dwellings with less than 4 rooms was 24.0%, in other urban districts
+17.4, and in all urban areas including London 26.4%. When all
+allowance is made for minor errors and discrepancies it may be
+broadly concluded that the proportion of small dwellings containing
+less than 4 rooms is at least twice as great in German as in English
+towns, and that the conditions as to accommodation which in
+England prevail only in London are general in urban Germany.
+As a set-off German rooms are generally larger than English ones
+and in block dwellings there is often a little ante-room or landing
+which does not count but really increases the space.</p>
+
+<p>The German census does not take cognisance of overcrowding and
+there is no general official standard; but some towns have adopted
+a standard of their own, namely, six or more persons to 1 room and
+ten or more to 2 rooms. In Breslau, which is one of the worst
+towns, 17.5% of the population (53,000) of the &ldquo;city&rdquo; or inner
+ring were overcrowded on this basis in 1900. In Barmen, which is
+not one of the worst, 20% of the 2-roomed and 17% of the 3-roomed
+dwellings (together housing more than half the population) were
+overcrowded according to the English standard. Overcrowding
+and other bad conditions are worst in the basement or cellar dwellings,
+of which some towns have a very large number. In Breslau
+15,000 persons were living in 3853 such dwellings in 1900; in
+Berlin 91,426 persons were living in 24,088 basements. Some of
+these are free from objection, but 11,147, housing 38,663 persons,
+were situated in back buildings and unfit for habitation on account
+of darkness, damp, dilapidation and the like. &ldquo;Back&rdquo; houses
+are a feature of old towns; they are houses which do not give on
+the street but lie behind and are approached by a passage; they are
+what we call courts and quite as insanitary as anything of the kind
+in English towns.</p>
+
+<p>With regard to rents the Board of Trade (London) Report gives
+the following figures for Berlin and a number of other towns:&mdash;</p>
+
+<table class="ws" summary="Contents">
+<tr><td class="tcc allb" rowspan="2">No. of Rooms<br />per Dwelling.</td> <td class="tcc allb" colspan="2">Predominant Range of Weekly Rents.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tcc allb">Berlin.</td> <td class="tcc allb">Other Towns.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">2 rooms</td> <td class="tcc rb">5/- to 6/-</td> <td class="tcc rb">2/8 to 3/6</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">3 rooms</td> <td class="tcc rb">7/- to 9/3</td> <td class="tcc rb">3/6 to 4/9</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb bb">4 rooms</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">..</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">4/3 to 6/-</td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<p>Rents are higher in Berlin than in any other town, though
+Stuttgart comes very near it. The following table of index numbers
+shows the relations of 32 towns to Berlin:&mdash;</p>
+
+<table class="ws" summary="Contents">
+<tr><td class="tccm allb">Town.</td> <td class="tccm bb tb rb2">Index<br />Number.</td> <td class="tccm bb tb">Town.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Index<br />Number.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Berlin</td> <td class="tcc rb2">100</td> <td class="tcl rb">Nuremberg</td> <td class="tcc rb">53</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Stuttgart</td> <td class="tcc rb2">97</td> <td class="tcl rb">Aachen</td> <td class="tcc rb">53</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Düsseldorf</td> <td class="tcc rb2">79</td> <td class="tcl rb">Crefeld</td> <td class="tcc rb">52</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Dortmund</td> <td class="tcc rb2">68</td> <td class="tcl rb">Bremen</td> <td class="tcc rb">52</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Anchaffenburg</td> <td class="tcc rb2">67</td> <td class="tcl rb">Plauen</td> <td class="tcc rb">52</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Hamburg</td> <td class="tcc rb2">66</td> <td class="tcl rb">Leipzig</td> <td class="tcc rb">51</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Mannheim</td> <td class="tcc rb2">64</td> <td class="tcl rb">Dantzig</td> <td class="tcc rb">49</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Königsberg</td> <td class="tcc rb2">62</td> <td class="tcl rb">Mülhausen</td> <td class="tcc rb">48</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Munich</td> <td class="tcc rb2">63</td> <td class="tcl rb">Königshütte</td> <td class="tcc rb">47</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Essen</td> <td class="tcc rb2">62</td> <td class="tcl rb">Stettin</td> <td class="tcc rb">46</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Solingen</td> <td class="tcc rb2">61</td> <td class="tcl rb">Magdeburg</td> <td class="tcc rb">43</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Bochum</td> <td class="tcc rb2">57</td> <td class="tcl rb">Chemnitz</td> <td class="tcc rb">40</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Elberfeld</td> <td class="tcc rb2">57</td> <td class="tcl rb">Zwickau</td> <td class="tcc rb">38</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Barmen</td> <td class="tcc rb2">57</td> <td class="tcl rb">Brunswick</td> <td class="tcc rb">37 </td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Remscheid</td> <td class="tcc rb2">56</td> <td class="tcl rb">Stassfurt</td> <td class="tcc rb">33</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Breslau</td> <td class="tcc rb2">56</td> <td class="tcl rb">Oschersleben</td> <td class="tcc rb">28</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb bb">Dresden</td> <td class="tcc rb2 bb">54</td> <td class="tcl rb bb">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">&nbsp;</td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<p>Comparing rents in Germany and England, the Board of Trade
+Report gives the following table, to which the corresponding ratio
+of French towns has been added.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page826" id="page826"></a>826</span></p>
+
+<table class="ws" summary="Contents">
+<tr><td class="tccm allb" rowspan="2">No. of rooms.</td> <td class="tccm allb" colspan="2">Predominant Weekly Rents.</td> <td class="tccm allb" rowspan="2">Ratio of<br />German to<br />English (100)</td> <td class="tccm allb" rowspan="2">Ratio of<br />French to<br />English (100)</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tccm allb">England.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Germany.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">2 rooms</td> <td class="tcc rb">3/- to 3/6</td> <td class="tcc rb">2/8 to 3/6</td> <td class="tcc rb">&ensp;95</td> <td class="tcc rb">79</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">3 rooms</td> <td class="tcc rb">3/9 to 4/6</td> <td class="tcc rb">3/6 to 4/9</td> <td class="tcc rb">100</td> <td class="tcc rb">86</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb bb">4 rooms</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">4/6 to 5/6</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">4/3 to 6/-</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">102</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">78</td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<p class="noind">If the mean of the English and German figures be taken it shows
+a very slight difference in favour of Germany; the mean weekly rent
+per room being 1s. 5d. in England and 1s. 4¾d. in Germany. But in
+England rent usually includes local taxation (rates) whereas in
+Germany it does not; if this be added German rents are to English
+as 123 to 100, or nearly one-fourth more.</p>
+
+<p>The statistics given above indicate a wide range of variation in
+the conditions prevailing in different towns in Germany; and that
+holds good with regard to improvements. The administration of
+the laws relating to public health and housing is in the hands of the
+local authorities. The public health service is generally efficient
+and sometimes very good. Increasing attention has been paid in
+recent years to the sanitary inspection of houses and in some towns
+it is now thorough and systematic, but active efforts to deal with
+old and insanitary quarters <i>en masse</i> are isolated and exceptional.
+Hamburg is an instance; scared by the visitation of cholera in 1892
+the authorities put in hand an extensive improvement scheme on
+the English plan at a cost of half a million sterling. But demolition
+is exceptional; slums are usually subjected to supervision and are
+not allowed to be in a state of dilapidation, and sometimes, as at
+Mannheim, notices are served to abate overcrowding. In Munich
+a policy of gradually buying up insanitary houses has been adopted.
+But improvement has principally been promoted by new building
+and the reduction of the population in old insanitary quarters, to
+which cheap locomotive facilities have greatly contributed. The
+great bulk of urban Germany is new, and the most valuable contribution
+made by it to the housing question is the more effective
+control of new building and particularly the principle of town-planning,
+coupled with the purchase of neighbouring ground with
+a view to future extension. This policy is comparatively recent and
+still very partially applied, but it is now rapidly extending. A
+general act providing for the planning of streets was passed in
+Prussia in 1875 and still forms the basis of building legislation;
+but as noted above no effective by-laws were adopted even in Berlin
+until after 1887, and consequently a very faulty style of building
+was adopted, especially in large blocks which conceal grave defects
+behind an imposing exterior. The Saxon towns have been conspicuously
+successful in regard to housing. Leipzig stands alone
+among German towns in having 83.4% of its population living in
+dwellings of 4 rooms and upwards. Yet it is a great commercial
+city, the fifth in the empire, with a population of upwards of half a
+million. It also comes low on the rent table, having an index number
+little more than half that of Berlin. All the Saxon towns are low,
+Chemnitz and Zwickau particularly so, and the position of Dresden,
+being a capital, is remarkable. More than two-thirds of the population
+live in dwellings of 4 rooms or more, and the rent index number
+is only 54. In Saxony a general Building Act, especially providing
+for town planning, was passed in 1900; and the Grand Duchy of
+Hesse, which alone among the German states has a government
+Housing Department, adopted a Housing of the Working Classes
+Act in 1902. Other states have followed or are following and the
+air is full of movement. The distinctive features of urban housing
+reform in Germany are (1) the systematic planning of extensions,
+(2) purchase of ground by municipalities, (3) letting or sale of municipal
+land for building under prescribed conditions. Many of the
+great towns, including Berlin, Munich, Dresden, Leipzig, Cologne,
+Frankfort and Düsseldorf, are owners of land to a variable but
+sometimes large extent. This policy seems to have been originally
+adopted on economic grounds and those municipalities which bought
+or otherwise came into possession of town land at an early date
+derive a substantial revenue from it now, besides being in a position
+to promote housing improvement. There is comparatively little
+municipal building, and that as a rule only or principally for municipal
+servants, as at Düsseldorf, Mannheim and Nuremberg; but
+there seems to be a tendency to venture further in this direction
+and some towns have built houses for letting. The municipalities
+generally sell or let their land, and the building agencies which enjoy
+most official favour are the societies &ldquo;of public utility&rdquo;; they are
+encouraged in every way and have greatly developed, particularly
+in the Rhine province. Some are co-operative, others semi-philanthropic
+in that they aim at building good houses and limit their
+profits. In 1901 the Prussian Government issued an order urging
+municipalities to support these societies by remitting the cost of
+constructing streets and sewers, placing the assistance of building
+officials at their disposal, taking their shares, lending them money
+and becoming security for them. A great deal of public money
+has been advanced to building societies, and one very important
+source of supply has been developed, since the Old Age and Infirmity
+Insurance Act of 1889, in the National Insurance Funds
+which invest their surplus capital in this way. Down to 1906 the
+Boards of insurance had lent £8,650,000 to societies for building;
+the Imperial Government had lent £1,250,000, the
+Prussian Government £1,825,000, and the other states
+further large sums in addition to the municipalities.
+Money lent by the state is usually limited to building
+houses for state employees and Insurance Boards
+lend on condition that the houses are let to persons
+who come under the insurance laws. The development
+of building societies has been promoted by the
+formation of general building associations of which
+the earliest was established in Düsseldorf in 1897 for the Rhine
+provinces; under its influence one-fifth of the new housing provided
+in 1901 was erected by the societies. The example was followed
+at Frankfort, Münster and Wiesbaden. Housing by employers has
+also been carried out on a large scale in Germany. States and
+municipalities have to some extent built houses as employers, the
+former chiefly for railwaymen, besides lending money to societies
+for the purpose; but most housing of this kind has been done by
+private employers. Krupps, who had built 4274 dwellings housing
+nearly 27,000 persons down to 1901, are the most famous example;
+but they are only one among many. In Rhineland and Westphalia
+employers had in 1902 provided 22,269 houses containing 62,539
+dwellings at a cost of £10,500,000; more than half the families so
+housed belonged to the mining industry, the rest to various manufactures.
+These two provinces, in which industrial development
+has been extremely rapid, are exceptional; but housing by employers
+is not confined to them. At Mannheim for instance over
+1000 working-class households have been so provided. At Nuremberg
+the Siemens Schuckert Company have encouraged an interesting
+system of collective building among their employees, by which 722
+dwellings have been provided.</p>
+
+<p><i>Holland.</i>&mdash;In 1901 a Public Health and a Housing Act were
+passed, and these two embody most of the features of housing reform
+adopted in other countries. The first provides for a general sanitary
+service under the Ministry of the Interior. The second ordains that
+local authorities shall frame by-laws for building and for the maintenance
+and proper use of dwellings; that they shall inspect existing
+dwellings, order improvements or repairs or demolition; empowers
+them to take land compulsorily for the purposes of the act, to
+prohibit building or rebuilding on sites reserved for public purposes
+and to make grants or loans to societies or companies operating
+exclusively for the improvement of working-class dwellings. If
+they fail to make by-laws the provincial authorities may take
+action. Land buying with a view to extensions has been adopted
+by a number of municipalities including Amsterdam, Rotterdam,
+Utrecht and other important towns, and the practice is increasing.
+Amsterdam has also begun the systematic planning of extensions.
+There has been a little municipal building in some small places, but
+it is on an insignificant scale; the tendency is rather to favour societies
+of public utility as in France, Germany and Belgium. The new laws
+are too recent to have had much effect and housing reform is as yet
+in an early stage. Rents are high in the large towns, namely, 1
+room 1s. 8d. to 3s.; 2 rooms 2s. 6d. to 5s.; 3 rooms 3s. 6d. to 6s;
+4 rooms 4s. 2d. to 7s.</p>
+
+<p><i>Italy.</i>&mdash;A Housing of the Working Classes Act was passed in
+1903, to promote the improvement and provision of workmen&rsquo;s
+dwellings. Municipalities have the power to purchase land compulsorily
+for housing purposes and also to build workmen&rsquo;s dwellings.
+A few towns, of which Milan is one, have done so. There are building
+regulations relating to the area and height of rooms and the thickness
+of walls. The antiquity of the Italian towns and the great quantity
+of old and insanitary building make housing improvement a very
+difficult matter. <i>La Società Umanitaria</i>, a benevolent trust founded
+by Prosper Loria of Milan in 1902, has taken up this subject among
+others and has built two model tenements, housing 2000 persons.</p>
+
+<p><i>United States.</i>&mdash;Interest in the housing question in the United
+States is confined to a few of the largest cities and can only be said
+to be acute in New York, though there have been investigations by
+commissions elsewhere and Miss Octavia Hill&rsquo;s work in London
+has found admirers and imitators in Philadelphia and Boston as well
+as in New York. The evils of housing in New York have been the
+subject of much sensational writing which has elevated them to the
+position of a world-wide scandal. It is not necessary to accept all
+the allegations made in order to see that several circumstances have
+combined to produce an exceptional state of things in this great city.
+The limited space&mdash;the island or peninsula of Manhattan&mdash;in which
+central New York is built has compelled the erection of large tenement
+blocks, otherwise rare in American towns; the incessant inrush
+of immigrants from the poorest parts of Europe has filled these
+tenements with immense numbers of persons of many nationalities
+accustomed to a low standard of living; the generally backward
+state of public sanitation in America, and the absence or evasion of
+regulations and supervision, have permitted the erection of bad
+dwellings, their deterioration into worse, and their misuse by excessive
+overcrowding. Other large cities in which bad housing conditions
+are known to exist are Chicago, Philadelphia, Boston, Baltimore,
+Cincinnati, Pittsburg, Jersey City. There are doubtless many
+others, but bad housing conditions are not so general in the United
+States as in Europe. Outside the very large cities there is more
+space, more light and air, less crowding together, less darkness, dirt
+and dilapidation. Large houses, occupied by two or perhaps three
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page827" id="page827"></a>827</span>
+families, are common, but they have more room space than is usual
+in Europe. The 18th annual report (1903) of the Commissioner
+of Labour gives the result of a special inquiry embracing 23,447
+families distributed in 33 states. The average number of rooms
+was 4.95 per family and 1.04 per individual. It is a fair inference
+that overcrowding is confined to a comparatively small number of
+exceptional places. A large number of the schedules were furnished
+by the eminently urbanized and manufacturing states of New
+York, Pennsylvania, Massachusetts, Ohio and Illinois; and in all
+these the average number of rooms to a family exceeded 4, ranging
+from 4.2 in Ohio to 5.5 in Massachusetts. The condition of homes
+as to sanitation and cleanliness was statistically stated thus:
+Sanitary condition&mdash;good 61.46%, fair 32,59%, bad 5.95%;
+Cleanliness&mdash;good 79.63%, fair 14.66 bad 5.71%. Other
+special inquiries have been carried out in particular towns. In
+1891-1892 the tenements in Boston were investigated for the
+Massachusetts Labour Bureau, which found 3657 sleeping rooms
+without outside windows and about 8% of the population living in
+conditions objectionable from one cause or another. In 1892
+Congress authorized a special inquiry into the slum population of
+New York, Chicago, Philadelphia and Baltimore, the results of which
+were published in the seventh special report (1894) of the United
+States Commissioner of Labour. It was estimated that the total
+&ldquo;slum population&rdquo; (presumably those living in unhealthy conditions)
+was&mdash;New York 360,000, Chicago 162,000, Philadelphia
+35,000, Baltimore 25,000. In Baltimore 530 families, consisting of
+1648 persons, were living in single rooms with an average of 3.15
+persons to a room; in Philadelphia 401 families were so living with
+an average of 3.11 persons to a room. The proportion of 1-room
+dwellings was less in New York and Chicago. In New York 44.55%
+or nearly half the families investigated were found living in
+2-roomed dwellings, in Baltimore 27.88%, in Philadelphia 19.41%
+and in Chicago 19.14%. These figures conclusively prove that
+European conditions reproduce themselves in American cities.
+Poverty was not the cause, as the average earnings per family
+ranged from £3, 4s. a week in Baltimore to £4, 6s. a week in Chicago.
+Another official investigation in New York was carried out in 1895
+by the Tenement House Commission appointed by the State of New
+York. It reported &ldquo;many houses in the city in an insanitary condition
+which absolutely unfits them for habitation.&rdquo; Further details
+have been compiled from the census by the New York Federation
+of Churches, chiefly relating to density of population in the city. In
+1900, out of a total of nearly 250,000 dwellings, 95,433 (38.2%)
+contained from 2 to 6 persons, 60,672 (24.2%) from 7 to 10 persons
+and 89,654 (35.9%) 11 persons or more. The density of population
+for the whole city as now constituted was 19 persons to the acre,
+in Manhattan 149; in the south-eastern district of Manhattan
+382 and in one ward 735. Between 1900 and 1905 the density
+increased in every district, and in the latter year there were 12 blocks
+with from 1000 to 1400 persons to the acre. The number of persons
+to the acre in London (1901) is 60.6; in the most densely populated
+borough 182, and in the most densely populated district (a very
+small one) 396. This will give a measure of comparison. The large
+tenement blocks in New York have been constructed with far less
+regard to health than those in Berlin, and reproduce in an aggravated
+form the same evil of insufficient light and air. In place of the
+inadequate courts round which many are built in Berlin, the New
+York tenements have merely narrow air shafts. In 1904 there were
+reported to be 362,000 dark interior rooms, that is with no outside
+windows.</p>
+
+<p>If American cities have nothing to learn from other countries in
+regard to bad housing, they have nothing to teach in the way of
+reform. They are following Europe slowly and a long distance
+behind. There is no serious attempt to deal with insanitary areas
+as they have been dealt with in England, or to prevent the creation
+of new ones by regulation and planning of extensions as in Germany,
+or to promote the provision of superior houses by organized public
+effort as in several countries. A little has been done in New York
+to improve the worst housing. A Tenement House Act was passed
+after the report of the Commission of 1895 and a Department formed
+to give effect to it. Some cleansing and repairing and insertion of
+windows is carried out every year, but more attention seems to be
+paid to fire escapes. Societies for providing improved dwellings
+exist in New York, Boston, Chicago and Philadelphia. The oldest
+is one formed in Boston in 1871, called the Co-operative Building
+Company; it was followed in 1876 by an Improved Dwellings
+Company in Brooklyn, and in 1879 by a similar society in Manhattan,
+and in 1885 by another in Boston. The largest concern of the kind
+is the City and Suburban Houses Company in New York, formed in
+1896 under the guidance of Dr E. R. L. Gould; it has built four
+groups of tenements housing 1238 families in the city and 112 houses
+on a suburban estate at Brooklyn; in all it has housed some 6000
+persons. More recently Mr Henry Phipps has given £200,000 for
+the provision of model dwellings in New York, and a building has
+been erected on the plan of the Maison des Enfants in Paris. In
+Chicago the City Houses Association works at housing reforms in
+various ways. There are some other institutions of a like kind,
+but the aggregate results are inconsiderable. Two other building
+agencies have done far more in the United States than philanthropic
+societies; these are the building and loan associations and private
+employers. The former are co-operative provident societies; they
+are widely diffused throughout the United States and their operations
+are on a very large scale. They date from 1831, when the Oxford
+Provident Building Association was formed at Frankfort, near
+Philadelphia. Pennsylvania has still the largest number of associations,
+but from 1843 onwards the movement spread rapidly and
+continuously in other states. The high-water mark appears to have
+been reached in 1897, when the total assets of the associations
+amounted to about £133,000,000. In 1905 there were 5326 associations
+with an aggregate membership of 1,686,611 and assets of
+about £130,000,000. The states of Pennsylvania and Ohio head
+the list, but the movement is very strong in many others. It accounts
+for the comparatively large number of houses owned by working-class
+families in the United States. With regard to housing by
+employers, no comprehensive information is available, but the total
+amount is certainly considerable though probably not so large as
+in Germany or in France. Some of the better-known instances are
+the Pelzer Manufacturing Company at Pelzer in South Carolina,
+which has built about 1000 dwellings; the Maryland Steel Company
+at Sparrows Point, Maryland, 800 dwellings; Ludlow Manufacturing
+Associates at Ludlow, Mass., 500 dwellings; Whitin Machine
+Works at Whitinsville, Mass., 600 dwellings; Westinghouse Air
+Brake Co. at Wilmerding, Penn., 360 dwellings; Draper Co., Hopedale,
+Mass., 250 dwellings. These are all more or less &ldquo;model&rdquo;
+settlements, not in cities, but in outlying or country places, where
+works have been established, and that is generally true of housing
+by employers in the United States, whereas in Germany much has
+been provided by them in the large towns. Rents are very much
+higher in American cities than in European towns of comparable
+size and character.</p>
+
+<p><span class="sc">Authorities.</span>&mdash;Board of Trade <i>Reports</i>&mdash;&ldquo;Cost of Living of the
+Working Classes (England)&rdquo; (1908); &ldquo;Cost of Living in German
+Towns&rdquo; (1908); &ldquo;Cost of Living in French Towns&rdquo; (1909). <i>Proceedings
+of International Housing Congress</i> (London, 1907); <i>The
+New Encyclopaedia of Social Reform</i>; E. R. Dewsnup, <i>The Housing
+Problem in England</i>; T. C. Horsfall, <i>The Example of Germany</i>;
+J. S. Nettlefold, <i>Practical Housing Reform</i>; A. Shadwell, <i>Industrial
+Efficiency</i>, ch. xi. on &ldquo;Housing&rdquo;; W. Thompson, <i>The Housing
+Handbook, Housing up to Date</i>.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(A. Sl.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HOUSMAN, LAURENCE<a name="ar61" id="ar61"></a></span> (1867-&emsp;&emsp;), English writer and
+artist, was born on the 18th of June 1867. Having studied
+at South Kensington, he first made a reputation as a book-illustrator.
+Some of his best pictorial work may be seen in the
+editions of Meredith&rsquo;s <i>Jump to Glory Jane</i> (1892), the <i>Weird
+Tales of Jonas Lie</i> (1892), Jane Barlow&rsquo;s <i>Land of Elfintoun</i>
+(1894), Christina Rossetti&rsquo;s <i>Goblin Market</i> (1893), <i>Werewolf</i>
+(1896), by his sister, Miss Clemence Housman, Shelley&rsquo;s <i>Sensitive
+Plant</i> (1898), and his own <i>Farm in Fairyland</i> (1894). His
+designs were engraved on wood by Miss Housman. His volumes
+of verse include <i>Green Arras</i> (1896), <i>Rue</i> (1899), <i>Spikenard</i>
+(1898) and <i>Mendicant Rhymes</i> (1906); and the mysticism which
+characterizes the devotional poems in <i>Spikenard</i> recurs in his
+half-allegorical tales, <i>All Fellows</i> (1896), <i>The Blue Moon</i> (1904)
+and <i>The Cloak of Friendship</i> (1906). His nativity play, <i>Bethlehem</i>,
+was presented in the Great Hall of London University at South
+Kensington for a week in December 1902. In 1900 he published
+anonymously <i>An Englishwoman&rsquo;s Love Letters</i>, which created
+a temporary sensation; and he followed this essay in popular
+fiction by the novels <i>A Modem Antaeus</i> (1901) and <i>Sabrina
+Warham</i> (1904). On the 23rd of December 1904 his fantastic
+play <i>Prunella</i>, written in collaboration with Mr Granville
+Barker, was produced at the Court Theatre.</p>
+
+<p>His brother, Alfred Edward Housman (b. 1859), an accomplished
+scholar, professor of Latin at University College, London,
+is known as a poet by his striking lyrical series, <i>A Shropshire
+Lad</i> (1896).</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HOUSSAYE, ARSÈNE<a name="ar62" id="ar62"></a></span> (1815-1896), French novelist, poet
+and man of letters, was born at Bruyères (Aisne), near Laon, on
+the 28th of March 1815. His real surname was Housset. In
+1832 he found his way to Paris, and in 1836 he published two
+novels, <i>La Couronne de bluets</i> and <i>La Pécheresse</i>. He had many
+friends in Paris, among them Jules Janin and Théophile Gautier,
+and he wrote in collaboration with Jules Sandeau. He produced
+art criticism in <i>L&rsquo;Histoire de la peinture flamande et hollandaise</i>
+(1846); semi-historical sketches In <i>Mlle de la Vallière et Mme
+de Montespan</i> (1860) and <i>Galerie de portraits du XVII<span class="sp">e</span> siècle</i>
+(1844); literary criticism in <i>Le Roi Voltaire</i> (1858) and his
+famous satirical <i>Histoire du quarante et unième fauteuil de
+l&rsquo;académie française</i> (1855); drama in his <i>Comédiennes</i> (1857);
+poetry in his <i>Symphonie des vingt ans</i> (1867), <i>Cent et un sonnets</i>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page828" id="page828"></a>828</span>
+(1873), &amp;c.; and novels, <i>Les Filles d&rsquo;Ève</i> (1852) and many others.
+In 1849, through the influence of Rachel, he was entrusted with
+the administration of the Théâtre Français, a position he filled
+with unfailing tact and success until 1859, when he was made
+inspector-general of works of art. He died on the 26th of
+February 1896.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>His <i>Confessions, souvenir; d&rsquo;un démi-siècle</i> appeared in 1885-1891.
+See also J. Lemaître, <i>Arsène Houssaye</i> (1897), with a bibliography.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>His son, <span class="sc">Henry Houssaye</span> (1848-&emsp;&emsp;), the historian, was
+born in Paris. His early writings were devoted to classical
+antiquity, studied not only in books but on the actual Greek
+sites which he visited in 1868. He published successively
+<i>Histoire d&rsquo;Apelles</i> (1867), a study on Greek art; <i>L&rsquo;Armée dans
+la Grèce antique</i> (1867); <i>Histoire d&rsquo;Alcibiade et de la république
+athénienne depuis la mort de Périclès jusqu&rsquo;à l&rsquo;avènement des
+trente tyrans</i> (1873); Papers on <i>Le Nombre des citoyens d&rsquo;Athènes
+au V<span class="sp">ème</span> siècle avant l&rsquo;ère chrétienne</i> (1882); <i>La Loi agraire à
+Sparte</i> (1884); <i>Le Premier Siège de Paris en 52 av. J.-C.</i> (1876);
+and two volumes of miscellanies, <i>Athènes, Rome, Paris, l&rsquo;histoire
+et les m&oelig;urs</i> (1879), and <i>Aspasie, Cléopatre, Théodora</i> (6th ed.
+1889). The military history of Napoleon I. then attracted him.
+His first volume on this subject, called <i>1814</i> (1888), went through
+no fewer than forty-six editions. It was followed by <i>1815</i>, the
+first part of which comprises the first Restoration, the return
+from Elba and the Hundred Days (1893); the second part,
+Waterloo (1899); and the third part, the second abdication
+and the White Terror (1905). He was elected a member of the
+French Academy in 1895.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HOUSTON, SAM,<a name="ar63" id="ar63"></a></span> or <span class="sc">Samuel</span> (1793-1863), American general and
+statesman, of Scotch-Irish descent, was born near Lexington,
+Virginia, on the 2nd of March 1793. His father, who had
+fought in the War of Independence, died in 1806, and soon
+afterward Samuel removed with his mother to the frontier in
+Blount county, Tennessee. When he was about fifteen his
+elder brothers obtained for him a place as clerk in a trader&rsquo;s
+store, but he ran away and lived with the Cherokee Indians of
+East Tennessee for nearly three years. On his return he opened
+a country school, and later attended a session or two of the
+Academy at Maryville. During the War of 1812 he served under
+Andrew Jackson against the Creek Indians, and his bravery
+at the battle of Tohopeka, in which he was disabled by several
+wounds, won promotion to a lieutenancy. In 1817 he was
+appointed sub-agent in managing the business relating to the
+removal of the Cherokees from East Tennessee to a reservation
+in what is now Arkansas, but he was offended at a rebuke from
+John C. Calhoun, then secretary of war, for appearing before
+him in Indian garments, as well as at an inquiry into charges
+affecting his official integrity, and he resigned in 1818. He
+entered a law office in Nashville, and was admitted to the bar,
+and was soon elected a district attorney. From 1823 to 1827
+Houston represented the ninth district of Tennessee in Congress,
+and in 1827 was elected governor of the state by the Jackson
+Democrats. He married Eliza Allen in January 1829; his wife
+left him three months later, and he resigned his office of governor,
+again took up his residence among the Cherokees, who were at
+this time about to remove to Indian Territory, and was formally
+adopted a member of their nation.</p>
+
+<p>In 1830 and again in 1832 he visited Washington to expose
+the frauds practised upon the Cherokees by government agents,
+and attracted national attention by an encounter on the 13th
+of April 1832 with William Stanberry, a Congressman from
+Ohio, who intimated that Houston himself was seeking to defraud
+them. Commissioned by President Jackson, Houston went to
+Texas in December 1832 to negotiate treaties with the Indian
+tribes there for the protection of American traders on the border.
+He decided to remain in Texas, and was elected a delegate to
+the constitutional convention which met at San Felipe on the
+1st of April 1833 to draw up a memorial to the Mexican Congress
+asking for the separation of Texas from Coahuila, in which the
+anti-American party was in control, as well as to frame a constitution
+for the commonwealth as a new member of the Mexican
+Republic, and he served as chairman of the drafting committee,
+and took a prominent part in the preparations for war when
+next year the petition was refused. In October 1835, soon after
+the outbreak of the War for Texan Independence, the committees
+of the township of Nacogdoches chose Houston as commander-in-chief
+of the forces in eastern Texas, and after the San Felipe
+convention in November he was chosen commander-in-chief
+of the Texan army. On the 21st of April 1836, while in command
+of 743 raw troops, he met on the bank of the San
+Jacinto about 1600 Mexican veterans led by Santa Anna and
+completely routed them; on the next day Santa Anna was
+taken prisoner.</p>
+
+<p>Texan independence was won by this victory (although the Mexican
+government repudiated the treaty negotiated by Santa Anna),
+and Houston was elected president of Texas (1st of September)
+and was inaugurated on the 22nd of October. His term expired
+in December 1838; he was elected again in 1841 and served until
+1844. During his first term a newly founded city was named in
+his honour and this was the seat of government in 1837-39 and in
+1842-45. Texas having been admitted as a state of the American
+Union in 1845, Houston was elected one of its first two United
+States senators. He served as a stalwart Union Democrat from
+March 1846 until 1859; he opposed the Kansas-Nebraska
+bill in an able speech (3rd March 1854), and spoke frequently
+in defence of the rights of the Indians. In 1859 he was elected
+governor of Texas and tried to prevent the secession of his state;
+upon his refusal, in March 1861, to swear allegiance to the
+Confederacy he was declared deposed. He died at Huntsville,
+Texas, on the 26th of July 1863. Houston was an able soldier,
+wary, intrepid and resolute; and was a legislator of rare foresight,
+cool discrimination and fearless candour.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See A. M. Williams, <i>Sam Houston and the War of Independence
+in Texas</i> (Boston, 1893); Henry Bruce, <i>Life of General Houston</i>
+(New York, 1891); and W. C. Crane, <i>Life and Select Literary Remains
+of Sam Houston</i> (Philadelphia, 1884).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HOUSTON,<a name="ar64" id="ar64"></a></span> a city and the county-seat of Harris county, Texas,
+U.S.A., at the head of deep-sea navigation on Buffalo Bayou,
+a tributary of Galveston Bay, 50 m. N.W. of Galveston, and
+about 325 m. W. of New Orleans. Pop. (1880) 16,513; (1890)
+27,557; (1900) 44,633, of whom 4415 were foreign-born and
+14,608 were negroes; (1910 census) 78,800. The land area
+in 1906 was 16.02 sq. m.; in 1908, about 20 sq. m. It is served
+by the Galveston, Harrisburg &amp; San Antonio (Southern Pacific),
+the Galveston, Houston &amp; Henderson, the Gulf, Colorado
+&amp; Santa Fe, the Houston &amp; Texas Central (Southern Pacific),
+the Houston, East &amp; West Texas, the International &amp; Great
+Northern, the Missouri, Kansas &amp; Texas, the San Antonio &amp;
+Aransas Pass, the Trinity &amp; Brazos Valley, the St Louis, Brownsville
+&amp; Mexico, the Texas &amp; New Orleans, and the Houston Belt
+&amp; Terminal railways, several of which have their headquarters
+at Houston. The Federal government has greatly improved
+the natural channel from the city to the Gulf of Mexico, straightening,
+widening and deepening it to a depth of 25 ft. for the entire
+distance from the Galveston jetties to the Houston turning
+basin&mdash;where the municipality has constructed free municipal
+wharves. The city occupies an unusually fine site on both sides
+of the Buffalo Bayou. Among the principal buildings are a
+Carnegie library, the Houston Lyceum, the Federal building,
+the Masonic temple, the city high school, the city hall and
+market house, the Harris County Court House, the Cotton
+Exchange, and the First and Commercial National banks.
+Houston is the seat of the Texas Dental College, of St Thomas
+College (1903), and of the Houston, Annunciation and St Agnes
+academies; and the will (1901) of William Marsh Rice provided
+an endowment (valued in 1908 at about $7,000,000) for the
+William M. Rice Institute for the Advancement of Literature,
+Science and Art, of which Dr Edgar Odell Lovett, formerly
+professor of mathematics (1900-1905) and of astronomy (1905-1908)
+in Princeton University, was made president in 1908.
+The city is the most important railway and shipping centre of
+South Texas, and has a large trade in cotton (the receipts for
+the year ending Aug. 31, 1907 being 2,967,535 bales), cotton-seed
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page829" id="page829"></a>829</span>
+oil, sugar, rice,<a name="fa1f" id="fa1f" href="#ft1f"><span class="sp">1</span></a> lumber and citrus fruits. Houston is important
+also as a manufacturing centre, its factory product being valued
+at $13,564,019 in 1905, an increase of 81% over the factory
+product in 1900. There are extensive railway car-shops, cotton-seed
+oil, petroleum and sugar refineries, cotton gins and compresses,
+steel rolling mills, car-wheel factories, boiler, pump and
+engine works, flour mills, rice mills and a rice elevator, breweries,
+planing and saw-mills, pencil factories, and brick and tile factories.
+Its proximity to the Texas oil fields gives the city a cheap factory
+fuel. The assessed valuation of taxable property in the city
+increased from $27,480,898 in 1900 to $51,513,615 in 1908.
+The No-Tsu Oh Carnival week each November is a distinctive
+feature of the city. Houston, like Galveston, adopted in 1905
+a very successful system of municipal government by commission,
+a commission of five (one of whom acts as mayor) being elected
+biennially and having both executive and legislative powers.
+The waterworks are owned and operated by the municipality,
+which greatly improved them from the city&rsquo;s surplus under the
+first two years of government by commission. In 1908 extensive
+improvements in paving, drainage and sewerage were undertaken
+by the city. The payment of an annual poll-tax of $2.50 is
+a prerequisite to voting. Houston was settled and laid out in
+1836, and was named in honour of General Sam Houston, whose
+home in Caroline Street was standing in 1908. In 1837-1839
+and in 1842-1845 Houston was the capital of the Republic of
+Texas. About 15 m. E.S.E. of the city is the battleground of
+San Jacinto, which was bought by the state in 1906 for a public
+memorial park.</p>
+
+<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note">
+
+<p><a name="ft1f" id="ft1f" href="#fa1f"><span class="fn">1</span></a> Much rice is cultivated in the vicinity of Houston by Japanese
+farmers.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HOUWALD, CHRISTOPH ERNST,<a name="ar65" id="ar65"></a></span> <span class="sc">Freiherr von</span> (1778-1845),
+German dramatist and author, was born at Straupitz
+in Lower Lusatia, a son of the president of the district court of
+justice, on the 28th of November 1778. He studied law at the
+university of Halle, and on completion of his academic studies
+returned home, married, and managed the family estates. In
+1816 he afforded a home to his friend K. W. S. Contessa (1777-1825),
+himself a poet, who had met with serious reverses of
+fortune; Contessa lived with Houwald, assisting and stimulating
+him in his literary work, for eight years. In 1821 Houwald was
+unanimously elected syndic for Lower Lusatia, an office which
+placed him at the head of the administration of the province.
+He died at Neuhaus, near Lübben, on the 28th of January 1845.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>Houwald is remembered as the author of several so-called &ldquo;Fate
+tragedies&rdquo; (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">German Literature</a></span>), of which the best known are
+<i>Das Bild</i>, <i>Der Leuchtturm</i>, <i>Die Heimkehr</i>, <i>Fluch und Segen</i> (all
+published in 1821). They have, however, small literary value, and
+Houwald is seen to better advantage in his narratives and books for
+juvenile readers, such as <i>Romantische Akkorde</i> (publ. by W. Contessa,
+Berlin, 1817); <i>Buch für Kinder gebildeter Stände</i> (1819-1824); and
+<i>Jakob Thau, der Hofnarr</i> (1821). Houwald&rsquo;s collected works,
+<i>Sämtliche Werke</i>, were published in five volumes (Leipzig, 1851;
+2nd ed., 1858-1859). See J. Minor, <i>Die Schicksalstragödie in ihren
+Hauptvertretern</i> (Frankfurt, 1883), and <i>Das Schicksalsdrama</i> in
+Kürschner&rsquo;s <i>Deutsche Nationalliteratur</i>; vol. cli. (Stuttgart, 1884);
+O. Schmidtborn, <i>C. E. von Houwald als Dramatiker</i> (1909).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HÒVA,<a name="ar66" id="ar66"></a></span> the name originally applied to the middle-class Malayo-Indonesian
+natives of Madagascar (<i>q.v.</i>), as distinct from the
+noble class <i>Andrìana</i> and the slave class <i>Andèvo</i>. Hòva has now
+come to mean the most numerous and powerful of the tribes
+which form the native population of Madagascar. The Hòva,
+who occupy the province of Imérina, the central plateau of the
+island, are of Malayo-Indonesian origin. The period at which
+the Hòva arrived in Madagascar is still a subject of dispute.
+Some think that the immigration took place in very early times,
+before Hinduism reached the Malay Archipelago, since no trace
+of Sanskrit is found in Malagasy. Others believe that the Hòva
+did not reach the island until the 12th or 13th century. At the
+French conquest of Madagascar (1895), the Hòva were the most
+powerful and, politically, the dominant people; but were far
+from having subjected the whole of the island to their rule.
+The Hòva are short and slim, with a complexion of a yellowish
+olive, many being fairer than the average of southern Europeans.
+Their hair is long, black and smooth but coarse. Their heads
+are round, with flat straight foreheads, flat faces, prominent
+cheekbones, small straight noses, fairly wide nostrils, and small
+black and slightly oblique eyes. The physical contrast to the
+negro is usually very obvious, but, especially among the lower
+classes, there is a tendency to thick lips, kinky hair and dark
+skin. In many of their customs, such as taboo, infanticide,
+marriage and funeral rites, they show their Indonesian origin.
+Most of them now profess Christianity.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HOVE,<a name="ar67" id="ar67"></a></span> a municipal borough of Sussex, England, adjoining the
+watering-place of Brighton on the west, on the London, Brighton,
+&amp; South Coast railway. Pop. (1901) 36,535. The great seawall
+of Brighton continues along the front at Hove, forming a
+pleasant promenade. Here is the Sussex county cricket ground.
+The municipal borough, incorporated in 1898, includes the
+parishes of Hove and Aldrington, of which the first is within the
+parliamentary borough of Brighton, but the second is in the
+Lewes division of the county. The corporation consists of a
+mayor, 10 aldermen and 30 councillors. Area, 1521 acres.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HOVENDEN, THOMAS<a name="ar68" id="ar68"></a></span> (1840-1895), American artist, was
+born in Dunmanway, Co. Cork, Ireland, on the 28th of
+December 1840. He was a pupil of the South Kensington Art
+Schools and those of the National Academy of Design, New
+York, whither he had removed in 1863. Subsequently he went
+to Paris and studied in the École des Beaux Arts under Cabanel,
+but passed most of his time with the American colony in Brittany,
+at Pont-Aven, where he painted many pictures of the peasantry.
+Returning to America in 1880, he became an academician in
+1882, and attracted attention by an important canvas of &ldquo;The
+Last Moments of John Brown&rdquo; (now in the Metropolitan
+Museum of Art). His &ldquo;Breaking Home Ties,&rdquo; a picture of
+American farm life, was engraved with considerable popular
+success. Hovenden was mortally injured in a heroic effort to
+save a child from a railroad train in the station at Germantown,
+near Philadelphia, and died at Norristown, Pennsylvania, on the
+14th of August 1895. Among his principal works are:&mdash;&ldquo;News
+from the Conscript&rdquo; (1877), &ldquo;Loyalist Peasant Soldier of La
+Vendée&rdquo; (1879). &ldquo;A Breton Interior,&rdquo; &ldquo;Image Seller&rdquo; and
+&ldquo;Jerusalem the Golden&rdquo; (in the Metropolitan Museum of Art).</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HOW, WILLIAM WALSHAM<a name="ar69" id="ar69"></a></span> (1823-1897), English divine, son
+of a Shrewsbury solicitor, was born on the 13th of December
+1823, and was educated at Shrewsbury school and Wadham
+College, Oxford. He was ordained in 1846, and for upwards of
+thirty years was actively engaged in parish work at Whittington
+in Shropshire and Oswestry (rural dean, 1860). He refused
+preferment on several occasions, but his energy and success made
+him well known, and in 1879 he became a suffragan bishop in
+London, under the title of bishop of Bedford, his province being
+the East End. There he became the inspiring influence of a
+revival of church work. He founded the East London Church
+Fund, and enlisted a large band of enthusiastic helpers, his
+popularity among all classes being immense. He was particularly
+fond of children, and was commonly called &ldquo;the children&rsquo;s
+bishop.&rdquo; In 1888 he was made bishop of Wakefield, and in the
+north of England he continued to do valuable work. His sermons
+were straightforward, earnest and attractive; and besides
+publishing several volumes of these, he wrote a good deal of
+verse, including such well-known hymns as &ldquo;Who is this so
+weak and helpless,&rdquo; &ldquo;Lord, Thy children guide and keep.&rdquo; In
+1863-1868 he brought out a <i>Commentary on the Four Gospels</i>;
+and he also wrote a <i>Manual for the Holy Communion</i>. In the
+movement for infusing new spiritual life into the church services,
+especially among the poor, How was a great force. He died on
+the 10th of August 1897. He was much helped in his earlier
+work by his wife. Frances A. Douglas (d. 1887).</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See his <i>Life</i> by his son, F. D. How (1898).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HOWARD<a name="ar70" id="ar70"></a></span> (<span class="sc">Family</span>). Among English families, the house of
+Howard has long held the first place. Its head, the duke of
+Norfolk, is the first of the dukes and the hereditary earl marshal
+of England, while the earls of Suffolk, Carlisle and Effingham and
+the Lord Howard of Glossop represent in the peerage its younger
+lines.</p>
+
+<p>Its founder was a Norfolk lawyer, William Howard or Haward,
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page830" id="page830"></a>830</span>
+who was summoned to parliament as a justice in 1295, being
+appointed a justice of the common pleas in 1297. Over the
+parentage of this man genealogists have disputed for centuries.
+The pedigree-makers have hailed him in turn as the descendant
+of a Norman &ldquo;Auber, earl of Passy&rdquo; and as the heir of Hereward,
+&ldquo;the last of the English.&rdquo; But out of the copies of Norfolk
+deeds and records collected for Thomas, earl of Arundel, in the
+early part of the 17th century, it seems clear enough that he
+sprang from a Norfolk family, several of whose members held
+lands at Wiggenhall near Lynn. These notes from deeds,
+evidently collected by an honest inquirer, make no extravagant
+claims of ancient ancestry or illustrious origin for the Howards,
+although the facts contained in them were recklessly manipulated
+by subservient genealogists. Doubtless the judge was the son
+of John Howard of Wiggenhall, living about 1260, whose widow
+Lucy, called by the genealogists the daughter of John Germund,
+was probably the wife of John Germund by her second marriage.
+William Howard was employed as counsel by the corporation of
+Lynn, and it is worthy of note that the &ldquo;crosslets fitchy&rdquo; in his
+shield of arms suggest the cross with which the dragon was
+discomfited by St Margaret, the patroness of Lynn. Prospering
+by the law, William Howard of Wiggenhall rose to knight&rsquo;s
+rank and acquired by purchase Grancourt&rsquo;s manor in East
+Winch, near Lynn, where he had his seat in a moated house
+whose ruins remain. He was probably dead and buried in his
+chapel at East Winch before November 27, 1308, the date of the
+patent by which Henry Scrope succeeded him as a commissioner
+of trailbaston. His two wives, Alice Ufford and Alice Fitton&mdash;heir
+of Fitton&rsquo;s manor in Wiggenhall&mdash;were both daughters of
+knightly houses. Before his death his eldest son, John Howard,
+was a knight and already advanced by his marriage with Joan of
+Cornwall, one of the bastard line founded by Richard of Cornwall,
+king of the Romans.</p>
+
+<p>Sir John Howard served in Edward II.&rsquo;s wars in Scotland and
+Gascony, was sheriff of Norfolk and Suffolk and governor of
+Norwich Castle. When he died in 1331 he was seised of many
+Norfolk manors. His son and heir, another Sir John, admiral of
+the king&rsquo;s navy in the north, was a banneret who displayed his
+banner in the army that laid siege to Calais. By the admiral&rsquo;s wife
+Alice, sister and heir of Sir Robert de Boys, the Howards had the
+Boys manor of Fersfield, near Diss, which is still among the
+possessions of the dukes of Norfolk. His son Sir Robert Howard,
+who had married a daughter of Sir Robert Scales (Lord Scales),
+died in 1388. From Sir John Howard, the only son of Sir Robert,
+two branches of the house of Howard spring. The elder line was
+soon extinct. By his first wife, Margaret, daughter and heir of
+Sir John Plays, Sir John Howard had a son who died before him,
+leaving a daughter through whom descended to her issue, the
+Veres, earls of Oxford, the ancient Norfolk estates of the Howards
+at East Winch and elsewhere, with the lands of the houses of
+Scales, Plays and Walton, brought in by the brides of her forefathers.
+After the death of Margaret Plays, her widower found,
+with the peculiar instinct of his race, a second well-endowed
+wife. By her, the heir of the Tendrings of Tendring, he had a
+second son, Sir Robert Howard, a knight who fought under
+Henry V. in France, and died, like his half-brother, before the old
+knight&rsquo;s career ended in 1436.</p>
+
+<p>It is to the marriage of this young knight that the house of
+Howard owes the tragedy of its greatness. He was a younger
+son, although he had some of his mother&rsquo;s inheritance. Had he
+married the landless daughter of a neighbour he might have been
+the ancestor of a line of Essex squires, whose careers would have
+had the parish topographer for chronicler. But his bride was
+Margaret Mowbray, daughter of the banished duke of Norfolk.
+Although this was a noble alliance, it is probable that the lady
+had no great portion. The head of her elder brother, the boy
+earl marshal, had been stricken off in the cornfield under the
+walls of York, but her younger brother&rsquo;s right to his father&rsquo;s
+dukedom was allowed by parliament in 1425.</p>
+
+<p>Sir John Howard, only son of the match between Howard
+and Mowbray, took service with his cousin the third duke of
+Norfolk, who had him returned as knight of the shire for Norfolk,
+where, according to the <i>Paston Letters</i>, this Howard of the
+Essex branch was regarded by the gentry as a strange man.
+He followed the White Rose and was knighted at the crowning
+of King Edward IV., who pricked him for sheriff of Norfolk and
+Suffolk. In the duke&rsquo;s quarrel he brawled with the Pastons,
+his wife boasting that, should her husband&rsquo;s men meet with
+John Paston &ldquo;there should go no penny for his life.&rdquo; &ldquo;And
+Howard,&rdquo; writes Clement Paston, &ldquo;hath with the king a great
+fellowship.&rdquo; Offices and lands came to John Howard by reason
+of that fellowship. Henry VI., when restored, summoned him
+to parliament in 1470 as Lord Howard, a summons which may
+have been meant to lure him to London into Warwick&rsquo;s power,
+but he proclaimed the Yorkist sovereign on his return and
+fought at Barnet and Tewkesbury. When peace was made,
+Edward summoned him again as a baron and gave him the
+Garter and the treasurership of his household. After Edward&rsquo;s
+burial, at which he bore the king&rsquo;s banner, Howard, an enemy
+of the Wydviles, linked his fortunes with those of the duke of
+Gloucester. At this time came his sudden lifting to the highest
+rank in the peerage. The last of the dukes of Norfolk had left
+a child heir, Anne Mowbray, married to the infant duke of York,
+the younger of the princes doomed by Richard in the Tower.
+By the death of this little girl, John Howard became one of the
+coheirs of her illustrious house, which was now represented by
+the issue of Margaret Mowbray, his mother, and of her sister
+Isabel, who had married James, Lord Berkeley. A lion&rsquo;s share
+of the Mowbray estates, swollen by the great alliances of the
+house, heir of Breouse and Segrave, and, through Segrave, of
+Thomas of Brotherton, son of Edward I., fell to Howard, who,
+by a patent of June 28, 1483, was created duke of Norfolk and
+earl marshal of England with a remainder to the heirs male of
+his body. On the same day the lord Berkeley, the other coheir,
+was made earl of Nottingham. High steward at Richard&rsquo;s
+crowning, the duke bore the crown and rode as marshal into
+Westminster Hall. For the rest of his life he was Richard&rsquo;s
+man, and though warned by the famous couplet that &ldquo;Dykon
+his master&rdquo; was bought and sold, &ldquo;Jack of Norfolk&rdquo; led the
+archer vanguard at Bosworth and died in the fight, from which
+his son the earl of Surrey was carried away a wounded prisoner.
+An attainder by the first parliament of Henry VII. extinguished
+the honours of the father with those of the son, who had been
+created an earl when the lord Howard was raised to the dukedom.
+Their estates were forfeit.</p>
+
+<p>Thomas Howard, a politic mind, loyal to the powers that be,
+was released from the Tower of London in 1489, his earldom
+of Surrey and his Garter restored. Accepting the position
+in which the Tudor king would have his great nobles, he became
+the faithful soldier, diplomatist and official of the new power.
+In his seventieth year, as lieutenant-general of the North, he
+led the English host on the great day of Flodden, earning a
+patent of the dukedom of Norfolk, dated 1 February 1513/4,
+and that strange patent which granted to him and his heirs
+that they should bear in the midst of the silver bend of their
+Howard shield a demi-lion stricken in the mouth with an arrow,
+in the right colours of the arms of the king of Scotland. This
+augmentation has been interpreted as a golden scocheon with the
+demi-lion within the Scottish tressure. Thus charged on the
+silver bend, it makes bad armory and it is worthy of note that,
+although the grant of it is clearly to the duke and his heirs in
+fee simple, Howards of all branches descending from the duke
+bear it in their shields, even though all right to it has long passed
+from the house to the duke&rsquo;s heirs general, the Stourtons and
+Petres.</p>
+
+<p>The victor of Flodden is the common ancestor of all living
+Howards that can show a descent from the main stock. The
+second duke, twice married, was father of at least eleven sons
+and six daughters, the sons including Edward the lord high
+admiral, killed in boarding Prégent&rsquo;s galleys at Brest, Edmund
+the knight marshal of the army at Flodden, and William the
+first Lord Howard of Effingham. The eldest son, Thomas,
+succeeded as the third duke of his name, although the second
+under the patent of 1514. He had fought as captain of the
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page831" id="page831"></a>831</span>
+vanguard at Flodden and after the victory was created earl of
+Surrey. When Richard III. was allying himself with the Howards,
+Thomas Howard, a boy of eleven, had been betrothed to Anne,
+daughter of the late King Edward IV., and Henry VII. allowed
+the marriage with his queen&rsquo;s sister to take place in 1495. This
+royal bride died of consumption, leaving no living child,
+and her husband took in 1513, as his second wife, Elizabeth
+Stafford, daughter of that duke of Buckingham upon whom the
+old duke of Norfolk, the tears upon his cheeks, was forced to
+pass sentence of death. Succeeding his father in 1524, Norfolk
+was created earl marshal in 1533. An unsuccessful diplomatist,
+his chief services in arms were the butchery in the north after
+the Pilgrimage of Grace and the raid into Scotland which ended
+with the rout of Solway Moss. He left his wife for a mistress,
+Elizabeth Holland, was in discord with his family, and lived to
+see his two nieces, Anne Boleyn and Catherine Howard, and his
+son Surrey, the fiery-tempered poet, go in turn to the block.
+He himself was attainted and was lying a prisoner in the Tower,
+doomed to die in the morning, on the night of the death of
+Henry VIII. He was not released until the accession of Mary,
+parliament restoring his dukedom on his petition for reversal
+of the attainder. His grandson Thomas succeeded him in 1554,
+and in 1556 made the second of those <span class="correction" title="amended from marraiges">marriages</span> which have
+given the Howards their high place among the English nobility.
+The bride was Mary, sole heir in her issue of her father Henry,
+the last of the Fitzalan earls of Arundel. Her father&rsquo;s line and
+the royal Stewards of Scotland sprang from one forefather,
+Alan, son of Flaald the Breton. The Mowbray match had already
+brought to the Howards the representation of an elder line
+of the Fitzalan earls, who sat in the seats of their ancestors,
+the Aubignys and Warennes, great earls near akin to their
+sovereigns. And now the younger line, earls of Arundel and
+Lords Mautravers, were also to have a Howard to represent
+them. From this time the spreading genealogy of the Howards
+drew its origins from most of the illustrious names of the houses
+founded after the Norman Conquest.</p>
+
+<p>The young duchess died in her seventeenth year after giving
+birth to a son, and the duke took a second wife from a humble
+stock, newly enriched and honoured, the daughter of Henry
+VIII.&rsquo;s subservient chancellor, the Lord Audley of Walden.
+Within ten years he married a third time, the lady being Elizabeth
+Leybourne, the widow of Lord Dacre of Gilsland. She survived
+her marriage but a few months and her husband then obtained
+the wardship of her Dacre offspring, a son who died young, and
+three daughters whom the duke, with the true Howard eye for
+a rich inheritance, gave as brides to three of his sons. After three
+such good fortunes by marriage Norfolk in his folly looked for
+a crown with a fourth match, listening to the laird of Lethington
+when he set forth the scheme by which the duke was to marry
+a restored queen of Scots and rule Scotland with her who should
+be recognized as Elizabeth&rsquo;s successor. Ten months in the Tower
+under strong suspicion would have warned another man, but
+Norfolk was unstable and false. After promising fidelity and
+the abandonment of the Scots marriage scheme, Cecil took him
+corresponding with Mary and tampering with the Ridolfi plot.
+He died on Tower Hill in 1572 for an example to the disloyal
+counties, protesting innocence and repentance, warning his
+children in a last letter to discredit all &ldquo;false bruits&rdquo; that he
+was a papist.</p>
+
+<p>By his attainder the Norfolk titles were once more forfeited.
+But Philip Howard, the son and heir, succeeded to the ancient
+earldom of Arundel in 1580, on the death of his maternal grandfather,
+while the Lord Lumley, his uncle by marriage, surrendered
+to him his life interest in the castle and honour of Arundel.
+The next year an act of parliament restored the earl in blood.
+After a profligate youth at court, he followed his wife in professing
+the Roman faith, and in 1585 made an attempt to leave
+England to seek safety from the penal laws. But his ship was
+boarded in the Channel and the earl, condemned by the Star-Chamber
+to a heavy fine and to imprisonment during the queen&rsquo;s
+pleasure, suffered a harsh captivity in the Tower. After the
+defeat of the Armada he had been condemned to death on a
+charge of high treason, founded on the tale drawn by torture from
+a priest, that Arundel had urged him to say a mass for the success
+of the Spaniards. But he was allowed to linger in his prison
+until 1595 when he died, the sight of his wife and children being
+cruelly refused to the dying man. Thus it befell that, of the chiefs
+of the Howards born since the great Mowbray alliance, two had
+died by the axe and one in the prison from which a fourth had
+hardly escaped. A fifth had fallen in a lost battle, and only one
+had died in peace in his own house.</p>
+
+<p>The ill fate of the Howards seemed to be appeased by the
+death of Philip, earl of Arundel. Tudor policy did its work well,
+and noblemen, however illustrious their pedigrees, could no
+longer be counted as menaces by the Crown, which was, indeed,
+finding another rival to its power. In the first year of James I.,
+Thomas, the young son of Earl Philip, was restored in blood and
+given the titles of Arundel and Surrey. But the lands belonging
+to these titles remained with the Crown and he had to repair his
+fortunes by one of those marriages which never failed his house,
+his wife being Alathea Talbot, who was at last the heir of Gilbert,
+earl of Shrewsbury. To the grief of his mother he left the Roman
+church. A knight of the Garter, he was in 1621 created earl
+marshal for life, and revived the jurisdiction belonging to the
+office. An act of 1627, one of several such aimed at aggrandizing
+families by diverting the descent of dignities in fee from heirs
+general, entailed the earldom and castle of Arundel upon Thomas,
+earl of Arundel and Surrey and the heirs male of his body &ldquo;and
+for default of such issue, to the heirs of his body.&rdquo; His pride
+and austerity made him unpopular at court and he left the
+country in 1642, settling at last in Padua, where he died in
+1646, impoverished by the sequestrations of the parliament,
+whose forces had taken and retaken his castle of Arundel.
+In answer to his petition for the dukedom, the king had, on
+the 6th of June 1644, given him a patent of the earldom of
+Norfolk, in order, as it would seem, to flatter him by suggesting
+that the title of Norfolk would at least be refused to any other
+family. He is celebrated as a collector of paintings, books, gems
+and sculptures, his &ldquo;Arundel marbles&rdquo; being given by his
+grandson in 1667 to the University of Oxford. The dukedom
+for which Arundel had petitioned Charles I. in vain was restored
+by act of the first parliament of Charles II. to his grandson
+Thomas, a lunatic living at Padua, on whose death in 1677 it
+passed to this Thomas&rsquo;s brother, Henry Frederick, who had been
+created earl of Norwich and hereditary earl marshal of England
+in 1672. In 1777 Edward, the ninth of the Howard dukes, died
+childless in his ninety-second year. With him ended the earldom
+of Norwich, while the representation of the Mowbrays and
+Segraves passed to his nieces, the Ladies Stourton and Petre,
+the abeyance of the two baronies being determined in 1878 in
+favour of Lord Stourton. Under the act of 1627 the earldom
+of Arundel and the castle passed with the dukedom to a second
+cousin, Charles Howard of Greystock (d. 1786), an eccentric
+recluse. At his death in 1786 he was succeeded by his son
+Charles, the notorious &ldquo;Jockey of Norfolk,&rdquo; the big, coarse,
+generous, slovenly, hard-drinking Whig of whom all the memoir-writers
+of his age have their anecdotes. He conformed to the
+Church of England and spent a vast sum in restoring Arundel
+Castle. A third cousin succeeded him in 1815, Bernard Edward
+Howard, who, although a Roman Catholic, was enabled, by the
+act of 1824, to act as earl marshal. This was the grandfather
+of the fifteenth duke, earl of Arundel, Surrey and Norfolk, and
+hereditary earl marshal of England.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>The eldest of the cadet branches of the ducal house has its origin
+in William (<i>c.</i> 1510-1573), eldest son of the victor of Flodden by his
+second marriage. He survived the reign of Henry VIII., that
+perilous age for the Howards, with no worse misadventure than the
+conviction of himself and his wife of misprision of treason in concealing
+the offences of his niece, Queen Catherine. But both were pardoned.
+In 1553 he had the office of lord admiral of England, and in the next
+year the Garter. For his services against Sir Thomas Wyat he
+was created (March 11, 1553/4) Lord Howard of Effingham, the
+title being taken from a Surrey manor granted him by Edward VI.
+Queen Elizabeth continued his employment in diplomacy, and had
+he been richer he might have had an earldom. His eldest son
+Charles (1536-1624), lord admiral of England in 1585, sailed as
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page832" id="page832"></a>832</span>
+commander in chief against the Spanish Armada, and, although
+giving due weight to the counsel of Drake and his other officers,
+showed himself a leader as prudent as courageous. He was created
+earl of Nottingham in 1596 and died in 1624. The legend that the
+admiral was a Roman Catholic has no authority. Two of his sons
+succeeded in turn to the earldom of Nottingham, extinct on the
+death of Charles, the third earl in 1681. Sir William Howard of
+Lingfield, younger brother of the great admiral, carried on the
+Effingham line, his great-grandson succeeding to the barony on the
+extinction of the earldom. Francis, seventh Lord Howard of
+Effingham, was created earl of Effingham in 1731, a title extinct in
+1816 with the fourth earl, but revived again in 1837 for the eleventh
+baron, who had served as a general officer in the Peninsular campaign,
+the great-grandfather of the present peer.</p>
+
+<p>A patent of 1604 created Henry Howard (1540-1614), younger
+son of Surrey the poet, earl of Northampton, a peerage which ended
+with the death of this, the most unprincipled of his house.</p>
+
+<p>Thomas, son of the fourth duke of Norfolk&rsquo;s marriage with the
+daughter and heir of Thomas, Lord Audley of Walden, founded the
+line of the present earls of Suffolk and Berkshire and of the extinct
+Lords Howard of Escrick. His barony of Howard of Walden has
+descended to his heirs general. Lord William Howard (1563-1640),
+the &ldquo;belted Will&rdquo; of Scott&rsquo;s Lay and the &ldquo;bauld Willie&rdquo; of more
+authentic legend, was another of the sons of the fourth duke and
+Margaret Audley. Married in 1577 to one of the three co-heirs of
+the Lord Dacre of Gilsland he suffered under Elizabeth more than
+one imprisonment with his brother the unfortunate earl of Arundel.
+But in 1603 he was able, on the partition of the Dacre lands, to
+make his home at Naworth Castle, where he lived, a border patriarch,
+cultivating his estates and serving as a commissioner of the borders.
+His great-grandson Charles Howard, although fledged in a nest of
+cavaliers, changed sides and fought at Worcester for the parliament.
+The Protector summoned him in 1657 to his House of Lords, but he
+was imprisoned in 1659 on suspicion of a share in Booth&rsquo;s insurrection
+and, after the Restoration, was created, in 1661, earl of
+Carlisle, Viscount Morpeth and Lord Dacre of Gilsland, titles which
+are still held by his descendants. From Sir Francis Howard, a
+cavalier colonel and a younger son of &ldquo;bauld Willie,&rdquo; come the
+Howards of Corby Castle in Cumberland, a branch without a hereditary
+title.</p>
+
+<p>William Howard, Viscount Stafford, was the fifth son of Thomas,
+earl of Arundel, and grandson of Philip the prisoner. Marrying
+the sister and heir of the fifth Lord Stafford, who died in 1637, he
+and his wife were created Baron and Baroness Stafford by a patent
+of 1640, with remainder, in default of heirs male, to heirs female.
+A grant of the precedence enjoyed by the bride&rsquo;s father being held
+illegal, her husband was in the same year created Viscount Stafford.
+Roger Stafford, the impoverished heir male of the ancient Staffords,
+had been forced to surrender his barony to the king by a deed dated
+in the preceding year, a piece of injustice which is in the teeth of all
+modern conceptions of peerage law. The Viscount Stafford was one
+of the &ldquo;five Popish lords&rdquo; committed to the Tower in 1678 as a
+result of the slanders of Titus Oates and he died by the axe in 1680
+upon testimony which, as the diarist Evelyn protested, &ldquo;should not
+be taken against the life of a dog.&rdquo; But three earls of his own
+house&mdash;Carlisle, Suffolk and Berkshire&mdash;and the Lord Howard of
+Escrick, an ex-trooper of Cromwell&rsquo;s guard and an anabaptist
+sectary, gave their votes against him, his nephew Mowbray being
+the only peer of his name in the minority for acquittal. In 1688 his
+widow was created countess of Stafford for life, and his eldest son,
+Henry, had the earldom of Stafford, with special remainder to his
+brothers. This earldom ended in 1762, but the attainder was
+reversed by an act of 1824 and in the following year Sir George
+Jerningham, the heir general, established his claim to the Stafford
+barony of 1640.</p>
+
+<p><span class="sc">Authorities.</span>&mdash;State papers; patent, close and plea rolls.
+Tierney, <i>History of Arundel</i>; G. E. C., <i>Complete Peerage</i>; J. H.
+Round, <i>Peerage Studies</i>; Howard of Corby, <i>Memorials of the Family
+of Howard</i>; Brenan and Statham, <i>House of Howard</i>; Howard,
+<i>Historical Anecdotes of the Howard Family</i>; Morant, <i>Essex</i>; Blomefield,
+<i>Norfolk</i>.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(O. Ba.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HOWARD, CATHERINE<a name="ar71" id="ar71"></a></span> (d. 1542), the fifth queen of Henry
+VIII., was a daughter of Lord Edmund Howard and a granddaughter
+of Thomas Howard, 2nd duke of Norfolk (d. 1524).
+Her father was very poor, and Catherine lived mainly with
+Agnes, widow of the 2nd duke of Norfolk, meeting the king
+at the house of Stephen Gardiner, bishop of Winchester. Henry
+was evidently charmed by her; the Roman Catholic party,
+who disliked the marriage with Anne of Cleves, encouraged
+his attentions; and after Anne&rsquo;s divorce he was privately
+married to Catherine at Oatlands in July 1540. Soon afterwards
+she was publicly acknowledged as queen. Before her marriage
+Catherine had had several lovers, among them being a musician,
+Henry Mannock, or Manox; her cousin, Thomas Culpepper;
+and Francis Dereham, to whom she had certainly been betrothed.
+After becoming queen she occasionally met Dereham and
+Culpepper, and in November 1541 Archbishop Cranmer informed
+Henry that his queen&rsquo;s past life had not been stainless. Cranmer
+had obtained his knowledge indirectly from an old servant of the
+duchess of Norfolk. Dereham confessed to his relations with
+Catherine, and after some denials the queen herself admitted
+that this was true; but denied that she had ever been betrothed
+to Dereham, or that she had misconducted herself since her
+marriage. Dereham and Culpepper were executed in December
+1541 and their accomplices were punished, but Catherine was
+released from prison. Some fresh information, however, very
+soon came to light showing that she had been unchaste since
+her marriage; a bill of attainder was passed through parliament,
+and on the 13th of February 1542 the queen was beheaded.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See A. Strickland, <i>Lives of the Queens of England</i> (vol. iii. 1877).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HOWARD, JOHN<a name="ar72" id="ar72"></a></span> (1726-1790), English philanthropist and
+prison reformer, was born at Hackney, probably on the 2nd of
+September 1726. His childhood was passed at Cardington,
+near Bedford, where his father, a retired merchant of independent
+means, had a small estate. He was apprenticed to a firm of
+grocers in the city of London, but on the death of his father in
+1742, by which he inherited considerable property, he bought
+up his indenture, and devoted more than a year to foreign travel.
+Never constitutionally strong, he became, on his return to
+England, a confirmed invalid. Having been nursed through an
+acute illness by an attentive landlady, a widow of some fifty-three
+years of age, Howard, in return for her kindness, offered
+her marriage and they were united in 1752. Becoming a widower
+in less than three years, he determined to go abroad again,
+Portugal being his destination. The ship, however, in which
+he sailed was taken by a French privateer, the crew and passengers
+being carried to Brest, where they were treated with great
+severity. Howard was permitted to return to England on
+parole to negotiate an exchange, which he accomplished, as
+well as successfully representing the case of his fellow-captives.
+He now settled down on his Cardington property, interesting
+himself in meteorological observations. He was admitted a
+member of the Royal Society in 1756. In 1758 he married
+Henrietta, daughter of Edward Leeds, of Croxton, Cambridgeshire.
+He continued to lead a secluded life at Cardington and
+at Watcombe, Hampshire, busying himself in the construction
+of model cottages and the erection of schools. In 1765 his
+second wife died after giving birth to a son. In the following
+year Howard went for a prolonged foreign tour, from which he
+returned in 1770.</p>
+
+<p>In 1773 the characteristic work of his life may be said to
+have begun by his acceptance of the office of high sheriff of
+Bedford. When the assizes were held he did not content himself
+with sitting out the trials in open court, his inquisitiveness and his
+benevolence alike impelled him to visit the gaol. Howard found
+it, like all the prisons of the time, wretchedly defective in its
+arrangements; but what chiefly shocked him was the circumstance
+that neither the gaoler nor his subordinates were salaried
+officers, but were dependent for their livelihood on fees from
+the prisoners. He found that some whom the juries had declared
+not guilty, others in whom the grand jury had not found even
+such appearance of guilt as would warrant a trial, others whose
+prosecutors had failed to appear, were frequently detained in
+prison for months after they had ceased to be in the position
+of accused parties, until they should have paid the fees of gaol
+delivery (see Introduction to <i>The State of the Prisons of England
+and Wales</i>). His prompt application to the justices of the
+county for a salary to the gaoler in lieu of his fees was met by a
+demand for a precedent in charging the county with an expense.
+This he undertook to find if such a thing existed. He went
+accordingly from county to county, and though he could find
+no precedent for charging the county with the wages of its
+servants he did find so many abuses in prison management
+that he determined to devote himself to their reform.</p>
+
+<p>In 1774 he gave evidence before a committee of the House
+of Commons, and received the thanks of the house for &ldquo;the
+humanity and zeal which have led him to visit the several gaols
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page833" id="page833"></a>833</span>
+of this kingdom, and to communicate to the House the interesting
+observations which he has made on that subject.&rdquo; Almost
+immediately an act was passed which provided for the liberation,
+free of all charges, of every prisoner against whom the grand
+jury failed to find a true bill, giving the gaoler a sum from the
+county rate in lieu of the abolished fees. This was followed in
+June by another requiring justices of the peace to see that the
+walls and ceilings of all prisons within their jurisdiction were
+scraped and whitewashed once a year at least; that the rooms
+were regularly cleaned and ventilated; that infirmaries were
+provided for the sick, and proper care taken to get them medical
+advice; that the naked should be clothed; that underground
+dungeons should be used as little as could be; and generally
+that such courses should be taken as would tend to restore and
+preserve the health of the prisoners. It was highly characteristic
+of the man that, having caused the provisions of the new legislation
+to be printed at his own private cost in large type, he sent
+a copy to every gaoler and warder in the kingdom, that no one
+should be able to plead ignorance of the law if detected in the
+violation of its provisions. He then set out upon a new tour of
+inspection, from which, however, he was brought home by the
+approach of a general election in September 1774. Standing
+as one of the anti-ministerial candidates for Bedford, he was
+returned by a narrow majority but was unseated after a
+scrutiny.</p>
+
+<p>After a tour in Scotland and Ireland, he set out in April 1775
+upon an extended tour through France, the Low Countries
+and Germany. At Paris he was at first denied access to the
+prisons; but, by recourse to an old and almost obsolete law of
+1717, according to which any person wishing to distribute alms
+to the prisoners was to be admitted, he succeeded in inspecting
+the Bicêtre, the Force l&rsquo;Évêque and most of the other places
+of confinement, the only important exception being the Bastille.
+Even in that case he succeeded in obtaining possession of a
+suppressed pamphlet, which he afterwards translated and
+published in English, to the unconcealed chagrin of the French
+authorities. At Ghent he examined with special interest the
+great Maison de Force, then recently erected, with its distinctive
+features&mdash;useful labour, in the profits of which the prisoners
+had a share, and complete separation of the inmates by night.
+At Amsterdam, as in Holland generally, he was much struck
+with the comparative absence of crime, a phenomenon which
+he attributed to the industrial and reformatory treatment there
+adopted. In Germany he found little that was useful and much
+that was repulsive; in Hanover and Osnabrück, under the rule
+of a British sovereign, he even found traces of torture. After
+a short tour in England (Nov. 1775 to May 1776), he again
+went abroad, extending his tour to several of the Swiss cantons.
+In 1777 appeared <i>The State of the Prisons in England and Wales,
+with Preliminary Observations, and an Account of some Foreign
+Prisons</i>. One of the immediate results was the drafting a bill
+for the establishment of penitentiary houses, where by means
+of solitary imprisonment, accompanied by well-regulated
+labour and religious instruction, the object of reforming the
+criminal and inuring him to habits of industry might be pursued.
+New buildings were manifestly necessary; and Howard volunteered
+to go abroad again and collect plans. He first went
+to Amsterdam (April 1778), and carefully examined the &ldquo;spin-houses&rdquo;
+and &ldquo;rasp-houses&rdquo;<a name="fa1g" id="fa1g" href="#ft1g"><span class="sp">1</span></a> for which that city was famous;
+next he traversed Prussia, Saxony, Bohemia, Austria and Italy,
+everywhere inspecting prisons, hospitals and workhouses, and
+carefully recording the merits and defects of each. The information
+he thus obtained having been placed at the service of
+parliament, a bill was passed for building two penitentiary
+houses, and Howard was appointed first supervisor, but he
+resigned the post before anything practical had been achieved.
+In 1780 he had published a quarto volume as an appendix (the
+first) to his <i>State of Prisons</i>; about the same time also he
+caused to be printed his translation of the suppressed French
+pamphlet on the Bastille; but on obtaining release from his
+employments at home his passion for accumulating statistics
+urged him to new and more extended continental tours, as far
+as to Denmark, Sweden and Russia in 1781, and to Spain and
+Portugal in 1783. The results of these journeys were embodied
+in 1784 in a second appendix, with the publication of which his
+direct labours in connexion with the subject of prison reform
+may be said to have ceased.</p>
+
+<p>The five remaining years of his life were chiefly devoted to
+researches on the means for prevention of the plague, and for
+guarding against the propagation of contagious distempers
+in general. After an extended tour on the continent his researches
+seemed to be complete; and with a great accumulation of papers
+and memoranda, he was preparing to return homewards from
+Constantinople by Vienna, when it occurred to his scrupulous
+mind that he still lacked any personal experience of quarantine
+discipline. He returned to Smyrna, and, deliberately choosing
+a foul ship, took a passage to Venice. A protracted voyage
+of sixty days, during which an attack by pirates gave Howard
+an opportunity of manifesting his personal bravery, was followed
+by a weary term of confinement which enabled him to gain the
+experience he had desired. While imprisoned in the Venetian
+lazaretto he received the information that his only son, a youth
+of twenty-two years of age, had lost his reason and had been
+put under restraint. Returning hastily by Trieste and Vienna
+(where he had a long and singular interview with the emperor
+Joseph II.), he reached England in February 1787. His first
+care related to his domestic concerns; he then set out upon
+another journey of inspection of the prisons of the United
+Kingdom, at the same time busying himself in preparing for
+the press the results of his recent tour. The somewhat rambling
+work containing them was published in 1798 at Warrington,
+under the title <i>An Account of the Principal Lazarettos in Europe:
+with various Papers relative to the Plague, together with further
+Observations on some Foreign Prisons and Hospitals, and additional
+Remarks on the present State of those in Great Britain and
+Ireland</i>.</p>
+
+<p>In July 1789 he embarked on what proved to be his last
+journey. Travelling overland to St Petersburg and Moscow,
+and so southwards, and visiting the principal military hospitals
+that lay on his route, he reached Kherson in November. In the
+hospitals of this place and of the immediate neighbourhood he
+found more than enough to occupy his attention while he awaited
+the means of transit to Constantinople. Towards the end of the
+year his medical advice was asked in the case of a young lady who
+was suffering under the camp fever then prevalent, and in
+attending her he himself took the disease, which terminated
+fatally on the 20th of January 1790. He was buried near the
+village of Dauphigny on the road to St Nicholas. There is a
+statue by Bacon to his memory in St Paul&rsquo;s, London, and one at
+Bedford by A. Gilbert. In personal appearance Howard is
+described as having been short, thin and sallow&mdash;unprepossessing
+apart from the attraction of a penetrating eye and a
+benevolent smile.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p><span class="sc">Authorities.</span>&mdash;<i>Anecdotes of the Life and Character of John Howard,
+written by a Gentleman</i> (1790); Aikin, <i>View of the Character and
+Public Services of the late John Howard</i>. (1792); <i>Memoirs</i> by J.
+Baldwin Brown (1818); T. Taylor (1836), Hepworth Dixon (1849),
+J. Field (1850), and J. Stoughton, <i>Howard the Philanthropist</i> (1884).</p>
+</div>
+
+<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note">
+
+<p><a name="ft1g" id="ft1g" href="#fa1g"><span class="fn">1</span></a> The spinhouses were for women prisoners, who were set to
+spinning or other useful work; in the rasp-houses, the prisoners
+were employed in rasping wood.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HOWARD, OLIVER OTIS<a name="ar73" id="ar73"></a></span> (1830-1909), American soldier, was
+born in Leeds, Maine, on the 8th of November 1830. He graduated
+at Bowdoin College in 1850, and at the U.S. Military
+Academy in 1854. In 1857 he served in Florida against the
+Seminole Indians, and from 1857 to 1861 he was assistant
+professor of mathematics at West Point. At the beginning of the
+Civil War he resigned to become colonel of the 3rd Maine volunteer
+regiment, and at the first battle of Bull Run was in command
+of a brigade. In September he was promoted brigadier-general
+of volunteers. He served in the Peninsular Campaign, and at
+the battle of Seven Pines (Fair Oaks) he was twice wounded,
+losing his right arm. On his return to active service in August
+1862 he took part in the Virginian campaigns of 1862-63; at
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page834" id="page834"></a>834</span>
+Antietam he succeeded Sedgwick in command of a division, and
+he became major-general of volunteers in March 1863. In the
+campaign of Chancellorsville (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Wilderness</a></span>) he commanded the
+XI. corps, which was routed by &ldquo;Stonewall&rdquo; Jackson, and in the
+first day&rsquo;s battle at Gettysburg he was for some hours (succeeding
+Doubleday after Reynolds&rsquo;s death) in command of the Union
+troops. The XI. corps was transferred to Tennessee after
+Rosecrans&rsquo;s defeat at Chickamauga, and formed part of Hooker&rsquo;s
+command in the great victory of Chattanooga. When Sherman
+prepared to invade Georgia in the spring of 1864 the XI. corps was
+merged with the XII. into the new XX., commanded by Hooker,
+and Howard was then placed, in command of the new IV. corps,
+which he led in all the actions of the Atlanta campaign, receiving
+another wound at Pickett&rsquo;s Mills. On the death in action of
+General M&rsquo;Pherson, Howard, in July 1864, was selected to command
+the Army of the Tennessee. In this position he took part
+in the &ldquo;March to the Sea&rdquo; and the Carolinas campaign. In
+March 1865 he was breveted major-general U.S.A. &ldquo;for gallant
+and meritorious service in the battle of Ezra Church and during
+the campaign against Atlanta,&rdquo; and in 1893 received a Congressional
+medal of honour for bravery at Fair Oaks. After the
+peace he served as commissioner of the Bureau of Refugees,
+Freedmen and Abandoned Lands from 1865 until 1874; in 1872
+he was special commissioner to the hostile Apaches of New
+Mexico and Arizona; in 1874-1881 was in command of the
+Department of the Columbia and conducted the campaign
+against Chief Joseph in 1877 and that against the Bannocks and
+Piutes in 1878. In 1881-1882 he was superintendent of West
+Point; and in 1882-1886 he commanded the Department of
+the Platte, in 1886-1888 the Department of the Pacific, and in
+1888-1894 the Department of the East. In 1886 he was promoted
+major-general and in 1894 he retired. He died at
+Burlington, Vermont, on the 26th of October 1909.</p>
+
+<p>Howard was deeply interested, in the welfare of the negroes;
+and the establishment by the U.S. Government in 1867
+of Howard University, at Washington, especially for their
+education, was largely due to him; it was named in his
+honour, and from 1869 to 1873 he presided over it. In 1895
+he founded for the education of the &ldquo;mountain whites&rdquo; the
+Lincoln Memorial University at Cumberland Gap, Tenn. (see
+<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Cumberland Mountains</a></span>), and became president of its board.
+He held honorary degrees of various universities, and was a
+chevalier of the Legion of Honour. He wrote, amongst other
+works, <i>Donald&rsquo;s Schooldays</i> (1877); <i>Chief Joseph</i> (1881); a life
+of General Zachary Taylor (1892) in the &ldquo;Great Commanders&rdquo;
+series; <i>Isabella of Castile</i> (1894); <i>Fighting for Humanity</i>
+(1898); <i>Henry in the War</i> (1898); papers in the &ldquo;Battles and
+Leaders&rdquo; collection on the Atlanta campaign; <i>My Life and
+Experience among our Hostile Indians</i> (1907); and <i>Autobiography
+of O. O. Howard</i> (2 vols., New York, 1907).</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HOWARD, SIR ROBERT<a name="ar74" id="ar74"></a></span> (1626-1698), English dramatist,
+sixth son of Thomas Howard, 1st earl of Berkshire, was born in
+1626. He was knighted at the second battle of Newbury (1644)
+for his signal courage on the Royalist side. Imprisoned in
+Windsor Castle under the Commonwealth, his loyalty was
+rewarded at the Restoration, and he eventually became auditor
+of the exchequer. His best play is a comedy, <i>The Committee, or
+the Faithful Irishman</i> (1663; printed 1665), which kept the stage,
+long after its interest as a political satire was exhausted, for the
+character of Teague, said to have been drawn from one of his own
+servants. He was an early patron of Dryden, who married his
+sister, Lady Elizabeth Howard, and in the <i>Indian Queen</i>, a
+tragedy in heroic verse (1664; pr. 1665) Howard had assistance
+from Dryden, although the fact was not made public until the
+production of Dryden&rsquo;s <i>Indian Emperor</i>. The magnificence of
+the spectacle, and the novelty of the costume of feathers, presented
+by Mrs. Aphra Behn, that was worn by Zempoalla, the
+Indian queen, made a great sensation. The scenery and accessories
+were unusually brilliant, the richest ever seen in England,
+according to Evelyn. In 1665 Howard published <i>Foure New
+Plays</i>, in the preface to which he opposed the view maintained
+by Dryden in the dedicatory epistle to <i>The Rival Ladies</i>, that
+rhyme was better suited to the heroic tragedy than blank verse.
+Howard made an exception in favour of the rhyme of Lord
+Orrery, but by his silence concerning Dryden implicated him in
+the general censure. Dryden answered by placing Howard&rsquo;s
+sentiments in the mouth of Crites in his own <i>Essay on Dramatic
+Poesy</i> (1668). The controversy did not end here, but Dryden
+completely worsted his adversary in the 1668 edition of <i>The
+Indian Emperor</i>. Howard died on the 3rd of September 1698.</p>
+
+<p>His brother, James Howard, wrote two comedies, <i>All Mistaken,
+or the Mad Couple</i>, a comedy (1667; pr. 1672), and <i>The English
+Mounsieur</i> (1666; pr. 1674), the success of which seems to have
+been partly due to the acting of Nell Gwynn.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HOWARD, LORD WILLIAM<a name="ar75" id="ar75"></a></span> (1563-1640), known as &ldquo;Belted,
+or Bauld (bold) Will,&rdquo; 3rd son of Thomas Howard, 4th duke of
+Norfolk (executed in 1572), and of his second wife Margaret,
+daughter of Lord Audley, was born at Audley End in Essex
+on the 19th of December 1563. He married on the 28th of
+October 1577 Elizabeth, daughter of Thomas, Lord Dacre, and
+proceeded subsequently to the University of Cambridge. Being
+suspected of treasonable intentions together with his elder
+brother, Philip, earl of Arundel, he was imprisoned in 1583,
+1585 and 1589. He joined the church of Rome in 1584, both
+brothers being dispossessed by the queen of a portion of their
+Dacre estates, which were, however, restored in 1601 for a payment
+of £10,000. Howard then took up his residence with his
+children and grandchildren at Naworth Castle in Cumberland,
+restored the castle, improved the estate and established order
+in that part of the country. In 1603, on the accession of James,
+he had been restored in blood. In 1618 he was made one of the
+commissioners for the border, and performed great services
+in upholding the law and suppressing marauders. Lord William
+was a learned and accomplished scholar, praised by Camden,
+to whom he sent inscriptions and drawings from relics collected
+by him from the Roman wall, as &ldquo;a singular lover of valuable
+antiquity and learned withal.&rdquo; He collected a valuable library,
+of which most of the printed works remain still at Naworth,
+though the MSS. have been dispersed, a portion being now in
+the Arundel MSS. in the Royal College of Arms; he corresponded
+with Ussher and was intimate with Camden, Spelman, and
+Cotton, whose eldest son married his daughter. He published,
+in 1592 an edition of Florence of Worcester&rsquo;s <i>Chronicon ex
+Chronicis</i>, dedicated to Lord Burghley, and drew up a genealogy
+of his family, now among the duke of Norfolk&rsquo;s MSS. at Norfolk
+House. He died in October 1640 at Greystock, to which place
+he had been removed when failing in health to escape the Scots
+who were threatening an advance on Naworth. He had a large
+family of children, of whom Philip, his heir, was the grandfather
+of Charles, 1st earl of Carlisle, and Francis was the ancestor of
+the Howards of Corby.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HOWARD OF EFFINGHAM, WILLIAM HOWARD,<a name="ar76" id="ar76"></a></span> 1st
+<span class="sc">Baron</span> (<i>c.</i> 1510-1573), English lord high admiral, was the son
+of the 2nd duke of Norfolk. He was popular with Henry VIII.,
+and at Anne Boleyn&rsquo;s coronation was deputy earl marshal;
+and he was sent on missions to Scotland and France; but in
+1541 he was charged with abetting his relative Queen Catherine
+Howard, and was convicted of misprision of treason, but pardoned.
+In 1552 he was made governor of Calais, and in 1553 lord high
+admiral, being created Baron Howard of Effingham in 1554
+for his defence of London in Sir Thomas Wyat&rsquo;s rebellion against
+Queen Mary. He befriended the princess Elizabeth, but his
+popularity with the navy saved him from Mary&rsquo;s resentment;
+and when Elizabeth became queen he had great influence with
+her and filled several important posts. His son, the second
+baron, who is famous in English naval history, was created earl
+of Nottingham (<i>q.v.</i>); and from a younger son the later earls
+of Effingham were descended. William&rsquo;s descendant, Francis
+(d. 1695), inherited the barony of Howard of Effingham on the
+death of his cousin, Charles, in 1681; and Francis&rsquo;s son, Francis
+(1683-1743), was created earl of Effingham in 1731. This earldom
+became extinct on the death of Richard, the fourth holder, in
+1816; but it was created again in 1837 in favour of Kenneth
+Alexander (1767-1845), another of William Howard&rsquo;s descendants,
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page835" id="page835"></a>835</span>
+who had succeeded to the barony of Howard of Effingham in
+1816.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HOWE, ELIAS<a name="ar77" id="ar77"></a></span> (1819-1867), American sewing-machine
+inventor, was born in Spencer, Massachusetts, on the 9th of July
+1819. His early years were spent on his father&rsquo;s farm. In 1835
+he entered the factory of a manufacturer of cotton-machinery
+at Lowell, Massachusetts, where he learned the machinist&rsquo;s
+trade. Subsequently, while employed in a machine shop at
+Cambridge, Mass., he conceived the idea of a sewing machine,
+and for five years spent all his spare time in its development.
+In September 1846 a patent for a practical sewing machine was
+granted to him; and Howe spent the following two years
+(1847-1849) in London, employed by William Thomas, a corset
+manufacturer, to whom he had sold the English rights for £250.
+Years of disappointment and discouragement followed before
+he was successful in introducing his invention, and several
+imitations which infringed his patent, particularly that of Isaac
+Merritt Singer (1811-1875), had already been successfully
+introduced and were widely used. His rights were established
+after much litigation in 1854, and by the date of expiration
+of his patent (1867) he had realized something over $2,000,000
+out of his invention. He died in Brooklyn, New York, on the
+3rd of October 1867.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See <i>History of the Sewing Machine and of Elias Howe, Jr., the
+Inventor</i> (Detroit, 1867); P. G. Hubert, Jr., <i>Inventors</i>, in &ldquo;Men of
+Achievement&rdquo; series (New York, 1893).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HOWE, JOHN<a name="ar78" id="ar78"></a></span> (1630-1706), English Puritan divine, was born
+on the 17th of May 1630 at Loughborough, Leicestershire,
+where his father was vicar. On the 19th of May 1647 he entered
+Christ&rsquo;s College, Cambridge, as a sizar, and in the following
+year took his degree of B.A. During his residence at the university
+he made the acquaintance of Ralph Cudworth, Henry
+More and John Smith, from intercourse with whom, as well
+as from direct acquaintance with the <i>Dialogues</i> themselves,
+his mind received that &ldquo;Platonic tinge&rdquo; so perceptible in
+his writings. Immediately after graduation at Cambridge, he
+migrated to Oxford, where he became fellow and chaplain of
+Magdalen College, proceeding M.A. in 1652. He was then
+ordained by Charles Herle (1598-1659), the Puritan rector of
+Winwick, and in 1654 went as perpetual curate to Great Torrington
+in Devon, where he preached the discourses which later
+took shape in his treatises on <i>The Blessedness of the Righteous</i>
+and on <i>Delighting in God</i>. In the beginning of 1657 a journey
+to London accidentally brought Howe under the notice of
+Cromwell, who made him his domestic chaplain. In this position
+his conduct was such as to win the praise of even the bitterest
+enemies of his party. Without overlooking his fellow-Puritans,
+he was always ready to help pious and learned men of other
+schools. Seth Ward (afterwards bishop of Exeter) and Thomas
+Fuller were among those who profited by Howe&rsquo;s kindness, and
+were not ashamed subsequently to express their gratitude for
+it. On the resignation of Richard Cromwell, Howe returned to
+Great Torrington, to leave it again in 1662 on the passing of
+the Act of Uniformity. For several years he led a wandering
+and uncertain life, preaching in secret as occasion offered to
+handfuls of trusted hearers. Being in straits he published in
+1668 <i>The Blessedness of the Righteous</i>; the reputation which
+he thus acquired procured him an invitation from Lord
+Massereene, of Antrim Castle, Ireland, with whom he lived for
+five or six years as domestic chaplain, frequently preaching in
+public, with the approval of the bishop of the diocese. Here
+too he produced the most eloquent of his shorter treatises,
+<i>The Vanity of Man as Mortal</i>, and <i>On Delighting in God</i>, and
+planned his best work, <i>The Living Temple</i>. In the beginning of
+1676 he accepted an invitation to become joint-pastor of a nonconformist
+congregation at Haberdashers&rsquo; Hall, London; and
+in the same year he published the first part of <i>The Living Temple</i>
+entitled <i>Concerning God&rsquo;s Existence and his Conversableness with
+Man: Against Atheism or the Epicurean Deism</i>. In 1677
+appeared his tractate <i>On the Reconcileableness of God&rsquo;s Prescience
+of the Sins of Men with the Wisdom and Sincerity of His Counsels,
+Exhortations and whatsoever means He uses to prevent them</i>,
+which was attacked from various quarters, and had Andrew
+Marvell for one of its defenders. <i>On Thoughtfulness for the Morrow</i>
+followed in 1681; <i>Self-Dedication</i> and <i>Union among Protestants</i>
+in 1682, and <i>The Redeemer&rsquo;s Tears wept over Lost Souls</i> in 1684.</p>
+
+<p>For five years after his settlement in London Howe enjoyed
+comparative freedom, and was on not unfriendly terms with
+many eminent Anglicans, such as Stillingfleet, Tillotson, John
+Sharp and Richard Kidder; but the greater severity which
+began to be exercised towards nonconformists in 1681 so interfered
+with his liberty that in 1685 he gladly accepted the invitation
+of Philip, Lord Wharton, to travel abroad with him. In
+1686 he determined to settle for a time at Utrecht, where he
+officiated in the English chapel. Among his friends there was
+Gilbert Burnet, by whose influence he obtained several confidential
+interviews with William of Orange. In 1687 Howe
+availed himself of the declaration for liberty of conscience to
+return to England, and in the following year he headed the
+deputation of nonconformist ministers who went to congratulate
+William on his accession to the English throne. The remainder
+of his life was uneventful. His influence was always on the side
+of mutual forbearance, between conformists and dissenters
+in 1689, and between Congregationalists and Presbyterians
+in 1690. In 1693 he published three discourses <i>On the Carnality
+of Religious Contention</i>, suggested by the disputes that became
+rife among nonconformists as soon as liberty of doctrine and
+worship had been granted. In 1694 and 1695 he published
+various treatises on the subject of the Trinity, the principal
+being <i>A Calm and Solemn Inquiry concerning the Possibility
+of a Trinity in the Godhead</i>. The second part of <i>The Living
+Temple</i>, entitled <i>Animadversions on Spinosa and a French
+Writer pretending to confute him, with a recapitulation of the
+former part and an account of the destitution and restitution of
+God&rsquo;s Temple among Men</i>, appeared in 1702. In 1701 he had
+some controversy with Daniel Defoe on the question of occasional
+conformity. In 1705 he published a discourse <i>On Patience
+in the Expectation of Future Blessedness</i>, but his health had begun
+to fail, and he died in London on the 2nd of April 1706.
+Richard Cromwell visited him in his last illness.</p>
+
+<p>Though excelled by Baxter as a pulpit orator, and by Owen
+in exegetical ingenuity and in almost every department of
+theological learning, Howe compares favourably with either as
+a sagacious and profound thinker, while he was much more
+successful in combining religious earnestness and fervour of
+conviction with large-hearted tolerance and cultured breadth
+of view. He was a man of high principle and fine presence,
+and it was said of him &ldquo;that he never made an enemy and never
+lost a friend.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>The works published in his lifetime, including a number of sermons,
+were collected into 2 vols. fol. in 1724, and again reprinted in 3
+vols. 8vo. in 1848. A complete edition of the <i>Whole Works</i>, including
+much posthumous and additional matter, appeared with a memoir
+in 8 vols, in 1822; this was reprinted in 1 vol. in 1838 and in 6 vols.
+in 1862-1863. E. Calamy&rsquo;s <i>Life</i> (1724) forms the basis of <i>The
+Life and Character of Howe, with an Analysis of his Writings</i>, by
+Henry Rogers (1836, new ed. 1863). See also a sketch by R. F.
+Horton (1896).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HOWE, JOSEPH<a name="ar79" id="ar79"></a></span> (1804-1873), Canadian statesman, was born
+at Halifax, Nova Scotia, on the 13th of December 1804, the son
+of John Howe (1752-1835), a United Empire Loyalist who was
+for many years king&rsquo;s printer and postmaster-general for the
+Maritime Provinces and the Bermudas. He received little
+regular education, and at the age of 13 entered his father&rsquo;s office.
+In 1827 he started the <i>Acadian</i>, a weekly non-political journal,
+but soon sold it, and in 1828 purchased the <i>Nova Scotian</i>, which
+later became amalgamated with the <i>Morning Chronicle</i>. From
+this date he devoted increasing attention to political affairs, and
+in 1835 was prosecuted for libelling the magistrates of Halifax.
+Being unable to find a lawyer willing to undertake his case, he
+pleaded it himself, and won his acquittal by a speech of over six
+hours, which secured for Nova Scotia the freedom of the press
+and for himself the reputation of an orator. In 1836 he was
+elected member for Halifax in the provincial assembly, and
+during the next twelve years devoted himself to attaining
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page836" id="page836"></a>836</span>
+responsible government for Nova Scotia. This brought him into
+fierce conflict with the reigning oligarchy and with the lieutenant-governor,
+Lord Falkland (1803-1884), whom he forced to resign.
+Largely owing to Howe&rsquo;s statesmanship responsible government
+was finally conceded in 1848 by the imperial authorities, and
+was thus gained without the bloodshed and confusion which
+marked its acquisition in Ontario and Quebec. In 1850 he was
+appointed a delegate to England on behalf of the Intercolonial
+railway, for which he obtained a large imperial guarantee.
+In 1854 he resigned from the cabinet, and was appointed chief
+commissioner of railways. In 1855 he was sent by the imperial
+government to the United States in connexion with the Foreign
+Enlistment Act, to raise soldiers for the war in the Crimea.
+Through the rashness of others he got into difficulties, and was
+attacked in the British House of Commons by Mr Gladstone,
+whom he compelled to apologize.</p>
+
+<p>In 1855 he was defeated by Mr (afterwards Sir Charles)
+Tupper, but was elected by acclamation in the next year in Hants
+county, and was from 1860 to 1863 premier of Nova Scotia. In the
+latter years he was appointed by the imperial government fishery
+commissioner to the United States, and thus took no part in the
+negotiations for confederation. Though his eloquence had done
+more than anything else to make practicable a union of the
+British North American provinces, he opposed confederation,
+largely owing to wounded vanity; but on finding it impossible
+to obtain from the imperial authorities the repeal of the British
+North America Act, he refused to join his associates in the
+extreme measures which were advocated, and on the promise
+from the Canadian government of better financial terms to his
+native province, entered (on the 30th of January 1869) the
+cabinet of Sir John Macdonald as president of the council.
+This brought upon him a storm of obloquy, under which his
+health gradually gave way. In May 1873 he was appointed
+lieutenant-governor of Nova Scotia, but died suddenly on the
+1st of June of the same year.</p>
+
+<p>Howe&rsquo;s eloquence, and still more his unfailing wit and high
+spirits, made him for many years the idol of his province. He
+is the finest orator whom Canada has produced, and also wrote
+poetry, which shows in places high merit. Many of his sayings
+are still current in Nova Scotia. In 1904 a statue in his honour
+was erected in Halifax.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>His <i>Letters and Speeches</i> were published in 1858 in Boston, Mass.,
+in 2 vols., edited nominally by William Annand, really by himself.
+See also <i>Public Letters and Speeches of Joseph Howe</i> (Halifax,
+1909). The <i>Life and Times</i> by G. E. Fenety (1896) is poor. The
+<i>Life</i> by the Hon. James W. Longley (Toronto, 1904) is dispassionate,
+but otherwise mediocre. <i>Joseph Howe</i>, by George Monro Grant
+(reprinted Halifax, 1904), is a brilliant sketch.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(W. L. G.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HOWE, JULIA WARD<a name="ar80" id="ar80"></a></span> (1819-1910), American author and
+reformer, was born in New York City on the 27th of May 1819.
+Her father, Samuel Ward, was a banker; her mother, Julia
+Rush [Cutler] (1796-1824), a poet of some ability. When only
+sixteen years old she had begun to contribute poems to New
+York periodicals. In 1843 she married Dr Samuel Gridley
+Howe (<i>q.v.</i>), with whom she spent the next year in England,
+France, Germany and Italy. She assisted Dr Howe in editing
+the <i>Commonwealth</i> in 1851-1853. The results of her study of
+German philosophy were seen in philosophical essays; in
+lectures on &ldquo;Doubt and Belief,&rdquo; &ldquo;The Duality of Character,&rdquo;
+&amp;c., delivered in 1860-1861 in her home in Boston, and later in
+Washington; and in addresses before the Boston Radical Club
+and the Concord school of philosophy. Samuel Longfellow,
+his brother Henry, Wendell Phillips, W. L. Garrison, Charles
+Sumner, Theodore Parker and James Freeman Clarke were
+among her friends; she advocated abolition, and preached
+occasionally from Unitarian pulpits. She was one of the
+organizers of the American Woman-Suffrage Association and of
+the Association for the Advancement of Women (1869), and in
+1870 became one of the editors of the <i>Woman&rsquo;s Journal</i>, and
+in 1872 president of the New England Women&rsquo;s Club. In the
+same year she was a delegate to the Prison Reform Congress in
+London, and founded there the Woman&rsquo;s Peace Association,
+one of the many ways in which she expressed her opposition
+to war. She wrote <i>The World&rsquo;s Own</i> (unsuccessfully played at
+Wallack&rsquo;s, New York, in 1855, published 1857), and in 1858, for
+Edwin Booth, <i>Hippolytus</i>, never acted or published. Her lyric
+poetry, thanks to her temperament, and possibly to her musical
+training, was her highest literary form: she published <i>Passion
+Flowers</i> (anonymously, 1854), <i>Words for the Hour</i> (1856), <i>Later
+Lyrics</i> (1866), and <i>From Sunset Ridge: Poems Old and New</i>
+(1898); her most popular poem is <i>The Battle Hymn of the
+Republic</i>, written to the old folk-tune associated with the song
+of &ldquo;John Brown&rsquo;s Body,&rdquo; when Mrs Howe was at the front
+in 1861, and published (Feb. 1862) in the <i>Atlantic Monthly</i>, to
+which she frequently contributed. She edited <i>Sex and Education</i>
+(1874), an answer to <i>Sex in Education</i> (1873) by Edward Hammond
+Clarke (1820-1877); and wrote several books of travel,
+<i>Modern Society</i> (1880) and <i>Is Polite Society Polite?</i> (1895),
+collections of addresses, each taking its title from a lecture criticizing
+the shallowness and falseness of society, the power of
+money, &amp;c., <i>A Memoir of Dr Samuel G. Howe</i> (1876), <i>Life of
+Margaret Fuller</i> (1883), in the &ldquo;Famous Women&rdquo; series.
+<i>Sketches of Representative Women of New England</i> (1905) and
+her own <i>Reminiscences</i> (Boston, 1899). Her children were: Julia
+Romana Anagnos (1844-1886), who, like her mother, wrote
+verse and studied philosophy, and who taught in the Perkins
+Institution, in the charge of which her husband, Michael Anagnos
+(1837-1906), whose family name had been Anagnostopoulos,
+succeeded her father; Henry Marion Howe (b. 1848), the
+eminent metallurgist, and professor in Columbia University;
+Laura Elizabeth Richards (b. 1850), and Maud Howe Elliott
+(b. 1855), wife of John Elliott, the painter of a fine ceiling in the
+Boston library,&mdash;both these daughters being contributors to
+literature. Mrs Howe died on the 17th of October 1910.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HOWE, RICHARD HOWE,<a name="ar81" id="ar81"></a></span> <span class="sc">Earl</span> (1726-1799), British admiral,
+was born in London on the 8th of March 1726. He was the
+second son of Emmanuel Scrope Howe, 2nd Viscount Howe,
+who died governor of Barbadoes in March 1735, and of Mary
+Sophia Charlotte, a daughter of the baroness Kilmansegge,
+afterwards countess of Darlington, the mistress of George I.&mdash;a
+relationship which does much to explain his early rise in the
+navy. Richard Howe entered the navy in the &ldquo;Severn,&rdquo; one
+of the squadron sent into the south seas with Anson in 1740.
+The &ldquo;Severn&rdquo; failed to round the Horn and returned home.
+Howe next served in the West Indies in the &ldquo;Burford,&rdquo; and
+was present in her when she was very severely damaged, in the
+unsuccessful attack on La Guayra on the 18th of February 1742.
+He was made acting-lieutenant in the West Indies in the same
+year, and the rank was confirmed in 1744. During the Jacobite
+rising of 1745 he commanded the &ldquo;Baltimore&rdquo; sloop in the
+North Sea, and was dangerously wounded in the head while
+co-operating with a frigate in an engagement with two strong
+French privateers. In 1746 he became post-captain, and commanded
+the &ldquo;Triton&rdquo; (24) in the West Indies. As captain of
+the &ldquo;Cornwall&rdquo; (80), the flagship of Sir Charles Knowles, he
+was in the battle with the Spaniards off Havana on the 2nd of
+October 1748. While the peace between the War of the Austrian
+Succession and the Seven Years&rsquo; War lasted, Howe held commands
+at home and on the west coast of Africa. In 1755 he
+went with Boscawen to North America as captain of the &ldquo;Dunkirk&rdquo;
+(60), and his seizure of the French &ldquo;Alcide&rdquo; (64) was the
+first shot fired in the war. From this date till the peace of 1763
+he served in the Channel in various more or less futile expeditions
+against the coast of France, with a steady increase of reputation
+as a firm and skilful officer. On the 20th of November 1759
+he led Hawke&rsquo;s fleet as captain of the &ldquo;Magnanime&rdquo; (64) in
+the magnificent victory of Quiberon.</p>
+
+<p>By the death of his elder brother, killed near Ticonderoga on the
+6th of July 1758, he became Viscount Howe&mdash;an Irish peerage.
+In 1762 he was elected M.P. for Dartmouth, and held the seat
+till he received a title of Great Britain. During 1763 and 1765
+he was a member of the Admiralty board, and from 1765 to
+1770 was treasurer of the navy. In that year he was promoted
+rear-admiral, and in 1775 vice-admiral. In 1776 he was appointed
+to the command of the North American station. The rebellion
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page837" id="page837"></a>837</span>
+of the colonies was making rapid progress, and Howe was known
+to be in sympathy with the colonists. He had sought the
+acquaintance of Benjamin Franklin, who was a friend of his
+sister Miss Howe, a clever eccentric woman well known in
+London society, and had already tried to act as a peacemaker.
+It was doubtless because of his known sentiments that he was
+selected to command in America, and was joined in commission
+with his brother Sir William Howe, the general at the head of the
+land forces, to make a conciliatory arrangement. A committee
+appointed by the Continental Congress conferred with the Howes
+in September 1776 but nothing was accomplished. The appointment
+of a new peace commission in 1778 offended the admiral
+deeply, and he sent in a resignation of his command. It was
+reluctantly accepted by Lord Sandwich, then First Lord, but
+before it could take effect France declared war, and a powerful
+French squadron was sent to America under the count d&rsquo;Estaing.
+Being greatly outnumbered, Howe had to stand on the defensive,
+but he baffled the French admiral at Sandy Hook, and defeated
+his attempt to take Newport in Rhode Island by a fine combination
+of caution and calculated daring. On the arrival of Admiral
+John Byron from England with reinforcements, Howe left the
+station in September. Until the fall of Lord North&rsquo;s ministry
+in 1782 he refused to serve, assigning as his reason that he could
+not trust Lord Sandwich. He considered that he had not been
+properly supported in America, and was embittered both by
+the supersession of himself and his brother as peace commissioners,
+and by attacks made on him by the ministerial writers
+in the press.</p>
+
+<p>On the change of ministry in March 1782 he was selected to
+command in the Channel, and in the autumn of that year,
+September, October and November, he carried out the final
+relief of Gibraltar. It was a difficult operation, for the French
+and Spaniards had in all 46 line-of-battle ships to his 33, and in
+the exhausted state of the country it was impossible to fit his
+ships properly or to supply them with good crews. He was,
+moreover, hampered by a great convoy carrying stores. But
+Howe was eminent in the handling of a great multitude of ships,
+the enemy was awkward and unenterprising, and the operation
+was brilliantly carried out. From the 28th of January to the
+16th of April 1783 he was First Lord of the Admiralty, and he
+held that post from December 1783 till August 1788, in Pitt&rsquo;s
+first ministry. The task was no pleasant one, for he had to
+agree to economies where he considered that more outlay was
+needed, and he had to disappoint the hopes of the many officers
+who were left unemployed by the peace. On the outbreak
+of the Revolutionary war in 1793 he was again named to the
+command of the Channel fleet. His services in 1794 form the
+most glorious period of his life, for in it he won the epoch-making
+victory of the 1st of June (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">First of June, Battle of</a></span>).
+Though Howe was now nearly seventy, and had been trained
+in the old school, he displayed an originality not usual with
+veterans, and not excelled by any of his successors in the war,
+not even by Nelson, since they had his example to follow and
+were served by more highly trained squadrons than his. He
+continued to hold the nominal command by the wish of the
+king, but his active service was now over. In 1797 he was
+called on to pacify the mutineers at Spithead, and his great
+influence with the seamen who trusted him was conspicuously
+shown. He died on the 5th of August 1799, and was buried in
+his family vault at Langar. His monument by Flaxman is in
+St Paul&rsquo;s Cathedral. In 1782 he was created Viscount Howe
+of Langar, and in 1788 Baron and Earl Howe. In June 1797 he
+was made a knight of the Garter. With the sailors he was
+always popular, though he was no popularity hunter, for they
+knew him to be just. His nickname of Black Dick was given
+on account of his swarthy complexion, and the well-known
+portrait by Gainsborough shows that it was apt.</p>
+
+<p>Lord Howe married, on the 10th of March 1758, Mary Hartop,
+the daughter of Colonel Chiverton Hartop of Welby in Leicestershire,
+and had issue two daughters. His Irish title descended
+to his brother William, the general, who died childless in 1814.
+The earldom, and the viscounty of the United Kingdom, being
+limited to heirs male, became extinct, but the barony, being
+to heirs general, passed to his daughter, Sophia Charlotte
+(1762-1835), who married the Hon. Penn Assheton Curzon.
+Their son, Richard William Curzon (1796-1870), who succeeded
+his paternal grandfather as Viscount Curzon in 1820, was
+created Earl Howe in 1821; he was succeeded by his son, George
+Augustus (1821-1876), and then by another son, Richard William
+(1822-1900), whose son Richard George Penn Curzon-Howe
+(b. 1861) became 4th Earl Howe in 1900.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>The standard <i>Life</i> is by Sir John Barrow (1838). Interesting
+reminiscences will be found in the <i>Life of Codrington</i>, by Lady
+Bourchier. Accounts of his professional services are in Charnock&rsquo;s
+<i>Biographia Navalis</i>, v. 457, and in Ralf&rsquo;s <i>Naval Biographies</i>, i. 83.
+See also Beatson&rsquo;s <i>Naval and Military Annals</i>, James&rsquo;s <i>Naval
+History</i>, and Chevalier&rsquo;s <i>Histoire de la Marine française</i>, vols. i.
+and ii.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(D. H.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HOWE, SAMUEL GRIDLEY<a name="ar82" id="ar82"></a></span> (1801-1876), American philanthropist,
+was born at Boston, Massachusetts, on the 10th of
+November 1801. His father, Joseph N. Howe, was a ship-owner
+and cordage manufacturer; and his mother, Patty Gridley, was
+one of the most beautiful women of her day. Young Howe was
+educated at Boston and at Brown University, Providence, and in
+1821 began to study medicine in Boston. But fired by enthusiasm
+for the Greek revolution and by Byron&rsquo;s example, he was no
+sooner qualified and admitted to practice than he abandoned
+these prospects and took ship for Greece, where he joined the
+army and spent six years of hardship amid scenes of warfare.
+Then, to raise funds for the cause, he returned to America;
+his fervid appeals enabled him to collect about $60,000, which he
+spent on provisions and clothing, and he established a relief depot
+near Aegina, where he started works for the refugees, the existing
+quay, or American Mole, being built in this way. He formed
+another colony of exiles on the Isthmus of Corinth. He wrote
+a <i>History of the Greek Revolution</i>, which was published in 1828,
+and in 1831 he returned to America. Here a new object of
+interest engaged him. Through his friend Dr John D. Fisher
+(d. 1850), a Boston physician who had started a movement there
+as early as 1826 for establishing a school for the blind, he had
+learnt of the similar school founded in Paris by Valentin Haüy,
+and it was proposed to Howe by a committee organized by
+Fisher that he should direct the establishment of a &ldquo;New
+England Asylum for the Blind&rdquo; at Boston. He took up the
+project with characteristic ardour, and set out at once for Europe
+to investigate the problem. There he was temporarily diverted
+from his task by becoming mixed up with the Polish revolt, and,
+in pursuit of a mission to carry American contributions across
+the Prussian frontier, he was arrested and imprisoned at Berlin,
+but was at last released through the intervention of the American
+minister at Paris. Returning to Boston in July 1832, he began
+receiving a few blind children at his father&rsquo;s house in Pleasant
+Street, and thus sowed the seed which grew into the famous
+Perkins Institution. In January 1833 the funds available
+were all spent, but so much progress had been shown that the
+legislature voted $6000, later increased to $30,000 a year, to
+the institution on condition that it should educate gratuitously
+twenty poor blind from the state; money was also contributed
+from Salem, and from Boston, and Colonel Thomas H. Perkins,
+a prominent Bostonian, presented his mansion and grounds
+in Pearl Street for the school to be held there in perpetuity.
+This building being later found unsuitable, Colonel Perkins
+consented to its sale, and in 1839 the institution was moved to
+South Boston, to a large building which had previously been an
+hotel. It was henceforth known as the &ldquo;Perkins Institution
+and Massachusetts Asylum (or, since 1877, School) for the Blind.&rdquo;
+Howe was director, and the life and soul of the school; he
+opened a printing-office and organized a fund for printing for
+the blind&mdash;the first done in America; and he was unwearied
+in calling public attention to the work. The Institution, through
+him, became one of the intellectual centres of American philanthropy,
+and by degrees obtained more and more financial
+support. In 1837 Dr Howe went still further and brought
+the famous blind deaf-mute, Laura Bridgman (<i>q.v.</i>) to the
+school.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page838" id="page838"></a>838</span></p>
+
+<p>It must suffice here to chronicle the remaining more important
+facts in Dr Howe&rsquo;s life, outside his regular work. In 1843 he
+married Julia Ward (see above), daughter of a New York banker,
+and they made a prolonged European trip, on which Dr Howe
+spent much time in visiting those public institutions which
+carried out the objects specially interesting to him. In Rome,
+in 1844, his eldest daughter, Julia Romana (afterwards the wife
+of Michael Anagnos, Dr Howe&rsquo;s assistant and successor), was
+born, and in September the travellers returned to America, and
+Dr Howe resumed his activities. In 1846 he became interested
+in the condition and treatment of idiots, and particularly in the
+experiments of Dr Guggenbühl on the cretins of Switzerland.
+He became chairman of a state commission of inquiry into the
+number and condition of idiots in Massachusetts, and the report
+of this commission, presented in 1848, caused a profound sensation.
+An appropriation of $2500 per annum was made for
+training ten idiot children under Dr Howe&rsquo;s supervision, and by
+degrees the value of his School for Idiotic and Feeble-minded
+Youths, which, starting in South Boston, was in 1890 removed
+to Waltham, was generally appreciated. It was the first of its
+kind in the United States. An enthusiastic humanitarian on all
+subjects, Dr Howe was an ardent abolitionist and a member of
+the Free Soil party, and had played a leading part at Boston in
+the movements which culminated in the Civil War. When it
+broke out he was an active member of the sanitary commission.
+In 1871 he was sent to Santo Domingo as a member of the
+commission appointed by President Grant to examine the
+condition of the island, the government of which desired annexation;
+and when that scheme was defeated through Sumner&rsquo;s
+opposition he returned (1872) as the representative of the
+Samana Bay Company, which proposed to take a lease of the
+Samana peninsula; but though in 1874 he revisited the island, it
+was only to see the flag of the company hauled down. His health
+was then breaking and began soon after to fail rapidly, and on
+the 9th of January 1876 he died at Boston. The governor of the
+state sent a special message of grief to the legislature on his death,
+eulogies were delivered in the two houses, and a public memorial
+service was held, at which Dr O. W. Holmes read a poem.
+Whittier had in his lifetime commemorated him in his poem
+&ldquo;The Hero,&rdquo; in which he called him &ldquo;the Cadmus of the blind&rdquo;;
+and in 1901 a centennial celebration of his birth was held at
+Boston, at which, among other notable tributes, Senator Hoar
+spoke of Howe as &ldquo;one of the great figures of American history.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>A <i>Memoir</i> of Dr Howe by his wife appeared in 1876. See also
+the <i>Letters and Journals of S. G. Howe</i>, edited by Laura E. Richards
+(1910).</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(H. Ch.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HOWE, WILLIAM HOWE,<a name="ar83" id="ar83"></a></span> <span class="sc">5th Viscount</span> (1729-1814),
+British general, was the younger brother of George Augustus,
+3rd viscount, killed in the Ticonderoga expedition of 1758, and
+of Richard, 4th viscount and afterwards Earl Howe, the admiral.
+He entered the cavalry in 1746, becoming lieutenant a year later.
+On the disbanding of his regiment in 1749 he was made captain-lieutenant
+and shortly afterwards captain in Lord Bury&rsquo;s (20th)
+regiment, in which Wolfe was then a field officer. Howe became
+major in 1756 and lieutenant-colonel in 1757 of the 58th (now
+Northampton) regiment, which he commanded at the capture
+of Louisburg. In Wolfe&rsquo;s expedition to Quebec he distinguished
+himself greatly at the head of a composite light battalion. He
+led the advanced party in the landing at Wolfe&rsquo;s Cove and took
+part in the battle of the Plains of Abraham which followed. He
+commanded his own regiment in the defence of Quebec in 1759-1760,
+led a brigade in the advance on Montreal and took part on
+his return to Europe in the siege of Belleisle (1761). He was
+adjutant-general of the force which besieged and took Havana in
+1762, and at the close of the war had acquired the reputation of
+being one of the most brilliant of the junior officers of the army.
+He was made colonel of the 46th foot in 1764 and lieutenant-governor
+of the Isle of Wight four years later. From 1758 to 1780
+he was M.P. for Nottingham. In 1772 he became major-general,
+and in 1774 he was entrusted with the training of light infantry
+companies on a new system, the training-ground being Salisbury
+Plain.</p>
+
+<p>Shortly after this he was sent out to North America. He did
+not agree with the policy of the government towards the colonists,
+and regretted in particular that he was sent to Boston, where the
+memory of his eldest brother was still cherished by the inhabitants,
+and General Gage, in whom he had no confidence, commanded in
+chief. He was the senior officer after Gage, and led the troops
+actively engaged in the storming of Bunker Hill, he himself being
+in the thickest of the fighting. In the same year Howe was
+made a K.B. and a lieutenant-general, and appointed, with the
+local rank of general, to the chief command in the seat of war.
+For the events of his command see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">American War of Independence</a></span>.
+He retained it until May 1778&mdash;on the whole with
+success. The cause of his resignation was his feeling that the
+home government had not afforded the proper support, and
+after his return to England, he and his brother engaged in a
+heated but fruitless controversy with the ministers. Howe&rsquo;s own
+defence is embodied in <i>Narrative of Sir William Howe before a
+Committee of the House of Commons</i> (London, 1780). In 1782
+Howe was made lieutenant-general of the ordnance; in 1790 he
+was placed in command of the forces organized for action against
+Spain, and in 1793 he was made a full general. He held various
+home commands in the early part of the French revolutionary
+war, in particular that of the eastern district at the critical
+moment when the French established their forces on the Dutch
+coast. When Earl Howe died in 1799, Sir William succeeded to
+the Irish viscounty. He had been made governor of Berwick-on-Tweed
+in 1795, and in 1805 he became governor of Plymouth,
+where he died on the 12th of July 1814. With his death the
+Irish peerage became extinct.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HOWEL DDA<a name="ar84" id="ar84"></a></span> (&ldquo;the Good&rdquo;) (d. 950), prince of Deheubarth
+(South Central Wales) from before 915, and king of Wales from
+943 to 950, was the grandson of Rhodri Mawr (the Great), who
+had united practically the whole of Wales under his supremacy.
+As Idwal Voel succeeded his father Anarawd, the elder son of
+Rhodri, as lord of Gwynedd in 915, so Howel at some time before
+that date succeeded Rhodri&rsquo;s younger son Cadell as prince of
+Deheubarth. Howel married Elen, daughter of the last king of
+Dyfed, and also added Kidweli and Gwyr to his dominions, while
+on the death of Idwal, who was slain by the English in 943, he
+took possession of Gwynedd. Both these princes had done
+homage to the English kings, Edward the Elder and Aethelstan,
+in 922 and 926, and we find that Howel attended the witans
+of the English kingdom and witnessed about ten charters between
+the years 931 and 949. He was secure, therefore, from attack on
+the eastern side of his kingdom, and it is not certain whether he
+was engaged in any of the battles recorded during these years in
+Wales, either in Môn 914, at Dinas Newydd 919 or at Brun 935.
+To the peaceful character of his reign is probably due the high
+place which he holds among the Welsh princes. From 943 to
+950 Howel Dda was probably ruler of all Wales except Powys
+(apparently dependent on Mercia), Brecheiniog, Buallt, Gwent
+and Morgannwg. With Morgan Hen, king of Morgannwg,
+Howel had a dispute which was eventually settled in favour of the
+former at the court of the English king. Howel died in 950, and
+such unity as he had preserved at once disappeared in a war
+between his sons and those of Idwal Voel. The code of laws
+attributed to this prince is perhaps his chief claim to fame. He
+is said to have summoned four men from each cantref in his
+dominions to the Ty Gwyn (perhaps Whitland in Caermarthenshire)
+to codify existing custom. Three codes, accordingly called
+Venedotian, Demetian and Gwentian, are said to have been written
+down by Bleggwryd, archdeacon of Llandaff (see Welsh Laws).</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See Sir John Rhys and Brynmor-Jones, <i>The Welsh People</i> (London,
+1900); and Aneurin Owen, <i>Ancient Laws and Institutions of Wales</i>
+(London, 1841).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HOWELL, JAMES<a name="ar85" id="ar85"></a></span> (<i>c.</i> 1594-1666), British author, who came
+of an old Welsh family, was born probably at Abernant, in
+Carmarthenshire, where his father was rector. From the free
+grammar school at Hereford he went to Jesus College, Oxford,
+and took his degree of B.A. in 1613. About 1616 he was steward
+in Sir Robert Mansell&rsquo;s glass-works in Broad Street, and was
+commissioned to go abroad to procure the services of expert
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page839" id="page839"></a>839</span>
+workmen. It was not till 1622 that he returned, having visited
+Holland, France, Spain and Italy. With the intention of utilizing
+to better purpose his knowledge of continental languages
+and methods, he left the glass business and applied for a diplomatic
+post. Failing to obtain this, he was for a short time
+tutor in a nobleman&rsquo;s family. At the close of 1622 he was sent
+on a special mission to Madrid to obtain redress for the seizure
+of an English vessel, but, owing to the presence at the Spanish
+court of Prince Charles and the duke of Buckingham to arrange
+a marriage between the prince and the infanta of Spain, the
+negotiations had to be broken off. He made many friends
+among the prince&rsquo;s retinue, and, after his return in 1624, applied
+for employment to the duke of Buckingham, but without success.
+In 1626 he became secretary to Lord Scrope, Lord President
+of the North at York, and retained the office under Scrope&rsquo;s
+successor, Thomas Wentworth. In 1627 he was elected M.P.
+for Richmond; in 1632 he was sent as secretary to the embassy
+of the earl of Leicester to Denmark; and in 1642 the king
+appointed him one of the clerks of the privy council. In 1643
+he was committed to the Fleet prison by the parliament, according
+to his own account, on suspicion of royalist leanings, or, as
+Anthony à Wood says, for debt. Whatever the reason, he
+remained in prison until 1651. He had acquired considerable
+fame by his allegorical <span class="grk" title="Dendrologia">&#916;&#949;&#957;&#948;&#961;&#959;&#955;&#959;&#947;&#943;&#945;</span>: <i>Dodona&rsquo;s Grove, or the
+Vocall Forest</i>, published in 1640, and his <i>Instructions for Forreine
+Travell</i> (1642), which has been described as the first continental
+handbook; and now he was driven to maintain himself by his
+pen. He edited and supplemented (1650) Cotgrave&rsquo;s French and
+English dictionary, compiled <i>Lexicon Tetraglotton, or an English,
+French, Italian and Spanish Dictionary</i> (London, 1660), translated
+various works from Italian and Spanish, wrote a life of
+Louis XIII. and issued a number of political pamphlets, varying
+the point of view somewhat to suit the changes of the time.
+Among these tracts may be mentioned a rather malicious
+<i>Perfect Description of the People and Country of Scotland</i>, which
+was revived by John Wilkes and printed in the <i>North Briton</i>
+during the agitation directed against Lord Bute. In 1660 he
+asked for the place of clerk of the privy council; and, though
+this was not granted him, the post of historiographer royal was
+created for him. In 1661 he applied for the office of tutor in
+foreign languages to the infanta Catherine of Braganza, and in
+1662 published an <i>English Grammar translated into Spanish</i>.
+He was buried in the Temple Church on the 3rd of November
+1666, having realized to the last his favourite motto, &ldquo;Senesco
+non segnesco.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>All Howell&rsquo;s writings are imbued with a certain simplicity
+and quaintness. His elaborate allegories are forgotten; his
+linguistic labours, of value in their time, are now superseded;
+but his <i>Letters</i>, the <i>Epistolae Ho-elianae</i> (four volumes issued in
+1645, 1647, 1650 and 1655), are still models of their kind. Their
+dates are often fictitious, and they are, in nearly every case,
+evidently written for publication. Thackeray said that the <i>Letters</i>
+was one of his bedside books. He classes it with Montaigne
+and says he scarcely ever tired of &ldquo;the artless prattle&rdquo; of the
+&ldquo;priggish little clerk of King Charles&rsquo;s council.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>The <i>Epistolae</i> have been frequently edited, notably by J. Jacobs
+in 1890, with a commentary (1891), and Agnes Repplier (1907).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HOWELLS, WILLIAM DEAN<a name="ar86" id="ar86"></a></span> (1837-&emsp;&emsp;), American novelist,
+was born at Martin&rsquo;s Ferry, Ohio, on the 1st of March 1837. His
+father, William Cooper Howells, a printer-journalist, moved in
+1840 to Hamilton, Ohio, and here the boy&rsquo;s early life was spent
+successively as type-setter, reporter and editor in the offices
+of various newspapers. In the midst of routine work he contrived
+to familiarize himself with a wide range of authors in several
+modern tongues, and to drill himself thoroughly in the use of
+good English. In 1860, as assistant editor of the leading Republican
+newspaper in Ohio, he wrote&mdash;in connexion with the
+Presidential contest&mdash;the campaign life of Lincoln; and in
+the same year he was appointed consul at Venice, where he
+remained till 1865. On his return to America he joined the staff
+of the <i>Atlantic Monthly</i>, and from 1872 to 1881 he was its editor-in-chief.
+Since 1885 he has lived in New York. For a time he
+conducted for <i>Harper&rsquo;s Magazine</i> the department called &ldquo;The
+Editor&rsquo;s Study,&rdquo; and in December 1900 he revived for the same
+periodical the department of &ldquo;The Easy Chair,&rdquo; which had
+lapsed with the death of George William Curtis. Of Mr Howells&rsquo;s
+many novels, the following may be mentioned as specially
+noteworthy: <i>Their Wedding Journey</i> (1872); <i>The Lady of
+the Aroostook</i> (1879); <i>A Modern Instance</i> (1882); <i>The Rise
+of Silas Lapham</i> (1885); <i>The Minister&rsquo;s Charge</i> (1886); <i>A
+Hazard of New Fortunes</i> (1889); <i>The Quality of Mercy</i> (1892);
+<i>The Landlord at Lion&rsquo;s Head</i> (1897). He also published <i>Poems</i>
+(1873 and 1886); <i>Stops of Various Quills</i> (1895), a book of verse;
+books of travel; several amusing farces; and volumes of essays
+and literary criticism, among others, <i>Literary Friends and
+Acquaintance</i> (1901), which contains much autobiographical
+matter, <i>Literature and Life</i> (1902), and <i>English Films</i> (1905).</p>
+
+<p>Howells is by general consent the foremost representative
+of the realistic school of indigenous American fiction. From
+the outset his aim was to portray life with entire fidelity in all
+its commonplaceness, and yet to charm the reader into a liking
+for this commonplaceness and into reverence for what it conceals.
+Though in his earliest novels his method was not consistently
+realistic&mdash;he is at times almost as personal and as whimsical as
+Thackeray&mdash;yet his vivid impressionism and his choice of subjects,
+as well as an occasional explicit protest that &ldquo;dulness
+is dear to him,&rdquo; already revealed unmistakably his realistic
+bias. In <i>A Modern Instance</i> (1882) he gained complete command
+of his method, and began a series of studies of American life
+that are remarkable for their loyalty to fact, their truth of tone,
+and their power to reveal, despite their strictly objective method,
+both the inner springs of American character and the sociological
+forces that are shaping American civilization. He refuses to over-sophisticate
+or to over-intellectualize his characters, and he
+is very sparing in his use of psychological analysis. He insists
+on seeing and portraying American life as it exists in and for
+itself, under its own skies and with its own atmosphere; he
+does not scrutinize it with foreign comparisons in mind, and thus
+try to find and to throw into relief unsuspected configurations
+of surface. He keeps his dialogue toned down to almost the
+pitch of everyday conversation, although he has shown in his
+comedy sketches how easy a master he is of adroit and witty
+talk.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See also J. M. Robertson, <i>Essays towards a Critical Method</i> (London,
+1889); H. C. Vedder, <i>American Writers</i> (Boston, 1894).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HOWITT WILLIAM,<a name="ar87" id="ar87"></a></span> (1792-1879), English author, was born
+on the 18th of December 1792 at Heanor, Derbyshire. His
+parents were Quakers, and he was educated at the Friends&rsquo;
+public school at Ackworth, Yorkshire. In 1814 he published
+a poem on the &ldquo;Influence of Nature and Poetry on National
+Spirit.&rdquo; He married, in 1821, Mary Botham (1799-1888), like
+himself a Quaker and a poet. William and Mary Howitt collaborated
+throughout a long literary career, the first of their
+joint productions being <i>The Forest Minstrels and other Poems</i>
+(1821). In 1831 William Howitt produced a work for which
+his habits of observation and his genuine love of nature peculiarly
+fitted him. It was a history of the changes in the face of the outside
+world in the different months of the year, and was entitled
+<i>The Book of the Seasons, or the Calendar of Nature</i> (1831). His
+<i>Popular History of Priestcraft</i> (1833) won for him the favour of
+active Liberals and the office of alderman in Nottingham, where
+the Howitts had made their home. They removed in 1837 to
+Esher, and in 1840 they went to Heidelberg, primarily for the
+education of their children, remaining in Germany for two years.
+In 1841 William Howitt produced, under the pseudonym of
+&ldquo;Dr Cornelius,&rdquo; <i>The Student Life of Germany</i>, the first of a
+series of works on German social life and institutions. Mary
+Howitt devoted herself to Scandinavian literature, and between
+1842 and 1863 she translated the novels of Frederika Bremer
+and many of the stories of Hans Andersen. With her husband
+she wrote in 1852 <i>The Literature and Romance of Northern
+Europe</i>. In June of that year William Howitt, with two of
+his sons, set sail for Australia, where he spent two years in the
+goldfields. The results of his travels appeared in <i>A Boy&rsquo;s</i>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page840" id="page840"></a>840</span>
+<i>Adventures in the Wilds of Australia</i> (1854), <i>Land, Labour and
+Gold; or, Two Years in Victoria</i> (1855) and <i>Tallangetta, the
+Squatter&rsquo;s Home</i> (1857). On his return to England Howitt had
+settled at Highgate and resumed his indefatigable book-making.
+From 1856 to 1862 he was engaged on Cassell&rsquo;s <i>Illustrated
+History of England</i>, and from 1861 to 1864 he and his wife worked
+at the <i>Ruined Abbeys and Castles of Great Britain</i>. The Howitts
+had left the Society of Friends in 1847, and became interested
+in spiritualism. In 1863 appeared <i>The History of the Supernatural
+in all Ages and Nations, and in all Churches, Christian
+and Pagan, demonstrating a Universal Faith</i>, by William
+Howitt. He added &ldquo;his own conclusions from a practical
+examination of the higher phenomena through a course of
+seven years.&rdquo; From 1870 onwards Howitt spent the summers
+in Tirol and the winters in Rome, where he died on the 3rd
+of March 1879. Mary Howitt was much affected by his death,
+and in 1882 she joined the Roman Catholic Church, towards
+which she had been gradually moving during her connexion with
+spiritualism. She died at Rome on the 30th of January 1888.
+The Howitts are remembered for their untiring efforts to provide
+wholesome and instructive literature. Their son, Alfred William
+Howitt, made himself a name by his explorations in Australia.
+Anna Mary Howitt married Alaric Alfred Watts, and was the
+author of <i>Pioneers of the Spiritual Reformation</i> (1883).</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>Mary Howitt&rsquo;s autobiography was edited by her daughter, Margaret
+Howitt, in 1889. William Howitt wrote some fifty books, and his
+wife&rsquo;s publications, inclusive of translations, number over a hundred.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HOWITZER<a name="ar88" id="ar88"></a></span> (derived, through an earlier form <i>howitz</i>, and the
+Ger. <i>Haubitz</i>, from the Bohemian <i>houfnice</i> = catapult, from
+which come also, through the Ital. <i>obiza</i> or <i>obice</i>, the French
+forms <i>obus</i> = shell and <i>obusier</i> = howitzer), a form of mobile
+ordnance in use from the 16th century up to the present day. It is
+a short and therefore comparatively light gun, which fires a
+heavy projectile at low velocity. A high angle of elevation is
+always given and the angle of descent of the projectile is consequently
+steep (up to 70°). On this fact is based the tactical
+use of the modern howitzer. The field howitzer is of the greatest
+value for &ldquo;searching&rdquo; trenches, folds of ground, localities, &amp;c.,
+which are invulnerable to direct fire, while the more powerful
+siege howitzer has, since the introduction of modern artillery and,
+above all, of modern projectiles, taken the foremost place
+amongst the weapons used in siege warfare.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Artillery</a></span>, <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Ordnance</a></span> and <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Fortification and Siegecraft</a></span>.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HOWLER,<a name="ar89" id="ar89"></a></span> a name applied to the members of a group of
+tropical American monkeys, now known scientifically as <i>Alouata</i>,
+although formerly designated <i>Mycetes</i>. These monkeys, which
+are of large size, with thick fur, sometimes red and sometimes
+black in colour, are characterized by the inflation of the hyoid-bone
+(which supports the roof of the tongue) into a large shell-like
+organ communicating with the wind-pipe, and giving the
+peculiar resonance to the voice from which they take their title.
+To allow space for the hyoid, the sides of the lower jaw are very
+deep and expanded. The muzzle is projecting, and the profile of
+the face slopes regularly backwards from the muzzle to the
+crown. The long tail is highly prehensile, thickly furred, with the
+under surface of the extremity naked. Howlers dwell in large
+companies, and in the early morning, and again in the evening,
+make the woods resound with their cries, which are often continued
+throughout the night. They feed on leaves, and are in the
+habit of sitting on the topmost branches of trees. When active,
+they progress in regular order, led by an old male.</p>
+<div class="author">(R. L.*)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HOWRAH,<a name="ar90" id="ar90"></a></span> a city and district of British India, in the Burdwan
+division of Bengal. The city is situated opposite Calcutta, with
+which it is connected by a floating bridge. The municipal area
+is about 11 sq. m.; pop. (1901) 157,594, showing an increase of
+35% in the decade. Since 1872 the population has almost
+doubled, owing to the great industrial development that has
+taken place. Howrah is the terminus of the East Indian railway,
+and also of the Bengal-Nagpur and East Coast lines. It is
+also the centre of two light railways which run to Amta and
+Sheakhala. Further, it is the headquarters of the jute-manufacturing
+industry, with many steam mills, steam presses, also
+cotton mills, oil mills, rope-works, iron-works and engineering
+works. Sibpur Engineering College lies on the outskirts of the
+town. There is a hospital, with a department for Europeans, and
+Howrah forms a suburban residence for many people who have
+their place of business in Calcutta.</p>
+
+<p>The <span class="sc">District of Howrah</span> extends southwards down the right
+bank of the Hugli to the confluence of the river Damodar. For
+revenue purposes it is included within the district of Hugli
+Its area is 510 sq. m.; pop. (1901) 850,514, showing an increase
+of 11% in the decade. In addition to the two steam tramways
+and the East Indian railway, the district is crossed by the high-level
+canal to Midnapore, which communicates with the Hugli
+at Ulubaria. The manufacturing industries of Howrah extend
+beyond the city into the district. One or two systems of draining
+low-lying lands are maintained by the government.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HOWSON, JOHN SAUL<a name="ar91" id="ar91"></a></span> (1816-1885), English divine, was born
+at Giggleswick-in-Craven, Yorkshire, on the 5th of May 1816.
+After receiving his early education at Giggleswick school, of
+which his father was head-master, he went to Trinity College,
+Cambridge, and there became tutor successively to the marquis of
+Sligo and the marquis of Lorne. In 1845 Howson, having taken
+orders, accepted the post of senior classical master at the Liverpool
+College under his friend W. J. Conybeare, whom he succeeded
+as principal in 1849. This post he held until 1865, and it was
+largely due to his influence that a similar college for girls was
+established at Liverpool. In 1866 he left Liverpool for the
+vicarage of Wisbech, and in 1867 he was appointed dean of
+Chester Cathedral, where he gave himself vigorously to the work
+of restoring the crumbling fabric, collecting nearly £100,000 in
+five years for this purpose. His sympathies were with the
+evangelical party, and he stoutly opposed the &ldquo;Eastward
+position,&rdquo; but he was by no means narrow. He did much to
+reintroduce the ministry of women as deaconesses. The building
+of the King&rsquo;s School for boys, and the Queen&rsquo;s School for girls
+(both in Chester), was due in a great measure to the active
+interest which he took in educational matters. He died at
+Bournemouth on the 15th of December 1885, and was buried in
+the cloister garth of Chester. Howson&rsquo;s chief literary production
+was <i>The Life and Epistles of St Paul</i> (1852) in which he collaborated
+with Conybeare.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>The book is still of interest, especially for its descriptive passages,
+which were mostly done by Howson; but later researches (such as
+those of Sir W. M. Ramsay) have made the geographical and historical
+sections obsolete, and the same may be said of the treatment
+of the Pauline theology.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HOWTH<a name="ar92" id="ar92"></a></span> [pronounced <i>H&#333;th]</i>, a seaside town of Co. Dublin,
+Ireland, on the rocky hill of Howth, which forms the northern
+horn of Dublin Bay, 9 m. N.E. by N. of Dublin by the Great
+Northern railway. Pop. (1901) 1166. It is frequented by the
+residents of the capital as a watering-place. The artificial
+harbour was formed (1807-1832) between the mainland and the
+picturesque island of Ireland&rsquo;s Eye, and preceded Kingstown as
+the station for the mail-packets from Great Britain, but was
+found after its construction to be liable to silt, and is now chiefly
+used by fishing-boats and yachts. The collegiate church,
+standing picturesquely on a cliff above the sea, was founded
+about 1235, and has a monastic building attached to it. The
+embattled castle contains the two-handed sword of Sir Almeric
+Tristram, the Anglo-Norman conqueror of the hill of Howth, and
+a portrait of Dean Swift holding one of the Drapier letters, with
+Wood, the coiner against whom he directed these attacks,
+prostrate before him. The view of Dublin Bay from the hill of
+Howth is of great beauty. Howth is connected with the capital
+by electric tramway, besides the railway, and another tramway
+encircles the hill.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HÖXTER,<a name="ar93" id="ar93"></a></span> a town of Germany, in the Prussian province of
+Westphalia, prettily situated on the left bank of the Weser, and
+on the Prussian state railways Börssum-Soest and Scherfede-Holzminden,
+32 m. N. of Cassel. Pop. (1905) 7699. It has a
+medieval town hall, and interesting houses with high gables and
+wood-carved façades of the 15th and 16th centuries. The most
+interesting of the churches is the Protestant church of St Kilian,
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page841" id="page841"></a>841</span>
+with a pulpit dating from 1595 and a font dating from 1631.
+There are a gymnasium, a school of architecture and a monument
+to Hoffmann von Fallersleben in the town. The Weser is
+crossed here by a stone bridge about 500 ft. in length, erected
+in 1833. On the Brunsberg adjoining the town there is an old
+watch-tower, said to be the remains of a fortress built by Bruno,
+brother of Widukind. Near Höxter is the castle, formerly the
+Benedictine monastery, of Corvey. The principal manufactures of
+the town are linen, cotton, cement and gutta-percha, and there
+is also a considerable shipping trade. Höxter (Lat. <i>Huxaria</i>)
+in the time of Charlemagne was a <i>villa regia</i>, and was the scene of
+a battle between him and the Saxons. Under the protection of
+the monastery of Corvey it gradually increased in prosperity,
+and became the chief town of the principality of Corvey. Later
+it asserted its independence and joined the Hanseatic League.
+It suffered severely during the Thirty Years&rsquo; War. After the
+peace of Westphalia in 1648 it was united to Brunswick; in 1802
+it was transferred to Nassau; and in 1807 to the kingdom of
+Westphalia, after the dismemberment of which, in 1814, it came
+into the possession of Prussia.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See Kampschulte, <i>Chronik der Stadt Höxter</i> (Höxter, 1872).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HOY<a name="ar94" id="ar94"></a></span> (Norse <i>Haey</i>, &ldquo;high island&rdquo;), the second largest island
+of the Orkneys, county of Orkney, Scotland. Pop. (1901) 1216.
+It has an extreme length from N.W. to S.E. of 13<span class="spp">1</span>&frasl;<span class="suu">3</span> m., its greatest
+breadth from E. to W. is 8 m., and its area occupies 53 sq. m.
+It is situated 2 m. S.W. of Pomona, from which it is separated
+by Hoy Sound. As seen from the west it rises abruptly from the
+sea, presenting in this respect a marked contrast to the rest of
+the isles of the Orcadian group, which as a whole are low-lying.
+Its eastern and southern shores are indented by numerous bays,
+one of which, Long Hope, forms a natural harbour 4 m. long,
+with a breadth varying from ¼ m. to more than 1 m., affording
+to any number of vessels a haven of refuge from the roughest
+weather of the Pentland Firth. Off the eastern coast lie the
+islands of Graemsay, Cava, Risa, Fara, Flotta and Switha,
+while the peninsula of South Walls, forming the southern side
+of the harbour of Long Hope, is an island in all but name. Red
+and yellow sandstone cliffs, sometimes over 1000 ft. in height,
+stretch for 10 to 12 m. on the Atlantic front. The detached
+pillar or stack called the Old Man of Hoy (450 ft.) is a well-known
+landmark to sailors. The only break in this remarkable run
+of rocky coast is at Rackwick in the bight below the head of
+Rora. In the interior, Ward Hill (1564 ft.) is the loftiest summit
+in either the Orkneys or Shetlands. In the valley between
+Ward Hill and the ridge of the Hamars to the south-east is
+situated the famous Dwarfie Stone, an enormous block of
+sandstone measuring 28 ft. long, from 11 ft. to 14½ ft. broad,
+and 6½ ft. high at one end and 2 ft. high at the other, in which
+two rooms have been artificially hollowed out, traditionally
+believed to be the bed-chambers of Trolld, the dwarf of the
+sagas, and his wife. A boulder lying at the narrow end was
+supposed to be used to close the entrance. The generally
+accepted theory is that it was a pagan altar which some hermit
+afterwards converted into a cell. Other hills in the island are
+the Cuilags (1420 ft.) and the Knap of Trewieglen (1308 ft.),
+besides several peaks exceeding 1000 ft. in height. Hoy is
+commonly approached from Stromness, there being piers at
+Linksness, the nearest point to Graemsay, and at Hackness,
+South Ness and North Bay, the last three all on the harbour
+of Long Hope.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HOYLAKE,<a name="ar95" id="ar95"></a></span> a watering-place in the Wirral parliamentary
+division of Cheshire, England, 8 m. W. of Birkenhead, on the
+Wirral railway. With West Kirby to the south, at the mouth
+of the estuary of the Dee, it forms the urban district of Hoylake
+and West Kirby. Pop. (1901) 10,911. The well-known links
+of the Royal Liverpool Golf Club are at Hoylake. The town
+has a considerable population of fishermen.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HOYLAND NETHER,<a name="ar96" id="ar96"></a></span> an urban district in the Hallamshire
+parliamentary division of the West Riding of Yorkshire, England,
+5½ m. S.S.E. of Barnsley, on the Midland railway. Collieries
+and brickworks employ the large industrial population. Pop.
+(1901) 12,464.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HOYLE, EDMUND,<a name="ar97" id="ar97"></a></span> or <span class="sc">Edmond</span> (1672-1769), the first systematizer
+of the laws of whist, and author of a book on games,
+was born in 1672. His parentage and place of birth are unknown,
+and few details of his life are recorded. For some time he was
+resident in London, and partially supported himself by giving
+instruction in the game of whist. For the use of his pupils he
+drew up a <i>Short Treatise</i> on the game, which after circulating
+for some time in manuscript was printed by him and entered
+at Stationers&rsquo; Hall in November 1742. The laws of Hoyle
+continued to be regarded as authoritative until 1864, since which
+time they have been gradually superseded by the new rules
+adopted by the Arlington and Portland clubs in that year (see
+Whist). He also published rules for various other games, and
+his book on games, which includes the <i>Short Treatise</i>, has passed
+into many editions. The weight of his authority is indicated
+by the phrase &ldquo;according to Hoyle,&rdquo; which, doubtless first
+applied with reference to whist, has gained currency as a general
+proverb. Hoyle died in London on the 29th of August 1769.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HOZIER, PIERRE D&rsquo;,<a name="ar98" id="ar98"></a></span> <span class="sc">Seigneur de la Garde</span> (1592-1660),
+French genealogist, was born at Marseilles on the 10th of July
+1592. In 1616 he entered upon some very extensive researches
+into the genealogy of the noble families of the kingdom, in which
+work he was aided by his prodigious memory for dates, names
+and family relationships, as well as by his profound knowledge
+of heraldry. In 1634 he was appointed historiographer and
+genealogist of France, and in 1641 <i>juge d&rsquo;armes</i> of France, an
+officer corresponding nearly to the Garter king-of-arms in
+England. In 1643 he was employed to verify the claims to
+nobility of the pages and equerries of the king&rsquo;s household. He
+accumulated a large number of documents, but published
+comparatively little, his principal works being <i>Recueil armorial
+des anciennes maisons de Bretagne</i> (1638); <i>Les noms, surnoms,
+qualitez, armes et blasons des chevaliers et officiers de l&rsquo;ordre du
+Saint-Esprit</i> (1634); and the genealogies of the houses of La
+Rochefoucauld (1654), Bournonville (1657) and Amanzé (1659).
+He was renowned as much for his uprightness as for his knowledge,
+no slight praise in a profession exposed to so many temptations
+to fraud. He died in Paris on the 1st of December 1660. At
+his death his collections comprised more than 150 volumes or
+portfolios of documents and papers relating to the genealogy of
+the principal families in France. Of his six sons, only two
+survived him. His eldest son, Louis Roger d&rsquo;Hozier (1634-1708),
+succeeded him as <i>juge d&rsquo;armes</i>, but became blind in 1675, and
+was obliged to surrender his office to his brother.</p>
+
+<p><span class="sc">Charles René d&rsquo;Hozier</span> (1640-1732), younger son of Pierre,
+was the true continuator of his father. In addition to his
+commentary appended to Antoine Varillas&rsquo;s history of King
+Charles IX. (1686 ed.), he published <i>Recherches sur la noblesse
+de Champagne</i> (1673). On the promulgation in 1696 of an
+edict directing all who had armorial bearings to register them
+on payment of 20 livres, he was employed to collect the declarations
+returned in the various <i>généralités</i>, and established the
+<i>Armorial général de France</i>. This work, which contained not
+only the armorial bearings of noble families, but also of those
+commoners who were entitled to bear arms, is not complete,
+inasmuch as many refused to register their arms, either from
+vanity or from a desire to evade the fee.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>The collection (now in the Bibliothèque Nationale) consists of
+34 volumes of text and 35 of coloured armorial bearings, and in
+spite of its deficiencies is a useful store of information for the history
+of the old French families. It contains 60,000 names, grouped
+according to provinces and provincial subdivisions. The sections
+relating to Burgundy and Franche-Comté were published by Henri
+Bouchot (1875-1876): those relating to the <i>généralité</i> of Limoges,
+by Moreau de Pravieux (1895); and those for the <i>élection</i> of Reims,
+by P. Gosset (1903).</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>In 1717, in consequence of a quarrel with his nephew Louis
+Pierre, son of Louis Roger, Charles sold his collection to the
+king. It then comprised 160 portfolios of genealogical papers
+arranged alphabetically, 175 volumes of documents, and numerous
+printed books profusely annotated. In 1720 it was inventoried
+by P. de Clairambault, who added a certain number of genealogies
+taken from the papers of F. R. de Gaignières, increasing the
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page842" id="page842"></a>842</span>
+total to 217 boxes and portfolios. Thus originated the <i>Cabinet
+des titres</i> of the Bibliothèque Nationale. Charles subsequently
+became reconciled to his nephew, to whom he left all the papers
+he had accumulated from the date of the quarrel until his death,
+which occurred in Paris on the 13th of February 1732.</p>
+
+<p><span class="sc">Louis Pierre d&rsquo;Hozier</span> (1685-1767), son of Louis Roger,
+succeeded his uncle Charles as <i>juge d&rsquo;armes</i>. He published the
+<i>Armorial général, ou registre de la noblesse de France</i> (10 vols.,
+1738-1768), which must not be confounded with the publication
+mentioned above, inasmuch as it related solely to noble families
+and was not an official collection. Complete copies of this work,
+which should contain six <i>registres</i>, are comparatively rare.
+A seventh <i>registre</i>, forming vol. xi., prepared by Ambroise
+Louis Marie, nephew of Louis Pierre, was published in 1847 by
+comte Charles d&rsquo;Hozier. Louis Pierre died on the 25th of
+September 1767. His eldest son, Antoine Marie d&rsquo;Hozier de
+Sérigny (1721-<i>c.</i> 1810), was his father&rsquo;s collaborator and continuator;
+and his fourth son, Jean François Louis, wrote an
+account of the knights of St Michael in the province of Poitou,
+which was published in 1896 by the vicomte P. de Chabot.</p>
+
+<p>His nephew, <span class="sc">Ambroise Louis Marie d&rsquo;Hozier</span> (1764-1846),
+was the last of the <i>juges d&rsquo;armes</i> of France. He held the position
+of president of the <i>cour des comptes, aides et finances</i> of Normandy,
+and was therefore generally known as President d&rsquo;Hozier, to
+distinguish him from the other members of the family. After
+the Restoration he was employed to verify French armorial
+bearings for the <i>conseil du sceau des titres</i>. He died in obscurity.
+His collection, which was purchased in 1851 by the Bibliothèque
+Nationale, comprised 136 volumes, 165 portfolios of documents
+and 200 packets of extracts from title-deeds, known as the
+<i>Carrés d&rsquo;Hozier</i>.</p>
+
+<p><span class="sc">Abraham Charles Auguste d&rsquo;Hozier</span> (1775-1846), who
+also belonged to his family, was implicated in the conspiracy
+of Georges Cadoudal, and was condemned to death, but Bonaparte
+spared his life. He did not, however, recover his liberty
+until after the fall of the emperor, and died at Versailles on
+the 24th of August 1846.</p>
+<div class="author">(C. B.*)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HRABANUS MAURUS MAGNENTIUS<a name="ar99" id="ar99"></a></span> (<i>c.</i> 776-856), archbishop
+of Mainz, and one of the most prominent teachers and
+writers of the Carolingian age, was born of noble parents at Mainz.
+Less correct forms of his name are Rabanus and Rhabanus.
+The date of his birth is uncertain, but in 801 he received deacon&rsquo;s
+orders at Fulda, where he had been sent to school; in the following
+year, at the instance of Ratgar, his abbot, he went together
+with Haimon (afterwards of Halberstadt) to complete his studies
+at Tours under Alcuin, who in recognition of his diligence and
+purity gave him the surname of Maurus, after St Maur the
+favourite disciple of Benedict. Returning after the lapse of
+two years to Fulda, he was entrusted with the principal charge
+of the school, which under his direction rose into a state of great
+efficiency for that age, and sent forth such pupils <span class="correction" title="amended from at">as</span> Walafrid
+Strabo, Servatus Lupus of Ferières and Otfrid of Weissenburg.
+At this period it is most probable that his <i>Excerptio</i> from the
+grammar of Priscian, long so popular as a text-book during the
+middle ages, was compiled. In 814 he was ordained a priest;
+but shortly afterwards, apparently on account of disagreement
+with Ratgar, he was compelled to withdraw for a time from
+Fulda. This &ldquo;banishment&rdquo; is understood to have occasioned
+the pilgrimage to Palestine to which he alludes in his commentary
+on Joshua. He returned to Fulda on the election of a new abbot
+(Eigil) in 817, upon whose death in 822 he himself became abbot.
+The duties of this office he discharged with efficiency and success
+until 842, when, in order to secure greater leisure for literature
+and for devotion, he resigned and retired to the neighbouring
+cloister of St Peter&rsquo;s. In 847 he was again constrained to enter
+public life by his election to succeed Otgar in the archbishopric
+of Mainz, which see he occupied for upwards of eight years.
+The principal incidents of historical interest belonging to this
+period of his life were those which arose out of his relations to
+Gottschalk (<i>q.v.</i>): they may be regarded as thoroughly typical
+of that cruel intolerance which he shared with all his contemporaries,
+and also of that ardent zeal which was peculiar to himself;
+but they hardly do justice to the spirit of kindly benevolence
+which in less trying circumstances he was ever ready to display.
+He died at Winkel on the Rhine, on the 4th of February 856.
+He is frequently referred to as St Rabanus, but incorrectly.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>His voluminous works, many of which remain unpublished, comprise
+commentaries on a considerable number of the books both of
+canonical and of apocryphal Scripture (Genesis to Judges, Ruth,
+Kings, Chronicles, Judith, Esther, Canticles, Proverbs, Wisdom,
+Ecclesiasticus, Jeremiah, Lamentations, Ezekiel, Maccabees,
+Matthew, the Epistles of St Paul, including Hebrews); and various
+treatises relating to doctrinal and practical subjects, including more
+than one series of Homilies. Perhaps the most important is that <i>De
+institutione clericorum</i>, in three books, by which he did much to
+bring into prominence the views of Augustine and Gregory the
+Great as to the training which was requisite for a right discharge
+of the clerical function; the most popular has been a comparatively
+worthless tract <i>De laudibus sanctae crucis</i>. Among the others
+may be mentioned the <i>De universo libri xxii., sive etymologiarum
+opus</i>, a kind of dictionary or encyclopaedia, designed as a help
+towards the historical and mystical interpretation of Scripture, the
+<i>De sacris ordinibus</i>, the <i>De disciplina ecclesiastica</i> and the <i>Martyrologium</i>.
+All of them are characterized by erudition (he knew even
+some Greek and Hebrew) rather than by originality of thought.
+The poems are of singularly little interest or value, except as including
+one form of the &ldquo;Veni Creator.&rdquo; In the annals of German
+philology a special interest attaches to the <i>Glossaria Latino-Theodisca</i>.
+A commentary, <i>Super Porphyrium</i>, printed by Cousin in 1836 among
+the <i>Ouvrages inédits d&rsquo;Abélard</i>, and assigned both by that editor
+and by Hauréau to Hrabanus Maurus, is now generally believed to
+have been the work of a disciple.</p>
+
+<p>The first nominally complete edition of the works of Hrabanus
+Maurus was that of Colvener (Cologne, 6 vols. fol., 1627). The
+<i>Opera omnia</i> form vols. cvii.-cxii. of Migne&rsquo;s <i>Patrologiae cursus
+completus</i>. The <i>De universo</i> is the subject of <i>Compendium der
+Naturwissenschaften an der Schule zu Fulda im IX. Jahrhundert</i>
+(Berlin, 1880). Maurus is the subject of monographs by Schwarz
+(<i>De Rhabano Mauro primo Germaniae praeceptore</i>, 1811), Kunstmann
+(<i>Historische Monographie über Hrabanus Magnentius Maurus</i>, 1841),
+Spengler (<i>Leben des heil. Rhabanus Maurus</i>, 1856) and Köhler
+(<i>Rhabanus Maurus u. die Schule zu Fulda</i>, 1870). <i>Lives</i> by his
+disciple Rudolphus and by Joannes Trithemius are printed in the
+Cologne edition of the <i>Opera</i>. See also Pertz, <i>Monum. Germ. Hist.</i>
+(i. and ii.); Bähr, <i>Gesch. d. römischen Literatur im Karoling.
+Zeitalter</i> (1840), and Hauck&rsquo;s article in the Herzog-Hauck <i>Realencyklopädie</i>,
+ed. 3.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HRÓLFR KRAKI,<a name="ar100" id="ar100"></a></span> perhaps the most famous of the Danish
+kings of the heroic age. In <i>Beowulf</i>, where he is called Hrothwulf,
+he is represented as reigning over Denmark in conjunction
+with his uncle Hrothgar, one of the three sons of an earlier
+king called Healfdene. In the Old Norse sagas Hrólfe is the son
+of Helgi (Halga), the son of Halfdan (Healfdene). He is represented
+as a wealthy and peace-loving monarch similar to Hrothgar
+in <i>Beowulf</i>, but the latter (Hróarr, or Roe) is quite overshadowed
+by his nephew in the Northern authorities. The chief incidents
+in Hrólfr&rsquo;s career are the visit which he paid to the Swedish king
+Aðils (Beowulf&rsquo;s Eadgils), of which several different explanations
+are given, and the war, in which he eventually lost his life,
+against his brother-in-law Hiörvarðr. The name Kraki (pole-ladder)
+is said to have been given to him on account of his great
+height by a young knight named Vöggr, whom he handsomely
+rewarded and who eventually avenged his death on Hiörvarðr.
+There is no reason to doubt that Hrólfr was an historical person
+and that he reigned in Denmark during the early years of the
+6th century, but the statement found in all the sagas that he
+was the stepson of Aðils seems hardly compatible with the
+evidence of <i>Beowulf</i>, which is a much earlier authority.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See Saxo Grammaticus, <i>Gesta Danorum</i>, pp. 52-68, ed. A. Holder
+(Strassburg, 1886); and A. Olrik, <i>Danmarks Hettedigtning</i> (Copenhagen,
+1903).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HROSVITHA<a name="ar101" id="ar101"></a></span> (frequently <span class="sc">Roswitha</span>, and properly <span class="sc">Hrotsuit</span>),
+early medieval dramatist and chronicler, occupies a very notable
+position in the history of modern European literature. Her
+endeavours formed part of the literary activity by which the age
+of the emperor Otto the Great sought to emulate that of Charles
+the Great. The famous nun of Gandersheim has occasionally
+been confounded with her namesake, a learned abbess of the
+same convent, who must have died at least half a century earlier.
+The younger Hrosvitha was born in all probability about the year
+935; and, if the statement be correct that she sang the praises
+of the three Ottos, she must have lived to near the close of the
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page843" id="page843"></a>843</span>
+century. Some time before the year 959 she entered the Benedictine
+nunnery of Gandersheim, a foundation which was confined
+to ladies of German birth, and was highly favoured by
+the Saxon dynasty. In 959 Gerberga, daughter of Duke Henry
+of Bavaria and niece of the emperor Otto I., was consecrated
+abbess of Gandersheim; and the earlier literary efforts of the
+youthful Hrosvitha (whose own connexion with the royal family
+appears to be an unauthenticated tradition) were encouraged
+by the still more youthful abbess, and by a nun of the name of
+Richarda.</p>
+
+<p>The literary works of Hrosvitha, all of which were as a matter
+of course in Latin, divide themselves into three groups. Of
+these the first and least important comprises eight narrative
+religious poems, in leonine hexameters or distichs. Their subjects
+are the Nativity of the Virgin (from the apocryphal gospel of
+St James, the brother of our Lord), the Ascension and a series
+of legends of saints (Gandolph, Pelagius, Theophilus, Basil,
+Denis, Agnes). Like these narrative poems, the dramas to which
+above all Hrosvitha owes her fame seem to have been designed
+for reading aloud or recitation by sisters of the convent. For
+though there are indications that the idea of their representation
+was at least present to the mind of the authoress, the fact of
+such a representation appears to be an unwarrantable assumption.
+The comedies of Hrosvitha are six in number, being doubtless
+in this respect also intended to recall their nominal model, the
+comedies of Terence. They were devised on the simple principle
+that the world, the flesh and the devil should not have all the
+good plays to themselves. The experiment upon which the young
+Christian dramatist ventured was accordingly, although not
+absolutely novel, audacious enough. In form the dramas of
+&ldquo;the strong voice of Gandersheim,&rdquo; as Hrosvitha (possibly
+alluding to a supposed etymology of her name) calls herself, are
+by no means Terentian. They are written in prose, with an
+element of something like rhythm, and an occasional admixture
+of rhyme. In their themes, and in the treatment of these, they
+are what they were intended to be, the direct opposites of the
+lightsome adapter of Menander. They are founded upon
+legends of the saints, selected with a view to a glorification of
+religion in its supremest efforts and most transcendental aspects.
+The emperor Constantine&rsquo;s daughter, for example, Constantia,
+gives her hand in marriage to <i>Gallicanus</i>, just before he starts
+on a Scythian campaign, though she has already taken a vow
+of perpetual maidenhood. In the hour of battle he is himself
+converted, and, having on his return like his virgin bride chosen
+the more blessed unmarried state, dies as a Christian martyr
+in exile. The three holy maidens, Agape, Chionia and Irene,
+are preserved by a humorous miracle from the evil designs of
+<i>Dulcitius</i>, to offer up their pure lives as a sacrifice under
+Diocletian&rsquo;s persecutions. <i>Callimachus</i>, who has Romeo-like
+carried his earthly passion for the saintly Drusiana into her
+tomb, and among its horrors has met with his own death, is
+by the mediation of St John raised with her from the dead to
+a Christian life. All these themes are treated with both spirit
+and skill, often with instinctive knowledge of dramatic effect&mdash;often
+with genuine touches of pathos and undeniable felicities
+of expression. In <i>Dulcitius</i> there is also an element of comedy,
+or rather of farce. How far Hrosvitha&rsquo;s comedies were an isolated
+phenomenon of their age in Germany must remain undecided;
+in the general history of the drama they form the visible bridge
+between the few earlier attempts at utilizing the forms of the
+classical drama for Christian purposes and the miracle plays.
+They are in any case the productions of genius; nor has Hrosvitha
+missed the usual tribute of the supposition that Shakespeare
+has borrowed from her writings.</p>
+
+<p>The third and last group of the writings of Hrosvitha is that
+of her versified historical chronicles. At the request of the
+abbess Gerberga, she composed her <i>Carmen de gestis Oddonis</i>,
+an epic attempting in some degree to follow the great Roman
+model. It was completed by the year 968, and presented by
+the authoress to both the old emperor and his son (then already
+crowned as) Otto II. This poem so closely adheres to the materials
+supplied to the authoress by members of the imperial family
+that, notwithstanding its courtly omissions, it is regarded as
+an historical authority. Unfortunately only half of it remains;
+the part treating of the period from 953 to 962 is lost with the
+exception of a few fragments, and the period from 962 to
+967 is summarized only. Subsequently, in a poem (of 837
+hexameters) <i>De primordiis et fundatoribus coenobii Gandersheimensis</i>,
+Hrosvitha narrated the beginnings of her own convent,
+and its history up to the year 919.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>The Munich MS., which contains all the works enumerated above
+except the <i>Chronicle of Gandersheim</i>, was edited by the great Vienna
+humanist, Conrad Celtes, in 1501. The edition of Celtes was published
+at Nuremberg, with eight wood-cuts by Albrecht Dürer. It was
+re-edited by H. L. Schurzfleisch and published at Wittenberg in
+1707. The comedies have been edited and translated into German
+by J. Bendixen (Lübeck, 1857), and into French by C. Magnin
+(Paris, 1845), whose introduction gives a full account of the authoress
+and her works. See also her <i>Poésies latines</i>, with a translation into
+French verse by V. Rétif de la Bretonne (Paris, 1854). A copious
+analysis of her plays will be found in Klein, <i>Geschichte des Dramas</i>,
+iii. 665-754. See also W. Creizenach, <i>Geschichte des neueren Dramas</i>,
+i. 17 sqq. (Halle, 1893), and A. W. Ward, <i>History of English Dramatic
+Literature</i>, i. 6 sqq. (Cambridge, 1899). Gustav Freytag wrote a
+dissertation, <i>De Rosuitha poëtria</i> (Breslau, 1839), to qualify himself
+as an academical teacher, which, as he records (<i>Erinnerungen aus
+meinem Leben</i>, Leipzig, 1887, p. 1839), showed &ldquo;how impossible it
+was to the German, a thousand years since, to compose dramatically&rdquo;;
+and at the beginning of Albert Cohn&rsquo;s <i>Shakespeare in Germany</i>
+(Berlin, 1865) Shakespearean parallels are suggested to certain
+passages in Hrosvitha&rsquo;s dramas. Her two chronicles in verse were
+edited by Z. H. Pertz in the <i>Monumenta Germaniae</i>, iv. 306-335
+(Hanover, 1841). See also J. P. Migne, <i>Patrologiae curs. compl.</i>
+(Paris, 1853, vol. 137). The <i>Carmen</i> was included by Leibnitz
+in his <i>Scriptores rer. Brunsvic.</i> (Hanover, 1707-1711). For other
+early editions of these see A. Potthast, <i>Bibliotheca historica medii
+aevi</i> (supplement, Berlin, 1862-1868); and for an appreciation of
+them see Wattenbach, <i>Geschichtsquellen</i>, pp. 214-216, and Giesebrecht,
+<i>Deutsche Kaiserzeit</i>, i. 780, who mentions a German translation by
+Pfund (1860). There is a complete edition of the works of Hrosvitha
+by K. A. Barack (Nürnberg, 1858). J. Aschbach (1867) attempted
+to prove that Celtes had forged the productions which he published
+under the name of Hrosvitha, but he was refuted by R. Köpke
+(Berlin, 1869). Anatole France, <i>La Vie littéraire</i> (3<span class="sp">ème</span> série, Paris,
+1891), cited by Creienach, mentions a curious recent experiment,
+the performance of Hrosvitha&rsquo;s comedies in the Théâtre des
+Marionettes at Paris.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(A. W. W.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HSÜAN TSANG<a name="ar102" id="ar102"></a></span> (<span class="sc">Hiouen Thsang</span>, <span class="sc">Hiwen T&rsquo;sang</span>, <span class="sc">Yüan
+Tsang</span>, <span class="sc">Yuan-Chwang</span>), the most eminent representative of a
+remarkable and valuable branch of Chinese literature, consisting
+of the narratives of Chinese Buddhists who travelled to India,
+whilst their religion flourished there, with the view of visiting
+the sites consecrated by the history of Sakya Muni, of studying
+at the great convents which then existed in India, and of collecting
+books, relics and other sacred objects.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>The importance of these writings as throwing light on the geography
+and history of India and adjoining countries, during a very
+dark period, is great, and they have been the subject of elaborate
+commentaries by modern students. Several Chinese memoirs of
+this kind appear to have perished; and especially to be regretted
+is a great collection of the works of travellers to India, religious and
+secular, in sixty books, with forty more of maps and illustrations, published
+at the expense of the emperor Kao-Tsung of the T&rsquo;ang dynasty,
+<span class="scs">A.D.</span> 666, with a preface from the imperial hand. We will mention
+the clerical travellers of this description who are known to us by name.</p>
+
+<p>1. <i>Shi-tao-&rsquo;an</i> (d. 385) wrote a work on his travels to the
+&ldquo;western lands&rdquo; (an expression applying often to India), which is
+supposed to be lost. 2. <i>Fa-hien</i> travelled to India in 399, and
+returned by sea in 414. His work, called <i>Fo-Kwo-Ki, or Memoirs
+on the Buddha Realms</i>, has been translated by Abel-Rémusat and
+Landresse, and again into English by the Rev. S. Beale; Mr Laidlay
+of Calcutta also published a translation from the French, with interesting
+notes. 3. <i>Hwai Seng</i> and <i>Sung-Yun</i>, monks, travelled
+to India to collect books and reliques, 518-521. Their short narrative
+has been translated by Karl Fried. Neumann, and also by Mr Beale
+(along with Fa-hien). 4. <i>Hsüan Tsang</i>, the subject of this notice.
+In relation to his travels there are two Chinese works, both of which
+have been translated with an immense appliance of labour and
+learning by M. Stanislas Julien, viz. (<i>a</i>) the <i>Ta-T&rsquo;ang-Si-Yu-Ki, or
+Memoirs on Western Countries issued by the T&rsquo;ang Dynasty</i>, which
+was compiled under the traveller&rsquo;s own supervision, by order of the
+great emperor Tai-Tsung; and (<i>b</i>) a <i>Biography of Hsüan Tsang</i> by
+two of his contemporaries. 5. <i>The Itinerary of Fifty-six Religious
+Travellers</i>, compiled and published under imperial authority, 730.
+6. <i>The Itinerary of Khi-Nie</i>, who travelled (964-976) at the head
+of a large body of monks to collect books, &amp;c. Neither of the last
+two has been translated.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page844" id="page844"></a>844</span></p>
+
+<p>Hsüan Tsang was born in the district of Keu-Shi, near Honan-Fu,
+about 605, a period at which Buddhism appears to have had
+a powerful influence upon a large body of educated Chinese.
+From childhood grave and studious, he was taken in charge by an
+elder brother who had adopted the monastic life, in a convent at
+the royal city of Loyang in Honan. Hsüan Tsang soon followed
+his brother&rsquo;s example. For some years he travelled over China,
+teaching and learning, and eventually settled for a time at the
+capital Chang-gan (now Si-gan-fu in Shensi), where his fame
+for learning became great. The desire which he entertained
+to visit India, in order to penetrate all the doctrines of the
+Buddhist philosophy, and to perfect the collections of Indian
+books which existed in China, grew irresistible, and in August
+629 he started upon his solitary journey, eluding with difficulty
+the strict prohibition which was in force against crossing the
+frontier.</p>
+
+<p>The &ldquo;master of the law,&rdquo; as his biographers call him, plunged
+alone into the terrible desert of the Gobi, then known as the
+Sha-mo or &ldquo;Sand River,&rdquo; between Kwa-chow and Igu (now
+Hami or Kamil). At long intervals he found help from the small
+garrisons of the towers that dotted the desert track. Very
+striking is the description, like that given six centuries later
+by Marco Polo, of the quasi-supernatural horrors that beset the
+lonely traveller in the wilderness&mdash;the visions of armies and
+banners; and the manner in which they are dissipated singularly
+recalls passages in Bunyan&rsquo;s <i>Pilgrim&rsquo;s Progress</i>. After great
+suffering Hsüan Tsang reached Igu, the seat of a Turkish principality,
+and pursued his way along the southern foot of the
+T&rsquo;ian-shan, which he crossed by a glacier pass (vividly described)
+in the longitude of Lake Issyk-kul. In the valley of the Talas
+river he encounters the great khan of the Turks on a hunting
+party,&mdash;a rencontre which it is interesting to compare with the
+visit of Zemarchus to the great khan Dizabul, sixty years before,
+in the same region. Passing by the present Tashkend, and by
+Samarkand, then inhabited by fire worshippers, he reached the
+basin of the Upper Oxus, which had recently been the seat of
+the powerful dominion of the Haiathelah, Ephthalites or
+White Huns, known in earlier days to the Greeks as <i>Tochari</i>, and
+to Hsüan Tsang (by the same name) as <i>Tuholo</i> or Tukh&#257;ra. His
+account of the many small states into which the Tukh&#257;ra
+empire had broken up is of great interest, as many of them are
+identical in name and topography with the high valley states
+and districts on the Upper Oxus, which are at this day the object
+of so much geographical and political interest.</p>
+
+<p>Passing by Bamian, where he speaks of the great idols still
+so famous, he crosses Hindu-Kush, and descends the valley of
+the Kabul river to Nagarahara, the site of which, still known
+as Nagara, adjoining Jalalabad, has been explored by Mr W.
+Simpson. Travelling thence to Peshawar (<i>Purushapura</i>), the
+capital of Gandhara, he made a digression, through the now
+inaccessible valley of Swat and the Dard states, to the Upper
+Indus, returning to Peshawar, and then crossing the Indus (<i>Sintu</i>)
+into the decayed kingdom of <i>Taxila</i> (Ta-cha-si-lo, Takshasila),
+then subject to Kashmir. In the latter valley he spent two
+whole years (631-633) studying in the convents, and visiting
+the many monuments of his faith. In his further travels he visited
+Mathura (<i>Mot&rsquo;ulo</i>, Muttra), whence he turned north to Thanesar
+and the upper Jumna and Ganges, returning south down the
+valley of the latter to Kanyakubja or Kanauj, then one of the
+great capitals of India. The pilgrim next entered on a circuit
+of the most famous sites of Buddhist and of ancient Indian
+history, such as Ajodhya, Prayaga (Allahabad), Kausambhi,
+Sravasti, Kapilavastu, the birth-place of Sakya, Kusinagara, his
+death-place, Pataliputra (Patna, the <i>Palibothra</i> of the Greeks),
+Gaya, Rajagriha and Nalanda, the most famous and learned
+monastery and college in India, adorned by the gifts of successive
+kings, of the splendour of which he gives a vivid description, and
+of which traces have recently been recovered. There he again
+spent nearly two years in mastering Sanskrit and the depths
+of Buddhist philosophy. Again, proceeding down the banks of
+the Ganges, he diverged eastward to Kamarupa (Assam), and
+then passed by the great ports of Tamralipti (Tamluk, the misplaced
+<i>Tamalitis</i> of Ptolemy), and through Orissa to Kanchipara
+(Conjeeveram), about 640. Thence he went northward across
+the Carnatic and Maharashtra to Barakacheva (Broach of our
+day, <i>Barygaza</i> of the Greeks). After this he visited Malwa, Cutch,
+Surashtra (peninsular Gujarat, <i>Syrastrene</i> of the Greeks), Sind,
+Multan and Ghazni, whence he rejoined his former course in the
+basin of the Kabul river.</p>
+
+<p>This time, however, he crosses Pamir, of which he gives a
+remarkable account, and passes by Kashgar, Khotan (<i>Kustana</i>),
+and the vicinity of Lop-nor across the desert to Kwa-chow,
+whence he had made his venturous and lonely plunge into the
+waste fifteen years before. He carried with him great collections
+of books, precious images and reliques, and was received (April
+645) with public and imperial enthusiasm. The emperor T&rsquo;ai-Tsung
+desired him to commit his journey to writing, and also
+that he should abandon the eremitic rule and serve the state.
+This last he declined, and devoted himself to the compilation
+of his narrative and the translation of the books he had brought
+with him from India. The former was completed <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 648. In
+664 Hsüan Tsang died in a convent at Chang-gan. Some things
+in the history of his last days, and in the indications of beatitude
+recorded, strongly recall the parallel history of the saints of the
+Roman calendar. But on the other hand we find the Chinese
+saint, on the approach of death, causing one of his disciples to
+frame a catalogue of his good works, of the books that he had
+translated or caused to be transcribed, of the sacred pictures
+executed at his cost, of the alms that he had given, of the living
+creatures that he had ransomed from death. &ldquo;When Kia-shang
+had ended writing this list, the master ordered him to read it aloud.
+After hearing it the devotees clasped their hands, and showered
+their felicitations on him.&rdquo; Thus the &ldquo;well-done, good and
+faithful&rdquo; comes from the servant himself in self-applause.</p>
+
+<p>The book of the biography, by the disciples Hwai-li and
+Yen-t&rsquo;sung, as rendered with judicious omissions by Stan.
+Julien, is exceedingly interesting; its Chinese style receives
+high praise from the translator, who says he has often had to
+regret his inability to reproduce its grace, elegance and vivacity.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p><span class="sc">Authorities.</span>&mdash;<i>Fo-Koue-Ki</i>, trad. du Chinois, par Abel-Rémusat,
+revu et complété par Klaproth et Landresse (Paris, 1836); <i>H. de la
+vie de Hiouen-Thsang, &amp;c.</i>, trad. du Chinois par Stanislas Julien
+(Paris, 1853); <i>Mémoires sur les contrées occidentales ...</i> trad. du
+Chinois en Français (par le même) (2 vols., Paris, 1857-1858);
+<i>Mémoire analytique</i>, &amp;c., attached to the last work, by L. Vivien de
+St Martin; &ldquo;Attempt to identify some of the Places mentioned in
+the Itinerary of Hiuan Thsang,&rdquo; by Major Wm. Anderson, C.B., in
+<i>Journ. As. Soc. Bengal</i>, vol. xvi. pt. 2, p. 1183 (the enunciation of a
+singularly perverse theory); &ldquo;Verification of the Itinerary of Hwan
+Thsang, &amp;c.,&rdquo; by Captain Alex. Cunningham, Bengal Engineers, ibid.
+vol. xvii. pt. 1, p. 476; <i>Travels of Fah-hian and Sung-Yan, Buddhist
+Pilgrims, &amp;c.</i>, by Sam. Beal (1869); <i>The Ancient Geography of
+India</i>, by Major-General Alex. Cunningham, R.E. (1871); &ldquo;Notes
+on Hwen Thsang&rsquo;s Account of the Principalities of Tokharistan,&rdquo;
+by Colonel H. Yule, C.B., in <i>Journ. Roy. As. Soc.</i>, new ser., vol. vi.
+p. 82; &ldquo;On Hiouen Thsang&rsquo;s Journey from Patna to Ballabhi,&rdquo;
+by James Fergusson, D.C.L., ibid. p. 213.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(H. Y.; R. K. D.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HUAMBISAS,<a name="ar103" id="ar103"></a></span> a tribe of South American Indians on the upper
+Marañon and Santiago rivers, Peru. In 1841 they drove all the
+civilized Indians from the neighbouring missions. In 1843 they
+killed all the inhabitants of the village of Santa Teresa, between
+the mouths of the Santiago and Morona. They are fair-skinned
+and bearded, sharing with the Jeveros a descent from the Spanish
+women captured by their Indian ancestors at the sack of Sevilla
+del Oro in 1599.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HUANCAVELICA,<a name="ar104" id="ar104"></a></span> a city of central Peru and capital of a
+department, 160 m. S.E. of Lima. The city stands in a deep
+ravine of the Andes at an elevation of about 12,400 ft. above the
+sea, the ravine having an average width of 1 m. Pop. (1906
+estimate) 6000. The city is solidly and regularly built, the
+houses being of stone and the stream that flows through the
+town being spanned by several stone bridges. Near Huancavelica
+is the famous quicksilver mine of Santa Barbara, with
+its subterranean church of San Rosario, hewn from the native
+cinnabar-bearing rock. Huancavelica was founded by Viceroy
+Francisco de Toledo in 1572 as a mining town, and mining
+continues to be the principal occupation of its inhabitants. The
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page845" id="page845"></a>845</span>
+department is traversed by the Cordillera Occidental, and is
+bounded N., E. and S. by Junin and Ayacucho. Pop. (1906
+official estimate) 167,840; area, 9254 sq. m. The principal
+industry is mining for silver and quicksilver. The best-known
+silver mines are the Castrovirreyna.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HUÁNUCO,<a name="ar105" id="ar105"></a></span> a city of central Peru, capital of a department,
+170 m. N.N.E. of Lima in a beautiful valley on the left bank of
+the Huallaga river, nearly 6000 ft. above sea-level. Pop. (1906
+estimate) about 6000. The town was founded in 1539 by Gomez
+Alvarado. Huánuco is celebrated for its fruits and sweetmeats,
+the &ldquo;chirimoya&rdquo; (<i>Anona chirimolia</i>) of this region being the
+largest and most delicious of its kind. Mining is one of the city&rsquo;s
+industries. Huánuco was the scene of one of the bloodthirsty
+massacres of which the Chileans were guilty during their occupation
+of Peruvian territory in 1881-1883. The department of
+Huánuco lies immediately N. of Junin, with Ancachs on the W.
+and San Martin and Loreto on the N. and E. Pop. (1906
+estimate) 108,980; area, 14,028 sq. m. It lies wholly in the
+Cordillera region, and is traversed from S. to N. by the Marañon
+and Huallaga rivers.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HUARAZ,<a name="ar106" id="ar106"></a></span> a city of northern Peru and capital o£ the department
+of Ancachs, on the left bank of the Huaraz, or Santa river, about
+190 m. N.N.W. of Lima and 58 m. from the coast. Pop. (1876)
+4851, (1906 estimate) 6000. Huaraz is situated in a narrow
+fertile valley of the Western Cordillera, at a considerable elevation
+above sea-level, and has a mild climate. A railway projected
+to connect Huaraz with the port of Chimbote, on the Bay of
+Chimbote, a few miles S. of the mouth of the Santa river, was
+completed from Chimbote to Suchimán (33 m.) in 1872, when
+work was suspended for want of money. In the valley of the
+Huaraz cattle are raised, and wheat, sugar and fruit, gold, silver,
+copper and coal are produced. Alfalfa is grown by stock-raisers,
+and the cattle raised here are among the best in the Peruvian
+market. In the vicinity of Huaraz are megalithic ruins similar
+to those of Tiahunaco and Cuzco, showing that the aboriginal
+empire preceding the Incas extended into northern Peru.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HUARTE DE SAN JUAN,<a name="ar107" id="ar107"></a></span> or <span class="sc">Huarte Y Navarro, Juan</span>
+(<i>c.</i> 1530-1592), Spanish physician and psychologist, was born at
+Saint-Jean-Pied-de-Port (Lower Navarre) about 1530, was
+educated at the university of Huesca, where he graduated in
+medicine, and, though it appears doubtful whether he practised
+as a physician at Huesca, distinguished himself by his professional
+skill and heroic zeal during the plague which devastated Baeza
+in 1566. He died in 1592. His <i>Examen de ingenios para las
+ciencias</i> (1575) won him a European reputation, and was translated
+by Lessing. Though now superseded, Huarte&rsquo;s treatise is
+historically interesting as the first attempt to show the connexion
+between psychology and physiology, and its acute
+ingenuity is as remarkable as the boldness of its views.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HUASTECS,<a name="ar108" id="ar108"></a></span> a tribe of North American Indians of Mayan
+stock, living to the north of Vera Cruz. They are of interest to the
+ethnologist as being so entirely detached from the other Mayan
+tribes of Central America. The theory is that the Mayas came
+from the north and that the Huastecs were left behind in the
+migration southward.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HUBER, FRANÇOIS<a name="ar109" id="ar109"></a></span> (1750-1831), Swiss naturalist, was born
+at Geneva on the 2nd of July 1750. He belonged to a family
+which had already made its mark in the literary and scientific
+world: his great-aunt, Marie Huber (1695-1753), was known as
+a voluminous writer on religious and theological subjects, and
+as the translator and epitomizer of the <i>Spectator</i> (Amsterdam,
+3 vols., 1753); and his father Jean Huber (1721-1786), who had
+served for many years as a soldier, was a prominent member of
+the coterie at Ferney, distinguishing himself by his <i>Observations
+sur le vol des oiseaux</i> (Geneva, 1784). François Huber was only
+fifteen years old when he began to suffer from an affection of the
+eyes which gradually resulted in total blindness; but, with the
+aid of his wife, Marie Aimée Lullin, and of his servant, François
+Burnens, he was able to carry out investigations that laid the
+foundations of our scientific knowledge of the life history of the
+honey-bee. His <i>Nouvelles Observations sur les abeilles</i> was published
+at Geneva in 1792 (Eng. trans., 1806). He assisted Jean
+Senebier in his <i>Mém. sur l&rsquo;influence de l&rsquo;air, &amp;c., dans la germination</i>
+(Geneva, 1800); and he also wrote &ldquo;Mém. sur l&rsquo;origine de la
+cire&rdquo; (<i>Bibliothèque britannique</i>, tome xxv.), a &ldquo;Lettre à M.
+Pictet sur certains dangers que courent les abeilles&rdquo; (<i>Bib.
+brit</i>. xxvii), and &ldquo;Nouvelles Observ. rel. au sphinx Atropos&rdquo;
+(<i>Bib. brit</i>. xxvii). He died at Lausanne on the 22nd of December
+1831. De Candolle gave his name to a genus of Brazilian trees&mdash;<i>Huberia
+laurina</i>.</p>
+
+<p><span class="sc">Pierre Huber</span> (1777-1840) followed in his father&rsquo;s footsteps.
+His best-known work is <i>Recherches sur les m&oelig;urs des fourmis
+indigènes</i> (Geneva and Paris, 1810; new ed., Geneva, 1861), and
+he also wrote various papers on entomological subjects.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See the account of François Huber, by De Candolle, in <i>Bibl.
+universelle</i> (1832); and the notice of Pierre in <i>Bibl. univ.</i> (1886);
+also Haag, <i>La France protestante</i>.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HUBER, JOHANN NEPOMUK<a name="ar110" id="ar110"></a></span> (1830-1879), German philosophical
+and theological writer, a leader of the Old Catholics,
+was born at Munich on the 18th of August 1830. Originally
+destined for the priesthood, he early began the study of theology.
+By the writings of Spinoza and Oken, however, he was strongly
+drawn to philosophical pursuits, and it was in philosophy that
+he &ldquo;habilitated&rdquo; (1854) in the university of his native place,
+where he ultimately became professor (extraordinarius, 1859;
+ordinarius, 1864). With Döllinger and others he attracted a
+large amount of public attention in 1869 by the challenge to the
+Ultramontane promoters of the Vatican council in the treatise
+<i>Der Papst und das Koncil</i>, which appeared under the pseudonym
+of &ldquo;Janus,&rdquo; and also in 1870 by a series of letters (<i>Römische
+Briefe</i>, a redaction of secret reports sent from Rome during the
+sitting of the council), which were published over the pseudonym
+Quirinus in the <i>Allgemeine Zeitung</i>. He died suddenly of heart
+disease at Munich on the 20th of March 1879.</p>
+
+<p><span class="sc">Works</span>.&mdash;The treatise <i>Über die Willensfreiheit</i> (1858), followed in
+1859 by <i>Die Philosophie der Kirchenväter</i>, which was promptly
+placed upon the <i>Index</i>, and led to the prohibition of all Catholic
+students from attending his lectures; <i>Johannes Scotus Erigena</i>
+(1861); <i>Die Idee der Unsterblichkeit</i> (1864); <i>Studien</i> (1867); <i>Der
+Proletarier; zur Orientirung in der sozialen Frage</i> (1865); <i>Der
+Jesuitenorden nach seiner Verfassung und Doctrin, Wirksamkeit und
+Geschichte</i> (1873), also placed upon the <i>Index</i>; <i>Der Pessimismus</i>
+(1876); <i>Die Forschung nach der Materie</i> (1877); <i>Zur Philosophie
+der Astronomie</i> (1878); <i>Das Gedächtnis</i> (1878). He also published
+adverse criticisms of Darwin, Strauss, Hartmann and Häckel;
+pamphlets on <i>Das Papsttum und der Staat</i> (1870), and on <i>Die Freiheiten
+der französischen Kirche</i> (1871); and a volume of <i>Kleine
+Schriften</i> (1871).</p>
+
+<p>See E. Zirngiebl, <i>Johannes Huber</i> (1881); and M. Carrière in
+<i>Allgemeine deutsche Biographie</i>, xiii. (1881), and in <i>Nord und Süd</i>
+(1879).</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HUBER, LUDWIG FERDINAND<a name="ar111" id="ar111"></a></span> (1764-1804), German author,
+was born in Paris on the 14th of September 1764, the son of
+Michael Huber (1727-1804), who did much to promote the
+study of German literature in France. In his infancy young
+Huber removed with his parents to Leipzig, where he was
+carefully instructed in modern languages and literature, and
+showed a particular inclination for those of France and England.
+In Leipzig he became intimate with Christian Gottfried Körner,
+father of the poet; in Dresden Huber became engaged to Dora
+Stock, sister of Körner&rsquo;s betrothed, and associated with Schiller,
+who was one of Körner&rsquo;s stanchest friends. In 1787 he was
+appointed secretary to the Saxon legation in Mainz, where he
+remained until the French occupation of 1792. While here he
+interested himself for the welfare of the family of his friend
+Georg Forster, who, favouring republican views, had gone to
+Paris, leaving his wife Therese Forster (1764-1829) and family
+in destitute circumstances. Huber, enamoured of the talented
+young wife, gave up his diplomatic post, broke off his engagement
+to Dora Stock, removed with the Forster family to Switzerland,
+and on the death of her husband in 1794 married Therese Forster.
+In 1798 Huber took over the editorship of the <i>Allgemeine Zeitung</i>
+in Stuttgart. The newspaper having been prohibited in Württemberg,
+Huber continued its editorship in Ulm in 1803. He was
+created &ldquo;counsellor of education&rdquo; for the new Bavarian province
+of Swabia in the following year, but had hardly entered upon
+the functions of his new office when he died on the 24th of
+December 1804.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page846" id="page846"></a>846</span></p>
+
+<p>Huber was well versed in English literature, and in 1785 he
+published the drama <i>Ethelwolf</i>, with notes on Beaumont and
+Fletcher and the old English stage. He also wrote many dramas,
+comedies and tragedies, most of which are now forgotten, and
+among them only <i>Das heimliche Gericht</i> (1790, new ed. 1795)
+enjoyed any degree of popularity. As a critic he is seen to
+advantage in the <i>Vermischte Schriften von dem Verfasser des
+heimlichen Gerichts</i> (2 vols., 1793). As a publicist he made his
+name in the historical-political periodicals <i>Friedenspräliminarien</i>
+(1794-1796, 10 vols.) and <i>Klio</i> (1795-1798, 1819).</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>His collected works, <i>Sämtliche Werke seit dem Jahre 1802</i> (4 vols.,
+1807-1819), were published with a biography by his wife Therese
+Huber. See L. Speidel and H. Wittmann, <i>Bilder aus der Schiller-Zeit</i>
+(1884).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HUBERT<a name="ar112" id="ar112"></a></span> (<span class="sc">Hucbertus</span>, <span class="sc">Hugbertus</span>), <b>ST</b> (d. 727), bishop of
+Liége, whose festival is celebrated on the 3rd of November.
+The Bollandists have published seven different lives of the
+saint. The first is the only one of any value, and is the work
+of a contemporary. Unfortunately, it is very sparing of details.
+In it we see that Hubert in 708 succeeded Lambert in the see
+of Maestricht (Tongres), and that he erected a basilica to his
+memory. In 825 Hubert&rsquo;s remains were removed to a Benedictine
+cloister in the Ardennes, which thenceforth bore his
+name (St Hubert, province of Luxemburg, Belgium), and ultimately
+became a considerable resort of pilgrims. The later
+legends (<i>Bibliotheca hagiographica latina</i>, nos. 3994-4002) are
+devoid of authority. One of them relates, probably following
+the legend of St Eustace, the miracle of the conversion of St
+Hubert. This conversion, represented as having been brought
+about while he was hunting on Good Friday by a miraculous
+appearance of a stag bearing between his horns a cross or crucifix
+surrounded with rays of light, has frequently been made the
+subject of artistic treatment. He is the patron of hunters, and
+is also invoked in cases of hydrophobia. Several orders of
+knighthood have been under his protection; among these may
+be mentioned the Bavarian, the Bohemian and that of the
+electorate of Cologne.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See <i>Acta Sanctorum</i>, Novembris, i. 759-930; G. Kurth, <i>Chartes
+de l&rsquo;abbaye de St Hubert en Ardenne</i> (Brussels, 1903); Anna Jameson,
+<i>Sacred and Legendary Art</i>, i. 732-737 (London, 1896); Cahier,
+<i>Caractéristiques des saints</i>, pp. 183, 775, &amp;c. (Paris, 1867).</p>
+</div><div class="author">(H. De.)</div>
+
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HUBERTUSBURG,<a name="ar113" id="ar113"></a></span> a château in the kingdom of Saxony,
+near the village of Wermsdorf and midway 6 m. between the
+towns Oschatz and Grimma. It was built in 1721-1724 by
+Frederick Augustus II., elector of Saxony, subsequently King
+Augustus III. of Poland, as a hunting box, and was often the
+scene of brilliant festivities. It is famous for the peace signed
+here on the 15th of February 1763, which ended the Seven Years&rsquo;
+War. After undergoing various vicissitudes, it now serves the
+purpose of a lunatic asylum and a training school for nursing
+sisters.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See Riemer, <i>Das Schloss Hubertusburg, sonst und jetzt</i> (Oschatz,
+1881).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HUBLI,<a name="ar114" id="ar114"></a></span> a town of British India, in the Dharwar district of
+Bombay, 15 m. S.E. of Dharwar town. Pop. (1901) 60,214.
+It is a railway junction on the Southern Mahratta system,
+where the lines to Bangalore and Bezwada branch off south and
+west. It is an important centre of trade and of cotton and silk
+weaving, and has two cotton mills and several factories for
+ginning and pressing cotton. Hubli was in early times the seat
+of an English factory, which, with the rest of the town, was
+plundered in 1673 by Sivaji, the Mahratta leader.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HÜBNER, EMIL<a name="ar115" id="ar115"></a></span> (1834-1901), German classical scholar, son
+of the historical painter Julius Hübner (1806-1882), was born at
+Düsseldorf on the 7th of July 1834. After studying at Berlin
+and Bonn, he travelled extensively with a view to antiquarian
+and epigraphical researches. The results of these travels were
+embodied in several important works: <i>Inscriptiones Hispaniae
+Latinae</i> (1869, supplement 1892), <i>I. H. Christianae</i> (1871, supplement
+1900); <i>Inscriptiones Britanniae Latinae</i> (1873), <i>I. B.
+Christianae</i> (1876); <i>La Arqueologia de España</i> (1888); <i>Monumenta
+linguae Hibericae</i> (1893). Hübner was also the author
+of two books of the greatest utility to the classical student:
+<i>Grundriss zu Vorlesungen über die römische Literaturgeschichte</i>
+(4th ed. 1878, edited, with large additions, by J. E. B. Mayor as
+<i>Bibliographical Clue to Latin Literature</i>, 1875), and <i>Bibliographie
+der classischen Altertumswissenschaft</i> (2nd ed., 1889); mention
+may also be made of <i>Römische Epigraphik</i> (2nd ed., 1892);
+<i>Exempla Scripturae Epigraphicae Latinae</i> (1885); and <i>Römische
+Herrschaft in Westeuropa</i> (1890). In 1870 Hübner was appointed
+professor of Classical Philology in the university of Berlin,
+where he died on the 21st of February 1901.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HÜBNER, JOSEPH ALEXANDER,<a name="ar116" id="ar116"></a></span> <span class="sc">Count</span> (1811-1892),
+Austrian diplomatist, was born in Vienna on the 26th of
+November 1811. His real name was Hafenbredl, which he afterwards
+changed to Hübner. He began his public career in 1833
+under Metternich, whose confidence he soon gained, and who
+sent him in 1837 as attaché to Paris. In 1841 he became secretary
+of embassy at Lisbon, and in 1844 Austrian consul-general at
+Leipzig. In 1848 he was sent to Milan to conduct the diplomatic
+correspondence of Archduke Rainer, viceroy of Lombardy.
+On the outbreak of the revolution he was seized as a hostage,
+and remained a prisoner for some months. Returning to Austria,
+he was entrusted with the compilation of the documents and proclamations
+relating to the abdication of the Emperor Ferdinand
+and the accession of Francis Joseph. His journal, an invaluable
+clue to the complicated intrigues of this period, was published
+in 1891 in French and German, under the title of <i>Une Année
+de ma vie, 1848-1849</i>. In March 1849 he was sent on a special
+mission to Paris, and later in the same year was appointed
+ambassador to France. To his influence was in large measure
+due the friendly attitude of Austria to the Allies in the Crimean
+War, at the close of which he represented Austria at the congress
+of Paris in 1856. He allowed himself, however, to be taken by
+surprise by Napoleon&rsquo;s intervention on behalf of Italian unity,
+of which the first public intimation was given by the French
+emperor&rsquo;s cold reception of Hübner on New Year&rsquo;s Day, 1859,
+with the famous words: &ldquo;I regret that our relations with your
+Government are not so good as they have hitherto been.&rdquo; He
+did not return to Paris after the war, and after holding the
+ministry of police in the Goluchowski cabinet from August to
+October 1859, lived in retirement till 1865, when he became
+ambassador at Rome. Quitting this post in 1867, he undertook
+extensive travels, his descriptions of which appeared as <i>Promenade
+autour du monde, 1871</i> (1873; English translation by Lady
+Herbert, 1874) and <i>Through the British Empire</i> (1886). Written
+in a bright and entertaining style, and characterized by shrewd
+observation, they achieved considerable popularity in their
+time. A more serious effort was his <i>Sixte-Quint</i> (1870, translated
+into English by H. E. H. Jerningham under the title of
+<i>The Life and Times of Sixtus the Fifth</i>, 1872), an original contribution
+to the history of the period, based on unpublished documents
+at the Vatican, Simancas and Venice. In 1879 he was made
+a life-member of the Austrian Upper House, where he sat as a
+Clerical and Conservative. He had received the rank of Baron
+(Freiherr) in 1854, and in 1888 was raised to the higher rank of
+Count (Graf). He died at Vienna on the 30th of July 1892.
+Though himself of middle-class origin, he was a profound admirer
+of the old aristocratic régime, and found his political ideals in
+his former chiefs, Metternich and Schwarzenberg. As the last
+survivor of the Metternich school, he became towards the close
+of his life more and more out of touch with the trend of modern
+politics, but remained a conspicuous figure in the Upper House
+and at the annual delegations. That he possessed the breadth
+of mind to appreciate the working of a system at total variance
+with his own school of thought was shown by his grasp of British
+colonial questions. It is interesting, in view of subsequent
+events, to note his emphatic belief in the loyalty of the British
+colonies&mdash;a belief not shared at that time by many statesmen
+with far greater experience of democratic institutions.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See Sir Ernest Satow, <i>An Austrian Diplomatist in the Fifties</i> (1908).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HUC, ÉVARISTE RÉGIS<a name="ar117" id="ar117"></a></span> (1813-1860), French missionary-traveller,
+was born at Toulouse, on the 1st of August 1813. In
+his twenty-fourth year he entered the congregation of the
+Lazarists at Paris, and shortly after receiving holy orders in
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page847" id="page847"></a>847</span>
+1839 went out to China. At Macao he spent some eighteen
+months in the Lazarist seminary, preparing himself for the
+regular work of a missionary. Having acquired some command
+of the Chinese tongue, and modified his personal appearance
+and dress in accordance with Chinese taste, he started from
+Canton. He at first superintended a Christian mission in the
+southern provinces, and then passing to Peking, where he perfected
+his knowledge of the language, eventually settled in the
+Valley of Black Waters or He Shuy, a little to the north of the
+capital, and just within the borders of Mongolia. There, beyond
+the Great Wall, a large but scattered population of native
+Christians had found a refuge from the persecutions of Kia-King,
+to be united half a century later in a vast but vague
+apostolic vicariate. The assiduity with which Huc devoted
+himself to the study of the dialects and customs of the Tatars,
+for whom at the cost of much labour he translated various
+religious works, was an admirable preparation for undertaking
+in 1844, at the instigation of the vicar apostolic of Mongolia,
+an expedition whose object was to dissipate the obscurity which
+hung over the country and habits of the Tibetans. September
+of that year found the missionary at Dolon Nor occupied with
+the final arrangements for his journey, and shortly afterwards,
+accompanied by his fellow-Lazarist, Joseph Gabet, and a young
+Tibetan priest who had embraced Christianity, he set out. To
+escape attention the little party assumed the dress of lamas
+or priests. Crossing the Hwang-ho, they advanced into the
+terrible sandy tract known as the Ordos Desert. After suffering
+dreadfully from want of water and fuel they entered Kansu,
+having recrossed the flooded Hwang-ho, but it was not till
+January 1845 that they reached Tang-Kiul on the boundary.
+Rather than encounter alone the horrors of a four months&rsquo;
+journey to Lhasa they resolved to wait for eight months till
+the arrival of a Tibetan embassy on its return from Peking.
+Under an intelligent teacher they meanwhile studied the Tibetan
+language and Buddhist literature, and during three months
+of their stay they resided in the famous Kunbum Lamasery,
+which was reported to accommodate 4000 persons. Towards
+the end of September they joined the returning embassy, which
+comprised 2000 men and 3700 animals. Crossing the deserts
+of Koko Nor, they passed the great lake of that name, with its
+island of contemplative lamas, and, following a difficult and
+tortuous track across snow-covered mountains, they at last
+entered Lhasa on the 29th of January 1846. Favourably received
+by the regent, they opened a little chapel, and were in a fair way
+to establish an important mission, when the Chinese ambassador
+interfered and had the two missionaries conveyed back to Canton,
+where they arrived in October of the same year. For nearly
+three years Huc remained at Canton, but Gabet, returning to
+Europe, proceeded thence to Rio de Janeiro, and died there
+shortly afterwards. Huc returned to Europe in shattered
+health in 1852, visiting India, Egypt and Palestine on his way,
+and, after a prolonged residence in Paris, died on the 31st of
+March 1860.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>His writings comprise, besides numerous letters and memoirs
+in the <i>Annales de la propagation de la foi</i>, the famous <i>Souvenirs d&rsquo;un
+voyage dans la Tartarie, le Thibet, et la Chine pendant les années
+1844-1846</i> (2 vols., Paris, 1850; Eng. trans. by W. Hazlitt, 1851,
+abbreviated by M. Jones, London, 1867); its supplement, crowned
+by the Academy, entitled <i>L&rsquo;Empire chinois</i> (2 vols., Paris, 1854;
+Eng. trans., London, 1859); and an elaborate historical work, <i>Le
+Christianisme en Chine, &amp;c.</i> (4 vols., Paris, 1857-1858; Eng. trans.,
+London, 1857-1858). These works are written in a lucid, racy,
+picturesque style, which secured for them an unusual degree of
+popularity. The <i>Souvenirs</i> is a narrative of a remarkable feat of
+travel, and contains passages of so singular a character as in the
+absence of corroborative testimony to stir up a feeling of incredulity.
+That Huc was suspected unjustly was amply proved by later research.
+But he was by no means a practical geographer, and
+the record of his travels loses greatly in value from the want of
+precise scientific data.</p>
+
+<p>See, for information specially relating to the whole subject, the
+Abbé Desgodin&rsquo;s <i>Mission du Thibet de 1855 à 1870</i> (Verdun, 1872);
+and &ldquo;Account of the Pundit&rsquo;s Journey in Great Tibet,&rdquo; in the
+<i>Royal Geographical Society&rsquo;s Journal</i> for 1877.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HUCBALD<a name="ar118" id="ar118"></a></span> (<span class="sc">Hugbaldus, Hubaldus</span>), Benedictine monk, and
+writer on music, was born at the monastery of Saint Amand
+near Tournai, in or about 840, if we may believe the statement of
+his biographers to the effect that he died in 930, aged 90. He
+studied at the monastery, where his uncle Milo occupied an
+important position. Hucbald made rapid progress in the
+acquirement of various sciences and arts, including that of music,
+and at an early age composed a hymn in honour of St Andrew,
+which met with such success as to excite the jealousy of his uncle.
+It is said that Hucbald in consequence was compelled to leave
+St Amand, and started an independent school of music and other
+arts at Nevers. In 860, however, he was at St Germain d&rsquo;Auxerre,
+bent upon completing his studies, and in 872 he was back again
+at St Amand as the successor in the headmastership of the
+convent school of his uncle, to whom he had been reconciled in
+the meantime. Between 883 and 900 Hucbald went on several
+missions of reforming and reconstructing various schools of
+music, including that of Rheims, but in the latter year he returned
+to St Amand, where he remained to the day of his death
+on the 25th of June 930, or, according to other chroniclers,
+on the 20th of June 932. The only work which can positively
+be ascribed to him is his <i>Harmonica Institutio</i>. The <i>Musica
+Enchiriadis</i>, published with other writings of minor importance
+in Gerbert&rsquo;s <i>Scriptores de Musica</i>, and containing a complete
+system of musical science as well as instructions regarding
+notation, has now been proved to have originated about half a
+century later than the death of the monk Hucbald, and to have
+been the work of an unknown writer belonging to the close of the
+10th century and possibly also bearing the name of Hucbald.
+This work is celebrated chiefly for an essay on a new form
+of notation described in the present day as <i>Dasia Notation</i>.
+The author of the <i>Harmonica Institutio</i> wrote numerous lives
+of the saints and a curious poem on bald men, dedicated to
+Charles the Bald.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p><span class="sc">Authorities.</span>&mdash;Sir John Hawkins, <i>General History of the Science
+and Practice of Music</i> (i. 153); <i>Histoire littéraire de la France</i> (vi. 216
+et seq.); Coussemaker, <i>Mémoire sur Hucbald</i> (Paris, 1841); Hans
+Müller, <i>Hucbald&rsquo;s echte und unechte Schriften über Musik</i> (Leipzig,
+1884); Spitta, <i>Die Musica Enchiriadis und seine Zeitalter</i> (<i>Vierteljahresschrift
+für Musikwissenschaft</i>, 1889, 5th year).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HU-CHOW-FU,<a name="ar119" id="ar119"></a></span> a city of China, in the province of Cheh-Kiang
+(30° 48&prime; N., 120° 3&prime; E.), a little S. of Tai-hu Lake, in the
+midst of the central silk district. According to Chinese authorities
+it is 6 m. in circumference, and contains about 100,000 families.
+A broad stream or canal crosses the city from south to north,
+and forms the principal highway for boat traffic. The main
+trade of the place is in raw silk, but some silk fabrics, such as
+flowered crape (<i>chousha</i>), are also manufactured. Silk is largely
+worn even by the lowest classes of the inhabitants.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HUCHOWN,<a name="ar120" id="ar120"></a></span> &ldquo;of the Awle Ryale&rdquo; (fl. 14th century), Scottish
+poet, is referred to by Wyntoun in his <i>Chronicle</i> in these words:&mdash;</p>
+
+<table class="reg f90" summary="poem"><tr><td> <div class="poemr">
+                        <p class="i8">&ldquo;Hucheon,</p>
+<p>þat cunnande was in littratur.</p>
+<p>He made a gret Gest of Arthure,</p>
+<p>And þe Awntyr of Gawane,</p>
+<p>Þe Pistil als of Suet Susane.</p>
+<p>He was curyousse in his stille,</p>
+<p>Fayr of facunde and subtile,</p>
+<p>And ay to pleyssance hade delyte,</p>
+<p>Mad in metyr meit his dyte</p>
+<p>Litil or noucht neuir þe lesse</p>
+<p>Wauerande fra þe suythfastnes.&rdquo;</p>
+      <p class="i3">(Cott. MS. bk. v. II, 4308-4318).</p>
+</div> </td></tr></table>
+
+<p>Much critical ingenuity has been spent in endeavouring to
+identify (<i>a</i>) the poet and (<i>b</i>) the works named in the foregoing
+passage. It has been assumed that &ldquo;Huchown,&rdquo; or &ldquo;Hucheon,&rdquo;
+represents the &ldquo;gude Sir Hew of Eglyntoun&rdquo; named by Dunbar
+(<i>q.v.</i>) in his <i>Lament for the Makaris</i> (i. 53). The only known
+Sir Hugh of Eglintoun of the century is frequently mentioned
+in the public records from the middle of the century onwards,
+as an auditor of accounts and as witness to several charters.
+By 1360 he had married Dame Egidia, widow of Sir James
+Lindsay and half-sister of Robert the Steward. His public
+office and association with the Steward sorts well with the
+designation &ldquo;of the Awle Ryale,&rdquo; if that be interpreted as
+&ldquo;Aula Regalis&rdquo; or &ldquo;Royal Palace.&rdquo; He appears to have died
+late in 1376 or early in 1377.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page848" id="page848"></a>848</span></p>
+
+<p>The first of the poems named above, the <i>Gest of Arthure</i> or
+<i>Gest Historyalle</i> (<i>ib.</i> i. 4288), has been identified by Dr Trautmann,
+&ldquo;Anglia,&rdquo; <i>Der Dichter Huchown</i> (1877), with the alliterative
+<i>Morte Arthure</i> in the Thornton MS. at Lincoln, printed by the
+E.E.T.S. (ed. Brock, 1865). The problem of the second (<i>The
+Awntyr of Gawane</i>) is still in dispute. There are difficulties in
+the way of accepting the conjecture that the poem is the &ldquo;Awntyres
+of Arthure at the Tern Wathelyne&rdquo; (see S.T.S., <i>Scottish
+Alliterative Poems</i>, 1897, and Introduction, pp. 11 et seq.), and
+little direct evidence in favour of the view that the reference is
+to the greatest of middle English romances, <i>Sir Gawain and
+the Grene Knight</i>. The third may be safely accepted as the
+well-known <i>Pistil</i> [Epistle] <i>of Swete Susan</i>, printed by Laing
+(<i>Select Remains</i>, 1822) and by the S.T.S. (<i>Scottish Alliterative
+Poems, u.s.</i>).</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See, in addition to the works named, above, G. Neilson&rsquo;s <i>Sir Hew
+of Eglintoun and Huchown of the Awle Ryale</i> (Glasgow, 1901), which
+contains a full record of references to the historical Sir Hew of
+Eglintoun; <i>Huchown of the Awle Ryale, the Alliterative Poet</i>
+(Glasgow, 1902) by the same; J. T. T. Brown&rsquo;s <i>Huchown of the
+Awle Ryale and his Poems</i> (Glasgow, 1902), in answer to the foregoing.
+See also the correspondence in the <i>Athenaeum</i>, 1900-1901,
+and the review of Mr Neilson&rsquo;s pamphlets, <i>ib.</i> (Nov. 22, 1902); and
+J. H. Millar&rsquo;s <i>Literary History of Scotland</i> (1903), pp. 8-14.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HUCHTENBURG,<a name="ar121" id="ar121"></a></span> the name of two brothers who were Dutch
+painters in the second half of the 17th century. Both were natives
+of Haarlem. Jacob, the elder, of whom very little is known,
+studied under Berghem, and went early to Italy, where he
+died young about 1667. His pictures are probably confounded
+with those of his brother. In Copenhagen, where alone they are
+catalogued, they illustrate the style of a Dutchman who transfers
+Berghem&rsquo;s cattle and flocks to Italian landscapes and marketplaces.</p>
+
+<p>John van Huchtenburg (1646-1733), born at Haarlem it is
+said in 1646, was first taught by Thomas Wyk, and afterwards
+induced to visit the chief cities of Italy, where, penetrating as
+far as Rome, he met and dwelt with his brother Jacob. After
+the death of the latter he wandered homewards, taking Paris on
+his way, and served under Van der Meulen, then employed in
+illustrating for Louis XIV. the campaign of 1667-1668 in the
+Low Countries. In 1670 he settled at Haarlem, where he married,
+practised and kept a dealer&rsquo;s shop. His style had now merged
+into an imitation of Philip Wouvermans and Van der Meulen,
+which could not fail to produce pretty pictures of hunts and
+robber camps, the faculty of painting horses and men in action
+and varied dress being the chief point of attraction. Later
+Huchtenburg ventured on cavalry skirmishes and engagements
+of regular troops generally, and these were admired by Prince
+Eugene and William III., who gave the painter sittings, and
+commissioned him to throw upon canvas the chief incidents of
+the battles they fought upon the continent of Europe. When
+he died at Amsterdam in 1733, Huchtenburg had done much by
+his pictures and prints to make Prince Eugene, King William
+and Marlborough popular. Though clever in depicting a <i>mêlée</i>
+or a skirmish of dragoons, he remained second to Philip Wouvermans
+in accuracy of drawing, and inferior to Van der Meulen in
+the production of landscapes. But, nevertheless, he was a clever
+and spirited master, with great facility of hand and considerable
+natural powers of observation.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>The earliest date on his pictures is 1674, when he executed the
+&ldquo;Stag-Hunt&rdquo; in the Museum of Berlin, and the &ldquo;Fight with Robbers&rdquo;
+in the Lichtenstein collection at Vienna. A &ldquo;Skirmish at Fleurus&rdquo;
+(1690) in the Brussels gallery seems but the precursor of larger and
+more powerful works, such as the &ldquo;Siege of Namur&rdquo; (1695) in the
+Belvedere at Vienna, where William III. is seen in the foreground
+accompanied by Max Emmanuel, the Bavarian elector. Three
+years before, Huchtenburg had had sittings from Prince Eugene
+(Hague museum) and William III. (Amsterdam Trippenhuis).
+After 1696 he regularly served as court painter to Prince Eugene,
+and we have at Turin (gallery) a series of eleven canvases all of the
+same size depicting the various battles of the great hero, commencing
+with the fight of Zentha against the Turks in 1697, and concluding
+with the capture of Belgrade in 1717. Had the duke of
+Marlborough been fond of art he would doubtless have possessed
+many works of our artist. All that remains at Blenheim, however,
+is a couple of sketches of battles, which were probably sent to
+Churchill by his great contemporary. The pictures of Huchtenburg
+are not very numerous now in public galleries. There is one in the
+National Gallery, London, another at the Louvre. But Copenhagen
+has four, Dresden six, Gotha two, and Munich has the well-known
+composition of &ldquo;Tallart taken Prisoner at Blenheim in 1704.&rdquo;</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<table class="flt" style="float: right; width: 260px;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:210px; height:100px" src="images/img848.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption1"></td></tr></table>
+
+<p><span class="bold">HUCKABACK,<a name="ar122" id="ar122"></a></span><a name="fa1h" id="fa1h" href="#ft1h"><span class="sp">1</span></a> the name given to a type of cloth used for
+towels. For this purpose it has perhaps been more extensively
+used in the linen trade than any other weave. One of the chief
+merits of a towel is its capacity for absorbing moisture; plain
+and other flat-surfaced cloths do not perform this function
+satisfactorily, but cloths made with huckaback, as well as
+those made with the honeycomb and similar weaves, are particularly
+well adapted for this purpose.
+The body or foundation of the cloth
+is plain and therefore sound in structure
+(see designs A and B in figure),
+but at fixed intervals some of the
+warp threads float on the surface of
+the cloth, while at the same time a number of weft threads
+float on the back. Thus the cloth has a somewhat similar
+appearance on both sides. Weave A is the ordinary and most
+used huck or huckaback, while weave B, which is usually
+woven with double weft, is termed the Devon or medical huck.
+The cloths made by the use of these weaves were originally all
+linen, but are too often adulterated with inferior fibres.</p>
+
+<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note">
+
+<p><a name="ft1h" id="ft1h" href="#fa1h"><span class="fn">1</span></a> Skeat, <i>Etym. Dict.</i> (1898), says, &ldquo;The word bears so remarkable
+resemblance to Low Ger. <i>hukkebak</i>, Ger. <i>huckeback</i>, pick-a-back, that
+it seems reasonable to suppose that it at first meant &lsquo;peddler&rsquo;s
+ware.&rsquo;&rdquo; The <i>New English Dictionary</i> does not consider that the
+connexion can at present be assumed.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" style="clear: both;" />
+<p><span class="bold">HUCKLEBERRY,<a name="ar123" id="ar123"></a></span> in botany, the popular name in the north-eastern
+United States of the genus <i>Gaylussacia</i>, small branching
+shrubs resembling in habit the English bilberry (<i>Vaccinium</i>),
+to which it is closely allied, and bearing a similar fruit. The
+common huckleberry of the northern states is <i>G. resinosa</i>;
+while <i>G. brachycera</i> and <i>G. dumosa</i> are known respectively as
+box and dwarf huckleberry. The name <i>Gaylussacia</i> commemorates
+the famous French chemist Gay-Lussac.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HUCKNALL TORKARD,<a name="ar124" id="ar124"></a></span> a town in the Rushcliffe parliamentary
+division of Nottinghamshire, England; 132 m. N.N.W.
+from London by the Great Central railway, served also by the
+Great Northern and Midland railways. Pop. (1901) 15,250.
+The church of St Mary Magdalene contains the tomb of Lord
+Byron. There are extensive collieries in the vicinity, and the
+town has tobacco and hosiery works. Small traces are found
+of Beauvale Abbey, a Carthusian foundation of the 14th century,
+in the hilly, wooded district W. of Hucknall; and 3 m. N. is
+Newstead Abbey, in a beautiful situation on the border of
+Sherwood Forest. This Augustinian foundation owed its
+origin to Henry II. It came into the hands of the Byron family
+in 1540, and the poet Byron resided in it at various times until
+1818. There remain the Early English west front of the church,
+a Perpendicular cloister and the chapter-house; while in the
+mansion, wholly restored since Byron&rsquo;s time, and in the demesne,
+many relics of the poet are preserved. To the S. of Hucknall are
+traces of Gresley Castle, of the 14th century.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HUCKSTER,<a name="ar125" id="ar125"></a></span> a dealer or retailer of goods in a small way.
+The word, in various forms, is common to many Teutonic
+languages. In Early English it is found as <i>howkester</i>, <i>hokester</i>,
+<i>huxter</i>; in early modern Dutch as <i>heuker</i>, and Medieval Low
+German as <i>hoker</i>; but the ultimate origin is unknown. Huckster
+apparently belongs to that series of words formed from a verb,&mdash;as
+brew, brewer; but the noun &ldquo;huckster&rdquo; is found in use
+before the verb to huck. Hawker and pedlar are nearly synonymous
+in meaning, but &ldquo;huckster&rdquo; may include a person in a small
+way of trade in a settled habitation, while a hawker or pedlar
+invariably travels from place to place offering his wares. In
+a contemptuous sense, huckster is used of any one who barters,
+or makes gain or profit in underhand or mean ways, or who
+over-reaches another, to get advantage for himself.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HUDDERSFIELD,<a name="ar126" id="ar126"></a></span> a municipal, county and parliamentary
+borough in the West Riding of Yorkshire, England, 190 m.
+N.N.W. from London. Pop. (1901) 95,047. It is served
+by the Lancashire &amp; Yorkshire and London &amp; North Western
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page849" id="page849"></a>849</span>
+railways, and has connexion with all the important railway
+systems of the West Riding, and with the extensive canal
+system of Lancashire and Yorkshire. It is well situated on a
+slope above the river Colne, a tributary of the Calder. It is
+built principally of stone, and contains several handsome streets
+with numerous great warehouses and business premises, many
+of which are of high architectural merit. Of the numerous
+churches and chapels all are modern, and some of considerable
+beauty. The parish church of St Peter, however, though rebuilt
+in 1837, occupies a site which is believed to have carried a church
+since the 11th century. The town hall (1880) and the corporation
+offices (1877) are handsome classic buildings; the Ramsden
+Estate buildings are a very fine block of the mixed Italian
+order. The market hall (1880) surmounted by a clock-tower
+is in geometrical Decorated style. The cloth-hall dates from
+1784, when it was erected as a clothiers&rsquo; emporium. It is no
+longer used for any such purpose, but serves as an exchange
+news-room. The Armoury, erected as a riding-school, was the
+headquarters of a volunteer corps, and is also used for concerts
+and public meetings. The chief educational establishments
+are the Huddersfield College (1838), a higher-grade school,
+the technical school and several grammar-schools, of which
+Longwood school was founded in 1731. The Literary and
+Scientific Society possesses a museum. Of the numerous
+charitable institutions, the Infirmary, erected in 1831, is housed
+in a building of the Doric order. The chief open spaces are
+Greenhead and Beaumont parks, the last named presented to
+the town by Mr H. F. Beaumont in 1880. There is a sulphurous
+spa in the district of Lockwood.</p>
+
+<p>Huddersfield is the principal seat of the fancy woollen trade
+in England, and fancy goods in silk and cotton are also produced
+in great variety. Plain cloth and worsteds are also manufactured.
+There are silk and cotton spinning-mills, iron foundries and
+engineering works. Coal is abundant in the vicinity. The
+parliamentary borough returns one member. The county
+borough was created in 1888. The municipal borough is under
+a mayor, 15 aldermen and 45 councillors. Area, 11,859 acres.</p>
+
+<p>Huddersfield (<i>Oderesfelte</i>) only rose to importance after the
+introduction of the woollen trade in the 17th century. After
+the Conquest William I. granted the manor to Ilbert de Laci,
+of whom the Saxon tenant Godwin was holding as underlord at
+the time of the Domesday Survey. In Saxon times it had been
+worth l00s., but after being laid waste by the Normans was
+still of no value in 1086. From the Lacys the manor passed to
+Thomas Plantagenet, duke of Lancaster, through his marriage
+with Alice de Lacy, and so came to the crown on the accession
+of Henry IV. In 1599 Queen Elizabeth sold it to William
+Ramsden, whose descendants still own it. Charles II. in 1670
+granted to John Ramsden a market in Huddersfield every
+Wednesday with the toll and other profits belonging. By the
+beginning of the 18th century Huddersfield had become a
+&ldquo;considerable town,&rdquo; chiefly owing to the manufacture of
+woollen kersies, and towards the end of the same century the
+trade was increased by two events&mdash;the opening of navigation
+on the Calder in 1780, and in 1784 that of the cloth-hall or
+piece-hall, built and given to the town by Sir John Ramsden,
+baronet. Since 1832 the burgesses have returned members to
+parliament. The town possesses no charter before 1868, when
+it was created a municipal borough.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HUDSON, GEORGE<a name="ar127" id="ar127"></a></span> (1800-1871), English railway financier,
+known as the &ldquo;railway king,&rdquo; was born in York in March 1800.
+Apprenticed to a firm of linendrapers in that city, he soon
+became a successful merchant, and in 1837 was elected lord
+mayor of York. Having inherited, in 1827, a sum of £30,000,
+he invested it in North Midland Railway shares, and was shortly
+afterwards appointed a director. In 1833 he had founded and
+for some time acted as manager of the York Banking Company.
+He had for long been impressed with the necessity of getting
+the railway to York, and he took an active part in securing the
+passing of the York and North Midland Bill, and was elected
+chairman of the new company&mdash;the line being opened in 1839.
+From this time he turned his undivided attention to the projection
+of railways. In 1841 he initiated the Newcastle and Darlington
+line. With George Stephenson he planned and carried out
+the extension of the Midland to Newcastle, and by 1844 had
+over a thousand miles of railway under his control. In this year
+the mania for railway speculation was at its height, and no
+man was more courted than the &ldquo;railway king.&rdquo; All classes
+delighted to honour him, and, as if a colossal fortune were an
+insufficient reward for his public services, the richest men in
+England presented him with a tribute of £20,000. Deputy-lieutenant
+for Durham, and thrice lord mayor of York, he was
+returned in the Conservative interest for Sunderland in 1845,
+the event being judged of such public interest that the news
+was conveyed to London by a special train, which travelled part
+of the way at the rate of 75 m. an hour. Full of rewards and
+honours, he was suddenly ruined by the disclosure of the Eastern
+Railway frauds. Sunderland clung to her generous representative
+till 1859, but on the bursting of the bubble he had lost
+influence and fortune at a single stroke. His later life was
+chiefly spent on the continent, where he benefited little by a
+display of unabated energy and enterprise. Some friends gave
+him a small annuity a short time before his death, which took
+place in London, on the 14th of December 1871. His name
+has long been used to point the moral of vaulting ambition and
+unstable fortune. The &ldquo;big swollen gambler,&rdquo; as Carlyle calls
+him in one of the <i>Latter-Day Pamphlets</i>, was savagely and
+excessively reprobated by the world which had blindly believed
+in his golden prophecies. He certainly ruined scrip-holders,
+and disturbed the great centres of industry; but he had an
+honest faith in his own schemes, and, while he beggared himself
+in their promotion, he succeeded in overcoming the powerful
+landed interest which delayed the adoption of railways in
+England long after the date of their regular introduction into
+America.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HUDSON, HENRY,<a name="ar128" id="ar128"></a></span> English navigator and explorer. Nothing
+is known of his personal history excepting such as falls within
+the period of the four voyages on which his fame rests. The
+first of these voyages in quest of new trade and a short route
+to China by way of the North Pole, in accordance with the suggestion
+of Robert Thorne (d. 1527), was made for the Muscovy
+Company with ten men and a boy in 1607. Hudson first coasted
+the east side of Greenland, and being prevented from proceeding
+northwards by the great ice barrier which stretches thence to
+Spitzbergen sailed along it until he reached &ldquo;Newland,&rdquo; as Spitzbergen
+was then called, and followed its northern coast to beyond
+80° N. lat. On the homeward voyage he accidentally discovered
+an island in lat. 71° which he named Hudson&rsquo;s Touches, and
+which has since been identified with Jan Mayen Island.
+Molineux&rsquo;s chart, published by Hakluyt about 1600, was Hudson&rsquo;s
+blind guide in this voyage, and the polar map of 1611 by
+Pontanus illustrates well what he attempted, and the valuable
+results both negative and positive which he reached. He investigated
+the trade prospects at Bear Island, and recommended
+his patrons to seek higher game in Newland; hence he may be
+called the father of the English whale-fisheries at Spitzbergen.</p>
+
+<p>Next year Hudson was again sent by the Muscovy Company
+to open a passage to China, this time by the north-east route
+between Spitzbergen and Novaya Zemlya, which had been
+attempted by his predecessors and especially by the Dutch
+navigator William Barents. This voyage lasted from the 22nd
+of April to the 26th of August 1608. He raked the Barents Sea
+in vain between 75° 30&prime; N.W. and 71° 15&prime; S.E. for an opening
+through the ice, and on the 6th of July, &ldquo;voide of hope of a
+north-east passage (except by the Waygats, for which I was not
+fitted to trie or prove),&rdquo; he resolved to sail to the north-west, and
+if time and means permitted to run a hundred leagues up
+Lumley&rsquo;s Inlet (Frobisher Strait) or Davis&rsquo;s &ldquo;overfall&rdquo; (Hudson
+Strait). But his voyage being delayed by contrary winds he was
+finally compelled to return without accomplishing his wish. The
+failure of this second attempt satisfied the Muscovy Company,
+which thenceforward directed all its energies to the profitable
+Spitzbergen trade.</p>
+
+<p>Towards the end of 1608 Hudson &ldquo;had a call&rdquo; to Amsterdam,
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page850" id="page850"></a>850</span>
+where he saw the celebrated cosmographer the Rev. Peter
+Plancius and the cartographer Hondius, and after some delay,
+due to the rivalry which was exhibited in the attempt to secure
+his services, he undertook for the Dutch East India Company
+his important third voyage to find a passage to China either by the
+north-east or north-west route. With a mixed crew of eighteen
+or twenty men he left the Texel in the &ldquo;Half-Moon&rdquo; on the 6th
+of April, and by the 5th of May was in the Barents Sea, and soon
+afterwards among the ice near Novaya Zemlya, where he had
+been the year before. Some of his men becoming disheartened
+and mutinous (it is now supposed that he had arrived two or
+three months too early), he lost hope of effecting anything by
+that route, and submitted to his men, as alternative proposals,
+either to go to Lumley&rsquo;s Inlet and follow up Waymouth&rsquo;s light, or
+to make for North Virginia and seek the passage in about 40° lat.,
+according to the letter and map sent him by his friend Captain
+John Smith. The latter plan was adopted, and on the 14th of
+May Hudson set his face towards the Chesapeake and China.
+He touched at Stromo in the Faroe Islands for water, and on
+the 15th of June off Newfoundland the &ldquo;Half-Moon&rdquo; &ldquo;spent
+overboard her foremast.&rdquo; This accident compelled him to put
+into the Kennebec river, where a mast was procured, and
+some communication and an unnecessary encounter with the
+Indians took place. Sailing again on the 26th of July, he began
+on the 28th of August the survey where Smith left off, at 37° 36&prime;
+according to his map, and coasted northwards. On the 3rd of
+September, in 40° 30&prime;, he entered the fine bay of New York, and
+after having gone 150 m. up the river which now bears his name
+to near the position of the present Albany, treating with the
+Indians, surveying the country, and trying the stream above
+tide-water, he became satisfied that this course did not lead to
+the South Sea or China, a conclusion in harmony with that of
+Champlain, who the same summer had been making his way
+south through Lake Champlain and Lake St Sacrement (now
+Lake George). The two explorers by opposite routes approached
+within 20 leagues of each other. On the 4th of October the
+&ldquo;Half-Moon&rdquo; weighed for the Texel, and on the 7th of November
+arrived at Dartmouth, where she was seized and detained by the
+English government, Hudson and the other Englishmen of the
+ship being commanded not to leave England, but rather to serve
+their own country. The voyage had fallen short of Hudson&rsquo;s
+expectations, but it served many purposes perhaps as important
+to the world. Among other results it exploded Hakluyt&rsquo;s myth,
+which from the publication of Lok&rsquo;s map in 1582 to the 2nd
+charter of Virginia in May 1609 he had lost no opportunity of
+promulgating, that near 40° lat. there was a narrow isthmus,
+formed by the sea of Verrazano, like that of Tehuantepec or
+Panama.</p>
+
+<p>Hudson&rsquo;s confidence in the existence of a North-West Passage
+had not been diminished by his three failures, and a new company
+was formed to support him in a fourth attempt, the principal
+promoters being Sir Thomas Smith (or Smythe), Sir Dudley
+Digges and John (afterwards Sir John) Wolstenholme. He
+determined this time to carry out his old plan of searching for a
+passage up Davis&rsquo;s &ldquo;overfall&rdquo;&mdash;so-called in allusion to the overfall
+of the tide which Davis had observed rushing through the
+strait. Hudson sailed from London in the little ship &ldquo;Discovery&rdquo;
+of 55 tons, on the 17th of April 1610, and entered the strait
+which now bears his name about the middle of June. Sailing
+steadily westward he entered Hudson Bay on the 3rd of August,
+and passing southward spent the next three months examining
+the eastern shore of the bay. On the 1st of November
+the &ldquo;Discovery&rdquo; went into winter quarters in the S.W. corner
+of James Bay, being frozen in a few days later, and during the
+long winter months which were passed there only a scanty
+supply of game was secured to eke out the ship&rsquo;s provisions.
+Discontent became rife, and on the ship breaking out of the ice
+in the spring Hudson had a violent quarrel with a dissolute
+young fellow named Henry Greene, whom he had befriended by
+taking him on board, and who now retaliated by inciting the
+discontented part of the crew to put Hudson and eight others
+(including the sick men) out of the ship. This happened on the
+22nd of June 1611. Robert Bylot was elected master and
+brought the ship back to England. During the voyage home
+Greene and several others were killed in a fight with the Eskimo,
+while others again died of starvation, and the feeble remnant
+which reached England in September were thrown into prison.
+No more tidings were ever received of the deserted men.</p>
+
+<p>Although it is certain that the four great geographical landmarks
+which to-day serve to keep Hudson&rsquo;s memory alive,
+namely the Hudson Bay, Strait, Territory and River, had
+repeatedly been visited and even drawn on maps and charts before
+he set out on his voyages, yet he deserves to take a very high rank
+among northern navigators for the mere extent of his discoveries
+and the success with which he pushed them beyond the limits
+of his predecessors. The rich fisheries of Spitzbergen and the
+fur industry of the Hudson Bay Territory were the immediate
+fruit of his labours.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See <i>Henry Hudson, the Navigator</i> (Hakluyt Society, 1860); and
+T. A. Janvier, <i>Henry Hudson</i> (1909). In 1909 a great celebration of
+the tercentenary was held in the United States.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HUDSON, JOHN<a name="ar129" id="ar129"></a></span> (1662-1719), English classical scholar, was
+born at Wythop in Cumberland. He was educated at Oxford,
+where the remainder of his life was spent. In 1701 he was
+appointed Bodley&rsquo;s librarian, and in 1711 principal of St Mary&rsquo;s
+Hall. His political views stood in the way of his preferment in
+the church and university. He died on the 26th of November
+1719. As an editor and commentator he enjoyed a high reputation
+both at home and abroad. His works, chiefly editions of
+classical authors, include the following: Velleius Paterculus
+(1693); Thucydides (1696); <i>Geographiae Veteris Scriptores
+Graeci minores</i> (1698-1712) containing the works and fragments
+of 21 authors and the learned, though diffuse, dissertations of
+H. Dodwell&mdash;a rare and valuable work, which in spite of its
+faulty text was not superseded until the appearance of C. W.
+Müller&rsquo;s edition in the Didot series: the editio princeps of
+Moeris, <i>De Vocibus Atticis et Hellenicis</i> (1712); Josephus (1720,
+published posthumously by his friend Anthony Hall, the antiquary),
+a correct and beautifully printed edition, with variorum
+notes and translation.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See Wood, <i>Athenae Oxonienses</i>, iv.; introduction to the edition of
+Josephus; W. Hutchinson, <i>History of Cumberland</i> (1794).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HUDSON,<a name="ar130" id="ar130"></a></span> a city and the county-seat of Columbia county,
+New York, U.S.A., on the E. side of the Hudson river, about
+114 m. N. of New York City and about 28 m. S. of Albany.
+Pop. (1890) 9970; (1900) 9528, of whom 1155 were foreign-born;
+(1910 census) 11,417. It is served by the Boston &amp; Albany,
+the New York Central &amp; Hudson River and the (electric)
+Albany &amp; Hudson railways, by river steamboats, and by a steam
+ferry to Athens and Catskill across the river. The city is picturesquely
+situated on the slope of Prospect Hill; and Promenade
+Park, on a bluff above the steamboat landing, commands a
+fine view of the river and of the Catskill Mountains. Among
+the public buildings and institutions are a fine city hall, the
+Columbia County Court House, a public library, a Federal
+building, a State Training School for Girls, a State Firemen&rsquo;s
+Home, an Orphan Asylum, a Home for the Aged and a hospital.
+The city&rsquo;s manufactures include hosiery and knit goods, Portland
+cement (one of the largest manufactories of that product in the
+United States being here), foundry and machine shop products,
+car wheels, ice tools and machinery, ale, beer, bricks and tiles
+and furniture. The value of the factory products in 1905 was
+$4,115,525, an increase of 58.1% over that in 1900. The
+municipality owns and operates the water-works. Hudson,
+which was originally known as Claverack Landing, was for many
+years merely a landing with two rude wharfs and two small
+storehouses, to which farmers in the neighbourhood brought
+their produce for shipment on the river. Late in 1783 the place
+was settled by an association of merchants and fishermen from
+Rhode Island, Nantucket and Martha&rsquo;s Vineyard. The present
+name was adopted in 1784, and the city was chartered in 1785.
+For many years Hudson had a considerable foreign commerce
+and whaling interests, but these were practically destroyed
+by the war of 1812.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page851" id="page851"></a>851</span></p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HUDSON BAY<a name="ar131" id="ar131"></a></span> (less often, but more correctly, Hudson&rsquo;s
+Bay), an inland sea in the N.E. of Canada, extending from
+78° to 95° W. and from 51° to 70° N. On the east it is connected
+with the Atlantic Ocean by Hudson Strait, and on the north with
+the Arctic Ocean by Fox Channel and Fury and Hecla Strait.
+Its southern extremity between 55° and 51° N. is known as James
+Bay. It is 590 m. in width, and 1300 from S. to N., including
+James Bay (350 m.) and Fox Channel (350 m.). The customary
+use of the term includes James Bay, but not Fox Channel. The
+average depth of water is about 70 fathoms, deepening at the
+entrance of Hudson Strait to 100 fathoms. James Bay is
+much shallower, and unfit for shipping save for a central channel
+leading to the mouth of the Moose river. The centre and west
+of the main bay are absolutely free from shoals, rocks or islands,
+but down its east coast extend two lines of small islands, one
+close to shore, the other at 70 to 100 m. distance, and comprising
+a number of scattered groups (the Ottawa Islands, the Sleepers,
+the Belchers, &amp;c.).</p>
+
+<p>Into Hudson and James Bays flow numerous important rivers,
+so much so that the water of the latter is rather brackish than
+salt. Beginning at the north-west, the chief of these are Churchill,
+Nelson (draining Lake Winnipeg, and the numerous inland
+rivers of which it is the basin), Hayes (the old boat route of the
+<i>voyageurs</i> to Winnipeg), Severn, Albany, Moose, Rupert river
+(draining Lake Mistassini), Nottaway, East Main, Great Whale
+and Little Whale.</p>
+
+<p>Save for some high bluffs on the east and north-east, the shores
+of the bay are low. Around much of James Bay extend marshes
+and swampy ground. Geologically the greater part of the
+Hudson Bay district belongs to the Laurentian system, though
+there are numerous outcrops of later formation; Cambro-Silurian
+on the south and west, and to the north of Cape Jones
+(the north-eastern extremity of James Bay) a narrow belt of
+Cambrian rocks, of which the islands are composed. Coal,
+plumbago, iron and other minerals have been found in various
+districts near the coast. The climate is harsh, though vegetables
+and certain root crops ripen in the open air as far north as Fort
+Churchill; cattle flourish, and are fed chiefly on the native
+grasses; spruce, balsam and poplar grow to a fair size as far
+as the northern limit of James Bay. Caribou, musk ox and other
+animals are still found in large numbers, and there is an abundance
+of feathered game&mdash;ducks, geese, loons and ptarmigan;
+hunting and fishing form the chief occupations of the Indians
+and Eskimo who live in scattered bands near the shore. The
+bay abounds with fish, of which the chief are cod, salmon,
+porpoise and whales. The last have long been pursued by
+American whalers, whose destructive methods have so greatly
+depleted the supply that the government of Canada is anxious
+to declare the bay a <i>mare clausum</i>.</p>
+
+<p>Hudson Strait is about 450 m. long with an average breadth
+of 100 m., narrowing at one point to 45. Its shores are high
+and bold, rarely less in height than 1000 ft., save on the coast
+of Ungava Bay, a deep indentation on the south-east. No
+islands or rocks impede navigation. Its depth is from 100 to
+200 fathoms. Owing to the violence of the tides, which rise to
+a height of 35 ft., it never absolutely freezes over.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>After three centuries of exploration, the navigability of Hudson
+Bay and Strait remains a vexed question. To Canada it is one of
+great commercial interest, and numerous expeditions have been
+made and reports issued by the Geological Survey. From Winnipeg
+to Liverpool via Churchill is over 500 m. less than via Montreal, and
+from Edmonton to Liverpool almost 1000 m. less. Were navigation
+open for a sufficient time, such a route for the grain of the Canadian
+and American west would be of enormous advantage. But the inlet
+from the Arctic sends down masses of heavy ice, which drift about
+in the bay and the strait. Past the mouth of the strait flows a
+stream often over 100 m. wide, of berg and floe ice, carried by the
+Arctic current. Owing to the proximity of the Magnetic Pole (in
+Boothia) the compass often refuses to work. For sailing ships, such
+as the Hudson&rsquo;s Bay Company has long employed, the season for
+safe navigation is from the 15th of July to the 1st of October. In
+over 200 years very few serious accidents have occurred to the
+company&rsquo;s ships within these limits. It is claimed that specially
+built and protected steamers would be safe from the 15th of June
+till the 1st of November, and the problem may be solved by ice-breaking
+vessels of great power. The only good harbour available
+is Fort Churchill, at the mouth of the Churchill river, which is large
+and easy of access. Moose Factory (at the foot of James Bay) and
+York Factory (at the mouth of the Nelson) are mere roadsteads.
+Marble Island, south of Chesterfield Inlet, where the whalers winter,
+is too far north for regular shipping.</p>
+
+<p>The Cabots entered the strait in 1498, and during the next century
+a series of Elizabethan mariners; but the bay was not explored
+until 1610, when Henry Hudson pushed through the ice and
+explored to the southern limit of James Bay.</p>
+
+<p>See Lieutenant Gordon, R.N., <i>Reports on the Hudson&rsquo;s Bay
+Expeditions</i> (1884, 5, 6); William Ogilvie, <i>Exploratory Survey to
+Hudson&rsquo;s Bay in 1890</i> (Ottawa, 1891); R. F. Stupart, <i>The Navigation
+of Hudson&rsquo;s Bay and Straits</i> (Toronto, 1904).</p>
+</div>
+
+<hr class="art" />
+
+
+
+
+
+
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@@ -0,0 +1,17610 @@
+The Project Gutenberg EBook of Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th Edition,
+Volume 13, Slice 7, by Various
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th Edition, Volume 13, Slice 7
+       "Horticulture" to "Hudson Bay"
+
+Author: Various
+
+Release Date: March 2, 2012 [EBook #39029]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ASCII
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Marius Masi, Don Kretz and the Online
+Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+Transcriber's notes:
+
+(1) Numbers following letters (without space) like C2 were originally
+      printed in subscript. Letter subscripts are preceded by an
+      underscore, like C_n.
+
+(2) Characters following a carat (^) were printed in superscript.
+
+(3) Side-notes were relocated to function as titles of their respective
+      paragraphs.
+
+(4) Macrons and breves above letters and dots below letters were not
+      inserted.
+
+(5) [root] stands for the root symbol; [alpha], [beta], etc. for greek
+      letters.
+
+(6) The following typographical errors have been corrected:
+
+    ARTICLE HORTICULTURE: "Portable boilers are convenient for heating
+      small areas, and are less expensive to install than those described
+      above." 'install' amended from 'instal'.
+
+    ARTICLE HOUSE: "The end walls were closed with wooden studs and
+      wattle-and-daub filling. The pairs of trees were known as forks or
+      crucks." 'daub' amended from 'dab'.
+
+    ARTICLE HOUSING: "The argument is confirmed by the very substantial
+      diminution which actually took place between 1891 and 1901."
+      'between' amended from 'betweeen'.
+
+    ARTICLE HOUSING: "In London the percentage fell by 3.7, and the
+      number of persons overcrowded was reduced by 103,669 in spite of an
+      increase of population of 324,798." 'percentage' amended from
+      'precentage'.
+
+    ARTICLE HOWARD: "His grandson Thomas succeeded him in 1554, and in
+      1556 made the second of those marriages which have given the
+      Howards their high place among the English nobility." 'marriages'
+      amended from 'marraiges'.
+
+    ARTICLE HRABANUS MAURUS MAGNENTIUS: "Returning after the lapse of
+      two years to Fulda, he was entrusted with the principal charge of
+      the school, which under his direction rose into a state of great
+      efficiency for that age, and sent forth such pupils as Walafrid
+      Strabo, Servatus Lupus of Ferieres and Otfrid of Weissenburg." 'as'
+      amended from 'at'.
+
+
+
+
+          ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA
+
+  A DICTIONARY OF ARTS, SCIENCES, LITERATURE
+           AND GENERAL INFORMATION
+
+              ELEVENTH EDITION
+
+
+           VOLUME XIII, SLICE VII
+
+         Horticulture to Hudson Bay
+
+
+
+
+ARTICLES IN THIS SLICE:
+
+
+  HORTICULTURE                       HOVE
+  HORTON, CHRISTIANA                 HOVENDEN, THOMAS
+  HORTON, ROBERT FORMAN              HOW, WILLIAM WALSHAM
+  HORTON, SAMUEL DANA                HOWARD (family)
+  HORUS                              HOWARD, CATHERINE
+  HORWICH                            HOWARD, JOHN
+  HOSANNA                            HOWARD, OLIVER OTIS
+  HOSE                               HOWARD, SIR ROBERT
+  HOSEA                              HOWARD, LORD WILLIAM
+  HOSE-PIPE                          HOWARD OF EFFINGHAM, WILLIAM HOWARD
+  HOSHANGABAD                        HOWE, ELIAS
+  HOSHEA                             HOWE, JOHN
+  HOSHIARPUR                         HOWE, JOSEPH
+  HOSIERY                            HOWE, JULIA WARD
+  HOSIUS                             HOWE, RICHARD HOWE
+  HOSIUS, STANISLAUS                 HOWE, SAMUEL GRIDLEY
+  HOSKINS, JOHN                      HOWE, WILLIAM HOWE
+  HOSMER, HARRIET GOODHUE            HOWEL DDA
+  HOSPICE                            HOWELL, JAMES
+  HOSPITAL                           HOWELLS, WILLIAM DEAN
+  HOSPITIUM                          HOWITT WILLIAM
+  HOSPODAR                           HOWITZER
+  HOST                               HOWLER
+  HOSTAGE                            HOWRAH
+  HOSTE, SIR WILLIAM                 HOWSON, JOHN SAUL
+  HOSTEL                             HOWTH
+  HOSTIUS                            HOXTER
+  HOSUR                              HOY
+  HOTCH-POT                          HOYLAKE
+  HOTEL-DE-VILLE                     HOYLAND NETHER
+  HOTEL-DIEU                         HOYLE, EDMUND
+  HOTHAM, SIR JOHN                   HOZIER, PIERRE D'
+  HOTHAM, WILLIAM HOTHAM             HRABANUS MAURUS MAGNENTIUS
+  HOTHO, HEINRICH GUSTAV             HROLFR KRAKI
+  HOTI-MARDAN                        HROSVITHA
+  HOTMAN, FRANCOIS                   HSUAN TSANG
+  HOT SPRINGS (Arkansas, U.S.A.)     HUAMBISAS
+  HOT SPRINGS (Virginia, U.S.A.)     HUANCAVELICA
+  HOTTENTOTS                         HUANUCO
+  HOTTINGER, JOHANN HEINRICH         HUARAZ
+  HOUBRAKEN, JACOBUS                 HUARTE DE SAN JUAN
+  HOUDENC, RAOUL DE                  HUASTECS
+  HOUDETOT                           HUBER, FRANCOIS
+  HOUDETOT, ELISABETH DE BELLEGARDE  HUBER, JOHANN NEPOMUK
+  HOUDON, JEAN ANTOINE               HUBER, LUDWIG FERDINAND
+  HOUFFALIZE                         HUBERT, ST
+  HOUGHTON, RICHARD MONCKTON MILNES  HUBERTUSBURG
+  HOUGHTON-LE-SPRING                 HUBLI
+  HOUND                              HUBNER, EMIL
+  HOUNSLOW                           HUBNER, JOSEPH ALEXANDER
+  HOUR                               HUC, EVARISTE REGIS
+  HOUR ANGLE                         HUCBALD
+  HOUR-GLASS                         HU-CHOW-FU
+  HOURI                              HUCHOWN
+  HOURS, CANONICAL                   HUCHTENBURG
+  HOUSE                              HUCKABACK
+  HOUSEHOLD, ROYAL                   HUCKLEBERRY
+  HOUSEL                             HUCKNALL TORKARD
+  HOUSELEEK                          HUCKSTER
+  HOUSING                            HUDDERSFIELD
+  HOUSMAN, LAURENCE                  HUDSON, GEORGE
+  HOUSSAYE, ARSENE                   HUDSON, HENRY
+  HOUSTON, SAM                       HUDSON, JOHN
+  HOUSTON                            HUDSON
+  HOUWALD, CHRISTOPH ERNST           HUDSON BAY
+  HOVA
+
+
+
+
+HORTICULTURE (Lat. _hortus_, a garden), the art and science of the
+cultivation of garden plants, whether for utilitarian or for decorative
+purposes. The subject naturally divides itself into two sections, which
+we here propose to treat separately, commencing with the science, and
+passing on to the practice of the cultivation of flowers, fruits and
+vegetables as applicable to the home garden. The point of view taken is
+necessarily, as a rule, that of a British gardener.
+
+
+PART I.--PRINCIPLES OR SCIENCE OF HORTICULTURE
+
+Horticulture, apart from the mechanical details connected with the
+maintenance of a garden and its appurtenances, may be considered as the
+application of the principles of plant physiology to the cultivation of
+plants from all parts of the globe, and from various altitudes, soils
+and situations. The lessons derived from the abstract principles
+enunciated by the physiologist, the chemist and the physicist require,
+however, to be modified to suit the special circumstances of plants
+under cultivation. The necessity for this modification arises from the
+fact that such plants are subjected to conditions more or less unnatural
+to them, and that they are grown for special purposes which are at
+variance, in degree at any rate, with their natural requirements.
+
+The life of the plant (see PLANTS) makes itself manifest in the
+processes of growth, development and reproduction. By growth is here
+meant mere increase in bulk, and by development the series of gradual
+modifications by which a plant, originally simple in its structure and
+conformation, becomes eventually complicated, and endowed with distinct
+parts or organs. The reproduction of the higher plants takes place
+either asexually by the formation of buds or organs answering thereto,
+or sexually by the production of an embryo plant within the seed. The
+conditions requisite for the growth, development and reproduction of
+plants are, in general terms, exposure, at the proper time, to suitable
+amounts of light, heat and moisture, and a due supply of appropriate
+food. The various amounts of these needed in different cases have to be
+adjusted by the gardener, according to the nature of the plant, its
+"habit" or general mode of growth in its native country, and the
+influence to which it is there subjected, as also in accordance with the
+purposes for which it is to be cultivated, &c. It is but rarely that
+direct information on all these points can be obtained; but inference
+from previous experience, especially with regard to allied forms, will
+go far to supply such deficiencies. Moreover, it must be remembered that
+the conditions most favourable to plants are not always those to which
+they are subjected in nature, for, owing to the competition of other
+forms in the struggle for existence, liability to injury from insects,
+and other adverse circumstances, plants may actually be excluded from
+the localities best suited for their development. The gardener therefore
+may, and does, by modifying, improve upon the conditions under which a
+plant naturally exists. Thus it frequently happens that in our gardens
+flowers have a beauty and a fragrance, and fruits a size and savour
+denied to them in their native haunts. It behooves the judicious
+gardener, then, not to be too slavish in his attempts to imitate natural
+conditions, and to bear in mind that such attempts sometimes end in
+failure. The most successful gardening is that which turns to the best
+account the plastic organization of the plant, and enables it to develop
+and multiply as perfectly as possible. Experience, coupled with
+observation and reflection, as well as the more indirect teachings of
+tradition, are therefore of primary importance to the practical
+gardener.
+
+We propose here to notice briefly the several parts of a flowering
+plant, and to point out the rationale of the cultural procedures
+connected with them (see the references to separate articles at the end
+of article on BOTANY).
+
+  _The Root._--The root, though not precluded from access of air, is not
+  directly dependent for its growth on the agency of light. The
+  efficiency of drainage, digging, hoeing and like operations is
+  accounted for by the manner in which they promote aeration of the
+  soil, raise its temperature and remove its stagnant water. Owing to
+  their growth in length at, or rather in the immediate vicinity of,
+  their tips, roots are enabled to traverse long distances by
+  surmounting some obstacles, penetrating others, and insinuating
+  themselves into narrow crevices. As they have no power of absorbing
+  solid materials, their food must be of a liquid or gaseous character.
+  It is taken up from the interstices between the particles of soil
+  exclusively by the finest subdivisions of the fibrils, and in many
+  cases by the extremely delicate thread-like cells which project from
+  them and which are known as root-hairs. The importance of the
+  root-fibres, or "feeding roots" justifies the care which is taken by
+  every good gardener to secure their fullest development, and to
+  prevent as far as possible any injury to them in digging, potting and
+  transplanting, such operations being therefore least prejudicial at
+  seasons when the plant is in a state of comparative rest.
+
+  _Root-Pruning and Lifting._--In apparent disregard of the general rule
+  just enunciated is the practice of root-pruning fruit trees, when,
+  from the formation of wood being more active than that of fruit, they
+  bear badly. The contrariety is more apparent than real, as the
+  operation consists in the removal of the coarser roots, a process
+  which results in the development of a mass of fine feeding roots.
+  Moreover, there is a generally recognised quasi-antagonism between the
+  vegetative and reproductive processes, so that, other things being
+  equal, anything that checks the one helps forward the other.
+
+  _Watering._--So far as practical gardening is concerned, feeding by
+  the roots after they have been placed in suitable soil is confined
+  principally to the administration of water and, under certain
+  circumstances, of liquid or chemical manure; and no operations demand
+  more judicious management. The amount of water required, and the times
+  when it should be applied, vary greatly according to the kind of plant
+  and the object for which it is grown, the season, the supply of heat
+  and light, and numerous other conditions, the influence of which is to
+  be learnt by experience only. The same may be said with respect to the
+  application of manures. The watering of pot-plants requires especial
+  care. Water should as a rule be used at a temperature not lower than
+  that of the surrounding atmosphere, and preferably after exposure for
+  some time to the air.
+
+  _Bottom-Heat._--The "optimum" temperature, or that best suited to
+  promote the general activity of roots, and indeed of all vegetable
+  organs, necessarily varies very much with the nature of the plant, and
+  the circumstances in which it is placed, and is ascertained by
+  practical experience. Artificial heat applied to the roots, called by
+  gardeners "bottom-heat," is supplied by fermenting materials such as
+  stable manure, leaves, &c., or by hot-water pipes. In winter the
+  temperature of the soil, out of doors, beyond a certain depth is
+  usually higher than that of the atmosphere, so that the roots are in a
+  warmer and more uniform medium than are the upper parts of the plant.
+  Often the escape of heat from the soil is prevented by "mulching,"
+  i.e. by depositing on it a layer of litter, straw, dead leaves and the
+  like.
+
+  The _Stem_ and its subdivisions or branches raise to the light and air
+  the leaves and flowers, serve as channels for the passage to them of
+  fluids from the roots, and act as reservoirs for nutritive substances.
+  Their functions in annual, biennial and herbaceous perennial plants
+  cease after the ripening of the seed, whilst in plants of longer
+  duration layer after layer of strong woody tissue is formed, which
+  enables them to bear the strains which the weight of foliage and the
+  exposure to wind entail. The gardener aims usually at producing stout,
+  robust, short-jointed stems, instead of long lanky growths defective
+  in woody tissue. To secure these conditions free exposure to light and
+  air is requisite; but in the case of coppices and woods, or where long
+  straight spars are needed by the forester, plants are allowed to grow
+  thickly so as to ensure development in an upward rather than in a
+  lateral direction. This and like matters will, however, be more fitly
+  considered in dealing hereafter with the buds and their treatment.
+
+  _Leaves._--The work of the leaves may briefly be stated to consist of
+  the processes of nutrition, respiration and transpiration. Nutri tion
+  (assimilation) by the leaves includes the inhalation of air, and the
+  interaction under the influence of light and in the presence of
+  chlorophyll of the carbon dioxide of the air with the water received
+  from the root, to form carbonaceous food. Respiration in plants, as in
+  other organisms, is a process that goes on by night as well as by day
+  and consists in plants in the breaking up of the complex carbonaceous
+  substances formed by assimilation into less complex and more
+  transportable substances. This process, which is as yet imperfectly
+  understood, is attended by the consumption of oxygen, the liberation
+  of energy in the form of heat, and the exhalation of carbon dioxide
+  and water vapour. Transpiration is loss of water by the plant by
+  evaporation, chiefly from the minute pores or stomata on the leaves.
+  In xerophytic plants (_e.g._ cacti, euphorbias, &c.) from hot, dry and
+  almost waterless regions where evaporation would be excessive, the
+  leaf surface, and consequently the number of stomata, are reduced to a
+  minimum, as it would be fatal to such plants to exhale vapour as
+  freely in those regions as the broad-leaved plants that grow in places
+  where there is abundance of moisture. Although transpiration is a
+  necessary accompaniment of nutrition, it may easily become excessive,
+  especially where the plant cannot readily recoup itself. In these
+  circumstances "syringing" and "damping down" are of value in cooling
+  the temperature of the air in hothouses and greenhouses and increasing
+  its humidity, thereby checking excessive transpiration. Shading the
+  glass with canvas or washes during the summer months has the same
+  object in view. Syringing is also beneficial in washing away dirt and
+  insects.
+
+  _Buds._--The recognition of the various forms of buds and their modes
+  of disposition in different plants is a matter of the first
+  consequence in the operations of pruning and training. Flower-buds are
+  produced either on the old wood, _i.e._ the shoots of the past year's
+  growth, or on a shoot of the present year. The peach, horse-chestnut,
+  lilac, morello cherry, black currant, rhododendron and many other
+  trees and shrubs develop flower-buds for the next season speedily
+  after blossoming, and these may be stimulated into premature growth.
+  The peculiar short, stunted branches or "spurs" which bear the
+  flower-buds of the pear, apple, plum, sweet cherry, red currant,
+  laburnum, &c., deserve special attention. In the rose, passion-flower,
+  clematis, honeysuckle, &c., in which the flower-buds are developed at
+  the ends of the young shoot of the year, we have examples of plants
+  destitute of flower-buds during the winter.
+
+  _Propagation by Buds._--The detached leaf-buds (_gemmae_ or
+  _bulbils_), of some plants are capable under favourable conditions of
+  forming new plants. The edges of the leaves of _Bryophyllum calycinum_
+  and of _Cardamine pratensis_, and the growths in the axils of the
+  leaves of _Lilium bulbiferum_, as well as the fronds of certain ferns
+  (e.g. _Asplenium bulbiferum_), produce buds of this character. It is
+  a matter of familiar observation that the ends of the shoots of
+  brambles take root when bent down to the ground. In some instances
+  buds form on the roots, and may be used for purposes of propagation,
+  as in the Japan quince, the globe thistle, the sea holly, some sea
+  lavenders, _Bocconia_, _Acanthus_, &c. Of the tendency in buds to
+  assume an independent existence gardeners avail themselves in the
+  operations of striking "cuttings," and making "layers" and "pipings,"
+  as also in budding and grafting. In taking a slip or cutting the
+  gardener removes from the parent plant a shoot having one or more buds
+  or "eyes," in the case of the vine one only, and places it in a moist
+  and sufficiently warm situation, where, as previously mentioned, undue
+  evaporation from the surface is prevented. For some cuttings, pots
+  filled with light soil, with the protection of the propagating-house
+  and of bell-glasses, are requisite; but for many of our hardy
+  deciduous trees and shrubs no such precautions are necessary, and the
+  insertion of a short shoot about half its length into moist and gritty
+  ground at the proper season suffices to ensure its growth. In the case
+  of the more delicate plants, the formation of roots is preceded by the
+  production from the cambium of the cuttings of a succulent mass of
+  tissue, the _callus_. It is important in some cases, _e.g._ zonal
+  pelargoniums, fuchsias, shrubby calceolarias, dahlias, carnations,
+  &c., to retain on the cutting some of its leaves, so as to supply the
+  requisite food for storage in the callus. In other cases, where the
+  buds themselves contain a sufficiency of nutritive matter for the
+  young growths, the retention of leaves is not necessary. The most
+  successful mode of forming roots is to place the cuttings in a mild
+  bottom-heat, which expedites their growth, even in the case of many
+  hardy plants whose cuttings strike roots in the open soil. With some
+  hard-wooded trees, as the common white-thorn, roots cannot be obtained
+  without bottom-heat. It is a general rule throughout plant culture
+  that the activity of the roots shall be in advance of that of the
+  leaves. Cuttings of deciduous trees and shrubs succeed best if planted
+  early in autumn while the soil still retains the solar heat absorbed
+  during summer. For evergreens August or September, and for greenhouse
+  and stove-plants the spring and summer months, are the times most
+  suitable for propagation by cuttings.
+
+  _Layering_ consists simply in bending down a branch and keeping it in
+  contact with or buried to a small depth in the soil until roots are
+  formed; the connexion with the parent plant may then be severed. Many
+  plants can be far more easily propagated thus than by cuttings.
+
+  _Grafting_ or "_working_" consists in the transfer of a branch, the
+  "graft" or "scion," from one plant to another, which latter is termed
+  the "stock." The operation must be so performed that the growing
+  tissues, or cambium-layer of the scion, may fit accurately to the
+  corresponding layer of the stock. In _budding_, as with roses and
+  peaches, a single bud only is implanted. _Inarching_ is essentially
+  the promotion of the union of a shoot of one plant to that of another
+  of the same or allied species or variety. The outer bark of each being
+  removed, the two shoots are kept in contact by ligature until union is
+  established, when the scion is completely severed from its original
+  attachments. This operation is varied in detail according to the kind
+  of plant to be propagated, but it is essential in all cases that the
+  affinity between the two plants be near, that the union be neatly
+  effected, and that the ratio as well as the season of growth of stock
+  and scion be similar.
+
+  The selection of suitable stocks is a matter still requiring much
+  scientific experiment. The object of grafting is to expedite and
+  increase the formation of flowers and fruit. Strong-growing pears, for
+  instance, are grafted on the quince stock in order to restrict their
+  tendency to form "gross" shoots and a superabundance of wood in place
+  of flowers and fruit. Apples, for the same reason, are "worked" on the
+  "paradise" or "doucin" stocks, which from their influence on the scion
+  are known as dwarfing stocks. Scions from a tree which is weakly, or
+  liable to injury by frosts, are strengthened by engrafting on robust
+  stocks. Lindley has pointed out that, while in Persia, its native
+  country, the peach is probably best grafted on the peach, or on its
+  wild type the almond, in England, where the summer temperature of the
+  soil is much lower than that of Persia, it might be expected, as
+  experience has proved, to be most successful on stocks of the native
+  plum.
+
+  The soil in which the stock grows is a point demanding attention. From
+  a careful series of experiments made in the Horticultural Society's
+  Garden at Chiswick, it was found that where the soil is loamy, or
+  light and slightly enriched with decayed vegetable matter, the apple
+  succeeds best on the doucin stock, and the pear on the quince; and
+  where it is chalky it is preferable to graft the apple on the crab,
+  and the pear on the wild pear. For the plum on loamy soils the plum,
+  and on chalky and light soils the almond, are the most desirable
+  stocks, and for the cherry on loamy or light rich soils the wild
+  cherry, and on chalk the "mahaleb" stock.
+
+  The form and especially the quality of fruit is more or less affected
+  by the stock upon which it is grown. The Stanwick nectarine, so apt to
+  crack and not to ripen when worked in the ordinary way, is said to be
+  cured of these propensities by being first budded close to the ground,
+  on a very strong-growing Magnum Bonum plum, worked on a Brussels
+  stock, and by then budding the nectarine on the Magnum Bonum about a
+  foot from the ground. The fruit of the pear is of a higher colour and
+  smaller on the quince stock than on the wild pear; still more so on
+  the medlar. On the mountain ash the pear becomes earlier.
+
+  The effects produced by stock on scion, and more particularly by scion
+  on stock, are as a rule with difficulty appreciable. Nevertheless, in
+  exceptional cases modified growths, termed "graft-hybrids," have been
+  obtained which have been attributed to the commingling of the
+  characteristics of stock and scion (see HYBRIDISM). Of these the most
+  remarkable example is _Cytisus Adami_, a tree which year after year
+  produces some shoots, foliage and flowers like those of the common
+  laburnum, others like those of the very different looking dwarf shrub
+  _C. purpureus_, and others again intermediate between these. We may
+  hence infer that _C. purpureus_ was grafted or budded on the common
+  laburnum, and that the intermediate forms are the result of
+  graft-hybridization. Numerous similar facts have been recorded. Among
+  gardeners the general opinion is against the possibility of
+  graft-hybridization. The wonder, however, seems to be that it does not
+  occur more frequently, seeing that fluids must pass from stock to
+  scion, and matter elaborated in the leaves of the scion must certainly
+  to some extent enter the stock. It is clear, nevertheless, from
+  examination that as a rule the wood of the stock and the wood of the
+  scion retain their external characters year by year without change.
+  Still, as in the laburnum just mentioned, in the variegated jasmine
+  and in _Abutilon Darwinii_, in the copper beech and in the
+  horse-chestnut, the influence of a variegated scion has occasionally
+  shown itself in the production from the stock of variegated shoots. At
+  a meeting of the Scottish Horticultural Association (see _Gard.
+  Chron._, Jan. 10, 1880, figs. 12-14) specimens of a small roundish
+  pear, the "Aston Town," and of the elongated kind known as "Beurre
+  Clairgeau," were exhibited. Two more dissimilar pears hardly exist.
+  The result of working the Beurre Clairgeau upon the Aston Town was the
+  production of fruits precisely intermediate in size, form, colour,
+  speckling of rind and other characteristics. Similar, though less
+  marked, intermediate characters were obvious in the foliage and
+  flowers.
+
+  Double grafting (French, _greffe sur greffe_) is sufficiently
+  explained by its name. By means of it a variety may often be
+  propagated, or its fruit improved in a way not found practicable under
+  ordinary circumstances. For its successful prosecution prolonged
+  experiments in different localities and in gardens devoted to the
+  purpose are requisite.
+
+  _Planting._--By removal from one place to another the growth of every
+  plant receives a check. How this check can be obviated or reduced,
+  with regard to the season, the state of atmosphere, and the condition
+  and circumstances of the plant generally, is a matter to be considered
+  by the practical gardener.
+
+  As to season, it is now admitted with respect to deciduous trees and
+  shrubs that the earlier in autumn planting is performed the better;
+  although some extend it from the period when the leaves fall to the
+  first part of spring, before the sap begins to move. If feasible, the
+  operation should be completed by the end of November, whilst the soil
+  is still warm with the heat absorbed during summer. Attention to this
+  rule is specially important in the case of rare and delicate plants.
+  Early autumn planting enables wounded parts of roots to be healed
+  over, and to form fibrils, which will be ready in spring, when it is
+  most required, to collect food for the plant. Planting late in spring
+  should, as far as possible, be avoided, for the buds then begin to
+  awaken into active life, and the draught upon the roots becomes great.
+  It has been supposed that because the surface of the young leaves is
+  small transpiration is correspondingly feeble; but it must be
+  remembered, not only that their newly-formed tissue is unable without
+  an abundant supply of sap from the roots to resist the excessive
+  drying action of the atmosphere, but that, in spring, the lowness of
+  the temperature at that season in Great Britain prevents the free
+  circulation of the sap. The comparative dryness of the atmosphere in
+  spring also causes a greater amount of transpiration then than in
+  autumn and winter. Another fact in favour of autumnal planting is the
+  production of roots in winter.
+
+  The best way of performing transplantation depends greatly on the size
+  of the trees, the soil in which they grow, and the mechanical
+  appliances made use of in lifting and transporting them. The smaller
+  the tree the more successfully can it be removed. The more
+  argillaceous and the less siliceous the soil the more readily can
+  balls of earth be retained about the roots. All planters lay great
+  stress on the preservation of the fibrils; the point principally
+  disputed is to what extent they can with safety be allowed to be cut
+  off in transplantation. Trees and shrubs in thick plantations, or in
+  sheltered warm places, are ill fitted for planting in bleak and cold
+  situations. During their removal it is important that the roots be
+  covered, if only to prevent desiccation by the air. Damp days are
+  therefore the best for the operation; the dryest months are the most
+  unfavourable. Though success in transplanting depends much on the
+  humidity of the atmosphere, the most important requisite is warmth in
+  the soil; humidity can be supplied artificially, but heat cannot.
+
+  _Pruning_, or the removal of superfluous growths, is practised in
+  order to equalize the development of the different parts of trees, or
+  to promote it in particular directions so as to secure a certain form,
+  and, by checking undue luxuriance, to promote enhanced fertility. In
+  the rose-bush, for instance, in which, as we have seen, the
+  flower-buds are formed on the new wood of the year, pruning causes the
+  old wood to "break," i.e. to put forth a number of new buds, some of
+  which will produce flowers at their extremities. The manner and the
+  time in which pruning should be accomplished, and its extent, vary
+  with the plant, the objects of the operation, i.e. whether for the
+  production of timber or fruit, the season and various other
+  circumstances. So much judgment and experience does the operation call
+  for that it is a truism to say that bad pruning is worse than none.
+  The removal of weakly, sickly, overcrowded and gross infertile shoots
+  is usually, however, a matter about which there can be few mistakes
+  when once the habit of growth and the form and arrangement of the buds
+  are known. Winter pruning is effected when the tree is comparatively
+  at rest, and is therefore less liable to "bleeding" or outpouring of
+  sap. Summer pruning or pinching off the tips of such of the younger
+  shoots as are not required for the extension of the tree, when not
+  carried to too great an extent, is preferable to the coarser more
+  reckless style of pruning. The injury inflicted is less and not so
+  concentrated; the wounds are smaller, and have time to heal before
+  winter sets in. The effects of badly-executed pruning, or rather
+  hacking, are most noticeable in the case of forest trees, the
+  mutilation of which often results in rotting, canker and other
+  diseases. Judicious and timely thinning so as to allow the trees room
+  to grow, and to give them sufficiency of light and air, will generally
+  obviate the need of the pruning-saw, except to a relatively small
+  extent.
+
+  _Training_ is a procedure adopted when it is required to grow plants
+  in a limited area, or in a particular shape, as in the case of many
+  plants of trailing habit. Judicious training also may be of importance
+  as encouraging the formation of flowers and fruit. Growth in length is
+  mainly in a vertical direction, or at least at the ends of the shoots;
+  and this should be encouraged, in the case of a timber tree, or of a
+  climbing plant which it is desired should cover a wall quickly; but
+  where flowers or fruit are specially desired, then, when the wood
+  required is formed, the lateral shoots may often be trained more or
+  less downward to induce fertility. The refinements of training, as of
+  pruning, may, however, be carried too far; and not unfrequently the
+  symmetrically trained trees of the French excite admiration in every
+  respect save fertility.
+
+  _Sports or Bud Variations._--Here we may conveniently mention certain
+  variations from the normal condition in the size, form or disposition
+  of buds or shoots on a given plant. An inferior variety of pear, for
+  instance, may suddenly produce a shoot bearing fruit of superior
+  quality; a beech tree, without obvious cause, a shoot with finely
+  divided foliage; or a camellia an unwontedly fine flower. When removed
+  from the plant and treated as cuttings or grafts, such sports may be
+  perpetuated. Many garden varieties of flowers and fruits have thus
+  originated. The cause of their production is very obscure.
+
+  _Formation of Flowers._--Flowers, whether for their own sake or as the
+  necessary precursors of the fruit and seed, are objects of the
+  greatest concern to the gardener. As a rule they are not formed until
+  the plant has arrived at a certain degree of vigour, or until a
+  sufficient supply of nourishment has been stored in the tissues of the
+  plant. The reproductive process of which the formation of the flower
+  is the first stage being an exhaustive one, it is necessary that the
+  plant, as gardeners say, should get "established" before it flowers.
+  Moreover, although the green portions of the flower do indeed perform
+  the same office as the leaves, the more highly coloured and more
+  specialized portions, which are further removed from the typical
+  leaf-form, do not carry on those processes for which the presence of
+  chlorophyll is essential; and the floral organs may, therefore, in a
+  rough sense, be said to be parasitic upon the green parts. A check or
+  arrest of growth in the vegetative organs seems to be a necessary
+  preliminary to the development of the flower.
+
+  A diminished supply of water at the root is requisite, so as to check
+  energy of growth, or rather to divert it from leaf-making. Partial
+  starvation will sometimes effect this; hence the grafting of
+  free-growing fruit trees upon dwarfing stocks, as before alluded to,
+  and also the "ringing" or girdling of fruit trees, i.e. the removal
+  from the branch of a ring of bark, or the application of a tight
+  cincture, in consequence of which the growth of the fruits above the
+  wound or the obstruction is enhanced. On the same principle the use of
+  small pots to confine the roots, root-pruning and lifting the roots,
+  and exposing them to the sun, as is done in the case of the vine in
+  some countries, are resorted to. A higher temperature, especially with
+  deficiency of moisture, will tend to throw a plant into a flowering
+  condition. This is exemplified by the fact that the temperature of the
+  climate of Great Britain is too low for the flowering, though
+  sufficiently high for the growth of many plants. Thus the Jerusalem
+  artichoke, though able to produce stems and tubers abundantly, only
+  flowers in exceptionally hot seasons.
+
+  _Forcing._--The operation of forcing is based upon the facts just
+  mentioned. By subjecting a plant to a gradually increasing
+  temperature, and supplying water in proportion, its growth may be
+  accelerated; its season of development may be, as it were,
+  anticipated; it is roused from a dormant to an active state. Forcing
+  therefore demands the most careful adjustment of temperature and
+  supplies of moisture and light.
+
+  Deficiency of light is less injurious than might at first be expected,
+  because the plant to be forced has stored up in its tissues, and
+  available for use, a reserve stock of material formed through the
+  agency of light in former seasons. The intensity of the colour of
+  flowers and the richness of flavour of fruit are, however, deficient
+  where there is feebleness of light. Recent experiments show that the
+  influence of electric light on chlorophyll is similar to that of
+  sunlight, and that deficiencies of natural light may to some extent be
+  made good by its use. The employment of that light for forcing
+  purposes would seem to be in part a question of expense. The advantage
+  hitherto obtained from its use has consisted in the rapidity with
+  which flowers have been formed and fruits ripened under its influence,
+  circumstances which go towards compensating for the extra cost of
+  production.
+
+  _Retardation._--The art of retarding the period of flowering in
+  certain plants consists, in principle, in the artificial application
+  of cold temperatures whereby the resting condition induced by low
+  winter temperature is prolonged. For commercial purposes, crowns of
+  lily of the valley, tulip and other bulbs, and such deciduous woody
+  plants as lilac and deciduous species of rhododendron, while in a
+  state of rest, are packed in wet moss and introduced into cold-storage
+  chambers, where they may be kept in a state of quiescence, it desired,
+  throughout the following summer. The temperature of the cold chamber
+  is varied from the freezing-point of water, to a few degrees lower,
+  according to the needs of the plants under treatment. When required
+  for use they are removed to cool sheds to thaw, and are then gradually
+  inured to higher temperatures. The chief advantages of retarded plants
+  are:--(a) they may be flowered almost at will; (b) they are readily
+  induced to flower at those times when unretarded plants refuse to
+  respond to forcing. Cold-storage chambers form a part of the equipment
+  of most of the leading establishments where flowers are grown for
+  market.
+
+  _Double Flowers._--The taste of the day demands that "double flowers"
+  should be largely grown. Though in many instances, as in hyacinths,
+  they are less beautiful than single ones, they always present the
+  advantage of being less evanescent. Under the vague term "double" many
+  very different morphological changes are included. The flower of a
+  double dahlia, e.g. offers a totally different condition of structure
+  from that of a rose or a hyacinth. The double poinsettia, again, owes
+  its so-called double condition merely to the increased number of its
+  scarlet involucral leaves, which are not parts of the flower at all.
+  It is reasonable, therefore, to infer that the causes leading to the
+  production of double flowers are varied. A good deal of difference of
+  opinion exists as to whether they are the result of arrested growth or
+  of exuberant development, and accordingly whether restricted food or
+  abundant supplies of nourishment are the more necessary for their
+  production. It must suffice here to say that double flowers are most
+  commonly the result of the substitution of brightly-coloured petals
+  for stamens or pistils or both, and that a perfectly double flower
+  where all the stamens and pistils are thus metamorphosed is
+  necessarily barren. Such a plant must needs be propagated by cuttings.
+  It rarely happens, however, that the change is quite complete
+  throughout the flower, and so a few seeds may be formed, some of which
+  may be expected to reproduce the double-blossomed plants. By
+  continuous selection of seed from the best varieties, and "roguing" or
+  eliminating plants of the ordinary type, a "strain" or race of double
+  flowers is gradually produced.
+
+  _Formation of Seed--Fertilization._--In fertilization--the influence
+  in flowering plants of the male-cell in the pollen tube upon the
+  egg-cell in the ovule (see BOTANY)--there are many circumstances of
+  importance horticulturally, to which, therefore, brief reference must
+  be made. Flowers, generally speaking, are either self-fertilized,
+  cross-fertilized or hybridized. Self-fertilization occurs when the
+  pollen of a given flower affects the egg-cell of the same individual
+  flower. Cross-fertilization varies both in manner and degree. In the
+  simplest instances the pollen of one flower fertilizes the ovules of
+  another on the same plant, owing to the stamens arriving at maturity
+  in any one flower earlier or later than the pistils.
+
+  Cross-fertilization must of necessity occur when the flowers are
+  structurally unisexual, as in the hazel, in which the male and female
+  flowers are monoecious, or separate on the same plant, and in the
+  willow, in which they are dioecious, or on different plants. A
+  conspicuous example of a dioecious plant is the common aucuba, of
+  which for years only the female plant was known in Britain. When,
+  through the introduction of the male plant from Japan, its
+  fertilization was rendered possible, ripe berries, before unknown,
+  became common ornaments of the shrub.
+
+  The conveyance of pollen from one flower to another in
+  cross-fertilization is effected naturally by the wind, or by the
+  agency of insects and other creatures. Flowers that require the aid of
+  insects usually offer some attraction to their visitors in the shape
+  of bright colour, fragrance or sweet juices. The colour and markings
+  of a flower often serve to guide the insects to the honey, in the
+  obtaining of which they are compelled either to remove or to deposit
+  pollen. The reciprocal adaptations of insects and flowers demand
+  attentive observation on the part of the gardener concerned with the
+  growing of grapes, cucumbers, melons and strawberries, or with the
+  raising of new and improved varieties of plants. In wind-fertilized
+  plants the flowers are comparatively inconspicuous and devoid of much
+  attraction for insects; and their pollen is smoother and smaller, and
+  better adapted for transport by the wind, than that of
+  insect-fertilized plants, the roughness of which adapts it for
+  attachment to the bodies of insects.
+
+  It is very probable that the same flower at certain times and seasons
+  is self-fertilizing, and at others not so. The defects which cause
+  gardeners to speak of certain vines as "shy setters," and of certain
+  strawberries as "blind," may be due either to unsuitable conditions of
+  external temperature, or to the non-accomplishment, from some cause or
+  other, of cross-fertilization. In a vinery, tomato-house or a
+  peach-house it is often good practice at the time of flowering to tap
+  the branches smartly with a stick so as to ensure the dispersal of the
+  pollen. Sometimes more delicate and direct manipulation is required,
+  and the gardener has himself to convey the pollen from one flower to
+  another, for which purpose a small camel's-hair pencil is generally
+  suitable. The degree of fertility varies greatly according to external
+  conditions, the structural and functional arrangements just alluded
+  to, and other causes which may roughly be called constitutional. Thus,
+  it often happens that an apparently very slight change in climate
+  alters the degree of fertility. In a particular country or at certain
+  seasons one flower will be self-sterile or nearly so, and another just
+  the opposite.
+
+  _Hybridization._--Some of the most interesting results and many of the
+  gardener's greatest triumphs have been obtained by hybridization, i.e.
+  the crossing of two individuals not of the same but of two distinct
+  species of plants, as, for instance, two species of rhododendron or
+  two species of orchid (see HYBRIDISM). It is obvious that
+  hybridization differs more in degree than in kind from
+  cross-fertilization. The occurrence of hybrids in nature explains the
+  difficulty experienced by botanists in deciding on what is a species,
+  and the widely different limitations of the term adopted by different
+  observers in the case of willows, roses, brambles, &c. The artificial
+  process is practically the same in hybridization as in
+  cross-fertilization, but usually requires more care. To prevent
+  self-fertilization, or the access of insects, it is advisable to
+  remove the stamens and even the corolla from the flower to be
+  impregnated, as its own pollen or that of a flower of the same species
+  is often found to be "prepotent." There are, however, cases, e.g. some
+  passion-flowers and rhododendrons, in which a flower is more or less
+  sterile with its own, but fertile with foreign pollen, even when this
+  is from a distinct species. It is a singular circumstance that
+  reciprocal crosses are not always or even often possible; thus, one
+  rhododendron may afford pollen perfectly potent on the stigma of
+  another kind, by the pollen of which latter its own stigma is
+  unaffected.
+
+  The object of the hybridizer is to obtain varieties exhibiting
+  improvements in hardihood, vigour, size, shape, colour, fruitfulness,
+  resistance to disease or other attributes. His success depends not
+  alone on skill and judgment, for some seasons, or days even, are found
+  more propitious than others. Although promiscuous and hap-hazard
+  procedures no doubt meet with a measure of success, the best results
+  are those which are attained by systematic work with a definite aim.
+
+  Hybrids are sometimes less fertile than pure-bred species, and are
+  occasionally quite sterile. Some hybrids, however, are as fertile as
+  pure-bred plants. Hybrid plants may be again crossed, or even
+  re-hybridized, so as to produce a progeny of very mixed parentage.
+  This is the case with many of our roses, dahlias, begonias,
+  pelargoniums, orchids and other long or widely cultivated garden
+  plants.
+
+  _Reversion._--In modified forms of plants there is frequently a
+  tendency to "sport" or revert to parental or ancestral
+  characteristics. So markedly is this the case with hybrids that in a
+  few generations all traces of a hybrid origin may disappear. The
+  dissociation of the hybrid element in a plant must be obviated by
+  careful selection. The researches of Gregor Johann Mendel (1822-1884),
+  abbot of the Augustinian monastery at Brunn, in connexion with peas
+  and other plants, apparently indicate that there is a definite natural
+  law at work in the production of hybrids. Having crossed yellow and
+  green seeded peas both ways, he found that the progeny resulted in
+  _all yellow_ coloured seeds. These gave rise in due course to a second
+  generation in which there were three yellows to one green. In the
+  third generation the yellows from the second generation gave the
+  proportion of one pure yellow, two impure yellows, and one green;
+  while the green seed of the second generation threw only green seeds
+  in the third, fourth and fifth generations. The pure yellow in the
+  third generation also threw pure yellows in the fourth and fifth and
+  succeeding generations. The impure yellows, however, in the next
+  generation gave rise to one pure yellow, one pure green, to two impure
+  yellows, and so on from generation to generation. Accordingly as the
+  green or the yellow predominated in the progeny it was termed
+  "dominant," while the colour that disappeared was called "recessive."
+  It happened, however, that a recessive colour in one generation
+  becomes the dominant in a succeeding one.
+
+  _Germination._--The length of the period during which seeds remain
+  dormant after their formation is very variable. The conditions for
+  germination are much the same as for growth in general. Access to
+  light is not required, because the seed contains a sufficiency of
+  stored-up food. The temperature necessary varies according to the
+  nature and source of the seed. Some seeds require prolonged immersion
+  in water to soften their shells; others are of so delicate a texture
+  that they would dry up and perish if not kept constantly in a moist
+  atmosphere. Seeds buried too deeply receive a deficient supply of air.
+  As a rule, seeds require to be sown more deeply in proportion to their
+  size and the lightness of the soil.
+
+  The time required for germination in the most favourable circumstances
+  varies very greatly, even in the same species, and in seeds taken from
+  one pod. Thus the seeds of _Primula japonica_, though sown under
+  precisely similar conditions, yet come up at very irregular intervals
+  of time. Germination is often slower where there is a store of
+  available food in the perisperm, or in the endosperm, or in the embryo
+  itself, than where this is scanty or wanting. In the latter case the
+  seedling has early to shift for itself, and to form roots and leaves
+  for the supply of its needs.
+
+  _Selection._--Supposing seedlings to have been developed, it is found
+  that a large number of them present considerable variations, some
+  being especially robust, others peculiar in size or form. Those most
+  suitable for the purpose of the gardener are carefully selected for
+  propagation, while others not so desirable are destroyed; and thus
+  after a few generations a fixed variety, race or strain superior to
+  the original form is obtained. Many garden plants have originated
+  solely by selection; and much has been done to improve our breeds of
+  vegetables, flowers and fruit by systematic selection.
+
+  Large and well-formed seeds are to be preferred for harvesting. The
+  seeds should be kept in sacks or bags in a dry place, and if from
+  plants which are rare, or liable to lose their vitality, they are
+  advantageously packed for transmission to a distance in hermetically
+  sealed bottles or jars filled with earth or moss, without the addition
+  of moisture.
+
+  It will have been gathered from what has been said that seeds cannot
+  always be depended on to reproduce exactly the characteristics of the
+  plant which yielded them; for instance, seeds of the greengage plum or
+  of the Ribston pippin will produce a plum or an apple, but not these
+  particular varieties, to perpetuate which grafts or buds must be
+  employed.     (M. T. M.; W. R. W.)
+
+
+PART II.--THE PRACTICE OF HORTICULTURE
+
+The details of horticultural practice naturally range under the three
+heads of flowers, fruits and vegetables (see also FRUIT AND FLOWER
+FARMING). There are, however, certain general aspects of the subject
+which will be more conveniently noticed apart, since they apply alike to
+each department. We shall therefore first treat of these under four
+headings: formation and preparation of the garden, garden structures and
+edifices, garden materials and appliances, and garden operations.
+
+
+I. _Formation and Preparation of the Garden._
+
+_Site._--The site chosen for the mansion will more or less determine
+that of the garden, the pleasure grounds and flower garden being placed
+so as to surround or lie contiguous to it, while the fruit and vegetable
+gardens, either together or separate, should be placed on one side or in
+the rear, according to fitness as regards the nature of the soil and
+subsoil, the slope of the surface or the general features of the park
+scenery. In the case of villa gardens there is usually little choice:
+the land to be occupied is cut up into plots, usually rectangular, and
+of greater or less breadth, and in laying out these plots there is
+generally a smaller space left in the front of the villa residence and a
+larger one behind, the front plot being usually devoted to approaches,
+shrubbery and plantations, flower beds being added if space permits,
+while the back or more private plot has a piece of lawn grass with
+flower beds next the house, and a space for vegetables and fruit trees
+at the far end, this latter being shut off from the lawn by an
+intervening screen of evergreens or other plants. Between these two
+classes of gardens there are many gradations, but our remarks will
+chiefly apply to those of larger extent.
+
+The almost universal practice is to have the fruit and vegetable gardens
+combined; and the flower garden may sometimes be conveniently placed in
+juxtaposition with them. When the fruit and vegetable gardens are
+combined, the smaller and choicer fruit trees only should be admitted,
+such larger-growing hardy fruits as apples, pears, plums, cherries, &c.,
+being relegated to the orchard.
+
+Ground possessing a gentle inclination towards the south is desirable
+for a garden. On such a slope effectual draining is easily accomplished,
+and the greatest possible benefit is derived from the sun's rays. It is
+well also to have an open exposure towards the east and west, so that
+the garden may enjoy the full benefit of the morning and evening sun,
+especially the latter; but shelter is desirable on the north and
+north-east, or in any direction in which the particular locality may
+happen to be exposed. In some places the south-western gales are so
+severe that a belt of trees is useful as a break wind and shelter.
+
+_Soil and Subsoil._--A hazel-coloured loam, moderately light in texture,
+is well adapted for most garden crops, whether of fruits or vegetables,
+especially a good warm deep loam resting upon chalk; and if such a soil
+occurs naturally in the selected site, but little will be required in
+the way of preparation. If the soil is not moderately good and of fair
+depth, it is not so favourable for gardening purposes. Wherever the soil
+is not quite suitable, but is capable of being made so, it is best to
+remedy the defect at the outset by trenching it all over to a depth of 2
+or 3 ft., incorporating plenty of manure with it. A heavy soil, although
+at first requiring more labour, generally gives far better results when
+worked than a light soil. The latter is not sufficiently retentive of
+moisture and gets too hot in summer and requires large quantities of
+organic manures to keep it in good condition. It is advantageous to
+possess a variety of soils; and if the garden be on a slope it will
+often be practicable to render the upper part light and dry, while the
+lower remains of a heavier and damper nature.
+
+Natural soils consist of substances derived from the decomposition of
+various kinds of rocks, the bulk consisting of clay, silica and lime, in
+various proportions. As regards preparation, draining is of course of
+the utmost importance. The ground should also be trenched to the depth
+of 3 ft. at least, and the deeper the better so as to bring up the
+subsoil--whether it be clay, sand, gravel, marl, &c.--for exposure to
+the weather and thus convert it from a sterile mass into a living soil
+teeming with bacteria. In this operation all stones larger than a man's
+fist must be taken out, and all roots of trees and of perennial weeds
+carefully cleared away. When the whole ground has been thus treated, a
+moderate liming will, in general, be useful, especially on heavy clay
+soils. After this, supposing the work to have occupied most of the
+summer, the whole may be laid up in ridges, to expose as great a surface
+as possible to the action of the winter's frost.
+
+  Argillaceous or clay soils are those which contain a large percentage
+  (45-50) of clay, and a small percentage (5 or less) of lime. These are
+  unfitted for garden purposes until improved by draining, liming,
+  trenching and the addition of porous materials, such as ashes, burnt
+  ballast or sand, but when thoroughly improved they are very fertile
+  and less liable to become exhausted than most other soils. Loamy soils
+  contain a considerable quantity (30-45%) of clay, and smaller
+  quantities of lime, humus and sand. Such soils properly drained and
+  prepared are very suitable for orchards, and when the proportion of
+  clay is smaller (20-30%) they form excellent garden soils, in which
+  the better sort of fruit trees luxuriate. Marly soils are those which
+  contain a considerable percentage (10-20) of lime, and are called clay
+  marls, loamy marls and sandy marls, according as these several
+  ingredients preponderate. The clay marls are, like clay soils, too
+  stiff for garden purposes until well worked and heavily manured; but
+  loamy marls are fertile and well suited to fruit trees, and sandy
+  marls are adapted for producing early crops. Calcareous soils, which
+  may also be heavy, intermediate or light, are those which contain more
+  than 20% of lime, their fertility depending on the proportions of clay
+  and sand which enter into their composition; they are generally cold
+  and wet. Vegetable soils or moulds, or humus soils, contain a
+  considerable percentage (more than 5) of humus, and embrace both the
+  rich productive garden moulds and those known as peaty soils.
+
+The nature of the subsoil is of scarcely less importance than that of
+the surface soil. Many gardeners are still afraid to disturb an
+unsuitable subsoil, but experienced growers have proved that by bringing
+it up to the surface and placing plenty of manure in the bottoms of the
+various trenches, the very best results are attained in the course of a
+season or so. An uneven subsoil, especially if retentive, is most
+undesirable, as water is apt to collect in the hollows, and thus affect
+the upper soil. The remedy is to make the plane of its surface agree
+with that of the ground. When there is a hard pan this should be broken
+up with the spade or the fork, and have plenty of manure mixed with it.
+When there is an injurious preponderance of metallic oxides or other
+deleterious substances, the roots of trees would be affected by them,
+and they must therefore be removed. When the subsoil is too compact to
+be pervious to water, effectual drainage must be resorted to; when it is
+very loose, so that it drains away the fertile ingredients of the soil
+as well as those which are artificially supplied, the compactness of the
+stratum should be increased by the addition of clay, marl or loam. The
+best of all subsoils is a dry bed of clay overlying sandstone.
+
+_Plan._--In laying out the garden, the plan should be prepared in minute
+detail before commencing operations. The form of the kitchen and fruit
+garden should be square or oblong, rather than curvilinear, since the
+working and cropping of the ground can thus be more easily carried out.
+The whole should be compactly arranged, so as to facilitate working, and
+to afford convenient access for the carting of the heavy materials. This
+access is especially desirable as regards the store-yards and framing
+ground, where fermenting manures and tree leaves for making up hot beds,
+coals or wood for fuel and ingredients for composts, together with
+flower-pots and the many necessaries of garden culture, have to be
+accommodated. In the case of villas or picturesque residences, gardens
+of irregular form may be permitted; when adapted to the conditions of
+the locality, they associate better with surrounding objects, but in
+such gardens wall space is usually limited.
+
+The distribution of paths must be governed by circumstances. Generally
+speaking, the main paths for cartage should be 8 ft. wide, made up of 9
+in. hard core covered by 4 in. of gravel or ash, with a gentle rise to
+centre to throw off surface water. The smaller paths, not intended for
+cartage, should be 4 ft. to 6 ft. wide, according to circumstances, made
+up of 6 in. hard core and 3 in. of gravel or ash, and should be slightly
+raised at centre.
+
+A considerable portion of the north wall is usually covered in front
+with the glazed structures called forcing-houses, and to these the
+houses for ornamental plants are sometimes attached; but a more
+appropriate site for the latter is the flower garden, when that forms a
+separate department. It is well, however, that everything connected with
+the forcing of fruits or flowers should be concentrated in one place.
+The frame ground, including melon and pine pits, should occupy some
+well-sheltered spot in the slips, or on one side of the garden, and
+adjoining to this may be found a suitable site for the compost ground,
+in which the various kinds of soils are kept in store, and in which also
+composts may be prepared.
+
+As walls afford valuable space for the growth of the choicer kinds of
+hardy fruits, the direction in which they are built is of considerable
+importance. In the warmer parts of the country the wall on the north
+side of the garden should be so placed as to face the sun at about an
+hour before noon, or a little to the east of south; in less favoured
+localities it should be made to face direct south, and in still more
+unfavourable districts it should face the sun an hour after noon, or a
+little west of south. The east and west walls should run parallel to
+each other, and at right angles to that on the north side, in all the
+most favoured localities; but in colder or later ones, though parallel,
+they should be so far removed from a right angle as to get the sun by
+eleven o'clock. On the whole, the form of a parallelogram with its
+longest sides in the proportion of about five to three of the shorter,
+and running east and west, may be considered the best form, since it
+affords a greater extent of south wall than any other.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 1.--Plan of Garden an acre in area.]
+
+  Fig. 1 represents a garden of one acre and admits of nearly double the
+  number of trees on the south aspect as compared with the east and
+  west; it allows a greater number of espalier or pyramid trees to face
+  the south; and it admits of being divided into equal principal
+  compartments, each of which forms nearly a square. The size of course
+  can be increased to any requisite extent. That of the royal gardens at
+  Frogmore, 760 ft. from east to west and 440 ft. from north to south,
+  is nearly of the same proportions.
+
+The spaces between the walls and the outer fence are called "slips." A
+considerable extent is sometimes thus enclosed, and utilized for the
+growth of such vegetables as potatoes, winter greens and sea-kale, for
+the small bush fruits, and for strawberries. The slips are also
+convenient as affording a variety of aspects, and thus helping to
+prolong the season of particular vegetable crops.
+
+_Shelter._--A screen of some kind to temper the fury of the blast is
+absolutely necessary. If the situation is not naturally well sheltered,
+the defect may be remedied by masses of forest trees disposed at a
+considerable distance so as not to shade the walls or fruit trees. They
+should not be nearer than, say, 50 yds., and may vary from that to 100
+or 150 yds. distance according to circumstances, regard being had
+especially to peculiarities occasioned by the configuration of the
+country, as for instance to aerial currents from adjacent eminences.
+Care should be taken, however, not to hem in the garden by crowded
+plantations, shelter from the prevailing strong winds being all that is
+required, while the more open it is in other directions the better. The
+trees employed for screens should include both those of deciduous and of
+evergreen habit, and should suit the peculiarities of local soil and
+climate. Of deciduous trees the sycamore, wych-elm, horse-chestnut,
+beech, lime, plane and poplar may be used,--the abele or white poplar,
+_Populus alba_, being one of the most rapid-growing of all trees, and,
+like other poplars, well suited for nursing other choicer subjects;
+while of evergreens, the holm oak, holly, laurel (both common and
+Portugal), and such conifers as the Scotch, Weymouth and Austrian pines,
+with spruce and silver firs and yews, are suitable. The conifers make
+the most effective screens.
+
+Extensive gardens in exposed situations are often divided into
+compartments by hedges, so disposed as to break the force of high winds.
+Where these are required to be narrow as well as lofty, holly, yew or
+beech is to be preferred; but, if there is sufficient space, the
+beautiful laurel and the bay may be employed where they will thrive.
+Smaller hedges may be formed of evergreen privet or of tree-box. These
+subordinate divisions furnish, not only shelter but also shade, which,
+at certain seasons, is peculiarly valuable.
+
+Belts of shrubbery may be placed round the slips outside the walls; and
+these may in many cases, or in certain parts, be of sufficient breadth
+to furnish pleasant retired promenades, at the same time that they serve
+to mask the formality of the walled gardens, and are made to harmonize
+with the picturesque scenery of the pleasure ground.
+
+_Water Supply._--Although water is one of the most important elements in
+plant life, we do not find one garden in twenty where even ordinary
+precautions have been taken to secure a competent supply. Rain-water is
+the best, next to that river or pond water, and last of all that from
+springs; but a chemical analysis should be made of the last before
+introducing it, as some spring waters contain mineral ingredients
+injurious to vegetation. Iron pipes are the best conductors; they should
+lead to a capacious open reservoir placed outside the garden, and at the
+highest convenient level, in order to secure sufficient pressure for
+effective distribution, and so that the wall trees also may be
+effectually washed. Stand-pipes should be placed at intervals beside the
+walks and in other convenient places, from which water may at all times
+be drawn; and to which a garden hose can be attached, so as to permit of
+the whole garden being readily watered. The mains should be placed under
+the walks for safety, and also that they may be easily reached when
+repairs are required. Pipes should also be laid having a connexion with
+all the various greenhouses and forcing-houses, each of which should be
+provided with a cistern for aerating the daily supplies. In fact, every
+part of the garden, including the working sheds and offices, should have
+water supplied without stint.
+
+_Fence._--Gardens of large extent should be encircled by an outer
+boundary, which is often formed by a sunk wall or ha-ha surrounded by an
+invisible wire fence to exclude ground game, or consists of a hedge with
+low wire fence on its inner side. Occasionally this sunk wall is placed
+on the exterior of the screen plantations, and walks lead through the
+trees, so that views are obtained of the adjacent country. Although the
+interior garden receives its form from the walls, the ring fence and
+plantations may be adapted to the shape and surface of the ground. In
+smaller country gardens the enclosure or outer fence is often a hedge,
+and there is possibly no space enclosed by walls, but some divisional
+wall having a suitable aspect is utilized for the growth of peaches,
+apricots, &c., and the hedge merely separates the garden from a paddock
+used for grazing. The still smaller gardens of villas are generally
+bounded by a wall or wood fence, the inner side of which is appropriated
+to fruit trees. For the latter walls are much more convenient and
+suitable than a boarded fence, but in general these are too low to be of
+much value as aids to cultivation, and they are best covered with bush
+fruits or with ornamental plants of limited growth.
+
+_Walks._--The best material for the construction of garden walks is good
+binding gravel. The ground should be excavated to the depth of a foot or
+more--the bottom being made firm and slightly concave, so that it may
+slope to the centre, where a drain should be introduced; or the bottom
+may be made convex and the water allowed to drain away at the sides. The
+bottom 9 in. should be filled in compactly with hard, coarse materials,
+such as stones, brickbats, clinkers, burned clay, &c., on which should
+be laid 2 or 3 in. of coarse gravel, and then 1 or 2 in. of firm binding
+gravel on the surface. The surface of the walks should be kept well
+rolled, for nothing contributes more to their elegance and durability.
+
+All the principal lines of walk should be broad enough to allow at least
+three persons to walk abreast; the others may be narrower, but a
+multitude of narrow walks has a puny effect. Much of the neatness of
+walks depends upon the material of which they are made. Gravel from an
+inland pit is to be preferred; though occasionally very excellent
+varieties are found upon the sea-coast. Gravel walks must be kept free
+from weeds, either by hand weeding, or by the use of one of the many
+weed killers now on the market. In some parts of the country the
+available material does not bind to form a close, even surface, and such
+walks are kept clean by hoeing.
+
+Grass walks were common in English gardens during the prevalence of the
+Dutch taste, but, owing to the frequent humidity of the climate, they
+have in a great measure been discarded. Grass walks are made in the same
+way as grass lawns. When the space to be thus occupied is prepared, a
+thin layer of sand or poor earth is laid upon the surface and over this
+a similar layer of good soil. This arrangement is adopted in order to
+prevent excessive luxuriance in the grass. In many modern gardens
+pathways made of old paving stones lead from the house to different
+parts. They give an old-fashioned and restful appearance to a garden,
+and in the interstices charming little plants like thyme, _Ionopsidium
+acaule_, &c., are allowed to grow.
+
+_Edgings._--Walks are separated from the adjoining beds and borders in a
+variety of ways. If a living edging is adopted, by far the best is
+afforded by the dwarf box planted closely in line. It is of extremely
+neat growth, and when annually clipped will remain in good order for
+many years. Very good edgings, but of a less durable character, are
+formed by thrift (_Armeria vulgaris_), double daisy (_Bellis perennis_),
+gentianella (_Gentiana acaulis_) and London pride (_Saxifraga umbrosa_),
+_Cerastium tomentosum_, _Stachys lavata_ and the beautiful evergreen
+_Veronica rupestris_ with sheets of bright blue flowers close to the
+ground, or by some of the finer grasses very carefully selected, such as
+the sheep's fescue (_Festuca ovina_) or its glaucous-leaved variety.
+Indeed, any low-growing herbaceous plant, susceptible of minute
+division, is suitable for an edging. Amongst shrubby plants suitable for
+edgings are the evergreen candytuft (_Iberis sempervirens_), _Euonymus
+radicans variegata_, ivy, and _Euonymus microphyllus_--a charming little
+evergreen with small serrated leaves. Edgings may also be formed of
+narrow slips of sandstone flag, slate, tiles or bricks. One advantage of
+using edgings of this kind, especially in kitchen gardens, is that they
+do not harbour slugs and similar vermin, which all live edgings do, and
+often to a serious extent, if they are left to grow large. In
+shrubberies and large flower-plots, verges of grass-turf, from 1 to 3
+ft. in breadth, according to the size of the border and width of the
+walk, make a very handsome edging, but they should not be allowed to
+rise more than an inch and a half above the gravel, the grass being kept
+short by repeated mowings, and the edges kept trim and well-defined by
+frequently clipping with shears and cutting once or twice a year with an
+edging iron.
+
+
+II. _Garden Structures._
+
+_Walls._--The position to be given to the garden walls has been already
+referred to. The shelter afforded by a wall, and the increased
+temperature secured by its presence, are indispensable in the climate of
+Great Britain, for the production of all the finer kinds of outdoor
+fruits; and hence the inner side of a north wall, having a southern
+aspect, is appropriated to the more tender kinds. It is, indeed,
+estimated that such positions enjoy an increased temperature equal to 7
+deg. of latitude--that is to say, the mean temperature within a few
+inches of the wall is equal to the mean temperature of the open plain 7
+deg. farther south. The eastern and western aspects are set apart for
+fruits of a somewhat hardier character.
+
+Where the inclination of the ground is considerable, and the presence of
+high walls would be objectionable, the latter may be replaced by sunk
+walls. These should not rise more than 3 ft. above the level of the
+ground behind them. As dryness is favourable to an increase of heat,
+such walls should be either built hollow or packed behind to the
+thickness of 3 or 4 ft. with rubble stones, flints, brickbats or similar
+material, thoroughly drained at bottom. For mere purposes of shelter a
+height of 6 or 7 ft. will generally be sufficient for the walls of a
+garden, but for the training of fruit trees it is found that an average
+height of 12 ft. is more suitable. In gardens of large size the northern
+or principal wall may be 14 ft., and the side walls 12 ft. in height;
+while smaller areas of an acre or so should have the principal walls 12
+and the side walls 10 ft. in height. As brick is more easily built
+hollow than stone, it is to be preferred for garden walls. A 14-in.
+hollow wall will take in its construction 12,800 bricks, while a solid
+9-in. one, with piers, will take 11,000; but the hollow wall, while thus
+only a little more costly, will be greatly superior, being drier and
+warmer, as well as more substantial. Bricks cannot be too well burnt for
+garden walls; the harder they are the less moisture will they absorb.
+Many excellent walls are built of stone. The best is dark-coloured
+whinstone, because it absorbs very little moisture, or in Scotland
+Caithness pavement 4 in. thick. The stones can be cut (in the quarries)
+to any required length, and built in regular courses. Stone walls should
+always be built with thin courses for convenience of training over their
+surface. Concrete walls, properly coped and provided with a trellis, may
+in some places be cheapest, and they are very durable. Common rubble
+walls are the worst of all.
+
+The coping of garden walls is important, both for the preservation of
+the walls and for throwing the rain-water off their surfaces. It should
+not project less than from 2 to 2(1/2) in., but in wet districts may be
+extended to 6 in. Stone copings are best, but they are costly, and
+Portland cement is sometimes substituted. Temporary copings of wood,
+which may be fixed by means of permanent iron brackets just below the
+stone coping, are extremely useful in spring for the protection of the
+blossoms of fruit trees. They should be 9 in. or 1 ft. wide, and should
+be put on during spring before the blossom buds begin to expand; they
+should have attached to them scrim cloth (a sort of thin canvas), which
+admits light pretty freely, yet is sufficient to ward off ordinary
+frosts; this canvas is to be let down towards evening and drawn up again
+in the morning. These copings should be removed when they are of no
+further utility as protectors, so that the foliage may have the full
+benefit of rain and dew. Any contrivance that serves to interrupt
+radiation, though it may not keep the temperature much above freezing,
+will be found sufficient. Standard fruit trees must be left to take
+their chance; and, indeed from the lateness of their flowering, they are
+generally more injured by blight, and by drenching rains, which wash
+away the pollen of the flowers, than by the direct effects of cold.
+
+_Espalier Rails._--Subsidiary to walls as a means of training fruit
+trees, espalier rails were formerly much employed, and are still used in
+many gardens. In their simplest form, they are merely a row of slender
+stakes of larch or other wood driven into the ground, and connected by a
+slight rod or fillet at top. The use of iron rails has now been almost
+wholly discontinued on account of metallic substances acting as powerful
+conductors of both heat and cold in equal extremes. Standards from which
+galvanized wire is tightly strained from one end to the other are
+preferable and very convenient. Trees trained to them are easily got at
+for all cultural operations, space is saved, and the fruit, while freely
+exposed to sun and air, is tolerably secure against wind. They form,
+moreover, neat enclosures for the vegetable quarters, and, provided
+excess of growth from the centre is successfully grappled with, they are
+productive in soils and situations which are suitable.
+
+_Plant Houses._--These include all those structures which are more
+intimately associated with the growth of ornamental plants and flowers,
+and comprise conservatory, plant stove, greenhouse and the subsidiary
+pits and frames. They should be so erected as to present the smallest
+extent of opaque surface consistent with stability. With this object in
+view, the early improvers of hot-house architecture substituted metal
+for wood in the construction of the roofs, and for the most part
+dispensed with back walls; but the conducting power of the metal caused
+a great irregularity of temperature, which it was found difficult to
+control; and, notwithstanding the elegance of metallic houses, this
+circumstance, together with their greater cost, has induced most recent
+authorities to give the preference to wood. The combination of the two,
+however, shows clearly that, without much variation of heat or loss of
+light, any extent of space may be covered, and houses of any altitude
+constructed.
+
+  The earliest notice we have of such structures is given in the Latin
+  writers of the 1st century (Mart. _Epigr._ viii. 14 and 68); the
+  [Greek: Adonidos kepoi], to which allusion is made by various Greek
+  authors, have no claim to be mentioned in this connexion. Columella
+  (xi. 3, 51, 52) and Pliny (_H.N._ xix. 23) both refer to their use in
+  Italy for the cultivation of the rarer and more delicate sorts of
+  plants and trees. Seneca has given us a description of the application
+  of hot water for securing the necessary temperature. The botanist
+  Jungermann had plant houses at Altdorf in Switzerland; those of
+  Loader, a London merchant, and the conservatory in the Apothecaries'
+  Botanic Garden at Chelsea, were among the first structures of the kind
+  erected in British gardens. These were, however, ill adapted for the
+  growth of plants, as they consisted of little else than a huge chamber
+  of masonry, having large windows in front, with the roof invariably
+  opaque. The next step was taken when it became fashionable to have
+  conservatories attached to mansions, instead of having them in the
+  pleasure grounds. This arrangement brought them within the province of
+  architects, and for nearly a century utility and fitness for the
+  cultivation of plants were sacrificed, as still is often the case, to
+  the unity of architectural expression between the conservatory and the
+  mansion.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 2.--Lean-to Plant House.]
+
+Plant houses must be as far as possible impervious to wet and cold air
+from the exterior, provision at the same time being made for
+ventilation, while the escape of warm air from the interior must also be
+under control. The most important part of the enclosing material is
+necessarily glass. But as the rays of light, even in passing through
+transparent glass, lose much of their energy, which is further weakened
+in proportion to the distance it has to travel, the nearer the plant can
+be placed to the glass the more perfectly will its functions be
+performed; hence the importance of constructing the roofs at such an
+angle as will admit the most light, especially sunlight, at the time it
+is most required. Plants in glass houses require for their fullest
+development more solar light probably than even our best hot-houses
+transmit--certainly much more than is transmitted through the roofs of
+houses as generally constructed.
+
+Plant houses constructed of the best Baltic pine timber are very
+durable, but the whole of the parts should be kept as light as possible.
+In many houses, especially those where ornament is of no consequence,
+the rafters are now omitted, or only used at wide intervals, somewhat
+stouter sash-bars being adopted, and stout panes of glass (usually
+called 21-oz.) 12 to 18 in. wide, made use of. Such houses are very
+light; being also very close, they require careful ventilation. The
+glass roof is commonly designed so as to form a uniform plane or slope
+from back to front in lean-to houses (fig. 2), and from centre to sides
+in span-roofed houses. To secure the greatest possible influx of light,
+some horticulturists recommend curvilinear roofs; but the superiority of
+these is largely due to the absence of rafters, which may also be
+dispensed with in plain roofs. They are very expensive to build and
+maintain. Span and ridge-and-furrow roofs, the forms now mostly
+preferred, are exceedingly well adapted for the admission of light,
+especially when they are glazed to within a few inches of the ground.
+They can be made, too, to cover in any extent of area without sustaining
+walls. Indeed, it has been proposed to support such roofs to a great
+extent upon suspension principles, the internal columns of support being
+utilized for conducting the rain-water off the roof to underground
+drains or reservoirs. The lean-to is the least desirable form, since it
+scarcely admits of elegance of design, but it is necessarily adopted in
+many cases.
+
+In glazing, the greater the surface of glass, and the less space
+occupied by rafters and astragals as well as overlaps, the greater the
+admission of light. Some prefer that the sash-bars should be grooved
+instead of rebated, and this plan exposes less putty to the action of
+the weather. The simple bedding of the glass, without the use of over
+putty, seems to be widely approved; but the glass may be fixed in a
+variety of other ways, some of which are patented.
+
+  The _Conservatory_ is often built in connexion with the mansion, so as
+  to be entered from the drawing-room or boudoir. But when so situated
+  it is apt to suffer from the shade of the building, and is
+  objectionable on account of admitting damp to the drawing-room. Where
+  circumstances will admit, it is better to place it at some distance
+  from the house, and to form a connexion by means of a glass corridor.
+  In order that the conservatory may be kept gay with flowers, there
+  should be a subsidiary structure to receive the plants as they go out
+  of bloom. The conservatory may also with great propriety be placed in
+  the flower garden, where it may occupy an elevated terrace, and form
+  the termination of one of the more important walks.
+
+  Great variety of design is admissible in the conservatory, but it
+  ought always to be adapted to the style of the mansion of which it is
+  a prominent appendage. Some very pleasing examples are to be met with
+  which have the form of a parallelogram with a lightly-rounded roof;
+  others of appropriate character are square or nearly so, with a
+  ridge-and-furrow roof. Whatever the form, there must be light in
+  abundance; and the shade both of buildings and of trees must be
+  avoided. A southern aspect, or one varying to south-east or
+  south-west, is preferable; if these aspects cannot be secured, the
+  plants selected must be adapted to the position. The central part of
+  the house may be devoted to permanent plants; the side stages and open
+  spaces in the permanent beds should be reserved for the temporary
+  plants.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 3.--Section of Greenhouse.]
+
+  The _Greenhouse_ is a structure designed for the growth of such exotic
+  plants as require to be kept during winter in a temperature
+  considerably above the freezing-point. The best form is the
+  span-roofed, a single span being better even than a series of spans
+  such as form the ridge-and-furrow roof. For plant culture, houses at a
+  comparatively low pitch are better than higher ones where the plants
+  have to stand at a greater distance from the glass, and therefore in
+  greater gloom. Fig. 3 represents a convenient form of greenhouse. It
+  is 20 ft. wide and 12 ft. high, and may be of any convenient length.
+  The side walls are surmounted by short upright sashes which open
+  outwards by machinery a, and the roof is provided with sliding upper
+  sashes for top ventilation. The upper sashes may also be made to lift,
+  and are in many respects more convenient to operate. In the centre is
+  a two-tier stage 6 ft. wide, for plants, with a pathway on each side 3
+  ft. wide, and a side stage 4 ft. wide, the side stages being flat, and
+  the centre stage having the middle portion one-third of the width
+  elevated 1 ft. above the rest so as to lift up the middle row of
+  plants nearer the light. Span-roofed houses of this character should
+  run north and south so as to secure an equalization of light, and
+  should be warmed by two flow, and one or two return 4-in. hot-water
+  pipes, carried under the side stages along each side and across each
+  end. Where it is desired to cultivate a large number of plants, it is
+  much better to increase the number of such houses than to provide
+  larger structures. The smaller houses are far better for cultural
+  purposes, while the plants can be classified, and the little details
+  of management more conveniently attended to. Pelargoniums, cinerarias,
+  calceolarias, cyclamens, camellias, heaths, roses and other
+  specialities might thus have to themselves either a whole house or
+  part of a house, the conditions of which could then be more accurately
+  fitted to the wants of the inmates.
+
+  The lean-to house is in most respects inferior to the span-roofed; one
+  of the latter could be converted into two of the former of opposite
+  aspects by a divisional wall along the centre. Except where space does
+  not permit a span-roofed building to be introduced, a lean-to is not
+  to be recommended; but a house of this class may often be greatly
+  improved by adopting a half-span or hipped roof--that is, one with a
+  short slope behind and a longer in front.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 4.--Section of Plant Stove.]
+
+  Where the cultivation of large specimens has to be carried on, a
+  span-roofed house of greater height and larger dimensions may
+  sometimes prove useful; but space for this class of plants may
+  generally be secured in a house of the smaller elevation, simply by
+  lowering or removing altogether the staging erected for smaller
+  plants, and allowing the larger ones to stand on or nearer the floor.
+  The _Plant Stove_ differs in no respect from the greenhouse except in
+  having a greater extent of hot-water pipes for the purpose of securing
+  a greater degree of heat, although, as the plants in stove houses
+  often attain a larger size, and many of them require a bed of coco-nut
+  fibre, tan or leaf mould to supply them with bottom heat, a somewhat
+  greater elevation may perhaps be occasionally required in some of the
+  houses. For the smaller plants, and for all choicer subjects, the
+  smaller size of house already recommended for greenhouses, namely 20
+  ft. wide and 12 ft. high, with a side table of 4 ft. on each side, a
+  pathway of 3 ft. and a central stage on two levels of 6 ft. wide, will
+  be preferable, because more easily managed as to the supply of heat
+  and moisture. It will be seen (fig. 4) that along the ridge of the
+  roof a raised portion or lantern light b, b is introduced, which
+  permits of the fixing of two continuous ventilators, one along each
+  side, for the egress of heated and foul air, openings a, a being also
+  provided in the side walls opposite the hot-water pipes for the
+  admission of pure cold air. This type of house is also very suitable
+  for greenhouse plants, but would not need so much heating apparatus.
+  Three or four rows of flow and return pipes respectively will be
+  required on each side, according to the heat proposed to be
+  maintained.
+
+  In their interior fittings plant stoves require more care than
+  greenhouses, which are much drier, and in which consequently the
+  staging does not so soon decay. In stoves the stages should be of
+  slate or stone where practicable, and the supports of iron. These
+  should be covered with a layer of 2 or 3 in. of some coarse gritty
+  material, such as pounded spar, or the shell sand obtained on the
+  sea-coast, on which the pots are to stand; its use is to absorb
+  moisture and gradually give it out for the benefit of the plants. The
+  pathways should be paved with tiles, brick or stone, or made of
+  concrete and cement, and the surface should be gently rounded so that
+  the water required for evaporation may drain to the sides while the
+  centre is sufficiently dry to walk upon; they should also have brick
+  or stone edgings to prevent the water so applied soaking away at the
+  sides and thus being wasted.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 5.--Lean-to Vinery.]
+
+_Fruit Houses._--The principal of these are the vinery, peach house,
+cucumber and melon house and orchard house. These, or a portion of them,
+especially the vineries and peacheries, are frequently brought together
+into a range along the principal interior or south wall of the garden,
+where they are well exposed to sun and light, an ornamental plant house
+being sometimes introduced into the centre of the range in order to give
+effect to the outline of the buildings. When thus associated, the houses
+are usually of the lean-to class, which have the advantage of being more
+easily warmed and kept warm than buildings having glass on both sides, a
+matter of great importance for forcing purposes.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 6.--Hip-Roofed Vinery.]
+
+  The _Vinery_ is a house devoted to the culture of the grape-vine,
+  which is by far the most important exotic fruit cultivated in English
+  gardens. When forming part of a range a vinery would in most cases be
+  a lean-to structure, with a sharp pitch (45-50 deg.) if intended for
+  early forcing, and a flatter roof (40 deg.) with longer rafters if
+  designed for the main and late crops. (1) The _lean-to_ (fig. 5) is
+  the simplest form, often erected against some existing wall, and the
+  best for early forcing, being warmer on account of the shelter
+  afforded by the back wall. In this house the principal part of the
+  roof is a fixture, ventilation being provided for by small lifting
+  sashes against the back wall, and by the upright front sashes being
+  hung on a pivot so as to swing outwards on the lower side. The
+  necessary heat is provided by four 4-in. hot-water pipes, which would
+  perhaps be best placed if all laid side by side, while the vines are
+  planted in front and trained upwards under the roof. A second set of
+  vines may be planted against the back wall, and will thrive there
+  until the shade of the roof becomes too dense. (2) The _hip-roofed_ or
+  three-quarter span (fig. 6) is a combination of the lean-to and the
+  span-roofed, uniting to a great degree the advantages of both, being
+  warmer than the span and lighter than the lean-to. The heating and
+  ventilating arrangements are much the same as in the lean-to, only the
+  top sashes which open are on the back slope, and therefore do not
+  interfere so much with the vines on the front slope. In both this and
+  the lean-to the aspect should be as nearly due south as possible.
+  Houses of this form are excellent for general purposes, and they are
+  well adapted both for muscats, which require a high temperature, and
+  for late-keeping grapes. (3) The _span-roofed_ (fig. 7), the most
+  elegant and ornamental form, is especially adapted for isolated
+  positions; indeed, no other form affords so much roof space for the
+  development of the vines. The amount of light admitted being very
+  great, these houses answer well for general purposes and for the main
+  crop. The large amount of glass or cooling surface, however, makes it
+  more difficult to keep up a high and regular temperature in them, and
+  from this cause they are not so well adapted for very early or very
+  late crops. They are best, nevertheless, when grapes and ornamental
+  plants are grown in the same house, except, indeed, in very wet and
+  cold districts, where, in consequence of its greater warmth, the
+  lean-to is to be preferred. This type of house, cheaply constructed,
+  is in general use for raising grapes for market.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 7.--Span-Roofed Vinery.]
+
+  The _Peach House_ is a structure in which the ripening of the fruit is
+  accelerated by the judicious employment of artificial heat. For early
+  forcing, as in vineries, the lean-to form is to be preferred, and the
+  house may have a tolerably sharp pitch. A width of 7 or 8 ft., with
+  the glass slope continued down to within a foot or two of the ground,
+  and without any upright front sashes, will be suitable for such a
+  house, which may also be conveniently divided into compartments of
+  from 30 to 50 ft. in length according to the extent of the building,
+  small houses being preferable to larger ones. As a very high
+  temperature is not required, two or three pipes running the whole
+  length of the house will suffice. The front wall should be built on
+  piers and arches to allow the roots to pass outwards into a prepared
+  border, the trees being planted just within the house. Abundant means
+  of ventilation should be provided.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 8.--Peach House.]
+
+  For more general purposes the house represented in fig. 8 will be
+  found more useful. One set of trees is planted near the front, and
+  trained to an arched trellis b. Another set is planted at the back,
+  and trained on a trellis c, which is nearly upright, and leans against
+  the back wall; or the back wall itself may be used for training. There
+  are no upright front sashes, but to facilitate ventilation there are
+  ventilators d in the front wall, and the upper roof sashes are made to
+  move up and down for the same object. Two or three hot-water pipes are
+  placed near the front wall. The back wall is usually planted with
+  dwarf and standard trees alternately, the latter being temporary, and
+  intended to furnish the upper part of the trellis, while the permanent
+  dwarfs arc gradually filling up the trellis from below. In any case
+  the front trellis should stop conveniently short of the top of the
+  sashes if there are trees against the back wall, in order to admit
+  light to them. They would also be better carried up nearly parallel to
+  the roof, and at about 1 ft. distant from it, supposing there were no
+  trees at the back.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 9.--Forcing House.]
+
+  A span-roofed house, being lighter than a lean-to, would be so much
+  the better for peach culture, especially for the crop grown just in
+  anticipation of those from the open walls since a high temperature is
+  not required. A low span, with dwarf side walls, and a lantern
+  ventilator along the ridge, the height in the centre being 9 ft.,
+  would be very well adapted for the purpose. The trees should be
+  planted inside and trained up towards the ridge on a trellis about a
+  foot from the glass, the walls being arched to permit the egress of
+  the roots. A trellis path should run along the centre, and movable
+  pieces of trellis should be provided to prevent trampling on the soil
+  while dressing and tying in the young wood.
+
+  The _Forcing House_.--Whenever continuous supplies of cucumbers,
+  melons and tomatoes are required, it is most convenient to grow them
+  in properly constructed forcing houses. Span-roofed houses (fig. 9)
+  arc probably the most useful for the purpose. They are usually 12 to
+  14 ft. wide, by 10 to 12 ft. high, and of any convenient length.
+  Heating is effected by means of hot-water pipes below the beds, and
+  against the side ventilators. The walls bordering the central paths
+  are arched or clotted to admit heat from the chambers below the beds.
+  Side pipes are occasionally dispensed with, heat being obtained by
+  means of slots at the back of the beds, communicating with the
+  chambers. The beds are also of use for plunging pot plants.
+  Ventilation is provided at sides and top.
+
+  Pits and frames of various kinds are frequently used for the
+  cultivation of cucumbers and melons, as well as hot beds covered by
+  ordinary garden frames. In these cases the first supply of heat is
+  derived from the hot bed made up within the pit. When the heat of the
+  original bed subsides, linings of fermenting dung must be added, and
+  these must be kept active by occasional turnings and the addition of
+  fresh material as often as required. It is better, however, to effect
+  both top and bottom heating by hot-water pipes.
+
+  _Orchard Houses_ are span-roofed or lean-to structures, in which
+  various fruits are cultivated without the aid of artificial heat.
+  Peaches, nectarines, apricots, cherries and the more tender varieties
+  of plums and pears succeed well in houses of this kind. The types of
+  houses in general use are substantially as shown in fig. 7, for
+  span-roofed, and as fig. 5, for lean-to; in each case without the
+  heating apparatus. The orchard house is among the most generally
+  useful of all garden structures. These houses require careful
+  management in early summer so as to induce the more delicate varieties
+  of peaches and nectarines to complete and ripen their growth before
+  cold, sunless weather sets in.
+
+  In commercial establishments where utility is of more importance than
+  ornament, the glass houses and hot water apparatus are not of so
+  elaborate a type as indicated in the foregoing remarks, and in many
+  cases excellent produce is grown in structures more or less
+  dilapidated. In some places movable greenhouses have been erected for
+  market purposes, so that the soil may be exposed to the sweetening
+  effect of the weather, when the glass roof is moved to an adjoining
+  patch.
+
+_Pits and Frames._--These are used both for the summer growth and winter
+protection of various kinds of ornamental plants, for the growth of such
+fruits as cucumbers, melons and strawberries, and for the forcing of
+vegetables. When heat is required, it is sometimes supplied by means of
+fermenting dung, or dung and leaves, or tanner's bark, but it is much
+more economically provided by hot-water pipes. Pits of many different
+forms have been designed, but it may be sufficient here to describe one
+or two which can be recommended for general purposes.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 10.--Ventilated Plant Pit.]
+
+  An excellent pit for wintering bedding-out plants or young greenhouse
+  stock is shown at fig. 10. It is built upon the pigeon-hole principle
+  as high as the ground level a, a, and above that in 9-in. brickwork.
+  At a distance of 9 in. retaining walls b, b are built up to the ground
+  level, and the spaces between the two are covered by thick boarding,
+  which is to be shut down as shown at c in cold weather to exclude
+  frost, and opened as shown at d in mild weather to promote a free
+  circulation of air through the pit. The height of the pit might be
+  reduced according to the size of the plants; and, to secure the
+  interior against frost, flow and return hot-water pipe e should pass
+  along beneath the staging, which should be a strong wooden trellis
+  supported by projections in the brickwork. The water which drains from
+  the plants or is spilt in watering would fall on the bottom, which
+  should be made porous to carry it away. For many plants this under
+  current of ventilation would be exceedingly beneficial, especially
+  when cold winds prevented the sashes from being opened. A pit of this
+  character may be sunk into the ground deeper than is indicated in the
+  figure if the subsoil is dry and gravelly, bat in the case of a damp
+  subsoil it should rather be more elevated, as the soil could easily be
+  sloped up to meet the retaining wall.
+
+  _Frames._--Frames (fig. 11) should be made of the best red deal, 1(1/4)
+  in. thick. A convenient size is 6 ft. wide, 24 in. high at the back
+  and 15 in front; and they are usually 12 ft. long, which makes three
+  lights and sashes, though they can be made with two lights or one
+  light for particular purposes. Indeed, a one-light frame is often
+  found very convenient for many purposes. The lights should be 2 in.
+  thick, and glazed with 21 oz. sheet glass, in broad panes four or five
+  to the breadth of a light, and of a length which will work in
+  conveniently and economically, very long panes being undesirable from
+  the havoc caused by accidents, and very short ones being objectionable
+  as multiplying the chances of drip, and the exclusion of light by the
+  numerous lappings; panes about 12 in. long are of convenient size for
+  garden lights of this character. In all gardens the frames and lights
+  should be of one size so as to be interchangeable, and a good supply
+  of extra lights (sashes) may always be turned to good account for
+  various purposes.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 11.--Hot-Bed Three-Light Frame.]
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 12.--Span-Roof Frame.]
+
+  Span-roof garden frame (fig. 12) may under some circumstances be
+  useful as a substitute for the three-light frame. It is adapted for
+  storing plants in winter, for nursing small plants in summer and for
+  the culture of melons and other crops requiring glass shelter. These
+  frames are made 11 in. high in front, 22 at the back and 32 at the
+  ridge, with ends of 1(1/2)-in. red deal; the sashes, which are 2 in.
+  thick, open by gearing, the front and back separately. The lights are
+  hinged so that they can be turned completely back when necessary. This
+  more direct and ready access to the plants within is one of the
+  principal recommendations of this form of pit.
+
+_Mushroom House._--Mushrooms may be grown in sheds and cellars, or even
+in protected ridges in the open ground, but a special structure is
+usually devoted to them. A lean-to against the north side of the garden
+wall will be found suitable for the purpose, though a span-roofed form
+may also be adopted, especially if the building stands apart.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 13.--Lean-to Mushroom House.]
+
+  The internal arrangement of a lean-to mushroom house is shown in fig.
+  13. The length may vary from 30 ft. to 60 ft.; a convenient width is
+  10 ft., which admits of a 3(1/2) ft. central path, and beds 3 ft. wide
+  on each side. The shelves should be of slate a, a, supported by iron
+  uprights b, b, each half having a front ledge of bricks set on edge in
+  cement c, c. The slabs of slate forming the shelves should not be too
+  closely fitted, as a small interval will prevent the accumulation of
+  moisture at the bottom of the bed. They may be supported by iron
+  standards or brick piers, back and front, bearing up a flat bar of
+  iron on which the slates may rest; the use of the bar will give wider
+  intervals between the supports, which will be found convenient for
+  filling and emptying the beds. The roof may be tiled or slated; but,
+  to prevent the injurious influence of hot sun, there should be an
+  inner roof or ceiling d, the space between which and the outer roof e
+  should be packed with sawdust. A hot-water pipe f should run along
+  both sides of the pathway, close to the front ledge of the lowest
+  beds. The different shelves can be planted in succession; and the
+  lower ones, especially those on the floor level, as being most
+  convenient, can be utilized for forcing sea-kale and rhubarb.
+
+_The Fruit Room._--This important store should be dark, moderately dry,
+with a steady, moderately cool atmosphere, and with the means of giving
+sufficient ventilation to keep the air sweet. It should also be
+sufficiently commodious to permit of the fruit being arranged in single
+layers on the shelves or trays. A type of building which is becoming
+increasingly popular for this purpose, and which is in many respects
+superior to the older, and often more expensive structures, is built of
+wood, with or without brick foundations, and is thickly thatched with
+reeds or other non-conducting material externally--on walls and
+roof--while the interior is matchboarded. Ventilation is afforded at the
+ends, usually by tilting laths, operated by a cord. Two doors are
+provided at one end--an inner, and an outer--the inner being glazed at
+the top to admit light. They are generally span-roofed, about 6 ft. high
+at the eaves, and 8 or 10 ft. high at the ridge, according to width.
+
+  The length and breadth of these stores should be governed by the
+  amount and character of the storage accommodation to be provided. If
+  intended for storage only, a width of 9 ft. 6 in. would suffice, but
+  if intended to combine display with storage, the internal diameter
+  should be about 13 ft. In the former type, the walls are fitted with
+  four rows of shelves, about 3 ft. wide, and about 1 ft. 6 in. apart.
+  The shelves are of deal strips, 2 or 3 in. wide, laid about 1 in.
+  apart for ventilation. These are being superseded, however, by
+  sliding-out trays of convenient lengths and about 9 in. deep, working
+  on fixed framework. By this means the storage accommodation is nearly
+  doubled and the fruit is more easily manipulated. The central gangway
+  is about 3 ft. 6 in. wide. In the latter a central exhibition bench
+  about 3 ft. wide and of convenient height is provided. Gangways 2(1/2)
+  ft. wide flank this, while the shelves or drawers with which the walls
+  are fitted are about 2(1/2) ft. wide.
+
+  _Care of the Fruit Room._--This consists mainly in the storing only of
+  such fruits as are dry and in proper condition; in judicious
+  ventilation, especially in the presence of large quantities of
+  newly-gathered fruit; in the prompt removal of all decaying fruit; and
+  in the exclusion of vermin. It is also advisable to wash all woodwork
+  and gangways annually with a weak solution of formalin, or other
+  inodorous germicide.
+
+_Heating Apparatus._--Plant houses were formerly heated in a variety of
+ways--by fermenting organic matter, such as dung, by smoke flues, by
+steam and by hot water circulating in iron pipes. The last-named method
+has proved so satisfactory in practice that it is now in general use for
+all ordinary purposes. The water is heated by a furnace, and is conveyed
+from the boiler into the houses by a main or "flow" pipe, connected by
+means of syphon branches with as many pipes as it is intended to serve.
+When cooled it is returned to the boiler by another main or "return"
+pipe. Heat is regulated in the structures by means of valves on the
+various branch pipes. The flow pipe is attached to the boiler at its
+highest point, to take the heated water as it ascends. The return pipe
+is connected with the boiler at or near its lowest point. The highest
+points of the pipes are fitted with small taps, for the removal of air,
+which would retard circulation if allowed to remain. Heating by hot
+water may be said to depend, in part, on the influence of gravity on
+water being to some extent overcome by heating in a boiler. It ascends
+the flow pipe by convection, where its onward journey would speedily end
+if it were not for the driving force of other molecules of water
+following, and the suction set up by the gravitation into the boiler of
+the cooled water by the return pipe. The power of water to conduct heat
+is very low. The conducting power of the iron in which it is conveyed is
+high. It is, however, probable that conduction is to some extent a
+factor in the process.
+
+  Pipes.--It is a mistake to stint the quantity of piping, since it is
+  far more economical and better for the plants to have a larger surface
+  heated moderately than a smaller surface heated excessively. In view
+  of the fact that air expands, becomes lighter and rises, under the
+  influence of heat, the pipes should be set near the floor. If intended
+  to raise the temperature of the structure, they should be set on iron
+  or brick supports just clear of walls, earth or other heat-absorbing
+  bodies. Those intended to provide bottom heat, however, are set in (a)
+  water tanks running under the beds, or (b) in enclosed dry chambers
+  under the beds, or are (c) embedded in the soil or plunging material.
+  The first-named method is distinctly superior to the others. Pipes of
+  2 in., 3 in., 4 in. and 6 in. diameters are mostly used, the 4 in.
+  size being the most convenient for general purposes. The joints are
+  packed or caulked with tow, smeared with a mixture of white and red
+  lead. Flanged joints are made to bolt together on washers of
+  vulcanized rubber.
+
+  _Boilers._--There are numerous types of boilers in use, illustrative
+  of efforts to secure as much exposure as possible to the action of the
+  flames. The water-tube type, with multiple waterways, consists of a
+  number of separate tubes joined together in various ways. Some of
+  these are built in the form of a blunt cone, and are known as conical
+  tubular boilers. Others are built with the tubes arranged
+  horizontally, and are known as horizontal tubular boilers. The
+  majority of the latter are more or less saddle-shaped. Boilers with a
+  single waterway are of three principal types, the Cornish, the saddle
+  and the conical. The Cornish is cylindrical with the furnace occupying
+  about half the length of the cylinder. The saddle is so named from its
+  supposed resemblance to a saddle. It is set to span the furnace,
+  additional exposure to heat being secured in a variety of ways by
+  flues. Exposure in the conical boiler is direct on its inner surface,
+  and is supplemented by flues. Tubular boilers, especially the
+  horizontal types, are very powerful and economical. The Cornish type
+  is a rather slow and steady boiler, and is much used for providing
+  heat for large areas. The saddle boiler is very commonly employed to
+  provide heat for moderately sized and small areas. Both are powerful
+  and economical. Conical boilers are more expensive to set by reason of
+  their shape, and are not so convenient to manipulate as the horizontal
+  kinds. All the above types require a setting of masonry. Portable
+  boilers are convenient for heating small areas, and are less expensive
+  to install than those described above. They are less economical,
+  however, owing to loss of heat from their exposed surfaces. What are
+  called sectional boilers as used in America and on the Continent are
+  being introduced to British gardens. Portions can be added or taken
+  away according to the amount of heating surface required.
+
+  _Water Supply._--Wastage of water in the boilers should be made good
+  automatically from a cistern controlled by means of a ball-cock. It
+  should be placed as high above the boiler as practicable. The feed
+  should connect with the return pipe near the point at which it enters
+  the boiler.
+
+  _Stokeholds._--These have usually to be excavated to admit of the
+  boilers being set below the level of the pipes they are intended to
+  serve. In consequence of their depth, the draining of stokeholds often
+  presents difficulties. Care should be taken to allow sufficient room
+  to properly manipulate the fires and to store fuel. It is important
+  that the ventilation should be as efficient as practicable, especially
+  where coke fuel is to be used.
+
+  _Stoking._--The management of the furnaces is relatively easy, and
+  consists in adapting the volume and intensity of the fires to
+  particular needs. It involves the keeping dean of flues, ashpits and
+  especially the fires themselves. Where coke or ordinary hard coal are
+  used, the removal of clinkers should be done systematically, and the
+  fires stirred. Anthracite coal fires should not be stirred more than
+  is absolutely necessary, and should not be fed in driblets. They
+  require more draught than coke fires, but care must be taken not to
+  give too much, as excessive heat is likely to melt or soften the
+  fire-bars. Draught is regulated in the ashpit by opening or closing
+  the bottom door of the furnace and by the damper on the smoke shaft.
+  The latter must be of a fairly good height, according to
+  circumstances, to secure a good draught.
+
+  _Solar Heat._--The importance of sun heat to the general well-being of
+  plant life, its influence on the production of flowers and the
+  ripening of edible fruits, has long been appreciated in horticulture.
+  The practice of "closing up" early in the afternoon, i.e. the closing
+  of ventilators (accompanied by syringing and damping of surfaces to
+  produce a humid atmosphere) has for its object the conservation of as
+  much solar heat as practicable.
+
+  _Ventilation._--This consists in the admission of air for the purpose
+  of preventing stagnation of the atmosphere and for the regulation of
+  temperature. Means of affording ventilation in all plant houses should
+  be provided in at least two places--as near the floor as practicable,
+  and at the top. Mechanical contrivances whereby whole sets of
+  ventilators may be operated simultaneously are now in common use, and
+  are much more convenient and economical than the older method of
+  working each ventilator separately. Efficient ventilating can only be
+  effected by the exercise of common sense and vigilance, and care must
+  be taken to avoid cold draughts through the houses.
+
+
+III. _Garden Materials and Appliances._
+
+_Soils and Composts._--The principal soils used in gardens, either
+alone, or mixed to form what are called composts, are--loam, sand, peat,
+leaf-mould and various mixtures and combinations of these made up to
+suit the different subjects under cultivation.
+
+_Loam_ is the staple soil for the gardener; it is not only used
+extensively in the pure and simple state, but enters into most of the
+composts prepared specially for his plants. For garden purposes loam
+should be rather unctuous or soapy to the touch when moderately dry, not
+too clinging nor adhesive, and should readily crumble when a compressed
+handful is thrown on the ground. If it clings together closely it is too
+heavy and requires amelioration by the admixture of gritty material; if
+it has little or no cohesion when squeezed tightly in the hand, it is
+too light, and needs to be improved by the addition of heavier or clayey
+material. Sound friable loam cut one sod deep from the surface of a
+pasture, and stacked up for twelve months in a heap or ridge, is
+invaluable to the gardener. When employed for making vine borders, loam
+of a somewhat heavier nature can be used with advantage, on account of
+the porous materials which should accompany it. For stone fruits a
+calcareous loam is best; indeed, for these subjects a rich calcareous
+loam used in a pure and simple state cannot be surpassed. Somewhat heavy
+loams are best for potting pine apples, for melons and strawberries,
+fruit trees in pots, &c., and may be used with the addition of manures
+only; but for ornamental plants a loam of a somewhat freer texture is
+preferable and more pleasant to work. Loam which contains much red
+matter (iron) should be avoided.
+
+_Sand_ is by itself of little value except for striking cuttings, for
+which purpose fine clean sharp silver sand is the best; and a somewhat
+coarser kind, if it is gritty, is to be preferred to the comminuted
+sands which contain a large proportion of earthy matter. River sand and
+the sharp grit washed up sometimes by the road side are excellent
+materials for laying around choice bulbs at planting time to prevent
+contact with earth which is perhaps manure-tainted. Sea sand may be
+advantageously used both for propagating purposes and for mixing in
+composts. For the growth of pot plants sand is an essential part of most
+composts, in order to give them the needful porosity to carry off all
+excess of moisture from the roots. If the finer earthy sands only are
+obtainable, they must be rendered sharper by washing away the earthy
+particles. Washed sand is best for all plants like heaths, which need a
+pure and lasting peaty compost.
+
+_Peat_ soil is largely employed for the culture of such plants as
+rhododendrons, azaleas, heaths, &c. In districts where heather and
+gritty soil predominate, the peat soil is poor and unprofitable, but
+selections from both the heathy and the richer peat soils, collected
+with judgment, and stored in a dry part of the compost yard, are
+essential ingredients in the cultivation of many choice pot plants, such
+as the Cape heaths and many of the Australian plants. Many
+monocotyledons do well in peat, even if they do not absolutely require
+it.
+
+_Leaf-mould_ is eminently suited for the growth of many free-growing
+plants, especially when it has been mixed with stable manure and has
+been subjected to fermentation for the formation of hot beds. It any
+state most plants feed greedily upon it, and when pure or free from
+decaying wood or sticks it is a very safe ingredient in composts; but it
+is so liable to generate fungus, and the mycelium or spawn of certain
+fungi is so injurious to the roots of trees, attacking them if at all
+sickly or weakened by drought, that many cultivators prefer not to mix
+leaf-mould with the soil used for permanent plants, as peaches or choice
+ornamental trees. For quick growing plants, however, as for example most
+annuals cultivated in pots, such as balsams, cockscombs, globe-amaranths
+and the like, for cucumbers, and for young soft-wooded plants generally,
+it is exceedingly useful, both by preventing the consolidation of the
+soil and as a manure. The accumulations of light earth formed on the
+surface in woods where the leaves fall and decay annually are leaf-mould
+of the finest quality. Leaves collected in the autumn and stored in pits
+or heaps, and covered with a layer of soil, make beautiful leaf-mould at
+the end of about twelve months, if frequently drenched with water or
+rain during this period.
+
+_Composts_ are mixtures of the foregoing ingredients in varying
+proportions, and in combination with manures if necessary, so as to suit
+particular plants or classes of plants. The chief point to be borne in
+mind in making these mixtures is not to combine in the same compost any
+bodies that are antagonistic in their nature, as for example lime and
+ammonia. In making up composts for pot plants, the fibrous portion
+should not be removed by sifting, except for small-sized pots, but the
+turfy portions should be broken up by hand and distributed in smaller or
+larger lumps throughout the mass. When sifting is had recourse to, the
+fibrous matter should be rubbed through the meshes of the sieve along
+with the earthy particles. Before being used the turfy ingredients of
+composts should lie together in a heap only long enough for the roots of
+the herbage to die, not to decompose.
+
+_Manures_ (see MANURE).--These are of two classes, organic and
+inorganic--the former being of animal and vegetable, the latter of
+mineral origin. The following are organic manures:
+
+  _Farm-yard manure_ consists of the mixed dung of horses and cattle
+  thrown together, and more or less soaked with liquid drainings of the
+  stable or byre. It is no doubt the finest stimulant for the growth of
+  plants, and that most adapted to restore the fertile elements which
+  the plants have abstracted from exhausted soils. This manure is best
+  fitted for garden use when in a moderately fermented state.
+
+  _Horse dung_ is generally the principal ingredient in all hot bed
+  manure; and, in its partially decomposed state, as afforded by
+  exhausted hot beds, it is well adapted for garden use. It is most
+  beneficial on cold stiff soils. It should not be allowed to lie too
+  long unmoved when fresh, as it will then heat violently, and the
+  ammonia is thus driven off. To avoid this, it should be turned over
+  two or three times if practicable, and well moistened--preferably with
+  farm-yard drainings.
+
+  _Cow dung_ is less fertilizing than horse dung, but being slower in
+  its action it is more durable; it is also cooler, and therefore better
+  for hot dry sandy soils. Thoroughly decayed, it is one of the best of
+  all manures for mixing in composts for florists' flowers and other
+  choice plants.
+
+  _Pig dung_ is very powerful, containing more nitrogen than horse dung;
+  it is therefore desirable that it should undergo moderate
+  fermentation, which will be secured by mixing it with litter and a
+  portion of earth. When weeds are thrown to the pigs, this fermentation
+  becomes specially desirable to kill their seeds.
+
+  _Night-soil_ is an excellent manure for all bulky crops, but requires
+  to be mixed with earth or peat, or coal-ashes, so as both to deodorize
+  it and to ensure its being equally distributed. Quicklime should not
+  be used, as it dispels the greater part of the ammonia. When prepared
+  by drying and mixing with various substances, night-soil is sold as
+  desiccated night-soil or native guano, the value of which depends upon
+  the materials used for admixture.
+
+  _Malt-dust_ is an active manure frequently used as a top-dressing,
+  especially for fruit trees in pots. It is rapid in its action, but its
+  effects are not very permanent. _Rape dust_ is somewhat similar in its
+  character and action.
+
+  _Bones_ are employed as a manure with decided advantage both to
+  vegetable crops and to fruit trees, as well as to flowers. For turnips
+  bone manure is invaluable. The effects of bones are no doubt mainly
+  due to the phosphates they contain, and they are most effectual on dry
+  soils. They are most quickly available when dissolved in sulphuric
+  acid.
+
+  _Guano_ is a valuable manure now much employed, and may be applied to
+  almost every kind of crop with decided advantage. It should be mixed
+  with six or eight times its weight of loam or ashes, charred peat,
+  charcoal-dust or some earthy matter, before it is applied to the soil,
+  as from its causticity it is otherwise not unlikely to kill or injure
+  the plants to which it is administered. Peruvian guano is obtained
+  from the excreta of South American sea-birds, and fish guano from the
+  waste of fish. Both are remarkable for the quantity of nitrates and
+  phosphates they contain.
+
+  _Pigeon dung_ approaches guano in its power as manure. It should be
+  laid up in ridges of good loamy soil in alternate layers to form a
+  compost, which becomes a valuable stimulant for any very choice
+  subjects if cautiously used. The dung of the domestic fowl is very
+  similar in character.
+
+  _Horn_, _hoof-parings_, _woollen rags_, _fish_, _blubber_ and _blood_,
+  after treatment with sulphuric acid, are all good manures, and should
+  be utilized if readily obtainable.
+
+  _Liquid manure_, consisting of the drainings of dung-heaps, stables,
+  cowsheds, &c., or of urine collected from dwelling houses or other
+  sources, is a most valuable and powerful stimulant, and can be readily
+  applied to the roots of growing plants. The urine should be allowed to
+  putrefy, as in its decomposition a large amount of ammonia is formed,
+  which should then be fixed by sulphuric acid or gypsum; or it may be
+  applied to the growing crops after being freely diluted with water or
+  absorbed in a compost heap. Liquid manures can be readily made from
+  most of the solid manures when required, simply by admixture with
+  water. When thus artificially compounded, unless for immediate use,
+  they should be made strong for convenience of storage, and applied as
+  required much diluted.
+
+  The following are inorganic manures:
+
+  _Ammonia_ is the most powerful and one of the most important of the
+  constituents of manures generally, since it is the chief source whence
+  plants derive their nitrogen. It is largely supplied in all the most
+  fertilizing of organic manures, but when required in the inorganic
+  state must be obtained from some of the salts of ammonia, as the
+  sulphate, the muriate or the phosphate, all of which, being extremely
+  energetic, require to be used with great caution. These salts of
+  ammonia may be used at the rate of from 2 to 3 cwt. per acre as a
+  top-dressing in moist weather. When dissolved in water they form
+  active liquid manures. The most commonly used nitrogenous manures are
+  nitrate of soda, nitrate of potash and sulphate of ammonia, the prices
+  of which are constantly fluctuating.
+
+  _Potash_ and _soda_ are also valuable inorganic manures in the form of
+  carbonates, sulphates, silicates and phosphates, but the most valuable
+  is the nitrate of potash. The price, however, is generally so high
+  that its use is practically nil, except in small doses as a liquid
+  manure for choice pot plants. Cheaper substitutes, however, are now
+  found in sulphate of potash, and muriate of potash and kainit. The two
+  last-named must not be applied direct to growing crops, but to the
+  soil some weeks in advance of sowing or cropping. The manures of this
+  class are of course of value only in cases where the soil is naturally
+  deficient in them. On this account the salts of soda are of less
+  importance than those of potash. The value of wood ashes as a manure
+  very much depends upon the carbonate and other salts of potash which
+  they contain.
+
+  _Phosphoric acid_, in the form of phosphates, is a most valuable plant
+  food, and is absorbed by most plants in fairly large quantities from
+  the soil. It induces the earlier production of flowers and fruits. In
+  a natural state it is obtained from bones, guano and wood ashes; and
+  in an artificial condition from basic slag or Thomas's phosphate,
+  coprolites and superphosphate of lime.
+
+  _Lime_ in the caustic state is beneficially applied to soils which
+  contain an excess of inert vegetable matter, and hence may be used for
+  the improvement of old garden soils saturated with humus, or of peaty
+  soils not thoroughly reclaimed. It does not supply the place of
+  organic manures, but only renders that which is present available for
+  the nourishment of the plants. It also improves the texture of clay
+  soils.
+
+  _Gypsum_, or sulphate of lime, applied as a top-dressing at the rate
+  of 2 to 3 cwt. per acre, has been found to yield good results,
+  especially on light soils. It is also employed in the case of liquid
+  manures to fix the ammonia.
+
+  _Gas lime_, after it has been exposed to the air for a few months is
+  an excellent manure on heavy soils. In a fresh state it is poisonous
+  and fatal to vegetation, and is often used for this reason to dress
+  land infested with wireworms, grubs, club-root fungus, &c.
+
+  _Burnt clay_ has a very beneficial effect on clay land by improving
+  its texture and rendering soluble the alkaline substances it contains.
+  The clay should be only slightly burnt, so as to make it crumble down
+  readily; in fact, the fire should not be allowed to break through, but
+  should be constantly repressed by the addition of material. The
+  burning should be effected when the soil is dry.
+
+  _Vegetable refuse_ of all kinds, when smother-burned in a similar way,
+  becomes a valuable mechanical improver of the soil; but the preferable
+  course is to decompose it in a heap with quicklime and layers of
+  earth, converting it into leaf-mould. Potato haulms, and club-rooted
+  cabbage crops should, however, never be mixed with ordinary clean
+  vegetable refuse, as they would be most likely to perpetuate the
+  terrible diseases to which they are subject. The refuse of such plants
+  should be burned as early as possible. The ash may be used as manure.
+
+  _Soot_ forms a good top-dressing; it consists principally of charcoal,
+  but contains ammonia and a smaller proportion of phosphates and
+  potash, whence its value as a manure is derived. It should be kept dry
+  until required for use. It may also be used beneficially in preventing
+  the attacks of insects, such as the onion gnat and turnip fly, by
+  dusting the plants or dressing the ground with it.
+
+  _Common salt_ acts as a manure when used in moderate quantities, but
+  in strong doses is injurious to vegetation. It suits many of the
+  esculent crops, as onions, beans, cabbages, carrots, beet-root,
+  asparagus, &c.; the quantity applied varies from 5 to 10 bushels per
+  acre. It is used as a top-dressing sown by the hand. Hyacinths and
+  other bulbs derive benefit from slight doses, while to asparagus as
+  much as 20 lb. to the rood has been used with beneficial effect. At
+  the rate of from 6 to 10 bushels to the acre it may be used on garden
+  lawns to prevent worm casts. For the destruction of weeds on gravel
+  walks or in paved yards a strong dose of salt, applied either dry or
+  in a very strong solution, is found very effective, especially a hot
+  solution, but after a time much of it becomes washed down, and the
+  residue acts as a manure; its continued application is undesirable, as
+  gravel so treated becomes pasty.
+
+_Garden Tools, &c._--Most of these are so well known that we shall not
+discuss them here. They are, moreover, illustrated and described in the
+catalogues of most nurserymen and dealers in horticultural sundries.
+
+_Tallies or Labels._--The importance of properly labelling plants can
+hardly be over-estimated. For ordinary purposes labels of wood of
+various sizes (sold in bundles) are the most convenient. These should be
+wiped with a little white paint or linseed oil, and written with a soft
+lead pencil before the surface becomes dry. Copying-ink pencils should
+not be used, as water will wash away the writing. For permanent plants,
+as trees, roses, &c., metallic labels with raised type are procurable
+from dealers, and are neat, durable and convenient. Permanent labels may
+also be made from sheet lead, the names being punched in by means of
+steel type. For stove and greenhouse plants, orchids, ferns, &c., labels
+made of xylonite, zinc and other materials are also used.
+
+
+IV. _Garden Operations._
+
+_Propagation._--The increase of plants, so far as the production of new
+individuals of particular kinds is concerned, is one of the most
+important and constantly recurring of gardening operations. In effecting
+this, various processes are adopted, which will now be described.
+
+  1. _By Seeds._--This may be called the natural means of increasing the
+  number of any particular kind of plant, but it is to be remembered
+  that we do not by that means secure an exact reproduction of the
+  parent, especially in the case of plants raised or evolved in the
+  course of generations by hybridization and selection. We may get a
+  progeny very closely resembling it, yet each plant possessing a
+  distinct individuality of its own; or we may get a progeny very unlike
+  the parent, or a mixed progeny showing various degrees of divergence.
+  Many seeds will grow freely if sown in a partially ripened state; but
+  as a general rule seeds have to be kept for some weeks or months in
+  store, and hence they should be thoroughly ripened before being
+  gathered. They should be sown in fine rich soil, and such as will not
+  readily get consolidated. In the case of outdoor crops, if the soil is
+  inclined to be heavy, it is a good plan to cover all the smaller seeds
+  with a light compost. Very small seeds should only have a sprinkling
+  of light earth or of sand, and sometimes only a thin layer of soft
+  moss to exclude light and preserve an equable degree of moisture.
+  Somewhat larger seeds sown indoors may be covered to the depth of
+  one-eighth or one-fourth of an inch, according to their size. Outdoor
+  crops require to be sown, the smaller seeds from 1/2 to 1 in., and the
+  larger ones from 2 to 4 in. under the surface, the covering of the
+  smaller ones especially being light and open. Many seeds grow well
+  when raked in; that is, the surface on which they are scattered is
+  raked backwards and forwards until most of them are covered. Whatever
+  the seeds, the ground should be made tolerably firm both beneath and
+  above them; this may be done by treading in the case of most kitchen
+  garden crops, which are also better sown in drills, this admitting the
+  more readily of the ground being kept clear from weeds by hoeing. All
+  seeds require a certain degree of heat to induce germination. For
+  tropical plants the heat of a propagating house--75 deg. to 80 deg.,
+  with a bottom heat of 80 deg. to 90 deg.--is desirable, and in many
+  cases absolutely necessary; for others, such as half-hardy annuals, a
+  mild hot bed, or a temperate pit ranging from 60 deg. to 70 deg., is
+  convenient; while of course all outdoor crops have to submit to the
+  natural temperature of the season. It is very important that seeds
+  should be sown when the ground is in a good working condition, and not
+  clammy with moisture.
+
+  2. _By Offsets._--This mode of increase applies specially to bulbous
+  plants, such as the lily and hyacinth, which produce little bulbs on
+  the exterior round their base. Most bulbs do so naturally to a limited
+  but variable extent; when more rapid increase is wanted the heart is
+  destroyed, and this induces the formation of a larger number of
+  offsets. The stem bulbs of lilies are similar in character to the
+  offsets from the parent bulb. The same mode of increase occurs in the
+  gladiolus and crocus, but their bulb-like permanent parts are called
+  corms, not bulbs. After they have ripened in connexion with the parent
+  bulb, the offsets are taken off, stored in appropriate places, and at
+  the proper season planted out in nursery beds.
+
+  3. _By Tubers._--The tuber is a fleshy underground stem, furnished
+  with eyes which are either visible, as in the potato and in some
+  familiar kinds of _Tropaeolum_ (_T. tuberosum_) and of _Oxalis_ (_O.
+  crenata_), or latent, as in the Chinese yam (_Dioscorea Batatas_).
+  When used for propagation, the tubers are cut up into what are called
+  "sets," every portion having an eye attached being capable of forming
+  an independent plant. The cut portions of bulky sets should be
+  suffered to lie a short time before being planted, in order to dry the
+  surface and prevent rotting; this should not, however, be done with
+  such tropical subjects as caladiums, the tubers of which are often cut
+  up into very small fragments for propagation, and of course require to
+  be manipulated in a properly heated propagating pit. No eyes are
+  visible in the Chinese yam, but slices of the long club-shaped tubers
+  will push out young shoots and form independent plants, if planted
+  with ordinary care.
+
+  4. _By Division._--Division, or partition, is usually resorted to in
+  the case of tufted growing plants, chiefly perennial herbs; they may
+  be evergreen, as chamomile or thrift, or when dormant may consist only
+  of underground crowns, as larkspur or lily-of-the-valley; but in
+  either case the old tufted plant being dug up may be divided into
+  separate pieces, each furnished with roots, and, when replanted,
+  generally starting on its own account without much check. Suffruticose
+  plants and even small shrubs may be propagated in this way, by first
+  planting them deeper than they are ordinarily grown, and then after
+  the lapse of a year, which time they require to get rooted, taking
+  them up again and dividing them into parts or separate plants.
+  Box-edging and southernwood are examples. The same ends may sometimes
+  be effected by merely working fine soil in amongst the base of the
+  stems, and giving them time to throw out roots before parting them.
+
+  5. _By Suckers._--Root suckers are young shoots from the roots of
+  plants, chiefly woody plants, as may often be seen in the case of the
+  elm and the plum. The shoots when used for propagation must be
+  transplanted with all the roots attached to them, care being taken not
+  to injure the parent plant. If they spring from a thick root it is not
+  to be wantonly severed, but the soil should be removed and the sucker
+  taken off by cutting away a clean slice of the root, which will then
+  heal and sustain no harm. Stem suckers are such as proceed from the
+  base of the stem, as is often seen in the case of the currant and
+  lilac. They should be removed in any case; when required for
+  propagation they should be taken with all the roots attached to them,
+  and they should be as thoroughly disbudded below ground as possible,
+  or they are liable to continue the habit of suckering. In this case,
+  too, the soil should be carefully opened and the shoots removed with a
+  suckering iron, a sharp concave implement with long iron handle (fig.
+  14). When the number of roots is limited, the tops should be
+  shortened, and some care in watering and mulching should be bestowed
+  on the plant if it is of value.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 14.--Suckering Iron.]
+
+  6. _By Runners._--The young string-like shoots produced by the
+  strawberry are a well-known example of runners. The process of rooting
+  these runners should be facilitated by fixing them close down to the
+  soil, which is done by small wooden hooked pegs or by stones;
+  hair-pins, short lengths of bent wire, &c., may also be used. After
+  the roots are formed, the strings are cut through, and the runners
+  become independent plants.
+
+  7. _By Proliferous Buds._--Not unlike the runner, though growing in a
+  very different way, are the bud-plants formed on the fronds of several
+  kinds of ferns belonging to the genera _Asplenium_, _Woodwardia_,
+  _Polystichum_, _Lastrea_, _Adiantum_, _Cystopteris_, &c. In some of
+  these (_Adiantum caudatum_, _Polystichum lepidocaulon_) the rachis of
+  the frond is lengthened out much like the string of the strawberry
+  runner, and bears a plant at its apex. In others (_Polystichum
+  angulare proliferum_) the stipes below and the rachis amongst the
+  pinnae develop buds, which are often numerous and crowded. In others
+  again (_Woodwardia orientalis_, _Asplenium bulbiferum_), buds are
+  numerously produced on the upper surface of the fronds. These will
+  develop on the plant if allowed to remain. For propagation the
+  buibiferous portion is pegged down on the surface of a pot of suitable
+  soil; if kept close in a moist atmosphere, the little buds will soon
+  strike root and form independent plants. In _Cystopteris_ the buds are
+  deciduous, falling off as the fronds acquire maturity, but, if
+  collected and pressed into the surface of a pot of soil and kept
+  close, they will grow up into young plants the following season. In
+  some genera of flowering plants, and notably in Bryophyllum, little
+  plants form on various parts of the leaves. In some Monocotyledons,
+  ordinarily in Chlorophytum, and exceptionally in Phalaenopsis and
+  others, new plants arise on the flower stems.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 15.--Propagation by Layers--a, tonguing; b,
+  ringing.]
+
+  8. _By Layers._--Layering consists in preparing the branch of a plant
+  while still attached to the parent, bending it so that the part
+  operated on is brought under ground, and then fixing it there by means
+  of a forked peg. Some plants root so freely that they need only
+  pegging down; but in most cases the arrest of the returning sap to
+  form a callus, and ultimately young roots, must be brought about
+  artificially, either by twisting the branch, by splitting it, by
+  girding it closely with wire, by taking off a ring of bark, or by
+  "tonguing." In tonguing the leaves are cut off the portion which has
+  to be brought under ground, and a tongue or slit is then cut from
+  below upwards close beyond a joint, of such length that, when the cut
+  part of the layer is pegged an inch or two (or in larger woody
+  subjects 3 or 4 in.) below the surface, the elevation of the point of
+  the shoot to an upright position may open the incision, and thus set
+  it free, so that it may be surrounded by earth to induce it to form
+  roots. The whole branch, except a few buds at the extremity, is
+  covered with soil. The best seasons for these operations are early
+  spring and mid-summer, that is, before the sap begins to flow, and
+  after the first flush of growth has passed off. One whole summer,
+  sometimes two, must elapse before the layers will be fully rooted in
+  the case of woody plants; but such plants as carnations and picotees,
+  which are usually propagated in this way, in favourable seasons take
+  only a few weeks to root, as they are layered towards the end of the
+  blooming season in July, and are taken off and planted separately
+  early in the autumn. Fig. 15 shows a woody plant with one layer
+  prepared by tonguing and another by ringing.
+
+  In general, each shoot makes one layer, but in plants like the
+  _Wistaria_ or _Clematis_, which make long shoots, what is called
+  serpentine layering may be adopted; that is, the shoot is taken
+  alternately below and above the surface, as frequently as its length
+  permits. There must, however, be a joint at the underground part where
+  it is to be tongued and pegged, and at least one sound bud in each
+  exposed part, from which a shoot may be developed to form the top of
+  the young plant.
+
+  9. _By Circumposition._--When a plant is too high or its habit does
+  not conveniently admit of its being layered, it may often be increased
+  by what is called circumposition, the soil being carried up to the
+  branch operated on. The branch is to be prepared by ringing or
+  notching or wiring as in layering, and a temporary stand made to
+  support the vessel which is to contain the soil. The vessel may be a
+  flower-pot sawn in two, so that the halves may be bound together when
+  used, or it may be a flower-pot or box with a side slit which will
+  admit the shoot; this vessel is to be filled compactly with suitable
+  porous earth, the opening at the slit being stopped by pieces of slate
+  or tile. The earth must be kept moist, which is perhaps best done by a
+  thick mulching of moss, the moss being also bound closely over the
+  openings in the vessel, and all being kept damp by frequent
+  syringings. Gardeners often dispense with the pot, using sphagnum moss
+  and leaf-mould only when propagating india-rubber plants, perpetual
+  carnations, dracaenas, &c.
+
+  10. _By Grafts._--Grafting is so extensively resorted to that it is
+  impossible here to notice all its phases. It is perhaps of most
+  importance as the principal means of propagating our hardy kinds of
+  fruit, especially the apple and the pear; but the process is the same
+  with most other fruits and ornamental hardy trees and shrubs that are
+  thus propagated. The stocks are commonly divided into two
+  classes:--(1) free stocks, which consist of seedling plants, chiefly
+  of the same genus or species as the trees from which the scions are
+  taken; and (2) dwarfing stocks, which are of more diminutive growth,
+  either varieties of the same species or species of the same or some
+  allied genus as the scion, which have a tendency to lessen the
+  expansion of the engrafted tree. The French Paradise is the best
+  dwarfing stock for apples, and the quince for pears. In determining
+  the choice of stocks, the nature of the soil in which the grafted
+  trees are to grow should have full weight. In a soil, for example,
+  naturally moist, it is proper to graft pears on the quince, because
+  this plant not only thrives in such a soil, but serves to check the
+  luxuriance thereby produced. The scions should always be ripened
+  portions of the wood of the preceding year, selected from healthy
+  parents; in the case of shy-bearing kinds, it is better to obtain them
+  from the fruitful branches. The scions should be taken off some weeks
+  before they are wanted, and half-buried in the earth, since the stock
+  at the time of grafting should in point of vegetation be somewhat in
+  advance of the graft. During winter, grafts may be conveyed long
+  distances, if carefully packed. If they have been six weeks or two
+  months separated from the parent plant, they should be grafted low on
+  the stock, and the earth should be ridged up round them, leaving only
+  one bud of the scion exposed above ground. The best season for
+  grafting apples and similar hardy subjects in the open air is in March
+  and April; but it may be commenced as soon as the sap in the stock is
+  fairly in motion.
+
+  _Whip-grafting_ or _Tongue-grafting_ (fig. 16) is the most usual mode
+  of performing the operation when there is no great difference in
+  thickness between the stock and scion. The stock is headed off by an
+  oblique transverse cut as shown at a, a slice is then pared off the
+  side as at b, and on the face of this a tongue or notch is made, the
+  cut being in a downward direction; the scion c is pared off in a
+  similar way by a single clean sharp cut, and this is notched or
+  tongued in the opposite direction as the figure indicates; the two are
+  then fitted together as shown at d, so that the inner bark of each may
+  come in contact at least on one side, and then tied round with damp
+  soft bast as at e; next some grafting clay is taken on the forefinger
+  and pushed down on each side so as to fill out the space between the
+  top of the stock and the graft, and a portion is also rubbed over the
+  ligatures on the side where the graft is placed, a handful of the clay
+  is then taken, flattened out, and rolled closely round the whole point
+  of junction, being finished off to a tapering form both above and
+  below, as shown by the dotted line f. To do this deftly, the hands
+  should be plunged from time to time in dry ashes, to prevent the clay
+  from sticking to them. Various kinds of grafting wax are now
+  obtainable, and are a great improvement upon the clay process. Some
+  cold mastics become very pliable with the warmth of the hands. They
+  are best applied with a piece of flat wood; or very liquid waxes may
+  be applied with a brush.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 16.--Whip-grafting or Tongue-grafting.]
+
+  _Cleft-grafting_ (fig. 17) is another method in common use. The stock
+  a is cleft down from the horizontal cut d (but not nearly so much as
+  the sketch would indicate), and the scion, when cut to a thin wedge
+  form, as shown at c and e, is inserted into the cleft; the whole is
+  then bound up and clayed as in the former case. This is not so good a
+  plan as whip-grafting; it is improved by sloping the stock on one side
+  to the size of the graft.
+
+  [Illustration: Fig. 17.--Cleft-grafting.]
+
+  [Illustration: Fig. 18.--Crown-Grafting.]
+
+  _Crown-grafting_ or _Rind-grafting_ (fig. 18) is preferable to
+  cleft-grafting, inasmuch as it leaves no open spaces in the wood. The
+  stock b is cut off horizontally or nearly so in January or February.
+  At grafting time a slit is cut in the bark f, f, a wedge-shaped piece
+  of iron or a small chisel being inserted to raise the bark; the scion
+  is then cut to the same wedge-shaped form g, h, and inserted in the
+  space opened for it between the alburnum and the bark, after which it
+  is tied down and clayed or waxed over in the manner already described.
+
+  _Side-grafting_ is performed like whip-grafting, the graft being
+  inserted on the side of a branch and not at the cut end of the stock.
+  It may be practised for the purpose of changing a part of the tree,
+  and is sometimes very useful for filling out vacant spaces, in trained
+  trees especially.
+
+  _Inarching_ is another form of side-grafting. Here the graft is fixed
+  to the side of the stock, which is planted or potted close to the
+  plant to be worked. The branches are applied to the stock while yet
+  attached to the parent tree, and remain so until united. In the case
+  of trained trees, a young shoot is sometimes inarched to its parent
+  stem to supply a branch where one has not been developed in the
+  ordinary way.
+
+  For the propagation by grafts of stove and greenhouse plants the
+  process adopted is whip-grafting or a modification of it. The parts
+  are, however, sometimes so small that the tongue of the graft is
+  dispensed with, and the two stems simply pared smooth and bound
+  together. In this way hardy rhododendrons of choice sorts, greenhouse
+  azaleas, the varieties of the orange family, camellias, roses, rare
+  conifers, clematises and numerous other plants are increased.
+  Raffia--which has taken the place of bast--is generally used for
+  tying, and grafting wax is only used occasionally with such plants
+  under glass. All grafting of this kind is done in the propagating
+  house, at any season when grafts are obtainable in a fit state--the
+  plants when operated on being placed in close frames warmed to a
+  suitable temperature. Roses and clematis, however, are generally
+  grafted from January to March and April.
+
+  _Root-grafting_ is sometimes resorted to where extensive increase is
+  an object, or where stem-grafting or other means of propagation are
+  not available. In this case the scion is grafted directly on to a
+  portion of the root of some appropriate stock, both graft and stock
+  being usually very small; the grafted root is then potted so as to
+  cover the point of junction with the soil, and is plunged in the bed
+  of the propagating house, where it gets the slight stimulus of a
+  gentle bottom heat. Dahlias (fig. 19), paeonies, and Wistarias may be
+  grafted by inserting young shoots into the neck of one of the fleshy
+  roots of each kind respectively--the best method of doing so being to
+  cut a triangular section near the upper end of the root, just large
+  enough to admit the young shoot when slightly pared away on two sides
+  to give it a similar form. In the case of large woody plants thus
+  worked (fig. 20) the grafted roots, after the operation is completed,
+  are planted in nursery beds, so that the upper buds only are exposed
+  to the atmosphere, as shown in the figure.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 19.--Root-grafting of Dahlia.]
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 20.--Root-grafting of Woody Plant.]
+
+  11. _By Buds._--Budding is the inserting of a bud of a choice variety
+  cut with a portion of bark into the bark of the stock of an inferior
+  nature where it is bound gently but firmly. Stone fruits, such as
+  peaches, apricots, plums, cherries, &c., are usually propagated in
+  this way, as well as roses and many other plants. In the propagating
+  house budding may be done at any season when the sap is in motion; but
+  for fruit trees, roses, &c., in the open air, it is usually done in
+  July or August, when the buds destined for the following year are
+  completely formed in the axils of the leaves, and when the bark
+  separates freely from the wood it covers. Those buds are to be
+  preferred, as being best ripened, which occur on the middle portion of
+  a young shoot, and which are quite dormant at the time.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 21.--Shield-budding.]
+
+  The simplest and most generally practised form of budding is that
+  called _shield-budding_ or T-_budding_ (fig. 21). The operator should
+  be provided with a sharp budding knife having a thin ivory or bone
+  handle, for raising the bark of the stock. A horizontal incision is
+  made in the bark quite down to the wood, and from this a perpendicular
+  slit is drawn upwards to the extent of perhaps an inch, so that the
+  slit has a resemblance to the letter T, as at a. A bud is then cut by
+  a clean incision from the tree intended to be propagated, having a
+  portion of the wood attached to it, and so that the whole may be about
+  1 in. long, as at d. The bit of wood e must be gently withdrawn, care
+  being taken that the bud adheres wholly to the bark or shield, as it
+  is called, of which f is a side view. The bark on each side of the
+  perpendicular slit being then cautiously opened, as at b, with the
+  handle of the knife, the bud and shield are inserted as shown at c.
+  The upper tip of the shield is cut off horizontally, and brought to
+  fit the bark of the stock at the transverse incision. Slight ties of
+  soft cotton wool or worsted, or moist raffia, are then applied. In
+  about a month or six weeks the ligatures may be removed or slit with
+  the knife to allow for the swelling stem, when, if the operation has
+  been successful, the bud will be fresh and full, and the shield firmly
+  united to the wood. In the following spring a strong shoot will be
+  thrown out, and to prevent its being blown out by the wind, must be
+  fastened to a stake, or to the lower portion of the old stock which
+  has been left for the purpose.
+
+  To be successful the operation should be performed with a quick and
+  light hand, so that no part of the delicate tissues be injured, as
+  would happen if they were left for a time exposed, or if the bud were
+  forced in like a wedge. The union is effected as in grafting, by means
+  of the organizable sap or cambium, and the less this is disturbed
+  until the inner bark of the shield is pressed and fixed against it the
+  better. Trees to be grown in the form of a bush are usually budded low
+  down on the stem of the stock as near the root as possible to obviate
+  the development of wild suckers later on. Standard trees, however, are
+  budded on a sturdy young shoot close to the top. In either case the
+  stocks should have been carefully planted at least the previous
+  November when the work is to be done in the open air the following
+  July or August.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 22.--Propagation by Cuttings.]
+
+  12. _By Branch Cuttings._--Propagation by cuttings is the mode of
+  increase most commonly adopted, next to that by seeds. It is effected
+  by taking a portion from a branch or shoot of the plant, and placing
+  it in the soil. There are great differences to be observed in the
+  selection and treatment of cuttings. Sometimes soft green leafy
+  shoots, as in _Verbena_ (fig. 22, a), are used; sometimes the shoots
+  must be half-ripened, and sometimes fully matured. So of the mode of
+  preparation; some will root if cut off or broken off at any point and
+  thrust into wet earth or sand in a warm place (fig. 22, a); others
+  require to be cut with the utmost care just below a joint or
+  leaf-base, and by a keen blade so as to sever the tissues without
+  tearing or bruising; and others again after being cut across may be
+  split up for a short distance, but there seems to be no particular
+  virtue in this. It is usual and in most cases necessary to cut away
+  the lower portion of a cutting up to just below the node or joint
+  (fig. 22, b, d, e). The internodal parts will not often divide so as
+  to form separate individual plants; sometimes, however, this happens;
+  it is said that the smallest piece of _Torenia asiatica_, for
+  instance, will grow. Then as to position, certain cuttings grow
+  readily enough if planted outdoors in the open soil, some preferring
+  shade, others sunshine, while less hardy subjects must be covered with
+  a bell-glass, or must be in a close atmosphere with bottom heat, or
+  must have the aid of pure silver sand to facilitate their rooting
+  (fig. 22, c). Cuttings should in all cases be taken from healthy
+  plants, and from shoots of a moderate degree of vigour. It is also
+  important to select leafy growths, and not such as will at once run up
+  to flower. Young shoots which have become moderately firm generally
+  make the best cuttings, but sometimes the very softest shoots strike
+  more readily. For all indoor plants in a growing state spring is a
+  good time for taking cuttings, but at any time during the summer
+  months is also favourable if cuttings are obtainable.
+
+  Cuttings of deciduous plants should be taken off after the fall of the
+  leaf. These cuttings should be about 6 in. to 1 ft. in length, and
+  should be planted at once in the ground so as to leave only the top
+  with the two or three preserved buds exposed. If a clean stem,
+  however, is desired, a longer portion may be left uncovered.
+  Gooseberries, currants, roses and many hardy deciduous trees and
+  shrubs are easily propagated in this way if the cuttings are inserted
+  in well-drained soil about the end of October or early in November.
+
+  Cuttings of growing plants are prepared by removing with a sharp
+  knife, and moderately close, the few leaves which would otherwise be
+  buried in the soil; they are then cut clean across just below a joint;
+  the fewer the leaves thus removed, however, the better, as if kept
+  from being exhausted they help to supply the elaborated sap out of
+  which the roots are formed. Free-rooting subjects strike in any
+  lightish sandy mixture; but difficult subjects should have thoroughly
+  well-drained pots, a portion of the soil proper for the particular
+  plants made very sandy, and a surfacing of clean sharp silver sand
+  about as deep as the length of the cutting.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 23.--Leaf Cuttings.]
+
+  Such difficult plants as heaths are reared in silver sand, a stratum
+  of which is placed over the sandy peat soil in a specially prepared
+  cutting pot, and thus the cuttings, though rooting in the sand under a
+  bell-glass, find at once on the emission of roots congenial soil for
+  them to grow in (fig. 22, c).
+
+  Hardy plants, such as pinks, pansies, &c., are propagated by cuttings
+  planted during early summer in light rich soil. The cuttings of pinks
+  are called pipings (fig. 22, d), and are planted about June, while
+  pansies may be renewed in this way both in spring and in autumn.
+
+  13. _By Leaf Cuttings._--Many plants may be propagated by planting
+  their leaves or portions of the leaves as cuttings, as, for example,
+  the _Gloxinia_ (fig. 23, a) and _Gesnera_, the succulent
+  _Sempervivum_, _Echeveria_, _Pachyphytum_ and their allies, and such
+  hard-leaved plants as _Theophrasta_ (fig. 23, b). The leaves are best
+  taken off with the base whole, and should be planted in well-drained
+  sandy soil; in due time they form roots, and ultimately from some
+  latent bud a little shoot which forms the young plant. The treatment
+  is precisely like that of branch cuttings. Gloxinias, begonias, &c.,
+  grow readily from fragments of the leaves cut clean through the thick
+  veins and ribs, and planted edgewise like cuttings. This class of
+  subjects may also be fixed flat on the surface of the cutting pot, by
+  means of little pegs or hooks, the main ribs being cut across at
+  intervals, and from these points roots, and eventually young tubers,
+  will be produced (fig. 24).
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 24.--Leaf-Propagation of Begonia.]
+
+  14. _By Root Cuttings._--Some plants which are not easily increased by
+  other means propagate readily from root cuttings. Amongst the indoor
+  plants which may be so treated, _Bouvardia_, _Pelargonium_, _Aralia_
+  and _Wigandia_ may be mentioned. The _modus operandi_ is to turn the
+  plant out of its pot, shake away the soil so as to free the roots, and
+  then select as many pieces of the stouter roots as may be required.
+  These are cut up into half-inch lengths (more or less), and inserted
+  in light sandy soil round the margin of a cutting pot, so that the
+  upper end of the root cutting may be level with the soil or only just
+  covered by it. The pots should be watered so as to settle the soil,
+  and be placed in the close atmosphere of the propagating pit or frame,
+  where they will need scarcely any water until the buds are seen
+  pushing through the surface.
+
+  There are various herbaceous plants which may be similarly treated,
+  such as sea-kale and horseradish, and, among ornamental plants, the
+  beautiful autumn-blooming _Anemone japonica_, _Bocconia cordata_,
+  _Dictamnus Fraxinella_--the burning bush; the sea hollies
+  (_Eryngium_), the globe thistle (_Echinops ritro_), the Oriental poppy
+  (Papaver orientale), the sea lavender (_Statice latifolia_), _Senecio
+  pulcher_, &c. The sea-kale and horseradish require to be treated in
+  the open garden, where the cut portions should be planted in lines in
+  well-worked soil; but the roots of the others should be planted in
+  pots and kept in a close frame with a little warmth till the young
+  shoots have started.
+
+  Various hardy ornamental trees are also increased in this way, as the
+  quince, elm, robinia and mulberry, and the rose amongst shrubs. The
+  most important use to which this mode of propagation is put is,
+  however, the increase of roses, and of the various plums used as
+  stocks for working the choicer stone fruits. The method in the latter
+  case is to select roots averaging the thickness of the little finger,
+  to cut these into lengths of about 3 or 4 in., and to plant them in
+  lines just beneath the surface in nursery beds. The root cuttings of
+  rose-stocks are prepared and treated in a similar way.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 25.--Cutting of Single Eye.]
+
+  15. _By Cuttings of Single Eyes._--This mode of propagation is by
+  cutting the ripened young branches into short lengths, each containing
+  one well-matured bud or eye, with a short portion of the stem above
+  and below. It is a common mode of propagating vines, the eyes being in
+  this case cut from the ripened leafless wood. The eyes (fig. 25, a)
+  are planted just below the surface in pots of light soil, which are
+  placed in a hot bed or propagating pit, and in due time each pushes up
+  a young shoot which forms the future stem, while from about its base
+  the young roots are produced (fig. 25, b) which convert it into an
+  independent plant. In the case of plants with persistent leaves, the
+  stem may be cut through just above and below the bud, retaining the
+  leaf which is left on the cutting, the old wood and eye being placed
+  beneath the soil and the leaf left exposed. In this way the
+  india-rubber tree (_Ficus elastica_), for example, and many other
+  tender plants may be increased with the aid of a brisk bottom heat.
+  Many of the free-growing soft-wooded plants may also be grown from
+  cuttings of single joints of the young wood, where rapid increase is
+  desired; and in the case of opposite-leaved plants two cuttings may
+  often be made from one joint by splitting the stem longitudinally,
+  each cutting consisting of a leaf and a perfect bud attached to half
+  the thickness of the stem.
+
+_Planting and Transplanting._--In preparing a fruit tree for
+transplantation, the first thing to be done is to open a trench round it
+at a distance of from 3 to 4 ft., according to size. The trench should
+be opened to about two spades' depth, and any coarse roots which may
+extend thus far from the trunk may be cut clean off with a sharp knife.
+The soil between the trench and the stem is to be reduced as far as may
+seem necessary or practicable by means of a digging fork, the roots as
+soon as they are liberated being fixed on one side and carefully
+preserved. By working in this way all round the ball, the best roots
+will be got out and preserved, and the ball lightened of all superfluous
+soil. The tree will then be ready to lift if carefully prized up from
+beneath the ball, and if it does not lift readily, it will probably be
+found that a root has struck downwards, which will have to be sought out
+and cut through. Whenever practicable, it is best to secure a ball of
+earth round the roots. On the tree being lifted from its hole the roots
+should be examined, and all which have been severed roughly with the
+spade should have the ends cut smooth with the knife to facilitate the
+emission of fibres. The tree can then be transported to its new
+position. The hole for its reception should be of sufficient depth to
+allow the base of the ball of earth, or of the roots, to stand so that
+the point whence the uppermost roots spring from the stem may be 2 or 3
+in. below the general surface level. Then the bottom being regulated so
+as to leave the soil rather highest in the centre, the plant is to be
+set in the hole in the position desired, and steadied there by hand.
+Next the roots from the lower portion of the ball are to be sought out
+and laid outwards in lines radiating from the stem, being distributed
+equally on all sides as nearly as this can be done; some fine and
+suitable good earth should be thrown amongst the roots as they are thus
+being placed, and worked in well up to the base of the ball. The soil
+covering the roots may be gently pressed down, but the tree should not
+be pulled up and down, as is sometimes done, to settle the soil. This
+done, another set of roots higher up the ball must be laid out in the
+same way, and again another, until the whole of the roots, thus
+carefully laid, are embedded as firmly as may be in the soil, which may
+now receive another gentle treading. The stem should next be supported
+permanently, either by one stake or by three, according to its size. The
+excavation will now be filled up about two-thirds perhaps; and if so the
+tree may have a thorough good watering, sufficient to settle the soil
+closely about its roots. After twenty-four hours the hole may be
+levelled in, with moderate treading, if the water has soaked well in,
+the surface being left level and not sloping upwards towards the stem of
+the tree. In transplanting trees of the ornamental class, less need be
+attempted in respect to providing new soil, although the soil should be
+made as congenial as practicable. Generally speaking, fruit trees are
+best transplanted when three or four years of age, in which time they
+will have acquired the shape given by the nurseryman, who generally
+transplants his stock each autumn to produce large masses of root
+fibres. Nowadays, however, quite large trees, chiefly of an ornamental
+character, and perhaps weighing several tons, are lifted with a large
+ball of soil attached to the roots, by means of a special tree-lifting
+machine, and are readily transferred from one part of the garden to
+another, or even for a distance of several miles, without serious
+injury. The best season for transplanting deciduous trees is during the
+early autumn months. As regards evergreens opinions are divided, some
+preferring August and September, others April or May. They can be
+successfully planted at either period, but for subjects which are at all
+difficult to remove the spring months are to be preferred.
+
+In transplanting smaller subjects, such as plants for the flower garden,
+much less effort is required. The plant must be lifted with as little
+injury to its rootlets as possible, and carefully set into the hole, the
+soil being filled in round it, and carefully pressed close by the hand.
+For moving small plants the garden trowel is a very convenient tool, but
+we are inclined to give the preference to the hand-fork. For larger
+masses, such as strong-growing herbaceous plants, a spade or
+digging-fork will be requisite and the soil may be trodden down with the
+feet.
+
+When seedlings of vigorous plants have to be "pricked out," a dibble or
+dibber is the best implement to be used. The ground being prepared and,
+if necessary, enriched, and the surface made fine and smooth, a hole is
+made with the dibble deep enough and large enough to receive the roots
+of the seedling plants without doubling them up, and the hole is filled
+in by working the soil close to the plant with the point of the dibble.
+The pricking out of seedlings in pots in the propagating pit is effected
+in a similar way. The plants, indeed, often require to be removed and
+set from 1/2 in. to 1 in. apart before they have become sufficiently
+developed to admit of being handled with any degree of facility, and for
+these a pointed stick of convenient size is used as a dibble. In
+delicate cases, such as seedling gloxinias and begonias, it is best to
+lift the little seedling on the end of a flattish pointed stick, often
+cleft at the apex, pressing this into the new soil where the plant is to
+be placed, and liberating it and closing the earth about it by the aid
+of a similar stick held in the other hand.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 26.--Section of Pot showing Crocks.]
+
+_Potting and Repotting._--Garden pots are made with a comparatively
+large hole in the bottom, and those of the largest size have also holes
+at the side near the bottom; these openings are to prevent the soil
+becoming saturated or soured with superabundant water. To prepare the
+pot for the plant, a broadish piece of potsherd, called a "crock," is
+placed over the large hole, and if there be side holes they also are
+covered. The bottom crock is made from a piece of a broken garden pot,
+and is laid with the convex side upwards; then comes a layer of
+irregular pieces of crock of various sizes, about 1 in. deep in a 5-in.
+pot, 2 in. in an 11-in. or 12-in. pot, &c. The mode of crocking a pot is
+shown in fig. 26. A few of the coarser lumps from the outer edge of the
+heap of potting soil are spread over the crocks. The same end, that of
+keeping the finer particles of the soil from mixing with the drainage
+crocks, may be attained by shaking in a little clean moss. A handful or
+two of the soil is then put in, and on this the plant with its roots
+spread out is to be set, a trifle higher than the plant should stand in
+the pot when finished off; more soil is to be added, and the whole
+pressed firmly with the fingers, the base of the stem being just below
+the pot-rim, and the surface being smoothed off so as to slope a little
+outwards. When finished off, the pots should be watered well, to settle
+the soil; but they should stand till the water has well drained away,
+since, if they are moved about while the fresh soil is very wet, there
+will be a risk of its becoming puddled or too much consolidated. Larger
+plants do not need quite such delicate treatment, but care should be
+taken not to handle the roots roughly. The soil for these may be
+somewhat coarser, and the amount of drainage material more ample. Larger
+bodies of soil also require to be more thoroughly consolidated before
+watering; otherwise they would settle down so as to leave an unsightly
+void at the pot-rim.
+
+Some plants, especially when potted temporarily, may be dealt with in a
+simpler way. A single crock may be used in some cases, and in others no
+crock at all, but a handful of half-decayed leaves or half-decayed dung
+thrown into the bottom of the pot. This mode of potting does well for
+bulbs, such as hyacinths, which are either thrown away or planted out
+when the bloom is over. The bedding plants generally may be potted in
+this way, the advantage being that at planting-out time there is less
+risk of disturbing the roots than if there were potsherds to remove.
+Plants of this character should be potted a little less firmly than
+specimens which are likely to stand long in the pot, and indeed the soil
+should be made comparatively light by the intermixture of leaf-mould or
+some equivalent, in order that the roots may run freely and quickly into
+it.
+
+For epiphytal plants like orchids the most thorough drainage must be
+secured by the abundant use of potsherds, small pots being sometimes
+inserted inside the larger ones, or by planting in shallow pots or pans,
+so that there shall be no large mass of soil to get consolidated. For
+most of these the lightest spongy but sweet turfy peat must be used,
+this being packed lightly about the roots, and built up above the
+pot-rim, or in some cases freely mixed before use with chopped sphagnum
+moss and small pieces of broken pots or nodules of charcoal. The plants
+under these conditions often require to be supported by wooden pegs or
+sticks. Some of the species grow better when altogether taken out of the
+soil and fixed to blocks of wood, but in this case they require a little
+coaxing with moss about the roots until they get established. In other
+cases they are planted in open baskets of wood or wire, using the porous
+peat and sphagnum compost. Both blocks and baskets are usually suspended
+from the roof of the house, hanging free, so that no accumulation of
+water is possible. These conditions of orchid-growing have undergone
+great changes of late years, and the plants are grown much as other
+stove and greenhouse plants in ordinary pots with composts not only of
+peat but of leaf-mould, and fibres from osmunda and polypodium ferns.
+
+When repotting is adopted as a temporary expedient, as in the case of
+bedding-out plants which it is required to push forward as much as
+possible, it will suffice if provision is made to prevent the drainage
+hole from getting blocked, and a rich light compost is provided for the
+encouragement of the roots. When, however, a hard-wooded plant has to be
+repotted, the case is different; it may stand without further potting
+for one year or two years or more, and therefore much more care is
+necessary. The old ball of earth must be freed from all or most of the
+old crocks without doing injury to the roots, and the sharp edge of the
+upper surface gently rubbed off. If there be any sour or sodden or
+effete soil into which the roots have not run, this should be carefully
+picked out with a pointed stick. The ball is to be set on the new soil
+just high enough that when finished the base of the stem may be somewhat
+below the pot-rim, and the space between the old ball and the sides of
+the pot is to be filled in gradually with the prepared compost, which is
+from time to time to be pressed down with a blunt-ended flat piece of
+wood called a potting-stick, so as to render the new soil as solid as
+the old. The object of this is to prevent the plant from starving by the
+water applied all running off by way of the new soil, and not
+penetrating the original ball of earth. When this amount of pressure is
+necessary, especially in the case of loamy composts, the soil itself
+should be rather inclined to dryness, and should in no case be
+sufficiently moist to knead together into a pasty mass. In ordinary
+cases the potting soil should be just so far removed from dryness that
+when a handful is gently pressed it may hang together, but may lose its
+cohesion when dropped.
+
+When plants are required to stand in ornamental china pots or vases, it
+is better, both for the plants and for avoiding risk of breakage, to
+grow them in ordinary garden pots of a size that will drop into the more
+valuable vessels. Slate pots or tubs, usually square, are sometimes
+adopted, and are durable and otherwise unobjectionable, only, their
+sides being less porous, the earth does not dry so rapidly, and some
+modification of treatment as to watering is necessary. For large
+conservatory specimens wooden tubs, round or square, are frequently
+used; these should be coated with pitch inside to render them more
+durable.
+
+Various other contrivances take the place of garden pots for special
+purposes. Thus shallow square or oblong wooden boxes, made of light,
+inexpensive wood, are very useful for seed-sowing, for pricking out
+seedlings, or for planting cuttings. When the disturbance of the roots
+incidental to all transplanting is sought to be avoided, the seed or
+plant is started in some cases in squares of turf (used grassy-side
+downwards), which can when ready be transferred to the place the plant
+is to occupy. Cucumber and melon plants and vines reared from eyes are
+sometimes started in this way, both for the reason above mentioned and
+because it prevents the curling of the roots apt to take place in plants
+raised in pots. Strips of turf are sometimes used for the rearing of
+early peas, which are sown in a warmish house or frame, and gradually
+hardened so as to bear exposure before removal to the open air.
+
+_Watering._--The guiding principle in watering plants is to do it
+thoroughly when it is required, and to abstain from giving a second
+supply till the first has been taken up.
+
+When watering becomes necessary for kitchen-garden crops, the hose
+should be laid on and the lines of esculents allowed to drink their
+fill, if fresh succulent vegetables are desired. So also, if
+well-swelled and luscious fruits, such as strawberries, are required,
+there must be no parching at the roots. This applies even more strongly
+to conservatory borders and to forcing-houses than to the outside
+fruit-tree borders, because from these the natural rain supply is in
+most cases more distinctly cut off. In the case of forcing-houses, the
+water should be heated before being applied to the borders containing
+the roots of the trees.
+
+In the watering of pot plants the utmost care is requisite if the plant
+be a shy-growing or valuable one, and yet it is almost impossible to
+give any intelligible instruction for performing the operation. The
+roots should never be suffered either to get thoroughly dry or to get
+sodden with excess of water. An adept will know by the ring of the pot
+on striking it with his knuckles whether water is wanted or not,
+according as it rings loud and clear or dull and heavy. With very choice
+subjects watering may be necessary two or three times a day in drying
+summer weather. It is a wrong though common practice to press the
+surface of the soil in the pot in order to feel if it is moist enough,
+as this soon consolidates it, and prevents it from getting the full
+benefit of aeration.
+
+In all heated houses the water used should be warmed at least up to the
+temperature of the atmosphere, so as to avoid chilling the roots. This
+is also necessary in the case of water used for syringing the plants,
+which should be done two or three times a day in all stoves and
+forcing-houses, especially during the period when the young growth is
+being developed. The damping of all absorbent surfaces, such as the
+floors or bare walls, &c., is frequently necessary several times a day
+in the growing season, so as to keep up a humid atmosphere; hence the
+advantage of laying the floors a little rounded, as then the water draws
+off to the sides against the kerbstone, while the centre remains dry for
+promenaders.
+
+In cooler structures it becomes necessary in the dull season of the year
+to prevent the slopping of water over the plants or on the floor, as
+this tends to cause "damping off,"--the stems assuming a state of
+mildewy decay, which not infrequently, if it once attacks a plant, will
+destroy it piece by piece. For the same reason cleanliness and free
+ventilation under favourable weather conditions are of great importance.
+
+_Pruning._--Pruning is a very important operation in the fruit garden,
+its object being twofold--(1) to give form to the tree, and (2) to
+induce the free production of flower buds as the precursors of a
+plentiful crop of fruit. To form a standard tree, either the stock is
+allowed to grow up with a straight stem, by cutting away all side
+branches up to the height required, say about 6 ft., the scion or bud
+being worked at that point, and the head developed therefrom; or the
+stock is worked close to the ground, and the young shoot obtained
+therefrom is allowed to grow up in the same way, being pruned in its
+progress to keep it single and straight, and the top being cut off when
+the desired height is reached, so as to cause the growth of lateral
+shoots. If these are three or four in number, and fairly balanced as to
+strength and position, little pruning will be required. The tips of
+unripened wood should be cut back about one-third their length at an
+outwardly placed bud, and the chief pruning thereafter required will be
+to cut away inwardly directed shoots which cross or crowd each other and
+tend to confuse the centre of the tree. Bushy heads should be thinned
+out, and those that are too large cut back so as to remodel them. If the
+shoots produced are not sufficient in number, or are badly placed, or
+very unequal in vigour, the head should be cut back moderately close,
+leaving a few inches only of the young shoots, which should be pruned
+back to buds so placed as to furnish shoots in the positions desired.
+When worked at the top of a stem formed of the stock, the growth from
+the graft or bud must be pruned in a similar way. Three or four leading
+shoots should be selected to pass ere long into boughs and form a
+well-balanced framework for the tree; these boughs, however, will soon
+grow beyond any artificial system the pruner may adopt.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 27.--Dwarf-Tree Pruning.]
+
+To form a dwarf or bush fruit tree the stock must be worked near the
+ground, and the young shoot produced from the scion or bud must be cut
+back to whatever height it is desired the dwarf stem should be, say
+1(1/2) to 2 ft. The young shoots produced from the portion of the new
+wood retained are to form the framework of the bush tree, and must be
+dealt with as in the case of standard trees. The growth of inwardly
+directed shoots is to be prevented, and the centre kept open, the tree
+assuming a cup-shaped outline. Fig. 27, reduced from M. Hardy's
+excellent work, _Traite de la taille des arbres fruitiers_, will give a
+good idea how these dwarf trees are to be manipulated, a showing the
+first year's development from the maiden tree after being headed back,
+and b the form assumed a year or two later.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 28.--Pyramid Pruning.]
+
+In forming a pyramidal tree, the lateral growths, instead of being
+removed, as in the standard tree, are encouraged to the utmost; and in
+order to strengthen them the upper part of the leading shoot is removed
+annually, the side branches being also shortened somewhat as the tree
+advances in size. In fig. 28, reduced from M. Hardy's work, a shows a
+young tree with its second year's growth, the upright shoot of the
+maiden tree having been moderately headed back, being left longer if the
+buds near the base promise to break freely, or cut shorter if they are
+weak and wanting in vigour. The winter pruning, carried out with the
+view to shape the tree into a well-grown pyramid, would be effected at
+the places marked by a cross line. The lowest branch would have four
+buds retained, the end one being on the lower side of the branch. The
+two next would be cut to three buds, which here also are fortunately so
+situated that the one to be left is on the lower side of the branches.
+The fourth is not cut at all owing to its shortness and weakness, its
+terminal bud being allowed to grow to draw strength into it. The fifth
+is an example where the bud to which the shoot should be cut back is
+badly placed; a shoot resulting from a bud left on the upper side is apt
+instead of growing outwards to grow erect, and lead to confusion in the
+form of the tree; to avoid this it is tied down in its proper place
+during the summer by a small twig. The upper shoots are cut closer in.
+Near the base of the stem are two prominent buds, which would produce
+two vigorous shoots, but these would be too near the ground, and the
+buds should therefore be suppressed; but, to strengthen the lower part,
+the weaker buds just above and below the lowest branch should be forced
+into growth, by making a transverse incision close above each. Fig. 28,
+b, shows what a similar tree would be at the end of the third year's
+growth.
+
+In order to bring a young tree into the cordon shape, all its side
+branches are shortened back, either to form permanent spurs, as in the
+case of pears, or to yield annual young shoots, as in peaches and
+nectarines. The single-stemmed cordon may be trained horizontally,
+obliquely at any required angle, or vertically if required, the first
+two arrangements being preferable. If a double cordon is required, the
+original young stem must be headed back, and the two best shoots
+produced must be selected, trained right and left, and treated as for
+the single cordon.
+
+The forms chiefly adopted for trees trained to walls and espalier rails
+are the fan-shaped, the half-fan and the horizontal, with their various
+modifications.
+
+The maiden tree is headed down, and two shoots led away right and left.
+Two laterals should be allowed to grow from the upper side of them, one
+from near the base, the other from near the middle, all others being
+pinched out beyond the second or third leaf during summer, but cut away
+to the last bud in winter. The tree will thus consist of six shoots,
+probably 3 ft. to 4 ft. long, which are not to be pruned unless they are
+unequal in strength, a defect which is rather to be remedied by summer
+pinching than by winter pruning. The second year three young shoots are
+to be left on each of the six, one close to the base, one about the
+middle, and one at the point, the rest being rubbed off. These three
+shoots will produce laterals, of which one or two may be selected and
+laid in; and thus a number of moderately strong fertile shoots will be
+obtained, and at the end of the season a comparatively large tree will
+be the result.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 29.--Pruning for Fan-shaped Tree.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 30.--The same--third year.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 31.--The same--fourth year.]
+
+The method of pruning formerly adopted for the formation of a fan-shaped
+tree was to head down the maiden plant to about two eyes, so placed as
+to yield a young shoot on each side (fig. 29), the supernumerary shoots
+being rubbed off while quite young, and the reserved shoots trained
+against the wall during the summer so as to get them well matured. The
+next year they were cut back again; often nearly to the base, in order
+that the lower pair of these shoots might each produce two well-placed
+young shoots, and the upper pair three young shoots. The tree would thus
+consist of ten shoots, to be laid out at regular distances, and then if
+closely cut the frame-work of the tree would be as in fig. 30. These
+main shoots were not again to be shortened back, but from each of them
+three young shoots were to be selected and trained in two, on the upper
+side, one near the base, and the other halfway up, and one on the lower
+side placed about midway between these two; these with the leading
+shoot, which was also to be nailed in, made four branches of the current
+year from each of the ten main branches, and the form of the tree would
+therefore be that of fig. 31. The other young shoots produced were
+pinched off while quite young, to throw all the strength of the tree
+into those which were to form its basis, and to secure abundant light
+and air. In after years the leading shoot was not to be cut back, but
+all the lateral shoots were to be shortened, and from these year by year
+other shoots were to be selected to fill up the area occupied by the
+tree.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 32.--Pruning for Horizontally trained Tree.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 33.--The same--third year.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 34.--The same--fifth year.]
+
+In pruning for a horizontal tree the young maiden tree has to be headed
+back nearly to its base, and from the young shoots three are to be
+selected, the two best-placed lower ones to form an opposite or nearly
+opposite pair of main branches, and the best-placed upper one to
+continue the erect stem (fig. 32). This upper shoot is at the next
+winter pruning to be cut down to within about a foot of the point whence
+it sprung, and its buds rubbed off except the upper one for a leader,
+and one on each side just below it to furnish another pair of side
+shoots; these being trained in position, the tree would appear as in
+fig. 33. The same course is to be followed annually till the space is
+filled. Sometimes in very favourable soils and with vigorous trees two
+pairs of branches may be obtained in one season by summer-stopping the
+erect shoots and selecting others from the young growths thus induced,
+but more commonly the trees have to be built up by forming one pair of
+branches annually. The shoots are not at first lowered to the horizontal
+line, but are brought down gradually and tied to thin stakes; and while
+the tree is being formed weak shoots may be allowed to grow in a more
+erect position than it is ultimately intended they should occupy. Thus
+in four or five years the tree will have acquired something of the
+character of fig. 34, and will go on thus increasing until the space is
+filled.
+
+The half-fan is a combination of the two forms, but as regards pruning
+does not materially differ from the horizontal, as two opposite side
+branches are produced in succession upwards till the space is filled,
+only they are not taken out so abruptly, but are allowed to rise at an
+acute angle and then to curve into the horizontal line.
+
+In all the various forms of cordons, in horizontal training, and in fan
+and half-fan training, the pruning of the main branches when the form of
+the tree is worked out will vary in accordance with the kind of fruit
+under treatment. Thus in the peach, nectarine, apricot, plum and cherry,
+which are commonly trained fan-fashion, the first three (and also the
+morello cherry if grown) will have to be pruned so as to keep a
+succession of young annual shoots, these being their fruit-bearing wood.
+The others are generally pruned so as to combine a moderate supply of
+young wood with a greater or less number of fruit spurs. In the pear and
+apple the fruit is borne principally on spurs, and hence what is known
+as spur-pruning has to be adopted, the young shoots being all cut back
+nearly to their base, so as to cause fruit buds to evolve from the
+remaining eyes or buds. Cordons of apples and pears have to be similarly
+treated, but cordons of peaches and nectarines are pruned so as to
+provide the necessary annual succession of young bearing wood.
+
+Fruit trees trained as espaliers, fans or cordons against walls,
+trellises or fences, are not only pruned carefully in the winter but
+must be also pruned during the early summer months. Many of the smaller,
+useless shoots are rubbed out altogether; the best are allowed to grow
+perhaps a foot or more in length, and then either have the tips pinched
+out with the finger and thumb, or the ends may be cracked or broken, and
+allowed to hang down, but are not detached completely. This is called
+summer pruning, and is an important operation requiring knowledge on the
+part of the gardener to perform properly. Shoots of peaches, nectarines
+and morello cherries are "laid in," that is, placed in between fruiting
+shoots where there is the space to be ripened for next year's crop.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 35.--Summer Pruning for Spurs.]
+
+_Summer Pruning_ should be performed while the shoots are yet young and
+succulent, so that they may in most cases be nipped off with the
+thumb-nail. It is very necessary in the case of trees trained to a flat
+surface, as a wall or espalier rail, to prevent undue crowding. In some
+cases, as, for example, with peaches, the superfluous shoots are wholly
+removed, and certain selected shoots reserved to supply bearing wood for
+next year. In others, as pears, the tops of the young shoots are
+removed, leaving three or four leaves and their buds at the base, to be
+developed into fruit buds by the additional nourishment thus thrown into
+them (fig. 35, a). One or two may push out a late summer growth, b; this
+will serve as a vent for the vigour of the tree, and if the lowermost
+only go to the formation of a fruit spur, the object will have been
+gained. They are cut to the last dormant bud in winter.
+
+But summer pruning has been much extended since the introduction of
+restricted growth and the use of dwarfing stocks. Orchard-house trees,
+and also pyramidal and bush trees of apples, pears and plums, are mainly
+fashioned by summer pruning; in fact, the less the knife is used upon
+them, except in the necessary cutting of the roots in potted trees, the
+better. In the case of orchard-house plants no shoots are suffered to
+lengthen out, except as occasionally wanted to fill up a gap in the
+outline of the tree. On the contrary, the tops of all young shoots are
+pinched off when some three or four leaves are formed, and this is done
+again and again throughout the season. When this pruning is just brought
+to a balance with the vigour of the roots, the consequence is that fruit
+buds are formed all over the tree, instead of a thicket of sterile and
+useless wood. Pyramidal and bush trees out of doors are, of course,
+suffered to become somewhat larger, and sufficient wood must be allowed
+to grow to give them the form desired; but after the first year or two,
+when the framework is laid out, they are permitted to extend very
+slowly, and never to any great extent, while the young growths are
+continually nipped off, so as to clothe the branches with fruit buds as
+closely placed as will permit of their healthy development.
+
+The nature of the cut itself in pruning is of more consequence,
+especially in the case of fruit trees, than at first sight may appear.
+The branches should be separated by a clean cut at an angle of about
+45 deg., just at the back of a bud, the cut entering on a level with the
+base of the bud and passing out on a level with its top (fig. 36, a),
+for when cut in this way the wound becomes rapidly covered with new
+wood, as soon as growth recommences, whereas if the cut is too close the
+bud is starved, or if less close an ugly and awkward snag is left. Fig
+36, b and c, are examples of the former, and d, e, f of the latter. In
+fact there is only one right way to cut a shoot and that is as shown at
+a.
+
+The _Pruning of flowering plants_ is generally a much lighter matter
+than the pruning of fruit trees. If a young seedling or cutting of any
+soft-wooded plant is to be bushy, it must have its top nipped out by the
+thumb-nail or pruning-scissors at a very early stage, and this stopping
+must be repeated frequently. If what is called a well-furnished plant is
+required, an average of from 2 to 3 in. is all the extension that must
+be permitted--sometimes scarcely so much--before the top is nipped out;
+and this must be continued until the desired size is attained, whether
+that be large or small. Then generally the plant is allowed to grow away
+till bloom or blooming shoots are developed. To form a pyramidal plant,
+which is a very elegant and useful shape to give to a decorative pot
+plant, the main stem should be encouraged to grow upright, for a length
+perhaps of 6 or 8 in. before it is topped; this induces the formation of
+laterals, and favours their development. The best-placed upper young
+shoot is selected and trained upright to a slender stake, and this also
+is topped when it has advanced 6 or 8 in. further, in order to induce
+the laterals on the second portion to push freely. This process is
+continued till the required size is gained. With all the difficult and
+slow-growing plants of the hard-wooded section, all the pruning must be
+done in this gradual way in the young wood as the plant progresses.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 36.--Cuts--Good and Bad.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 37.]
+
+Some plants, like pelargoniums, can only be kept handsomely formed and
+well furnished by cutting them down severely every season, after the
+blooming is over. The plants should be prepared for this by keeping them
+rather dry at the root, and after cutting they must stand with little or
+no water till the stems heal over, and produce young shoots, or "break,"
+as it is technically termed. The appearance of a specimen pelargonium
+properly pruned is shown in fig. 37, in which a shows a young plant, the
+head of which has been taken off to form a cutting, and whose buds are
+ready to break into young shoots. Three shoots will be produced, and
+these, after growing from 4 to 6 in. in length, should be stopped by
+pinching out the point, this giving rise to lateral shoots. These will
+blossom in due course, and, after being ripened thoroughly by full
+exposure to the sun, should be cut back as shown at b. This is the
+proper foundation for a good specimen, and illustrates how all such
+subjects should be pruned to keep them stocky and presentable in form.
+
+_Root-pruning_ is most commonly practised in fruit-tree cultivation. It
+is often resorted to as a means of restoring fertility in plants which
+have become over rank from an excess of nourishment in the soil, or
+sterile from want of it. The effect of root-pruning in the first case is
+to reduce the supply of crude sap to the branches, and consequently to
+cause a check in their development. In the second case all roots that
+have struck downwards into a cold uncongenial subsoil must be pruned off
+if they cannot be turned in a lateral direction, and all the lateral
+ones that have become coarse and fibreless must also be shortened back
+by means of a clean cut with a sharp knife, while a compost of rich
+loamy soil with a little bone-meal, and leaf-mould or old manure, should
+be filled into the trenches from which the old sterile soil has been
+taken. The operation is best performed early in autumn, and may be
+safely resorted to in the case of fruit trees of moderate age, and even
+of old trees if due care be exercised. In transplanting trees all the
+roots which may have become bruised or broken in the process of lifting
+should be cut clean away behind the broken part, as they then more
+readily strike out new roots from the cut parts. In all these cases the
+cut should be a clean sloping one, and made in an upward and outward
+direction.
+
+The root-pruning of pot-plants is necessary in the case of many
+soft-wooded subjects which are grown on year after year--pelargoniums
+and fuchsias, for example. After the close pruning of the branches to
+which they are annually subjected, and when the young shoots have shot
+forth an inch or two in length, they are turned out of their pots and
+have the old soil shaken away from their roots, the longest of which, to
+the extent of about half the existing quantity, are then cut clean away,
+and the plants repotted into small pots. This permits the growing plant
+to be fed with rich fresh soil, without having been necessarily
+transferred to pots of unwieldy size by the time the flowering stage is
+reached.
+
+_Ringing._--One of the expedients for inducing a state of fruitfulness
+in trees is the ringing of the branches or stem, that is, removing a
+narrow annular portion of the bark, by which means, it is said, the
+trees are not only rendered productive, but the quality of the fruit is
+at the same time improved. The advantage depends on the obstruction
+given to the descent of the sap. The ring should be cut out in spring,
+and be of such a width that the bark may remain separated for the
+season. A tight ligature of twine or wire answers the same end. The
+advantages of the operation may generally be gained by judicious root
+pruning, and it is not at all adapted for the various stone fruits.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 38.--Diagram illustrating Branch Distribution.]
+
+_Training._--What is called training is the guiding of the branches of a
+tree or plant in certain positions which they would not naturally
+assume, the object being partly to secure their full exposure to light,
+and partly to regulate the flow and distribution of the sap. To secure
+the former object, the branches must be so fixed as to shade each other
+as little as possible; and to realize the second, the branches must have
+given to them an upward or downward direction, as they may require to be
+encouraged or repressed. Something of the same vegetative vigour which
+is given to a plant or tree by hard pruning is afforded by training in
+an upward direction so as to promote the flow of the sap; while the
+repression effected by summer pruning is supplemented by downward
+training, which acts as a check. One main object is the preservation of
+equilibrium in the growth of the several parts of the tree; and for this
+various minor details deserve attention. Thus a shoot will grow more
+vigorously whilst waving in the air than when nailed close to the wall;
+consequently a weak shoot should be left free, whilst its stronger
+antagonist should be restrained; and a luxuriant shoot may be retarded
+for some time by having its tender extremity pinched off to allow a
+weaker shoot to overtake it.
+
+By the prudent use of the knife, fruit trees may be readily trained into
+the forms indicated below, which are amongst the best out of the many
+which have been devised.
+
+The training of standard and bush trees in the open ground has been
+already referred to under the section _Pruning_. When the growth of
+pyramids is completed, the outline is something like that of fig. 39,
+and very pretty trees are thus formed. It is better, however, especially
+if the tendency to bear fruit is rather slack, to adopt what the French
+call _en quenouille_ training (fig. 40), which consists in tying or
+weighting the tips of the branches so as to give them all a downward
+curve. Pear trees worked on the quince stock, and trained en quenouille,
+are generally very fertile.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 39.--Pyramidal Training.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 40.--Training _en quenouille_.]
+
+Wall trees, it must be evident, are placed in a very unnatural and
+constrained position, and would in fact soon be reduced to a state of
+utter confusion if allowed to grow unrestricted; hence the following
+modes of training have been adopted.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 41.--Horizontal Training.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 42.--Forms of Horizontal Training.]
+
+_Horizontal Training_ (fig. 41) has long been a favourite form in
+England. There is one principal ascending stem, from which the branches
+depart at right angles, at intervals of about a foot. Horizontal
+training is best adapted to the apple and the pear; and for the more
+twiggy growing slender varieties, the forms shown in fig. 42 have been
+recommended. In these the horizontal branches are placed wider, 18 to 20
+in. apart, and the smaller shoots are trained between them, either on
+both sides, as at a, or deflexed from the lower side, as at b. The
+latter is an excellent method of reclaiming neglected trees. Every
+alternate branch should be taken away, and the spurs cut off, after
+which the young shoots are trained in, and soon produce good fruit.
+
+In _Fan Training_ (fig. 43) there is no leading stem, but the branches
+spring from the base and are arranged somewhat like the ribs of a fan.
+This mode of training is commonly adopted for the peach, nectarine,
+apricot and morello cherry, to which it is best adapted. Though
+sometimes adopted, it is not so well suited as the horizontal form for
+apples and pears, because, when the branches reach the top of the wall,
+where they must be cut short, a hedge of young shoots is inevitable. A
+modification of the fan shape (fig. 44) is sometimes adopted for stone
+fruits, such as the plum and apricot. In this the object is to establish
+a number of mother branches, and on these to form a series of
+subordinate members, chiefly composed of bearing wood. The mother
+branches or limbs should not be numerous, but well marked, equal in
+strength and regularly disposed. The side branches should be pretty
+abundant, short and not so vigorous as to rival the leading members.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 43.--Fan Training.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 44.--Modified Fan Training.]
+
+The _Half-fan_ mode of training, which is intermediate between
+horizontal and fan training, is most nearly allied to the former, but
+the branches leave the stem at an acute angle, a disposition supposed to
+favour the more equal distribution of the sap. Sometimes, as in fig. 45,
+two vertical stems are adopted, but there is no particular advantage in
+this, and a single-stemmed tree is more manageable. The half-fan form is
+well adapted for such fruits as the plum and the cherry; and, indeed,
+for fruits of vigorous habit, it seems to combine the advantages of both
+the foregoing.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 45.--Half-Fan Training.]
+
+Trees must be fixed to the walls and buildings against which they are
+trained by means of nails and shreds (neat medicated strips are now sold
+for this purpose), or in cases where it is desired to preserve the wall
+surface intact, by permanent nails or studs driven in in regular order.
+Sometimes the walls are furnished with galvanized wires, but this has
+been objected to as causing cankering of the shoots, for which, however,
+painting is recommended as a remedy. By crossing the tying material
+between the wire and the wood, however, and so preventing them from
+coming in contact, there is no danger. If they are adopted, the wires
+should be a few inches away from the wall, to allow free circulation of
+air between it and the tree, and thus avoid the scorching or burning of
+leaves and fruits during the summer months in very hot places. Care
+should be taken that the ties or fastenings do not eventually cut into
+the bark as the branches swell with increased age. When shreds and nails
+are used, short thick wire nails and "medicated shreds" are the best;
+the ordinary cast iron wall nails being much too brittle and difficult
+to drive into the wall. It must be remembered that nails spoil a wall
+sooner or later, whereas a wire trellis is not only much neater, but
+enables the gardener to tie his trees up much more quickly.
+
+For tying plants to trellises and stakes soft tarred string or raffia
+(the fibre from the Raphia palm of Madagascar) is used.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 46.--Clematis trained on Balloon-Shaped Trellis.]
+
+In training greenhouse plants the young branches should be drawn
+outwards by means of ties fastened to a string or wire under the
+pot-rim; the centre then fills up, and slender stakes are used as
+required; but the fewer these are in number the better. Climbers are
+trained from the bottom around or across trellises, of which the
+cylindrical or the balloon-shaped, or sometimes the flat oval or
+circular, are the best forms. The size should be adapted to the habit of
+the plant, which should cover the whole by the time flowers are
+produced. Bast fibre and raffia fibre are to be preferred for light
+subjects of this character, as they can be split to any degree of
+fineness. Very durable trellises for greenhouse climbers are made of
+slender round iron rods for standards, having a series of hooks on the
+inner edge, into which rings of similar metal are dropped; the rings may
+be graduated so as to form a broad open top, or may be all of the same
+size, when the trellis will assume the cylindrical form. Fig. 46 shows a
+pot specimen of clematis trained, over a balloon-shaped trellis.
+
+The training of certain bedding plants over the surface of the soil is
+done by small pegs of birch wood or bracken, by loops of wire or cheap
+hair-pins, or sometimes by loops of raffia having the ends fixed in the
+soil by the aid of the dibble. The object is to fill up the blank space
+as quickly and as evenly as possible.
+
+_Forcing_ is the accelerating, by special treatment, of the growth of
+certain plants, which are required to be had in leaf, in flower or in
+fruit before their natural season,--as, for instance, the leaves of mint
+at Eastertide or the leafstalks of sea-kale and rhubarb at Christmas,
+the flowers of summer in the depth of winter, or some of the choicest
+fruits perfected so much before their normal period as to complete, with
+the retarded crops of winter, the circle of the seasons.
+
+In the management of artificial heat for this purpose, a considerable
+degree of caution is required. The first stages of forcing should, of
+course, be very gentle, so that the whole growth of the plants may
+advance in harmony. The immediate application of a very hot atmosphere
+would unduly force the tops, while the roots remained partially or
+wholly inactive; and a strong bottom heat, if it did not cause injury by
+its excess, would probably result in abortive growth.
+
+Any sudden decrease of warmth would be very prejudicial to the progress
+of vegetation through the successive stages of foliation, inflorescence
+and fructification. But it is not necessary that one unvarying range of
+temperature should be kept up at whatever pains or risk. Indeed, in very
+severe weather it is found better to drop a little from the maximum
+temperature by fire heat, and the loss so occasioned may be made good by
+a little extra heat applied when the weather is more genial. Night
+temperatures also should always be allowed to drop somewhat, the heat
+being increased again in the morning. In other words, the artificial
+temperature should increase by day and decrease by night, should rise in
+summer and fall in winter, should, in short, imitate as nearly as
+possible the varying influence of the sun.
+
+For the growth of flowers generally, and for that of all fruits, every
+ray of light to be obtained in the dull winter season is required, and
+therefore every possible care should be taken to keep the glass clean. A
+moist genial atmosphere too is essential, a point requiring unremitting
+attention on account of the necessity of keeping up strong fires. With
+moisture as with heat, the cultivator must hold his hand somewhat in
+very severe or very dull weather; but while heat must not drop so as to
+chill the progressing vegetation, so neither must the lack of moisture
+parch the plants so as to check their growth.
+
+There are some few subjects which when forced do not require a light
+house. Thus amongst flowers the white blossoms of the lilac, so much
+prized during winter, are produced by forcing purple-flowered plants in
+darkness. Rhubarb and sea-kale among esculents both need to be forced in
+darkness to keep them crisp and tender, and mushrooms also are always
+grown in dark structures. In fact, a roomy mushroom house is one of the
+most convenient of all places for forcing the vegetables just referred
+to. The lilac would be better placed in a dark shed heated to about 70
+deg. or 80 deg., in which some dung and leaves could be allowed to lie
+and ferment, giving off both a genial heat and moisture.
+
+One of the most important preliminaries to successful forcing is the
+securing to the plants a previous state of rest. The thorough ripening
+of the preceding season's wood in fruit trees and flowering plants, and
+of the crown in perennial herbs like strawberries, and the cessation of
+all active growth before the time they are to start into a new growth,
+are of paramount importance. The ripening process must be brought about
+by free exposure to light, and by the application of a little extra heat
+with dryness, if the season should be unfavourable; and both roots and
+tops must submit to a limitation of their water supply. When the
+ripening is perfected, the resting process must be aided by keeping the
+temperature in which they await the forcing process as low as each
+particular subject can bear. (See _Retardation_ above.)
+
+
+V. _Flowers._
+
+_Flower Garden and Pleasure Grounds._--Wherever there is a flower garden
+of considerable magnitude, and in a separate situation, it should be
+constructed on principles of its own. The great object must be to
+exhibit to advantage the graceful forms and glorious hues of flowering
+plants and shrubs. Two varieties of flower gardens have chiefly
+prevailed in Britain. In one the ground is turf, out of which
+flower-beds, of varied patterns, are cut; in the other the flower-beds
+are separated by gravel walks, without the introduction of grass. When
+the flower garden is to be seen from the windows, or any other elevated
+point of view, the former is to be preferred; but where the surface is
+irregular, and the situation more remote, and especially where the
+beauty of flowers is mainly looked to, the choice should probably fall
+on the latter.
+
+The flower garden may include several different compartments. Thus, for
+example, there is the "Rock Garden," which should consist of variously
+grouped masses of large stones, those which are remarkable for being
+figured by water-wearing, or containing petrifactions or impressions, or
+showing something of natural stratification, being generally preferred.
+In the cavities between the stones, filled with earth, alpine or
+trailing plants are inserted, and also some of the choicest flowers. In
+proper situations, a small pool of water may be introduced for the
+culture of aquatic plants. In these days the rock-garden is a most
+important feature, and it requires a good deal of care and skill to
+arrange the boulders, walks, pools or streams in natural and artistic
+fashion. The selection of suitable alpines, perennials and shrubs and
+trees also necessitates considerable knowledge on the part of the
+gardener. A separate compartment laid out on some regular plan is often
+set apart for roses, under the name of the "Rosery." A moist or rather a
+shady border, or a section of the pleasure ground supplied with bog
+earth, may be devoted to what is called the "American Garden," which, as
+it includes the gorgeous rhododendrons and azaleas, forms one of the
+grandest features of the establishment during the early summer, while if
+properly selected the plants are effective as a garden of evergreens at
+all seasons. The number of variegated and various-coloured hardy shrubs
+is now so great that a most pleasant plot for a "Winter Garden" may be
+arrayed with plants of this class, with which may be associated hardy
+subjects which flower during that season or very early spring, as the
+Christmas rose, and amongst bulbs the crocus and snowdrop. Later the
+spring garden department is a scene of great attraction; and some of the
+gardens of this character, as those of Cliveden and Belvoir, are among
+the most fascinating examples of horticultural art. The old-fashioned
+stereotyped flower garden that one met with almost everywhere is rapidly
+becoming a thing of the past, and grounds are now laid out more in
+accordance with their natural disposition, their climatic conditions and
+their suitability for certain kinds of plants. Besides the features
+already mentioned there are now bamboo gardens, Japanese gardens, water
+gardens and wall gardens, each placed in the most suitable position and
+displaying its own special features.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 47.--Turf-Beater.]
+
+_Lawns._--In the formation of lawns the ground must be regularly broken
+up so that it may settle down evenly, any deep excavations that may have
+to be filled in being very carefully rammed down to prevent subsequent
+settlement. The ground must also be thoroughly cleared of the roots of
+all coarse, perennial weeds, and be worked to a fine tilth ready for
+turfing or sowing. The more expeditious method is of course to lay down
+turf, which should be free from weeds, and is cut usually in strips of 1
+ft. wide, 3 ft. long, and about 1 in. in thickness. This must be laid
+very evenly and compactly, and should then be beaten down firmly with
+the implement called a turf-beater (fig. 47). When there is a large
+space to cover, it is much the cheaper plan to sow the lawn with
+grass-seeds, and equally effective, though the sward takes much longer
+to thicken. It is of the utmost importance that a good selection of
+grasses be made, and that pure seeds should be obtained (see GRASS AND
+GRASSLAND). The following sorts can be recommended, the quantities given
+being those for sowing an acre of ground:--
+
+  _Cynosurus cristatus_--Crested Dog's-tail              6 lb.
+  _Festuca duriuscula_--Hard Fescue                      3 lb.
+  _Festuca ovina_--Sheep's Fescue                        3 lb.
+  _Lolium perenne tenue_                                18 lb.
+  _Poa nemoralis sempervirens_--Evergreen Meadow-grass   3 lb.
+  _Poa trivialis_--Trivial Meadow-grass                  3 lb.
+  _Trisetum flavescens_--Yellow Oat-grass                2 lb.
+  _Trifolium repens_--Dutch Clover                       6 lb.
+
+The seeds should be thoroughly mixed, and very evenly sown, after which
+the surface should be raked over to bury them, and then rolled down
+while dry so as to finish it off smooth and level. When thus sown, lawns
+require to be promptly weeded. During the growing season established
+lawns should be mown at least once a week. They should be occasionally
+rolled, and towards autumn they require frequent sweepings to remove
+worm-casts.
+
+  HARDY ANNUALS.--Annual plants are those which grow up from seed,
+  flower, ripen seed, and die in the course of one season--one year.
+  They are useful in the mixed garden, for though in some cases they are
+  of short duration, many of them are possessed of much beauty of hue
+  and elegance of form. Annuals may be divided into three classes: the
+  _hardy_, which are sown at once in the ground they are to occupy; the
+  _half-hardy_, which succeed best when aided at first by a slight hot
+  bed, and then transplanted into the open air; and the _tender_, which
+  are kept in pots, and treated as greenhouse or stove plants, to which
+  departments they properly belong. Some of the more popular annuals,
+  hardy and half-hardy, have been very much varied as regards habit and
+  the colour of the flowers, and purchases may be made in the seed shops
+  of such things as China asters, stocks, Chinese and Indian pinks,
+  larkspurs, phloxes and others, amongst which some of the most
+  beautiful of the summer flowers may be found.
+
+  The hardy annuals may be sown in the open ground during the latter
+  part of March or beginning of April, as the season may determine, for
+  the weather should be dry and open, and the soil in a free-working
+  condition before sowing is attempted. In favourable situations and
+  seasons some of the very hardiest, as _Silene pendula_, Saponaria,
+  Nemophila, Gilia, &c., may be sown in September or October, and
+  transplanted to the beds or borders for very early spring flowering.
+  Those sown in spring begin to flower about June. The plants, if left
+  to flower where they are sown, should be thinned out while young, to
+  give them space for proper development. It is from having ample room
+  that pricked out transplanted seedlings often make the finest plants.
+  The soil should be rich and light.
+
+  The half-hardy series are best sown in pots or pans under glass in
+  mild heat, in order to accelerate germination. Those of them which are
+  in danger of becoming leggy should be speedily removed to a cooler
+  frame and placed near the glass, the young plants being pricked off
+  into fresh soil, in other pots or pans or boxes, as may seem best in
+  each case. All the plants must be hardened off gradually during the
+  month of April, and may generally be planted out some time in May,
+  earlier or later according to the season.
+
+  The class of tender annuals, being chiefly grown for greenhouse
+  decoration, should be treated much the same as soft-wooded plants,
+  being sown in spring, and grown on rapidly in brisk heat, near the
+  glass, and finally hardened off to stand in the greenhouse when in
+  flower.
+
+  We add a select list of some of the more distinct annuals desirable
+  for general cultivation as decorative plants for the open air:--
+
+  _Acroclinium roseum_: half-hardy, 1 ft., rose-pink or white;
+  everlasting.
+
+  _Agrostis pulchella_: hardy, 6 in.; a most graceful grass for
+  bouquets.
+
+  _Amberboa moschata atropurpurea_ (Sweet Sultan): hardy, 1(1/2) ft.,
+  purple: musk-scented.
+
+  _Antirrhinum majus_ (Snapdragon): hardy, 6 in. to 2 ft., white, yellow
+  and red. This plant is perennial, but is best treated as an annual.
+
+  _Arnebia cornuta_: hardy, 1(1/2) to 2 ft. yellow.
+
+  _Bartonia aurea_: hardy, 2 ft., golden yellow; showy and free.
+
+  _Brachycome iberidifolia_: half-hardy, 1 ft., blue or white with dark
+  disk.
+
+  _Calendula officinalis Meteor_: hardy, 1 ft., orange striped with
+  yellow.
+
+  _Calliopsis_ or _Coreopsis bicolor (tinctoria)_: hardy, 2 to 3 ft.,
+  yellow and chestnut-brown.
+
+  _Calliopsis_ or _Coreopsis Drummondii_: hardy, 1 to 2 ft., golden
+  yellow with red disk.
+
+  _Callistephus hortensis_ or _chinensis_ (the China aster): half-hardy,
+  6 in. to 1(1/2) ft.; there arc several groups of various colours. The
+  species itself is a very handsome plant.
+
+  _Campanula Loreyi_: hardy, 1(1/2) ft., purplish-lilac or white.
+
+  _Campanula macrostyla_: hardy, 1 to 2 ft., purple, beautifully veined.
+
+  _Carnations_, _Marguerite_: half-hardy, 9 to 12 in., colours various.
+
+  _Centaurea Cyanus_: hardy, 3 ft., blue, purple, pink or white; showy.
+
+  _Centranthus macrosiphon_: hardy, 1(1/2) to 2 ft., rosy-carmine.
+
+  _Centranthus ruber_ (known as Pretty Betsy and Red Valerian): hardy, 2
+  to 3 ft., red.
+
+  _Chrysanthemum carinatum_: a charming half-hardy annual, 2 to 3 ft.
+  high, with several varieties, of which C. Burridgeanum with zones of
+  white, crimson and yellow is best.
+
+  _C. coronarium_, a yellow-flowered species requires similar treatment.
+
+  _Clarkia pulchella_: hardy, 1(1/2) ft., rosy-purple; some varieties
+  very handsome.
+
+  _Collinsia bicolor_: hardy, 1(1/2) ft., white and purple; pretty.
+
+  _Collinsia verna_: hardy, 1 ft., white and azure; sow as soon as ripe.
+
+  _Convolvulus tricolor atroviolacea_: hardy, 1 ft., white, blue and
+  yellow. This is the _Convolvulus minor_ of gardens.
+
+  _Cosmos bipinnatus_: half-hardy, 3 ft., rose, purple, white; requires
+  sunny spots.
+
+  _Dianthus chinensis_ (Indian pink): half-hardy, 6 in. to 1 ft.,
+  various shades of red and white.
+
+  _Delphinium Ajacis_ and _Delphinium Consolida_ (Larkspurs): hardy, 3
+  ft., various colours.
+
+  _Erysimum Peroffskianum_: hardy, 2 ft., deep orange; in erect racemes.
+
+  _Eschscholtzia californica_: hardy, 1(1/2) ft., yellow with saffron
+  eye.
+
+  _Eschscholtzia crocea flore-pleno_: hardy, 1(1/2) ft., orange yellow;
+  double.
+
+  _Eutoca viscida_: hardy, 2 ft., bright blue, with white hairy centre.
+
+  _Gaillardia Drummondii (picta)_: half-hardy, 1(1/2) ft., crimson,
+  yellow margin.
+
+  _Gilia achilleaefolia_: hardy, 2 ft., deep blue; in large globose
+  heads.
+
+  _Godetia Lindleyana_: hardy, 2 to 3 ft., rose-purple, with crimson
+  spots.
+
+  _Godetia Whitneyi_: hardy, 1 ft., rosy-red, with crimson spots. The
+  variety _Lady Albemarle_ is wholly crimson, and very handsome.
+
+  _Gypsophila elegans_: hardy, 1(1/2) ft., pale rose; branched very
+  gracefully.
+
+  _Helianthus cucumerifolius_: hardy, 3 to 4 ft., golden yellow, black
+  disk; branching, free and bold without coarseness.
+
+  _Helichrysum bracteatum_: half-hardy, 2 ft., the incurved crimson,
+  rose and other forms very handsome.
+
+  _Hibiscus Trionum (africanus)_: hardy, 1(1/2) ft., cream colour, dark
+  purple centre.
+
+  _Iberis umbellata_ (Candytuft): hardy, 1 ft., white, rose, purple,
+  crimson. Some new dwarf white and flesh-coloured varieties are very
+  handsome.
+
+  _Kaulfussia amelloides_: hardy, 1 ft., blue or rose; the var.
+  kermesina is deep crimson.
+
+  _Kochia scoparia_ (Belvedere or lawn cypress): hardy, graceful green
+  foliage, turning purple in autumn.
+
+  _Koniga maritima_ (Sweet Alyssum): hardy, 1 ft., white; fragrant,
+  compact.
+
+  _Lathyrus odoratus_ (Sweet Pea): hardy; there are two races, dwarf and
+  tall, the latter--far and away the most beautiful--requires support;
+  various colours; numerous immensely popular forms.
+
+  _Lavatera trimestris_: hardy, 3 ft., pale-rose, showy malvaceous
+  flowers.
+
+  _Leptosiphon densiflorus_: hardy in light soil, 1 ft., purplish or
+  rosy-lilac.
+
+  _Leptosiphon roseus_: hardy in light soil, 6 in., delicate rose; fine
+  in masses.
+
+  _Linaria bipartita splendida_: hardy, 1 ft., deep purple.
+
+  _Linum grandiflorum_: hardy, 1 ft., splendid crimson; var. roseum is
+  pink.
+
+  _Lupinus luteus_: hardy, 2 ft., bright yellow, fragrant.
+
+  _Lupinus mutabilis Cruickshanksii_: hardy, 4 ft., blue and yellow;
+  changeable.
+
+  _Lupinus nanus_: hardy, 1 ft., bluish-purple; abundant flowering.
+
+  _Lychnis Coeli-rosa_: hardy, 1(1/2) ft., rosy-purple, with pale centre;
+  pretty.
+
+  _Lychnis oculata cardinalis_: hardy, 1(1/2) ft., rosy-crimson; very
+  brilliant.
+
+  _Malcolmia maritima_ (Virginian Stock): hardy, 6 in., lilac, rose or
+  white.
+
+  _Malope trifida_: hardy, 3 ft., rich glossy purplish-crimson; showy.
+  _M. grandiflora_ is a finer plant in every way.
+
+  _Matthiola annua_ (Ten-week Stock and its variety, the intermediate
+  stock): half-hardy, 1 to 2 ft., white, rose and red.
+
+  _Matthiola graeca_ (Wallflower-lvd. Stock): hardy, 1 ft., various as
+  in Stock.
+
+  _Mesembryanthemum tricolor_: half-hardy, 3 in., pink and crimson, with
+  dark centre.
+
+  _Mimulus cupreus_: half-hardy, 6 in., coppery red, varying
+  considerably.
+
+  _Mimulus luteus tigrinus_: half-hardy, 1 ft., yellow spotted with red;
+  var. _duplex_ has hose-in-hose flowers.
+
+  _Mirabilis Jalapa_: half-hardy, 3 ft., various colours; flowers
+  evening-scented.
+
+  _Nemesia floribunda_: hardy, 1 ft., white and yellow; pretty and
+  compact.
+
+  _Nemophila insignis_: hardy, 6 in., azure blue, with white centre.
+
+  _Nemophila maculata_: hardy, 6 in., white, with violet spots at the
+  edge.
+
+  _Nicotiana affinis_: half-hardy, 2 to 3 ft., white.
+
+  _Nicotiana Sanderae_: half-hardy, 2 to 3 ft., white, crimson, scarlet,
+  &c.
+
+  _Nigella hispanica_: hardy, 1(1/2) ft., pale blue, white or dark
+  purple.
+
+  _Oenothera odorata_: hardy, 2 to 3 ft., yellow; fragrant.
+
+  _Omphalodes linifolia_ (Venus's Navelwort): hardy, 1 ft., white.
+
+  _Papaver Rhoeas flore-pleno_: hardy, 2 ft., scarlet and other colours;
+  showy.
+
+  _Papaver somniferum flore-pleno_: hardy, 3 ft., white, lilac, rose,
+  &c.; petals sometimes fringed.
+
+  _Petunia violacea hybrida_: half-hardy, 1(1/2) ft., various colours;
+  sow in heat.
+
+  _Pharbitis hispida_: hardy, 6 ft., various; the many-coloured twining
+  _Convolvulus major_.
+
+  _Phlox Drummondii_: half-hardy, 1 ft., various colours.
+
+  _Platystemon californicus_: hardy, 1 ft., sulphur yellow; neat and
+  distinct.
+
+  _Portulaca splendens_: half-hardy, 6 in., crimson, rose, yellow,
+  white, &c., single and double; splendid prostrate plants for sunny
+  rockwork.
+
+  _Pyrethrum Parthenium aureum_: half-hardy, 1 ft.; grown for its golden
+  foliage, and much used for bedding.
+
+  _Reseda odorata_ (Mignonette): hardy, 1 ft., greenish, but exquisitely
+  fragrant; there are some choice new sorts.
+
+  _Rhodanthe maculata_: half-hardy, 1(1/2) ft., rosy-pink or white;
+  larger flower-heads than the next.
+
+  _Rhodanthe Manglesii_: half-hardy, 1 ft., rosy-pink; a drooping
+  everlasting.
+
+  _Salpiglossis sinuata_: half-hardy, 2 to 3 ft., yellow, purple,
+  crimson, &c.; much varied and beautifully veined.
+
+  _Sanvitalia procumbens flore-pleno_: half-hardy, 6 in., golden yellow;
+  procumbent.
+
+  _Saponaria calabrica_: hardy, 6 to 8 in., bright rose pink or white;
+  continuous blooming, compact-growing.
+
+  _Scabiosa atropurpurea_: hardy, 1 to 2 ft., rose, white, lilac,
+  crimson, &c.
+
+  _Schizanthus pinnatus_: hardy, 1 to 2 ft., purple-lilac, prettily
+  blotched; curiously lobed flowers.
+
+  _Schizopetalon Walkeri_: hardy, 1 ft., white, sweet-scented at night;
+  curiously fringed petals.
+
+  _Senecio elegans_: half-hardy, 1(1/2) ft., white, rose or purple; the
+  various double forms are showy.
+
+  _Silene pendula_: hardy, 1 ft., bright rose pink; very showy in
+  masses; var. _compacta_ forms close dense tufts.
+
+  _Silene Pseudo-Atocion_: hardy, 1 ft., rose pink; free-flowering.
+
+  _Specularia Speculum_: hardy, 6 in., reddish-violet; free-flowering.
+
+  _Sphenogyne speciosa_: half-hardy, 1 ft., orange-yellow, with black
+  ring around the disk.
+
+  _Statice Bonduelli_ (Sea Lavender): half-hardy, 1(1/2) ft., yellow.
+
+  _S. Limonum_: bluish purple.
+
+  _S. sinuata_: white, blue, yellow.
+
+  _S. Suworowi_: lilac.
+
+  _Tagetes signata_: half-hardy, 1(1/2) ft., golden yellow; continuous
+  blooming, with elegant foliage. The French and African marigolds,
+  favourites of some, are allied to this.
+
+  _Tropaeolum aduncum_ (Canary creeper): half-hardy, 10 ft., yellow,
+  fringed; an elegant climber.
+
+  _Tropaeolum majus_ (the nasturtium of gardens): hardy. There are two
+  races, dwarf and tall, various shades of red and yellow.
+
+  _Waitzia aurea_: half-hardy, 1(1/2) ft., golden yellow; a showy
+  everlasting.
+
+  _Xeranthemum annuum flore-pleno_: hardy, 2 ft., lilac-purple;
+  floriferous.
+
+  _Zinnia elegans_: half-hardy, 1 to 2 ft., various colours.
+
+  HARDY BIENNIALS.--Biennials live through one winter period. They
+  require to be sown in the summer months, about June or July, in order
+  to get established before winter; they should be pricked out as soon
+  as large enough, and should have ample space so as to become hardy and
+  stocky. They should be planted in good soil, but not of too
+  stimulating a character. Those that are perfectly hardy are best
+  planted where they are to flower in good time during autumn. This
+  transplanting acts as a kind of check, which is rather beneficial than
+  otherwise. Of those that are liable to suffer injury in winter, as the
+  Brompton and Queen Stocks, a portion should be potted and wintered in
+  cold frames ventilated as freely as the weather will permit.
+
+  The number of biennials is not large, but a few very desirable garden
+  plants, such as the following, occur amongst them:--
+
+  _Agrostemma coronaria_ (Rose Campion): hardy, 1(1/2) ft., bright
+  rose-purple or rose and white.
+
+  _Beta Cicla variegata_: hardy, 2 ft., beautifully coloured leaves and
+  midribs, crimson, golden, &c.
+
+  _Campanula Medium_ (Canterbury Bell): hardy, 2 ft., blue, white, rose,
+  &c. The double-flowered varieties of various colours are very
+  handsome.
+
+  _Campanula Medium calycanthema_: hardy, 2 ft., blue or white;
+  hose-in-hose flowered.
+
+  _Catananche coerulea_: hardy, 2 to 3 ft., blue or white.
+
+  _Celsia cretica_: hardy, 4 to 5 ft., yellow, with two dark spots near
+  centre; in spikes.
+
+  _Cheiranthus Cheiri_ (Wallflower): hardy, 1(1/2) to 2 ft., red,
+  purple, yellow, &c.; really a perennial but better as a biennial.
+
+  _Coreopsis grandiflora_: hardy, 2 to 3 ft., bright yellow; the finest
+  member of the genus.
+
+  _Dianthus barbatus_ (Sweet William): hardy, 1 to 1(1/2) ft., crimson,
+  purple, white or parti-coloured.
+
+  _Dianthus chinensis_ (Indian Pink): half-hardy, 1 ft., various; flower
+  earlier if treated as biennials; must be protected from frost.
+
+  _Digitalis purpurea_ (Foxglove): hardy, 3 to 5 ft., rosy-purple or
+  white; beautifully spotted; the variety called _gloxinioides_ has
+  regular, erect flowers.
+
+  _Echium pomponium_: hardy, 4 ft., rosy-pink.
+
+  _Hedysarum coronarium_ (French Honeysuckle): hardy, 2 to 3 ft.,
+  scarlet or white; fragrant.
+
+  _Hesperis tristis_ (Night-scented Rocket): hardy, 3 ft., dull
+  purplish; fragrant at night.
+
+  _Lunaria biennis_ (Honesty): hardy, 2 to 3 ft., purple; the silvery
+  dissepiment attractive among everlastings.
+
+  _Matthiola incana_ (two groups, the Brompton and the Queen stocks):
+  hardy, 2 to 2(1/2) ft., white, red and purple.
+
+  _Meconopsis._ Charming members of the poppy family, of which _M.
+  aculeata_, purple; _M. grandis_, purple; _M. heterophylla_,
+  coppery-orange; _M. nepalensis_, golden yellow; _M. integrifolia_,
+  yellow; _M. simplicifolia_, violet purple, are grown with care in
+  sheltered spots, and in rich, very gritty soil.
+
+  _Michauxia campanuloides_, a remarkable bell flower, 3 to 8 ft. high,
+  white tinged purple. Requires rich loam in warm sheltered spots.
+
+  _Oenothera biennis_ and _O. Lamarckiana_ (Evening primrose): hardy, 5
+  ft., bright yellow; large.
+
+  _Scabiosa caucasica_: hardy, 3 ft., blue, white.
+
+  _Silene compacta_: half-hardy, 3 to 6 inches, bright pink; clustered
+  as in S. Armeria.
+
+  _Verbascum Blattaria_: hardy, 3 to 4 ft., yellowish, with purple hairs
+  on the filaments; in tall spikes.
+
+  HARDY HERBACEOUS PERENNIALS.--This term includes not only those
+  fibrous-rooted plants of herbaceous habit which spring up from the
+  root year after year, but also those old-fashioned subjects known as
+  florists' flowers, and the hardy bulbs. Some of the most beautiful of
+  hardy flowering plants belong to this class. When the length of the
+  flowering season is considered, it will be obvious that it is
+  impossible to keep up the show of a single border or plot for six
+  months together, since plants, as they are commonly arranged, come
+  dropping into and out of flower one after another; and even where a
+  certain number are in bloom at the same time, they necessarily stand
+  apart, and so the effects of contrast, which can be perceived only
+  among adjacent objects, are lost. To obviate this defect, it has been
+  recommended that ornamental plants should be formed into four or five
+  separate suites of flowering, to be distributed over the garden. Not
+  to mention the more vernal flowers, the first might contain the flora
+  of May; the second that of June; the third that of July; and the
+  fourth that of August and the following months. These compartments
+  should be so intermingled that no particular class may be entirely
+  absent from any one quarter of the garden.
+
+  Before beginning to plant, it would be well to construct tables or
+  lists of the plants, specifying their respective times of flowering,
+  colours and heights. To diversify properly and mingle well together
+  the reds, whites, purples, yellows and blues, with all their
+  intervening shades, requires considerable taste and powers of
+  combination; and ascertained failures may be rectified at the proper
+  time the next season. The one great object aimed at should be to
+  present an agreeable contrast--a floral picture; and, as at particular
+  seasons a monotony of tint prevails, it is useful at such times to be
+  in possession of some strong glaring colours. White, for instance,
+  should be much employed in July, to break the duller blues and purples
+  which then preponderate. Orange, too, is very effective at this
+  season. On the other hand, yellows are superabundant in autumn, and
+  therefore reds and blues should then be sought for. The
+  flower-gardener should have a small nursery, or reserve garden, for
+  the propagation of the finer plants, to be transferred into the
+  borders as often as is required.
+
+  As a rule, all the fibrous-rooted herbaceous plants flourish in good
+  soil which has been fairly enriched with manure, that of a loamy
+  character being the most suitable. Many of them also grow
+  satisfactorily in a peaty soil if well worked, especially if they have
+  a cool moist subsoil. Pentstemons and phloxes, amongst others, succeed
+  well in soil of this character, but the surface must be well drained;
+  the former are rather apt to perish in winter in loamy soil, if at all
+  close and heavy. The herbaceous border should be a distinct
+  compartment varying from 6 to 10 ft. in width, and perhaps backed up
+  by evergreens under certain conditions. Such a border will take in
+  about four lines of plants, the tallest being placed in groups at the
+  back and in the centre, and the others graduated in height down to the
+  front. In the front row patches of the white arabis, the yellow
+  alyssum, white, yellow, blue, or purple violas, and the purple
+  aubrietia, recurring at intervals of 5 or 6 yards on a border of
+  considerable length, carry the eye forwards and give a balanced kind
+  of finish to the whole. The same might be done with dianthuses or the
+  larger narcissi in the second row, with paeonies, columbines and
+  phloxes in the third, and with delphiniums, aconitums and some of the
+  taller yellow composites as helianthus and rudbeckia at the back.
+  Spring and autumn flowers, as well as those blooming in summer, should
+  be regularly distributed throughout the border, which will then at no
+  season be devoid of interest in any part. Many of the little alpines
+  may be brought into the front line planted between suitable pieces of
+  stone, or they may be relegated to a particular spot, and placed on an
+  artificial rockery. Most of the hardy bulbs will do well enough in the
+  border, care being taken not to disturb them while leafless and
+  dormant.
+
+  Some deep-rooting perennials do not spread much at the surface, and
+  only require refreshing from time to time by top-dressings. Others, as
+  the asters, spread rapidly; those possessing this habit should be
+  taken up every second or third year, and, a nice patch being selected
+  for replanting from the outer portions, the rest may be either thrown
+  aside, or reserved for increase; the portion selected for replanting
+  should be returned to its place, the ground having meanwhile been well
+  broken up. Some plants are apt to decay at the base, frequently from
+  exposure caused by the lifting process going on during their growth;
+  these should be taken up annually in early autumn, the soil refreshed,
+  and the plants returned to their places, care being taken to plant
+  them sufficiently deep.
+
+  Only a section of some of the best of the decorative hardy perennials
+  can be noted, before we pass on to those popular subjects of this
+  class which have been directly influenced by the hybridizer and
+  improver. Many more might be added to the subjoined list:--
+
+  _Acaena._--Neat trailing plants adapted for rockwork, thriving in
+  sandy soil. _A. microphylla_ and _A. myriophylla_ have pretty spiny
+  heads of flowers.
+
+  _Acantholimon._--Pretty dwarf tufted plants, with needle-shaped
+  leaves, adapted for rockwork. _A. glumaceum_ and _A. venustum_ bear
+  bright pink flowers in July and August. Light sandy loam.
+
+  _Acanthus._--Bold handsome plants, with stately spikes, 2 to 3 ft.
+  high, of flowers with spiny bracts. _A. mollis_, _A. latifolius_, and
+  _A. longifolius_ are broad-leaved sorts; _A. spinosus_ and _A.
+  spinosissimus_ have narrower spiny toothed leaves.
+
+  _Achillea._--Handsome composite plants, the stronger ones of easy
+  culture in common soil. _A. Eupatorium_ and _filipendula_, 3 to 4 ft.,
+  have showy yellow corymbose flowers; _A. rosea_, 2 ft., rosy-crimson;
+  and _A. Ptarmica flore-pleno_, 2 ft., double white flowers. Others
+  suitable for front lines or rockwork are _A. tomentosa_, 9 in., bright
+  yellow; _A. aegyptiaca_, 1 ft., silvery leaves and yellow flowers; _A.
+  umbellata_, 8 in., silvery leaves and white flowers; and _A.
+  Clavennae_, 6 in., with silvery leaves and pure white flowers.
+
+  _Aconitum._--Handsome border plants, the tall stems crowned by racemes
+  of showy hooded flowers. _A. Camarum_, 3 to 4 ft., has deep purple
+  flowers in August; _A. sinense_, 1(1/2) to 2 ft., has large dark
+  purple flowers in September; _A. variegatum_, 3 ft., has the flowers
+  white edged with blue; _A. autumnale_, 3 ft., has pale blue flowers;
+  _A. Anthora_, 1 to 2 ft., yellow; and _A. japonicum_, 2(1/2) ft., deep
+  blue flowers, produced in September and October. _A. Wilsoni_, a new
+  species from China, 6 ft. high, with bluish-purple flowers.
+
+  _Adenophora._--Bell-shaped flowers. _A. stylosa_, 2 ft., pale blue,
+  elegant; _A. denticulata_, 1(1/2) ft., dark blue; and in _A.
+  liliifolia_, 1(1/2) ft., pale blue, sweet-scented--all blooming during
+  summer. Light soil.
+
+  _Adonis._--_A. vernalis_, 1 ft., has large bright yellow stellate
+  flowers in April. Deep light soil. _A. amurensis_ is a fine Chinese
+  species.
+
+  _Ajuga._--Free growing, dwarf and showy. _A. reptans_, 8 in., has
+  creeping runners, which _A. genevensis_ has not; both bear handsome
+  spikes of blue labiate flowers. Ordinary soil.
+
+  _Allium._--Hardy bulbs of the garlic family, some species of which are
+  ornamental; the inflorescence is umbellate. In _A. azureum_, 1 to 2
+  ft., the flowers are deep-blue; in _A. Moly_, 1 ft., golden yellow; in
+  _A. neapolitanum_, 1(1/2) ft., white, very handsome; in _A.
+  triquetrum_, 8 in., white with green central stripes; in _A.
+  pedemontanum_, 9 in., reddish-violet, very beautiful, the umbels
+  nodding.
+
+  _Alstroemeria._--Beautiful plants with fleshy tuberous roots, which
+  are the better if not often disturbed. _A. aurantiaca_, 2 to 3 ft.,
+  orange streaked with red, in July and August; _A. chilensis_, 2 to 3
+  ft., blood-red, streaked with yellow, affording many varieties. Deep
+  sandy loam or peat. Should be planted at least 6 or 8 in. deep.
+
+  _Althaea rosea._--The hollyhock is a noble perennial, 6 to 15 ft.
+  high, with flowers of every colour except blue. Requires rich loamy
+  soil and plenty of space.
+
+  _Alyssum._--Showy rockwork or front row border plants of easy culture
+  in any light soil; the plants should be frequently renewed from
+  cuttings. _A. saxatile_, with greyish leaves, and deep yellow flowers,
+  produced in April and May, and the dwarfer _A. montanum_ are useful.
+
+  _Amaryllis._--Noble half-hardy bulbs, for planting near the front wall
+  of a hothouse or greenhouse; the soil must be deep, rich and well
+  drained. _A. Belladonna_, the Belladonna Lily, 3 ft., has large
+  funnel-shaped flowers in September, of a delicate rose colour. The
+  variety _A. blanda_ has paler flowers, almost white.
+
+  _Anchusa._--Pretty boraginaceous herbs, easily grown. _A. italica_, 3
+  to 4 ft., has blue star-like flowers. _A. sempervirens_, 1(1/2) ft.,
+  rich blue, is well suited for rough borders.
+
+  _Androsace._--Pretty dwarf rock plants, requiring rather careful
+  management and a gritty soil. _A. Vitaliana_, yellow; _A. Wulfeniana_,
+  purplish-crimson; _A. villosa_, white or pale rose; _A. lactea_, white
+  with yellow eye; _A. lanuginosa_, delicate rose; and _A. Chamaejasme_,
+  delicate rose, are some of the best.
+
+  _Anemone._--The Japanese kinds, _A. japonica_, flowers white and
+  purple, are very easily grown and are particularly fine in autumn. The
+  scarlet _A. fulgens_, and _A. coronaria_, the poppy anemone, are
+  useful for the front, or in nooks in the rockery; while the common
+  hepatica (_A. hepatica_) with its bright blue flowers should also
+  have a place.
+
+  _Antennaria._--Composite plants, with everlasting flowers. _A.
+  margaritacea_, 1(1/2) to 2 ft., has white woolly stems and leaves, and
+  white flower-heads.
+
+  _Anthericum._--Charming border flowers. _A. Liliastrum_, St Bruno's
+  Lily, 1(1/2) ft., bears pretty white sweet-scented flowers in May; _A.
+  Hookeri (Chrysobactron)_, 2 ft., with long racemes of bright golden
+  yellow flowers, requires cool peaty soil.
+
+  _Aquilegia._--The Columbine family, consisting of beautiful border
+  flowers in great variety, ranging from 1 to 2 or 3 ft. in height.
+  Besides the common purple _A. vulgaris_ with its numerous varieties,
+  double and single, there are of choice sorts _A. alpina_ and _A.
+  pyrenaica_, blue; _A. glandulosa_, _A. jucunda_, and _A. coerulea_,
+  blue and white; _A. leptoceras_, blue and yellow; _A. canadensis_, _A.
+  Skinneri_, and _A. truncata (californica)_, scarlet and yellow; _A.
+  chrysantha_, yellow; and _A. fragrans_, white or flesh-colour, very
+  fragrant. Light rich garden soil.
+
+  _Arabis._--Dwarf close-growing evergreen cruciferous plants, adapted
+  for rockwork and the front part of the flower border, and of the
+  easiest culture. _A. albida_ forms a conspicuous mass of greyish
+  leaves and white blossoms. There is also a charming double variety.
+  _A. lucida_, which is also white-flowered, bears its bright green
+  leaves in rosettes, and has a variety with prettily gold-margined
+  leaves.
+
+  _Arenaria._--Evergreen rock plants of easy culture. _A. graminifolia_,
+  and _A. laricifolia_ are tufted, with grassy foliage and white
+  flowers, while A. balearica, a creeping rock plant, has tiny leaves
+  and solitary white flowers.
+
+  _Armeria._--The Thrift or Sea-Pink, of which the common form _A.
+  maritima_ is sometimes planted as an edging for garden walks; there
+  are three varieties, the common pale pink, the deep rose, and the
+  white, the last two being the most desirable. _A. cephalotes_, 1(1/2)
+  ft., is a larger plant, with tufts of linear lance-shaped leaves, and
+  abundant globular heads of deep rose flowers, in June and July.
+
+  _Asclepias._--_A. tuberosa_ is a handsome fleshy-rooted plant, very
+  impatient of being disturbed, and preferring good peat soil; it grows
+  1 to 1(1/2) ft. high, and bears corymbs of deep yellow and orange
+  flowers in September. _A. incarnata_, 2 to 4 ft., produces deep rose
+  sweet-scented flowers towards the end of summer.
+
+  _Asperula odorata._--The woodruff, a charming white-flowered plant
+  with leaves in circles. Well adapted for carpeting the border or
+  rockery.
+
+  _Asphodelus._--Handsome liliaceous plants, with fleshy roots, erect
+  stems, and showy flowers, thriving in any good garden soil. _A.
+  albus_, 4 ft., _A. aestivus_, 4 ft., and _A. ramosus_, 4 ft., have all
+  long tapering keeled leaves, and simple or branched spikes of white
+  flowers; _A. luteus_, 2 ft., has awl-shaped leaves and dense spikes of
+  fragrant yellow flowers; _A. capillaris_ is similar to _A. luteus_,
+  but more slender and elegant.
+
+  _Aster._--A very large family of autumn-blooming composites, including
+  some ornamental species, all of the easiest culture. Of these, _A.
+  alpinus_, 1 ft., and _A. Amellus_, 1(1/2) ft., with its var.
+  _bessarabicus_, have broadish blunt leaves, and large starry bluish
+  flowers; _A. longifolius formosus_, 2 ft., bright rosy lilac; _A.
+  elegans_, 3 to 5 ft., small pale purple or whitish; _A. laxus_, 2 ft.,
+  purplish-blue; _A. pendulus_, 2(1/2) ft., white, changing to rose; _A.
+  pyrenaeus_, 2 to 3 ft., lilac-blue; _A. turbinellus_, 2 to 3 ft.,
+  mauve-coloured, are showy border plants; and _A. Novae Angliae_, 5 to
+  6 ft., rosy-violet; _A. cyaneus_, 5 ft., blue-lilac; and _A.
+  grandiflorus_, 3 ft., violet, are especially useful from their
+  late-flowering habit.
+
+  _Astilbe._--_A. japonica_, 1 to 1(1/2) ft., better known as _Hoteia
+  japonica_ or _Spiraea japonica_, thrives in peaty or sandy soil; its
+  glossy tripinnate leaves, and feathery panicles of white flowers early
+  in summer, are very attractive. It proves to be a fine decorative
+  pot-plant, and invaluable for forcing during the spring.
+
+  _Astragalus._--Showy pea-flowered plants, the smaller species adapted
+  for rockwork; sandy soil. _A. dasyglottis_, 6 in., has bluish-purple
+  flowers in August and September; and _A. monspessulanus_, 8 in.,
+  crimson-purple in July; while _A. hypoglottis_, 6 in., produces in
+  summer compact heads of pretty flowers, which are either purple or
+  white. There are many very ornamental kinds.
+
+  _Aubrietia._--Beautiful dwarf spring-blooming rock plants, forming
+  carpety tufts of flowers of simple cruciferous form. _A. delioidea_ is
+  of a deep lilac-blue; _A. Campbelliae_ is more compact and rather
+  darker, approaching to purple; _A. grandiflora_ and _graeca_ are
+  rather larger, but of a lighter hue. Light sandy soil.
+
+  _Bambusa._--The bamboo family are elegant arborescent grasses (see
+  BAMBOO).
+
+  _Baptisia._--Stoutish erect-growing, 2 to 3 ft., with smooth foliage
+  and spikes of pea-like flowers. _B. australis_ is purplish-blue, _B.
+  alba_, white, _B. exaltata_, deep blue; all flowering in the summer
+  months.
+
+  _Bellis._--_B. perennis flore-pleno_, the Double Daisy, consists of
+  dwarf showy plants 3 to 4 in. high, flowering freely in spring if
+  grown in rich light soil, and frequently divided and transplanted. The
+  white and pink forms, with the white and red quilled, and the
+  variegated-leaved _aucubaefolia_, are some of the best.
+
+  _Bocconia._--Stately poppyworts, 6 to 8 ft. _B. cordata_ has
+  heart-shaped lobed leaves, and large panicles of small flesh-coloured
+  flowers. Sometimes called _Macleaya_. Deep sandy loam.
+
+  _Brodiaea._--Pretty bulbous plants. _B. grandiflora_, 1 ft., has large
+  bluish-purple flowers; _B. coccinea_, 2 to 3 ft., has tubular
+  campanulate nodding flowers of a rich crimson with green tips. Sandy
+  loam.
+
+  _Bulbocodium._--Pretty spring-flowering crocus-like bulbs. _B.
+  vernum_, 4 to 6 in. high, purplish-lilac, blooms in March. Good garden
+  soil.
+
+  _Buphthalmum._--Robust composite herbs with striking foliage, for the
+  back of herbaceous or shrubbery borders. _B. cordifolium_, 4 ft., has
+  large cordate leaves, and heads of rich orange flowers in cymose
+  panicles in July. Also called _Telekia speciosa_.
+
+  _Calandrinia._--Showy dwarf plants for sunny rockwork, in light sandy
+  soil. _C. umbellata_, 3 to 4 in., much branched, with narrow hairy
+  leaves, and corymbs of magenta-crimson flowers in the summer months.
+
+  _Calochortus._--Beautiful bulbous plants, called mariposa lilies,
+  requiring warm sheltered spots in rich gritty and well-drained soil.
+  There are several species known, the best being _albus_, _elegans_,
+  _luteus_, _Plummerae_, _splendens_, _Purdyi_, _venustus_ and _Weedi_.
+
+  _Caltha._--Showy marsh plants, adapted for the margins of lakes,
+  streamlets or artificial bogs. _C. palustris flore-pleno_, 1 ft., has
+  double brilliant yellow flowers in May.
+
+  _Calystegia._--Twining plants with running perennial roots. _C.
+  pubescens flore-pleno_, 8 to 10 ft., has showy double-pink
+  convolvuloid flowers in July; _C. dahurica_ is a handsome
+  single-flowered summer-blooming kind, with rosy-coloured flowers.
+
+  _Camassia esculenta._--A beautiful bulbous plant 2 to 3 ft. high with
+  large pale blue flowers. Also a white variety.
+
+  _Campanula._--Beautiful, as well as varied in habit and character.
+  They are called bell-flowers. _C. pulla_, 6 in., purplish, nodding, on
+  slender erect stalks; _C. turbinata_, 9 in., purple, broad-belled; _C.
+  carpatica_, 1 ft., blue, broad-belled; _C. nobilis_, 1(1/2) ft.,
+  long-belled, whitish or tinted with chocolate; _C. persicifolia_, 2
+  ft., a fine border plant, single or double, white or purple, blooming
+  in July; and _C. pyramidalis_, 6 ft., blue or white, in tall branching
+  spikes, are good and diverse. There are many other fine sorts.
+
+  _Centaurea._--Bold-habited composites of showy character; common soil.
+  _C. babylonica_, 5 to 7 ft., has winged stems, silvery leaves, and
+  yellow flower-heads from June to September; _C. montana_, 3 ft., deep
+  bright blue or white.
+
+  _Centranthus._--Showy free-flowering plants, for rockwork, banks, or
+  stony soil. _C. ruber_, 2 ft., branches and blooms freely all summer,
+  and varies with rosy, or crimson, or white flowers. It clothes the
+  chalk cuttings on some English railways with a sheet of colour in the
+  blooming season.
+
+  _Cheiranthus._--Pretty rock plants, for light stony soils. _C.
+  alpinus_, 6 in., grows in dense tufts, and bears sulphur-yellow
+  flowers in May. _C. ochroleucus_ is similar in character.
+
+  _Chionodoxa._--Charming dwarf hardy bulbous plants of the liliaceous
+  order, blooming in the early spring in company with _Scilla sibirica_,
+  and of equally easy cultivation. _C. Luciliae_, 6 in., has star-shaped
+  flowers of a brilliant blue with a white centre. _C. gigantea_ is the
+  finest of the few known species. It blooms from February to April.
+
+  _Chrysanthemum._--Apart from the florist's varieties of _C. indicum_
+  there are a few fine natural species. One of the best for the flower
+  border is _C. maximum_ and its varieties--all with beautiful white
+  flowers having yellow centres. _C. latifolium_ is also a fine species.
+
+  _Colchicum._--Showy autumn-blooming bulbs (corms), with crocus-like
+  flowers, all rosy-purple or white. _C. speciosum_, _C. autumnale_,
+  single and double, _C. byzantinum_, and _C. variegatum_ are all worth
+  growing.
+
+  _Convallaria._--_C. majalis_, the lily of the valley, a well-known
+  sweet-scented favourite spring flower, growing freely in rich garden
+  soil; its spikes, 6 to 9 in. high, of pretty white fragrant bells, are
+  produced in May and June. Requires shady places, and plenty of old
+  manure each autumn.
+
+  _Coreopsis._--Effective composite plants, thriving in good garden
+  soil. _C. auriculata_, 2 to 3 ft., has yellow and brown flowers in
+  July and August; _C. lanceolata_, 2 to 3 ft., bright yellow, in
+  August; next to the biennial _C. grandiflora_ it is the best garden
+  plant.
+
+  _Corydalis._--Interesting and elegant plants, mostly tuberous, growing
+  in good garden soil. _C. bracteata_, 9 in., has sulphur-coloured
+  flowers in April, and _C. nobilis_, 1 ft., rich yellow, in May; _C.
+  solida_, with purplish, and _C. tuberosa_, with white flowers, are
+  pretty spring-flowering plants, 4 to 6 in. high. _C. thalictrifolia_,
+  1 ft., yellow, May to October.
+
+  _Cyclamen._--Charming tuberous-rooted plants of dwarf habit, suitable
+  for sheltered rockeries, and growing in light gritty soil. _C.
+  europaeum_, reddish-purple, flowers in summer, and _C. hederae-folium_
+  in autumn.
+
+  _Cypripedium._--Beautiful terrestrial orchids, requiring to be planted
+  in peat soil, in a cool and rather shady situation. _C. spectabile_,
+  1(1/2) to 2 ft., white and rose colour, in June, is a lovely species,
+  as is _C. Calceolus_, 1 ft., yellow and brown, in May; all are full of
+  interest and beauty.
+
+  _Delphinium._--The Larkspur family, tall showy plants, with spikes of
+  blue flowers in July. Distinct sorts are _D. grandiflorum_ and _D.
+  grandiflorum flore-pleno_, 2 to 3 ft., of the richest dazzling blue,
+  flowering on till September; _D. chinense_, 2 ft., blue, and its
+  double-flowered variety, are good, as is _D. Barlowi_, 3 ft., a
+  brilliant double blue-purple. _D. nudicaule_, 2 ft., orange-scarlet,
+  very showy, is best treated as a biennial, its brilliant flowers being
+  produced freely in the second year from the seed.
+
+  _Dianthus._--Chiefly rock plants with handsome and fragrant flowers,
+  the smaller sorts growing in light sandy soil, and the larger border
+  plants in rich garden earth. Of the dwarfer sorts for rock gardens,
+  _D. alpinus_, _D. caesius_, _D. deltoides_, _D. dentosus_, _D.
+  neglectus_, _D. petraeus_, and _D. glacialis_ are good examples; while
+  for borders or larger rockwork _D. plumarius_, _D. superbus_, _D.
+  Fischeri_, _D. cruentus_, and the clove section of _D. Caryophyllus_
+  are most desirable.
+
+  _Dicentra._--Very elegant plants, of easy growth in good soil. _D.
+  spectabilis_, 2 to 3 ft., has paeony-like foliage, and gracefully
+  drooping spikes of heart-shaped pink flowers, about May, but it should
+  have a sheltered place, as it suffers from spring frosts and winds;
+  _D. formosa_ and _D. eximia_, 1 ft., are also pretty rosy-flowered
+  species.
+
+  _Dictamnus._--_D. Fraxinella_ is a very characteristic and attractive
+  plant, 2 to 3 ft., with bold pinnate leaves, and tall racemes of
+  irregular-shaped purple or white flowers. It is everywhere glandular,
+  and strongly scented.
+
+  _Digitalis._--Stately erect-growing plants, with long racemes of
+  pouch-shaped drooping flowers. The native D. purpurea, or foxglove, 3
+  to 5 ft., with its dense racemes of purple flowers, spotted inside, is
+  very showy, but is surpassed by the garden varieties that have been
+  raised. It is really a biennial, but grows itself so freely as to
+  become perennial in the garden. An erect flowered form is called
+  _gloxinioides_. The yellow-flowered _D. lutea_ and _D. grandiflora_
+  are less showy. Good garden soil, and frequent renewal from seeds.
+
+  _Doronicum._--Showy composites of free growth in ordinary soil. _D.
+  caucasicum_ and _D. austriacum_, 1 to 1(1/2) ft., both yellow-flowered,
+  bloom in spring and early summer. _D. plantagineum excelsum_, 3 to 5
+  ft. high, is the best garden plant.
+
+  _Draba._--Good rockwork cruciferous plants. _D. alpina_, _D.
+  aizoides_, _D. ciliaris_, _D. Aizoon_, and _D. cuspidata_ bear yellow
+  flowers in early spring; _D. cinerea_ and _D. ciliata_ have white
+  flowers. Gritty well-drained soil.
+
+  _Dracocephalum._--Handsome labiate plants, requiring a warm and
+  well-drained soil. _D. argunense_, 1(1/2) ft., _D. austriacum_, 1 ft.,
+  _D. grandiflorum_, 1 ft., and _D. Ruyschianum_, 1(1/2) ft., with its
+  var. japonicum, all produce showy blue flowers during the summer
+  months.
+
+  _Echinacea._--Stout growing showy composites for late summer and
+  autumn flowering, requiring rich deep soil, and not to be often
+  disturbed. _E. angustifolia_, 3 to 4 ft., light purplish-rose, and _E.
+  intermedia_, 3 to 4 ft., reddish-purple, are desirable kinds. _E.
+  purpurea_ (often called Rudbeckia) is the showiest species. Height 3
+  to 4 ft., with rosy-purple flowers.
+
+  _Eomecon chionanthus._--A lovely poppywort about 1 ft. high, with pure
+  white flowers 2 to 3 in. across. Root-stocks thick, creeping.
+
+  _Epimedium._--Pretty plants, growing about 1 ft. high, with elegant
+  foliage, and curious flowers. _E. macranthum_, white flowers, and _E.
+  rubrum_, red, are distinctly spurred; _E. pinnatum_ and _E.
+  Perralderianum_, yellow, less so. They bloom in spring, and prefer a
+  shady situation and a peaty soil.
+
+  _Eranthis hyemalis._--A charming tuberous rooted plant, called winter
+  aconite. Flowers bright yellow, January to March, close to the ground.
+
+  _Eremurus._--Noble plants with thick rootstocks, large sword-like
+  leaves, and spikes of flowers from 3 to 10 ft. high. They require warm
+  sunny spots and rich gritty soil. The best kinds are _robustus_, pink,
+  6 to 10 ft.; _himalaicus_, 4 to 8 ft., white; _Aitchisoni_, 3 to 5
+  ft., red; _Bungei_, 2 to 3 ft., yellow; and _aurantiacus_, 2 to 3 ft.,
+  orange-yellow. There are now several hybrid forms.
+
+  _Erigeron._--Composite plants, variable in character. _E. purpureus_,
+  1(1/2) ft., with pink flower-heads, having narrow twisted ray-florets;
+  _E. Roylei_, 1 ft., dark blue; and _E. pulchellus_, 1 ft., rich
+  orange, flowering during the summer, are among the best kinds. Good
+  ordinary garden soil.
+
+  _Erinus._--_E. alpinus_ is a beautiful little alpine for rockwork, 3
+  to 6 in., of tufted habit, with small-toothed leaves, and heads of
+  pinkish-purple or, in a variety, white flowers, early in summer. Sandy
+  well-drained soil.
+
+  _Erodium._--Handsome dwarf tufted plants. _E. Manescavi_, 1 to 1(1/2)
+  ft., has large purplish-red flowers in summer; _E. Reichardi_, a
+  minute stemless plant, has small heart-shaped leaves in rosette-like
+  tufts, and white flowers striped with pink, produced successively.
+  Light soil.
+
+  _Eryngium._--Very remarkable plants of the umbelliferous order, mostly
+  of an attractive character. _E. amethystinum_, 2 ft., has the upper
+  part of the stem, the bracts, and heads of flowers all of an
+  amethystine blue. Some of more recent introduction have the aspect of
+  the pine-apple, such as _E. bromeliaefolium_, _E. pandanifolium_, and
+  _E. eburneum_. Deep light soil.
+
+  _Erythronium._--_E. dens-canis_, the Dog's Tooth Violet, is a pretty
+  dwarf bulbous plant with spotted leaves, and rosy or white flowers
+  produced in spring, and having reflexed petals. Mixed peaty and loamy
+  soil, deep and cool. Several charming American species are now in
+  cultivation.
+
+  _Euphorbia._--Plants whose beauty resides in the bracts or floral
+  leaves which surround the inconspicuous flowers. _E. aleppica_, 2 ft.,
+  and _E. Characias_, 2 to 3 ft., with green bracts, are fine plants
+  for rockwork or sheltered, corners.
+
+  _Ferula._--Gigantic umbelliferous plants, with magnificent foliage,
+  adapted for shrubbery borders or open spots on lawns. They have thick
+  fleshy roots, deeply penetrating, and therefore requiring deep soil,
+  which should be of a light or sandy character. _F. communis_, _F.
+  glauca_, and _F. tingitana_, the last with glossy lozenge-shaped
+  leaflets, grow 8 to 10 ft. high; _F. Ferulago_, with more finely cut
+  leaves, grows 5 to 6 ft. high. They flower in early spring, and all
+  have a fine appearance when in bloom, on account of their large showy
+  umbels of yellow flowers.
+
+  _Fritillaria._--A large genus of liliaceous bulbs, the best known of
+  which is the crown imperial (_F. imperialis_) and the snake's head
+  (_F. Meleagris_). There are many charming species grown, such as
+  _aurea_, _pudica_, _recurva_, _sewerzowi_, _askabadensis_, &c.
+
+  _Funkia._--Pretty liliaceous plants, with simple conspicuously
+  longitudinal-ribbed leaves, the racemose flowers funnel-shaped and
+  deflexed. _F. Sieboldiana_, 1 ft., has lilac flowers; _F.
+  grandiflora_, 18 in., is white and fragrant; _F. coerulea_, 18 in., is
+  violet-blue; _F. albo-marginata_, 15 in., has the leaves edged with
+  white, and the flowers lilac. Rich garden soil.
+
+  _Gaillardia._--Showy composite plants, thriving in good garden soil.
+  _G. aristata_, 2 ft., has large yellow flower-heads, 2 or 3 in.
+  across, in summer; _G. Baeselari_ and _G. Loiselii_ have the lower
+  part of the ray-florets red, the upper part yellow.
+
+  _Galanthus._--The Snowdrop. Early spring-flowering amaryllidaceous
+  bulbs, with pretty drooping flowers, snow-white, having the tips of
+  the enclosed petals green. The common sort is _G. nivalis_, which
+  blossoms on the first break of the winter frosts; _G. Imperoti_, _G.
+  Elwesi_ and _G. plicatus_ have larger flowers.
+
+  _Galax aphylla._--A neat little rock plant, 6 to 8 in. high, with
+  pretty round leaves and white flowers. Requires moist peaty soil.
+
+  _Galega officinalis._--A strong-growing leguminous plant, 2 to 5 ft.
+  high, with pinnate leaves, and masses of pinkish purple pea-like
+  flowers. Also a white variety. Grows anywhere.
+
+  _Galtonia candicans._--~A fine bulbous plant, 3 to 4 ft. high, with
+  drooping white flowers.
+
+  _Gaura._--_G. Lindheimeri_, 3 to 5 ft., is much branched, with elegant
+  white and red flowers of the onagraceous type, in long slender ramose
+  spikes during the late summer and autumn months. Light garden soil;
+  not long-lived.
+
+  _Gentiana._--Beautiful tufted erect-stemmed plants preferring a strong
+  rich loamy soil. _G. acaulis_, known as the Gentianella, forms a close
+  carpet of shining leaves, and in summer bears large erect tubular deep
+  blue flowers. _G. Andrewsii_, 1 ft., has, during summer, large deep
+  blue flowers in clusters, the corollas closed at the mouth; _G.
+  asclepiadea_, 18 in., purplish-blue, flowers in July.
+
+  _Geranium._--Showy border flowers, mostly growing to a height of
+  1(1/2) or 2 ft., having deeply cut leaves, and abundant saucer-shaped
+  blossoms of considerable size. _G. ibericum_, _platypetalum_,
+  _armenum_ and _Endressi_ are desirable purple- and rose-flowered
+  sorts; _G. sanguineum_, a tufted grower, has the flowers a deep rose
+  colour; and the double-flowered white and blue forms of _G. pratense_
+  and _G. sylvaticum_ make pretty summer flowers. Good garden soil.
+
+  _Gerbera._--A South African genus of composites requiring very warm
+  sunny spots and rich gritty soil. _G. Jamesoni_, with large scarlet
+  marguerite-like flowers, and _G. viridiflora_, with white flowers
+  tinged with lilac, are best known. Numerous hybrids have been raised,
+  varying in colour from creamy white to salmon, pink, yellow, red and
+  orange.
+
+  _Geum._--Pretty rosaceous plants. The single and double flowered forms
+  of _G. chiloense_ and its varieties _grandiflorum_ and _miniatum_, 2
+  ft., with brilliant scarlet flowers; _G. coccineum_, 6 to 12 in.,
+  scarlet, and _G. montana_, 9 in., yellow, are among the best sorts.
+  Good garden soil.
+
+  _Gillenia trifoliata_.--A pretty rosaceous plant about 2 ft. high.
+  Flowers white in graceful panicles; flourishes in a mixture of sandy
+  peat and loam.
+
+  _Gunnera._--Remarkable rhubarb-like plants with huge lobed leaves,
+  often 6 ft. across. They should be grown near water as they like much
+  moisture, and a good loamy soil. _G. manicata_ and _G. scabra_ are the
+  two kinds grown.
+
+  _Gynerium._--The Pampas-Grass, a noble species, introduced from Buenos
+  Aires; it forms huge tussocks, 4 or 5 ft. high, above which towards
+  autumn rise the bold dense silvery plumes of the inflorescence. It
+  does best in sheltered nooks.
+
+  _Gypsophila._--Interesting caryophyllaceous plants, thriving in dryish
+  situations. _G. paniculata_, 2 ft., from Siberia, forms a dense
+  semi-globular mass of small white flowers from July onwards till
+  autumn, and is very useful for cutting.
+
+  _Haberlea rhodopensis._--A pretty rock plant with dense tufts of
+  leaves and bluish-lilac flowers. It likes fibrous peat in fissures of
+  the rocks.
+
+  _Helenium._--Showy composites of free growth in lightish soil. _H.
+  autumnale_, 4 ft., bears a profusion of yellow-rayed flower-heads in
+  August and September.
+
+  _Helianthemum._--Dwarf subshrubby plants well suited for rockwork, and
+  called Sun-Roses from their blossoms resembling small wild roses and
+  their thriving best in sunny spots. Some of the handsomest are _H.
+  roseum_, _mutabile_, _cupreum_ and _rhodanthum_, with red flowers;
+  _H. vulgare flore-pleno_, _grandiflorum_ and _stramineum_, with yellow
+  flowers; and _H. macranthum_ and _papyraceum_, with the flowers white.
+
+  _Helianthus._--The Sunflower genus, of which there are several
+  ornamental kinds. _H. multiflorus_, 4 ft., and its double-flowered
+  varieties, bear showy golden yellow flower-heads in profusion, and are
+  well adapted for shrubbery borders; _H. orgyalis_, 8 ft., has drooping
+  willow-like leaves. Many other showy species.
+
+  _Helichrysum._--Composite plants, with the flower-heads of the
+  scarious character known as Everlastings. _H. arenarium_, 6 to 8 in.,
+  is a pretty species, of dwarf spreading habit, with woolly leaves and
+  corymbs of golden yellow flowers, about July.
+
+  _Helleborus._--Charming very early blooming dwarf ranunculaceous
+  herbs. _H. niger_ or Christmas Rose, the finest variety of which is
+  called _maximus_, has white showy saucer-shaped flowers; _H.
+  orientalis_, 1 ft., rose-coloured; _H. atrorubens_, 1 ft.,
+  purplish-red; and _H. colchicus_, 1 ft., deep purple. Deep rich loam.
+
+  _Hemerocallis._--The name of the day lilies of which _H. fulva_, _H.
+  disticha_, _H. flava_, _H. Dumortieri_ and _H. aurantiaca major_ are
+  the most showy, all with yellow or orange flowers. They flourish in
+  any garden soil.
+
+  _Hepatica._--Charming little tufted plants requiring good loamy soil,
+  and sometimes included with Anemone. _H. triloba_, 4 in., has
+  three-lobed leaves, and a profusion of small white, blue, or pink
+  single or double flowers, from February onwards; _H. angulosa_, from
+  Transylvania, 6 to 8 in., is a larger plant, with sky-blue flowers.
+
+  _Hesperis._--_H. matronalis_, 1 to 2 ft., is the old garden Rocket, of
+  which some double forms with white and purplish blossoms are amongst
+  the choicest of border flowers. They require a rich loamy soil, not
+  too dry, and should be divided and transplanted into fresh soil
+  annually or every second year, in the early autumn season.
+
+  _Heuchera._--_H. sanguinea_ and its varieties are charming and
+  brilliant border plants with scarlet flowers in long racemes. Rich and
+  well-drained soil.
+
+  _Hibiscus._--Showy malvaceous plants. _H. Moscheutos_, rose-coloured,
+  and _H. palustris_, purple, both North American herbs, 3 to 5 ft.
+  high, are suitable for moist borders or for boggy places near the
+  margin of lakes.
+
+  _Iberis._--The Candytuft, of which several dwarf spreading subshrubby
+  species are amongst the best of rock plants, clothing the surface with
+  tufts of green shoots, and flowering in masses during May and June.
+  The best are _I. saxatilis_, 6 to 10 in.; _I. sempervirens_, 12 to 15
+  in.; and _I. Pruitii_ (variously called _coriacea_, _carnosa_,
+  _correaefolia_), 12 in.
+
+  _Incarvillea._--_I. Delavayi_ is the best species for the open air. It
+  grows 2 ft. high and has large tubular rosy carmine blossoms. It likes
+  rich sandy loam and sunny spots.
+
+  _Lathyrus._--Handsome climbing herbs, increased by seeds or division.
+  _L. grandiflorus_, 3 ft., has large rose-coloured flowers with
+  purplish-crimson wings, in June; _L. latifolius_, the everlasting pea,
+  6 ft., has bright rosy flowers in the late summer and autumn; the
+  vars. _albus_, white, and _superbus_, deep rose, are distinct.
+  Ordinary garden soil.
+
+  _Lavatera._--_L. thuringiaca_, 4 ft., is a fine erect-growing
+  malvaceous plant, producing rosy-pink blossoms freely, about August
+  and September. Good garden soil.
+
+  _Leucojum._--Snowflake. Pretty early-blooming bulbs, quite hardy. _L.
+  vernum_, 6 in., blooms shortly after the snowdrop, and should have a
+  light rich soil and sheltered position; _L. carpaticum_, flowers about
+  a month later; _L. pulchellum_, 1(1/2) ft., blooms in April and May; and
+  _L. aestivum_, 2 ft., in May. All have white pendant flowers, tipped
+  with green.
+
+  _Liatris._--Pretty composites with the flower-heads collected into
+  spikes. _L. pumila_, 1 ft., _L. squarrosa_, 2 to 3 ft., _L. spicata_,
+  3 to 4 ft., _L. pycnostachya_, 3 to 4 ft., all have rosy-purplish
+  flowers. Deep, cool, and moist soil.
+
+  _Lilium._--See LILY.
+
+  _Linaria._--Toadflax. Pretty scrophulariads, of which _L. alpina_, 3
+  to 6 in., with bluish-violet flowers having a brilliant orange spot,
+  is suitable for rockwork; _L. dalmatica_, 4 ft., and _L.
+  genistifolia_, 3 ft., both yellow-flowered, are good border plants;
+  _L. vulgaris_, the common British toad-flax, and its regular peloriate
+  form, are very handsome and free flowering during the summer months.
+
+  _Linum._--Flax. _L. alpinum_, 6 in., large, dark blue; _L.
+  narbonnense_, 1(1/2) ft., large, blue; _L. perenne_, 1(1/2) ft.,
+  cobalt blue; and _L. arboreum (flavum)_, 1 ft., yellow, are all
+  pretty. The last is liable to suffer from damp during winter, and some
+  spare plants should be wintered in a frame. It is really shrubby in
+  character.
+
+  _Lithospermum._--_L. prostratum_, 3 in., is a trailing evergreen herb,
+  with narrow hairy leaves, and paniculate brilliant blue flowers in May
+  and June. Well adapted for rockwork or banks of sandy soil.
+
+  _Lupinus._--Showy erect-growing plants with papilionaceous flowers,
+  thriving in good deep garden soil. _L. polyphyllus_, 3 ft., forms
+  noble tufts of palmate leaves, and long spikes of bluish-purple or
+  white flowers in June and July; _L. arboreus_ is subshrubby, and has
+  yellow flowers.
+
+  _Lychnis._--Brilliant erect-growing caryophyllaceous plants, thriving
+  best in beds of peat earth or of deep sandy loam. _L. chalcedonica_, 3
+  ft., has dense heads of bright scarlet flowers, both single and
+  double, in June and July; _L. fulgens_, 1 ft., vermilion; _L.
+  Haageana_, 1(1/2) ft., scarlet; and _L. grandiflora_, 1 to 2 ft., with
+  clusters of scarlet, crimson, pink and white flowers. All
+  large-flowered and showy, but require a little protection in winter.
+
+  _Lysimachia._--The best known is the Creeping Jenny, _L. Nummularia_,
+  much used for trailing over rockeries and window boxes, with bright
+  yellow flowers. The variety _aurea_ with golden leaves is also
+  popular. Other species that grow from 2 to 3 ft. high, and are good
+  border plants, are _L. clethroides_, with white spikes of flowers; _L.
+  vulgaris_, _L. thyrsiflora_, _L. ciliata_, _L. verticillata_ and _L.
+  punctata_, all yellow.
+
+  _Malva._--_M. moschata_, 2 ft., with a profusion of pale pink or white
+  flowers, and musky deeply cut leaves, though a British plant, is worth
+  introducing to the flower borders when the soil is light and free.
+
+  _Meconopsis._--The Welsh poppy, _M. cambrica_, 1 to 2 ft. high,
+  yellow, and _M. Wallichi_, from the Himalayas, 4 to 6 ft. high with
+  pale blue flowers, are the best known perennials of the genus. The
+  last-named, however, is best raised from seeds every year, and treated
+  like the biennial kinds.
+
+  _Mertensia._--_M. virginica_, 1 to 1(1/2) ft., azure blue, shows
+  flowers in drooping panicles in May and June. It does best in shady
+  peat borders.
+
+  _Mimulus._--Monkey-flower. Free-blooming, showy scrophulariaceous
+  plants, thriving best in moist situations. _M. cardinalis_, 2 to 3
+  ft., has scarlet flowers, with the limb segments reflexed; _M. luteus_
+  and its many garden forms, 1 to 1(1/2) ft., are variously coloured and
+  often richly spotted; and _M. cupreus_, 8 to 10 in., is bright
+  coppery-red. _M. moschatus_ is the Musk-plant, of which the variety
+  _Harrisoni_ is a greatly improved form, with much larger yellow
+  flowers.
+
+  _Monarda._--Handsome labiate plants, flowering towards autumn, and
+  preferring a cool soil and partially shaded situation. _M. didyma_, 2
+  ft., scarlet or white; M. fistulosa, 3 ft., purple; and _M. purpurea_,
+  2 ft., deep purple, are good border flowers.
+
+  _Muscari._--Pretty dwarf spring-flowering bulbs. _M. botryoides_
+  (Grape Hyacinth), 6 in., blue or white, is the handsomest; _M.
+  moschatum_ (Musk Hyacinth), 10 in., has peculiar livid greenish-yellow
+  flowers and a strong musky odour; _M. monstrosum_ (Feather Hyacinth)
+  bears sterile flowers broken up into a feather-like mass. Good garden
+  soil.
+
+  _Myosotidium nobile._--A remarkable plant, 1(1/2) to 2 ft. high, with
+  large blue forget-me-not-like flowers. Requires gritty peat soil and
+  cool situations, but must be protected from frost in winter.
+
+  _Myosotis._--Forget-me-not. Lovely boraginaceous plants. M.
+  dissitiflora, 6 to 8 in., with large, handsome and abundant sky-blue
+  flowers, is the best and earliest, flowering from February onwards; it
+  does well in light cool soils, preferring peaty ones, and should be
+  renewed annually from seeds or cuttings. _M. rupicola_, 2 to 3 in.,
+  intense blue, is a fine rock plant, preferring shady situations and
+  gritty soil; _M. sylvatica_, 1 ft., blue, pink or white, used for
+  spring bedding, should be sown annually in August.
+
+  _Narcissus._--See NARCISSUS.
+
+  _Nepeta._--_N. Mussinii_, 1 ft., is a compactly spreading
+  greyish-leaved labiate, with lavender-blue flowers, and is sometimes
+  used for bedding or for marginal lines in large compound beds.
+
+  _Nierembergia._--_N. rivularis_, 4 in., from La Plata, has slender,
+  creeping, rooting stems, bearing stalked ovate leaves, and large
+  funnel-shaped white flowers, with a remarkably long slender tube;
+  especially adapted for rockwork, requiring moist sandy loam.
+
+  _Nymphaea._--See WATER-LILY.
+
+  _Oenothera._--The genus of the Evening Primrose, consisting of showy
+  species, all of which grow and blossom freely in rich deep soils. _Oe.
+  missouriensis (macrocarpa)_, 6 to 12 in., has stout trailing branches,
+  lance-shaped leaves and large yellow blossoms; _Oe. taraxacifolia_, 6
+  to 12 in., has a stout crown from which the trailing branches spring
+  out, and these bear very large white flowers, changing to delicate
+  rose; this perishes in cold soils, and should therefore be raised from
+  seed annually. Of erect habit are _Oe. speciosa_, 1 to 2 ft., with
+  large white flowers; _Oe. fruticosa_, 2 to 3 ft., with abundant yellow
+  flowers; and _Oe. serotina_, 2 ft., also bright yellow.
+
+  _Omphalodes._--Elegant dwarf boraginaceous plants. _O. verna_, 4 to 6
+  in., a creeping, shade-loving plant, has bright blue flowers in the
+  very early spring; _O. Luciliae_, 6 in., has much larger lilac-blue
+  flowers, and is an exquisite rock plant for warm, sheltered spots.
+  Light sandy soil.
+
+  _Onosma._--_O. taurica_, 6 to 8 in., is a charming boraginaceous plant
+  from the Caucasus, producing hispid leaves and cymose heads of
+  drooping, tubular, yellow flowers. It is of evergreen habit, and
+  requires a warm position on the rockwork and well-drained sandy soil;
+  or a duplicate should be sheltered during winter in a cold, dry frame.
+
+  _Ornithogalum._--The Star of Bethlehem. _O. arabicum_ can only be
+  grown in the warmest parts of the kingdom, and then requires
+  protection in winter. Other species, all bulbous, are _O. nutans_, _O.
+  pyramidale_, _O. pyrenaicum_, and the common Star of Bethlehem, _O.
+  umbellatum_; all are easily grown, and have white flowers.
+
+  _Ostrowskya magnifica._--A magnificent bellflower from Bokhara, 4 to 5
+  ft. high, and white flowers tinted and veined with lilac, 3 to 5 in.
+  across. Requires rich, gritty loam of good depth, as it produces
+  tuberous roots 1 to 2 ft. long.
+
+  _Ourisia._--Handsome scrophulariaceous plants, from Chile, thriving in
+  moist, well-drained peaty soil, and in moderate shade. _O. coccinea_,
+  1 ft., has erect racemes of pendent crimson flowers.
+
+  _Papaver._--The Poppy. Very showy plants, often of strong growth, and
+  of easy culture in ordinary garden soil. _P. orientale_, 3 ft., has
+  crimson-scarlet flowers, 6 in. across, and the variety _bracteatum_
+  closely resembles it, but has leafy bracts just beneath the blossom.
+  _P. alpinum_, 6 in., white with yellow centre; _P. nudicaule_, 1 ft.,
+  yellow, scented, and _P. pilosum_, 1 to 2 ft., deep orange, are
+  ornamental smaller kinds.
+
+  _Pentstemon._--The popular garden varieties have sprung from _P.
+  Hartwegii_ and _P. Cobaea_. Other distinct kinds are _P.
+  campanulatus_, 1(1/2) ft., pale rose, of bushy habit; _P. humilis_, 9
+  in., bright blue; _P. speciosus_, _cyananthus_ and _Jaffrayanus_, 2 to
+  3 ft., all bright blue; _P. barbatus_, 3 to 4 ft., scarlet, in long
+  terminal panicles; _P. Murrayanus_, 6 ft., with scarlet flowers and
+  connate leaves; and _P. Palmeri_, 3 to 4 ft., with large, wide-tubed,
+  rose-coloured flowers.
+
+  _Petasites._--_P. fragrans_, the Winter Heliotrope, though of weedy
+  habit, with ample cordate coltsfoot-like leaves, yields in January and
+  February its abundant spikes, about 1 ft. high, of greyish flowers
+  scented like heliotrope; it should have a corner to itself.
+
+  _Phlomis._--Bold and showy labiates, growing in ordinary soil. _P.
+  Russelliana (lunariaefolia)_, 4 ft., yellow, and _P. tuberosa_, 3 ft.,
+  purplish-rose, both with downy hoary leaves, come in well in broad
+  flower borders.
+
+  _Phygelius._--_P. capensis_ from South Africa is hardy south of the
+  Thames and in favoured localities. Flowers tubular scarlet, on
+  branching stems, 2 to 3 ft. high. Requires light, rich soil.
+
+  _Physalis._--_P. Alkekengi_ from South Europe has long been known in
+  gardens for its bright orange-red globular calyxes. It has been
+  surpassed by the much larger and finer _P. Francheti_ from Japan; the
+  brilliant calyxes are often 3 in. in diameter in autumn. Grows in any
+  garden soil.
+
+  _Physostegia._--Tall, autumn-blooming labiates, of easy growth in
+  ordinary garden soils. _P. imbricata_, 5 to 6 ft., has pale purple
+  flowers in closely imbricated spikes.
+
+  _Phytolacca._--Ornamental strong-growing perennials requiring much
+  space. _P. acinosa_, from the Himalayas, 3 to 4 ft., with whitish
+  flowers in erect spikes. _P. decandra_, the North American Poke Weed
+  or Red Ink plant, grows 5 to 10 ft. high, has fleshy poisonous roots,
+  erect purple stems and white flowers. _P. icosandra_, from Mexico, 2
+  to 3 ft., pinky white. The foliage in all cases is handsome. Ordinary
+  garden soil.
+
+  _Platycodon._--_P. grandiflorum_, 6 to 24 in. high, is a fine Chinese
+  perennial with flattish, bell-shaped flowers, 2 to 3 in. across, and
+  purple in colour. The variety _Mariesi_ (or _pumilum_) is dwarf, with
+  larger, deeper-coloured flowers. Requires rich sandy loam.
+
+  _Podophyllum._--Ornamental herbs with large lobed leaves. _P. Emodi_,
+  6 to 12 in. high, from the Himalayas, has large white or pale-rose
+  flowers, and in autumn bright red, hen's-egg-like fruits. _P.
+  peltatum_, the North American mandrake, has large umbrella-like leaves
+  and white flowers; _P. pleianthum_, from China, purple. They all
+  require moist, peaty soil in warm, sheltered nooks.
+
+  _Polemonium._--Pretty border flowers. _P. coeruleum_ (Jacob's Ladder),
+  2 ft., has elegant pinnate leaves, and long panicles of blue rotate
+  flowers. The variety called variegatum has very elegantly marked
+  leaves, and is sometimes used as a margin or otherwise in bedding
+  arrangements. Good garden soil.
+
+  _Polygonatum._--Elegant liliaceous plants, with rhizomatous stems. _P.
+  multiflorum_ (Solomon's Seal), 2 to 3 ft., with arching stems, and
+  drooping white flowers from the leaf axils, is a handsome border
+  plant, doing especially well in partial shade amongst shrubs, and also
+  well adapted for pot culture for early forcing. Good garden soil.
+
+  _Polygonum._--A large family, varying much in character, often weedy,
+  but of easy culture in ordinary soil. _P. vacciniifolium_, 6 to 10
+  in., is a pretty prostrate subshrubby species, with handsome rose-pink
+  flowers, suitable for rockwork, and prefers boggy soil; _P. affine
+  (Brunonis)_, 1 ft., deep rose, is a showy border plant, flowering in
+  the late summer; _P. cuspidatum_, 8 to 10 ft., is a grand object for
+  planting where a screen is desired, as it suckers abundantly, and its
+  tall spotted stems and handsome cordate leaves have quite a noble
+  appearance. Other fine species are _P. baldschuanium_, a climber, _P.
+  sphaerostachyum_, _P. lanigerum_, _P. polystachyum_ and _P.
+  sachalinense_, all bold and handsome.
+
+  _Potentilla._--The double varieties are fine garden plants obtained
+  from _P. argyrophylla atrosanguinea_ and _P. nepalensis_. The colours
+  include golden-yellow, red, orange-yellow, crimson, maroon and
+  intermediate shades. They all flourish in rich sandy soil.
+
+  _Primula._--Beautiful and popular spring flowers, of which many forms
+  are highly esteemed in most gardens. _P. vulgaris_, 6 in., affords
+  numerous handsome single- and double-flowered varieties, with
+  various-coloured flowers for the spring flower-beds and borders.
+  Besides this, _P. Sieboldii (cortusoides amoena)_, 1 ft., originally
+  deep rose with white eye, but now including many varieties of colour,
+  such as white, pink, lilac and purple; _P. japonica_, 1 to 2 ft.,
+  crimson-rose; _P. denticulata_, 1 ft., bright bluish-lilac, with its
+  allies _P. erosa_ and _P. purpurea_, all best grown in a cold frame;
+  _P. viscosa_, 6 in., purple, and its white variety nivalis, with _P.
+  pedemontana_ and _P. spectabilis_, 6 in., both purple; and the
+  charming little Indian _P. rosea_, 3 to 6 in., bright cherry-rose
+  colour, are but a few of the many beautiful kinds in cultivation.
+
+  _Pulmonaria._--Handsome dwarf, boraginaceous plants, requiring good
+  deep garden soil. _P. officinalis_, 1 ft., has prettily mottled leaves
+  and blue flowers; _P. sibirica_ is similar in character, but has
+  broader leaves more distinctly mottled with white.
+
+  _Pyrethrum._--Composite plants of various character, but of easy
+  culture. _P. Parthenium eximium_, 2 ft., is a handsome double white
+  form of ornamental character for the mixed border; _P. uliginosum_, 5
+  to 6 ft., has fine large, white, radiate flowers in October; _P.
+  Tchihatchewii_, a close-growing, dense evergreen, creeping species,
+  with long-stalked, white flower-heads, is adapted for covering slopes
+  in lieu of turf, and for rockwork.
+
+  _Ramondia._--_R. pyrenaica_, 3 to 6 in., is a pretty dwarf plant,
+  requiring a warm position on the rockwork and a moist, peaty soil more
+  or less gritty; it has rosettes of ovate spreading root-leaves, and
+  large purple, yellow-centred, rotate flowers, solitary, or two to
+  three together, on naked stalks.
+
+  _Ranunculus._--The florists' ranunculus is a cultivated form of _R.
+  asiaticus_ (see RANUNCULUS). _R. amplexicaulis_, 1 ft., white; _R.
+  aconitifolius_, 1 to 2 ft., white, with its double variety _R.
+  aconitifolius flore-pleno_ (Fair Maids of France); and _R. acris
+  flore-pleno_ (Bachelor's Buttons), 2 ft., golden yellow, are pretty.
+  Of dwarfer interesting plants there are _R. alpestris_, 4 in., white;
+  _R. gramineus_, 6 to 10 in., yellow; _R. parnassifolius_, 6 in.,
+  white; and _R. rutaefolius_, 4 to 6 in., white with orange centre.
+
+  _Rodgersia._--Handsome herbs of the saxifrage family. _R. podophylla_
+  with large bronzy-green leaves cut into 5 large lobes, and tall
+  branching spikes 3 to 4 ft. high--the whole plant resembling one of
+  the large meadow sweets. _R. aesculifolia_, yellowish-white; _R.
+  Henrici_, deep purple; _R. pinnata_, fleshy pink; and _R.
+  sambucifolia_, white, are recently introduced species from China. They
+  require rich sandy peat and warm sheltered spots.
+
+  _Romneya._--_R. Coulteri_, a fine Californian plant, with large white
+  flowers on shoots often as high as 7 ft.; _R. trichocalyx_ is similar.
+  Both require very warm, sunny spots and rich, sandy soil, and should
+  not be disturbed often.
+
+  _Rudbeckia._--Bold-habited composite plants, well suited for shrubbery
+  borders, and thriving in light loamy soil. The flower-heads have a
+  dark-coloured elevated disk. _R. Drummondii_, 2 to 3 ft., with the
+  ray-florets reflexed, yellow at the tip and purplish-brown towards the
+  base; _R. fulgida_, 2 ft. golden-yellow with dark chocolate disk, the
+  flower-heads 2 to 3 in. across; and _R. speciosa_, 2 to 3 ft.,
+  orange-yellow with blackish-purple disk, the flower-heads 3 to 4 in.
+  across, are showy plants.
+
+  _Sagittaria._--Graceful water or marsh plants with hastate leaves, and
+  tuberous, running and fibrous roots. _S. japonica plena_; _S.
+  lancifolia_, _S. macrophylla_ and _S. sagittifolia_, are among the
+  best kinds, all with white flowers.
+
+  _Salvia._--The Sage, a large genus of labiates, often very handsome,
+  but sometimes too tender for English winters. _S. Sclarea_, 5 to 6
+  ft., is a very striking plant little more than a biennial, with
+  branched panicles of bluish flowers issuing from rosy-coloured bracts;
+  _S. patens_, 2 ft., which is intense azure, has tuberous roots, and
+  may be taken up, stored away and replanted in spring like a dahlia.
+  _S. pratensis_, 2 ft., blue, a showy native species, is quite hardy;
+  the variety lupinoides has the centre of the lower lip white.
+
+  _Saxifraga._--A very large genus of rock and border plants of easy
+  culture. The Megasea group, to which _S. ligulata_, _S. cordifolia_
+  and _S. crassifolia_ belong, are early-flowering kinds of great
+  beauty, with fleshy leaves and large cymose clusters of flowers of
+  various shades of rose, red and purple. Another very distinct group
+  with silvery foliage--the crustaceous group--contains some of our
+  choicest Alpines. Of these _S. caesia_, _S. calyciflora_, _S.
+  Cotyledon_ are among the best known. Some of the species look more
+  like lichens than flowering plants. The green moss-like saxifrages are
+  also a very distinct group, with dense tufted leaves which appear
+  greener in winter than in summer. The flowers are borne on erect
+  branching stems and are chiefly white in colour. _Saxifraga umbrosa_
+  (London Pride) and _S. Geum_ belong to still another group, and are
+  valuable alike on border and rockery. _S. peltata_ is unique owing to
+  its large peltate leaves, often 1 ft. to 18 in. across, with stalks 1
+  to 2 ft. long. Flowers in April, white or pinkish. Likes plenty of
+  water and a moist peaty soil or marshy place. _S. sarmentosa_, the
+  well-known "mother of thousands," is often grown as a pot plant in
+  cottagers' windows.
+
+  _Scilla._--Beautiful dwarf bulbous plants, thriving in well-worked
+  sandy loam, or sandy peat. _S. bifolia_, 3 in., and _S. sibirica_, 4
+  in., both intense blue, are among the most charming of early spring
+  flowers; _S. patula_, 6 to 8 in., and _S. campanulata_, 1 ft., with
+  tubular greyish-blue flowers, freely produced, are fine border plants,
+  as is the later-blooming _S. peruviana_, 6 to 8 in., dark blue or
+  white.
+
+  _Sedum._--Pretty succulent plants of easy growth, and mostly suitable
+  for rockwork. They are numerous, varied in the colour of both leaves
+  and foliage, and mostly of compact tufted growth. _S. spectabile_, 1
+  to 1(1/2) ft., pink, in great cymose heads, is a fine plant for the
+  borders, and worthy also of pot-culture for greenhouse decoration.
+  Mention may also be made of the common _S. acre_ (Stonecrop), 3 in.,
+  yellow, and its variety with yellow-tipped leaves.
+
+  _Sempervivum._--House-Leek. Neat-growing, succulent plants, forming
+  rosettes of fleshy leaves close to the ground, and rapidly increasing
+  by runner-like offsets; they are well adapted for rockwork, and do
+  best in sandy soil. The flowers are stellate, cymose, on stems rising
+  from the heart of the leafy rosettes. _S. arachnoideum_, purplish, _S.
+  arenarium_, yellow, _S. globiferum_ and _S. Laggeri_, rose, grow when
+  in flower 3 to 6 in. high; _S. calcareum_, rose colour, and _S.
+  Boutignianum_, pale rose, both have glaucous leaves tipped with
+  purple; _S. Heuffelii_, yellow, with deep chocolate leaves, and _S.
+  Wulfeni_, sulphur-yellow, are from 8 to 12 in. high.
+
+  _Senecio._--A large genus with comparatively few good garden plants.
+  Large and coarse-growing kinds like _S. Doria_, _S. macrophyllus_ and
+  _S. sarracenicus_ are good for rough places; all yellow-flowered. _S.
+  pulcher_ is a charming plant, 2 to 3 ft. high, with rosy-purple
+  flower-heads, having a bright orange centre. It likes a warm corner
+  and moist soil. _S. clivorum_, from China, has large roundish leaves
+  and orange-yellow flowers. It flourishes near water and in damp
+  places.
+
+  _Shortia._--_S. galacifolia_, a beautiful tufted plant 2 to 3 in.
+  high, with roundish crenate leaves, on long stalks, and white
+  funnel-shaped flowers in March and April. _S. uniflora_ from Japan is
+  closely related. The leaves of both assume rich purple-red tints in
+  autumn. Warm sunny situations and rich sandy loam and peat are
+  required.
+
+  _Silene._--Pretty caryophyllaceous plants, preferring sandy loam, and
+  well adapted for rockwork. _S. alpestris_, 6 in., white, and _S.
+  quadridentata_, 4 in., white, are beautiful tufted plants for rockwork
+  or the front parts of borders; _S. maritima flore-pleno_, 6 in.,
+  white, _S. Elizabethae_, 4 in., bright rose, and _S. Schafta_, 6 in.,
+  purplish-rose, are also good kinds.
+
+  _Sisyrinchium._--Pretty dwarf iridaceous plants, thriving in peaty
+  soil. _S. grandiflorum_, 10 in., deep purple or white, blooms about
+  April, and is a fine plant for pot-culture in cold frames.
+
+  _Sparaxis._--Graceful bulbous plants from South Africa. _S.
+  grandiflora_, with deep violet-purple, and _S. tricolor_, with rich
+  orange-red, flowers are best known. _S. pulcherrima_, a lovely
+  species, 3 to 6 ft. high, with drooping blood-red blossoms, is now
+  referred to the genus _Dierama_. A warm, light, but rich soil in
+  sheltered spots required.
+
+  _Spiraea._--Vigorous growing plants of great beauty, preferring good,
+  deep, rather moist soil; the flowers small but very abundant, in large
+  corymbose or spicate panicles. _S. Aruncus_, 4 ft., white; _S.
+  astilbioides_, 2 ft., white; _S. Filipendula_, 1(1/2) ft., and _S.
+  Ulmaria_, 3 ft., both white; _S. palmata_, 2 ft., rosy-crimson; and
+  _S. venusta_, 3 ft., carmine rose, are some of the best.
+
+  _Statice._--Pretty plants with broad, radical leaves, and a
+  much-branched inflorescence of numerous small flowers. _S. latifolia_,
+  2 ft., greyish-blue; _S. tatarica_, 1 ft., lavender-pink; _S.
+  speciosa_, 1(1/2) ft., rose colour; and _S. eximia_, 1(1/2) ft.,
+  rosy-lilac--are good border plants. _S. bellidifolia_, 9 in.,
+  lavender; _S. emarginata_, 6 in., purple; _S. globulariaefolia_, 9
+  in., white; and _S. nana_, 4 in.--are good sorts for the rockery.
+
+  _Stenactis._--_S. speciosa_, 1 to 2 ft., is a showy composite, of easy
+  culture in good garden soil; it produces large corymbs of
+  flower-heads, with numerous narrow blue ray-florets surrounding the
+  yellow disk. Now more generally known as Erigeron.
+
+  _Stipa._--_S. pennata_ (Feather Grass), 1(1/2) ft., is a very
+  graceful-habited grass, with stiff slender erect leaves, and long
+  feathery awns to the seeds.
+
+  _Stokesia._--_S. cyanea_, 2 ft., is a grand, autumn-flowering,
+  composite plant, with blue flower-heads, 4 in. across. Sandy loam and
+  warm situation.
+
+  _Symphytum._--Rather coarse-growing but showy boraginaceous plants,
+  succeeding in ordinary soil. _S. caucasicum_, 2 ft., with blue flowers
+  changing to red, is one of the finer kinds for early summer blooming.
+
+  _Thalictrum._--Free-growing but rather weedy ranunculaceous plants, in
+  many cases having elegantly cut foliage. _T. aquilegifolium_, 2 ft.,
+  purplish from the conspicuous stamens, the leaves glaucous, is a good
+  border plant; and _T. minus_ has foliage somewhat resembling that of
+  the Maidenhair fern. Ordinary garden soil.
+
+  _Tiarella._--_T. cordifolia_, the foam flower, is very ornamental in
+  border or rockery. Leaves heart-shaped lobed and toothed; flowers
+  white starry; ordinary garden soil.
+
+  _Tigridia._--Lovely bulbous plants called tiger flowers, useful in the
+  warmest parts of the kingdom for the border in rich but gritty soil.
+  _T. Pavonia_, the peacock tiger flower, from Mexico, grows 1 to 2 ft.
+  high, with plaited sword-like leaves, and large flowers about 6 in.
+  across, having zones of violet and yellow blotched with purple and
+  tipped with scarlet. There are many varieties, all charming.
+
+  _Trillium._--_T. grandiflorum_, the wood-lily of North America, is the
+  finest. It has large white flowers and grows freely in peaty soil in
+  shady borders. There are several other species, some with purplish
+  flowers.
+
+  _Tritonia._--A genus of South African plants with fibrous-coated corms
+  or solid bulbs, often known as montbretas. _T. crocata_, 2 ft.,
+  orange-yellow, _T. crocosmiaeflora_, 2 to 2(1/2) ft., orange-scarlet,
+  and _T. Pottsi_, 3 to 4 ft., bright yellow, are the best-known
+  varieties, of which there are many subsidiary ones, some being very
+  large and free in flowering. A rich, gritty soil, and warm, sunny
+  situations are best for these plants.
+
+  _Triteleia._--Charming spring-flowering bulbs, thriving in any good
+  sandy soil. _T. Murrayana_, 8 in., lavender-blue, and _T. uniflora_,
+  6 in., white, are both pretty plants of the easiest culture, either
+  for borders or rockeries.
+
+  _Tritoma._--Splendid stoutish-growing plants of noble aspect,
+  familiarly known as the Poker plant, from their erect, rigid spikes of
+  flame-coloured flowers; sometimes called Kniphofia. _T. Uvaria_, 3 to
+  4 ft., bright orange-red, passing to yellow in the lower flowers, is a
+  fine autumnal decorative plant. They should be protected from frosts
+  by a covering of ashes over the crown during winter.
+
+  _Trollius._--Showy ranunculaceous plants, of free growth, flowering
+  about May and June. _T. europaeus_, 18 in., lemon globular; _T.
+  asiaticus_, 2 ft., deep yellow; and _T. napellifolius_, 2 to 2(1/2) ft.,
+  golden yellow, are all fine showy kinds. Rich and rather moist soil.
+
+  _Tulipa._--Splendid dwarfish bulbs, thriving in deep, sandy,
+  well-enriched garden soil, and increased by offsets. They bloom during
+  the spring and early summer months. _T. Gesneriana_, the parent of the
+  florists' tulip, 12 to 18 in., crimson and other colours; _T.
+  Eichleri_, 1 ft., crimson with dark spot; _T. Greigi_, 1 ft., orange
+  with dark spot edged with yellow, and having dark spotted leaves; _T.
+  oculus solis_, 1 ft., scarlet with black centre; and _T. sylvestris_,
+  12 to 18 in., bright yellow, are showy kinds.
+
+  _Veratrum._--Distinct liliaceous plants with bold ornamental leaves
+  regularly folded and plaited. _V. album_, 3 to 5 ft., has whitish
+  blossoms in dense panicles, 1 to 2 ft. long. _V. nigrum_, 2 to 3 ft.,
+  has blackish-purple flowers, also _V. Maacki_, 2 ft. Rich sandy loam
+  and peat.
+
+  _Verbascum._--Showy border flowers of erect spire-like habit, of the
+  easiest culture. _V. Chaixii_, 4 to 5 ft., yellow, in large pyramidal
+  panicles; _V. phoeniceum_, 3 ft., rich purple or white; and _V.
+  formosum_, 6 ft., golden yellow in dense panicles, are desirable
+  species.
+
+  _Veronica._--The Speedwell family, containing many ornamental members;
+  all the hardy species are of the easiest cultivation in ordinary
+  garden soil. The rotate flowers are in close, erect spikes, sometimes
+  branched. _V. crassifolia_, 2 ft., dark blue; _V. incarnata_, 1(1/2)
+  ft., flesh-colour; _V. corymbosa_, 1(1/2) ft., pale blue in
+  corymbosely-arranged racemes; _V. gentianoides_, 2 ft., grey with blue
+  streaks; _V. spicata_, blue, and its charming white variety _alba_;
+  and _V. virginica_, 5 ft., white, are distinct.
+
+  _Vinca._--Periwinkle. Pretty rock plants, growing freely in ordinary
+  soil. _V. herbacea_, of creeping habit, with purplish-blue flowers;
+  _V. minor_, of trailing habit, blue; and _V. major_, 1 to 2 ft. high,
+  also trailing, are suitable for the rock garden. The last two are
+  evergreen, and afford varieties which differ in the colour of their
+  flowers, while some are single and others double.
+
+  _Viola._--Violet. Charming dwarf plants, mostly evergreen and of
+  tufted habit, requiring well-worked rich sandy soil. _V. calcarata_, 6
+  in., light blue; _V. cornuta_, 6 to 8 in., blue; _V. lutea_, 4 in.,
+  yellow; _V. altaica_, 6 in., yellow or violet with yellow eye; _V.
+  palmaensis_, 6 to 8 in., lavender-blue; _V. pedata_, 6 in., pale blue;
+  and _V. odorata_, the Sweet Violet, in its many single and double
+  flowered varieties, are all desirable.
+
+  _Yucca._--Noble subarborescent liliaceous plants, which should be
+  grown in every garden. They do well in light, well-drained soils, and
+  have a close family resemblance, the inflorescence being a panicle of
+  white, drooping, tulip-shaped flowers, and the foliage rosulate,
+  sword-shaped and spear-pointed. Of the more shrubby-habited sorts _Y.
+  gloriosa_, _recurvifolia_ and _Treculeana_ are good and distinct; and
+  of the dwarfer and more herbaceous sorts _Y. filamentosa_, _flaccida_
+  and _angustifolia_ are distinct and interesting kinds, the first two
+  flowering annually.
+
+  The taste for cultivation of the class of plants, of which the
+  foregoing list embraces some of the more prominent members, is on the
+  increase, and gardens will benefit by its extension.
+
+  HARDY TREES AND SHRUBS.--Much of the beauty of the pleasure garden
+  depends upon the proper selection and disposition of ornamental trees
+  and shrubs. We can only afford space here for lists of some of the
+  better and more useful and ornamental trees and shrubs, old and new.
+
+  The following list, which is not exhaustive, furnishes material from
+  which a selection may be made to suit various soils and situations.
+  The shrubs marked * are climbers.
+
+  _Hardy Deciduous Trees._
+
+    Acer--Maple.                      Larix--Larch.
+    Aesculus--Horse-Chestnut.         Liriodendron--Tulip-tree.
+    Ailantus--Tree of Heaven.         Magnolia.
+    Alnus--Alder.                     Morus--Mulberry.
+    Amygdalus--Almond.                Negundo--Box-Elder.
+    Betula--Birch.                    Ostrya--Hop Hornbeam.
+    Carpinus--Hornbeam.               Paulownia.
+    Carya--Hickory.                   Planera.
+    Castanea--Sweet Chestnut.         Platanus--Plane.
+    Catalpa.                          Populus--Poplar.
+    Celtis--Nettle Tree.              Prunus (Plums, Cherries, &c.).
+    Cercis--Judas Tree.               Ptelea--Hop Tree.
+    Cotoneaster (some species).       Pyrus--Pear, &c.
+    Crataegus--Thorn.                 Quercus--Oak.
+    Davidia.                          Rhus--Sumach.
+    Diospyros.                        Robinia--Locust Tree.
+    Fagus--Beech.                     Salix--Willow.
+    Fraxinus--Ash.                    Sophora.
+    Ginkgo--Maidenhair Tree.          Taxodium--Deciduous Cypress.
+    Gleditschia--Honey Locust.        Tilia--Lime.
+    Gymnocladus--Kentucky Coffee      Tree. Ulmus--Elm.
+    Juglans--Walnut.                  Virgilia.
+    Kolreuteria.                      Xanthoceras.
+    Laburnum.
+
+  _Hardy Evergreen Trees._
+
+    Abies--Silver Fir.                Libocedrus.
+    Araucaria--Chili Pine.            Magnolia grandiflora.
+    Arbutus--Strawberry Tree.         Picea--Spruce Fir.
+    Biota--Arbor Vitae.               Pinus--Pine.
+    Buxus--Box.                       Quercus Ilex--Holm-Oak.
+    Cedrus--Cedar.                    Retinospora.
+    Cephalotaxus.                     Sciadopitys--Umbrella Pine.
+    Cryptomeria--Japan Cedar.         Sequoia (Wellingtonia).
+    Cupressus--Cypress.               Taxus--Yew.
+    Ilex--Holly.                      Thuiopsis.
+    Juniperus--Juniper.               Thuya--Arbor Vitae.
+    Laurus--Bay Laurel.               Tsuga.
+
+  _Hardy Deciduous Shrubs._
+
+    Abelia.                           Halesia--Snowdrop Tree.
+    Acer--Maple.                      Hamamelis--Wych Hazel.
+    Amelanchier.                      Hibiscus--Althaea frutex, &c.
+    Ampelopsis.*                      Hippophae--Sea Buckthorn.
+    Amygdalopsis.                     Hypericum--St John's Wort.
+    Aralia.                           Jasminum*--Jasmine.
+    Aristolochia.*                    Kerria.
+    Berberis--Berberry.               Lonicera*--Honeysuckle.
+    Bignonia*--Trumpet Flower.        Lycium.*
+    Buddleia.                         Magnolia.
+    Calophaca.                        Menispermum*--Moonseed.
+    Calycanthus--Carolina Allspice.   Periploca.*
+    Caragana.                         Philadelphus--Mock Orange.
+    Chimonanthus.                     Rhus--Wig Tree, &c.
+    Clematis.*                        Ribes--Flowering Currant.
+    Colutea--Bladder Senna.           Robinia--Rose Acacia, &c.
+    Cornus--Dogwood.                  Rosa--Rose.
+    Cotoneaster (some species).       Rubus*--Bramble.
+    Crataegus--Thorn.                 Spartium--Spanish Broom.
+    Cydonia--Japan Quince.            Spiraea.
+    Cytisus--Broom, &c.               Staphylaea--Bladder-Nut.
+    Daphne.                           Symphoricarpus--Snowberry.
+    Deutzia.                          Syringa--Lilac.
+    Edwardsia.                        Tamarix--Tamarisk.
+    Euonymus europaeus--Spindle Tree. Viburnum--Guelder Rose, &c.
+    Forsythia.                        Vitis*--Vine.
+    Fremontia.                        Weigela.
+    Genista.
+
+  _Hardy Evergreen Shrubs._
+
+    Akebia.*                          Hedera*--Ivy.
+    Arbutus.                          Hypericum--St John's Wort.
+    Aucuba--Japan Laurel.             Ilex--Holly.
+    Azara.                            Jasminum*--Jasmine.
+    Bambusa--Bamboo.                  Kadsura.*
+    Berberidopsis.*                   Lardizabala.*
+    Berberis--Berberry.               Laurus--Sweet Bay.
+    Buddleia.                         Ligustrum--Privet.
+    Bupleurum.                        Lonicera*--Honeysuckle.
+    Buxus--Box.                       Osmanthus.
+    Ceanothus.                        Pernettya.
+    Cerasus--Cherry-Laurel, &c.       Phillyrea.
+    Cistus-Sun-Rose.                  Photinia.
+    Cotoneaster.                      Rhamnus Alaternus.
+    Crataegus Pyracantha--Fire Thorn. Rhododendron--Rose-Bay.
+    Daphne.                           Rosa*--Rose.
+    Desfontainea.                     Ruscus.
+    Elaeagnus--Oleaster.              Skimmia.
+    Erica--Heath.                     Smilax.*
+    Escallonia.                       Stauntonia.*
+    Euonymus.                         Ulex--Furze.
+    Fabiana.                          Viburnum--Laurustinus.
+    Fatsia (Aralia).                  Vinca--Periwinkle.
+    Garrya.                           Yucca--Adam's Needle.
+    Griselinia.
+
+  BEDDING PLANTS.--This term is chiefly applied to those
+  summer-flowering plants, such as ivy-leaved and zonal pelargoniums,
+  petunias, dwarf lobelias, verbenas, &c., which are employed in masses
+  for filling the beds of a geometrical parterre. Of late years,
+  however, more attention has been bestowed on arrangements of brilliant
+  flowering plants with those of fine foliage, and the massing also of
+  hardy early-blooming plants in parterre fashion has been very greatly
+  extended. Bedding plants thrive best in a light loam, liberally
+  manured with thoroughly rotten dung from an old hotbed or thoroughly
+  decomposed cow droppings and leaf-mould.
+
+  _Spring Bedding._--For this description of bedding, hardy plants only
+  must be used; but even then the choice is tolerably extensive. For
+  example, there are the Alyssums, of which _A. saxatile_ and _A.
+  gemonense_ are in cultivation; _Antennaria tomentosa_; the double
+  white _Arabis albida_; Aubrietias, of which the best sorts are _A.
+  Campbelliae_ and _A. grandiflora_; the double _Bellis perennis_ or
+  Daisy; the Wallflowers, including _Cheiranthus Cheiri_ (the Common
+  Wallflower), _C. alpina_ and _C. Marshallii_; Hepaticas, the principal
+  of which are the varieties of _H. triloba_, and the blue _H.
+  angulosa_; Iberis or Candytuft; _Lithospermum fruticosum_; Myosotis or
+  Forget-me-not, including _M. alpestris_, _M. dissitiflora_, _M.
+  azorica_ and _M. sylvestris_; Phloxes, like _P. subulata_, with its
+  varieties _setacea_, _Nelsoni_, _nivalis_; the single-flowered
+  varieties of the Primrose, _Primula vulgaris_; the Polyanthuses;
+  _Pyrethrum Parthenium aureum_, called Golden Feather; _Sempervivum
+  calcareum_; the pink-flowered _Silene pendula_; self-coloured
+  varieties of the Pansy, _V. tricolor_, and of _V. lutea_ and _V.
+  cornuta_, as well as some recent hybrids. Besides these there are the
+  various spring-flowering bulbs, such as the varieties of Hyacinthus,
+  Tulipa, Narcissus, Fritillaria, Muscari or Grape Hyacinth, Crocus,
+  Scilla, Chionodoxa and Galanthus or Snowdrop.
+
+  _Summer Bedding._--There is great variety amongst the plants which are
+  used for bedding-out in the garden during the summer months, but we
+  can note only some of the most important of them. Amongst them are the
+  Ageratums, the old tall-growing sorts of which have been superseded by
+  dwarfer blue and white flowered varieties; Alternantheras, the
+  principal of which are _A. amoena_, _amoena spectabilis_, _magnifica_,
+  _paronychioides major aurea_ and _amabilis_; _Alyssum maritimum
+  variegatum_; some of the dwarf varieties of _Antirrhinum majus_;
+  _Arundo Donax variegata_; Begonias; Calceolarias; Cannas; _Centaurea
+  ragusina_; Clematises, of which the hybrids of the _Jackmanni_ type
+  are best; _Dahlia variabilis_, and the single-flowered forms of _D.
+  coccinea_; Echeverias, of which _E. secunda_ and _E. metallica_ are
+  much employed; Gazanias; Heliotropes; Iresines; Lantanas; Lobelias;
+  _Mesembryanthemum cordifolium variegatum_; Pelargoniums, of which the
+  various classes of zonal or bedding varieties are unapproachable for
+  effect and general utility; Petunias; Phloxes; _Polemonium coeruleum
+  variegatum_; _Pyrethrum Parthenium aureum_, the well-known Golden
+  Feather, especially useful as an edging to define the outline of beds
+  upon grass; Tropaeolums, especially some of the varieties of _T.
+  Lobbianum_; and Verbenas, the offspring of _Tweedieana_,
+  _chamaedrifolia_ and others. Few bulbs come into the summer flower
+  gardens, but amongst those which should always be well represented are
+  the Gladiolus, the Lilium, the Tigridia and the Montbretia.
+
+  _Subtropical Bedding._--Foliage and the less common flowering plants
+  may be used either in masses of one kind, or in groups arranged for
+  contrast, or as the centres of groups of less imposing or of
+  dwarfer-flowering subjects; or they may be planted as single specimens
+  in appropriate open spaces, in recesses, or as distant striking
+  objects terminating a vista.
+
+  _Carpet Bedding_ consists in covering the surface of a bed, or a
+  series of beds forming a design, with close, low-growing plants, in
+  which certain figures are brought out by means of plants of a
+  different habit or having different coloured leaves. Sometimes, in
+  addition to the carpet or ground colour, individual plants of larger
+  size and handsome appearance are dotted symmetrically over the beds,
+  an arrangement which is very telling. Some of the best plants for
+  carpeting the surface of the beds are: _Antennaria tomentosa_ and
+  _Leucophytum Browni_, white; _Sedum acre_, _dasyphyllum_, _corsicum_
+  and _glaucum_, grey; and _Sedum Lydium_, _Mentha Pulegium
+  gibraltarica_, _Sagina subulata_ and _Herniaria glabra_, green. The
+  Alternantheras, Amaranthuses, Iresines and _Coleus Verschaffelti_
+  furnish high and warm colours; while _Pyrethrum Parthenium aureum_
+  yields greenish-yellow: _Thymus citriodorus aureus_, yellowish;
+  _Mesembryanthemum cordifolium variegatum_, creamy yellow; Centaureas
+  and others, white; _Lobelia Erinus_, blue; and the succulent
+  Echeverias and Sempervivums, glaucous rosettes, which last add much to
+  the general effect. In connexion with the various designs such fine
+  plants as _Agave americana_, _Dracaena indivisa_ are often used as
+  centre-pieces.
+
+  GREENHOUSE PLANTS.--These are plants requiring the shelter of a glass
+  house, provided with a moderate degree of heat, of which 45 deg. Fahr.
+  may be taken as the minimum in winter. The house should be opened for
+  ventilation in all mild weather in winter, and daily throughout the
+  rest of the year. The following is a select list of genera of
+  miscellaneous decorative plants (orchids, palms and ferns excluded;
+  climbers are denoted by *; bulbous and tuberous plants by +):
+
+    Abutilon            Coleus                Lachenalia+
+    Acacia              Coprosma              Lantana
+    Agapanthus          Cordyline             Lapageria*
+    Agathaea            Correa                Lilium+
+    Agave               Cuphea                Lophospermum*
+    Alonsoa             Cyclamen+             Mandevillea*
+    Aloysia             Cyperus               Manettia*
+    Amaryllis+          Cytisus               Mutisia*
+    Ardisia             Darwinia (Genetyllis) Myrsiphyllum*
+    Asparagus           Diosma                Maurandya*
+    Aspidistra          Dracaena              Nerine+
+    Asystasia (Mackaya) Eccremocarpus*        Nerium
+    Azalea              Epacris               Pelargonium
+    Bauera              Epiphyllum            Petunia
+    Begonia+            Erica                 Pimelia
+    Blandfordia         Eriostemon            Plumbago*
+    Bomarea*            Erythrina             Polianthes+
+    Boronia             Eucalyptus            Primula
+    Bougainvillea*      Eupatorium            Rhododendron
+    Bouvardia           Eurya                 Richardia (Calla)+
+    Brugmansia          Ficus                 Salvia
+    Calceolaria         Fuchsia               Sarracenia
+    Camellia            Grevillea             Solanum
+    Campanula           Haemanthus+           Sparmannia
+    Canna               Heliotropium          Statice
+    Celosia             Hibiscus              Strelitzia
+    Cestrum*            Hoya*                 Streptocarpus
+    Chorizema*          Hydrangea             Swainsonia
+    Chrysanthemum       Impatiens             Tacsonia*
+    Cineraria           Jasminum*             Tecoma
+    Clianthus           Justicia              Tradescantia
+    Clivia              Kalosanthes           Vallota+
+    Cobaea*
+
+  STOVE PLANTS.--For the successful culture of stove plants two houses
+  at least, wherein different temperatures can be maintained, should be
+  devoted to their growth. The minimum temperature during winter should
+  range at night from about 55 deg. in the cooler to 65 deg. in the
+  warmer house, and from 65 deg. to 75 deg. by day, allowing a few
+  degrees further rise by sun heat. In summer the temperature may range
+  10 deg. higher by artificial heat, night and day, and will often by
+  sun heat run up to 90 deg. or even 95 deg., beyond which it should be
+  kept down by ventilation and frequent syringing and damping down of
+  the pathways. During the growing period the atmosphere must be kept
+  moist by damping the walls and pathways, and by syringing the plants
+  according to their needs; when growth is completed less moisture will
+  be necessary. Watering, which, except during the resting period,
+  should generally be copious, is best done in the forenoon; while
+  syringing should be done early in the morning before the sun becomes
+  too powerful, and late in the afternoon to admit of the foliage drying
+  moderately before night. The following is a select list of genera of
+  stove plants (climbers are denoted by *, bulbous and tuberous plants
+  by +):
+
+    Acalypha            Cyanophyllum (Miconia) Musa
+    Achimenes+          Cycas                  Nelumbium+
+    Aeschynanthus       Dieffenbachia          Nepenthes
+    Allamanda*          Dipladenia*            Nymphaea+
+    Alocasia+           Dracaena               Oxera*
+    Amaryllis+          Eranthemum             Pancratium+
+    Anthurium           Eucharis+              Pandanus
+    Aphelandra          Euphorbia              Passiflora*
+    Aralia              Ficus                  Pavetta
+    Ardisia             Franciscea             Petraea*
+    Arisaema+           Gardenia               Pleroma*
+    Aristolochia*       Gesnera                Poinsettia
+    Ataccia             Gloriosa*              Rondeletia
+    Begonia             Gloxinia+              Sanchezia
+    Bertolonia          Heliconia+             Schubertia*
+    Bignonia*           Hoffmannia             Scutellaria
+    Bromeliads          Ipomaea*               Stephanotis
+    Cactus              Ixora                  Tabernaemontana
+    Caladium+           Jacobinia              Terminalia
+    Calathea            Jasminum*              Thunbergia
+    Centropogon         Luculia                Torenia
+    Cissus*             Maranta                Thyrsacanthus
+    Clerodendron*       Medinilla              Tydaea
+    Crinum+             Meyenia                Vinca
+    Codiaeum (Croton)
+
+  ORCHIDS.--For the successful cultivation of a mixed collection of
+  tropical orchids, it is necessary that two or three houses, in which
+  different temperatures can be maintained, should be provided. The
+  greater number of them are epiphytes or plants that grow on others
+  without absorbing nourishment from them, and heat and moisture afford
+  all or nearly all the nourishment they require. At one time it was
+  thought the plants themselves were better for being associated with
+  such objects as ferns and palms, but they are best grown by
+  themselves.
+
+  The East Indian orchid house takes in those species which are found in
+  the warm parts of the eastern hemisphere, as well as those from the
+  hottest parts of the western, and its temperature should range from
+  about 70 deg. to 80 deg. during the summer or growing season and from
+  65 deg. to 70 deg. during winter. The Mexican or Brazilian orchid
+  house accommodates the plants from the warm parts of South America,
+  and its temperature should range from about 65 deg. to 75 deg. during
+  summer and from 60 deg. to 65 deg. in winter. A structure called the
+  cool orchid house is set apart for the accommodation of the many
+  lovely mountain species from South America and India, such as
+  _odontoglossums_, _masdevallias_, &c., and in this the more uniform
+  the temperature can be kept the better, that in summer varying between
+  60 deg. and 65 deg., and in winter from 45 deg. to 60 deg. A genial
+  moist atmosphere must be kept up in the hottest houses during the
+  growing season, with a free circulation of air admitted very
+  cautiously by well-guarded ventilators. In winter, when the plants are
+  at rest, little water will be necessary; but in the case of those
+  plants which have no fleshy pseudobulbs to fall back upon for
+  sustenance, they must not be suffered to become so dry as to cause the
+  leaves to shrivel. In the Mexican house the plants will generally be
+  able to withstand greater drought occasionally, being greatly assisted
+  by their thick pseudobulbs. In the cool or odontoglossum house a
+  considerable degree of moisture must be maintained at all times, for
+  in these the plants keep growing more or less continuously.
+
+  For potting or basketing purposes, or for plants requiring
+  block-culture, the materials used are light fibrous peat, special
+  leaf-mould, osmunda or polypodium fibre and living sphagnum moss,
+  which supply free drainage for the copious supply of water required.
+  Good turfy loam is also used for some, such as _cypripediums_ and
+  _calanthes_. Indeed the composts now used are varied considerably
+  according to the particular group of orchids. The water should,
+  however, be so used as not to run down into the sheathing bases of the
+  leaves. While in flower, orchids may with advantage be removed to a
+  drier and cooler situation, and may be utilized in the drawing-room or
+  boudoir. Of late years not only have many fine hybrids been raised
+  artificially between various species, but some remarkable bigeneric
+  hybrids (between what are considered two distinct genera) have also
+  been produced (indicated in the list below by *). To keep a valuable
+  collection of orchids in good condition requires the services of an
+  expert orchid grower.
+
+  The following is a select list of genera in cultivation:--
+
+    Acineta             Cymbidium             Peristeria
+    Ada                 Cypripedium           Pescatorea
+    Aerides             Cyrtopodium           Phajus
+    Angraecum           Dendrobium            Phaio-calanthe*
+    Anguloa             Diacrium              Phalaenopsis
+    Anoectochilus       Disa                  Pilumna
+    Ansellia            Epidendrum            Platyclinis
+    Arachnanthe         Eulophia              Pleione
+    Arpophyllum         Eulophiella           Pleurothallis
+    Barkeria            Galeandra             Polystachya
+    Batemannia          Gongora               Promenaea
+    Bifrenaria          Grammatophyllum       Renanthera
+    Brassavola          Habenaria             Restrepia
+    Brassia             Houlletia             Rodriguezia
+    Brasso-Cattleya*    Ionopsis              Saccolabium
+    Broughtonia         Ipsea                 Schomburgkia
+    Bulbophyllum        Laelia                Scuticaria
+    Burlingtonia        Laelio-Cattleya*      Sobralia
+    Calanthe            Leptotes              Sophro-cattleya*
+    Catasetum           Lissochilus           Sophronitis
+    Cattleya            Lycaste               Spathoglottis
+    Chysis              Masdevallia           Stanhopea
+    Cirrhopetalum       Miltonia              Thunia
+    Cochlioda           Mormodes              Trichopilia
+    Coelia              Odontoglossum         Trichosma
+    Coelogyne           Odontioda*            Vanda
+    Comparettia         Oncidium              Zygo-colax*
+    Cycnoches           Pachystoma            Zygopetalum
+
+  PALMS.--These form charming table and drawing-room plants when quite
+  young. When more fully developed, and long before their full growth is
+  attained, they are among the most decorative plants known for the
+  conservatory and for subtropical gardening. They are easily
+  cultivated, but should not be allowed to become dry. The soil should
+  consist of about 3 parts turfy loam, 1 part leaf mould, 1 part coarse
+  silver sand, with enough chemical or other manure added to render the
+  whole moderately rich. The older plants will occasionally require the
+  roots pruned in order to keep them in as small pots as possible
+  without being starved. This should be done early in the spring, and
+  the plants heavily shaded until feeding roots are again produced. It
+  is of advantage to afford stove culture while the plants are quite
+  young. A little later most of the genera succeed well under moderately
+  cool conditions.
+
+  The following genera are among those most commonly cultivated:
+
+    Acanthophoenix      Chamaerops            Martinezia
+    Acanthorhiza        Cocos                 Oreodoxa
+    Areca               Corypha               Phoenix
+    Bactris             Geonoma               Pritchardia
+    Brahea              Hyophorbe             Rhapis
+    Calamus             Kentia                Sabal
+    Caryota             Latania               Stevensonia
+    Ceroxylon           Livistonia            Thrinax
+    Chamaedorea
+
+  FERNS.--These popular plants are usually increased by means of their
+  spores, the "dust" produced on the back of their fronds. The spores
+  should be sown in well-drained pots or seed pans on the surface of a
+  mixture of fibrous sifted peat and small broken crocks or sandstone;
+  this soil should be firmly pressed and well-watered, and the spores
+  scattered over it, and at once covered with propagating glasses or
+  pieces of sheet glass, to prevent water or dry air getting to the
+  surface. The pots should be placed in pans full of water, which they
+  will absorb as required. A shady place is desirable, with temperature
+  of 50 deg. to 55 deg. by night and 65 deg. to 70 deg. by day, or they
+  may be set on a shelf in an ordinary propagating pit. The spores may
+  be sown as soon as ripe, and when the young plants can be handled, or
+  rather can be lifted with the end of a pointed flat stick, they should
+  be pricked out into well-drained pots or pans filled with similar soil
+  and should be kept moist and shady. As they become large enough, pot
+  them singly in 3-in. pots, and when the pots are fairly filled with
+  roots shift on into larger ones.
+
+  The best time for a general repotting of ferns is in spring, just
+  before growth commences. Those with creeping rhizomes can be
+  propagated by dividing these into well-rooted portions, and, if a
+  number of crowns is formed, they can be divided at that season. In
+  most cases this can be performed with little risk, but the
+  gleichenias, for example, must only be cut into large portions, as
+  small divisions of the rhizomes are almost certain to die; in such
+  cases, however, the points of the rhizomes can be led over and layered
+  into small pots, several in succession, and allowed to remain
+  unsevered from the parent plant until they become well-rooted. In
+  potting the well-established plants, and all those of considerable
+  size, the soil should be used in a rough turfy state, not sifted but
+  broken, and one-sixth of broken crocks or charcoal and as much sand as
+  will insure free percolation should be mixed with it.
+
+  The stove ferns require a day temperature of 65 deg. to 75 deg., but
+  do not thrive in an excessively high or close dry atmosphere. They
+  require only such shade as will shut out the direct rays of the sun,
+  and, though abundant moisture must be supplied, the atmosphere should
+  not be overloaded with it. Ferns should not be allowed to become quite
+  dry at the root, and the water used should always be at or near the
+  temperature of the house in which the plants are growing. Some ferns,
+  as the different kinds of Gymnogramme and Cheilanthes, prefer a drier
+  atmosphere than others, and the former do not well bear a lower winter
+  temperature than about 60 deg. by night. Most other stove ferns, if
+  dormant, will bear a temperature as low as 55 deg. by night and 60
+  deg. by day from November to February. About the end of the latter
+  month the whole collection should be turned out of the pots, and
+  redrained or repotted into larger pots as required. This should take
+  place before growth has commenced. Towards the end of March the night
+  temperature may be raised to 60 deg., and the day temperature to 70
+  deg. or 75 deg., the plants being shaded in bright weather. Such ferns
+  as Gymnogrammes, which have their surface covered with golden or
+  silver powder, and certain species of scaly-surfaced Cheilanthes and
+  Nothochlaena, as they cannot bear to have their fronds wetted, should
+  never be syringed; but most other ferns may have a moderate sprinkling
+  occasionally (not necessarily daily), and as the season advances,
+  sufficient air and light must be admitted to solidify the tissues.
+
+  Hardy British ferns belonging to such genera as Asplenium, Nephrodium,
+  Aspidium, Scolopendrium, have become fairly popular of late years, and
+  many charming varieties are now used in borders and rockeries. Spores
+  may be sown as above described, but in a much lower temperature.
+
+  The following is a select list of genera:--
+
+    Acrostichum         Davallia              Osmunda
+    Actiniopteris       Dicksonia             Onoclea
+    Adiantum            Gleichenia            Phlebodium
+    Alsophila           Gymnogramme           Platycerium
+    Aspidium            Hymenophyllum         Polypodium
+    Asplenium           Lastrea               Pteris
+    Blechnum            Lomaria               Scolopendrium
+    Cheilanthes         Lygodium              Todea
+    Cibotium            Nephrodium            Trichomanes
+    Cyathea             Nephrolepis           Woodwardia
+
+
+VI. _Fruits._
+
+_Fruit-Tree Borders._--No pains should be spared, in the preparation of
+fruit-tree borders, to secure their thorough drainage. In case of
+adhesive clayey subsoil this can generally be secured by placing over
+the sloping bottom a good layer of coarse rubbly material, communicating
+with a drain in front to carry off the water, while earthenware drain
+tubes may be laid beneath the rubble from 8 to 10 ft. apart, so as to
+form air drains, and provided with openings both at the side of the walk
+and also near the base of the wall. Over this rubbly matter, rough turfy
+soil, grass-side downwards, should be laid, and on this the good
+prepared soil in which the trees are to be planted.
+
+The borders should consist of 3 parts rich turfy loam, the top spit of a
+pasture, and 1 part light gritty earth, such as road-grit, with a small
+portion (one-sixth) of fine brick rubbish. They should not be less than
+12 ft. in breadth, and may vary up to 15 or 18 ft., with a fall from the
+wall of about 1 in. in 3 ft. The border itself should be raised a foot
+or more above the general level. The bottom of the border as well as
+that of the drain must be kept lower than the general level of the
+subsoil, else the soakage will gather in all the little depressions of
+its surface. Fruit-tree borders should not be at all cropped with
+culinary vegetables, or very slightly so, as the process of digging
+destroys the roots of the trees, and drives them from near the surface,
+where they ought to be.
+
+Shallow planting, whether of wall trees or standards, is generally to be
+preferred, a covering of a few inches of soil being sufficient for the
+roots, but a surface of at least equal size to the surface of the hole
+should be covered with dung or litter so as to restrain evaporation and
+preserve moisture. In the case of wall trees, a space of 5 or 6 in. is
+usually left between the stem at the insertion of the roots and the
+wall, to allow for increase of girth. Young standard trees should be
+tied to stakes so as to prevent their roots being ruptured by the
+wind-waving of the stems and to keep them erect. The best time for
+planting fruit trees in the open air is from the end of September till
+the end of November in open weather.
+
+In the selection and distribution of fruit trees regard must of course
+be had to local situation and climate. The best walls having a south or
+south-east aspect are devoted to the peach, nectarine, apricot, dessert
+pears, plums and early cherries. Cherries and the generality of plums
+succeed very well either on an east or a west aspect. Morello cherries,
+apples and stewing pears succeed well on a north wall. In Scotland the
+mulberry requires the protection of a wall, and several of the finer
+apples and pears do not arrive at perfection without this help and a
+tolerably good aspect. The wall-trees intended to be permanent are
+called dwarfs, from their branches springing from near the ground.
+Between these, trees with tall stems, called riders, are planted as
+temporary occupants of the upper part of the wall. The riders should
+have been trained in the nursery into good-sized trees, in order that
+when planted out they may come into bearing as speedily as possible.
+
+_Standard Fruit Trees_ should not be planted, if it can be avoided, in
+the borders of the kitchen garden, but in the outer slips, where they
+either may be allowed to attain their full size or may be kept dwarfed.
+Each sort of fruit should be planted by itself, for the sake of orderly
+arrangement, and in order to facilitate protection when necessary by a
+covering of nets. Their produce is often superior in flavour to that of
+the same kind of fruit grown on walls.
+
+_Orchard-house Trees._--Peaches, nectarines, apricots, figs and dessert
+plums, cherries, apples and pears are commonly cultivated in the
+orchard-house. Peaches and nectarines are generally planted out, while
+the rest are more commonly cultivated in pots. This allows of the
+hardier pot plants being removed out of doors while those planted out
+are in need of the room. The pot plants are overhauled in the autumn,
+the roots pruned, a layer being cut off to allow new soil to be
+introduced. Surface dressing and feeding by liquid manure should also be
+afforded these plants while the fruit is swelling. Every effort should
+be made to complete the growth of peaches and nectarines while the sun
+is sufficiently strong to ripen them. Tomatoes are frequently employed
+to fill gaps in the orchard-house. Should it be provided with a central
+path, requiring shade, Hambro and Sweet-water grapes serve the purpose
+well, and in favourable seasons afford excellent crops of fruit.
+
+
+VII. _Vegetables._
+
+Under this head are included those esculents which are largely eaten as
+"vegetables" or as "salads." The more important are treated under their
+individual headings (see ARTICHOKE, ASPARAGUS, BEAN, &c. &c.). The
+culinary herbs used for flavouring and garnishing are for the most part
+dwarf perennial plants requiring to be grown on a rich soil in an open
+sunny aspect, or annuals for which a warm sheltered border is the most
+suitable place; and they may therefore be conveniently grown together in
+the same compartment--a herb garden. The perennials should be
+transplanted either every year or every second year. For winter use the
+tops of the most useful kinds of herbs should be cut when in flower or
+full leaf and quite dry, and spread out in an airy but shady place so
+as to part slowly with the moisture they contain and at the same time
+retain their aromatic properties. When quite dry they should be put into
+dry wide-mouthed bottles and kept closely corked. In this way such herbs
+as basil, marjoram, mint, sage, savory, thyme, balm, chamomile,
+horehound, hyssop and rue, as well as parsley, may be had throughout the
+season with almost the full flavour of the fresh herb.
+
+_Intensive Cultivation._--This name has been applied to the method of
+forcing early vegetables and salads during the winter and spring months
+in the market gardens in the neighbourhood of Paris. The system is now
+popularly known in England as "French gardening." Although a few assert
+that it is an old English one that has been discarded in favour of
+superior methods, there seems to be little or no evidence in support of
+this contention. The system itself has been practised for about 300
+years in the "marais" gardens round Paris. At one time these gardens
+were in the centre of the city itself, but owing to modern improvements
+they have been gradually pushed out beyond the city boundaries farther
+and farther. Most of these gardens are small--not more than a couple of
+acres in extent, and the rent paid by the _maraicher_, or market
+gardener, is very high--as much as L30 to L40 per acre.
+
+The French _maraicher_ does not use hot-water apparatus for forcing his
+plants into early growth. He relies mainly upon the best stable manure,
+a few shallow frames about 4(1/2) ft. wide covered with lights, and a
+number of large bell glasses or "cloches." The work is carried on from
+October till the end of March and April, after which, with the exception
+of melons, the cultures are carried on in the open air.
+
+The chief crops grown for early supplies, or "primeurs" as they are
+called, are special varieties of cos and cabbage lettuces, short
+carrots, radishes, turnips, cauliflowers, endives, spinach, onions, corn
+salad and celery. To these is added a very important crop of melons, a
+special large-fruited variety known as the Prescott Canteloup being the
+most favoured.
+
+It is astonishing how much produce is taken off one of these small
+intensive gardens during the year, and especially during the worst
+months when prices usually run fairly high. The fact that rents are so
+heavy around Paris is in itself an indication of the money that is
+realized by the growers not only in the Paris markets, but also in
+Covent Garden.
+
+During the winter season narrow beds are made up of manure, either quite
+fresh or mixed with old manure, according to the amount of heat
+required. These beds are covered with a few inches of the fine old mould
+obtained from the decayed manure of previous years. In the early stages
+seeds of carrots and radishes are sown simultaneously on the same beds,
+and over them young lettuces that have been raised in advance are
+planted. In this way three crops are actually on the same beds at the
+same time. Owing, however, to the difference in their vegetative growth,
+they mature one after the other instead of simultaneously. Thus with the
+genial warmth and moisture of the hotbeds, all crops grow rapidly, but
+the radishes mature first, then the lettuces are taken off in due
+course, thus leaving the beds to finish up with the carrots by
+themselves. Later on in the season, perhaps small cauliflowers will be
+planted along the margins of the beds where the carrots are growing, and
+will be developing into larger plants requiring more space by the time
+all the carrots have been picked and marketed. So on throughout the year
+with other crops, this system of intercropping or overlapping of one
+crop with another is carried out in a most ingenious manner, not only
+under glass lights, but also in the open air. Spinach, corn salad,
+radishes and carrots are the favourite crops for sowing between others
+such as lettuces and cauliflowers.
+
+Although enormous quantities of water are required during the summer
+season, great care must be exercised in applying water to the winter
+crops. When severe frost prevails the lights or cloches are rarely taken
+off except to gather mature specimens; and no water is given directly
+overhead to the plants for fear of chilling them and checking growth.
+They must secure their supply of moisture from the rain that falls on
+the glass, and flows into the narrow pathways from 9 in. to 12 in. wide
+between each range of frames. As the beds are only about 4(1/2) ft.
+wide, the water from the pathways is soaked up on each side by capillary
+attraction, and in this way the roots secure a sufficient supply.
+
+Besides an abundance of water in summer there must also be an enormous
+quantity of good stable manure available during the winter months. This
+is necessary not only to make up the required hotbeds in the first
+place, but also to fill in the pathways between the frames, wherever it
+is considered advisable to maintain the heat within the frames at a
+certain point. As it is impossible to use an ordinary wheelbarrow in
+these narrow pathways, the workman carries a specially made wicker
+basket called a "hotte" on his shoulders by means of two straps. In this
+way large quantities of manure are easily transported to any required
+spot, and although the work looks hard to an English gardener, the
+Frenchman says he can carry more manure with less fatigue in half a day
+than an Englishman can transport in a day with a wheelbarrow.
+
+This is merely an outline of the system, which is now being taken up in
+various parts of the United Kingdom, but not too rapidly. The initial
+expenses for frames, lights, cloches, mats and water-supply are in many
+cases prohibitive to men with the necessary gardening experience, while
+on the other hand those who have the capital lack the practical
+knowledge so essential to success.
+
+  For full details of this system see _French Market-Gardening, with
+  details of Intensive Cultivation_, by John Weathers (London, 1909).
+
+  VIII.--_Calendar of Garden Operations (A) for Great Britain._
+
+  JANUARY
+
+  _Kitchen Garden._--Wheel out manure and composts during frosty
+  weather; trench vacant ground not turned up roughly in autumn. Sow
+  early peas in a cold frame for transplanting. Sow also first-crop
+  peas, early in the month, and William I. towards the end; Early
+  Seville and Early Longpod beans; and short-topped radish in two or
+  three sowings, at a week's interval, all on a warm border; also Hardy
+  Green and Brown cos lettuce in a frame or on south border. Plant
+  shallots and Ashleaf potatoes on a warm border. Protect broccoli as it
+  becomes fit for use, or remove to a dry shed or cellar; lettuces and
+  endive, which are best planted in frames; and parsley in frames so as
+  to be accessible.
+
+  _Fruit Garden._--Plant fruit trees in open weather, if not done in
+  autumn, which is the proper season, mulching over the roots to protect
+  them from frost, and from drought which may occur in spring. Prune
+  fruit trees in mild weather or in moderate frosts, nailing only in
+  fine weather. Wash trees infested with insects with one of the many
+  insecticides now obtainable. Take off grafts, and lay them aside in
+  moist earth in a shady place.
+
+  _Forcing._--Prepare manure for making up hotbeds for early cucumbers
+  and melons, where pits heated with hot water are not in use; also for
+  Ashleaf potatoes. Sow also in heat mustard and cress for salads,
+  onions for salads; tomatoes, celery to be pricked out for an early
+  crop; and Early Horn carrot and kidney-beans on slight hotbeds. Force
+  asparagus, sea-kale and rhubarb, in hotbeds, in pits, in the
+  mushroom-house or in the open garden by the use of covers surrounded
+  with warm litter; for cucumbers a top heat of 70 deg.; for vines in
+  leaf and flower a temperature ranging from 65 deg. to 70 deg. Keep
+  forced strawberries with swelling fruit well watered. Plant vine eyes
+  for propagation in a brisk heat.
+
+  _Plant Houses._--Give abundance of air to the greenhouse, conservatory
+  and alpine frame in mild weather, but use little water. A supply of
+  roses, kalmias, rhododendrons, &c., and of hardy flowers and bulbs, as
+  lily of the valley, hyacinths, tulips, daffodils, &c., should be kept
+  up by forcing.
+
+  _Flower Garden._---Plant out tubers and bulbs of border flowers, where
+  neglected in autumn, deferring the finer florists' flowers till next
+  month. Transplant herbaceous plants in light soils, if not done in
+  autumn; also deciduous trees, shrubs and hedges. Lay edgings in fine
+  weather. Sow mignonette, stocks, &c., in pots; sow sweet peas and a
+  few hardy annuals on a warm border. Give auriculas and carnations
+  abundance of air, but keep the roots rather dry to prevent damping
+  off.
+
+  FEBRUARY
+
+  _Kitchen Garden._--Sow successional crops of Early Seville beans, and
+  William I., American Wonder or other peas in the beginning and end of
+  the month; early cabbages to follow the last sowing in August; red
+  cabbages and savoys towards the end. Sow also Early Horn carrot; Early
+  Purple-top Munich turnip; onions for a full crop in light soils, with
+  a few leeks and some parsley. Sow lettuce for succession, with
+  radishes and Round-leaved spinach, twice in the course of the month;
+  and small salads every fortnight. Plant Jerusalem artichokes,
+  shallots, garlic, horse-radish and early potatoes. Transplant to the
+  bottom of a south wall a portion of the peas sown in pots in frames in
+  November and January for the first crop. Sow Brussels sprouts in
+  gentle heat for an early crop.
+
+  _Fruit Garden._--Prune apricots, peaches, nectarines and plums, before
+  the buds are much swelled; finish pruning apples, pears, cherries,
+  gooseberries, currants and raspberries, before the end of the month;
+  also the dressing of vines. Keep the fruit-room free from spoiled
+  fruit, and shut it close. Cut down the double-bearing raspberries to
+  secure strong autumn-fruiting shoots. Head back stocks preparatory to
+  grafting.
+
+  _Forcing._--Sow melons and cucumbers on hotbeds and in pits. Sow
+  carrots, turnips, early celery, also aubergines or egg-plants,
+  capsicums, tomatoes and successional crops of kidney-beans;
+  cauliflower and Brussels sprouts, in gentle heat, to be afterwards
+  planted out. Plant early potatoes on slight hotbeds. Continue the
+  forcing of asparagus, rhubarb and sea-kale. Commence or continue the
+  forcing of the various choice fruits, as vines, peaches, figs,
+  cherries, strawberries, &c. Pot roots of mint and place in heat to
+  produce sprigs for mint sauce. Be careful to protect the stems of
+  vines that are outside the forcing-houses.
+
+  _Plant Houses._--Let the greenhouse and conservatory have plenty of
+  air in mild weather. Pot and start tuberous-rooted begonias and
+  gloxinias. Pot young plants of Hippeastrum, and start the established
+  ones. Propagate chrysanthemums in cool-house or vinery under hand
+  lights or frames. Put plants of fuchsias, petunias, verbenas,
+  heliotropes, salvias and other soft-wooded subjects, into a
+  propagating house to obtain cuttings, &c., for the flower garden. Sow
+  stocks, dahlias and a few tender and half-hardy annuals, on a slight
+  hotbed, or in pots. Propagate old roots of dahlias by cuttings of the
+  young shoots in a hotbed. Sow petunias in heat, and prick out and
+  harden for bedding out; also gloxinias to be grown on in heat till the
+  flowering season.
+
+  _Flower Garden._--In dry open weather plant dried roots, including
+  most of the finer florists' flowers; continue the transplanting of
+  hardy biennial flowers and herbaceous plants. Sow in the last week
+  mignonette, and hardy annuals, in a warm border, for subsequent
+  transplanting.
+
+  MARCH
+
+  _Kitchen Garden._--Sow main crops of wrinkled marrow peas; Longpod and
+  Windsor beans; cabbage, onions, leeks, Early Horn carrots, parsnips,
+  salsafy, scorzonera, Brussels sprouts, borecoles, lettuces and
+  spinach. In the beginning and also at the end of the month sow Early
+  Strap-leaf and Early Snowball turnips and savoys. In the last
+  fortnight sow asparagus, cauliflower and the various sweet and savoury
+  herbs; also sea-kale, radishes, celery, celeriac and parsley. Small
+  salads should be sown every ten days. Make up beds for mushrooms with
+  well-prepared dung towards the end of the month. Plant early potatoes
+  in the first week, and a main crop during the last fortnight.
+  Sea-kale, asparagus and peas raised in frames may now be planted; also
+  garlic and shallots. Full crops of cabbages should be planted out;
+  also cauliflowers under hand-glasses. Propagate by slips, or by
+  earthing up the old stems, the various pot-herbs.
+
+  _Fruit Garden._--Finish the pruning of fruit trees before the middle
+  of the month. Protect those coming into blossom. Begin grafting in the
+  third week; dig and dress between the rows of gooseberries, currants
+  and other fruit trees, if not already done. Kill wasps assiduously as
+  soon as they appear.
+
+  _Forcing._--Continue the forcing of melons, cucumbers, tomatoes and
+  the various fruits. In the vinery and peach-house, attend to the
+  keeping down of insects by syringing; and promote the growth of the
+  young shoots, by damping the walls and paths morning and evening. Sow
+  capsicum and tomato; also in slight heat such tender herbs as basil
+  and marjoram.
+
+  _Plant Houses._--More water may be given than formerly. Sow seeds of
+  greenhouse and hothouse plants; also the different sorts of tender
+  annuals; pot off those sown last month; sow cineraria for the earliest
+  bloom; also Chinese primulas. Shift heaths and other hard-wooded
+  subjects and stove-plants; plant tuberoses in pots for forcing. Begin
+  to propagate greenhouse plants by cuttings; also coleuses by cuttings
+  in heat, potting them off as soon as rooted.
+
+  _Flower Garden and Shrubbery._--In the last week, sow hardy annuals in
+  the borders, with biennials that flower the first season, as also
+  perennials. Plant anemone and ranunculus roots and the corms of
+  gladiolus. Transplant from the nursery to their final sites annuals
+  sown in autumn, with biennials and herbaceous plants. Propagate
+  perennials from root-slips and offsets. Continue to propagate the
+  finer sorts of dahlias, both by cuttings and by division of the roots.
+  Finish the pruning of all deciduous trees and hedges as soon as
+  possible. Attend to the dressing of shrubberies; lay turf-edgings, and
+  regulate the surface of gravel walks.
+
+  APRIL
+
+  _Kitchen Garden._--Sow asparagus, sea-kale, Turnip-rooted beet,
+  salsafy, scorzonera, skirret, carrots and onions on heavy soils; also
+  marrow peas, Longpod and Windsor beans, turnips, spinach, celery,
+  cabbage, savoys and Brussels sprouts for succession. Sow broccoli and
+  kidney-beans both in the second and in the last week, and lettuces and
+  small salads twice or thrice during the month; sow all herbs, if not
+  done last month. Sow vegetable marrow. Plant cauliflower, cabbages,
+  sea-kale, lettuce; and finish the planting of the main crops of
+  potatoes; divide and replant globe-artichokes. Propagate all sorts of
+  pot-herbs, and attend to the hoeing and thinning of spinach, onions,
+  turnips, carrots, beet, &c. Earth up cabbages, cauliflower, peas,
+  beans and early potatoes. Stake up peas; blanch sea-kale and rhubarb
+  in the open air by covering with straw or leaves.
+
+  _Fruit Garden._--If vines have been neglected to be pruned, rub off
+  the buds that are not wanted; this is safer than pruning now. Protect
+  the finer sorts of fruit trees on the walls. The hardier orchard-house
+  fruits should now be moved outdoors under temporary awnings, to give
+  the choicer fruits more space,--the roots being protected by plunging
+  the pots. Mulch all newly-planted fruit trees, watering abundantly in
+  dry weather.
+
+  _Forcing._--Continue the preparation of succession beds and pits for
+  cucumbers and melons. Sow; pot tomatoes and capsicums for succession.
+  Pollinate tomatoes by hand to ensure early fruit on plants intended
+  for outdoor culture. In the forcing-houses, from the variable state of
+  the weather, considerable vigilance is required in giving air. Keep
+  down red spider (Acarus) in the more advanced houses by frequent
+  syringings and a well-moistened atmosphere. Continue the usual
+  operations of disbudding and thinning of fruit, and take care to keep
+  up the proper temperatures.
+
+  _Plant Houses._--Still sow tender annuals if required; also cinerarias
+  and primulas. Proceed with all necessary shiftings. Propagate rare and
+  fine plants by cuttings or grafting; increase bouvardias by cuttings,
+  and grow on for winter flowering. Pot off tender annuals, and cuttings
+  of half-hardy greenhouse plants put in during February to get them
+  well established for use in the flower garden. Transfer chrysanthemums
+  to sheltered positions out of doors, and provide means of protecting
+  them from frost and cutting winds.
+
+  _Flower Garden and Shrubbery._--Sow main or successional crops of
+  annuals of all sorts--half-hardy annuals in warm borders, or on slight
+  hotbeds. Biennials and perennials should be sown before the middle of
+  the month. Plant out gladioli, if not done, tigridias and fine stocks.
+  Finish the transplanting of herbaceous plants by the end of the first
+  week. Cuttings of border chrysanthemums may now be dibbled in a warm
+  spot out of doors. Protect stage auriculas and hyacinths from extremes
+  of every description of weather; and tulips from hoar-frosts and heavy
+  rains. Plant out tender deciduous trees and shrubs raised in pots;
+  plant out tea-roses, mulching the roots. Remove part of the coverings
+  of all tender shrubs and plants in the first week, and the remainder
+  at the end of the month. Form and repair lawns and grass walks by
+  laying turf and sowing perennial grass-seeds; mow the lawns
+  frequently; plant evergreens.
+
+  MAY
+
+  _Kitchen Garden._--Sow main crop of beet in the first week, small
+  salads every week, radishes and lettuces thrice, spinach once a
+  fortnight, carrots and onions for late drawing, kidney-beans in the
+  first week and together with scarlet runners in the last fortnight;
+  endive for an early crop; also peas and Longpod and Windsor beans,
+  cauliflowers, Early York or Little Pixie cabbages, Brussels sprouts,
+  borecole, broccoli, savoys and kale for late crops. Sow vegetable
+  marrows and hardy cucumbers on a warm border in the last week; sow
+  cardoons in trenches, or (in the north) in pots under glass shelter;
+  sow chicory for salading. Continue hoeing and earthing up the several
+  crops.
+
+  _Fruit Garden._--Disbud peaches, nectarines and other early trees
+  against the walls; also attend to the thinning of fruit. Give
+  occasional washings with the engine to keep down insects. Pick
+  caterpillars from gooseberries and wall trees on their first
+  appearance. Remove from raspberries and strawberries all suckers and
+  runners that are not wanted.
+
+  _Forcing._--Plant melons and cucumbers on the hotbeds prepared for
+  vegetables in February, and now free. Plant out vegetable marrows and
+  pumpkins on dung-ridges, under hand-glasses. Sow late crops of
+  cucumbers and melons.
+
+  _Plant Houses._--Turn out hardy plants about the middle, and the more
+  tender at the latter end of the month. Sow tender annuals for
+  succession, potting and shifting those sown at an earlier period; sow
+  cinerarias for succession; and a few hardy annuals and ten-week stock,
+  &c., for late crops. Pot off all rooted cuttings. Put in cuttings of
+  the different desirable species which are now fit for that purpose.
+  Plant out in rich soil Richardias, to be potted up in autumn for
+  flowering. Bedding plants should be placed to harden in sheltered
+  positions out of doors towards end of month. Towards the end of the
+  month many of the main stock of chrysanthemums will be ready for the
+  final potting.
+
+  _Flower Garden._--Sow annuals for succession in the last week, also
+  biennials and perennials in the nursery compartment, for planting out
+  next year. Propagate plants of which more stock is required either by
+  cuttings or by dividing the roots. Plant out, during the last week,
+  dahlias, hardy pelargoniums, stocks and calceolarias, protecting the
+  dahlias from slight frosts. By the end of the month, masses of the
+  following plants may be formed with safety in warm
+  localities:--pelargonium, heliotropium, fuchsia, petunia,
+  nierembergia, salvia, verbena, bouvardia and lobelia. Protect tulips,
+  ranunculuses and anemones from the mid-day sun, and from rains and
+  winds. Remove the coverings from all tender plants in the open air.
+
+  _Shrubbery._--Transplant all kinds of evergreens, this month and
+  September being the proper seasons. The rarer conifers should be
+  planted now and in June, after they have commenced to grow. Proceed
+  with the laying down of lawns and gravel-walks, and keep the former
+  regularly mown.
+
+  JUNE
+
+  _Kitchen Garden._--Sow kidney-beans for succession; also the wrinkled
+  marrow peas and Seville Longpod and Windsor beans for late crops. Sow
+  salading every ten days; also carrots, onions and radishes for drawing
+  young; and chicory for salads; sow endive for a full crop. In the
+  first week sow Early Munich and Golden Ball turnips for succession,
+  and in the third week for a full autumn crop. Sow scarlet and white
+  runner beans for a late crop, and cabbages for coleworts. Make up
+  successional mushroom beds early in the month. Plant full crops of
+  broccoli, Brussels sprouts, savoys, kales, leeks and early celery,
+  with successional crops of cabbage and cauliflower. In the first
+  fortnight of the month, plant hardy cucumbers for pickling, in a warm
+  border, placing hand-glasses over them towards the end of the month.
+  Plant out capsicums and tomatoes in sunny positions, and stake and tie
+  securely. Pull and store winter onions, if ripe.
+
+  _Fruit Garden._--Train and prune the summer shoots of wall and trellis
+  and other trained trees. Mulch and water fruit trees and strawberries
+  in dry weather, desisting when the fruit begins to ripen. Net over
+  cherry-trees. Destroy aphides and other insects by syringing with
+  tobacco water, or by fumigating, or by dusting with tobacco powder.
+
+  _Forcing._--Proceed with planting melons, cucumbers and tomatoes. Keep
+  up the necessary temperatures for the ripening of the various fruits.
+  Ventilation will still require constant care. Tomatoes will now be
+  fruiting freely; thin out judiciously, avoiding excessive pruning at
+  one time. Attend to the gathering of fruit as it ripens.
+
+  _Plant Houses._--These will now be occupied with tender greenhouse
+  plants and annuals, and the more hardy plants from the stove. Shift,
+  repot and propagate all plants that are desirable. Sow fragrant or
+  showy annuals to flower in pots during winter; and grow on a set of
+  decorative plants for the same object. Continue the final potting of
+  chrysanthemums as the plants become ready.
+
+  _Flower Garden._--Plant out dahlias and other tender subjects, if risk
+  of frost is past. Take up bulbs and tuberous roots and dry them in the
+  shade before removing them to the store-room. Fill up with annuals and
+  greenhouse plants those beds from which the bulbs and roots have been
+  raised. After this season, keep always a reserve of annuals in pots,
+  or planted on beds of thin layers of fibrous matter, so as to be
+  readily transplanted. Layer carnations and pipe pinks in the end of
+  the month. Keep the lawns closely mown.
+
+  JULY
+
+  _Kitchen Garden._--Watering will be necessary in each department, if
+  the weather is hot and dry. In the first week, sow peas for the last
+  crop of the season; also Longpod beans and French beans. In the last
+  week, sow red globe or Chirk Castle turnip for a full winter crop,
+  spinach for an early winter supply and Enfield Market cabbage for
+  early summer use. Sow endive, for autumn and winter use, in the
+  beginning and end of the month; also successional crops of lettuce and
+  small salads. Make up successional mushroom beds. Plant full crops of
+  celery, celeriac, endive about the middle and end of the month; late
+  crops of broccoli, cauliflower and coleworts in the last week. Gather
+  and dry herbs; also propagate these by slips and cuttings.
+
+  _Fruit Garden._--Continue the pruning and training of wall and
+  espalier trees, and the destruction of noxious insects. Pot
+  strawberries for forcing next winter, and make new beds out of doors
+  as soon as well-rooted runners can be obtained. Propagate the
+  different sorts of stone fruit trees by budding on other trees or on
+  prepared stocks. Gather fruits of all kinds as they ripen.
+
+  _Forcing._--Prune melons and cucumbers, giving air and water and
+  maintaining heat, &c. Continue the routine treatment in the
+  tomato-houses. Feed the plants artificially as soon as good crops are
+  set; do not wait for signs of distress. The forcing-houses ought to
+  have abundance of fresh air and moisture where required, along with
+  the necessary heat.
+
+  _Plant Houses._--Ventilation will be necessary to keep down excessive
+  heat; and attention must be paid to potting, shifting and putting in
+  cuttings, and giving abundance of water to the potted plants, both
+  indoors and out. Sow seed of herbaceous calceolarias; shift heaths, if
+  they require it; cut down pelargoniums past flowering, and plant the
+  cuttings.
+
+  _Flower Garden and Shrubbery._--Take up the remaining tuberous roots,
+  such as anemones, ranunculuses, &c., by the end of the first week;
+  fill up their places, and any vacancies that may have occurred, with
+  annuals or bedding plants from the reserve ground. Repot auriculas,
+  and sow auricula seed in boxes under glass. Propagate herbaceous and
+  other plants that have gone out of flower, by means of cuttings and
+  slips, especially those required for spring bedding; propagate also
+  the various summer bedding plants increased by cuttings. Increase
+  roses and American shrubs, by layering, budding or cuttings, and go on
+  with the layering of carnations and picotees. Stake and tie up dahlias
+  and strong herbaceous plants.
+
+  AUGUST
+
+  _Kitchen Garden._--Sow winter and spring spinach in the beginning and
+  about the end of the month; parsley and winter onions, for a full
+  crop, in the first week; cabbages about the middle of the month, for
+  planting out in spring; cauliflower in the first half (Scotland) and
+  in the second half (England) of the month; Hardy Hammersmith and Brown
+  Cos lettuce in the first and last week; small salads occasionally; and
+  Black Spanish radish, for winter crops. Plant out kales and broccoli
+  for late crops; plant celery (earthing up the advancing crops as
+  required), endive for succession, and a few coleworts. Take up
+  shallots, garlic, &c.
+
+  _Fruit Garden._--Proceed in training and regulating the summer shoots
+  of all fruit trees as directed for the last three months. Net up, in
+  dry weather, gooseberry and currant bushes, to preserve the fruit till
+  late in the autumn. Make new strawberry beds if required. Preserve the
+  ripening fruits on the wall and other trees from insects, and destroy
+  wasp nests. Gather fruits as they ripen.
+
+  _Forcing._--The routine of cultivation in hotbeds and pits may be
+  continued. Sow tomatoes and cucumbers for a winter crop. Make up
+  mushroom beds. In the forcing-houses, where the crops are past, part
+  of the sashes may be removed, so as to permit thorough ventilation.
+
+  _Plant Houses._--Attend to the propagation of all sorts of greenhouse
+  plants by cuttings, and to the replacing in the greenhouse and stoves
+  the more tender species, by the end of the month in ordinary seasons,
+  but in wet weather in the second week. Sow half-hardy annuals, as
+  Nemophila, Collinsia, Schizanthus, Rhodanthe, &c., to flower during
+  winter.
+
+  _Flower Garden and Shrubbery._--Sow in the second and the last week,
+  on a warm border of a light sandy soil, with an east aspect, any
+  free-flowering hardy annuals as _Silene pendula_, Nemophila, &c., for
+  planting in spring; and auricula and primula seeds in pots and boxes.
+  Propagate, all sorts of herbaceous plants by rooted slips or suckers;
+  take off layers of carnations, picotees and pansies. Plant cuttings of
+  bedding plants, and of bedding pelargoniums in boxes for convenience
+  of removal. Layer the tops of chrysanthemums, to obtain dwarf
+  flowering plants. Transplant evergreens in moist weather, about the
+  end of the month; and propagate them by layers and cuttings. Pot
+  Neapolitan violets for forcing; or plant out on a mild hotbed. Clip
+  box edgings.
+
+  SEPTEMBER
+
+  _Kitchen Garden._--Sow small salading for late crops; and lettuce and
+  spinach, if not done last month, for spring crops. Plant endive and
+  lettuce at the foot of a south wall to stand the winter; plant out
+  cabbages from the chief autumn sowing. Plant cauliflowers on a warm
+  border in spaces such as can be protected by hand-lights. Thin the
+  winter spinach, when large enough, that it may have space to grow. If
+  broccoli be too rank or tall to withstand the winter, lift and lay
+  nearly up to the neck in the earth, the heads sloping towards the
+  north. Lift onions, and lay them out to ripen on a dry border or
+  gravel-walk. Lift potatoes and store them.
+
+  _Fruit Garden._--Finish the summer pruning and training. Where the
+  walls are heated, assist the maturing of peaches and nectarines, and
+  the ripening of the young wood for next year, by fires during the day.
+  Gather and lay up in the fruit-room with care the autumnal sorts of
+  apples and pears. Prepare borders and stations for fruit trees during
+  dry weather. Plant strawberries for a main crop. Repot orchard-house
+  trees, disrooting if necessary.
+
+  _Forcing._--Take care that late melons, cucumbers and tomatoes be not
+  injured by getting too much water and too little air. Sow a few kidney
+  beans for an early forced crop. Expel damp, and assist the ripening of
+  late grapes and peaches with fires during the day. Prune early vines
+  and peaches.
+
+  _Plant Houses._--The various pot plants should now be put in their
+  winter quarters. Keep up moderate temperatures in the stove, and
+  merely repel frosts in the greenhouse, guarding against damp, by
+  ventilation and by the cautious use of water. Pot hyacinths, tulips
+  and other bulbs for forcing; and propagate half-hardy plants by
+  cuttings. Begin the housing of the main stock of chrysanthemums.
+
+  _Flower Garden, &c._--Sow in the beginning of this month all
+  half-hardy annuals required for early flowering; also mignonette in
+  pots, thinning the plants at an early stage; the different species of
+  primula; and the seeds of such plants as, if sown in spring, seldom
+  come up the same season, but if sown in September and October,
+  vegetate readily the succeeding spring. Put in cuttings of bedding
+  pelargoniums in boxes, which may stand outdoors exposed to the sun,
+  but should be sheltered from excessive rains. Continue the propagation
+  of herbaceous plants, taking off the layers of carnations, picotees,
+  pansies and chrysanthemums, by the end of the month; choice
+  carnations and picotees may be potted and wintered in cold frames if
+  the season is wet and ungenial. Plant evergreens; lay and put in
+  cuttings of most of the hard-wooded sorts of shrubby plants.
+
+  OCTOBER
+
+  _Kitchen Garden._--Sow small salading and radishes in the first week,
+  and lettuces in frames on a shallow hotbed for planting out in spring.
+  If the winter prove mild they will be somewhat earlier than those sown
+  next month or in January. Plant parsley in pots or boxes to protect
+  under glass in case very severe weather occurs. Plant cabbages in beds
+  or close rows till wanted in spring; and cauliflowers in the last
+  week, to receive the protection of frames, or a sheltered situation.
+  Store potatoes, beet, salsafy, scorzonera, skirret, carrots and
+  parsnips, by the end of the month. Band and earth up cardoons.
+
+  _Fruit Garden._--Such fruit trees as have dropped their leaves may be
+  transplanted; this is the best season for transplanting (though with
+  care it may be done earlier), whether the leaves have fallen or not.
+  Protect fig-trees, if the weather proves frosty, as soon as they have
+  cast their leaves. Plant out raspberries. The orchard-house trees
+  should be got under glass before the end of the month. Gather and
+  store all sorts of apples and pears, the longest-keeping sorts not
+  before the end of the month, if the weather be mild.
+
+  _Forcing._--Maintain the heat in hotbeds and pits by means of fresh
+  dung linings. Give abundance of air in mild bright weather. Dress
+  vines and peaches. Clean and repair the forcing-houses, and overhaul
+  the heating apparatus to see it is in good working condition. Plant
+  chicory in boxes or on hotbeds for blanching. Sow kidney beans. Make
+  up successional winter mushroom beds.
+
+  _Plant Houses._--Replace all sorts of greenhouse plants. Fill the pits
+  with pots of stocks, mignonette and hardy annuals for planting out in
+  spring, along with many of the hardy sorts of greenhouse plants; the
+  whole ought to be thoroughly ventilated, except in frosty weather.
+  From this time till spring keep succulent plants almost without water.
+  Begin to force roses, hyacinths and a few other bulbs, for winter and
+  early spring decoration. Plant hyacinths in glasses for windows. The
+  last of the pot chrysanthemums should be housed by the end of the
+  first week.
+
+  _Flower Garden._--Sow a few pots of hardy annuals in a frame, or on a
+  sheltered border, for successional spring use if required. Plant the
+  greater part of the common border bulbs, as hyacinths, narcissi,
+  crocuses and early tulips, about the end of the month, with a few
+  anemones for early flowering. Transplant strong plants of biennials
+  and perennials to their final situations; also the select plants used
+  for spring bedding. Protect alpine plants, stage auriculas, and choice
+  carnations and picotees with glass frames; and tea roses and other
+  tender plants with bracken or other protective material. Take up, dry
+  and store dahlias and all tender tubers at the end of the month; pot
+  lobelias and similar half-hardy plants from the open borders.
+  Transplant all sorts of hardy evergreens and shrubs, especially in dry
+  soils, giving abundance of water. Put in cuttings of all sorts of
+  evergreens, &c. Plant out the hardier sorts of roses.
+
+  NOVEMBER
+
+  _Kitchen Garden._---Trench up all vacant ground as soon as cleared of
+  its crops, leaving the surface as rough as possible. Sow early peas
+  and Early Dwarf Prolific beans in the second week, for an early crop;
+  also in frames for transplanting. Protect endive, celery, artichoke
+  and sea-kale with stable-litter or fern, or by planting the former in
+  frames; take up late cauliflower, early broccoli and lettuces, and
+  place them in sheltered pits or lay them in an open shed; earth up
+  celery; manure and dress up asparagus beds.
+
+  _Fruit Garden._--Plant all sorts of fruit trees in fine weather--the
+  earlier in the month the better. Protect fig-trees. Commence pruning
+  and nailing. Gather and store the latest apples and pears. Examine the
+  fruit-room and remove all decayed fruit.
+
+  _Forcing._--Keep up the requisite degree of heat in hotbeds and pits.
+  Cucumbers and tomatoes will require more than ordinary attention.
+  Force asparagus, rhubarb and sea-kale, in the mushroom-house, in pits,
+  or in the open border under boxes or cases surrounded and covered by
+  well-fermented stable dung and leaves. Sow Early Horn carrot; also
+  kidney beans and radishes, on hotbeds. In the forcing-houses prune and
+  train the trees; fork over and dress the borders of such houses as
+  have not been already done.
+
+  _Plant Houses._--The directions for the greenhouse and conservatory in
+  January apply also to this month generally. Continue the forcing of
+  roses, hyacinths, &c. Houses containing large-flowered Japanese
+  chrysanthemums will require to be kept dry, airy and moderately warm
+  to prevent "damping-off" of petals.
+
+  _Flower Garden, &c._--Plant dried tubers of border flowers, but the
+  finer sorts had better be deferred till spring. Plant tulips in the
+  early part of the month. Put in cuttings of bedding calceolarias,
+  choosing the shoots that will not run up to flower. Protect such
+  half-hardy plants as are not already sheltered. Plant deciduous trees
+  and shrubs so long as the weather continues favourable, and before the
+  soil has parted with the solar heat absorbed during summer. Dig and
+  dress such flower borders and shrubberies as may now be cleared of
+  annuals and the stems of herbaceous plants.
+
+  DECEMBER
+
+  _Kitchen Garden._--Collect and smother-burn all vegetable refuse, and
+  apply it as a dressing to the ground. Sow a few peas and beans, in
+  case of accident to those sown in November, drawing up the soil
+  towards the stems of those which are above ground as a protection;
+  earth up celery; blanch endive with flower-pots; sow radishes in a
+  very sheltered place. Attend to trenching and digging in dry weather.
+
+  _Fruit Garden._--Plant all sorts of fruit trees in mild weather.
+  Proceed with pruning and nailing wall-trees. Examine the fruit-room
+  every week, removing promptly all decaying fruit.
+
+  _Forcing._--The same degree of attention to hotbeds and pits will be
+  necessary as in the last month. Continue the forcing of asparagus,
+  rhubarb and sea-kale, in pits and in the mushroom-house. Proceed with
+  the usual routine of culture commenced last month. Make the necessary
+  preparations to begin forcing early or succession crops by the last
+  week of this or the first of next month.
+
+  _Plant Houses, Frames, &c._--Carnations and picotees in pots must be
+  kept rather dry to prevent damping off. Heaths and Australian plants
+  must be very sparingly watered, and kept with only fire heat enough to
+  repel frost. Cut down plants of chrysanthemums, which should be placed
+  in a cool pit, near the glass, in order to afford hard sturdy cuttings
+  in February. Shy plants should be given gentle bottom heat to induce
+  growth, which should be gently hardened by exposure under cooler
+  conditions.
+
+  _Flower Garden, &c._--Plant shrubs in open weather. Prune shrubs.
+  Sweep and roll the lawns, and put in repair the gravel-walks, keeping
+  the surface frequently rolled.     (J. Ws.; W. R. W.)
+
+  (B) _For the United States (chiefly for the latitude of New York)._
+
+  JANUARY
+
+  _Flower Garden and Greenhouse._--Little is to be done in either. In
+  the greenhouse care must be used to protect against frost. Ventilate
+  but little, and with care; raise the ventilating sash only high enough
+  to let the heated air from the greenhouse drive back the outer air so
+  as not to chill the plants. To destroy the red spider, syringe the
+  plants copiously at night, and splash the paths with water. The aphis,
+  or "green fly," must also be destroyed; tobacco may be used. Various
+  new preparations are coming on the market for the destruction of
+  greenhouse pests. Several new effective preparations of tobacco have
+  been brought into use. The white-fly is now a common pest in
+  greenhouses, the nymphs being greenish scale-like objects on the under
+  sides of the leaves, and adults very small white flies. The remedy is
+  to spray with kerosene emulsion or whale-oil soap; or if on cucumbers
+  or tomatoes, it is best to fumigate with hydrocyanic acid gas, using
+  one ounce of potassium cyanide to each 1000 cubic ft. of space. (This
+  material is very poisonous.) Many greenhouse insects can be kept more
+  or less in check by careful and effective hosing of the plants at
+  proper times. At this season roses, grape vines and other plants are
+  often affected by mildew; an effectual remedy is to paint the
+  hot-water pipes with a mixture of sulphur and lime, put on as thick as
+  ordinary whitewash, once each week until it is checked; but care must
+  be taken not to apply it on any surface at a higher temperature than
+  212 deg. Hyacinths and other bulbs that have been kept in a cellar or
+  other dark cool place may now be brought into the light of the
+  greenhouse or sitting-room, provided they have filled the pots with
+  roots. If they are not well rooted, leave them until they are, or
+  select such of them as are best, leaving the others. In the outside
+  flower garden little can be done except that shrubs may be pruned, or
+  new work, such as making walks or grading, performed, if weather
+  permits. See that the ornamental plants and trees are not injured by
+  heavy weights of ice or snow.
+
+  _Fruit Garden._--Pruning, staking up or mulching can be done if the
+  weather is such that the workmen can stand out. In all warm or
+  comfortable days the fruit trees may be pruned.
+
+  _Grapery._--Graperies used for the forcing of foreign grapes may be
+  started, beginning at a temperature of 50 deg. at night, with 10 deg.
+  or 15 deg. higher during the day. The borders must be covered
+  sufficiently deep with leaves or manure to prevent the soil from
+  freezing, as it would be destruction to the vines to start the shoots
+  if the roots were frozen; hence, when forcing is begun in January, the
+  covering should be put on in November, before severe frosts begin.
+
+  _Vegetable Garden._--But little can be done in the northern states
+  except to prepare manure, and get sashes, tools, &c., in working
+  order; but in sections of the country where there is little or no
+  frost the hardier kinds of seeds and plants may be sown and planted,
+  such as asparagus, cabbage, cauliflower, carrot, leek, lettuce, onion,
+  parsnip, peas, spinach, turnip, &c. In any section where these seeds
+  can be sown in open ground, it is an indication that hotbeds may be
+  started for the sowing of such tender vegetables as tomatoes, egg and
+  pepper plants, &c.; though, unless in the extreme southern states,
+  hotbeds should not be started before the beginning or middle of
+  February. Make orders for the spring seeds.
+
+  FEBRUARY
+
+  _Flower Garden and Greenhouse._--The directions for January will in
+  the main apply to this month, except that now some of the hardier
+  annuals may be sown in hotbed or greenhouse, and also the propagation
+  of plants by cuttings may be done rather better now than in January,
+  as the greater amount of light gives more vitality to the cutting.
+
+  _Fruit Garden._--But little can be done in most of the northern states
+  as yet, and in sections where there is no frost in the ground it is
+  likely to be too wet to work; but in many southern states this will be
+  the best month for planting fruit trees and plants of all kinds,
+  particularly strawberries, raspberries, blackberries, pear and apple
+  trees, while grape vines will do, though they will also do well quite
+  a month later. Continue the pruning. Fruit trees for spring planting
+  should be ordered, if not already done.
+
+  _Grapery._--The graperies started last month at 50 deg. at night may
+  now be increased to 60 deg., with a correspondingly higher day
+  temperature. Great care must be taken to syringe the leaves thoroughly
+  at least once a day, and to deluge the paths with water, so as to
+  produce a moist atmosphere. Paint the hot-water pipes with sulphur
+  mixture, as recommended in January.
+
+  _Vegetable Garden._--Leaves from the woods, house manure or refuse
+  hops from breweries may be got together towards the latter part of
+  this month, and mixed and turned to get "sweetened" preparatory to
+  forming hotbeds. Cabbage, lettuce and cauliflower seeds, if sown early
+  this month in hotbed or greenhouse, will make fine plants if
+  transplanted into hotbed in March. This is preferable to the use of
+  fall-sown plants. Manure that is to be used for the crop should be
+  broken up as fine as possible, for the more completely manure of any
+  kind can be mixed with the soil the better the crop will be, and, of
+  course, if it is dug or ploughed in in large unbroken lumps it cannot
+  be properly commingled.
+
+  MARCH
+
+  _Flower Garden and Greenhouse._--The long days and bright sunshine
+  will now begin to tell on the plants under glass. Examine all plants
+  that are vigorous and healthy; if the roots have matted the "ball" of
+  earth they must be shifted into a larger-sized pot. Plants from
+  cuttings struck last month may now be shifted, and the propagation of
+  all plants that are likely to be wanted should be continued. Hardier
+  kinds of annuals may be sown; it is best done in shallow boxes, say 2
+  in. deep.
+
+  _Lawns_ can be raked off and mulched with short manure, or rich garden
+  earth where manure cannot be obtained. Flower-beds on light soils may
+  be dug up so as to forward the work of the coming busy spring season.
+  Lawns may be benefited by a good dressing, in addition to the manure,
+  of some reliable commercial fertilizer. If the lawn is thin in spots,
+  these places may be raked over heavily and new grass seed sown.
+
+  _Fruit Garden._--In many sections, planting may now be done with
+  safety, provided the soil is light and dry, but not otherwise.
+  Although a tree or plant will receive no injury when its roots are
+  undisturbed in the soil should a frost come after planting, the same
+  amount of freezing will, and very often does, greatly injure the plant
+  if the roots are exposed.
+
+  _Grapery._--The grapery started in January will have set its fruit,
+  which should be thinned by one-third. The temperature may now be
+  further advanced to 70 deg. at night, with 15 deg. higher in the
+  daytime. The same precautions must be used against mildew and insects
+  as given in January. Graperies wanted for succession may be started in
+  February or this month.
+
+  _Vegetable Garden._--This is a busy month. In localities where the
+  frost is out of the ground, if it is not wet, seeds of the hardier
+  vegetables can be sown. The list of seeds given for the southern
+  states in January may now be used at the north, while for most of the
+  southern states tender vegetables, such as egg plant, okra, sweet
+  potatoes, melon, squash, potatoes, tomatoes, &c., may be sown and
+  planted. Hotbeds must now be all started. In March flower seeds and
+  vegetable seeds may be sown in boxes or flats in the greenhouse, or in
+  residence windows, or near the kitchen stove. Unless one has space
+  under glass, or in hotbeds, in which the plants may be transplanted
+  before they are set in the open ground, it is well not to start the
+  seeds too early, inasmuch as the plants are likely to become too large
+  or to be pot-bound, or to become drawn.
+
+  APRIL
+
+  _Flower Garden and Greenhouse._--Window and greenhouse plants require
+  more water and ventilation. Due attention must be paid to shifting
+  well-rooted plants into larger pots; and, if space is desired, many
+  kinds of hardier plants can be safely put out in cold frames. Towards
+  the end of the month it may be necessary slightly to shade the glass
+  of the greenhouse. All herbaceous plants and hardy shrubs may be
+  planted in the garden. The covering of leaves or litter should be
+  taken off bulbs and tender plants that were covered up for winter, so
+  that the beds can be lightly forked and raked. Sow tender annual
+  flower seeds in boxes inside.
+
+  _Fruit Garden._--Strawberries that have been covered up with straw or
+  leaves should be relieved around the plants, leaving the covering
+  between them. Special care must be exercised that the mulch be not
+  left on too long; the plants should not become whitened or "drawn."
+  Raspberries, grape vines, &c., that have been laid down may now be
+  uncovered and tied up to stakes or trellises, and all new plantations
+  of these and other fruits may now be made. Fruit trees may be grafted.
+
+  _Vegetable Garden._--Asparagus, rhubarb, spinach, &c., should be
+  uncovered., and the beds hoed or dug lightly. Hardier sorts of
+  vegetable seeds and plants, such as beets, cabbage, cauliflower,
+  celery, lettuce, onions, parsley, parsnips, peas, potatoes, radishes,
+  spinach, turnip, &c., should all be sown or planted by the middle of
+  the month if the soil is dry and warm, and in all cases, where
+  practicable, before the end of the month. It is essential, in sowing
+  seeds now, that they be well firmed in the soil. Any who expect to get
+  early cabbage, cauliflower, lettuce or radishes, while planting or
+  sowing is delayed until the time of sowing tomato and egg plant in
+  May, are sure to be disappointed of a full crop. Frequent rotation of
+  crops should be practised in the vegetable garden, in order to head
+  off insects and diseases; and also to make the best use of the land.
+  Every three or four years the vegetable garden should be laid out in
+  some new place; but if this cannot be done, the crops should be
+  rotated on different parts of the old garden.
+
+  MAY
+
+  _Flower Garden and Greenhouse._--Window and greenhouse plants should
+  be in their finest bloom. Firing may be entirely dispensed with,
+  though care must still be exercised in ventilating. If weather is cold
+  and backward, however, and in very northern regions, care must be
+  taken not to stop firing too soon, or the plants will mildew and
+  become stunted. Every precaution must be used to keep the air moist.
+  "Moss culture" may be tried, the common sphagnum or moss of the
+  swamps, mixed with one-twentieth of its bulk of bone-dust, being laid
+  as a mulch on the top of the earth of the flower-pots; its effect is
+  to shield the pots from the sun, and at the same time stimulate the
+  roots to come to the surface. By the end of the month all of the
+  plants that are wanted for the summer decoration of the flower border
+  may be planted out, first loosening a little the ball of earth at the
+  roots. If the weather is dry, water freely after planting. When the
+  greenhouse is not to be used during the summer months, camellias,
+  azaleas and plants of that character should be set out of doors under
+  partial shade; but most of the other plants usually grown in the
+  conservatory or window garden in winter may be set in the open border.
+  Flower-beds should be kept well hoed, and raked, to prevent the growth
+  of weeds next month.
+
+  Pelargoniums, pinks, monthly roses and all the half-hardy kinds of
+  flowering plants should be planted early, but coleus, heliotrope and
+  the more tender plants should be delayed until the end of the month.
+  Annuals that have been sown in the greenhouse or hotbed may be planted
+  out, and seeds of such sorts as mignonette, sweet alyssum, Phlox
+  Drummondii, portulaca, &c., may be sown in the beds or borders. The
+  china aster is now one of the most popular of summer and fall plants.
+  The seed may be sown in the north as late as the middle of May, or
+  even the first of June, with good results for fall blooming. If the
+  plants are started early in the greenhouse, they are likely to spend
+  themselves before fall, and therefore a later sowing should be
+  provided.
+
+  _Lawns_ should be mown, and the edgings trimmed.
+
+  _Fruit Garden._--The hay or leaf mulching on the strawberry beds
+  should be removed and the ground deeply hoed (if not removed in April
+  in the more forward places), after which it may be placed on again to
+  keep the fruit clean and the ground from drying. Where it has not been
+  convenient before, most of the smaller fruits may yet be planted
+  during the first part of the month. Tobacco dust will dislodge most of
+  the numerous kinds of slugs, caterpillars or worms that make their
+  appearance on the young shoots of vines or trees. Fruit trees may be
+  planted this month, if they were not planted in March or April. If
+  they have been kept fresh and dormant, they should still be in good
+  condition. The broken roots should be cut back to fresh wood, and the
+  tops should be headed back in proportion.
+
+  _Vegetable Garden._--Attention should be given to new sowings and
+  plantings for succession. Crops sown last month will have to be
+  thinned out if large enough. Hoe deeply all transplanted crops, such
+  as cabbage, cauliflower, lettuce, &c. Tender vegetables, such as
+  tomatoes, egg and pepper plants, sweet potatoes, &c., can be planted
+  out. Seeds of Lima beans, sweet corn, melon, okra, cucumbers, &c.,
+  should be sown; and sow for succession peas, spinach, lettuce, beans,
+  radishes, &c., every ten days.
+
+  JUNE
+
+  _Flower Garden and Greenhouse._--Tropical plants can now be used to
+  fill up the greenhouse during the summer months. It should be well
+  shaded, and fine specimens of fancy caladiums, dracaenas, coleus,
+  crotons, palms, ferns and such plants as are grown for the beauty of
+  their foliage, will make a very attractive show. If these cannot be
+  had, common geraniums may be used. The "moss culture" will be found
+  particularly valuable for these plants. Hyacinths, tulips and other
+  spring bulbs may be dug up, dried and placed away for next fall's
+  planting, and their places filled with bedding plants, such as coleus,
+  achyranthes, pelargoniums, and the various white and coloured leaf
+  plants. It will be necessary to mow the lawn once a week, and
+  sometimes oftener.
+
+  _Fruit Garden._--The small fruits should be mulched about the roots,
+  if this has not yet been done. If the fruit garden is large enough to
+  admit of horse culture, it is best to keep the bush-fruits well
+  cultivated during the season; this tillage conserves the moisture and
+  helps to make a full and plump crop of berries. In small areas the
+  mulching system is sometimes preferable.
+
+  _Vegetable Garden._--Beets, beans, carrots, corn, cucumbers, lettuce,
+  peas and radishes may be sown for succession. This is usually a busy
+  month, as many crops have to be gathered, and, if hoeing is not
+  promptly seen to, weeds are certain to give great trouble. Tomatoes
+  should be tied up to trellises or stakes if fine-flavoured and
+  handsome fruit is desired, for if left to ripen on the ground they are
+  apt to have a gross earthy flavour.
+
+  JULY
+
+  _Flower Garden and Greenhouse._--Watering, ventilating and fumigating
+  (or the use of tobacco in other forms for destruction of aphides) must
+  be attended to. The atmosphere of the greenhouse must be kept moist.
+  Watch the plants that have been plunged out of doors, and see if any
+  require repotting. All plants that require staking, such as dahlias,
+  roses, gladioli and many herbaceous plants, should now be looked to.
+  Carnations and other plants that are throwing up flower stems, if
+  wanted to flower in winter, should be cut back, that is, the flower
+  stems should be cut off to say 5 in. from the ground.
+
+  _Fruit Garden._--If grape vines show any signs of mildew, dust them
+  over with dry sulphur, selecting a still warm day. The fruit having
+  now been gathered from strawberry plants, if new beds are to be
+  formed, the system of layering the plants in small pots is the best.
+  In general, field strawberries are not grown from potted layers, but
+  from good strong layers that strike naturally in the field. In the
+  north, spring planting of strawberries is generally advised for market
+  conditions; although planting in early fall or late summer is
+  successful when the ground is well prepared and when it does not
+  suffer from drought. Where apples, pears, peaches, grapes, &c., have
+  set fruit thickly, thin out at least one-half to two-thirds of the
+  young fruit.
+
+  _Vegetable Garden._--The first ten days of this month will yet be time
+  enough to sow sweet corn, beets, lettuce, beans, cucumbers and
+  ruta-baga turnips. Such vegetables as cabbage, cauliflower, celery,
+  &c., wanted for fall or winter use, are best planted this month,
+  though in some sections they will do later. Keep sweet potatoes hoed
+  to prevent the vines rooting at the joints.
+
+  AUGUST
+
+  _Flower Garden and Greenhouse._--But little deviation is required in
+  these departments from the instructions for July. See that sufficient
+  water is applied; the walks may be wet in the houses.
+
+  _Fruit Garden._--Strawberries that have fruited will now be making
+  "runners," or young plants. These should be kept cut off close to the
+  old plant, so that the full force of the root is expended in making
+  the "crowns" or fruit buds for next season's crop. If plants are
+  required for new beds, only the required number should be allowed to
+  grow, and these may be layered in pots as recommended in July. The old
+  stems of raspberries and blackberries that have borne fruit should be
+  cut away, and the young shoots thinned to three or four canes to each
+  hill or plant. If tied to stakes and topped when 4 or 5 ft. high, they
+  will form three or four branches on a cane, and will make stronger
+  fruiting plants for next year.
+
+  _Vegetable Garden._--Hoe deeply such crops as cabbage, cauliflower and
+  celery. The earthing up of celery this month is not to be recommended,
+  unless a little very early supply is wanted. Onions in many sections
+  can be harvested. The proper condition is when the tops are turning
+  yellow and falling down. They are dried best by placing them in a dry
+  shed in thin layers. Sow spinach for fall use, but not yet for the
+  winter crop. Red top, white globe, and yellow Aberdeen turnips should
+  now be sown; ruta-baga turnips sown last month will need thinning, and
+  in extreme southern states they may yet be sown.
+
+  SEPTEMBER
+
+  _Flower Garden and Greenhouse._--The flower-beds in the lawn should be
+  at their best. If planted in "ribbon lines" or "massing," strict
+  attention must be given to pinching off the tops, so that the lines or
+  masses will present an even surface. Tender plants will require to be
+  put in the greenhouse or housed in some way towards the end of this
+  month; but be careful to keep them as cool as possible during the day.
+  Cuttings of bedding plants may now be made freely if wanted for next
+  season, as young cuttings rooted in the fall make better plants for
+  next spring's use than old plants, in the case of such soft-wooded
+  plants as pelargoniums, fuchsias, verbenas, heliotropes, &c.; with
+  roses and plants of a woody nature, however, the old plants usually do
+  best. Dutch bulbs, such as hyacinths, tulips, crocus, &c., and most of
+  the varieties of lilies, may be planted. Violets that are wanted for
+  winter flowering will now be growing freely, and the runners should be
+  trimmed off. Sow seeds of sweet alyssum, candytuft, daisies,
+  mignonette, pansies, &c. Visit the roadsides and woods for interesting
+  plants to put in the hardy borders.
+
+  _Fruit Garden._--Strawberry plants that have been layered in pots may
+  yet be planted, or in southern districts the ordinary ground layers
+  may be planted. The sooner in the month both are planted the better
+  crop they will give next season; and, as these plants soon make
+  runners, it will be necessary to trim them off. Attend to raspberries
+  and blackberries as advised for last month, if they have not already
+  been attended to. All fruit trees should be gone over for borers
+  before cold weather sets in; they also should have been gone over for
+  the same purpose in May and June.
+
+  _Vegetable Garden._--If cabbage, cauliflower and lettuce are wanted to
+  plant in cold frames, the seed should be sown from about the 10th to
+  the 20th of this month; but judgment should be exercised, for, if sown
+  too early, cabbage and cauliflower are apt to run to seed. The best
+  date for latitude of New York is September 15th. The main crop of
+  spinach or sprouts that is wanted for winter or spring use should be
+  sown about the same date. The earth should be drawn up to celery with
+  a hoe preparatory to earthing up with a spade. Onions that were not
+  harvested and dried last month must now be attended to. Turnips of the
+  early or flat sorts may yet be sown the first week of this month in
+  the northern states, and in the south from two to four weeks later.
+
+  OCTOBER
+
+  _Flower Garden and Greenhouse._--In northern sections of the United
+  States, tender plants that are still outside should be got under cover
+  as early as possible. Delay using fire heat as long as possible,
+  unless the nights become so cold as to chill the plants inside the
+  house. Roses, carnations, camellias, azaleas, pelargoniums and the
+  hardier sorts of plants will do better if placed in a cold frame or
+  pit until the middle of November than they would in an ordinary
+  greenhouse. Look out for insects. Fall bulbs of all kinds may be
+  planted. Take up summer-flowering bulbs and tubers, such as dahlias,
+  tuberoses, gladioli, cannas, caladiums, tigridias, and dry them off
+  thoroughly, stowing them away afterwards in some place free from frost
+  and moisture during the winter. Before winter sets in see that the
+  lawn is freely top-dressed. Be careful not to mow the grass too short
+  in fall.
+
+  _Fruit Garden._--Strawberries that have been grown from pot-grown
+  layers may yet be planted in southern states; keep the runners trimmed
+  off. Fruit trees and shrubs may be set out; but, if planting is
+  deferred to the last of the month, the ground around the roots should
+  be mulched to the thickness of 3 or 4 in. with straw, leaves or rough
+  manure, as a protection against frost. The fruit garden must be
+  protected from the ravages of mice in winter. Mice will nest about the
+  plants if there is straw or other litter around them. Before winter,
+  all tall grass and loose litter should be taken away; if this is not
+  done, then the first snow should be tramped heavily around the plants,
+  in order to destroy any nesting-places.
+
+  _Vegetable Garden._--Celery will now be in full growth, and will
+  require close attention to earthing up, and during the last part of
+  the month the first lot may be stored away in trenches for winter. All
+  vegetable roots not designed to be left in the ground during the
+  winter should be dug up, such as beets, carrots, parsnips, sweet
+  potatoes, &c. The cabbage, cauliflower and lettuce plants grown from
+  seed sown last month should be pricked out in cold frames. If lettuce
+  is wanted for winter use, it may now be planted in the greenhouse or
+  cold frame, and will be ready for use about Christmas. If asparagus or
+  rhubarb is wanted for winter use, it should be taken up and stowed
+  away in pit, frame, shed or cellar for a month or two. It may then be
+  taken into the greenhouse and packed closely together under the stage,
+  and will be fit for use from January to March, according to the
+  temperature of the house. Vegetable gardens often become infested with
+  diseases that are carried over from year to year in the old plants and
+  litter; this is specially true of water-melons and of some diseases of
+  tomatoes. It is well, therefore, to burn the tops of the plants in the
+  fall, rather than to plough them under or to throw them on the compost
+  heap.
+
+  NOVEMBER
+
+  _Flower Garden and Greenhouse._--Plants intended to be grown inside
+  should now all be indoors. Keep a sharp look-out for cold snaps, as
+  they come very unexpectedly in November, and many plants are lost
+  thereby. In cases where it is not convenient to use fire heat, 5 deg.
+  to 10 deg. of cold can be resisted by covering the plants over with
+  paper, and by using this before frost has struck the plants valuable
+  collections may be saved. When fire heat is freely used, be careful to
+  keep up the proper amount of moisture by sprinkling the paths with
+  water. Little can be done in the flower garden, except to clean off
+  all dead stalks, and straw up tender roses, vines, &c., and, wherever
+  there is time, to dig up and rake the borders, as it will greatly
+  facilitate spring work. Cover up all beds in which there are
+  hyacinths, tulips and other bulbs with a litter of leaves or straw to
+  the depth of 2 or 3 in. If short, thoroughly-decayed manure can be
+  spared, a good sprinkling spread over the lawn will help it to a finer
+  growth next spring.
+
+  _Fruit Garden._--Strawberry beds should be covered (in cold sections)
+  with hay, straw or leaf mulching, to a depth not exceeding 2 in. Fruit
+  trees and grape vines generally should be pruned; and, if the wood of
+  the vine is wanted for cuttings, or scions of fruit trees for grafts,
+  they should be tied in small bundles and buried in the ground until
+  spring. They may be taken in December or January if preferred.
+
+  _Vegetable Garden._--Celery that is to be stored for winter use should
+  be put away before the end of the month in all sections north of
+  Virginia; south of that it may be left in most places where grown
+  throughout the winter if well covered up. The stalks of the asparagus
+  bed should be cut off, and burned if there are berries on them, as the
+  seeds scattered in the soil sometimes produce troublesome weeds. Mulch
+  the beds with 2 or 3 in. of rough manure. All vegetable roots that are
+  yet in the ground, and not designed to be left there over winter, must
+  be dug up in this latitude before the middle of the month or they may
+  be frozen in. Cover up onions, spinach, sprouts, cabbage or lettuce
+  plants with a covering of 2 or 3 in. of leaves, hay, or straw, to
+  protect them during the winter. Cabbages that have headed may usually
+  be preserved against injury by frost until the middle of next month,
+  by simply pulling them up and packing them closely in a dry spot in
+  the open field with the heads down and roots up. On approach of cold
+  weather in December they should be covered up with leaves as high as
+  the tops of the roots, or, if the soil is light, it may be thrown over
+  them, if leaves are not convenient. Cabbages will keep this way until
+  March if the covering has not been put on too early. Plough all empty
+  ground if practicable, and, whenever time will permit, do trenching
+  and subsoiling. Cabbage, cauliflower and lettuce plants that are in
+  frames should be regularly ventilated by lifting the sash on warm
+  days, and on the approach of very cold weather they should be covered
+  with straw mats or shutters. In the colder latitudes, and even in the
+  middle states, it is absolutely necessary to protect cauliflower in
+  this way, as it is much more tender than cabbage and lettuce plants.
+
+  DECEMBER
+
+  _Flower Garden and Greenhouse._--Close attention must be paid to
+  protecting all tender plants, for it is not uncommon to have the care
+  of a whole year spoiled by one night's neglect. Vigilance and extra
+  hot fires will have to be kept up when the thermometer falls to 34
+  deg. or 35 deg. in the parlour or conservatory. It is well to set the
+  plants under the benches or on the walks of the greenhouses; if they
+  are in the parlour move them away from the cold point and protect them
+  with paper; this will usually save them even if the thermometer falls
+  to 24 deg. or 26 deg. Another plan in the greenhouse is to dash water
+  on the pipes or flues, which causes steam to rise to the glass and
+  freeze there, stopping up all the crevices. With plants outside that
+  require strawing up or to be mulched, this will have now to be
+  finished.
+
+  _Fruit Garden._--In sections where it is an advantage to protect grape
+  vines, raspberries, &c., from severe frost, these should be laid down
+  as close to the ground as possible, and covered with leaves, straw or
+  hay, or with a few inches of soil. Grapes may be pruned. Fruit trees
+  may be pruned from now till March in the north.
+
+  _Vegetable Garden._--Celery in trenches should receive the final
+  covering for the winter, which is best done by leaves or light stable
+  litter; in the latitude of New York it should not be less than 12 in.
+  thick. Potatoes, beets, turnips or other roots in pits, the spinach
+  crop in the ground, or any other article in need of protection, should
+  be attended to before the end of the month; manure and compost heaps
+  should be forwarded as rapidly as possible, and turned and mixed so as
+  to be in proper condition for spring. Remove the snow that accumulates
+  on cold frames or other glass structures, particularly if the soil
+  which the glass covers was not frozen before the snow fell; it may
+  remain on the sashes longer if the plants are frozen in, since they
+  are dormant, and would not be injured if deprived of light for eight
+  or ten days. If roots have been placed in cellars, attention must be
+  given to ventilation, which can be done by making a wooden box, say 6
+  by 8 in., to run from the ceiling of the cellar to the eaves of the
+  building above.     (L. H. B.; P. H.)
+
+  BIBLIOGRAPHY OF MODERN WORKS ON HORTICULTURE.--W. Robinson, _Alpine
+  Flowers_; Lord Redesdale (A. B. Freeman Mitford), _The Bamboo Garden_;
+  J. Weathers, _Bulbous Plants_ (33 col. plates); H. H. Cousins,
+  _Chemistry of the Garden_; W. Watson, _Cactus Culture for Amateurs_;
+  R. P. Brotherston and M. R. Smith, _Book of the Carnation_; J.
+  Weathers, _Cottage and Allotment Gardening_; J. Veitch and Sons,
+  _Manual of Coniferae_; W. Wells, _Culture of the Chrysanthemum_; Rev.
+  S. E. Bourne, _Book of the Daffodil_; Geo. Nicholson, _Dictionary of
+  Gardening_ (5 vols.); W. Robinson, _The English Flower Garden_; Geo.
+  Schneider, _Book of Choice Ferns_ (3 vols.); W. Robinson, _Flora and
+  Sylva_ (3 vols.; col. plates by the late H. G. Moon); J. Weathers,
+  _Flowering Trees and Shrubs_ (33 col. plates); J. Weathers, _French
+  Market-Gardening and Intensive Cultivation_; T. Smith, _French
+  Gardening_; Geo. Bunyard and O. Thomas, _The Fruit Garden_; Josh.
+  Brace, Fruit Trees in Pots; Dr R. Hogg, The Fruit Manual; M. C. Cooke,
+  _Fungoid Pests of Cultivated Plants_; Thos. H. Mawson, _The Art and
+  Craft of Garden-Making_; J. Weathers, _A Practical Guide to Garden
+  Plants_; W. Watson, _The Gardeners' Assistant_; C. H. Wright and D.
+  Dewar, _The Gardeners' Dictionary_; J. Weathers, _Garden Flowers for
+  Town and Country_ (33 col. plates); Chas. Baltet, _The Art of Grafting
+  and Budding_; W. Thomson, _The Grape Vine_; Thos. Baines, _Greenhouse
+  and Stove Plants_; R. Irwin Lynch, _The Book of the Iris_; G. Jekyll,
+  _Lilies for English Gardens_; E. A. Ormerod, _Manual of Injurious
+  Insects_; Dr A. B. Griffiths, _Manures for Fruit and other Trees_; F.
+  W. Burbridge and J. G. Baker, _The Narcissus_ (48 col. plates); H. A.
+  Burberry, _The Orchid Cultivator's Handbook_; B. S. Williams, _The
+  Orchid Grower's Manual_; J. Veitch & Sons, _Manual of Orchidaceous
+  Plants_; Dr Paul Sorauer and F. E. Weiss, _Physiology of Plants_; W.
+  Watson, _Orchids, their Culture and Management_; G. Massee, _Plant
+  Diseases_; Rev. A. Foster-Melliar, _Book of the Rose_; Wm. Paul, _The
+  Rose Garden_ (20 col. plates); G. Jekyll and E. Mawley, _Roses for
+  English Gardens_; J. Weathers, _Roses for Garden and Greenhouse_ (33
+  col. plates); _Nat. Rose Society, Handbook on Pruning Roses_; Rev. J.
+  H. Pemberton, _Roses, their History, Development and Culture_; Very
+  Rev. Dean Hole, _A Book about Roses_; J. Hoffmann, _The Amateur
+  Gardener's Rose Book_ (20 col. plates; translated from the German); A.
+  Gaut, _Seaside Planting of Trees and Shrubs_; E. Beckett, _Book of the
+  Strawberry_; W. Iggulden, _The Tomato_; J. Weathers, _Trees and Shrubs
+  for English and Irish Gardens_ (33 col. plates); Vilmorin et Cie.,
+  _The Vegetable Garden_ (Eng. ed. by W. Robinson); A. F. Barron, _Vines
+  and Vine Culture_; G. Jekyll, _Wall and Water Gardens_; W. Robinson,
+  _The Wild Garden_; L. H. Bailey, _Practical Garden Book_ (New York,
+  1908).     (J. Ws.; W. R. W.)
+
+
+
+
+HORTON, CHRISTIANA (c. 1696-c. 1756), English actress, first appeared in
+London as Melinda in _The Recruiting Officer_ in 1714 at Drury Lane.
+Here she remained twenty years, followed by fifteen at Covent Garden. At
+both houses during this long career she played all the leading tragedy
+and comedy parts, and Barton Booth (who "discovered" her) said she was
+the best successor of Mrs. Oldfield. She was the original Mariana in
+Fielding's _Miser_ (1733).
+
+
+
+
+HORTON, ROBERT FORMAN (1855-   ), British Nonconformist divine, was born
+in London on the 18th of September 1855. He was educated at Shrewsbury
+school and New College, Oxford, where he took first classes in classics.
+He was president of the Oxford Union in 1877. He became a fellow of his
+college in 1879, and lectured on history for four years. In 1880 he
+accepted an influential invitation to become pastor of the Lyndhurst
+Road Congregational church, Hampstead, and subsequently took a very
+prominent part in church and denominational work generally. He delivered
+the Lyman Beecher lectures at Yale in 1893; in 1898 he was chairman of
+the London Congregational Union; and in 1903 of the Congregational Union
+of England and Wales. In 1909 he took a prominent part in the 75th
+anniversary celebration of Hartford Theological Seminary. His numerous
+publications include books on theological, critical, historical,
+biographical and devotional subjects.
+
+
+
+
+HORTON, SAMUEL DANA (1844-1895), American writer on bimetallism, was
+born in Pomeroy, Ohio, on the 16th of January 1844. He graduated at
+Harvard in 1864, and at the Harvard Law School in 1868, studied Roman
+law in Berlin in 1869, and in 1871 was admitted to the Ohio bar. He
+practised law in Cincinnati, and then in Pomeroy until 1885, when he
+gave up law for the advancement of bimetallism. His attention had been
+turned to monetary questions by the "greenback campaign" of 1875 in
+Ohio, in which, as in former campaigns, he had spoken, particularly
+effectively in German, for the Republican party. He was secretary of the
+American delegation to the Monetary Conference which met in Paris in
+1878, and edited the report of the delegation. To the conference of 1881
+he was a delegate, and thereafter he spent much of his time in Europe,
+whither he was sent by President Harrison in 1889 as special
+commissioner to promote the international restoration of silver. He died
+in Washington, D.C., on the 23rd of February 1895. Horton's principal
+works were _The Silver Pound_ (1887) and _Silver in Europe_ (1890), a
+volume of essays.
+
+
+
+
+HORUS (Egyptian _Hor_), the name of an Egyptian god, if not of several
+distinct gods. To all forms of Horus the falcon was sacred; the name
+Hor, written with a standing figure of that bird, [Hieroglyph] is
+connected with a root signifying "upper," and probably means "the
+high-flyer." The tame sacred falcon on its perch [Hieroglyph] is the
+commonest symbol of divinity in early hieroglyphic writing; the
+commonest title of the king in the earliest dynasties, and his first
+title later, was that which named him Horus. Hawk gods were the
+presiding deities of Poi (Pe) and Nekhen, which had been the royal
+quarters in the capitals of the two primeval kingdoms of Upper and Lower
+Egypt, at Buto and opposite El Kab. A principal festival in very early
+times was the "worship of Horus," and the kings of the prehistoric
+dynasties were afterwards called "the worshippers of Horus." The
+Northern Kingdom in particular was under the patronage of Horus. He was
+a solar divinity, but appears very early in the Osiris cycle of deities,
+a son of Isis and probably of Osiris, and opponent of Seth. On monuments
+of the Middle Kingdom or somewhat later we find besides Hor the
+following special forms: Har-behtet, i.e. Hor of Beht, the winged solar
+disk, god of Edfu (_Apollinopolis Magna_); Har-khentekthai, god of
+Athribis; Har-mesen (whose principal sacred animal was a lion), god of
+the Sethroite (?) nome; Har-khentemna, i.e. the blind (?) Horus (with a
+shrew-mouse) at Letopolis; Har-mert ("of two eyes") at Pharbaethus;
+Har-akht, Ra-har-akht, or Har-m-akhi (Harikakhis, "Hor of the horizon"),
+the sun-god of Heliopolis.
+
+As a sun-god Horus not only worsted the hostile darkness and avenged his
+father, but also daily renewed himself. He was thus identical with his
+own father from one point of view. In the mythology, especially that of
+the New Kingdom, or of quite late times, we find the following standing
+epithets applied to more or less distinct forms or phases: Harendotes
+(Har-ent-yotf), i.e. "Hor, avenger of his father (Osiris)"; Harpokhrates
+(Har-p-khrat), i.e. "Hor the child," with finger in mouth, sometimes
+seated on a lotus-flower; Harsiesis (Har-si-Esi), i.e. "Hor, son of
+Isis," as a child; Har-en-khebi, "Hor in Chemmis," a child nursed by
+Isis in the papyrus marshes; Haroeris (Har-uer), i.e. "the elder Hor,"
+at Ombos, &c., human-headed or falcon-headed; Harsemteus (Har-sem-teu),
+i.e. "Hor, uniter of the two lands," and others.
+
+In the judgment scene Horus introduces the deceased to Osiris. To the
+Greeks Horus was equivalent to Apollo, but in the name of Hermopolis
+Parva (see DAMANHUR), which must have been among the first of the
+Egyptian cities to be known to them, he was apparently identified with
+Hermes. Although the falcon was the bird most properly sacred to Horus,
+not only its varieties, but also the sparrow-hawk, kestrel and other
+small hawks were mummified in his honour in late times.
+
+  See EGYPT: section _Religion_; Meyer, art. "Horos" in Roscher,
+  _Lexicon der Griech. und Rom. Mythologie_.     (F. Ll. G.)
+
+
+
+
+HORWICH, an urban district in the Westhoughton parliamentary division of
+Lancashire, England, 4 m. W.N.W. of Bolton, on the Lancashire and
+Yorkshire railway. Pop. (1901) 15,084. It lies beneath the considerable
+elevation of Rivington Pike, where formerly was a great forest. It has
+extensive locomotive works, and there are large stone quarries in the
+district. Bleaching and cotton-spinning and the manufacture of
+fire-bricks and tiles are carried on.
+
+
+
+
+HOSANNA, the cry of praise or adoration shouted in recognition of the
+Messiahship of Jesus on his entry into Jerusalem (Matt. xxi. 9, 15; Mark
+xi. 9 sq.; John xii. 13), and since used in the Christian Church. It is
+also a Jewish liturgical term, and was applied specifically to the
+"hosanna" branches carried in procession in the Feast of Booths or
+Tabernacles, the seventh day of which was called the Hosanna-day (so
+also in Syrian usage; cf. "Palm" Sunday). This festival (for which see
+Lev. xxiii. 39 sqq.; 2 Macc. x. 7; Jos. _Ant._ xii. 10. 4, xiii. 13. 15;
+and the Talmudic tractate _Sukkah_) already suggested a Dionysiac
+celebration to Plutarch (_Symp._ iv. 6), and was associated with a
+ceremonial drawing of water which, it was believed, secured fertilizing
+rains in the following year; the penalty for abstinence was drought (cf.
+Zech. xiv. 16 seq.). The evidence (see further _Ency. Bib._ cols. 3354,
+4880 seq.; I. Levy, _Rev. des Et. juives_, 1901, pp. 192 sqq.) points to
+rites of nature-worship, and it is possible that in these the term
+Hosanna had some other application.
+
+  The old interpretation "save, now!" which may be a popular etymology,
+  is based on Ps. cxviii. 25 (Heb. _hoshi'ah-nna_), but this does not
+  explain the occurrence of the word in the Gospels, a complicated
+  problem, on which see the articles of J. H. Thayer in Hastings's
+  _Dict. Bib._, and more especially T. K. Cheyne, _Ency. Bib._ s.v.
+
+
+
+
+HOSE (a word common to many Teutonic languages; cf. Dutch, _hoos_,
+stocking, Ger. _Hose_, breeches, tights; the ultimate origin is
+unknown), the name of an article of dress, used as a covering for the
+leg and foot. The word has been used for various forms of a long
+stocking covering both the foot and leg (see HOSIERY), and this is the
+usual modern sense. But it also formerly meant a kind of gaiter covering
+the leg from the knee to the ankle only, of the long tight covering for
+the whole of the lower limbs, and later of the short puffed or slashed
+breeches worn with the doublet--at this period, from the early part of
+the 16th century onwards, comes the distinction between the "hose" or
+"trunk hose" and the stocking (see COSTUME). The term is applied to
+certain objects resembling such a covering, as in its application to
+flexible rubber or canvas piping used for conveying water (see
+HOSEPIPE), and in botany, to the "sheath" covering, e.g. the ear of
+corn. The term "hose-in-hose" is thus used in botany for a flower in
+which the corolla has become doubled, as though a second were inserted
+in the throat of the first; it occurs sometimes in the primrose.
+
+
+
+
+HOSEA, the son of Beeri, the first in order of the minor prophets of the
+Old Testament. The name Hosea ([Hebrew: Hoshea], LXX. [Greek:, Osee],
+Vulg. _Osee_, and so the English version in Rom. ix. 25) ought rather to
+be written Hoshea, and is identical with that borne by the last king of
+Ephraim, and by Joshua in Num. xiii. 16, Deut. xxxii. 44. Of the life of
+Hosea[1] we know nothing beyond what can be gathered from his
+prophecies. That he was a citizen of the northern kingdom appears from
+the whole tenor of the book, but most expressly from i. 2, where "the
+land," the prophet's land, is the realm of Israel, and vii. 5, where
+"our king" is the king of Samaria. The date at which Hosea flourished is
+given in the title, i. 1, by the reigning kings of Judah and Israel. He
+prophesied (i) in the days of Uzziah, Jotham, Ahaz and Hezekiah, kings
+of Judah; (2) in the days of Jeroboam the son of Joash, king of Israel.
+The dates indicated by the title, which may be regarded as editorial,
+are, for the four kings of the southern kingdom, 789-740, 739-734,
+733-721 and 720-693 B.C. respectively; and, for Jeroboam II., 782-743
+(cf. _Ency. Bib._ col. 797-798). The book itself, however, plainly
+belongs to the period prior to 734 B.C. since, in that year, (a) the
+Syro-Ephraimitic war began, to which there is here no reference, nor is
+Assyria yet the open foe it then became; (b) Gilead became
+Tiglath-Pileser's (2 Kings xv. 29), whereas it is here described as
+still part of the territory of Israel (vi. 8; xii. 11; cf. the included
+place-names of v. 1). On the other hand, the prophet connects with the
+birth of his eldest child the approaching fall of the house of Jehu (i.
+4), thus anticipating the death of Jeroboam II. in 743, and the period
+of anarchy which followed (2 Kings xv.). Thus the prophetic work of
+Hosea may be dated, with practical certainty, as beginning from some
+point previous to 743 and extending not later than 734.[2] This is
+corroborated by the general character of the book. Of its two parts,
+i.-iii. reflects the wealth and prosperity of the reign of Jeroboam II.,
+whilst iv.-xiv. contains frequent references to the social disorder and
+anarchy of the subsequent years.
+
+The first part of Hosea's prophetic work, corresponding to chs. i.-iii.,
+lay in the years of external prosperity immediately preceding the
+catastrophe of the house of Jehu in or near the year 743. The second
+part of the book is a summary of prophetic teaching during the
+subsequent troublous reign of Menahem, and, perhaps, that of his
+successor, Pekahiah, and must have been completed before 734 B.C. Apart
+from the narrative in chs. i.-iii., to which we shall presently recur,
+the book throws little or no light on the details of Hosea's life. It
+appears from ix. 7, 8, that his prophetic work was greatly embarrassed
+by opposition: "As for the prophet, a fowler's snare is in all his ways,
+and enmity in the house of his God." The enmity which had its centre in
+the sanctuary probably proceeded from the priests (comp. Amos vii.),
+against whose profligacy and profanation of their office our prophet
+frequently declaims--perhaps also from the degenerate prophetic gilds
+which had their seats in the holy cities of the northern kingdom, and
+with whom Hosea's elder contemporary Amos so indignantly refuses to be
+identified (Amos vii. 14). In ch. iv. 5 Hosea seems to comprise priests
+and prophets in one condemnation, thus placing himself in direct
+antagonism to all the leaders of the religious life of his nation. He is
+not less antagonistic to the kings and princes of his day (vii. 3-7,
+viii. 4, viii. 10 Septuagint, x. 7-15, xiii. 11).[3] In view of the
+familiarity shown with the intrigues of rulers and the doings of
+priests, it has been conjectured that Hosea held a prominent position,
+or even (by Duhm) that he was himself a priest (Marti, p. 2).
+
+The most interesting problem of Hosea's history lies in the
+interpretation of the story of his married life (chs. i.-iii.). We read
+in these chapters that God's revelation to Hosea began when in
+accordance with a divine command he married a profligate wife, Gomer,
+the daughter of Diblaim. Three children were born in this marriage and
+received symbolical names, illustrative of the divine purpose towards
+Israel, which are expounded in ch. i. In ch. ii. the faithlessness of
+Israel to Jehovah (Yahweh), the long-suffering of God, the moral
+discipline of sorrow and tribulation by which He will yet bring back His
+erring people and betroth it to Himself for ever in righteousness, love
+and truth, are depicted under the figure of the relation of a husband to
+an erring spouse. The suggestion of this allegory lies in the prophet's
+marriage with Gomer, but the details are worked out quite independently,
+and under a rich multiplicity of figures derived from other sources. In
+the third chapter we return to the personal experience of the prophet.
+His faithless wife had at length left him and fallen, under
+circumstances which are not detailed, into a state of misery, from which
+Hosea, still following her with tender affection, and encouraged by a
+divine command, brought her back and restored her to his house, where he
+kept her in seclusion, and patiently watched over her for many days, yet
+not readmitting her to the privileges of a wife.
+
+In these experiences the prophet again recognizes a parallel to Yahweh's
+long-suffering love to Israel, and the discipline by which the people
+shall be brought back to God through a period in which all their
+political and religious institutions are overthrown. Throughout these
+chapters personal narrative and prophetic allegory are interwoven with a
+rapidity of transition very puzzling to the modern reader; but an
+unbiassed exegesis can hardly fail to acknowledge that chs. i. and iii.
+narrate an actual passage in the prophet's life. The names of the three
+children are symbolical, but Isaiah in like manner gave symbolical names
+to his sons, embodying prominent points in his prophetic teaching
+(Shear-jashub, Isa. vii. 3, comp. x. 21; Maher-shalal-hash-baz, viii.
+3). And the name of Gomer bath Diblaim is certainly that of an actual
+person, upon which all the allegorists, from the Targum, Jerome and
+Ephraem Syrus downwards, have spent their arts in vain, whereas the true
+symbolical names in the book are perfectly easy of interpretation.[4]
+That the ancient interpreters take the whole narrative as a mere parable
+is no more than an application of their standing rule that everything in
+the Biblical history is allegorical which in its literal sense appears
+offensive to propriety (comp. Jerome's proem to the book). But the
+supposed offence to propriety seems to rest on mistaken exegesis and too
+narrow a conception of the way in which the Divine word was communicated
+to the prophets.[5] There is no reason to suppose that Hosea knowingly
+married a woman of profligate character. The point of the allegory in i.
+2 is plainly infidelity after marriage as a parallel to Israel's
+departure from the covenant God, and a profligate wife ([Hebrew: eshet
+znunim]) is not the same thing with an open prostitute ([Hebrew:
+zonna]). The marriage was marred by Gomer's infidelity; and the struggle
+of Hosea's affection for his wife with this great unhappiness--a
+struggle inconceivable unless his first love had been pure and full of
+trust in the purity of its object--furnished him with a new insight into
+Yahweh's dealings with Israel. Then he recognized that the great
+calamity of his life was God's own ordinance and appointed means to
+communicate to him a deep prophetic lesson. The recognition of a divine
+command after the fact has its parallel, as Wellhausen observes, in Jer.
+xxxii. 8.
+
+It was in the experiences of his married life, and in the spiritual
+lessons opened to him through these, that Hosea first heard the
+revealing voice of Yahweh (i. 2).[6] Like Amos (Amos iii. 8), he was
+called to speak for God by an inward constraining voice, and there is
+no reason to think that he had any connexion with the recognized
+prophetic societies, or ever received such outward adoption to office as
+was given to Elisha. His position in Israel was one of tragic isolation.
+Amos, when he had discharged his mission at Bethel, could return to his
+home and to his friends; Hosea was a stranger among his own people, and
+his home was full of sorrow and shame. Isaiah in the gloomiest days of
+Judah's declensions had faithful disciples about him, and knew that
+there was a believing remnant in the land. Hosea knows no such remnant,
+and there is not a line in his prophecy from which we can conclude that
+his words ever found an obedient ear.
+
+As already stated, this prophecy falls into two clearly distinguished
+sections,[7] the former (i.-iii.), already dealt with, accounting for
+the general standpoint of the latter (iv.-xiv.). It is not possible to
+make any convincing subdivisions of this latter section (cf. G. A.
+Smith, i. p. 223) which is best regarded as a series of separate
+discourses on certain recurrent topics, viz. (a) the cultus, (b) the
+social disorder and immorality, (c) political tendencies (alliance with
+either Assyria or Egypt sought).[8] In regard to each of these topics,
+the attitude of the prophet involves the discernment of present guilt,
+and the assertion of future punishment. For him the present condition of
+the people contained no germ or pledge of future amendment, and he
+describes the impending judgment, not as a sifting process (Amos ix. 9,
+10) in which the wicked perish and the righteous remain, but as the
+total wreck of the nation which has wholly turned aside from its God. In
+truth, while the idolatrous feasts of Ephraim still ran their joyous
+round, while the careless people crowded to the high places, and there
+in unbridled and licentious mirth flattered themselves that their many
+sacrifices ensured the help of their God against all calamity, the
+nation was already in the last stage of internal dissolution. To the
+prophet's eye there was "no truth, nor mercy, nor knowledge of God in
+the land--nought but swearing, and lying, and killing, and stealing and
+adultery; they break out, and blood toucheth blood" (iv. 1, 2). The root
+of this corruption lay in total ignorance of Yahweh, whose precepts were
+no longer taught by the priests, while in the national calf-worship, and
+in the local high places, this worship was confounded with the service
+of the Canaanite Baalim. Thus the whole religious constitution of Israel
+was undermined. And the political state of the realm was in Hosea's eyes
+not more hopeful. The dynasty of Jehu, still great and powerful when the
+prophet's labours began, is itself an incorporation of national sin.
+Founded on the bloodshed of Jezreel, it must fall by God's vengeance,
+and the state shall fall with it (i. 4, iii. 4). This sentence stands at
+the head of Hosea's predictions, and throughout the book the civil
+constitution of Ephraim is represented as equally lawless and godless
+with the corrupt religious establishment. The anarchy that followed on
+the murder of Zachariah appears to the prophet as the natural decadence
+of a realm not founded on divine ordinance. The nation had rejected
+Yahweh, the only helper. And now the avenging Assyrian[9] is at hand.
+Samaria's king shall pass away as foam on the water. Fortress and city
+shall fall before the ruthless invader, who spares neither age nor sex,
+and thistles shall cover the desolate altars of Ephraim.
+
+  In our present book of Hosea, this condemnatory judgment on
+  contemporary Israel culminates in a chapter of appeal for penitence,
+  with promise of divine forgiveness. The question of the authenticity
+  of this and of other "restoration" passages[10] forms the chief
+  problem for literary criticism presented by the book.[11] Amongst the
+  more recent commentators, Davidson, G. A. Smith and Nowack regard
+  Hosea xiv. as written by the prophet, though the second admits its
+  chronological misplacement and the third its later expansion. On the
+  other hand, it is altogether rejected by Cheyne, Wellhausen, Marti and
+  Harper. These claim that the passage reflects the later standpoint of
+  completed punishment, and is therefore inconsistent in the prophet who
+  anticipates that punishment. But the case is different from that of
+  the epilogue to Amos, since Hosea's personal experience covers
+  forgiveness as well as discipline (Marti consistently, though without
+  ground, rejects this experience also). There seems, therefore, to be
+  no sufficient evidence for denying thoughts of restoration to Hosea,
+  whilst it is highly probable that such passages would be amplified in
+  a later age. Indeed, the importance of these passages for the
+  interpretation of Hosea is apt to be overrated, for, as one of those
+  rejecting them remarks, though Hosea "promised nothing," yet he
+  "contributed a conception of Yahweh which made such a future not only
+  possible but even probable" (Harper, p. cliii.). We may therefore read
+  the closing chapter as, at least, the explicit statement of a hope
+  implicit in Hosea's teaching.
+
+Hosea could discern no faithful remnant in Ephraim, yet Ephraim in all
+his corruption is the son of Yahweh, a child nurtured with tender love,
+a chosen people, whose past history declares in every episode the
+watchful and patient affection of his father. And that father is God and
+not man, the Holy One who will not and cannot sacrifice His love even to
+the justest indignation (chap. xi.). To the prophet who knows this love
+of Yahweh, who has learned to understand it in the like experience of
+his own life, the very ruin of the state of Israel is a step in the
+loving guidance which makes the valley of trouble a door of hope (ii.
+15), and the wilderness of tribulation as full of promise as the desert
+road from Egypt to Canaan was to Israel of old. Of the manner of
+Israel's repentance and conversion Hosea presents no clear image--nay,
+it is plain that on this point he had nothing to tell. The certainty
+that the people will at length return and seek Yahweh their God rests,
+not on any germ of better things in Israel, but on the invincible
+supremacy of Yahweh's love. And so the two sides of his prophetic
+declaration, the passionate denunciation of Israel's sin and folly, and
+the not less passionate tenderness with which he describes the final
+victory of divine love, are united by no logical bond. The unity is one
+of feeling only, and the sob of anguish in which many of his appeals to
+a heedless people seem to end turns once and again with sudden revulsion
+into the clear accents of evangelical promise, which in the closing
+chapter swell forth in pure and strong cadence out of a heart that has
+found its rest with God from all the troubles of a stormy life.
+
+The strongly emotional temperament of Hosea suggests comparison with
+that of Jeremiah, who like himself is the prophet of the decline and
+fall of a kingdom. The subsequent influence of Hosea on the literature
+of the Old and New Testaments is very marked. Not only is it seen in the
+conception of the relation between God and His people as a marriage,
+which he makes current coin (cf. Marti, p. 15), but still more in the
+fact that his conception of the divine character becomes the inspiration
+of the book of Deuteronomy and so of the whole canon of Scripture. "In a
+special degree, the author of Deuteronomy is the spiritual heir of
+Hosea."[12]
+
+  RECENT LITERATURE (where references to older works will be found):
+  Cheyne, "Hosea" in _Cambridge Bible_ (1884); W. R. Smith, _The
+  Prophets of Israel_,^2 with Cheyne's introduction (1895); G. A. Smith,
+  "The Book of the Twelve," i., in _The Expositor's Bible_ (1896);
+  Nowack, _Die Kleinen Propheten_ (1897); Wellhausen, _Die Kleinen
+  Propheten_^3 (1898); Smend, _Alttest. Religionsgeschichte_,^2 pp. 204
+  f. (1899); Davidson, art. "Hosea" in Hastings' _Dictionary of the
+  Bible_, ii. pp. 419 f. (1900); Marti, art. "Hosea" in _Ency.
+  Biblica_, ii. c. 2119 (1901) (a revision of the original article by
+  W. R. Smith, in the _Ency. Britannica_, partially reproduced above);
+  Marti, _Dodekapropheton_ (1903); W. R. Harper, "Amos and Hosea" in
+  _Inter. Critical Commentary_ (1905) (with copious bibliography).
+       (W. R. S.; H. W. R.*)
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+  [1] _Traditions about Hosea._--Beeri, the prophet's father, is
+    identified by the Rabbins with Beerah (1 Chron. v. 6), a Reubenite
+    prince carried captive by Tiglath-Pileser. This view is already
+    expressed by Jerome, _Quaest. in Paralip._, and doubtless underlies
+    the statement of the Targum to Chronicles that Beerah was a prophet.
+    For it is a Jewish maxim that when a prophet's father is named, he,
+    too, was a prophet, and accordingly a tradition of R. Simon makes
+    Isa. viii. 19, 20 a prophecy of Beeri (Kimchi in loc.; _Leviticus
+    Rabba_, par. 15). According to the usual Christian tradition,
+    however, Hosea was of the tribe of Issachar, and from an unknown
+    town, Belemoth or Belemon (pseudo-Epiphanius, pseudo-Dorotheus,
+    Ephraem Syr. ii. 234; _Chron. Pasch._, Bonn ed., i. 276). As the
+    tradition adds that he died there, and was buried in peace, the
+    source of the story lies probably in some holy place shown as his
+    grave. There are other traditions as to the burial-place of Hosea. A
+    Jewish legend in the _Shalshelet haqqabala_ (Carpzov, _Introd._, pt.
+    iii. ch. vii. S 3) tells that he died in captivity at Babylon, and
+    was carried to Upper Galilee, and buried at [Hebrew: Zefat], that is,
+    Safed (Neubauer, Geog. _du Talmud_, p. 227); and the Arabs show the
+    grave of Nebi 'Osha, east of the Jordan, near Es-Salt (Baedeker's
+    _Palestine_, p. 337; Burckhardt's _Syria_, p. 353).
+
+  [2] The supposed reference of viii. 9-10 to the tribute paid by
+    Menahem to Tiglath-Pileser (2 Kings xv. 19), and dated, on the
+    monuments, 738 B.C., depends on a corrupt text: read v. 10 with
+    Septuagint.
+
+  [3] Some scholars hold that his attack is directed against the very
+    principle of monarchy (Nowack, p. 8; Smend, p. 209: "Hosea rejects
+    the kingship in itself"; Wellhausen, p. 125: "The making of kings in
+    Israel is for him, together with the heathen cultus, the fundamental
+    evil"). This view depends on a disputed interpretation of the
+    reference to Gibeah (x. 9; cf. ix. 9); and on the words: "I give thee
+    kings in mine anger, and I take them away in my wrath" (xiii. 11),
+    which may refer to the rise and fall of contemporary kings (cf.
+    Marti, ad loc). In any case, as Wellhausen himself says (p. 132): "He
+    does not start from a dogmatic theory, but simply from historical
+    experience."
+
+  [4] Theodorus Mops. remarks very justly, [Greek: kai to onoma kai ton
+    patera legei, os me plasma psilon ti dokoie to legomenon, historia de
+    alethes ton pragmaton.]
+
+  [5] This explanation of the narrative, which is essentially Ewald's,
+    is now generally accepted. It has the great advantage of supplying a
+    psychological key to the conception of Israel or the land of Israel
+    (i. 2) as the spouse of Yahweh, which dominates these chapters, but
+    in the later part of the book gives way to the personification of the
+    nation as God's son. This conception has, indeed, formal points of
+    contact with notions previously current, and even with the ideas of
+    Semitic heathenism. On the one hand, it is a standing Hebrew usage to
+    represent the land as mother of its people, while the representation
+    of worshippers as children of their god is found in Num. xxi. 29,
+    where the Moabites are called children of Chemosh, and is early and
+    widespread throughout the Semitic field (cf. _Trans. Bib. Arch._ vi.
+    438; _Jour. of Phil._ ix. 82). The combination of these two notions
+    gives at once the conception of the national deity as husband of the
+    land. On the other hand, the designation of Yahweh as Baal, which, in
+    accordance with the antique view of marriage, means husband as well
+    as lord and owner, was current among the Israelites in early times,
+    perhaps, indeed, down to Hosea's age (ii. 16). Now it is highly
+    probable that among the idolatrous Israelites the idea of a marriage
+    between the deity and individual worshippers was actually current and
+    connected with the immorality which Hosea often condemns in the
+    worship of the local Baalim whom the ignorant people identified with
+    Yahweh. For we have a Punic woman's name, [Hebrew: areshetbaal], "the
+    betrothed of Baal" (Euting, Punische Steine, pp. 9, 15), and a
+    similar conception existed among the Babylonians (Herod. i. 181,
+    182). But Hosea takes the idea of Yahweh as husband, and gives it an
+    altogether different turn, filling it with a new and profound
+    meaning, based on the psychical experiences of a deep human affection
+    in contest with outraged honour and the wilful self-degradation of a
+    spouse. It can hardly be supposed that all that lies in these
+    chapters is an abstract study in the psychology of the emotions. It
+    is actual human experience that gives Hosea the key to divine truth.
+
+  [6] Davidson (_D.B._ ii. 422) remarks that "it was not his
+    misfortunes that gave Hosea his prophetic word. Israel's apostasy was
+    plain to him, and he foreshadowed her doom in Jezreel, the name of
+    his first child, before any misfortunes overtook him. At most, his
+    misfortunes may at a later time have given a complexion to his
+    prophetic thoughts." Wellhausen (p. 108) objects to the emergence of
+    the call from the experience, on the ground that the name given to
+    the first child gives no indication that Hosea had yet reached his
+    specific message, the infidelity of his wife and of Israel, though it
+    shows him already as a prophet. Marti (p. 15) agrees with Davidson in
+    making the order (a) call, (b) marriage and birth of three children,
+    (c) comprehension of the significance of the marriage for himself and
+    for Israel. The statement made above must be interpreted of Hosea's
+    _specific_ message from Yahweh, as recorded in his book.
+
+  [7] Marti disregards this generally accepted division, arguing that
+    (a) i.-iii. was not written earlier than iv.-xiv., (b) iii. is not
+    Hoseanic, (c) ii. is much more akin to iv.-xiv. than to i.-iii.
+    (_Comm._ p. 1; cf. _Enc. Bib._ 2123 n.^3). He holds that another
+    wife, not Gomer, is intended in iii., which is an allegory referring
+    to Israel, as Gomer referred to Judah. His arguments are not
+    convincing.
+
+  [8] So, practically, Davidson, _D.B._ ii. p. 423 seq., where the
+    detailed references will be found.
+
+  [9] This is too definite for the data; cf. Davidson, _l.c._ "Hosea
+    has no clear idea of the instrument or means of Israel's destruction.
+    It is 'the sword' (vii. 16, xi. 6), the 'enemy' (viii. 3, v. 8-9); or
+    it is natural, internal decay (vii. 8-9, ix. 16), the moth and
+    rottenness (v. 12)."
+
+  [10] e.g. i. 10-ii. 1, ii. 14 f., iii. 5, v. 15-vi. 3, xi. 10-11.
+
+  [11] Apart from glosses and minor alterations, the only other
+    critical problem of importance is that of the references to _Judah_
+    scattered throughout the book (i. 7, iv. 15, v. 5, v. 10 f., vi. 4,
+    11, viii. 14, x. 11, xi. 12). There is no inherent improbability in
+    some mention of the sister kingdom; but some of the actual references
+    do suggest interpolation, especially i. 7, where the deliverance of
+    Judah from Sennacherib in 701 B.C. seems intended. Each case, as
+    Wellhausen implies, is to be considered on its merits. On these and
+    other suspected passages, cf. Cheyne, Intro. to W. R. Smith's
+    _Prophets of Israel_, pp. xvii.-xxii.; Marti, p. 8; Harper, p. clix.
+
+  [12] Driver, _Deuteronomy_, p. xxvii.
+
+
+
+
+HOSE-PIPE, or simply "hose," the name given to flexible piping by means
+of which water may be conveyed from one place to another. One end of the
+pipe is connected to the source of the water, while the other end is
+free, so that the direction of the stream of water which issues from the
+pipe may be changed at will. The method of manufacture and the strength
+of the materials used depend naturally upon the particular use to which
+the finished article is to be put. Simple garden hose is often made of
+india-rubber or composition, but the hose intended for fire brigade and
+similar important purposes must be of a much more substantial material.
+The most satisfactory material is the best long flax, although cotton is
+also extensively used for many types of this fabric.
+
+The flax fibre, after having been carefully spun into yarn, is boiled
+twice and then beetled; these two processes remove all injurious matter,
+and make the yarn soft and lustrous. The yarn is then wound on to large
+bobbins, and made into a chain; the number of threads in the chain
+depends upon the size of the hose, which may be anything from half an
+inch to 15 in. or even more in diameter. When the chain is warped, it is
+beamed upon the weaver's beam, and the ends--either double or
+triple--are drawn through the leaves of the cambs of heddles, passed
+through the reed and finally tied to the cloth beam. The preparation of
+the warp for any kind of loom varies very little, but the weaving may
+vary greatly. In all cases the hose fabric is essentially circular,
+although it appears quite flat during the weaving operation.
+
+There are very few hand-made fabrics which can compete with the
+machine-made article, but the very best type of hose-pipe is certainly
+one of the former class. The cloth can be made much more cheaply in the
+power-loom than in the hand-loom, but, up to the present, no power-loom
+has been made which can weave as substantial a cloth as the hand-loom
+product; the weak part in all hose-pipes is where the weft passes round
+the sides from top to bottom of the fabric or vice versa, that is, the
+side corresponding to the selvages in an ordinary cloth; the hand-loom
+weaver can draw the weft tighter than is possible in the power-loom,
+hence the threads at the sides can be brought close together, and by
+this means the fabric is made almost, but not quite, as perfect here as
+in other parts. It is essential that the warp threads be held tightly in
+the loom, and to secure this, they pass alternately over and under three
+or four back rests before reaching the heddles or cambs, which are
+almost invariably made of wire. Although the warp yarn is made very soft
+and pliable by boiling and beetling, the weaver always tallows it in
+order to make it work more easily.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 1.]
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 2.]
+
+  The commonest type of hose-pipe is made on the double-plain principle
+  of weaving, the cloth being perfectly plain but woven in such a manner
+  that the pipe is without seams of any kind. Fig. 1 is a design showing
+  two repeats or eight shots in the way of the weft, and six repeats or
+  twenty-four-threads in the way of the warp, consequently the weave is
+  complete on four threads, or leaves, and four picks. Fig. 2
+  illustrates the method of interlacing the threads and the picks: this
+  figure shows that twenty-three threads only are used, the first
+  thread--shown shaded in fig. 1--having been left out. It is necessary
+  to use a number of threads which is either one less or one more than
+  some multiple of four--the number of threads in the unit weave. The
+  sectional view (fig. 2), although indicating the crossings of the warp
+  and the weft, is quite different from an actual section through the
+  threads: the warp is almost invariably two or three ply, and in
+  addition two or more of these twisted threads pass through the same
+  heddle-eye in the camb; moreover, they are set very closely
+  together--so closely, indeed, that the threads entirely conceal the
+  weft; it is, therefore, impossible to give a correct sectional view
+  with satisfactory clearness, as the threads are so very rank, but fig.
+  3 gives some idea of the structure of the fabric. This view shows
+  ninety-nine threads and one complete round of weft; this round is, of
+  course, equal to two picks or shots--one pick for the top part of the
+  cloth and one for the bottom part. A comparison of this figure with
+  fig. 2 will, perhaps, make the description clearer. The weft in fig. 3
+  is thinner than the warp, but, in practice, it is always much thicker,
+  and may consist of from two to seventy threads twisted together.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 3.--Section through the Warp.]
+
+  Hose-pipes are also woven with the three-leaf twill on both sides, and
+  occasionally with the four-leaf twill. These pipes, woven with the
+  twill weaves, are usually lined with a pure rubber tube which is fixed
+  to the inside of the cloth by another layer of rubber after the cloth
+  leaves the loom. Such pipes have usually, but not invariably, a
+  smoother inner surface than those which are unlined, hence, when they
+  are used, less friction is presented to the flow of water, and there
+  is less tendency for the pipe to leak. They are, therefore, suitable
+  for hotels, public buildings and similar places where their temporary
+  use will not result in undue damage to articles of furniture, carpets
+  and general decoration.
+
+  The greatest care must be observed in the weaving of these fabrics,
+  the slightest flaw in the structure rendering the article practically
+  useless. After the cloth has been woven, it is carefully examined, and
+  then steeped in a chemical solution which acts as an antiseptic. The
+  cloth is thus effectively preserved from mildew, and is, in addition,
+  made more pliable. Finally the hose-pipe is dried artificially, and
+  then fitted with the necessary couplings and nozzles.
+
+  For a more detailed description of circular weaving see Woodhouse and
+  Milne, _Textile Design: Pure and Applied_.     (T. Wo.)
+
+
+
+
+HOSHANGABAD, a town and district of British India, in the Nerbudda
+division of the Central Provinces. The town stands on the left bank of
+the Nerbudda, 1009 ft. above the sea, and has a railway station. Pop.
+(1901), 14,940. It is supposed to have been founded by Hoshang Shah, the
+second of the Ghori kings of Malwa, in the 15th century; but it remained
+an insignificant place till the Bhopal conquest about 1720, when a
+massive stone fort was constructed, with its base on the river,
+commanding the Bhopal road. It sustained several sieges during the 18th
+century, and passed alternately into the hands of the Bhopal and Nagpur
+rulers. Since 1818 it has been the residence of the chief British
+officials in charge of the district. It has a government high school,
+and agricultural school and a brass-working industry.
+
+The DISTRICT OF HOSHANGABAD has an area of 3676 sq. m. Pop. (1901),
+449,165, showing a decrease of 10% in the decade, due to famine. It may
+be described as a valley of varying breadth, extending for 150 m.
+between the Nerbudda river and the Satpura mountains. The soil consists
+chiefly of black basaltic alluvium, often more than 20 ft. deep; but
+along the banks of the Nerbudda the fertility of the land compensates
+for the tameness of the scenery. Towards the west, low stony hills and
+broken ridges cut up the level ground, while the Vindhyas and the
+Satpuras throw out jutting spurs and ranges. In this wilder country
+considerable regions are covered with jungle. On the south the lofty
+range which shuts in the valley is remarkable in mountain scenery,
+surpassing in its picturesque irregularity the Vindhyan chain in the
+north. Many streams take their rise amid its precipices, then, winding
+through deep glens, flow across the plain between sandy banks covered
+with low jungle till they swell the waters of the Nerbudda. None is of
+any importance except the Tawa, which is interesting to the geologist on
+account of the many minerals to be found along its course. The boundary
+rivers, the Nerbudda and Tapti, are the only considerable waters in
+Hoshangabad. The principal crops are wheat, millets and oil-seeds. The
+district is traversed throughout its length by the Great Indian
+Peninsula railway.
+
+
+
+
+HOSHEA (Heb. for "deliverance"), the last king of Israel, in the Bible.
+The attempt of his predecessor Pekah to take Jerusalem with the help of
+his ally Rasun (Rezin) of Damascus was frustrated by the intervention of
+Tiglath-Pileser IV. (see AHAZ), who attacked Gilead, Galilee and the
+north frontier, and carried off some of its population (cp. 1 Chron. v.
+26). Pekah's resistance to Assyria led to a conspiracy in which he lost
+his life, and Hoshea the son of Elah became king (2 Kings xv. 27-30).
+The Assyrian king held him as his vassal (and indeed claims to have set
+him on the throne), and exacted from him a yearly tribute. Meanwhile,
+Damascus was besieged (733-732 B.C.), Rasun was slain and the
+inhabitants deported (2 Kings xvi. 9; LXX. omits "to Kir," but see Amos
+i. 5). The impending fate of Damascus is illustrated by Isaiah (vii. 16,
+viii. 4, xvii. 1-11), who also gives a vivid description of the
+impression left by the Assyrian army (v. 26-30). After the death of
+Tiglath-Pileser, Israel regained confidence (Isa. ix. 8-x. 4) and took
+steps to recover its independence. Its policy vacillated--"like a silly
+dove" (Hos. vii. 11), and at length negotiations were opened with
+Mizraim. The annual payment of tribute ceased and Shalmaneser IV. (who
+began to reign in 727 B.C.) at once laid siege to Samaria, which fell at
+the end of three years (722-721 B.C.). The achievement is claimed by his
+successor Sargon. Hoshea was killed, the land was again partly
+depopulated and a governor appointed (2 Kings xviii. 9-12; cp. xvii. 1
+sqq.). For other allusions to this period see HOSEA, ISAIAH.
+
+  2 Kings xvii. 3 and 5 imply _two_ attacks by Shalmaneser: in the first
+  of which Hoshea was imprisoned and perhaps blinded (Cheyne, emending,
+  "shut him up" in v. 4), although in v. 6 he is still reigning; see on
+  this Winckler, _Keilinschr. u. Alte Test._^3 p. 268; Burney, _Kings_,
+  p. 328 seq.; Skinner, _Kings_, p. 372 seq. The chronological notes,
+  moreover, are extremely confused; contrast xv. 30 with xvii. 1. The
+  usual identification of So (or Seve), king of Mizraim, with Shabaka of
+  Egypt is difficult, partly on chronological grounds (which Petrie,
+  _History of Egypt_, pp. 277, 281 sqq. does not remove), and partly
+  because the Ethiopian dominion in Egypt appears to be still weak and
+  divided. The Assyrian records name a certain Sibi as _officer_, and
+  also Piru (Pharaoh!) as _king_ of Musri, and it is doubtful whether
+  Hoshea's ally was a petty prince of Egypt or of a N. Arabian district
+  (see MIZRAIM). If the latter, Hoshea's policy becomes more
+  intelligible; see Whitehouse, _Isaiah_, p. 17 seq.; JEWS: _History_;
+  PHILISTINES. On the depopulation of Samaria and the introduction of
+  colonists, see Winckler's objections, _Alttest. Untersuch._ pp.
+  95-107, with Burney's criticisms, _Kings_, p. 334 seq.     (S. A. C.)
+
+
+
+
+HOSHIARPUR, a town of British India, in the Jullundur division of the
+Punjab. Pop. (1901), 17,549. It was founded, according to tradition,
+about the early part of the 14th century. In 1809 it was occupied by
+Ranjit Singh. The maharaja and his successors maintained a considerable
+cantonment 1 m. S.E. of the town, and the British government kept it up
+for several years after the annexation of the Punjab in 1849. There are
+manufactures of cotton goods, inlaid woodwork, lacquered ware, shoes and
+copper vessels.
+
+The DISTRICT OF HOSHIARPUR comprises an area of 2244 sq. m.; pop. (1901)
+989,782, showing a decrease of 2% in the decade, compared with an
+increase of 12% during the previous decade. It falls into two nearly
+equal portions of hill and plain country. Its eastern face consists of
+the westward slope of the Solar Singhi Hills; parallel with that ridge,
+a line of lower heights belonging to the Siwalik range traverses the
+district from south to north, while between the two chains stretches a
+valley of uneven width, known as the Jaswan Dun. Its upper portion is
+crossed by the Sohan torrent, while the Sutlej sweeps into its lower end
+through a break in the hills, and flows in a southerly direction till it
+turns the flank of the central range, and debouches westwards upon the
+plains. This western plain consists of alluvial formation, with a
+general westerly slope owing to the deposit of silt from the mountain
+torrents in the sub-montane tract. The Beas has a fringe of lowland,
+open to moderate but not excessive inundations, and considered very
+fertile. A considerable area is covered by government woodlands, under
+the care of the forest department. Rice is largely grown, in the marshy
+flats along the banks of the Beas. Several religious fairs are held, at
+Anandpur, Mukerian and Chintpurni, all of which attract an enormous
+concourse of people. The district, owing to its proximity to the hills,
+possesses a comparatively cool and humid climate. Cotton fabrics are
+manufactured, and sugar, rice and other grains, tobacco and indigo are
+among the exports.
+
+The country around Hoshiarpur formed part of the old Hindu kingdom of
+Katoch In Jullundur. The state was eventually broken up, and the present
+district was divided between the rajas of Ditarpur and Jaswan. They
+retained undisturbed possession of their territories until 1759, when
+the rising Sikh chieftains commenced a series of encroachments upon the
+hill tracts. In 1815 the aggressive maharaja, Ranjit Singh, forced the
+ruler of Jaswan to resign his territories in exchange for an estate on
+feudal tenure; three years later the raja of Ditarpur met with similar
+treatment. By the close of the year 1818 the whole country from the
+Sutlej to the Beas had come under the government of Lahore, and after
+the first Sikh war in 1846 passed to the British government. The deposed
+rajas of Ditarpur and Jaswan received cash pensions from the new rulers,
+but expressed bitter disappointment at not being restored to their
+former sovereign position. Accordingly the outbreak of the second Sikh
+war, in 1848 found the disaffected chieftains ready for rebellion. They
+organized a revolt, but the two rajas and the other ringleaders were
+captured, and their estates confiscated.
+
+
+
+
+HOSIERY, a term used to designate all manufactured textile fabrics which
+in their process of manufacture have been built on the principle of
+looping or loop structure. The origin of the term is obvious, being
+derived from "hose" or stocking, this being one of the earliest garments
+made by the process of knitting (q.v.). While it still forms one of the
+staples of the trade, it is only one of a very numerous and diversified
+range of applications of the entire industry. The elastic structure of
+knitting makes it very adaptable for all kinds of body or underwear.
+There is scarcely a single textile article manufactured but can be
+reproduced on the knitting or loop structure principle. The art of
+knitting is of very modern origin as compared with that of weaving. No
+certain allusion to the art occurs before the beginning of the 15th
+century. In an act of parliament of Henry VII. (1488) knitted woollen
+caps are mentioned. It is supposed that the art was first practised in
+Scotland, and thence carried into England, and that caps were made by
+knitting for some period before the more difficult feat of
+stocking-making was attempted. In an act of Edward VI. (1553) "knitte
+hose, knitte peticotes, knitte gloves and knitte sleeves" are
+enumerated, and the trade of hosiers, among others, included in an act
+dated 1563. Spanish silk stockings were worn on rare occasions by Henry
+VIII., and the same much-prized articles are also mentioned in connexion
+with the wardrobe of Edward VI.
+
+Knitting, or loop formation by mechanical means, is divided into two
+distinct principles--frame-work knitting and warp knitting. Both
+principles may be employed in the formation of a large variety of plain
+and fancy stitches or a combination of the two.
+
+  _Frame-work Knitting_ in its simplest form consists of rows of loops
+  supporting each other--built from one continuous thread of yarn and
+  running from one side of the fabric to the other and back (fig. 1). It
+  is on this principle of stitch that the greatest amount of hosiery is
+  built (hose, shirts, pants).
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 1.--The Stitch or Loop Structure of Plain Knitting
+  (back of fabric).]
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 2.--A Single Thread formed into a Chain of Crocket
+  Work, showing the Loop Structure of the plain Warp-knitted Fabric. It
+  is built up as shown in the diagram by a number of threads running up
+  the fabric.]
+
+  _Warp Knitting_ in its simplest form consists of rows of loops, but
+  the number of threads employed are equal to the number of loops in the
+  width of the fabric. Thus it will be seen that the threads run
+  lengthwise of the fabric (fig. 2). This principle gives greater scope
+  for reproducing designs in openwork and colour than that of
+  frame-work knitting. For this reason it is largely used in the shawl,
+  glove and fancy hosiery industries.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 3.--Hand Stocking Frame.]
+
+  _Machinery._--In hand knitting the implements employed (a few needles
+  or wires) are very simple and inexpensive. In the manufacturing
+  industry the most complex and ingenious machinery is used. In 1589 the
+  Rev. William Lee, a graduate of St John's College, Cambridge, while
+  acting as curate (or vicar) of Calverton, Nottinghamshire, introduced
+  his stocking-frame. This machine was the first mechanical means
+  employed to produce a looped or knitted fabric. This frame or machine
+  of Lee's was the origin of all the hosiery and lace machines at
+  present in use. One of the most remarkable points about his invention
+  was its completeness and adaptability for the work for which its
+  inventor intended it. The main principles of Lee's frame are embodied
+  in most of the rotary or power frames of the present day. Fig. 3 shows
+  a hand frame of the present day.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 4.
+
+    A, The leads into which the needles (B) are cast.
+    D, The old loops or work.
+    C, The new loops formed and brought under the beards.]
+
+  In hand knitting an indefinite number of loops are skewered on a wire
+  or pin, but, in Lee's frame, an individual hooked or bearded needle is
+  employed for the support and formation of each loop in the breadth of
+  the fabric. This needle consists of a shank with a terminal
+  spring-pointed hook (or beard), the point of which can be pressed at
+  will into a groove or eye in the shank. For method by which the loops
+  are formed on the needles of the frame see fig. 4. This shows a few of
+  Lee's hooked or bearded needles having the old loops or work hanging
+  round the needle shanks. The thread of yarn which is to form the new
+  row of loops is laid over the needle shanks and waved or looped
+  between each pair of needles. This waving or looping ensures
+  sufficient yarn being drawn and loops of a uniform size being made, so
+  that a regular and level fabric will be produced. The looping or
+  waving is obtained by having thin plates of shaped metal, called
+  sinkers, which have a nose-shaped point and hang between the needles.
+  When looping they have an individual movement downwards between the
+  needles, and as they fall the nose-shaped point carries the yarn down,
+  thus forming the new loop (fig. 5). The size of the loop is regulated
+  by the distance the sinker is allowed to fall. After the thread of
+  yarn has been looped between the needle shanks by the sinkers, the
+  loops are brought forward under the needle beards or hooks. A presser
+  bar is now brought down to close or press all the points of the needle
+  beards into the eye in the shank. Thus all the hook ends of the
+  needles are temporarily closed, with the newly formed loops under
+  them. While in this position, the old loops hanging round the shank
+  are brought forward and landed on to the top of the needle beard and
+  off the needle altogether, being thus left hanging round, or supported
+  by the loops newly formed. The needle beards are now released, and the
+  loops drawn back along the shanks to be in position for next new
+  course of loops. The foregoing is only an outline of how the loops are
+  formed on the needles. It is not necessary here to enter into a
+  description of the complex mechanical movements of Lee's
+  stocking-frame. The first fabric made by Lee was of a flat,
+  even-selvedged nature, so that garments had to be cut to shape from
+  the fabric. He soon learned to fashion or shape the garment at will,
+  during the process of making, by transferring loops at the edges,
+  inwards to narrow, or outwards to widen. This process at the present
+  day is known as fashioning, and all garments of the best make are
+  shaped or fashioned in this manner. After Lee had practised his new
+  art for a few years at Calverton he removed to London, but on his
+  receiving no help or encouragement from Queen Elizabeth or her
+  successor, King James, he was induced to cross over to France with his
+  frames. There he built up a flourishing industry at Rouen, under the
+  patronage of the French king, Henry IV. Through the murder of this
+  monarch he lost his patronage and died of want about the year 1610. He
+  was buried in an unknown grave in Paris.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 5.--Formation of a Loop on a Hand Frame.
+
+    1, Bearded needle cast in the lead. A, Lead; B, Shank; C, Eye; D,
+      Beard.
+    2, The thread is laid over the needles and formed into loops between
+      the needles by means of the sinkers, those new-formed loops being
+      brought under the needle beards (as at 3).
+    4, The beards pressed or closed to allow the old loops to be passed
+      on to the top.
+    5, The old loops knocked off the needles and left hanging round the
+      newly formed loops.]
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 6.--A 1/1 Rib Stitch.]
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 7.--Eight at once, 130 gauge, full-fashioned,
+  seamless bosom, sloped shoulder underwear frame, Cotton's patents.
+  (William Cotton, Ltd., Loughborough.)]
+
+  A number of improvements had been made on Lee's frame during the 18th
+  century. The one of greatest importance was the rib machine invented
+  by Jedediah Strutt of Belper in 1758. It was not what could be
+  actually termed an improvement on Lee's frame, but an addition to it.
+  Lee's frame was not altered in any way, Strutt's machine being added
+  to it, and the two being worked in conjunction produced a fabric of a
+  more elastic nature and alike on both sides (fig. 6). Strutt's machine
+  consisted of a set of needles placed at right angles to and between
+  Lee's plain needles, with the result that, when knitting, the frame
+  needles drew their loops to one side and the machine needles their
+  loops to the opposite side of the fabric. The first offshoot from
+  frame-work knitting was the invention of the hand warp loom in 1775.
+  It was improved by the addition of the Dawson wheel by William Dawson
+  in 1791. This machine is the origin of the various complex machines
+  now working on this principle. Some of these have Jacquard mechanism
+  attached, and nearly all of them are driven by motive power. About the
+  middle of the 19th century close on 50,000 of Lee's hand frames were
+  in use, finding employment for nearly 100,000 persons. Many attempts
+  had been made previously to transform Lee's frame into a power or
+  rotary frame. One of the first and most successful was that invented
+  by Luke Barton in 1857. This frame was fitted with self-acting
+  mechanism for fashioning, and was practically Lee's frame having
+  rotary shafts with cams added to give the various movements, this type
+  of frame being known as straight bar rotary frames. In 1864 William
+  Cotton of Loughborough altered this frame by reversing the positions
+  of the needles and sinkers. Although made by various builders it is
+  still known as the "Cotton Patent Rotary Frame" (fig. 7). Since 1864 a
+  great number of important improvements and additions have been made to
+  this frame. Single frames are built which will turn off one dozen
+  pairs of hose at once, with the attention of one person. One of the
+  most important inventions in connexion with the hosiery trade was the
+  latch, tumbler, or self-acting needle invented by Matthew Townsend and
+  David Moulding of Leicester in 1858. Previous to this Lee's type of
+  needle was the only one in use. This latch-needle (fig. 8) consists of
+  a stem having a butt at lower end by which it receives its knitting
+  action from cams, the upper end being turned into a hook. Near the
+  hook end and attached to the stem by a pin is the spoon-shaped latch,
+  which closes over the hook as required. Machines fitted with
+  latch-needles have grooves in which the stem of the needle works.
+  Cams, which act on the needle butts, give the needles their individual
+  knitting action in rotation. This needle is self-acting, in that it is
+  made to draw its own loop, sinkers being dispensed with.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 8.--Various Shapes of the Latch Needle.]
+
+  Fig. 9 shows the looping action of this needle. The needles when not
+  knitting have a loop round their shank, thus holding the latch open.
+  When about to knit, they are raised individually and in rotation (by
+  the cams acting on the needle butts) to receive the new loop of yarn.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 9.--Individual Action of the Latch Needle.]
+
+  Down till almost the middle of the 19th century only a flat web could
+  be knitted in the machines in use, and for the finishing of stockings,
+  &c., it was necessary to seam up the selvedges of web shaped on the
+  frame (fashioned work), or to cut and seam them from even web (cut
+  work). The introduction of any device by which seamless garments could
+  be fabricated was obviously a great desideratum, and it is a singular
+  fact that a machine capable of doing this was patented in 1816 by Sir
+  Marc I. Brunel. This frame was the origin of the French-German
+  loop-wheel circular frame of the present day. Brunel's frame was
+  greatly improved by Peter Claussen of Brussels and was shown at an
+  exhibition in Nottingham in 1845. This frame had horizontal placed
+  needles fixed on a rotating rim. A few years later Moses Mellor of
+  Nottingham transformed this type of frame by altering the position of
+  the needles to perpendicular. This is now known as the English
+  loop-wheel circular frame. After the invention of the latch-needle
+  there was a revolution in the hosiery machine-building industry, new
+  types of machines being invented, fitted to work with latch-needles.
+  Among others there was the latch-needle circular frame, invented by
+  Thomas Thompson, which was the origin of the English latch-needle
+  circular frame, a frame largely used for the production of wide
+  circular fabric.
+
+  A circular knitting machine of American origin is the type of machine
+  on which is produced the seamless hosiery of to-day. Like the sewing
+  machine it is largely used in the home as well as in the factory. From
+  this machine all the circular automatic power machines for making
+  plain and rib seamless hose and half hose have been developed. The
+  "flat" or "lamb" type of machine, an American invention, was
+  introduced by J. W. Lamb in 1863. This machine has two needle beds or
+  rows of needles sloping at an angle of nearly 90 deg.
+
+  A great many varieties of this type of machine have been invented for
+  the production of all kinds of plain and fancy hosiery. It is built in
+  small sizes to be wrought by hand or in large power machines. A large
+  variety of sewing, seaming and linking machines are employed in the
+  hosiery industry for the purpose of putting together or joining all
+  kinds of hosiery and knitted goods. These machines have almost
+  entirely superseded the sewing or joining of the garments by hand.
+
+  The principle centres in Great Britain of the hosiery industry are
+  Leicester and Nottingham and the surrounding districts. It is also an
+  industry of some extent in the south of Scotland.     (T. B.*)
+
+
+
+
+HOSIUS, or OSIUS (c. 257-359), bishop of Cordova, was born about A.D.
+257, probably at Cordova, although from a passage in Zosimus it has
+sometimes been conjectured that he was believed by that writer to be a
+native of Egypt. Elected to the see of Cordova before the end of the 3rd
+century, he narrowly escaped martyrdom in the persecution of Maximian
+(303-305). In 305 or 306 he attended the council of Illiberis or Elvira
+(his name appearing second in the list of those present), and upheld
+its severe canons concerning such points of discipline as the treatment
+of the lapsed and clerical marriages. In 313 he appears at the court of
+Constantine, being expressly mentioned by name in a constitution
+directed by the emperor to Caecilianus of Carthage in that year. In 323
+he was the bearer and possibly the writer of Constantine's letter to
+Bishop Alexander of Alexandria and Arius his deacon, bidding them cease
+disturbing the peace of the church; and, on the failure of the
+negotiations in Egypt, it was doubtless with the active concurrence of
+Hosius that the council of Nicaea was convened in 325. He certainly took
+part in its proceedings, and was one of the large number of "confessors"
+present; that he presided is a very doubtful assertion, as also that he
+was the principal author of the Nicene Creed. Still he powerfully
+influenced the judgment of the emperor in favour of the orthodox party.
+After a period of quiet life in his own diocese, Hosius presided in 343
+at the fruitless synod of Sardica, which showed itself so hostile to
+Arianism; and afterwards he spoke and wrote in favour of Athanasius in
+such a way as to bring upon himself a sentence of banishment to Sirmium
+(355). From his exile he wrote to Constantius II. his only extant
+composition, a letter not unjustly characterized by the great French
+historian Sebastian Tillemont as displaying gravity, dignity,
+gentleness, wisdom, generosity and in fact all the qualities of a great
+soul and a great bishop. Subjected to continual pressure the old man,
+who was near his hundredth year, was weak enough to sign the formula
+adopted by the second synod of Sirmium in 357, which involved communion
+with the Arians but not the condemnation of Athanasius. He was then
+permitted to return to his diocese, where he died in 359.
+
+  See S. Tillemont, _Memoires_, vii. 300-321 (1700); Hefele,
+  _Conciliengeschichte_, vol. i.; H. M. Gwatkin, _Studies of Arianism_
+  (Cambridge, 1882, 2nd ed., 1900); A. W. W. Dale, _The Synod of Elvira_
+  (London, 1882); and article _s.v._ in Herzog-Hauck, _Realencyklopadie_
+  (3rd ed., 1900), with bibliography.
+
+
+
+
+HOSIUS, STANISLAUS (1504-1579), Polish cardinal, was born in Cracow on
+the 5th of May 1504. He studied law at Padua and Bologna, and entering
+the church became in 1549 bishop of Kulm, in 1551 bishop of Ermland, and
+in 1561 cardinal. Hosius had Jesuit sympathies and actively opposed the
+Protestant reformation, going so far as to desire a repetition of the St
+Bartholomew massacre in Poland. Apart from its being "the property of
+the Roman Church," he regarded the Bible as having no more worth than
+the fables of Aesop. Hosius was not distinguished as a theologian,
+though he drew up the _Confessio fidei christiana catholica_ adopted by
+the synod of Piotrkow in 1557. He was, however, supreme as a diplomatist
+and administrator. Besides carrying through many difficult negotiations,
+he founded the lyceum of Braunsberg, which became the centre of the
+Roman Catholic mission among Protestants. He died at Capranica near Rome
+on the 5th of August 1579.
+
+  A collected edition of his works was published at Cologne in 1584.
+  Life by A. Eichhorn (Mainz, 1854), 2 vols.
+
+
+
+
+HOSKINS, JOHN (d. 1664), English miniature painter, the uncle of Samuel
+Cooper, who received his artistic education in Hoskins's house. His
+finest miniatures are at Ham House, Montagu House, Windsor Castle,
+Amsterdam and in the Pierpont Morgan collection. Vertue stated that
+Hoskins had a son, and Redgrave added that the son painted a portrait of
+James II. in 1686 and was paid L10, 5s, although it is not supported by
+any reference in the State Papers. Some contemporary inscriptions on the
+miniatures at Ham House record them as the work of "Old Hoskins," but
+the fact of the existence of a younger artist of the same name is
+settled by a miniature in the Pierpont Morgan collection, signed by
+Hoskins, and bearing an authentic engraved inscription on its
+contemporary frame to the effect that it represents the duke of Berwick
+at the age of twenty-nine in 1700. The elder Hoskins was buried on the
+22nd of February 1664, in St Paul's, Covent Garden, and as there is no
+doubt of the authenticity of this miniature or of the signature upon
+it, it is evident that he had a son who survived him thirty-six years
+and whose monogram we find upon this portrait. The frame of it has also
+the royal coat of arms debruised, the batons of a marshal of France, the
+collar of the Golden Fleece and the ducal coronet.     (G. C. W.)
+
+
+
+
+HOSMER, HARRIET GOODHUE (1830-1908), American sculptor, was born at
+Watertown, Massachussetts, on the 9th of October 1830. She early showed
+marked aptitude for modelling, and studied anatomy with her father, a
+physician, and afterwards at the St Louis Medical College. She then
+studied in Boston until 1852, when, with her friend Charlotte Cushman,
+she went to Rome, where from 1853 to 1860 she was the pupil of the
+English sculptor John Gibson. She lived in Rome until a few years before
+her death. There she was associated with Nathaniel Hawthorne,
+Thorwaldsen, Flaxman, Thackeray, George Eliot and George Sand; and she
+was frequently the guest of the Brownings at Casa Guidi, in Florence.
+Among her works are "Daphne" and "Medusa," ideal heads (1853); "Puck"
+(1855), a spirited and graceful conception which she copied for the
+prince of Wales, the duke of Hamilton and others; "Oenone" (1855), her
+first life-sized figure, now in the St Louis Museum of Fine Arts;
+"Beatrice Cenci" (1857), for the Mercantile Library of St Louis;
+"Zenobia, Queen of Palmyra, in Chains" (1859), now in the Metropolitan
+Museum of Art, New York City; "A Sleeping Faun" (1867); "A Waking Faun";
+a bronze statue of Thomas H. Benton (1868) for Lafayette Park, St Louis;
+bronze gates for the earl of Brownlow's art gallery at Ashridge Hall; a
+Siren fountain for Lady Marian Alford; a fountain for Central Park, New
+York City; a monument to Abraham Lincoln; and, for the Columbian
+Exposition, Chicago, 1893, statues of the queen of Naples as the
+"heroine of Gaeta," and of Queen Isabella of Spain. Miss Hosmer died at
+Watertown, Mass., on the 21st of February 1908.
+
+
+
+
+HOSPICE (Lat. _hospitium_, entertainment, hospitality, inn, _hospes_,
+host), the name usually given to the homes of rest and refuge kept by
+religious houses for pilgrims and guests. The most famous hospices are
+those of the Great and Little St Bernard Passes in the Alps.
+
+
+
+
+HOSPITAL (Lat. _hospitalis_, the adjective of _hospes_, host or guest),
+a term now in general use for institutions in which medical treatment is
+given to the sick or injured. The place where a guest was received, was
+in Lat. _hospitium_ (Fr. _hospice_), but the terms _hospitalis_ (sc.
+_domus_), _hospitale_ (sc. _cubiculum_) and _hospitalia_ (sc.
+_cubicula_) came into use in the same sense. Hence were derived on the
+one hand the Fr. _hospital_, _hopital_, applied to establishments for
+temporary occupation by the sick for the purpose of medical treatment,
+and _hospice_ to places for permanent occupation by the poor, infirm,
+incurable or insane; on the other, the form _hotel_, which became
+restricted (except in the ease of _hotel-Dieu_) to private or public
+dwelling-houses for ordinary occupation. In English, while "hostel"
+retained the earlier sense and "hotel" has become confined to that of a
+superior inn (q.v.), "hospital" was used both in the sense of a
+permanent retreat for the poor infirm or for the insane, and also for a
+regular institution for the temporary reception of sick cases; but
+modern usage has gradually restricted it mainly to the latter, other
+words, such as almshouse and asylum, being preferred in the former
+cases.
+
+_The Origin of Hospitals._--In spite of contrary opinions the germ of
+the hospital system may be seen in pre-Christian times (see CHARITY AND
+CHARITIES). Pinel goes so far as to declare that there were asylums
+distinctly set apart for the insane in the temples of Saturn in ancient
+Egypt. But this is probably an exaggeration, the real historical facts
+pointing to the existence of medical schools in connexion with the
+temples generally, to the knowledge that the priests possessed what
+medical science existed, and finally to the rite of "Incubation," which
+involved the visit of sick persons to the temple, in the shade of which
+they slept, that the god might inform them by dreams of the treatment
+they ought to follow. The temples of Saturn are known to have existed
+some 4000 years before Christ; and that those temples were medical
+schools in their earliest form is beyond question. The reason why no
+records of these temples have survived is due to the fact that they were
+destroyed in a religious revolution which swept away the very name of
+Saturn from the monuments in the country. Professor Georg Ebers of
+Leipzig, whose possession of that important handbook of Egyptian
+medicine called the _Papyrus Ebers_ constitutes him an authority, says
+the Heliopolis certainly had a clinic united to the temple. The temples
+of Dendera, Thebes and Memphis, are other examples. Those early medical
+works, the Books of Hermes, were preserved in the shrines. Patients
+coming to them paid contributions to the priests. The most famous
+temples in Greece for the cure of disease were those of Aesculapius at
+Cos and Trikka, while others at Rhodes, Cnidus, Pergamum and Epidaurus
+were less known but frequented. Thus it is clear that both in Egypt and
+in Greece the custom of laying the sick in the precincts of the temples
+was a national practice.
+
+Alexandria again was a famous medical centre. Before describing the
+European growth of the hospital system in modern times, to which its
+development in the Roman Empire is the natural introduction, it will be
+well to dispose very briefly of the facts relating to the hospital
+system in the East. Harun al-Rashid (A.D. 763-809) attached a college to
+every mosque, and to that again a hospital. He placed at Bagdad an
+asylum for the insane open to all believers; and there was a large
+number of public infirmaries for the sick without payment in that city.
+Benjamin, the Jewish traveller, notes an efficient scheme for the
+reception of the sick in A.D. 1173, which had long been in existence.
+The Buddhists no less than the Mahommedans had their hospitals, and as
+early as 260 B.C. the emperor Asoka founded the many hospitals of which
+Hindustan could then boast. The one at Surat, made famous by travellers,
+and considered to have been built under the emperor's second edict, is
+still in existence. These hospitals contained provision so extensive as
+to be quite comparable to modern institutions. In China the only records
+that remain are those of books of very early date dealing with the
+theory of medicine. To return to India, the hospitals of Asoka were
+swept away by a revival of Brahmanism, and a practical hiatus exists
+between the hospitals he introduced and those that were refounded by the
+British ascendancy. Hadrian's reign contains the first notice of a
+military hospital in Rome. At the beginning of the Christian era we hear
+of the existence of open surgeries (of various price and reputation),
+the specialization of the medical profession, and the presence of women
+practitioners, often as obstetricians. Iatria, or _tabernae-medicae_,
+are described by Galen and Placetus: many towns built them at their own
+cost. These iatria attended almost entirely to out-patients, and the
+system of medicine fostered by them continued without much development
+down to the middle of the 18th century. It is to be noted that these
+out-patients paid reasonable fees. In Christian days no establishments
+were founded for the relief of the sick till the time of Constantine. A
+law of Justinian referring to various institutions connected with the
+church mentions among them the Nosocomia, which correspond to our idea
+of hospitals. In A.D. 370 Basil had one built for lepers at Caesarea. St
+Chrysostom founded a hospital at Constantinople. At Alexandria an order
+of 600 Parabolani attended to the sick, being chosen for the purpose for
+their experience by the prelate of the city (A.D. 416). Fabiola, a rich
+Roman lady, founded the first hospital at Rome possessed of a
+convalescent home in the country. She even became a nurse herself. St
+Augustine founded one at his see of Hippo. These Nosocomia fell indeed
+almost entirely into the hands of the church, which supported them by
+its revenues when necessary and controlled their administration. Salerno
+became famous as a school of medicine; its rosiest days were between
+A.D. 1000 and 1050. Frederick II. prescribed the course for students
+there, and founded a rival school at Naples. At this period the
+connexion between monasteries and hospitals becomes a marked one. The
+crusaders also created another bond between the church and hospital
+development, as the route they traversed was marked by such foundations.
+Lepers were some of the earliest patients for whom a specialized
+treatment was recognized, and in 1118 a leprosarium was built in London
+for isolation purposes. Russia seems the one country where the
+interconnexion of hospital and monastery was not to be observed. After
+the period already reached, the 13th century, hospitals became common
+enough to demand individual or at any rate national treatment.
+
+_History of the Hospital Movement._--We have now to consider the
+principles upon which the provision of the best form of medical care in
+hospitals can be secured for all classes of people. Though hospitals
+cannot be claimed as a direct result of Christianity, no doubt it
+softened the relations between men, and gradually tended to instil
+humanitarian views and to make them popular with the civilized peoples
+of the world. These principles, as civilization grew, education
+improved, and the tastes and requirements of the common people were
+developed, made men and women of many races realize that the treatment
+of disease in buildings set apart exclusively for the care of the sick
+was, in fact, a necessity in urban districts. The establishment of a
+hospital freed the streets of the abuses attendant upon beggars and
+other poor creatures, who made their ailments the chief ground of appeal
+for alms. As the knowledge of hygiene and of the doctrine of cleanliness
+and purity in regard not only to dwellings and towns, but also in
+relation to food of all descriptions, including water, became known and
+appreciated, hospitals were found to be of even greater importance, if
+that is possible, to the healthy in crowded communities, than to the
+sick. It took many centuries before sound hygiene really began to occupy
+the position of importance which it is now known to possess, not only in
+regard to the treatment and cure of disease, but to its prevention and
+eradication. So the history of the world shows, that, whereas a few of
+the larger towns in most countries contained hospitals of sorts, up to
+and including the middle ages, it was not until the commencement of the
+18th century that inhabitants of important but relatively small towns of
+from 50,000 to 100,000 inhabitants began to provide themselves with a
+hospital for the care of the sick. Thus, twenty-three of the principal
+English counties appear to have had no general hospital prior to 1710,
+while London itself at that date, so far as the relief of the sick was
+concerned, was mainly, if not entirely, dependent upon St Bartholomew's
+and St Thomas's Hospitals. These facts are interesting to note, because
+we are enabled from them to deduce from recent events that hospital
+buildings in the past, though the planning of most of them was faulty to
+begin with and became more and more faulty as extensions were added to
+the original buildings, did in fact suffice to satisfy the requirements
+of the medical profession for nearly two centuries. In other words,
+under the old condition of affairs the life of a building devoted to the
+care of the sick might be considered as at least 150 years. To-day,
+under the conditions which modern science impose upon the management,
+probably few hospital buildings are likely to be regarded as efficient
+for the purpose of treating the sick for more than from 30 to 50 years.
+
+The foregoing statement is based upon the history of British hospitals
+of importance throughout the country, but the same remark will apply in
+practice to hospital buildings almost everywhere throughout the world.
+In truth, hospitals have been more developed and improved in Great
+Britain than in other countries, though, since the last quarter of the
+19th century, German scientists especially have added much to the
+efficiency of the accommodation for the sick, not only at hospitals but
+in private clinics, and many German ideas have been accepted and copied
+by other countries. In Great Britain hospitals for the treatment of
+general and special diseases are mainly maintained upon what is known as
+the voluntary system. On the European continent, hospitals as a rule are
+maintained by the state or municipalities, and this system is so fully
+developed in Sweden and elsewhere that a sound economical principle has
+been embroidered upon the hospital system, to the great physical and
+moral advantage of all classes of the community. The system referred to
+confers great benefits upon inhabitants in large towns by bringing the
+poor-law and voluntary institutions into more intimate association,
+although they may be managed by separate governing bodies. The plan
+pursued is to demand payment from all patients who are admitted to the
+hospital under a scale of charges divided into three or four grades. The
+first grade pays a substantial sum and obtains anything or everything
+the patient may care to have or to pay for, subject to the control of
+the medical attendant. The second pays much less, but a remunerative
+rate, for all they receive at the hospital; and the third and fourth
+classes are very poor people or paupers, who are paid for on a graduated
+scale by the poor-law authorities, or the communal government, or the
+municipality. Under this system well-to-do thrifty artisans and
+improvident paupers are all treated by one staff, controlled by one
+administration, and are located in immediate proximity to each other
+though in separate pavilions. We have no doubt, as the result of many
+years' investigation and an accurate knowledge of the working of the
+system, that this is the true principle to enforce in providing adequate
+medical relief for large urban populations everywhere throughout the
+world. It should be accompanied by a system of government insurance,
+whereby all classes who desire to be thrifty may pay a small annual
+premium in the days of health, and secure adequate hospital treatment
+and care when ill. Provided that pay wings were added to the existing
+voluntary and municipal hospitals, it should be found that the
+relatively small annual premium of L3 per annum should enable the
+policyholders to defray the cost of medical treatment in a pay ward or
+at a consultation department of a great hospital as a matter of
+business. In the United States of America most large towns have great
+hospitals, usually known as city hospitals, administered and mainly
+supported by the municipality. Many such institutions have pay wards,
+but nowhere, so far as we have been able to discover, has the system of
+medical relief in its entirety been organized as yet upon the business
+system we have just referred to.
+
+As to the relative merits and demerits of the systems of government of
+municipal hospitals and voluntary hospitals a few words may be useful.
+There can be no doubt that the voluntary hospital in Great Britain has
+had a remarkable effect for good upon all classes in the making of
+modern England. The management of these institutions is frequently
+representative of all classes of the people, while the voluntary system,
+as the Hospital Sunday collections all over the country, and all over
+the English-speaking world, prove, has united all creeds in the good
+work of caring and providing for the sick and injured members of each
+community. Again the voluntary system makes for efficiency in the
+administration of all hospitals. Each voluntary hospital is dependent
+upon its popularity and efficiency, in large measure, for the financial
+support it receives. In this way an ill-managed voluntary hospital, or
+one which has ceased to fulfil any useful public purpose, is sure to
+disappear in due course under the voluntary system. Voluntary hospitals
+are always open to, as well as supported by, the public, and, owing
+largely to the example so prominently set by King Edward VII. and
+members of the royal family, more people every year devote some time in
+some way to the cause of the hospitals. Attached to the voluntary
+hospitals are the principal medical and nursing schools upon which the
+public depend for the supply of doctors and nurses. The education of
+students and nurses in a clinical hospital makes that hospital the most
+desirable place for everybody when they are really ill. In such a
+hospital no patient can be overlooked, no wrong or imperfect diagnosis
+can long remain undiscovered and unrectified, and nowhere else have the
+patients so continuous a guarantee that the treatment they receive will
+be of the best, while the provision made for their comfort and welfare,
+owing to the unceasing and ever varying quality of the criticism to
+which the work of everybody, from the senior physician to the humblest
+official, is subjected in a clinical hospital, is unequalled anywhere
+else. At a great voluntary hospital, not only do hundreds of medical
+students and nurses work in the wards, but thousands of people, in the
+persons of the patients' friends, and those members of the public who
+take an interest in hospitals, pass through the wards in the course of
+every year. Again, each voluntary hospital has to live by competition, a
+fact which guarantees that everything in the way of new treatment and
+scientific development shall in due course find its proper place within
+the walls of such an establishment. Open as they are to the full
+inspection of everybody whose knowledge and presence can promote
+efficiency, the voluntary hospitals have shown, especially since the
+last quarter of the 19th century, a continuous development and
+improvement. Here the patients are treated with invariable kindness and
+consideration, as human beings rather than cases, to the great benefit
+of the whole human family as represented by the officials, the patients
+and the students, with their relations and friends, the honorary medical
+officers, hundreds of medical practitioners and nurses, who receive
+their medical training in the hospitals, and the ever-increasing number
+of governors and supporters by whose contributions voluntary hospitals
+live. The great missionary and social value of the voluntary hospitals
+to the whole community cannot be questioned, and they have been of
+inestimable value to the churches by inculcating the higher principles
+of humanity, while removing the many acerbities which might otherwise
+prevail between rich and poor in large cities.
+
+The voluntary hospitals are attended, however, by certain disadvantages
+which do not attach to municipal institutions. A municipality which
+undertakes the provision of hospitals for the entire community is
+largely able to plan out the urban area, and to provide that each
+hospital site selected shall not only be suitable for the purpose, but
+that it shall be so chosen as to contribute to make the whole system of
+hospital provision easily accessible to all classes who may require its
+aid. The voluntary hospitals, on the contrary, have grown up without any
+comprehensive plan of the districts or any real regard to the
+convenience or necessities of their poorer inhabitants. Voluntary
+hospital sites were almost invariably selected to suit the convenience
+of the honorary medical staff and the general convenience of the
+hospital economy rather than to save the patients and their friends long
+journeys in search of medical aid. The best of the municipal systems too
+enables economy to be enforced in the administration by a plan which
+provides a central office in every town where the number of vacant beds
+in each hospital is known, so that the average of occupied beds in all
+the hospitals can be well maintained from an economical point of view.
+This speedy and ready inter-communication between all hospitals in a
+great city, which might perfectly well be secured under the voluntary
+system if the managers could only be brought into active co-operation,
+prevents delay in the admission of urgent cases, promotes the absence of
+waste by keeping the average of beds occupied in each establishment high
+and uniform, and has often proved a real gain to the poor by the
+diminution in cost to the patients and their friends, who under the best
+municipal systems can find a hospital within reasonable distance of
+their home in a large city wherever it may be placed. Another advantage
+of the municipal system should be that central control makes for
+economical administration. Unfortunately a close study of this question
+tends to prove that municipal hospitals for the most part have resulted
+in a dead monotony of relative inefficiency, often entailing great
+extravagance in buildings, and accompanied by much waste in many
+directions. Existing municipal hospital systems are attended by several
+grave disadvantages. The administration shows a tendency to lag and grow
+sleepy and inert. The absence of competition, and the freedom from
+continuous publicity and criticism such as the voluntary hospitals
+enjoy, make for inefficiency and indifferent work. Rate-supported
+hospitals, as a rule, are administered by permanent officials who reside
+in houses usually situated on the hospital sites, and who are paid
+salaries which attract the younger men, who, once appointed, tend to
+continue in office for a long period of years. This fixture of tenure is
+apt to cause a decline in the general interest in the work of the
+municipal hospital, due mainly to the absence of a continuous criticism
+from outside, and so the average of efficiency, both in regard to
+treatment and other important matters, may become lower and lower.
+Those who have habitually inspected great rate-supported hospitals must
+have met instances over and over again where a gentleman who has held
+office for twenty or thirty years has frankly stated that his income is
+fixed, that his habits have become crystallized, that he finds the work
+terribly monotonous, and yet, as he hopes ultimately to retire upon a
+pension, he has felt there was no course open to him but to continue in
+office, even though he may feel conscientiously that a change would be
+good for the patients, for the hospital and for himself. Under the
+voluntary system evils of this kind are seldom or never met with, nor
+have these latter establishments, within living memory, ever been so
+conducted as to exhibit the grave scandals which have marred the
+administration of rate-supported hospitals not only in Great Britain but
+in other parts of the world. We believe that the more thoroughly the
+advantages and disadvantages of rate-supported and voluntary hospitals
+for the care of the sick are weighed and considered, and the more
+accurate and full the knowledge which is added to the judgment upon
+which a decision can be based, the more certain will it be that every
+capable administrator will come to the conclusion that on the whole it
+is good for the sick and for the whole community that these
+establishments should, at any rate in Great Britain, be maintained upon
+the voluntary system. Of course it is essential to have rate-supported
+hospitals where cases of infectious disease and the poorest of the
+people who are dependent largely upon the poor-law for their maintenance
+can be cared for. It is satisfactory to be able to state that of late
+years the administration of both these types of rate-supported hospitals
+has greatly improved. The added importance now given all over the
+country to medical officers of health, and the disposition exhibited,
+both by parliament and government departments, to make the position of
+these officers more important and valuable than ever before, have tended
+largely to improve the administrative efficiency of hospitals for
+infectious diseases. No doubt the whole community would benefit if
+residents in every part of the country could be moved to take a personal
+interest in the infectious hospital in their immediate neighbourhood.
+Amongst the smaller of these establishments there has been so marked an
+inefficiency at times as to cause much avoidable suffering. The
+existence of such inefficiency casts a grave reflection upon the local
+authorities and others who are responsible for the evils which
+undoubtedly exist in various places at the present time. Unfortunately
+knowledge has not yet sufficiently spread to enable the public to
+overcome its fear and dread of infectious maladies. It is therefore very
+difficult to induce people to take an active interest in one of these
+hospitals, but we look forward to the time when, owing to the activity
+of the medical officers of health who have immediate charge of buildings
+of this kind, this difficulty may be overcome, when the avoidable
+dangers and risks and the appalling discomfort which a poor sufferer
+from a severe infectious disease in a rural district may suddenly have
+to encounter under existing circumstances, would be rendered impossible.
+
+The poor-law infirmary in large cities, so far as the buildings and
+equipment are concerned, very often leaves little to desire. Poor-law
+infirmaries lack, however, the stimulus and the checks and advantages
+which impartial criticism continuously applied brings to a great
+voluntary hospital. Such disadvantages might be entirely removed if
+parliament would decide to throw open every poor-law infirmary for
+clinical purposes, and to have connected with each such establishment a
+responsible visiting medical staff, consisting of the best qualified men
+to be found in the community which each hospital serves. The old
+prejudice against hospital treatment has disappeared, for the least
+intelligent members of the population now understand that, when a
+citizen is sick, there is no place so good as the wards of a
+well-administered hospital. Looking at the question of hospital
+provision in Great Britain, and indeed in all countries at the present
+time, it may be said, that there is everywhere evidence of improvement
+and development upon the right lines, so that never before in the
+history of the world has the lot of the sick man or woman been so
+relatively fortunate and safe as it is in the present day. Probably it
+is not too much to say that to-day hospitals occupy the most important
+position in the social economy of nations.
+
+_Classification of Hospitals._--Having dealt with hospitals as a whole
+it may be well very briefly to classify them in groups, and explain as
+tersely as possible what they represent and how far it may be desirable
+to eliminate by consolidation or to increase by disintegration the
+number of special hospitals.
+
+_General Hospitals._--These establishments consist of two kinds, (a)
+clinical and (b) non-clinical, each of which, under the modern system,
+should include every department of medicine and surgery, and every
+appliance and means for the alleviation of suffering, the healing of
+wounds, the reduction of fractures, the removal of mal-formations and
+foreign growths, the surgical restoration of damaged and diseased organs
+and bones, and everything of every kind which experience and knowledge
+prove to be necessary to the rapid cure of disease. The clinical
+hospital means an institution to which a medical school is attached,
+where technical instruction is given by able and qualified teachers to
+medical students and others. A non-clinical hospital is one which is not
+attached to a medical school, and where no medical instruction is
+organized.
+
+_Special Hospitals._--Up to about 1840 the general hospital was,
+speaking generally, the only hospital in existence. Twenty years later,
+as the population increased and medical science became more and more
+active, some of the more ardent members of the medical profession,
+especially amongst the younger men, pressed continuously for
+opportunities to develop the methods of treatment in regard to special
+diseases for which neither accommodation nor appliances were at that
+time forthcoming in general hospitals. In a few cases, where the
+managers of the great general hospitals were men of action and
+initiative special departments were introduced, and an attempt was made
+to make them efficient. The conservative spirit which, on the whole,
+represents the British character for the most part, resulted, however,
+in a steady resistance being offered by the older members of the medical
+staffs and existing committees to the advocates of special departments.
+In the result, especially as such special departments as there were in
+connexion with general hospitals were too often starved for want of
+means and men for their development and improvement, the younger spirits
+called their friends together and began to start special hospitals.
+To-day every really efficient clinical general hospital has within its
+walls special departments of almost every description, which have been
+made as efficient and up-to-date as money and knowledge can make them.
+Unfortunately the causes already referred to led to the establishment of
+hundreds of the smaller special hospitals, many of which were started in
+unsuitable buildings, and some of which have ever since maintained a
+struggling existence. Others, on the contrary, through the energy of
+their original promoters and the excellence of the work they have done,
+have obtained a position of authority and reputation which has had a
+very important bearing for good upon the development of medical science
+in the treatment of disease. If the world had to-day to organize the
+very best system of hospital accommodation which could be evolved, there
+is no doubt that few or none of the special hospitals would find any
+place in that system. As matters stand, however, the special hospital
+has had to be accepted, and nothing which King Edward's Hospital Fund
+has done in London has met with greater popularity and professional
+approval than the labours which its council have undertaken in promoting
+the amalgamation of the smaller special hospitals of certain kinds, so
+as to secure the provision of one really efficient special hospital for
+each speciality. No doubt this policy of amalgamation will be steadily
+pursued, and in the course of years every great city will gradually
+reorganize its hospital methods so as to secure that, whether the
+patients are treated in a general hospital or in a special hospital, the
+average efficiency in every institution shall be as high and as good as
+possible.
+
+  We will take now the special hospitals in detail.
+
+  _Cancer Hospitals._--The justification for efficient cancer hospitals
+  must be found in the circumstance that most scientific men of
+  experience believe that, if adequate resources were placed at the
+  disposal of the medical profession, the origin of cancer might be
+  discovered, and so the human race would be freed from one of the most
+  awful diseases which affect humanity. Pending such a discovery the
+  experience of the cancer department connected with the Middlesex
+  Hospital in London proves to demonstration that the provision of
+  adequate and special accommodation for the exclusive treatment of
+  cases of cancer is not only desirable but necessary on humanitarian
+  grounds alone.
+
+  _Hospitals for Consumption._--For many years it was held that this
+  group of hospitals was not a necessity, and the patients were treated
+  in the ordinary medical wards of the general hospitals. Since the
+  contagious character of tuberculosis became known, and improved
+  methods of treatment have been developed, every one agrees that this
+  type of special hospital is desirable, though it is believed by the
+  more advanced school of scientists that before long it may be happily
+  rendered obsolete owing to the discovery of methods of treatment which
+  will stay the disease at its commencement and restore the patient to
+  health.
+
+  _Children's Hospitals._--These hospitals were very much opposed at the
+  outset. There can be no doubt that the children's ward or wards in a
+  big voluntary hospital is a most valuable asset to the managers, so
+  long as the children are treated in separate wards. There is no reason
+  of course why a hospital should confine its work to the treatment of
+  children, exclusively. Still this special hospital is popular with the
+  public; it has led to many discoveries and developments in the
+  treatment of children's diseases; on the whole the administration of
+  these establishments has been good; and we believe they will continue
+  to flourish, however many children's wards may be provided in general
+  hospitals. Children's hospitals with country branches for the
+  treatment of chronic ailments, such as hip disease, are a valuable
+  addition to the relief of suffering in cities.
+
+  _Cottage Hospitals._--These hospitals, established originally in 1859
+  by Mr Albert Napper at Cranleigh, Surrey, have fulfilled a most useful
+  function. Many of them are very efficient both in regard to equipment
+  and treatment. They have become essential to the well-being and
+  adequate medical care of rural populations, as they attract to the
+  country some of the best members of the profession, who are able, with
+  the aid of the cottage hospital, to keep themselves efficient and
+  up-to-date, so that all classes of the community are benefited in this
+  way by this type of hospital.
+
+  _Ear, Throat and Nose Hospitals._--The history of this type of
+  hospital bears out in every particular the reason we have given above
+  for the establishment of special hospitals in the first instance.
+  There can be no doubt that the best conducted throat hospitals have
+  been beneficial to the poorer inhabitants of great cities.
+
+  _Fever Hospitals._--Incidentally we have dealt with these
+  institutions, which are usually supported out of the rates and
+  administered by the medical officers of health, who are paid by the
+  county or municipal authorities.
+
+  _Maternity and Lying-in Hospitals._--This is one of the oldest types
+  of special hospitals, and has done a great deal of good in its time.
+  Owing to modern methods of treatment and hygienic developments the
+  maternity hospital never occupied a stronger position than it does
+  to-day.
+
+  _Mental Hospitals._--In Great Britain the insane are provided for in
+  asylums (see INSANITY, ad fin.), though such establishments, if
+  properly conducted, are essentially hospitals. Scientific and public
+  opinion tend towards the establishment of mental hospitals to which
+  all acute cases of mental disease should be first relegated for
+  treatment and diagnosis before they are consigned to a permanent
+  lunatic hospital. Too little attention on an organized plan has been
+  given to the continuous study of mental disease in its clinical and
+  pathological aspects. It is probable, therefore, that the advent of
+  the mental hospital may lead to important developments in treatment in
+  many ways.
+
+  _Ophthalmic Hospitals._--Of all special hospitals this is one which
+  would probably be the least necessary, providing general hospitals
+  everywhere were properly equipped and organized. No special hospital
+  has probably been so abused in the material sense by the free relief
+  of patients who could well afford to pay for their treatment at the
+  ophthalmic hospital. Several of the existing ophthalmic hospitals have
+  entailed an enormous expenditure, and their modern equipment is
+  wonderfully efficient.
+
+  _Orthopaedic Hospitals._--It is very doubtful whether this type oL
+  hospital is really desirable or necessary. Its necessity may be
+  advocated on the ground that orthopaedic cases may require prolonged
+  treatment, and that the pressure upon the beds of general hospitals by
+  acute cases is nowadays so great as to render the orthopaedic hospital
+  more necessary than ever before.
+
+  _Paralysis and Epileptic Hospitals._--Seeing that the percentage of
+  those who are at present attacked by paralysis and nervous disease
+  shows a continued tendency to increase under modern conditions of life
+  in large cities, hospitals of this type are necessary, and London at
+  any rate, like most foreign towns of importance, possesses, at
+  present, far too little accommodation for this class of case.
+
+  _Skin and Photo-Therapy._--Up to the end of the 19th century hospitals
+  for diseases of the skin were a constant cause of scandal and
+  criticism. The introduction of modern methods of treatment by light
+  and electricity, including photo-therapy, has given an importance to
+  this department and treatment which it did not previously possess. We
+  are of opinion that, on the whole, it is better and more economical to
+  treat these cases in properly equipped departments of general
+  hospitals than in separate institutions.
+
+  _Women's Hospitals._--These hospitals are not absolutely necessary,
+  but considering their popularity with the women themselves, and that
+  several of them have done excellent work, remembering too that women
+  constitute the majority of the population, there seems to be some
+  reason for their continuance.
+
+_The Evolution of the Modern Hospital._--The evolution of the modern
+hospital affords one of the most marvellous evidences of the advance of
+scientific and humanitarian principles which the world has ever seen. At
+the outset hospitals were probably founded by the healthy more for their
+own comfort than out of any regard for the sick. Nowadays the healthy,
+whilst they realize that the more efficient they can make the hospital,
+the more certain, in the human sense, is their own chance of prolonged
+life and health, are, as the progress of the League of Mercy has shown
+in recent years, genuinely anxious for the most part to do something as
+individuals in the days of health in the cause of the sick. Formerly the
+hospital was merely a building or buildings, very often unsuitable for
+the purposes to which it was put, where sick and injured people were
+retained and more frequently than not died. In other words the hygienic
+condition, the methods of treatment and the hospital atmosphere were all
+so relatively unsatisfactory as to yield a mortality in serious cases of
+40%. Nowadays, despite, or possibly because of, the fact that operative
+interference is the rule rather than the exception in the treatment of
+hospital patients, and in consequence of the introduction of antiseptic
+and aseptic methods, the mortality in hospitals is, in all the
+circumstances, relatively less, and probably materially less, than it is
+even amongst patients who are attended in their own homes. Originally
+hospitals were unsystematic, crowded, ill-organized necessities which
+wise people refused to enter, if they had any voice in the matter. At
+the present time in all large cities, and in crowded communities in
+civilized countries, great hospitals have been erected upon extensive
+sites which are so planned as to constitute in fact a village with many
+hundreds of inhabitants. This type of modern hospital has common
+characteristics. A multitude of separate buildings are dotted over the
+site, which may cover 20 acres or upwards. In one such institution,
+within an area of 20 acres, there are 6 m. of drains, 29 m. of water and
+steam pipes, 3 m. of roof gutters, 42 m. of electric wires, and 42
+separate buildings, which to all intents and purposes constitute a
+series of distinct, isolated hospitals, in no case containing more than
+forty-six patients. On the continent of Europe buildings of this class
+are usually of one storey; in the United States, owing to the difficulty
+of obtaining suitable sites and for reasons of economy, some competent
+authorities strenuously advocate high buildings with many storeys for
+town hospitals. In England the majority have two to three storeys each,
+the ward unit containing a ward for twenty beds and two isolation wards
+for one and two beds respectively. The two storeys in modern fever
+hospitals, however, are absolutely distinct--that is, there is no
+internal staircase going from one ward to the others, for each is
+entered separately from the outside. This system carries to its extreme
+limits the principle of separating the patients as much as possible into
+small groups; the acute cases are usually treated in the upper ward, and
+as they become convalescent are removed downstairs. In this way the
+necessity for an entirely separate convalescent block is done away with
+and the patients are kept under the same charge nurse, an arrangement
+which promotes necessary discipline. The unit of these hospitals is the
+pavilion, not the ward, and consists of an acute ward, a convalescent
+ward, separation wards, nurses' duty rooms, store-rooms for linen, an
+open-air balcony upstairs into which beds can be wheeled in suitable
+weather, and a large airing-ground for convalescent patients directly
+accessible from the downstairs ward. Each of the pavilions is raised
+above the ground level, so that air can circulate freely underneath.
+The wall, floor and air spaces in the scarlet fever wards of one of
+these hospitals are respectively 12 ft., 156 ft. and 2028 ft. per bed;
+and in the enteric and diphtheria wards they have been increased to 15
+ft., 195 ft. and 2535 ft. respectively. The provision of so large a
+floor and linear space, especially in the diphtheria wards, is an
+experiment the effect of which will be watched with considerable
+interest. A building of this type is a splendid example of the separate
+pavilion hospital, and is doing great service in the treatment of fevers
+wherever it has been introduced. Some idea of a hospital village, some
+of the wards of which we have been describing, may be gathered from the
+circumstances that it costs from L300,000 to L400,000, that it usually
+contains from 500 to 700 beds, and that the staff numbers from 350 to
+500 persons. The medical superintendent lives in a separate house of his
+own. The nurses are provided with a home, consisting of several blocks
+of buildings under the control of the matron; the charge nurses usually
+occupy the main block; where the dining and general sitting-rooms are
+placed; the day assistant-nurses another block; and lastly, by a most
+excellent arrangement, the night nurses, 80 to 120 in number, have one
+whole block entirely given up to their use. The female servants have a
+second home under the control of the housekeeper, and the male servants
+occupy a third home under the supervision of the steward. The two main
+ideas aimed at are to disconnect the houses occupied by the staff from
+the infected area, and to place the members of each division of the
+staff together, but in separate buildings, under their respective heads.
+These objects are highly to be commended, as they have important
+bearings upon the well-being and discipline of the whole establishment
+and constitute a lesson for all who have to do with buildings where a
+great number of people are constantly employed.
+
+_The Hospital City._--We have shown that the modern hospital where an
+adequate site is available under the most favourable conditions has
+developed into a hospital village. No one who is familiar with the
+existing disadvantages of many of the sites and their surroundings of
+town hospitals in many a large city can have any doubt that, if the
+well-being of the patients and the good of the whole community, combined
+with economical and administrative reasons, together with the provision
+of an adequate system for the instruction and training of medical
+students and nurses, are to be the first considerations with those
+responsible for the hospitals of the future, the time will come, and is
+probably not far distant, when each great urban community will provide
+for the whole of its sick by removing them to a hospital city, which
+will be situated upon a specially selected and most salubrious site some
+distance from the town itself. The atmosphere of a great city grows less
+and less suitable to the rapid and complete recovery of patients who may
+undergo the major operations or be suffering from the severe and acute
+forms of disease. Asepsis, it is true, has reduced the average residence
+in hospital from about 35 to less than 20 days. It has thereby added
+quite one million working days each year to the earning power of the
+artisan classes in London alone. Medical opinion is more and more
+favouring the provision of convalescent and suburban hospitals, to which
+patients suffering from open wounds may be removed from the city
+hospitals. This course, which entails much additional expenditure, is
+advocated to overcome the difficulty arising from the fact that, in
+operation and other cases, the patients cease to continue to make rapid
+progress towards recovery after the seventh or ninth day's residence in
+a city hospital. A change of such cases to the country restores the
+balance and completes the recovery with a rapidity often remarkable.
+
+Thinking out the problem here presented in all its bearings, realizing
+the great and ever-increasing cost of sites for hospitals in great
+cities, the heavy consequential taxes and charges which they have to
+meet there, and all the attendant disadvantages and drawbacks, the
+present writer has ventured upon an anticipation which he hopes may
+prove intelligent and well-founded. Nearly every difficulty in regard to
+the cost of hospitals and in respect to all the many problems presented
+by securing the material required, under present systems, for the
+efficient training of students and nurses, would be removed by the
+erection of the Hospital City, which, he foresees, must ultimately be
+recognized by intelligent communities throughout the civilized world.
+Why should we not have, on a carefully selected site well away from the
+contaminations of the town, and adequately provided with every requisite
+demanded from the site of the most perfect modern hospital which the
+mind of man can conceive, a "Hospital City"? Here would be concentrated
+all the means for relieving and treating every form of disease to the
+abiding comfort of all responsible for their adequacy and success. At
+the present time all the traffic and all the citizens give way to fire
+engines and the ambulance in the public streets. Necessarily the means
+of transit to and from the "Hospital City," and its rapidity, would be
+the most perfect in the world. So the members of the medical staff, the
+friends of the patients, and all who had business in the "Hospital
+City," would find it easier and less exacting in time and energy to be
+attached to one of the hospitals located therein than to one situated in
+the centre of a big population in a crowded town. To meet the urgent and
+accident cases a few receiving houses, or outpost relief stations, with
+a couple of wards, would be situated in various quarters of the working
+city, where patients could be temporarily treated, and whence they could
+be removed to the "Hospital City" by an efficient motor ambulance
+service. The writer can see such a "Hospital City" established, can
+realize the comfort it will prove in practice to the medical profession,
+to the patients' friends, to those who have to manage the hospitals and
+train the medical and nursing students, and indeed to all who may go
+there as well as to the whole community. The initial cost of hospital
+buildings should be reduced at once to a quarter or less of the present
+outlay. They could then be built of the cheapest but most suitable
+material, which would have many advantages, whilst the actual money
+forthcoming from the realization and sale of the existing hospital sites
+in many cities would, in all probability, produce a sum which in the
+whole might prove adequate, or nearly adequate, or even in some cases
+more than adequate, to defray the entire cost of building the "Hospital
+City" and of equipping it too. The cost of administration and working
+must be everywhere reduced to a minimum. The hygienic completeness of
+the whole city, its buildings and appliances, must expedite recovery to
+the maximum extent. In all probability the removal of the sick from
+contact with the healthy would tend in practice so to increase the
+healthiness of the town population, i.e. of the workers of the city
+proper, as to free them from some of the most burdensome trials which
+now cripple their resources and diminish materially the happiness of
+their lives. Probably the United States (where a city has sometimes
+sprung up in twelve months) may be the home where this idea may first
+find its realization in accomplished fact. The writer may never live to
+see such a city in actual working or in its entirety, but he makes bold
+to believe its adoption will one day solve the more difficult of the
+problems involved in providing adequately for the sick in crowded
+communities. He has formulated the idea because it seems desirable to
+encourage discussion as to the best method of checking the growing
+tendency to make hospital buildings everywhere too costly. If the idea
+of the "Hospital City" commends itself to the profession and the public,
+the practice of treating all the hospital accommodation in each city as
+a whole will gradually increase and spread, until most of the present
+pressing difficulties may disappear altogether. That is a consummation
+devoutly to be wished.
+
+_The Problem of Hospital Administration._--A study of the hospital
+problem in various countries, and especially in different portions of
+the English-speaking world, convinces the writer that, apart from local
+differences, the features presented are everywhere practically
+identical. A number of hospitals under independent administration,
+dependent in whole or in part on voluntary contributions, administered
+under different regulations originally representing the idiosyncracies
+of individual managers for the time being, without any standard of
+efficiency or any system of co-operation, which would bring the whole
+of the medical establishments of each or all of the great cities of the
+world under one administration which the combined wisdom and experience
+of hospital managers as a whole might agree to be the best, must mean in
+practice a material gain in every way to each and all of the hospitals
+and their supporters on economical, scientific and other grounds. Such
+an absence of system throughout the world has everywhere led to
+overlapping, to the perpetuation of many abuses, to the admission of an
+increasing number of patients whose social position does not entitle
+them to claim free medical relief at all, and, often too, to the
+admission of patients belonging to a humbler grade of society who are
+already provided for by the rates in institutions which they do not care
+to enter and who find their way to the wards of hospitals which were
+established to provide for patients of an entirely different social
+grade. These evils have continued to grow and increase almost
+everywhere, despite many and varied attempts to grapple with and remove
+them. Amongst these attempts we may mention the assembling of hospital
+conferences, the establishment of special funds and committees, and the
+holding of inquiries of various kinds in London and other British cities
+and also in the United States. The most remarkable proof of the
+impossibility of inducing those responsible to act together and enforce
+the necessary reforms is afforded by the historical fact that the famous
+Commission on Hospital Abuse, known as Sir William Fergusson's
+Commission, in 1871, after an exhaustive inquiry, made the following
+recommendations: (1) to improve the administration of poor-law medical
+relief; (2) to place all free dispensaries under the control of the
+poor-law authorities; (3) to establish an adequate system of provident
+dispensaries; (4) to curtail the unrestricted system of gratuitous
+relief, partly by the selection of cases possessing special clinical
+interest and partly by the exclusion of those who on social grounds are
+not entitled to gratuitous medical advice; (5) the payment of the
+medical staff engaged in both in- and out-patient work, and the payment
+of fees by patients in the pay wards and in the consultation departments
+of the voluntary hospitals. Other commissions have since been appointed,
+have reported, and have disappeared, with the result that nothing
+practical had been done up to 1910 in the way of reform. Yet it is an
+undoubted fact that, if the foregoing recommendations of Sir William
+Fergusson's Commission had been carried out in their entirety at the
+time they were made, practically all the abuses from which British
+hospitals afterwards suffered would have been removed, and the
+charitable public might have been saved several millions of pounds
+sterling. It may be well, therefore, briefly to indicate exactly what
+these changes amount to, and how they can be made effective at any time
+by those responsible for the working of a hospital.
+
+There is no doubt that all the facts available tend to prove that the
+voluntary hospitals are used to an increasing extent by persons able to
+make payment or partial payment for the treatment which they receive.
+The evidence and statistics demonstrating these facts may be readily
+gathered from a study of the Report (1909) and Evidence of the Royal
+Commission on the Poor Laws and Relief of Distress (Lord George
+Hamilton's Commission) and in the authorities mentioned at the end of
+this article. The underlying cause of the abuse was that no means
+existed whereby persons of moderate income could obtain efficient
+treatment and hospital care when ill at a rate which they could afford
+to pay. The system, or want of system, whereby medical relief is granted
+to practically all applicants by the voluntary hospitals grew up without
+any combined attempt to organize it efficiently or to check abuses. Such
+a system rests upon a wrong basis, and the best interests of every class
+of the population demand its abolition in favour of one which shall
+afford the maximum of justice (1) to the poor, (2) to those who can
+afford to pay in part or in whole the cost of their medical treatment
+and care at a hospital, (3) to the medical profession, (4) to the
+subscribers and supporters of voluntary hospitals, whose gifts should be
+strictly applied to the purposes they were intended to serve, and (5) to
+the ratepayers, who are entitled to a guarantee that the maximum
+efficiency is secured by the poor-law system of medical relief. The
+remedy is very simple and easy of application. Every voluntary hospital,
+while admitting all accidents and urgent cases needing immediate
+attention, should institute a system whereby each applicant would be
+asked to prove that he or she was a fit object of charity. The only real
+attempt at reform, up to 1909, was the appointment by many of the larger
+hospitals of almoners to ascertain whether certain selected patients
+were in a position to pay or not. By putting the burden of proof of
+eligibility to receive free medical relief upon the patients and their
+friends, all abuse of every kind must speedily cease. There would be no
+hardship entailed upon the patients by such a system, as experience has
+proved, but, to make it effective, the system of providing for in- and
+out-patients in Great Britain requires radical change, for, in existing
+circumstance, if a voluntary hospital attempted to enforce this simple
+method, it would be met with the difficulty that, where it was found
+that a patient or his friends could pay at any rate something, no
+department connected with British hospitals existed--as is the case in
+regard to hospitals in the United States--enabling such in-patients to
+be transferred to accommodation provided in paying wards. In the same
+way, directly the out-patients were dealt with under such a system, it
+would be made apparent, where a case could be properly treated, under
+the poor law, that no plan of co-operation to secure this was organized
+under existing conditions. If the patient, being of a better class, were
+suffering from a minor ailment, and could be properly dealt with at a
+provident dispensary, the fees of which he could easily pay, the same
+absence of co-operation must make it practically impossible readily to
+enforce the system. When, again, an out-patient of the better class was
+entitled, from the severity of his ailment, to receive the advantages of
+a consultation by the medical staff, no method existed whereby this aid
+could be rendered to him, and his transfer afterwards to the care of a
+medical practitioner attached to some provident dispensary, or resident
+near the patient's home, could be properly carried out. It follows that
+adequate reform required that methods should be adopted with a view to
+some part or all the cost of treatment being provided by the patient or
+his friends through an entire reorganization of the system of medical
+relief not only at the voluntary hospitals, but under the poor-law
+system. The reforms required in regard to voluntary hospitals are that
+every large hospital shall have connected with the in-patient
+department, in separate buildings, but under the administration of the
+managers, pay wards for the reception of those patients who are able to
+pay some part or all of the cost of treatment; that, as regards
+out-patients, the existing out-patient department should be abolished;
+that in substitution for it each hospital should have a casualty
+department and a department for consultation. In the casualty department
+every applicant should be seen once, and be there disposed of by being
+handed on to the consultation department; if his case was sufficiently
+important, he should then be transferred to some provident or poor-law
+dispensary, or be referred to a private medical attendant. It would no
+doubt take time to overcome the incidental difficulties which would
+necessarily arise in effecting so radical a reform as is here
+contemplated, but if all voluntary hospitals adopted the same system,
+and were to be brought into active co-operation with provident
+dispensaries and poor-law dispensaries and private medical
+practitioners, the new system might be successfully introduced and made
+effective within twelve months, and probably within six months, from the
+date of its commencement. This opinion is based upon the assumption that
+the provident dispensaries would be standardized, and that every one of
+them would be brought up to a state of the highest efficiency. In the
+town of Northampton the Royal Victoria Dispensary has been worked with
+the maximum of success, so far as the patients and the medical
+practitioners are concerned. In London and in other large towns like
+Manchester and elsewhere the provident dispensary has not succeeded as
+it has done in Northampton, because so many members of the medical
+profession are not alive to the importance of making it their first
+business to provide that every patient connected with the provident
+dispensary who attends at the surgery of a private medical practitioner
+shall receive at least equal attention and accommodation to that
+afforded to every other private patient, whatever the fee he may pay. In
+the same way, poor-law dispensaries must be radically reformed.
+Everything which tends to excite a feeling of shame on the part of the
+patient attending the poor-law dispensary, such as the printing of the
+word "pauper" at the beginning of the space on which the patient's name
+is entered, must be abolished, and the class of medical service and all
+the arrangements for the treatment of the patients, however poor, at the
+poor-law dispensary, must be made at least as efficient as those
+provided by voluntary hospitals. There undoubtedly is considerable
+overlapping between the voluntary hospitals and the poor law in Great
+Britain. The Royal Commission on the Poor Laws and Relief of Distress
+(1909) deals with this point with a view to set up a standard of medical
+relief to be granted by each class and type of hospitals, provides for
+adequate co-operation between all classes of institutions; and these
+reforms may be commended. It is too often forgotten that the function of
+the poor law is the relief of destitution, while it should be the object
+and duty of each voluntary hospital and indeed of all hospitals other
+than poor-law institutions to apply their resources entirely to the
+prevention of destitution, by stepping in to grant free medical relief
+to the provident and thrifty when, through no fault of their own, they
+meet with an accident or are overtaken by disease. An adequate system of
+co-operation would preserve the privilege of the voluntary hospitals,
+which save such patients from the necessity of requiring the relief
+which it is the object of the poor law to supply.
+
+We have dealt with the relative advantages and disadvantages of
+rate-supported hospitals and voluntary hospitals. We should regard the
+establishment of a complete state-provided or rate-provided system of
+gratuitous medical relief, either for indoor patients or for out-door
+patients, or for both, as a grave evil. Such a system must eventually
+lead to the extinction of voluntary hospitals. If this disaster ever
+happens, it must result in the gravest evils, for it could not fail to
+injure the morale of all classes and tend to harden unnecessarily the
+relations between the rich and poor, who, under the voluntary system,
+have come to share each other's sufferings and to be animated by respect
+and confidence towards each other.
+
+  _Hospital Construction. Locality and Site._--Hospitals are required
+  for the use of the community in a certain locality, and to be of use
+  they must be within reach of the centre of population. Formerly the
+  greater difficulty of locomotion made it necessary that they should be
+  actually in the midst of towns and cities, and to some extent this
+  continues to prevail. It is now proved to demonstration that this is
+  not the best plan. Fresh and pure air being a prime necessity, as well
+  as a considerable amount of space of actual area in proportion to
+  population, it would certainly be better to place hospitals as much in
+  the outskirts as is consistent with considerations of usefulness and
+  convenience. In short, the best site would be open fields; but if that
+  be impracticable, a large space, "a sanitary zone" as it is called by
+  Tollet, should be kept permanently free between them and surrounding
+  buildings, certainly never less than double the height of the highest
+  building. In the selection of a site various factors must be taken
+  into consideration. If the hospital is to be used as the clinical
+  school of a university or medical college, then the most suitable
+  ground available within easy reach of the university or college must
+  be secured. If, on the other hand, the hospital is not to be used as a
+  teaching school, a site more in the country should be favoured. In any
+  case ample ground must be purchased to permit of the wards receiving
+  the maximum of sunlight, an abundant supply of fresh air, and leave
+  room for possible future extensions. The site should be
+  self-contained; it should be in such a position as to prevent the
+  hospital being shadowed by other buildings in the neighbourhood, and,
+  unless the site is alongside a public park, it should be entirely
+  surrounded by streets of from 40 to 60 ft. in width. It is also
+  necessary to secure that adequate water mains serve the site, and that
+  the system of sewers be ample for all sewage purposes.
+
+  The difference between the expense of purchase of land in a town and
+  in the environs is generally considerable, and this is therefore an
+  additional reason for choosing a suburban locality. Even with existing
+  hospitals it would be in most cases pecuniarily advantageous to
+  dispose of the present building and site and retain only a receiving
+  house in the town. St Thomas's in London, the Hotel-Dieu in Paris and
+  the Royal Infirmary in Manchester, are all good examples where this
+  might have been carried out. In none, however, has this been done;
+  these hospitals have been rebuilt, at enormous outlay, in the cities
+  as before, although not exactly in the same locality.
+
+  As regards the actual site itself, where circumstances admit of
+  choice, a dry gravelly or sandy soil should be selected, in a position
+  where the ground water is low and but little subject to fluctuations
+  of level, and where the means of drainage are capable of being
+  effectually carried out. There should also be a cheerful sunny aspect
+  and some protection from the coldest winds.
+
+  _Form of Building._--A form of building must be selected which answers
+  the following conditions: (a) the freest possible circulation of air
+  round each ward, with no cul-de-sac or enclosed spaces where air can
+  stagnate; (b) free play of sunlight upon each ward during some portion
+  at least of the day; (c) the possibility of isolating any ward, or
+  group of wards, effectually, in case of infectious disease breaking
+  out; (d) the possibility of ventilating every ward independently of
+  any other part of the establishment. Those conditions can only be
+  fulfilled by one system, viz. a congeries of houses or pavilions, more
+  or less connected with each other by covered ways, so as to facilitate
+  convenient and economical administration. The older plans of huge
+  blocks of buildings, arranged in squares or rectangles, enclosing
+  spaces without free circulation of air, are obviously objectionable.
+  Even when arranged in single lines or crosses they are not desirable,
+  as the wards either communicate with each other or with common
+  passages or corridors, rendering separation impossible. On this point
+  it may be remarked that some of the buildings of the 18th century were
+  more wisely constructed than many of those in the first half of the
+  19th century, and that the older buildings have been from time to time
+  spoilt by ignorant additions made in later times.
+
+  The question next arises, is it better to have pavilions of two or
+  more storeys high, or to have single-storeyed huts or cottages
+  scattered more widely? For the treatment of tuberculosis there can be
+  no doubt that, for hygienic reasons, the _chalet_ or single-patient
+  hut is the best for the patients in the acute stages; for economical
+  reasons the _chalet_ has not been heretofore as popular as it deserves
+  to be, but if the welfare of the patient is to be the first
+  consideration there is no doubt that the _chalet_ will ultimately
+  prevail. It has the merit of being easily adapted to villages and
+  houses where there is a garden, and in this way poor families may
+  readily isolate and treat a member affected by tuberculosis at a cost
+  within their means. For hospital purposes, so long as the system of
+  placing hospital buildings in densely crowded areas prevails,
+  many-storeyed buildings for hospital purposes are likely to continue.
+  Should the proposal to institute a Hospital City ultimately prevail,
+  then it is probable that the majority of the pavilions will be
+  single-storeyed. Still some hospital authorities prefer the
+  multiple-storeyed system for administrative reasons, contending that
+  single-storeyed pavilions have no special advantages over two or
+  three-storeyed buildings, whereas the difficulties in administration
+  and service of a hospital building on the single-storey principle
+  outweigh any argument against the two- or three-storey building, if it
+  is properly designed and constructed. We hope that the time is
+  approaching when architects and those members of the public who have
+  to provide the money for hospital buildings will insist upon the
+  erection of simple structures, costing little, so that the whole cost
+  of hospital buildings may be, as it ought to be, reduced by at least
+  half when compared with the expenditure of the past.
+
+  The pavilions may be arranged in various ways; they may be joined at
+  one end by a corridor, or may be divided by a central corridor at
+  right angles to them. In fact, the plan is very elastic, and adapts
+  itself to almost any circumstances. A certain distance, not less than
+  twice the height of the pavilions, ought to be preserved between them.
+  By this means free circulation of air and plenty of light are secured,
+  whilst separation or isolation may be at once accomplished if
+  required.
+
+  _Foundations, Building Materials, &c._--It is of the first consequence
+  that a hospital should be dry; therefore the foundation and walls
+  ought to be constructed so as to prevent the inroads of damp. An
+  impervious foundation has the further advantage of preventing
+  emanations from the soil rising up in consequence of the suction force
+  produced by the higher temperature of the internal atmosphere of the
+  building itself. There should be free ventilation in the basement, and
+  the raising of the whole on arches is a good plan, now generally
+  carried out in hot climates. If the pavilions are two or more storeys
+  high, it is advisable to use fire-proof material as much as possible,
+  but single-storeyed huts may be of wood. In any case effectual means
+  of excluding damp must be employed. The interiors of wards ought to be
+  rendered as non-absorbent as possible, by being covered with
+  impervious coatings, such as glazed tiles (Parian, though much used,
+  is apt to crack), silicate paint, which is preferable to tiles, or the
+  like. The ceilings ought to be treated in the same way as the walls.
+  There must be a concrete floor between each flat, experience showing
+  that if a teak floor is laid hard on the concrete a very noisy floor
+  is the result, but if the teak is laid on strips of wood, leaving a
+  small space between the concrete and the floor, a more silent floor is
+  obtained. For the floors themselves various materials have been
+  suggested: in France there is a preference for flags (_dalles_), but
+  in England wood is more liked; and indeed hard well-fitting wood,
+  such as teak, oak or American willow, leaves nothing to be desired.
+  The surface should be waxed and polished or varnished. Even deal
+  floors can be rendered non-absorbent by waxing, by impregnating them
+  with solid paraffin as recommended by Dr Langstaff.
+
+  _Shape and Arrangement of Wards._--It is now generally agreed that
+  wards should have windows on at least two opposite sides. Three main
+  shapes have been proposed: (a) long wards with windows down each side,
+  and (generally) one at the farther end with balcony; 26 ft. is a good
+  width for a ward of twelve or fourteen beds, but for larger wards of
+  more than fourteen beds the width should be not less than 28 ft.; (b)
+  wards nearly square, with windows on three sides; and (c) circular
+  wards with windows all round. The first (a) is the form usually
+  adopted in pavilions; (b) is recommended by Dr C. F. Folsom (_Plans
+  for the Johns Hopkins Hospital_); and (c) has been suggested by Mr
+  John Marshall, F.R.S. (_Nat. Assoc. for Promotion of Social Science_,
+  1878). Of these (b) seems the least to be commended, and (c), now
+  comparatively common, has distinct advantages in an administrative
+  sense, when the wards are constructed as to floor space so as to allow
+  the same proportion of superficial space per bed in a circular ward to
+  that which is contained in a rectangular ward, as is the case at the
+  Great Northern Central Hospital, London. Some authorities object to a
+  chimney-stack up the centre of the circular ward, urging that it
+  prevents the nurses from having complete supervision over all the
+  beds. In practice this objection seems to us to have little force, and
+  it can be avoided by placing the fireplaces at the side of the
+  circular ward, if desirable, though this adds somewhat to the cost of
+  building.
+
+  Each bed should be a little distance, say from 8 in. to 1 ft. from the
+  wall, and each bed may be reckoned as 6(1/2) ft. long; this gives
+  7(1/2) ft. on each side. Between the ends of the beds about 10 ft.
+  space is necessary, so that 25 or 26 ft. of total breadth may be taken
+  as a favourable width. The wards of the Herbert Hospital are 26 ft.;
+  but some exceed this, as, for instance, St Thomas's, London, and the
+  New Royal infirmary, Edinburgh, 28; new Hotel Dieu, 29; and
+  Lariboisiere, 30. There seems no necessity for exceeding 26 for a ward
+  of twelve or fourteen beds, but if the breadth be greater there ought
+  to be more window space--the great difficulty being to get a wide
+  space thoroughly ventilated. There ought to be only two rows of beds,
+  one down each wall, with a window on each side of each bed.
+
+  For ventilation two things are required--sufficient space and
+  sufficiently frequent change or renewal of air. As regards space, this
+  must be considered with reference both to total space and to lateral
+  or floor space. Unless a minimum of floor space be laid down, we shall
+  always be in danger of overcrowding, for cubic space may be supplied
+  vertically with little or no advantage to the occupier. If we allow a
+  minimum distance of 4 ft. between the beds and 10 ft. between the ends
+  of the beds, this gives 100 sq. ft. of space per bed; less than this
+  is undesirable. In severe surgical cases, fever cases and the like, a
+  much larger space is required; and in the Edinburgh Infirmary 150 sq.
+  ft. is allowed. Cubic space must be regulated by the means of
+  ventilation; we can rarely change the air oftener than three times in
+  an hour, and therefore the space ought to be at least one-third of the
+  hourly supply. This ought not to be less than 4000 cubic ft. per bed,
+  even in ordinary cases of sickness--and the third of that is 1333
+  cubic ft. of space. With 100 sq. ft. of floor space a ward of 13(1/2)
+  ft. high would supply this amount, and there is but little to be
+  gained by raising the ceiling higher,--indeed 12 ft. is practically
+  enough. The experiments of Drs Cowles and Wood of Boston (see _Report
+  of State Board of Health of Massachusetts for 1879_) show that above
+  12 ft. there is little or no movement in the air except towards the
+  outlet ventilator; the space above is therefore of little value as
+  ventilation space. Authorities nowadays, however, fix 10 ft. 6 in. as
+  the maximum, and any height above this may be disregarded for purposes
+  of ventilation. Additional height adds also to the cost of
+  construction, increases the expense of warming, makes cleaning more
+  difficult, and to some extent hampers ventilation. Whatever be the
+  height of wards, the windows must reach to the ceiling, or there must
+  be ventilators in the ceiling or at the top of the side walls. If this
+  be not arranged for, a mass of foul air is apt to stagnate near the
+  ceiling, and sooner or later to be driven down upon the inmates. The
+  reasons for a large and constant renewal of air are, of course, the
+  immediate removal and dilution of the organic matter given off by the
+  inmates; as this is greater in quantity and more offensive and
+  dangerous in sickness than in health, the change of air in the former
+  case must be greater than in the latter. Hence in serious cases an
+  amount of air practically unlimited is desirable--the aim of true
+  ventilation being to approach as near as possible to the condition of
+  pure external air. Without going too much into details, a few general
+  rules may be laid down. (1) Fresh air ought, if possible, to be
+  brought in at the lowest part of the ward, warmed if necessary; (2)
+  foul air ought to be taken out at the highest part of the ward; (3)
+  fresh air should reach each patient without passing over the bed of
+  any other; (4) the vitiated air should be removed from each patient
+  without passing over the bed of any other; (5) 4000 cubic ft. of fresh
+  air per head per hour should be the minimum in ordinary cases of
+  sickness, to be increased without limit in severer cases; (6) the air
+  should move in no part of a ward at a greater rate than 1(1/2) ft. per
+  second, except at the point of entry, where it should not exceed 5 ft.
+  per second, and at the outlet, where the rate may be somewhat higher;
+  about 64 sq. in. of inlet and outlet sectional area ought to be
+  supplied per head as a minimum; (7) every opportunity ought to be
+  taken of freely flushing the wards with air, by means of open windows,
+  when this can be done with safety.
+
+  Warming is a question of great importance in most climates, especially
+  in such a climate as that of Great Britain, where every system of
+  ventilation must involve either the warming of some portion of the
+  incoming air, or the contriving its delivery without too great
+  lowering of temperature; at the same time it cannot be too strongly
+  insisted upon that the tendency is too much in the direction of
+  allowing warmth to supersede freshness of air. There are very few
+  cases of disease (if any) that are not more injured by foul air than
+  by low temperature; and in the zymotic diseases, such as typhus,
+  enteric fever, smallpox, &c., satisfactory results have been obtained
+  even in winter weather by almost open-air treatment. At the same time
+  a reasonable warmth is desirable on all grounds if it can be obtained
+  without sacrificing purity of atmosphere. For all practical purposes
+  60 deg. to 63 deg. F. is quite sufficient, and surgical and lying-in
+  cases do well in lower temperatures. Various plans of warming have
+  been recommended, but probably a combination is the best. It is
+  inadvisable to do away altogether with radiant heat, although it is
+  not always possible to supply sufficient warmth with open-air
+  fire-places alone. A portion of the air may be warmed by being passed
+  over a heating apparatus before it enters the ward, by having an
+  air-chamber round the fire-place or stove, or by the use of radiators
+  in the ward itself. In each case, however, the air must be supplied
+  independently to each ward, so that no general system of air supply is
+  applicable.
+
+  The lighting of the ward at night will be most conveniently done by
+  means of electricity in the form of a lamp for each bed, where gas is
+  used each jet should have a special ventilator to carry off combustion
+  products, as in the Edinburgh Infirmary.
+
+  _The Furniture of Wards_ should be simple, clean and non-absorbent;
+  the bedsteads of iron, mattresses hair, laid on spring bottoms without
+  sacking. No curtains should be permitted.
+
+  The water-supply ought to be on the constant system, and plentiful; 50
+  gallons per head per diem may be taken as a fair minimum estimate.
+
+  The closets ought to be of the simplest construction, the pans of
+  earthenware all in one piece, the flushing arrangements simple but
+  perfect, and the supply of water ample. Each ward should have its own
+  closets, lavatories, &c., built in small annexes, with a
+  cross-ventilated vestibule separating them from the ward. All the
+  pipes should be disconnected from the drains, the closets by
+  intercepting traps, the sink and waste pipes by being made to pour
+  their contents over trapped gratings. The soil pipes should be
+  ventilated, and placed outside the walls, protected as may be
+  necessary from frost. Each ward should have a movable bath, which can
+  be wheeled to the patient's bedside.
+
+  Each ward should have attached to it a small kitchen for any special
+  cooking that may be required, a room for the physician or surgeon, and
+  generally a room with one or two separate beds. No cooking should be
+  done in the wards, nor ought washing, airing or drying of linen to be
+  allowed there.
+
+  _Hospital Economics._--There is no doubt that the voluntary system of
+  hospital government is far more economical than any system of state or
+  rate-supported hospitals. That the present condition of the voluntary
+  hospitals in regard to economy is all that can be wished is not, of
+  course, true. Still, resting as this system does upon the goodwill of
+  the public for its continuance and maintenance, it is satisfactory to
+  note that there is a continuous improvement in system and method,
+  which makes for economy. It has taken many years to perfect and
+  enforce the uniform system of hospital accounts, but this system with
+  the co-operation of the great funds has produced economical results of
+  the first importance. This system originated at the Queen's Hospital,
+  Birmingham, in 1869, and was devised by an eminent Birmingham
+  accountant, William Laundy, and Sir Henry Burdett. It proved so
+  fruitful in practice that six years later it was introduced at the
+  "Dreadnought" Seamen's Hospital, the first London hospital to use it,
+  and was then adopted spontaneously by a few of the best-administered
+  hospitals where the managers were keen in enforcing economy. In 1891,
+  in order to secure for comparative purposes an identical
+  classification of the items and charges included in the system, a
+  glossary or index of classification was prepared and published in the
+  _Hospital Annual_ of that year. This index enabled the same
+  classification of the many items included in the expenditure of a
+  great institution to be adopted generally. In the same year a
+  committee of hospital secretaries, at the instigation of the
+  Metropolitan Hospital Sunday Fund, revised and elaborated the index of
+  classification, and the new index was adopted by a general meeting of
+  hospital secretaries in January 1892. The Council of the Metropolitan
+  Hospital Sunday Fund approved it, and the Uniform System of Accounts
+  was formulated by that body for the use of the metropolitan hospitals.
+  In 1906 the whole of this system was inquired into on behalf of the
+  King's Fund by Mr John G. Griffiths, F.C.A., when a committee of
+  hospital secretaries and representatives of the King's Fund prepared a
+  further revision of the system. This was completed in the course of
+  the year and adopted by the King's, the Hospital Sunday and the
+  Hospital Saturday Funds. The publication of a book by Sir Henry
+  Burdett led to the adoption of the system in several of the British
+  Colonies, and as a result of the action taken in the British Empire
+  the Uniform System of Accounts has recently been set up and adopted by
+  the principal hospitals of the United States of America. The prince of
+  Wales (George V.) testified to the value of this system in enforcing
+  control over expenditure, and Sir Henry Burdett adapted it for the use
+  of the authorities of all charities of every class. It is probable
+  that no single reform has had a greater influence for good upon the
+  administration of charitable institutions than the evolution and
+  enforcement of the uniform system of accounts.
+
+  _Nursing._--The arrangements for nursing the sick have greatly
+  improved in recent times, although controversy still goes on as to the
+  best method of carrying it out. In arranging for the nursing in a
+  hospital both efficiency and economy have to be considered. No ward in
+  a general hospital for acute cases should contain more than 24 beds.
+  In hospitals with clinical schools the proportion of nurses to
+  patients should be about one nurse to every three patients, and if
+  possible every ward should have a probationer on duty at night in
+  addition to the night nurse. In all well-conducted hospitals it is now
+  arranged that the nurses on night duty have a hot meal served in the
+  general dining-room during the night, and this is only possible where
+  a nurse and a probationer are allowed for each ward. The nurses'
+  quarters should be separate from the hospital proper, and connected by
+  a conservatory or covered way. Each nurse should have a separate
+  bedroom, measuring not less than 12 ft. long, 9 ft. broad and 10 ft.
+  high. A bath should be allowed for every eight rooms, and the
+  water-closets and sinks should, if possible, be in sanitary towers cut
+  off from the main block of buildings.
+
+  Circumstances must to a large extent determine the arrangement, but it
+  seems desirable on the whole that the work of a nurse should be
+  confined to a single ward at a time if possible. The duties of nurses
+  ought also to be distinctly confined to attendance on the sick, and no
+  menial work, such as scrubbing floors and the like, should be demanded
+  of them; a proper staff of servants ought to be employed for such
+  purposes. It is also desirable that a separate pavilion for lodging
+  the nurses should be set apart, and that fair and reasonable time for
+  rest and recreation should be allowed. Some discussion has taken place
+  as to the advisability of placing the nursing of a hospital in the
+  hands of a sisterhood or a separate corporation. It will, however, be
+  admitted that the best plan is for the nursing staff of each hospital
+  to be special and under one head within the establishment itself, even
+  though it may be connected with some main institution outside. The
+  nursing must, of course, be carried on in accordance with the
+  directions and treatment of the physicians and surgeons.
+
+  _General._--The kitchen, laundry, dispensary and other offices must be
+  in a separate pavilion or pavilions, away from the wards, but within
+  convenient access. A separate pavilion for isolation of infectious
+  cases is desirable. This may be a wooden hut, or in some cases even a
+  tent; either is probably preferable to a permanent block of buildings.
+  A disinfecting chamber ought to be provided where heat can be applied
+  to clothes and bedding, for the destruction both of vermin and of the
+  germs of disease. It is advisable to expose all bedding and clothing
+  to its influence after each occasion of wear. Although this may entail
+  additional expense from the deterioration of fabric, it is worth the
+  outlay to secure immunity from disease. This plan is rigidly followed
+  at the Royal South Hants Infirmary at Southampton. It is of great
+  importance that the wards should be periodically emptied and kept
+  unoccupied for not less than one month in each year, and longer if
+  possible. During such period thorough cleansing and flushing with air
+  could be carried out, so as to prevent any continuous deposit of
+  organic matter.
+
+  _Gate House or Admission Block._--If the efficiency of a hospital and
+  the regular and smooth working of its departments are to be secured,
+  the proper management and control of the admission department is of
+  the greatest importance. When one considers for a moment the number of
+  applicants of all ages in various stages of disease, and the number of
+  accident cases of every degree of severity who present themselves
+  every day seeking admission, it will be evident that the most careful
+  supervision must be exercised on the very threshold. It is essential
+  that every precaution be taken against the admission of an unsuitable
+  case, or the refusal, without careful examination, of any patient
+  seeking admission. It is only necessary to instance the case of a
+  patient with delirium tremens being admitted to a general ward at a
+  late hour, or a case of infectious disease admitted through an
+  overlook, or a case refused admission and expiring on the way home, in
+  order to illustrate the danger and trouble which might arise should
+  the supervision exercised over this department not be systematic,
+  stringent and thorough.
+
+  To secure this proper control it is necessary that the admission
+  department should be designed on a definite plan suitable for the
+  purposes in view. It is not sufficient to utilize any available rooms,
+  say, in the basement of the building, where patients may be casually
+  interviewed by a house surgeon or physician. This department should be
+  as carefully designed and equipped as any other department of the
+  hospital.
+
+  Within recent years much more attention has been devoted to the
+  details of construction than was formerly considered necessary, but
+  even in the best type of hospital there is still much to be desired in
+  this respect. It is essential for an architect in designing any
+  building to have before him an accurate idea of all the requirements,
+  and the use to which each foot of space is to be put; for unless he is
+  furnished with this information it is not possible for him to design
+  his building so as to give effect to all the details which are so
+  necessary. The following is an endeavour in a general way to enumerate
+  the various points which an architect should have before him in
+  designing the admission department of a general hospital:--
+
+  The admission department should be conveniently placed on the ground
+  floor of the hospital--or it may be a detached building--with a large
+  court where ambulance wagons or other vehicles may easily pass each
+  other on approaching or retiring from the institution. The entrance to
+  the admission department for patients should, if possible, be entirely
+  separate and distinct from that for the staff and students. An
+  additional entrance should be provided for patients' friends on
+  visiting days, in order that they may be able to enter the hospital
+  without passing through the patients' entrance, or coming into contact
+  with an accident case or other patient seeking admission. The main
+  entrance door should be protected by a covered porch so that patients
+  may be removed from the ambulance or cab to the examination room
+  without being exposed to the weather or the gaze of inquisitive
+  onlookers. This door should be sufficiently wide to allow two hand
+  ambulances or barrows to pass should they require to be brought out to
+  the ambulance or cab, and to facilitate this the floor of the entrance
+  hall should be as nearly as possible on a level with that of the
+  outside porch. Adjoining the entrance vestibule, lavatory
+  accommodation should be provided for males and females who may
+  accompany the patient. Lavatory accommodation should also be provided
+  for porters on duty, and all lavatories should have a cut-off
+  ventilating passage.
+
+  A recess to store ambulance barrows should adjoin the entrance, and
+  this recess must be in proportion to the size of the hospital, in
+  order that a hand ambulance may always be available when an accident
+  or urgent case arrives. The vestibule should lead into a large
+  waiting-hall with an inquiry office at its entrance, provided with a
+  telephone exchange, private exchange box, also letter and parcel
+  racks. If possible a window of the inquiry office should command a
+  view of the main entrance. A room should be provided for the medical
+  officer on duty, so that a medical officer may be always at hand and
+  that no delay will occur in attending to a patient on arrival.
+
+  Leading off from this waiting-hall, well-lit examination rooms should
+  be available for the thorough examination of patients, both male and
+  female, the number of rooms, of course, varying with the size of the
+  hospital and the amount of work to be done. Each of these rooms should
+  be fitted with a wash-hand basin and sink, and a plentiful supply of
+  hot and cold water.
+
+  Two rooms, with recovery rooms adjoining, should be fitted up as small
+  operating-rooms for the treatment of minor casualties. A special room
+  should also be furnished with an X-ray outfit, and arrangements should
+  be made whereby this room can be readily darkened so that suspected
+  fractures, &c. may be examined with the fluorescent screen.
+
+  Adjoining the admission department two small wards should be provided
+  for the accommodation of drunk or noisy cases unfit to be placed in
+  the general wards. To these "emergency wards" must be attached the
+  usual bathroom and lavatory accommodation, nurses' room, ward kitchen
+  and urine-test room or small lavatory. These wards should have double
+  windows in order to prevent noise being heard outside if the wards are
+  near other buildings.
+
+  The interior walls of the admission department should, as far as
+  possible, have a smooth and impervious surface, in order that they may
+  be easily cleaned. All angles should be avoided and all corners
+  rounded. Although glazed tiles are open to the criticism that they
+  have numerous joints, they probably make the most suitable wall yet
+  devised, as they can be easily washed down at very small cost. The
+  corridors and waiting-hall should be tiled to a height of 6 ft. 6 in.,
+  and the upper walls covered with Parian or Kean's cement, and be
+  treated with three coats of flat paint and two coats of enamel, or,
+  what is equally suitable and less costly, enamellette. The floors of
+  the passages and corridors throughout the department should be covered
+  with terrazzo, which is a mixture of Portland cement and marble chips.
+  A margin of 1 ft. round the rooms should be treated in this way, and
+  the terrazzo carried up this same distance on the wall to join the
+  tiles. The remainder of the floors should be covered with hard wood,
+  such as American maple or teak. As these floors require to be
+  frequently washed, oak is not so suitable. Oak very soon becomes
+  destroyed with water; the same trouble is experienced with pitch pine.
+  The doors should also be made of a hard wood, preferably teak, and
+  have no mouldings or grooves where dust can lodge. They should be wide
+  enough to admit an ambulance barrow or bed with ease. In no case
+  should the doors of an examination room be less than 3 ft. 6 in. in
+  width.
+
+  As an aid to a complete understanding of the varied work which has to
+  be provided for, and the most effective method of carrying it out, the
+  accompanying plans are given of an admission block designed to embody
+  the main principles which govern the construction of such a
+  department.
+
+  [Illustration: Plans of Ground Floor and Basement of a Hospital.]
+
+  All accidents and patients seeking admission to this hospital enter
+  through the central gateway, and on the left is shown the porters'
+  room, where a porter is always in readiness to attend to any
+  applicant. This room has suitable accommodation for parcels, letters,
+  telephones, &c., and adjoining it is a small lavatory for the use of
+  porters. At the side of the porters' room is the entrance to the
+  central waiting-hall, which is lit from the roof. On one side of this
+  hall are examination and dressing-rooms for males, with lavatory
+  accommodation; and on the other side similar provision for females,
+  with the addition of a nurses' duty room. At the end of the central
+  hall are two operating theatres, with recovery room adjoining each;
+  one theatre for males, and the other for females. Between these
+  theatres are rooms for sterilizers and dressings. An X-ray examination
+  room is provided beyond the male examination room on the right of the
+  hall. In the basement, under the entrance-hall and operating theatres
+  are two bathrooms for males and two for females, with W.C.'s for each.
+  The remainder of the basement is used as a store for patients'
+  clothes, and a hot-air chamber is provided for purposes of
+  disinfection. The basement can be reached by a lift or by a wide
+  staircase which is situated at the end of the waiting-hall.
+
+  In the above plan provision is made for a sitting-room for the medical
+  officer on duty. This is a new and essential feature in the admission
+  block unit of all hospitals in large cities, for it should secure that
+  no patient is kept waiting for many minutes before being seen. One of
+  the blots on the management of many hospitals is that regrettable
+  delays often take place, and much dissatisfaction and avoidable
+  suffering may arise from this difficulty in the administration of a
+  general hospital. We have given this plan of a model gatehouse or
+  admission block for a modern general hospital, because the block as it
+  stands contains all the elements necessary for a receiving-house block
+  in cities in connexion with a great Hospital city situated outside its
+  area, in fulfilment of the suggestion for a Hospital city made above.
+  Apart from its interest as a new feature which all new hospitals
+  should adopt, the gatehouse or admission block has an importance in
+  the wider sense, that it may come to form the key to the solution of
+  the problem of how best to provide hospital accommodation for the poor
+  in great cities under the best hygienic conditions, while protecting
+  them from the misery and danger of prolonged delay in first treatment,
+  especially in connexion with accidents and other cases of urgency.
+
+  BIBLIOGRAPHY.--Sir H. Burdett, _Cottage Hospitals, General, Fever and
+  Convalescent, their Construction, Management and Work_ (London, 1877,
+  1880 and 1896); Tollet, _Les Edifices hospitaliers depuis leur_
+  _origine jusqu'a nos jours_ (Paris, 1892); Sir H. Burdett, _Hospitals
+  and Asylums of the World_, with large portfolio of plans to a uniform
+  scale (London, 1893) (a supplement is published every year bringing
+  the information up to date, entitled _Burdett's Hospitals and
+  Charities_); J. S. Billings, _The Principles of Ventilation, Heating
+  and their Practical Application_ (New York, 1893); Galton, _Healthy
+  Hospitals_ (London, 1893); Tollet, _Les Hopitaux au XIX^e siecle_
+  (Paris, 1894); Billings and Hurd, _Suggestions to Hospital and Asylum
+  Visitors_ (Philadelphia, 1895); Oswald Kuhn, "Hospitals," _Handbuch
+  der Architektur_, 4th part, 5th half-volume, part i. (Stuttgart,
+  1897); _Plans for the Johns Hopkins Hospital_ (Baltimore, 1875);
+  _Report of State Board of Health for Massachusetts for 1879_.
+       (H. Bt.)
+
+
+
+
+HOSPITIUM (Gr. [Greek: xenia, proxenia]), "hospitality," among the
+Greeks and Romans, was of a twofold character: (1) private; (2) public.
+
+(1) In Homeric times all strangers without exception were regarded as
+being under the protection of Zeus Xenios, the god of strangers and
+suppliants. It is doubtful whether, as is commonly assumed, they were
+considered as _ipso facto_ enemies; they were rather guests. Immediately
+on his arrival, the stranger was clothed and entertained, and no inquiry
+was made as to his name or antecedents until the duties of hospitality
+had been fulfilled. When the guest parted from his host he was often
+presented with gifts ([Greek: xenia]), and sometimes a die ([Greek:
+astragalos]) was broken between them. Each then took a part, a family
+connexion was established, and the broken die served as a symbol of
+recognition; thus the members of each family found in the other hosts
+and protectors in case of need. Violation of the duties of hospitality
+was likely to provoke the wrath of the gods; but it does not appear that
+anything beyond this religious sanction existed to guard the rights of a
+traveller. Similar customs seem to have existed among the Italian races.
+Amongst the Romans, private hospitality, which had existed from the
+earliest times, was more accurately and legally defined than amongst the
+Greeks, the tie between host and guest being almost as strong as that
+between patron and client. It was of the nature of a contract, entered
+into by mutual promise, the clasping of hands, and exchange of an
+agreement in writing (_tabula hospitalis_) or of a token (_tessera_ or
+_symbolum_), and was rendered hereditary by the division of the tessera.
+The advantages thus obtained by the guest were, the right of hospitality
+when travelling and, above all, the protection of his host (representing
+him as his patron) in a court of law. The contract was sacred and
+inviolable, undertaken in the name of Jupiter Hospitalis, and could only
+be dissolved by a formal act.
+
+(2) This private connexion developed into a custom according to which a
+state appointed one of the citizens of a foreign state as its
+representative ([Greek: proxenos]) to protect any of its citizens
+travelling or resident in his country. Sometimes an individual came
+forward voluntarily to perform these duties on behalf of another state
+([Greek: etheloproxenos]). The proxenus is generally compared to the
+modern consul or minister resident. His duties were to afford
+hospitality to strangers from the state whose proxenus he was, to
+introduce its ambassadors, to procure them admission to the assembly and
+seats in the theatre, and in general to look after the commercial and
+political interests of the state by which he had been appointed to his
+office. Many cases occur where such an office was hereditary; thus the
+family of Callias at Athens were proxeni of the Spartans. We find the
+office mentioned in a Corcyraean inscription dating probably from the
+7th century B.C., and it continued to grow more important and frequent
+throughout Greek history. There is no proof that any direct emolument
+was ever attached to the office, while the expense and trouble entailed
+by it must often have been very great. Probably the honours which it
+brought with it were sufficient recompense. These consisted partly in
+the general respect and esteem paid to a proxenus, and partly in many
+more substantial honours conferred by special decree of the state whose
+representative he was, such as freedom from taxation and public burdens,
+the right of acquiring property in Attica, admission to the senate and
+popular assemblies, and perhaps even full citizenship. Public hospitium
+seems also to have existed among the Italian races; but the
+circumstances of their history prevented it from becoming so important
+as in Greece. Cases, however, occur of the establishment of public
+hospitality between two cities (Rome and Caere, Livy v. 50), and of
+towns entering into a position of clientship to some distinguished
+Roman, who then became patronus of such a town. Foreigners were
+frequently granted the right of public hospitality by the senate down to
+the end of the republic. The public hospes had a right to entertainment
+at the public expense, admission to sacrifices and games, the right of
+buying and selling on his own account, and of bringing an action at law
+without the intervention of a Roman patron.
+
+  A full bibliography of the subject will be found in the article in
+  Daremberg and Saglio, _Dictionnaire des antiquites_, to which may be
+  added R. von Jhering, _Die Gastfreundschaft im Altertum_ (1887); see
+  also Smith's _Dictionary of Greek and Roman Antiquities_ (3rd ed.,
+  1890).
+
+
+
+
+HOSPODAR, a term of Slavonic origin, meaning "lord" (Russ. _gospodar_).
+It is a derivative of _gospod_, "lord," and is akin to _gosudar_, which
+primarily means "sovereign," and is now also used in Russia as a polite
+form of address, equivalent to "sir." The pronunciation as _hospodar_ of
+a word written _gospodar_ in all but one of the Slavonic languages which
+retain the Cyrillic alphabet is not, as is sometimes alleged, due to the
+influence of Little Russian, but to that of Church Slavonic. In both of
+these g is frequently pronounced h. In Little Russian the title
+_hospodar_ is specially applied to the master of a house or the head of
+a family. The rulers of Walachia and Moldavia were styled _hospodars_
+from the 15th century to 1866. At the end of this period, as the title
+had been held by many vassals of Turkey, its retention was considered
+inconsistent with the growth of Rumanian independence. It was therefore
+discarded in favour of _domn_ (_dominus_, "lord"), which continued to be
+the official princely title up to the proclamation of a Rumanian kingdom
+in 1881.
+
+
+
+
+HOST. (1) (Through the O. Fr. _oste_ or _hoste_, modern _hote_, from
+Lat. _hospes_, a guest or host; _hospes_ being probably from an original
+_hostipes_, one who feeds a stranger or enemy, from _hostis_ and the
+root of _pascere_), one who receives another into his house and provides
+him with lodging and entertainment, especially one who does this in
+return for payment. The word is thus transferred, in biology, to an
+animal or plant upon which a parasite lives. (2) (From Lat. _hostis_, a
+stranger or enemy; in Med. Latin a military expedition), a very large
+gathering of men, armed for war, an army, and so used generally of any
+multitude. In biblical use the word is applied to the company of angels
+in heaven; or to the sun, moon and stars, the "hosts of heaven," and
+also to translate "Jehovah Sabaoth," the Lord God of hosts, the lord of
+the armies of Israel or of the hosts of heaven. (3) (From Lat. _hostia_,
+a victim or sacrifice), the sacrifice of Christ's body and blood in the
+Eucharist, more particularly the consecrated wafer used in the service
+of the mass in the Roman Church (see EUCHARIST).
+
+
+
+
+HOSTAGE (through Fr. _ostage_, modern _otage_, from Late Lat.
+_obsidaticum_, the state of being an obses or hostage; Med. Lat.
+_ostaticum_, _ostagium_), a person handed over by one of two belligerent
+parties to the other or seized as security for the carrying out of an
+agreement, or as a preventive measure against certain acts of war. The
+practice of taking hostages is very ancient, and has been used
+constantly in negotiations with conquered nations, and in cases such as
+surrenders, armistices and the like, where the two belligerents depended
+for its proper carrying out on each other's good faith. The Romans were
+accustomed to take the sons of tributary princes and educate them at
+Rome, thus holding a security for the continued loyalty of the conquered
+nation and also instilling a possible future ruler with ideas of Roman
+civilization. This practice was also adopted in the early period of the
+British occupation of India, and by France in her relations with the
+Arab tribes in North Africa.[1] The position of a hostage was that of a
+prisoner of war, to be retained till the negotiations or treaty
+obligations were carried out, and liable to punishment (in ancient
+times), and even to death, in case of treachery or refusal to fulfil the
+promises made. The practice of taking hostages as security for the
+carrying out of a treaty between civilized states is now obsolete. The
+last occasion was at the treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle in 1748, when two
+British peers, Henry Bowes Howard, 11th earl of Suffolk, and Charles,
+9th Baron Cathcart, were sent to France as hostages for the restitution
+of Cape Breton to France.
+
+In modern times the practice may be said to be confined to two
+occasions: (1) to secure the payment of enforced contributions or
+requisitions in an occupied territory and the obedience to regulations
+the occupying army may think fit to issue; (2) as a precautionary
+measure, to prevent illegitimate acts of war or violence by persons not
+members of the recognized military forces of the enemy. During the
+Franco-Prussian War of 1870, the Germans took as hostages the prominent
+people or officials from towns or districts when making requisitions and
+also when foraging, and it was a general practice for the mayor and
+_adjoint_ of a town which failed to pay a fine imposed upon it to be
+seized as "hostages" and retained till the money was paid. The last case
+where "hostages" have been taken in modern warfare has been the subject
+of much discussion. In 1870 the Germans found it necessary to take
+special measures to put a stop to train-wrecking by parties in occupied
+territory not belonging to the recognized armed forces of the enemy, an
+illegitimate act of war. Prominent citizens were placed on the engine of
+the train "so that it might be understood that in every accident caused
+by the hostility of the inhabitants their compatriots will be the first
+to suffer." The measure seems to have been effective. In 1900 during the
+Boer War, by a proclamation issued at Pretoria (June 19th), Lord Roberts
+adopted the plan for a similar reason, but shortly afterwards (July 29)
+it was abandoned (see _The Times' History of the War in S. Africa_, iv.
+402). The Germans also, between the surrender of a town and its final
+occupation, took "hostages" as security against outbreaks of violence by
+the inhabitants. Most writers on international law have regarded this
+method of preventing such acts of hostility as unjustifiable, on the
+ground that the persons taken as hostages are not the persons
+responsible for the act;[2] that, as by the usage of war hostages are to
+be treated strictly as prisoners of war, such an exposure to danger is
+transgressing the rights of a belligerent; and as useless, for the mere
+temporary removal of important citizens till the end of a war cannot be
+a deterrent unless their mere removal deprives the combatants of persons
+necessary to the continuance of the acts aimed at (see W. E. Hall,
+_International Law_, 1904, pp. 418, 475). On the other hand it has been
+urged (L. Oppenheim, _International Law_, 1905, vol. ii., "War and
+Neutrality," pp. 271-273) that the acts, the prevention of which is
+aimed at, are not legitimate acts on the part of the armed forces of the
+enemy, but illegitimate acts by private persons, who, if caught, could
+be quite lawfully punished, and that a precautionary and preventive
+measure is more reasonable than "reprisals." It may be noticed, however,
+that the hostages would suffer should the acts aimed at be performed by
+the authorized belligerent forces of the enemy.
+
+In France, after the revolution of Prairial (June 18, 1799), the
+so-called "law of hostages" was passed, to meet the insurrection in La
+Vendee. Relatives of _emigres_ were taken from disturbed districts and
+imprisoned, and were liable to execution at any attempt to escape.
+Sequestration of their property and deportation from France followed on
+the murder of a republican, four to every such murder, with heavy fines
+on the whole body of hostages. The law only resulted in an increase in
+the insurrection. Napoleon in 1796 had used similar measures to deal
+with the insurrection in Lombardy (_Correspondance de Napoleon I._ i.
+323, 327, quoted in Hall, _International Law_).
+
+In May 1871, at the close of the Paris Commune, took place the massacre
+of the so-called hostages. Strictly they were not "hostages," for they
+had not been handed over or seized as security for the performance of
+any undertaking or as a preventive measure, but merely in retaliation
+for the death of their leaders E. V. Duval and Gustave Flourens. It was
+an act of maniacal despair, on the defeat at Mont Valerien on the 4th of
+April and the entry of the army into Paris on the 21st of May. Among the
+many victims who were shot in batches the most noticeable were Monsignor
+Darboy, archbishop of Paris, the Abbe Deguery, cure of the Madeleine,
+and the president of the Court of Cassation, Louis Bernard Bonjean.
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+  [1] The sultan of Bagiemi, in Central Africa, in 1906 sent his nephew
+    to undergo military training with a squadron of Spahis, and at the
+    same time to serve as a guarantee of his fidelity to the French
+    (_Bulletin du Comite de l'Afrique francaise_, Oct. 1906).
+
+  [2] Article 50 of the Hague War Regulations lays it down that "no
+    general penalty, pecuniary or otherwise, can be inflicted on the
+    population on account of the acts of individuals for which it cannot
+    be regarded as collectively responsible." The regulations, however,
+    do not allude to the practice of taking hostage.
+
+
+
+
+HOSTE, SIR WILLIAM (1780-1828), British naval captain, was the son of
+Dixon Hoste, rector of Godwick and Tittleshill in Norfolk. He was born
+on the 26th of August 1780 at Ingoldsthorpe, and entered the navy in
+April 1793, under the special care of Nelson, who had a lively affection
+for him. He became lieutenant in 1798, and was appointed commander of
+the "Mutine" brig after the battle of the Nile, at which he was present
+as lieutenant of the "Theseus." In 1802 he was promoted post captain by
+Lord St Vincent. During all his active career, he was employed in the
+Mediterranean and the Adriatic. From 1808 to 1814 he held the command of
+a detached force of frigates, and was engaged in operations against the
+French who held Dalmatia at the time, and in watching, or, when they
+came out, fighting, the ships of the squadron formed at Venice by
+Napoleon's orders. The work was admirably done, and was also lucrative;
+and Hoste, although he occasionally complained that his exertions did
+not put much money in his pocket, made a fortune of at least L60,000 by
+the capture of Italian and Dalmatian merchant ships. He also made many
+successful attacks on the French military posts on shore. His most
+brilliant feat was performed on the 13th of March 1811. A
+Franco-Venetian squadron of six frigates and five small vessels, under
+the command of a French officer named Dubourdieu, assailed Hoste's small
+force of four frigates near the island of Lissa. The French officer
+imitated Nelson's attack at Trafalgar by sailing down on the English
+line from windward with his ships in two lines. But the rapid
+manoeuvring and gunnery of Hoste's squadron proved how little virtue
+there is in any formation in itself. Dubourdieu was killed, one of the
+French frigates was driven on shore, and two of the Venetians were
+taken. After the action, which attracted a great deal of attention,
+Hoste returned to England, but in 1812 he was back on his station, where
+he remained till the end of the war. During the peace he did not again
+go to sea, and he died on the 6th of December 1828. He married Lady
+Harriet Walpole in April 1817, and left three sons and three daughters.
+
+  In 1833 his widow published his _Memoirs and Letters_. See also
+  Marshall, _Roy. Nav. Biog._ vol. iii., and James, _Naval History_.
+
+
+
+
+HOSTEL, the old name for an inn (see HOSPITAL, ad init.); also employed
+at Oxford and Cambridge to designate the lodgings which were in ancient
+times occupied by students of the university and to a certain extent
+regulated by the authorities. In some English public schools what is
+known as the "hostel" system provides for an organization of the lodging
+accommodation under separate masterships.
+
+
+
+
+HOSTIUS, Roman epic poet, probably flourished in the 2nd century B.C. He
+was the author of a _Bellum Histricum_ in at least seven books, of which
+only a few fragments remain. The poem is probably intended to celebrate
+the victory gained in 129 by Gaius Sempronius Tuditanus (consul and
+himself an annalist) over the Illyrian Iapydes (Appian, _Illyrica_, 10;
+Livy, _epit._ 59). Hostius is supposed by some to be the "doctus avus"
+alluded to in Propertius (iv. 20. 8), the real name of Propertius's
+Cynthia, according to Apuleius (_Apologia_ x.) and the scholiast on
+Juvenal (vi. 7), being Hostia (perhaps Roscia).
+
+  Fragments in E. Bahrens, _Fragmenta poetarum Romanorum_ (1884); A.
+  Weichert, _Poetarum Latinorum reliquiae_ (1830).
+
+
+
+
+HOSUR, a town of British India, in the Salem district of Madras, 24 m.
+E. of Bangalore. Pop. (1901) 6695. It contains an old fort, frequently
+mentioned in the history of the Mysore wars, and a fine castellated
+mansion built by a former collector. Close by is the remount depot,
+established in 1828, where Australian horses are acclimatized and
+trained for artillery and cavalry use in southern India.
+
+
+
+
+HOTCH-POT, or HOTCH-POTCH (from Fr. _hocher_, to shake; used as early as
+1292 as a law term, and from the 15th century in cookery for a sort of
+broth with many ingredients, and so used figuratively for any
+heterogeneous mixture), in English law, the name given to a rule of
+equity whereby a person, interested along with others in a common fund,
+and having already received something in the same interest, is required
+to surrender what has been so acquired into the common fund, on pain of
+being excluded from the distribution. "It seemeth," says Littleton,
+"that this word _hotch-pot_ is in English a pudding; for in a pudding is
+not commonly put one thing alone, but one thing with other things
+together." The following is an old example given in Coke on Littleton:
+"If a man seized of 30 acres of land in fee hath issue only two
+daughters, and he gives with one of them 10 acres in marriage to the man
+that marries her, and dies seized of the other 20; now she that is thus
+married, to gain her share of the rest of the land, must put her part
+given in marriage into hotch-pot; i.e. she must refuse to take the
+profits thereof, and cause her land to be so mingled with the other that
+an equal division of the whole may be made between her and her sister,
+as if none had been given to her; and thus for her 10 acres she shall
+have 15, or otherwise the sister will have the 20." In the common law
+this seems to have been the only instance in which the rule was applied,
+and the reason assigned for it is that, inasmuch as daughters succeeding
+to lands take together as coparceners and not by primogeniture, the
+policy of the law is that the land in such cases should be equally
+divided. The law of hotch-pot applies only to lands descending in
+fee-simple. The same principle is noticed by Blackstone as applying in
+the customs of York and London to personal property. It is also
+expressly enacted in the Statute of Distributions (S 5) that no child of
+the intestate, except his heir-at-law, who shall have any estate in land
+by the settlement of the intestate, or who shall be advanced by the
+intestate in his lifetime by pecuniary portion equal to the distributive
+shares of the other children, shall participate with them in the
+surplus; but if the estate so given to such child by way of advancement
+be not equivalent to their shares, then such part of the surplus as will
+make it equal shall be allotted to him. It has been decided that this
+provision applies only to advancements by _fathers_, on the ground that
+the rule was founded on the custom of London, which never affected a
+widow's personal estate. The heir-at-law is not required to bring any
+land which he has by descent or otherwise from the deceased into
+hotch-pot, but advancements made to him out of the personal property
+must be brought in. The same principle is to be found in the _collatio
+bonorum_ of the Roman law: emancipated children, in order to share the
+inheritance of their father with the children unemancipated, were
+required to bring their property into the common fund. It is also found
+in the law of Scotland.
+
+
+
+
+HOTEL-DE-VILLE, the town hall of every French municipality. The most
+ancient example still in perfect preservation is that at St-Antonin
+(Tarn-et-Garonne) dating from the middle of the 12th century. Other fine
+town halls are those of Compiegne, Orleans, Saumur, Beaugency and St
+Quentin. The Hotel de Ville in Paris built in the 16th century was burnt
+by the Commune in 1871 and has since been rebuilt on an extended site,
+the central portion of the main front being a reproduction of the old
+design. There is only one town hall in a French town, those erected for
+the mayors of the different arrondissements in Paris being called
+_mairies_.
+
+
+
+
+HOTEL-DIEU, the name given to the principal hospital in any French town.
+The Hotel-Dieu in Paris was founded in the year A.D. 660, has been
+extended at various times, and was entirely rebuilt between 1868-1878.
+One of the most ancient in France is at Angers, dating from 1153. The
+Hotel-Dieu of Beaune (Cote-d'Or), founded 1443, is one of the most
+interesting, as it retains the picturesque disposition of its courtyard,
+with covered galleries on two storeys and large dormer windows; and the
+great hall of the Hotel-Dieu at Tonnerre, Yonne (1338), nearly 60 ft.
+wide and over 300 ft. long, is still preserved as part of the chief
+hospital of the town.
+
+
+
+
+HOTHAM, SIR JOHN (d. 1645), English parliamentarian, belonged to a
+Yorkshire family, and fought on the continent of Europe during the early
+part of the Thirty Years' War. In 1622 he was made a baronet, and he was
+member of parliament for Beverley in the five parliaments between 1625
+and 1640, being sheriff of Yorkshire in 1635. In 1639 he was deprived by
+the king of his office of governor of Hull, and joining the
+parliamentary party refused to pay ship-money. In January 1642 Hotham
+was ordered by the parliament to seize Hull, where there was a large
+store of munitions of war; this was at once carried out by his son John.
+Hotham took command of Hull and in April 1642 refused to admit Charles
+I. to the town. Later he promised his prisoner, Lord Digby, that he
+would surrender it to the king, but when Charles appeared again he
+refused a second time and drove away the besiegers. Meanwhile the
+younger Hotham was taking an active part in the Civil War in Yorkshire
+and Lincolnshire, but was soon at variance with other parliamentary
+leaders, especially with the Fairfaxes, and complaints about his conduct
+and that of his troops were made by Cromwell and by Colonel Hutchinson.
+Soon both the Hothams were corresponding with the earl of Newcastle, and
+the younger one was probably ready to betray Hull; these proceedings
+became known to the parliament, and in June 1643 father and son were
+captured and taken to London. After a long delay they were tried by
+court-martial, were found guilty and were sentenced to death. The
+younger Hotham was beheaded on the 2nd of January 1645, and in spite of
+efforts made by the House of Lords and the Presbyterians to save him,
+the elder suffered the same fate on the following day. Sir John Hotham
+had two other sons who were persons of some note: Charles Hotham
+(1615-c. 1672), rector of Wigan, a Cambridge scholar and author of _Ad
+philosophiam Teutonicam Manuductio_ (1648); and Durant Hotham
+(1617-1691), who wrote a _Life of Jacob Boehme_ (1654).
+
+
+
+
+HOTHAM, WILLIAM HOTHAM, 1st Baron (1736-1813), British Admiral, son of
+Sir Beaumont Hotham (d. 1771), a lineal descendant of the above Sir John
+Hotham, was educated at Westminster School and at the Royal Naval
+Academy, Portsmouth. He entered the navy in 1751, and spent most of his
+midshipman's time in American waters. In 1755 he became lieutenant in
+Sir Edward Hawke's flagship the "St George," and he soon received a
+small command, which led gradually to higher posts. In the "Syren" (20)
+he fought a sharp action with the French "Telemaque" of superior force,
+and in the "Fortune" sloop he carried, by boarding, a 26-gun privateer.
+For this service he was rewarded with a more powerful ship, and from
+1757 onwards commanded various frigates. In 1759 his ship the "Melampe,"
+with H.M.S. "Southampton," fought a spirited action with two hostile
+frigates of similar force, one of which became their prize. The
+"Melampe" was attached to Keppel's squadron in 1761, but was in the main
+employed in detached duty and made many captures. In 1776, as a
+commodore, Hotham served in North American waters, and he had a great
+share in the brilliant action in the Cul de Sac of St Lucia (Dec. 15th,
+1778). Here he continued till the spring of 1781, when he was sent home
+in charge of a large convoy of merchantmen. Off Scilly Hotham fell in
+with a powerful French squadron, against which he could effect nothing,
+and many of the merchantmen went to France as prizes. In 1782 Commodore
+Hotham was with Howe at the relief of Gibraltar, and at the time of the
+Spanish armament of 1790 he flew his flag as rear-admiral of the red.
+Some time later he was made vice-admiral. As Hood's second-in-command in
+the Mediterranean he was engaged against the French Revolutionary navy,
+and when his chief retired to England the command devolved upon him. On
+March 12th, 1794 he fought an indecisive fleet action, in which the
+brunt of the fighting was borne by Captain Horatio Nelson, and some
+months later, now a full admiral, he again engaged, this time under
+conditions which might have permitted a decisive victory; of this
+affair Nelson wrote home that it was a "miserable action." A little
+later he returned to England, and in 1797 he was made a peer of Ireland
+under the title of Baron Hotham of South Dalton, near Hull. He died in
+1813. Hotham lacked the fiery energy and genius of a Nelson or a Jervis,
+but in subordinate positions he was a brave and capable officer.
+
+As Hotham died unmarried his barony passed to his brother, Sir Beaumont
+Hotham (1737-1814), who became 2nd Baron Hotham in May 1813. Beaumont,
+who was a baron of the exchequer for thirty years, died on the 4th of
+March 1814, and was succeeded as 3rd baron by his grandson Beaumont
+Hotham (1794-1870), who was present at the battle of Waterloo, being
+afterwards a member of parliament for forty-eight years. He died
+unmarried in December 1870 and was succeeded by his nephew, Charles
+(1836-1872), and then by another nephew, John (1838-1907). In 1907 his
+cousin Frederick William (b. 1863) became the 6th baron.
+
+Other distinguished members of this family were the 2nd baron's son, Sir
+Henry Hotham (1777-1833), a vice-admiral, who saw a great deal of
+service during the Napoleonic wars; and Sir William Hotham (1772-1848),
+a nephew of the 1st baron, who served with Duncan in 1797 off Camperdown
+and elsewhere.
+
+  See Charnock, _Biographia navalis_, vi. 236.
+
+
+
+
+HOTHO, HEINRICH GUSTAV (1802-1873), German historian of art, was born at
+Berlin in 1802, and died in his native city on Christmas day 1873.
+During boyhood he was affected for two years with blindness consequent
+on an attack of measles. But recovering his sight he studied so hard as
+to take his degree at Berlin in 1826. A year of travel spent in visiting
+Paris, London and the Low Countries determined his vocation. He came
+home delighted with the treasures which he had seen, worked laboriously
+for a higher examination and passed as "docent" in aesthetics and art
+history. In 1829 he was made professor at the university of Berlin. In
+1833 G. F. Waagen accepted him as assistant in the museum of the
+Prussian capital; and in 1858 he was promoted to the directorship of the
+print-room. During a long and busy life, in which his time was divided
+between literature and official duties, Hotho's ambition had always been
+to master the history of the schools of Germany and the Netherlands.
+Accordingly what he published was generally confined to those countries.
+In 1842-1843 he gave to the world his account of German and Flemish
+painting. From 1853 to 1858 he revised and published anew a part of this
+work, which he called "The school of Hubert van Eyck, with his German
+precursors and contemporaries." His attempt later on to write a history
+of Christian painting overtasked his strength, and remained unfinished.
+Hotho is important in the history of aesthetics as having developed
+Hegel's theories; but he was deficient in knowledge of Italian painting.
+
+
+
+
+HOTI-MARDAN, or MARDAN, a frontier cantonment of British India in the
+Peshawar district of the North-West Frontier Province, situated 15 m. N.
+of Nowshera. Pop. (1901) 3572. It is notable as the permanent
+headquarters of the famous corps of Guides, and also contains a cavalry
+brigade belonging to the 1st division of the northern army.
+
+
+
+
+HOTMAN, FRANCOIS (1524-1590), French publicist, eldest son of Pierre
+Hotman, was born on the 23rd of August 1524, at Paris, his family being
+of Silesian origin. His name is latinized by himself Hotomanus, by
+others Hotomannus and Hottomannus. His father, a zealous Catholic, and a
+counsellor of the parlement of Paris, destined him for the law, and sent
+him at the age of fifteen to the university of Orleans. He obtained his
+doctorate in three years, and became a pleader at Paris. The arts of the
+barrister were not to his taste; he turned to the study of jurisprudence
+and literature, and in 1546 was appointed lecturer in Roman Law at the
+university of Paris. The fortitude of Anne Dubourg under torture gained
+his adhesion to the cause of Reform. Giving up a career on which he had
+entered with high repute, he went in 1547 to Lyons, and thence to Geneva
+and to Lausanne, where, on the recommendation of Calvin, he was
+appointed professor of belles-lettres and history, and married Claudine
+Aubelin, a refugee from Orleans. On the invitation of the magistracy,
+he lectured at Strassburg on law in 1555, and became professor in 1556,
+superseding Francois Baudouin, who had been his colleague in Paris. His
+fame was such that overtures were made to him by the courts of Prussia
+and Hesse, and by Elizabeth of England. Twice he visited Germany, in
+1556 accompanying Calvin to the Diet at Frankfort. He was entrusted with
+confidential missions from the Huguenot leaders to German potentates,
+carrying at one time credentials from Catherine de Medici. In 1560 he
+was one of the principal instigators of the conspiracy of Amboise; in
+September of that year he was with Antoine of Navarre at Nerac. In 1562
+he attached himself to Conde. In 1564 he became professor of civil law
+at Valence, retrieving by his success the reputation of its university.
+In 1567 he succeeded Cujas in the chair of jurisprudence at Bourges.
+Five months later his house and library were wrecked by a Catholic mob;
+he fled by Orleans to Paris, where L'Hopital made him historiographer to
+the king. As agent for the Huguenots, he was sent to Blois to negotiate
+the peace of 1568. He returned to Bourges, only to be again driven away
+by the outbreak of hostilities. At Sancerre, during its siege, he
+composed his _Consolatio_ (published in 1593). The peace of 1570
+restored him to Bourges, whence a third time he fled, in consequence of
+the St Bartholomew massacre (1572). In 1573, after publishing his
+_Franco-Gallia_, he left France for ever with his family, and became
+professor of Roman law at Geneva. On the approach of the duke of Savoy
+he removed to Basel in 1579. In 1580 he was appointed councillor of
+state to Henry of Navarre. The plague sent him in 1582 to Montbeliard;
+here he lost his wife. Returning to Geneva in 1584 he developed a kind
+of scientific turn, dabbling in alchemy and the research for the
+philosopher's stone. In 1589 he made his final retirement to Basel,
+where he died on the 12th of February 1590, leaving two sons and four
+daughters; he was buried in the cathedral.
+
+Hotman was a man of pure life, real piety (as his _Consolatio_ shows)
+and warm domestic virtues. His constant removals were inspired less by
+fear for himself than by care for his family, and by a temperament
+averse to the conditions of warfare, and a constitutional desire for
+peace. He did much for 16th-century jurisprudence, having a critical
+knowledge of Roman sources, and a fine Latin style. He broached the idea
+of a national code of French law. His works were very numerous,
+beginning with his _De gradibus cognationis_ (1546), and including a
+treatise on the Eucharist (1566); a treatise (_Anti-Tribonien_, 1567) to
+show that French law could not be based on Justinian; a life of Coligny
+(1575); a polemic (_Brutum fulmen_, 1585) directed against a bull of
+Sixtus V., with many other works on law, history, politics and classical
+learning. His most important work, the _Franco-Gallia_ (1573), was in
+advance of his age, and found favour neither with Catholics nor with
+Huguenots in its day; yet its vogue has been compared to that obtained
+later by Rousseau's _Contrat Social_. It presented an ideal of
+Protestant statesmanship, pleading for a representative government and
+an elective monarchy. It served the purpose of the Jesuits in their
+pamphlet war against Henry IV.
+
+  See Bayle, Dictionnaire; R. Dareste, _Essai sur F. Hotman_ (1850); E.
+  Gregoire, in _Nouvelle Biog. generale_ (1858).     (A. Go.*)
+
+
+
+
+HOT SPRINGS, a city of Arkansas, U.S.A., the county-seat of Garland
+county, at the easterly base of the Ozark mountains, 55 m. by rail
+W.S.W. of Little Rock. Pop. (1880) 3554; (1890) 8086; (1900) 9973, of
+whom 3102 were of negro descent and 561 were foreign-born; (1910 census)
+14,434. The transient population numbers more than 100,000 annually. Hot
+Springs is served by the Chicago, Rock Island & Pacific, the Little Rock
+& Hot Springs Western, and the St Louis, Iron Mountain & Southern
+railways. The city lies partly in several mountain ravines and partly on
+a plateau. A creek, flowing through the valley but walled over, empties
+into the Ouachita river several miles from Hot Springs. The elevation of
+the surrounding hills is about 1200 ft. above the sea and 600 above the
+surrounding country. The scenery is beautiful, and there is a remarkable
+view from a steel tower observatory, 150 ft. high, on the top of Hot
+Springs mountain. The climate is delightful. The average rainfall for
+the year is about 55 in. The springs are about forty-four in number,
+rising within an area of 3 acres on the slope of Hot Springs mountain.
+They are all included within a reservation held by the United States
+government, which (since 1903) exercises complete jurisdiction. The
+daily flow from the springs used is more than 800,000 gallons. Their
+temperature varies from 95 deg. to 147 deg. F. The waters are tasteless
+and inodorous, and contain calcium and magnesium bicarbonates,
+combinations of hydrogen and silicon, and of iodides, bromides and
+lithium. The national government maintains at Hot Springs an army and
+navy hospital, and a bath-house open gratuitously to indigent bathers.
+The business of Hot Springs consists mainly in caring for its visitors.
+Fruit-raising and small gardening characterize its environs. There are
+sulphur, lithia and other springs near the city, and an ostrich farm and
+an alligator farm in the suburbs. The finest of the novaculite rocks of
+central Arkansas are quarried near the city. The total value of its
+factory product in 1905 was $597,029, an increase of 213.1% since 1900.
+
+The Springs were first used by the itinerant trappers. They were visited
+about 1800 by French hunters; and by members of the Lewis and Clark
+party in 1804 under instructions from President Thomas Jefferson. The
+permanent occupation of the town site dates only from 1828, though as
+early as 1807 a temporary settlement was made. In 1876 Hot Springs was
+incorporated as a town, and in 1879 it was chartered as a city. In 1832
+Congress created a reservation, but the right of the government as
+against private claimants was definitely settled only in 1876, by a
+decision of the United States Supreme Court. The city was almost
+destroyed by fire in 1878, and was greatly improved in the rebuilding.
+
+
+
+
+HOT SPRINGS, a hamlet and health-resort in Cedar Creek District, Bath
+county, Virginia, U.S.A., 25 m. by rail (a branch of the Chesapeake &
+Ohio railway) N. by E. of Covington and near the N.W. border of the
+state. It lies in a narrow valley, about 2200-2500 ft. above the sea,
+with rugged mountains on either side. Pop. of the district (1900) 1761;
+(1910) 2472. The mean summer temperature is only 69 deg. F., and the
+summer nights are always cool. There is a good golf-course. Mineral
+waters (with magnesia, soda-lithia and alum) issue from several springs,
+some at a temperature as high as 106 deg. F., and are used both for
+drinking and for bathing. The Warm Sulphur Springs (about 98 deg. F.)
+are 5 m. N.; Healing Springs (85 deg. F.) are 2(1/2) m. S. of Hot
+Springs; and a few miles to the S.E., in Rockbridge county, are
+Rockbridge and Jordan Alum Springs.
+
+
+
+
+HOTTENTOTS, an African people of western Cape Colony and the adjoining
+German territory, formerly widely spread throughout South Africa. The
+name is that given them by the early Dutch settlers at the Cape, being a
+Dutch word of an onomatopoeic kind to express stammering, in reference
+to the staccato pronunciation and clicks of the native language. Some
+early writers termed them Hodmadods or Hodmandods, and others Hot-nots
+and Ottentots--all corruptions of the same word. Their name for
+themselves was Khoi-Khoin (men of men), or Quae Quae, Kwekhena,
+t'Kuhkeub, the forms varying according to the several dialects. Early
+authorities believed them to be totally distinct from all other African
+races. The researches of Gustav Fritsch, Dr E. T. Hamy, F. Shrubsall and
+others have demonstrated, however, that they are not so much a distinct
+or independent variety of mankind as the result of a very old cross
+between two other varieties--the Bantu Negro (containing a distinct
+Hamitic element) and the Bushman. Hamy calls them simply "Bushman-Bantu
+half-breeds," the Bushman element being seen in the leathery colour,
+compared to that of the "sere and yellow leaf"; in the remarkably
+prominent cheekbones and pointed chin, giving the face a peculiarly
+triangular shape; and lastly, in such highly specialized characters as
+the _tablier_ and the _steatopygia_ of the women. The cranial capacity
+is also nearly the same (1331 c.c. in the Bushman, 1365 c.c. in the
+Hottentot), and on these anatomical grounds Shrubsall concludes that the
+two are essentially one race, allowing for the undeniable strain of
+Bantu blood in the Hottentot. This view is further strengthened by the
+vast range in prehistoric times of the Hottentot variety, which, since
+the time of Martin H. K. Lichtenstein (1800-1804), was known to have
+comprised the whole of Africa south of the Zambezi, and has since been
+extended as far north as the equatorial lake region.
+
+Fritsch divides the Hottentots into three bodies; the Cape Hottentots,
+from the Cape peninsula eastward to Kaffraria, the Koranna, chiefly on
+the right bank of the Orange river, but also found on the Harts and the
+Vaal, and the Namaqua in the western portion of South Africa. Of these
+all save the last mentioned have ceased to exist in any racial purity.
+The name which the Namaqua give to themselves is _Khoi-Khoin_, and this
+name must be distinguished from that of the Berg-Damara or _Hau-Khoin_,
+since the latter are physically of Bantu origin though they have
+borrowed their speech from the Hottentots. While the Namaqua preserve
+the racial type and speech, the other so-called Hottentots are more or
+less Hottentot-Dutch or Hottentot-Bantu half-breeds, mainly of debased
+Dutch speech, although the Koranna still here and there speak a moribund
+Hottentot jargon flooded with Dutch and English words and expressions.
+When the Cape Colony became a part of the British empire the protection
+given to the natives arrested the process of extermination with which
+the Hottentots were then threatened, but it did not promote racial
+purity. Sir John Barrow, describing the condition of the Hottentots in
+1798, estimated their number at about 15,000 souls. In 1806 the official
+return gave a Hottentot population of 9784 males and 10,642 females. In
+1824 they had increased to 31,000. At the census of 1865 they numbered
+81,589, but by this time the official classification "Hottentot"
+signified little more than a half-breed. The returns for 1904 showed a
+"Hottentot" population of 85,892. Very few of these were pure-bred
+Hottentots, while the official estimate of those in which Hottentot
+blood was strongly marked was 56,000.
+
+  _Customs and Culture._--The primitive character of the race having
+  greatly changed, the best information as to their original manners and
+  customs is therefore to be found in the older writers. All these agree
+  in describing the Hottentots as a gentle and friendly people. They
+  held in contempt the man who could eat, drink or smoke alone. They
+  were hospitable to strangers, even to the point of impoverishing
+  themselves. Although mentally and physically indolent, they were
+  active in the care of their cattle and, within certain limits, clever
+  hunters. They were of a medium height, the females rather smaller than
+  the men, slender but well proportioned, with small hands and feet.
+  Their skin was of a leathery brown colour; their face oval, with
+  prominent cheekbones; eyes dark brown or black and wide apart; nose
+  broad and thick and flat at the root; chin pointed and mouth large,
+  with thick turned-out lips. Their woolly hair grew in short thick
+  curly tufts and the beard was very scanty. Amongst the women abnormal
+  developments of fat were somewhat common; and cases occurred of
+  extraordinary elongation of the _labia minora_ and of the _praeputium
+  clitoridis_.[1]
+
+  Their dress was a skin cloak (kaross) worn across the shoulders and a
+  smaller one across the loins. They wore these cloaks all the year
+  round, turning the hairy side inward in winter and outward in summer;
+  they slept in them at night, and when they died they were buried in
+  them. They had suspended around their necks little bags or pouches,
+  containing their knives, their pipes and tobacco or dakka (_Cannabis_,
+  or hemp), and an amulet of burnt wood. On their arms were rings of
+  ivory. Sometimes they wore sandals and carried a jackal's tail
+  fastened on a stick, which served as handkerchief and fan. The women
+  wore, besides the kaross, a little apron to which were hung their
+  ornaments; and underneath this one or two fringed girdles; and a skin
+  cap. Both sexes smeared themselves and even their dress with an
+  ointment made of soot, butter or fat, and the powdered leaves of a
+  shrub called by them _bucchu (Diosma crenata)_.
+
+  Their villages were usually on meadow grounds. They never entirely
+  exhausted the grass but kept moving from one pasture to another. The
+  huts were in circles, the area of which varied with the pastoral
+  wealth of the community. In the centre of the huts a hole served for a
+  fire-place, and at each side of this small excavations an inch or two
+  deep were made in the ground in which both sexes, rolled up in their
+  karosses, slept. A few earthen vessels, well-made bowls of wood,
+  tortoise shells for spoons and dishes, calabashes, bamboos and skins
+  for holding milk and butter, and mats of rushes interwoven with bast,
+  were all their furniture. Their weapons were primarily bows and
+  arrows, but they also possessed assegais, and knob-kerries. To women
+  much respect was shown; the most sacred oath a Hottentot could take
+  was to swear by his sister or mother; yet the females ate apart from
+  the men and did all the work of the kraal with the exception of the
+  tending of cattle and of the curing of the hides; the men, however,
+  assisted in the erection of the framework of the huts. The usual food
+  of the Hottentots was milk, the flesh of the buffalo, hippopotamus,
+  antelope or other game, and edible roots and bulbs or wild fruits. On
+  the coast fish captured by hooks and lines or spears were also eaten.
+  Cows' milk was commonly drunk by both sexes, but ewes' milk only by
+  the women, and when cows' milk was scarce the women were obliged to
+  keep to ewes' milk or water. Milk was drunk fresh, and not allowed to
+  turn sour as among the Bantu. Meats were eaten either roasted or
+  boiled, but for the most part half raw, without salt, spices or bread.
+  From some meats they carefully abstained, such as swine's flesh. Hares
+  and rabbits were forbidden to the men, but not to the women; the pure
+  blood of beasts and the flesh of the mole were forbidden to the women,
+  but not to the men.
+
+  In occupation they were essentially cattle-breeders, and showed great
+  skill in this pursuit, especially the Namaqua, who were capable of
+  training the horns of their cattle so that they grew in spirals. Their
+  social pleasures consisted in feasting, smoking, dancing and singing.
+  Dances were held every first quarter of the moon and lasted all night,
+  often for eight days in succession. Every signal event of life, and
+  every change of abode and condition was celebrated with a feast. On
+  the formation of a new kraal an arbour was constructed in the centre,
+  and the women and children adorned and perfumed it with flowers and
+  branches of trees and odoriferous herbs. The fattened ox was killed
+  and cooked, and the men ate of it in the arbour, while the women
+  sitting apart regaled themselves with broth. Upon such occasions the
+  only intoxicant was tobacco or dakka.
+
+  Circumcision, which is common to the Kaffir tribes, was unknown to the
+  Hottentots, but when a youth entered upon manhood a ceremony was
+  performed. One of the elders, using a knife of quartz, made incisions
+  in the young man's body, afterwards besprinkling them with urine. When
+  a man killed his first elephant, hippopotamus or rhinoceros, similar
+  marks were made on his body, and were regarded as insignia of honour.
+  Finger mutilation was common, especially among women; this consisted
+  in the removal of one or two joints of the little finger, and,
+  sometimes, the first joint of the next. The reason for this is
+  doubtful; it may have been a sign of mourning, or, especially in the
+  case of children, it may have been regarded as magically protective.
+  Marriages were by arrangement between the man and the girl's parents,
+  the consent of the girl herself being a matter of little
+  consideration. If accepted, the suitor, accompanied by all his
+  kindred, drove two or three fat oxen to the house of his bride. There
+  her relations welcomed the visitors; the oxen were slain, and the
+  bridal feast took place. The nuptial ceremony was concluded by an
+  elder besprinkling the happy pair. Among the southern Hottentots these
+  ancient usages have ceased; but they are continued among some tribes
+  north of the Orange river. Polygamy was allowed: divorce was common.
+  Family names were perpetuated in a peculiar manner--the sons took the
+  family name of the mother, the daughters that of the father. The
+  children were very respectful to their parents, by whom they were
+  kindly and affectionately treated. Yet the aged father or mother was
+  sometimes put in the bush and left to die. Namaqua says this was done
+  by very poor people if they had no food for their parents. But even
+  when there was food enough, aged persons, especially women, who were
+  believed to be possessed of the evil spirit, were so treated.
+
+  The Hottentots had few musical instruments. One named the "gorah" was
+  formed by stretching a piece of the twisted entrails of a sheep from
+  end to end of a thin hollow stick about 3 ft. in length in the manner
+  of a bow and string. At one end there was a piece of quill fixed into
+  the stick, to which the mouth of the player was applied. The
+  "rommel-pot" was a kind of drum shaped like a bowl and containing
+  water to keep the membrane moist. Reeds several feet long were used as
+  flutes.
+
+  _Government and Laws._--The system of government was patriarchal. Each
+  tribe had its hereditary "khu-khoi" or "gao-ao" or chief, and each
+  kraal its captain. These met in council whenever any great matters had
+  to be decided. The post was honorary, and the councillors were held in
+  great reverence, and were installed in office with solemnities and
+  feasting. In certain tribes the hind part of every bullock slaughtered
+  was sent to the chief, and this he distributed among the males of the
+  village. He also collected sufficient milk at the door of his hut to
+  deal out amongst the poor. A part of every animal taken in hunting was
+  exacted by the chief, even though it was in a state of putrefaction
+  when brought to him. The captains, assisted by the men of each kraal,
+  settled disputes regarding property and tried criminals. A murderer
+  was beaten or stoned to death; but if one escaped and was at large for
+  a whole year, he was allowed to go unpunished. Adultery seldom
+  occurred; if any one found parties in the act and killed them he was
+  no murderer, but on the contrary received praise for his deed. Women
+  found offending were burnt. Theft, especially cattle-stealing, was
+  severely punished. The thief was bound hand and foot, and left on the
+  ground without food for a long time; then, if his offence was slight,
+  he received some blows with a stick, but if the case was an
+  aggravated one, he was severely beaten, and then unloosed and banished
+  from the kraal. The family of even the worst criminal suffered nothing
+  on his account in reputation, privilege or property. The duel was an
+  institution. If any one was insulted he challenged his enemy by
+  offering him a handful of earth. If the latter seized the hand and the
+  dust fell to the ground, the challenge was accepted. If it was not
+  accepted, the challenger threw the dust in his foe's face. The duel
+  took place by kicking, with clubs, or with the spear and shield.
+
+  _Religious Ideas._--The religious ideas of the Hottentots were very
+  obscure. Francois le Vaillant says they had "neither priests nor
+  temples, nor idols, nor ceremonials, nor any traces of the notion of a
+  deity." Other authorities state that they believed in a benevolent
+  deity or "Great Captain," whom they named Tik-guoa (_Tsu-goab_). There
+  were other "captains" of less power, and a black captain named Gauna,
+  the spirit of evil. The moon was a secondary divinity, supposed to
+  govern the weather; and its appearance each month was hailed with
+  dancing and singing.[2] George Schmidt, the first missionary to the
+  Hottentots, says they also celebrated the annual appearance of the
+  Pleiades above the eastern horizon. As soon as the constellation
+  appeared, all the mothers ascended the nearest hill, carrying their
+  babies, whom they taught to stretch their arms towards the friendly
+  stars. Some of the tribes are said to worship a being whom they name
+  Tusib, the rain god. An old Namaqua was once heard to say "The stars
+  are the souls of the deceased," and a Hottentot form of imprecation is
+  "Thou happy one, may misfortune fall on thee from the star of my
+  grandfather."
+
+  Such as it was, the Hottentot religion was largely ancestor-worship.
+  Their deified hero was named _Heitsi-Eibib_; and of him endless
+  stories are told. The one most generally accepted is that he was a
+  notable warrior of great physical strength, who once ruled the
+  Khoi-Khoin, and that in a desperate struggle with one of his enemies,
+  whom he finally overcame, he received a wound in the knee, from which
+  event he got the name of "Wounded knee." He had extraordinary powers
+  during life, and after death he continued to be invoked as one who
+  could still relieve and protect. According to the tradition preserved
+  among the Namaqua, Heitsi-Eibib came from the east. Therefore they
+  make the doors of their huts towards the east, and those who possess
+  waggons and carts put their vehicles alongside the mat-house with the
+  front turned towards the east. All the graves are in true
+  west-easterly direction, so that the face of the deceased looks
+  towards the east. The spirit of Heitsi-Eibib is supposed to exist in
+  the old burial places, and, whenever a heathen Hottentot passes them,
+  he throws stones on the spot as an offering, at the same time invoking
+  the spirit's blessing and protection. Johann Georg von Hahn asserts
+  that there are many proofs which justify the conclusion that
+  Heitsi-Eibib and Tsu-goab (the supreme being) were identical. Both
+  were benevolent. Both were believed to have died and risen again. They
+  killed the bad beings and restored peace on earth; they promised men
+  immortality, understood the secrets of nature, and could foretell the
+  future.[3]
+
+  Various ceremonies were practised to ward off the evil influence of
+  ghosts and spectres, and charms were freely employed. If a Khoi-Khoi
+  went out hunting his wife kindled a fire, and assiduously watched by
+  it to keep it alive; if the fire should be extinguished her husband
+  would not be lucky. If she did not make a fire, she went to the water
+  and kept on throwing it about on the ground, believing that thereby
+  her husband would be successful in getting game. Charms, consisting of
+  bones, burnt wood, and roots of particular shrubs cut into small
+  pieces, were generally worn round the neck. There was also a belief
+  that in every fountain there was a snake, and that as long as the
+  snake remained there water would continue to flow, but that if the
+  snake was killed or left the fountain it would cease. Offerings were
+  sometimes made to the spirit of the fountain. In common with the
+  Bushmen, the Hottentots venerated the _mantis fausta_, a local variety
+  of the insect known as "the praying mantis" (_mantis religiosa_). P.
+  Kolbe saw sacrifices made in its honour when it appeared inside a
+  kraal; to kill it was strictly forbidden. The Hottentots had great
+  faith in witch-doctors, or sorcerers. When called to a sick-bed these
+  ordered the patient to lie on his back, and then pinched, cuffed, and
+  beat him all over until they expelled the illness. After that they
+  produced a bone, small snake, frog or other object which they
+  pretended to have extracted from the patient's body. If the treatment
+  did not succeed, the person was declared incurably bewitched. If death
+  occurred, the corpse was interred on the day of decease. It was wrapt
+  in skins, and placed in the ground in the same position it once
+  occupied in the mother's womb. Death was generally regarded in a very
+  stoical manner.
+
+  _Language._--The existence of a fundamental connexion between the
+  language of the Hottentot and that of the Bushman was suggested by Dr
+  Bleek and is supported by further evidence advanced by Bertin.
+
+  The Hottentot language was regarded by the early travellers and
+  colonists as an uncouth and barbarous tongue. The Portuguese called
+  the native manner of speaking stammering; and the Dutch compared it to
+  the "gobbling of a turkey-cock." These phonetic characteristics arose
+  from the common use of "clicks,"--sounds produced by applying the
+  tongue to the teeth or to various parts of the gums or roof of the
+  mouth, and suddenly jerking it back. Three-fourths of the syllabic
+  elements of the language begin with these clicks, and combined with
+  them are several hard and deep gutturals and nasal accompaniments. The
+  difficulty a European has in acquiring an accurate pronunciation is
+  not so much in producing the clicking sound singly as in following it
+  immediately with another letter or syllable. The four recognized
+  clicks, with the symbols generally adopted to denote them, are as
+  follows: dental = |; palatal = #; lateral = ||; cerebral = !.
+  According to Tindall, one of the best grammarians of the language, the
+  dental click (similar to a sound of surprise or indignation) is
+  produced by pressing the top of the tongue against the upper front
+  teeth, and then suddenly and forcibly withdrawing it. The palatal
+  click (like the crack of a whip) is produced by pressing the tongue
+  with as flat a surface as possible against the termination of the
+  palate at the gums, so that the top of the tongue touches the upper
+  front teeth and the back of the tongue lies towards the palate, and
+  then forcibly withdrawing the tongue. The cerebral click (compared to
+  the popping of the cork of a bottle of champagne) is produced by
+  curling up the tip of the tongue against the roof of the palate, and
+  withdrawing it suddenly and forcibly. The lateral click (similar to
+  the sound used in stimulating a horse to action) is articulated by
+  covering with the tongue the whole of the palate and producing the
+  sound as far back as possible; Europeans imitate it by placing the
+  tongue against the side teeth and then withdrawing it. The easiest
+  Hottentot clicks, the dental and cerebral, have been adopted by the
+  Kaffirs; and it is a striking circumstance, in evidence of the past
+  Hottentot influence upon the Kaffir languages, that the clicking
+  decreases amongst these tribes almost in proportion to their distance
+  from the former Hottentot domain.
+
+  The language in its grammatical structure is beautiful and regular. Dr
+  Bleek describes it as having the distinctive features of the
+  suffix-pronominal order or higher form of languages, in which the
+  pronouns are identical with and borrowed from the derivative suffixes
+  of the nouns. The words are mostly monosyllables, always ending, with
+  two exceptions, in a vowel or nasal sound. Among the consonants
+  neither _l_, nor _f_ nor _v_ is found. There are two _g_'s, _g_ hard
+  and _g_ guttural, and a deeper guttural _kh_. Diphthongs abound. There
+  is no article, but the definite or indefinite sense of a noun is
+  determined by the gender. In the fullest known dialect (that spoken by
+  the Namaqua) nouns are formed with eight different suffixes, which in
+  nouns designating persons distinguish masc. sing. (-_b_), masc. plur.
+  (-_ku_), masc. dual (_kha_), fem. sing, (-_s_), fem. plur. (-_ti_),
+  com. sing. (-_i_), com. plur. (-_u_), com. dual (-_ra_). The adjective
+  is either prefixed to a noun or referred to it by a suffixed pronoun.
+  This grammatical division of the nouns according to gender led to the
+  classification of the language as "sex-denoting," thus suggesting its
+  relationship, in original structure, with the Galla and others.
+
+  There are four dialectical varieties of the language, each with
+  well-marked characteristics: the Nama dialect, spoken by the Namaqua
+  as well as by the Hau-Khoin or Hill Damara; the Kora dialect, spoken
+  by the Koranna, or Koraqua, dwelling about the middle and upper part
+  of the Orange, Vaal and Modder rivers; the Eastern dialect, spoken by
+  the Gona or Gonaqua on the borders of Kaffirland; and the Cape
+  dialect, now no longer spoken but preserved in the records of early
+  voyagers and settlers. Of the Nama dialect there are three grammars:
+  Wallmann's (1857) and Hahn's in German, and Tindall's (1871) in
+  English, the last being the best; and the four Gospels, with a large
+  amount of missionary literature, have been published in it.
+
+  The vocabulary is not limited merely to the expression of the rude
+  conceptions that are characteristic of primitive races. It possesses
+  such words as _koi_, human being; _khoi-si_, kindly or friendly;
+  _koi-si-b_, philanthropist; _khoi-si-s_, humanity; # _ei_, to think; #
+  _ei-s_, thought; _amo_, eternal; _amo-si-b_, eternity; _tsa_, to feel;
+  _tsa-b_, feeling, sentiment; _tsa-kha_, to condole; _ama_, true;
+  _ama-b_, the truth; _anu_, sacred; _anu-si-b_, holiness; _esa_,
+  pretty; _anu-xa_, full of beauty.
+
+  _Literature and History._--Much traditionary literature--fables, myths
+  and legends--existed amongst the Hottentots,--a fact first made known
+  by Sir James Alexander, who in his journeyings through Great
+  Namaqualand in 1835 jotted down the stories told him around the camp
+  fire by his Hottentot followers. These Hottentot tales generally have
+  much of the character of fables; some are in many points identical
+  with northern nursery tales, and suggestive of European origin or of
+  contact with the white man; but the majority bear evidence of being
+  true native products. Bleek's _Reynard the Fox in South Africa_ (1864)
+  contains a translation of a legend written down from the lips of the
+  Namaqua by the Rev. G. Kronlein, which is regarded as an excellent
+  specimen of the national style. Another legend relating to the moon
+  and the hare conveys the idea of an early conception of the hope of
+  immortality. It is found in various versions, and, like many other
+  stories, occurs in Bushman as well as in Hottentot mythology.
+
+  The earliest accounts of the Hottentots occur in the narratives of
+  Vasco da Gama's first voyage to India round the Cape in 1497-1498. In
+  1510 the Portuguese viceroy, Francisco d'Almeida, count of Abrantes,
+  met his death in a dispute with the natives. Till the 17th century
+  they were believed to be cannibals, but with the occupation of the
+  Cape by the Dutch, in 1652, more accurate knowledge was obtained. A
+  century of Dutch rule resulted in the Hottentots becoming a nation of
+  slaves and in serious danger of extermination, and thus the arrival of
+  the English in 1795 was welcomed by them. In 1828 an ordinance was
+  passed declaring "all Hottentots and other free persons of colour"
+  entitled to all and every right to which any other British subjects
+  were entitled. (See CAPE COLONY: _History_; and SOUTH AFRICA.)
+
+  BIBLIOGRAPHY.--A. de Quatrefages, _Les Pygmees_ (1887); G. W. Stow,
+  _The Native Races of South Africa_ (1905); E. T. Hamy, "Les Races
+  negres," in _L'Anthropologie_ (1897), pp. 257 et sqq.; F. Shrubsall,
+  "Crania of African Bush Races," in _Jour. Anthrop. Inst._ (November
+  1897); W. H. J. Bleek, _A Comparative Grammar of South African
+  Languages_ (1862); and "Die Hottentotten Stamme," in _Petermanns Mit._
+  (1858), pp. 49 et sqq.; G. Fritsch, _Die Eingebornen Sud-Afrikas_
+  (1872), and "Schilderungen der Hottentotten," in _Globus_ (1875), pp.
+  374 et sqq.; G. Bertin, "The Bushmen and their Language," in _Jour. R.
+  Asiat. Soc._ xviii., part i., and reprint; P. Kolbe or Kolben,
+  _Present State of the Cape of Good Hope_; Sir John Barrow, _Travels in
+  South Africa_ (1801-1804).
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+  [1] See paper by Messrs Flower and Murie in _Journ. Comp. Anat. and
+    Physiology_ (1867); and Fritsch, _Die Eingebornen Sud-Afrikas_
+    (Breslau, 1873).
+
+  [2] An interesting notice of this form of worship occurs in the
+    journal of an expedition which the Dutch governor, Ryk van Tulbagh,
+    sent to the Great Namaqua in 1752, which reached as far as the Kamob
+    or Lion river (about 27 deg. S. lat.).
+
+  [3] On the religion and antiquities see Theophilus Hahn's papers,
+    "Graves of the Heitsi-Eibib," in _Cape Monthly Magazine_ (1879). and
+    "Der hottentottische Zai-goab und der griechische Zeus," in
+    _Zeitschr. fur Geogr._ (Berlin, 1870).
+
+
+
+
+HOTTINGER, JOHANN HEINRICH (1620-1667), Swiss philologist and
+theologian, was born at Zurich on the 10th of March 1620. He studied at
+Geneva, Groningen and Leiden, and after visiting France and England was
+in 1642 appointed professor of church history in his native town. The
+chair of Hebrew at the Carolinum was added in 1643, and in 1653 he was
+appointed professor ordinarius of logic, rhetoric and theology. He
+gained such a reputation as an Oriental scholar that the elector
+palatine in 1655 appointed him professor of Oriental languages and
+biblical criticism at Heidelberg. In 1661, however, he returned to
+Zurich, where in 1662 he was chosen principal of the university. In 1667
+he accepted an invitation to succeed Johann Hoornbeck (1617-1666) as
+professor in the university of Leiden, but he was drowned with three of
+his children by the upsetting of a boat while crossing the river Limmat.
+His chief works are _Historia ecclesiastica Nov. Test._ (1651-1667);
+_Thesaurus philologicus seu clavis scripturae_ (1649; 3rd ed. 1698);
+_Etymologicon orientale, sive lexicon harmonicum heptaglotton_ (1661).
+He also wrote a Hebrew and an Aramaic grammar.
+
+His son, JOHANN JAKOB HOTTINGER (1652-1735), who became professor of
+theology at Zurich in 1698, was the author of a work against Roman
+Catholicism, _Helvetische Kirchengeschichte_ (4 vols., 1698-1729); and
+his grandson, JOHANN HEINRICH HOTTINGER (1681-1750), who in 1721 was
+appointed professor of theology at Heidelberg, wrote a work on
+dogmatics, _Typus doctrinae christianae_ (1714).
+
+
+
+
+HOUBRAKEN, JACOBUS (1698-1780), Dutch engraver, was born at Dort, on the
+25th of December 1698. All that his father, Arnold Houbraken
+(1660-1719), bequeathed to him was a fine constitution and a pure love
+for work. In 1707 he came to reside at Amsterdam, where for years he had
+to struggle incessantly against difficulties. He commenced the art of
+engraving by studying the works of Cornelis Cort, Suyderhoef, Edelinck
+and the Visschers. He devoted himself almost entirely to portraiture.
+Among his best works are scenes from the comedy of _De Ontdekte
+Schijndeugd_, executed in his eightieth year, after Cornelis Troost, who
+was called by his countrymen the Dutch Hogarth. He died on the 14th of
+November 1780.
+
+  See A. Ver Hull, _Jacobus Houbraken et son oeuvre_ (Arnhem, 1875),
+  where 120 engraved works are fully described.
+
+
+
+
+HOUDENC (or HOUDAN), RAOUL DE, 12th-century French trouvere, takes his
+name from his native place, generally identified with Houdain (Artois),
+though there are twelve places bearing the name in one or other of its
+numerous variants. It has been suggested that he was a monk, but from
+the scattered hints in his writings it seems more probable that he
+followed the trade of jongleur and recited his chansons, with small
+success apparently, in the houses of the great. He was well acquainted
+with Paris, and probably spent a great part of his life there. His
+undoubted works are: _Le Songe d'enfer_, _La Voie de paradis_, _Le Roman
+des eles_ (pr. by A. Scheler in _Trouveres belges_, New Series, 1897)
+and the romance of _Meraugis de Portlesguez_, edited by M. Michelant
+(1869) and by Dr M. Friedwagner (Halle, 1897). Houdenc was an imitator
+of Chretien de Troyes; and Huon de Meri, in his _Tournoi de
+l'antechrist_ (1226) praises him with Chretien in words that seem to
+imply that both were dead. _Meraugis de Portlesguez_, the hero of which
+perhaps derives his name from Lesguez, the port of Saint Brieuc in
+Brittany, is a _roman d'aventures_ loosely attached to the Arthurian
+cycle.
+
+  See Gaston Paris in _Hist. litt. de la France_, xxx. 220-237; W.
+  Zingerle, _Uber Raoul de Houdenc und seine Werke_ (Erlangen, 1880);
+  and O. Boerner, _Raoul de Houdenc. Eine stilistische Untersuchung_
+  (1885).
+
+
+
+
+HOUDETOT, a French noble family, taking its name from the lordship of
+Houdetot, between Arques and St Valery. Louis de Houdetot went with
+Robert, duke of Normandy, to Palestine in 1034, and the various branches
+of the family trace descent from Richard I. de Houdetot (fl. 1229), who
+married Marie de Montfort. Charles Louis de Houdetot received a
+marquisate in 1722, and on his son Claude Constance Cesar,
+lieutenant-general in the French army, was conferred the hereditary
+title of count in 1753. His wife (see below) was the Madame de Houdetot
+of Rousseau's _Confessions_. Their son Cesar Louis Marie Francois Ange,
+comte de Houdetot (1749-1825), was governor of Martinique (1803-1809)
+and lieutenant-general (1814) under the Empire. His son Frederic
+Christophe, comte de Houdetot (1778-1859), was director-general of
+indirect imposts in Prussia after Jena, and prefect of Brussels in 1813.
+He acquiesced in the Restoration, but had to resign from the service
+after the Hundred Days. He became a peer of France in 1819, and under
+the Second Empire he was returned by the department of Calvados to the
+Corps Legislatif. His half-brother, Charles Ile-de-France, comte de
+Houdetot (1789-1866), was wounded at Trafalgar and transferred to the
+army, in which he served through the Napoleonic wars. He retired at the
+Restoration, but returned to the service in 1823, and in 1826 became
+aide-de-camp to the duke of Orleans, becoming lieutenant-general in
+1842. He sat in the Chamber of Deputies from 1837 to 1848, when he
+followed Louis Philippe into exile. A third brother, Cesar Francois
+Adolphe, comte de Houdetot (1799-1869), was a well-known writer on
+military and other subjects.
+
+
+
+
+HOUDETOT, ELISABETH FRANCOISE SOPHIE DE LA LIVE DE BELLEGARDE, COMTESSE
+DE (1730-1813), was born in 1730. She married the comte de Houdetot (see
+above) in 1748. In 1753 she formed with the marquis de Saint Lambert
+(q.v.) a connexion which lasted till his death. Mme de Houdetot has been
+made famous by the chapter in Rousseau's _Confessions_ in which he
+describes his unreciprocated passion for her. When questioned on the
+subject she replied that he had much exaggerated. A view differing
+considerably from Rousseau's is to be found in the _Memoires_ of Mme
+d'Epinay, Mme de Houdetot's sister-in-law.
+
+  For a discussion of her relations with Rousseau see
+  Saint-Marc-Girardin in the _Revue des deux mondes_ (September 1853).
+
+
+
+
+HOUDON, JEAN ANTOINE (1740-1828), French sculptor, was born at
+Versailles on the 18th of March 1740. At the age of twelve he entered
+the Ecole royale de Sculpture, and at twenty, having learnt all that he
+could from Michel Ange Slodtz and Pigalle, he carried off the prix de
+Rome and left France for Italy, where he spent the next ten years of his
+life. His brilliant talent, which seems to have been formed by the
+influence of that world of statues with which Louis XIV. peopled the
+gardens of Versailles rather than by the lessons of his masters,
+delighted Pope Clement XIV., who, on seeing the St Bruno executed by
+Houdon for the church of St Maria degli Angeli, said "he would speak,
+were it not that the rules of his order impose silence." In Italy Houdon
+had lived in the presence of that second Renaissance with which the name
+of Winckelmann is associated, and the direct and simple treatment of the
+Morpheus which he sent to the Salon of 1771 bore witness to its
+influence. This work procured him his "agregation" to the Academy of
+Painting and Sculpture, of which he was made a full member in 1775.
+Between these dates Houdon had not been idle; busts of Catharine II.,
+Diderot and Prince Galitzin were remarked at the Salon of 1773, and at
+that of 1775 he produced, not only his Morpheus in marble, but busts of
+Turgot, Gluck (in which the marks of small-pox in the face were
+reproduced with striking effect) and Sophie Arnould as Iphigeneia (now
+in the Wallace Collection, London), together with his well-known marble
+relief, "Grive suspendue par les pattes." He took also an active part in
+the teaching of the academy, and executed for the instruction of his
+pupils the celebrated Ecorche still in use. To every Salon Houdon was a
+chief contributor; most of the leading men of the day were his sitters;
+his busts of d'Alembert, Prince Henry of Prussia, Gerbier, Buffon (for
+Catharine of Russia) and Mirabeau are remarkable portraits; and in 1778,
+when the news of Rousseau's death reached him, Houdon started at once
+for Ermenonville, and there took a cast of the dead man's face, from
+which he produced the grand and life-like head now in the Louvre. In
+1779 his bust of Moliere, at the Theatre Francais, won universal praise,
+and the celebrated draped statue of Voltaire, in the vestibule of the
+same theatre, was exhibited at the Salon of 1781, to which Houdon also
+sent a statue of Marshal de Tourville, commissioned by the king, and the
+Diana executed for Catharine II. This work was refused; the jury alleged
+that a statue of Diana demanded drapery; without drapery, they said, the
+goddess became a "suivante de Venus," and not even the proud and frank
+chastity of the attitude and expression could save the Diana of Houdon
+(a bronze reproduction of which is in the Louvre) from insult. Three
+years later he went to America, there to carry out a statue of
+Washington. With Franklin, whose bust he had recently executed, Houdon
+left France in 1785, and, staying some time with Washington at Mount
+Vernon, he modelled the bust, with which he decided to go back to Paris,
+there to complete the statue destined for the capitol of the State of
+Virginia. After his return to his native country Houdon executed for the
+king of Prussia, as a companion to a statue of Summer, La Frileuse, a
+naif embodiment of shivering cold, which is one of his best as well as
+one of his best-known works. The Revolution interrupted the busy flow of
+commissions, and Houdon took up a half-forgotten project for a statue of
+St Scholastica. He was immediately denounced to the convention, and his
+life was only saved by his instant and ingenious adaptation of St
+Scholastica into an embodiment of Philosophy. Under Napoleon, of whom in
+1806 he made a nude statue now at Dijon, Houdon received little
+employment; he was, however, commissioned to execute the colossal
+reliefs intended for the decoration of the column of the "Grand Army" at
+Boulogne (which ultimately found a different destination); he also
+produced a statue of Cicero for the senate, and various busts, amongst
+which may be cited those of Marshal Ney, of Josephine and of Napoleon
+himself, by whom Houdon was rewarded with the legion of honour. He died
+at Paris on the 16th of July 1828.
+
+  See memoir by Emile Delerot and Arsene Legrelle in _Memoires de la
+  societe des sciences morales ... de Seine-et-Oise_, iv. 49 et seq.
+  (1857); Anatole de Montaiglon and Georges Duplessis in _Revue
+  universelle des arts_, i. and ii. (1855-1856); Hermann Dierks,
+  _Houdons Leben und Werke_ (Gotha, 1887); Albert Terrade, _Autour de la
+  statue de Jean Houdon_ (Versailles, 1892); P. E. Mangeant, _Sur une
+  statuette de Voltaire par J. Houdon_ (Paris, 1896).
+
+
+
+
+HOUFFALIZE, a small town occupying an elevated position (nearly 1100
+ft.) in the extreme south-east of the province of Luxemburg, Belgium,
+much visited during the summer on account of its fine bracing air. There
+are the ruins of an old castle, and some remains of the still older
+abbey of Val Ste Catherine. The parish church dates from the 13th or
+14th century. It contains two old black marble tombs to Thierry of
+Houffalize and Henri his son, the latter killed at Woeringen in 1288.
+Houffalize is on the eastern Ourthe, and is connected by a steam tramway
+with Bourcy on the line from Libramont to Bastogne, Spa and Liege. Pop.
+(1904) 1486.
+
+
+
+
+HOUGHTON, RICHARD MONCKTON MILNES, 1ST BARON (1809-1885), English poet
+and man of letters, son of Robert Pemberton Milnes, of Fryston Hall,
+Yorkshire, and the Hon. Henrietta Monckton, daughter of the fourth Lord
+Galway, was born in London on the 19th of June 1809. He was educated
+privately, and entered Trinity College, Cambridge, in 1827. There he
+was at once drawn into a literary set, and became a member of the famous
+"Apostles" Club, which then included Tennyson, Hallam, Trench, J. W.
+Blakesley, afterwards dean of Lincoln, and others. After taking his
+degree, Milnes travelled abroad, spending some time at Bonn University.
+Thence he went to Italy and Greece, and published in 1834 a volume of
+_Memorials of a Tour in some Parts of Greece_, describing his
+experiences. He returned to London in 1837, and was in that year elected
+to Parliament as member for Pontefract. His parliamentary career was
+marked by much strenuous activity. He interested himself particularly in
+the question of copyright and the conditions of reformatory schools. He
+left Peel's party over the Corn Law controversy, and was afterwards
+identified in politics with Palmerston, at whose instance he was made a
+peer in 1863. His literary career was industrious and cultured, without
+being exceptionally distinguished. Church matters had always a claim
+upon him: he wrote a striking tract in 1841, which was praised by
+Newman; and took part in the discussion about "Essays and Reviews,"
+defending the tractarian position in _One Tract More_ (1841). He
+published two volumes of verse in 1838, _Memorials of Residence upon the
+Continent and Poems of Many Years_, _Poetry for the People in 1840_ and
+_Palm Leaves_ in 1844. He also wrote a _Life and Letters of Keats_ in
+1848, the material for which was largely provided by the poet's friend,
+Charles Armitage Brown. Milnes also contributed largely to the reviews.
+His poetry is meditative and delicate; some of his ballads were among
+the most popular of their day, and all his work was marked by
+refinement. But his chief distinctions were his keen sense of literary
+merit in others, and the judgment and magnanimity with which he fostered
+it. He was surrounded by the most brilliant men of his time, many of
+whom he had been the first to acclaim. His chief title to remembrance
+rests on the part he played, as a man of influence in society and in
+moulding public opinion on literary matters, in connexion with his large
+circle of talented friends. He secured a pension for Tennyson, helped to
+make Emerson known in Great Britain, and was one of the earliest
+champions of Swinburne. He helped David Gray and wrote a preface for
+_The Luggie_. He was, in the old sense of the word, a patron of letters,
+and one who never abused the privileges of his position. Milnes married
+in 1851 the Hon. Annabel Crewe (d. 1874). He died at Vichy on the 11th
+of August 1885, and was buried at Fryston. His son, the second Baron
+Houghton, was created Earl of Crewe (q.v.) in 1895.
+
+  See _The Life, Letters and Friendships of Richard Monckton Milnes,
+  first Lord Houghton_ (1890), by Sir T. Wemyss Reid.
+
+
+
+
+HOUGHTON-LE-SPRING, an urban district in the Houghton-le-Spring
+parliamentary division of Durham, England, 6 m. N.E. of the city of
+Durham. Pop. (1901) 7858. It is well situated at the head of a small
+valley branching from that of the Wear. St Michael's church is a
+cruciform Early English and Decorated building, with a picturesque
+embattled rectory adjoining. Bernard Gilpin, "the Apostle of the North,"
+was rector of this parish from 1556 to 1583, and the founder of the
+grammar school. The principal public buildings are a town hall, market
+house and church institute. Houghton Hall is a fine mansion of the late
+16th century. In the orchard stands a tomb, that of the puritan Sir
+Robert Hutton (d. 1680), of whom a curious tradition states that he
+desired burial beside his war-horse, the body of which was denied
+interment in consecrated ground. The main road from Durham to Sunderland
+here passes through a remarkable cutting in the limestone 80 ft. deep.
+The district affords frequent evidence of ice activity in the glacial
+period. The town is the centre of a large system of electric tramways.
+The population is mainly dependent on the neighbouring collieries, but
+limestone quarrying is carried on to some extent.
+
+
+
+
+HOUND, a dog, now used, except in poetry, only of dogs of the chase, and
+particularly of the breed used in hunting the fox, the "hound" _par
+excellence_. Other breeds have a defining word prefixed, e.g.
+boar-hound, stag-hound, &c. (see DOG). The O. Eng. _hund_ is the common
+Teutonic name for the animal, cf. Du. _hond_, Ger. _Hund_, &c., and is
+cognate with Sansk. _cvan_, Gr. [Greek: kyon], Lat. _canis_, Ir. and
+Gael. _cu_.
+
+
+
+
+HOUNSLOW, a town in the Brentford parliamentary division of Middlesex,
+England, 12(1/2) m. W. by S. of St Paul's Cathedral, London, on the
+District and London & South Western railways. Pop. (1901) 11,377. It has
+grown into an extensive residential suburb of London. Its situation at
+the junction of two great roads from the west of England made it an
+important coaching station, and some 500 coaches formerly passed through
+it daily. A priory of friars of the Holy Trinity was founded at Hounslow
+in 1296, and existed till the dissolution of the monasteries. The priory
+chapel was used as a church till 1830, after which its place was taken
+by the existing church of the Holy Trinity (1835). Hounslow Heath, west
+of the town, had, according to the survey of 1546, an area of 4293
+acres. It was the site of Roman and British camps, and in the wars of
+the 17th century was the scene of several important military rendezvous.
+It was a favourite resort of highwaymen, whose bodies were exposed on
+gibbets along the road. In 1784 the base-line of the first
+trigonometrical survey in England was laid down on the heath. In 1793
+large cavalry barracks were erected upon it, and it is also the site of
+extensive powder mills. It began to be enclosed towards the end of the
+reign of George III. In Osterley Park, N.E. of Hounslow, Sir Thomas
+Gresham built a mansion in 1577, and this was rebuilt with great
+magnificence by Francis and Robert Child c. 1770. Hounslow is divided
+between the parishes of Heston and Isleworth. Pop. of urban district of
+Heston and Isleworth (1901) 30,863.
+
+
+
+
+HOUR, the twenty-fourth part of a civil day, the twelfth part of a
+natural day or night, a space of time of sixty minutes' duration. The
+word is derived through the O. Fr. _ure_, _ore_, _houre_, mod. _heure_,
+from Lat. _hora_, Gr. [Greek: hora], season, time of day, hour (see
+CALENDAR).
+
+
+
+
+HOUR ANGLE, the angular distance of a heavenly body from the meridian,
+as measured around the celestial pole. It is equal to the angle at the
+pole between the hour circle through the body and the meridian, but is
+usually expressed in time.
+
+
+
+
+HOUR-GLASS, a device for measuring intervals of time, also known as
+sand-glass, and as log-glass when used in conjunction with the common
+log for ascertaining the speed of a ship. It consists of two pear-shaped
+bulbs of glass, united at their apices and having a minute passage
+formed between them. A quantity of sand (or occasionally of mercury) is
+enclosed in the bulbs, and the size of the passage is so proportioned
+that this sand will completely run through from one bulb to another in
+the time it is desired to measure--e.g. an hour or a minute. Instruments
+of this kind, which have no great pretensions to accuracy, were formerly
+common in churches. In the English House of Commons, as a preliminary to
+a division, a two-minute sand-glass is still turned, and while the sand
+is running the "division bells" are set in motion in every part of the
+building, to give members notice that a division is at hand.
+
+
+
+
+HOURI, the term for a beautiful virgin who awaits the devout Mahommedan
+in Paradise. The word is the French representative of the Pers. _huri_,
+Arab, _hawra'_, a black-eyed virgin, from _hawira_, to be black-eyed,
+like a gazelle.
+
+
+
+
+HOURS, CANONICAL, certain portions of the day set apart by rule (canon)
+of the church for prayer and devotion. The Jewish custom of praying
+three times a day, i.e. at the third, sixth and ninth hours, was
+perpetuated in the early Christian Church (Acts ii. 15, iii. 1, x. 9),
+and to these were added midnight (when Paul and Silas sang in prison),
+and the beginning of day and of night. Ambrose, Augustine and Hilary
+commended the example of the psalmist who gave praise "seven times a
+day" (Ps. cxix. 164). The seventh (Compline, _Completorium_) was added
+by Benedict. These hours were adopted especially in the monasteries as a
+part of the canonical life, and spread thence to the cathedral and
+collegiate chapters.
+
+Since the 6th century the number and order of the hours have been fixed
+thus: matins, lauds, prime, terce, sext, none, vespers, compline.
+
+_Matins_ theoretically belongs to midnight, but in Italy it is said
+about 7 or 8 A.M. and in France often on the preceding evening in
+accordance with the statement "evening and morning were one day." At
+matins is said the _Venite_ (Ps. xcv.) and a hymn, followed by a
+_Nocturna_ or night-watch (on Sundays three) which consists of twelve
+psalms. After the _nocturna_ comes a lesson divided into three parts,
+one biblical and two patristic, and finally the _Te Deum_.
+
+_Lauds_ is proper to sunrise, but is mostly grouped with matins. It
+consists of four psalms, a canticle, psalms 148-150, a hymn, the
+Benedictus (Luke i. 68-79) and prayers.
+
+_Prime_ (6 A.M.), _Terce_ (9 A.M.), _Sext_ (noon) and _None_ (3 P.M.)
+are called the Little Day Hours, are often said together, and are alike
+in character, consisting of a hymn and some sections of Ps. cxix.,
+followed by a prayer. On Sundays the Athanasian Creed is said at prime.
+
+_Vespers_ or _Evensong_ consists of five varying psalms, a hymn, the
+_Magnificat_ (Luke i. 46-55) and prayers. It belongs theoretically to
+sunset.
+
+_Compline_, technically 9 P.M., but usually combined with vespers, is a
+prayer for protection during the darkness. It consists of the general
+confession, four fixed psalms, a hymn, the _Nunc dimittis_ (Luke ii.
+29-32), prayers and a Commemoration of the Virgin.
+
+  The term "canonical hours" is also used of the time during which
+  English marriages may be solemnized without special licence, i.e.
+  between 8 A.M. and 3 P.M.
+
+
+
+
+HOUSE (O. Eng. _hus_, a word common to Teutonic languages, cf. Dut.
+_huis_, Ger. _Haus_; in Gothic it is only found in _gudhus_, a temple;
+it may be ultimately connected with the root of "hide," conceal), the
+dwelling-place of a human being (treated, from the architectural point
+of view, below), or, in a transferred sense, of an animal, particularly
+of one whose abode, like that of the beaver, is built by the animal
+itself, or, like that of the snail, resembles in some fancied way a
+human dwelling. Apart from the numerous compound uses of the word,
+denoting the purpose for which a building is employed, such as
+custom-house, lighthouse, bakehouse, greenhouse and the like, there may
+be mentioned the particular applications to a chamber of a legislative
+body, the Houses of Parliament, House of Representatives, &c.; to the
+upper and lower assemblies of convocation; and to the colleges at a
+university; the heads of these foundations, known particularly as
+master, principal, president, provost, rector, &c., are collectively
+called heads of houses. At English public schools a "house" is the usual
+unit of the organization. In the "houses" the boys sleep, have their
+"studies" and their meals, if the school is arranged on the
+"boarding-house" system. The houses have their representative teams in
+the school games, but have no place in the educational class-system of
+the school. It may be noticed that in Scotland the words "house" and
+"tenement" are used in a way distinct from the English use, "tenement"
+being applied to the large block containing "houses," portions, i.e.,
+occupied by separate families. "The House" is the name colloquially
+given to such different institutions as the London Stock Exchange, the
+House of Commons or Lords and to a workhouse.
+
+In the transferred sense, "house" is used of a family, genealogically
+considered, and of the audience at a public meeting or entertainment,
+especially of a theatre. A "house-physician" and "house-surgeon" is a
+member of the resident medical staff of a hospital. In astrology the
+twelve divisions into which the heavens are divided, and through which
+the planets pass, are known as houses, the first being called the "house
+of life." The word "house," "housing," used of the trappings of a horse,
+especially of a covering for the back and flanks, attached to the
+saddle, is of quite distinct origin. In medieval Latin it appears as
+_hucia_, _houssia_ and _housia_ (see Ducange, _Glossarium_, s.v.
+_housia_), and comes into English from the O. Fr. _huche_, modern
+_housse_. It has been supposed to have been adopted, at the time of the
+crusades, from the Arabic _yushiah_, a covering.
+
+Architecturally considered, the term "house" is given to a building
+erected for habitation, in contradistinction to one built for secular or
+ecclesiastical purposes. The term extends, therefore, to a dwelling of
+any size, from a single-room building to one containing as many rooms as
+a palace; thus in London some of the largest dwellings are those
+inhabited by royalty, such as Marlborough House, or others by men of
+rank, such as Devonshire House, Bridgewater House, Spencer House, &c.;
+and even those which, formerly built as habitations, have subsequently
+been devoted to other purposes, such as Somerset House and Burlington
+House, retain the term. In Paris the larger houses thus named would be
+called _hotel_.
+
+So far as the history of domestic architecture is concerned, the
+earliest houses of which remains have been found are those of the
+village of Kahun in Egypt, which were built for the workmen employed in
+the building of the pyramid at Illahun, and deserted on its completion.
+They varied in size from the habitations of the chief inspectors to the
+single room of the ordinary labourer, and were built in unburnt brick
+with open courts in the larger examples, to give light and air to the
+rooms round. The models found in 1907 at Deir-Rifa opposite Assiut in
+Upper Egypt, by Flinders Petrie, and assumed by him to be those of
+"soul-houses," suggest that the early type of building consisted of a
+hut, to which later a porch or lean-to, with two poles in front, has
+been added; subsequently, columns replaced the poles, and a flat roof
+with parapet, suggesting the primitive forms of the Egyptian temple.
+
+The only remains of early houses found in Mesopotamia are those within
+the precincts of the Temple of Bel, at Nippur, occupied by the king; but
+beyond the fact that the walls were built in unburnt brick and were
+sometimes of great thickness, nothing is known.
+
+The houses in Crete would seem to have been small in area, but this was
+compensated for in height, as the small plaques found in the palace at
+Cnossus show houses in two or three storeys, with gable roofs and
+windows subdivided by mullions and transomes, corresponding with those
+of the 15th to 17th centuries in England. The stone staircase in the
+palace rising through two storeys shows that even at this early period
+the houses in towns had floors superposed one above the other; to a
+certain extent the same extension existed in the later Greek houses
+found in Delos, in two of which there was clear evidence of wooden
+staircases leading within to the roof or to an upper storey. The largest
+series hitherto discovered is that at Priene in Asia Minor, where the
+remains of some thirty examples were found, varying in dimensions, but
+all based on the same plan; this consisted of an entrance passage
+leading to an open court, on the north side of which, and therefore
+facing south, was an open portico, corresponding to the _prostas_ in
+Vitruvius (vi. 7), and in the rear two large rooms, one of which might
+be the oecus or sitting-room, and the other the thalamos or chief
+bedroom. Other rooms round the court were the triclinium, or dining
+room, and cubicula or bedchambers. The largest of these houses occupied
+an area measuring 75 X 30 ft. Those found in Delos, though fewer in
+number, are of much greater importance, the house in the street of the
+theatre having twelve rooms exclusive of the entrance passage and the
+great central court, surrounded on all four sides by a peristyle; in
+this house the oecus measured 26 X 18 ft. In a second example the
+prostas consisted of a long gallery, the whole width of the site, which
+was lighted by windows at each end, the sills of which were raised 8 ft.
+or 9 ft. from the floor.
+
+[Illustration: PLATE II.
+
+  _Photo, Neurdein._
+  FIG. 4.--MUSICIAN'S HOUSE, REIMS.
+
+  _Photo, F. Frith & Co._
+  FIG. 5.--JEW'S HOUSE, LINCOLN.
+
+  _Photo, Neurdein._
+  FIG. 6.--HOTEL DE CLUNY, PARIS.]
+
+[Illustration: PLATE II.
+
+  _Photo, Neurdein._
+  FIG. 7.--HOTEL DE JACQUES COEUR, BOURGES, FACADE.
+
+  Fig. 8.--HALF-TIMBERED HOUSE AT HILDESHEIM.
+
+  _Photo. F. Frith & Co._
+  FIG. 9.--HOUSE OF JOHN HARVARD'S MOTHER, STRATFORD-ON-AVON.]
+
+The remains of the houses found in the Peiraeus are of the same simple
+plan as those at Priene, and suggest that the Greek house was considered
+to be the private residence only for the members of the family, and
+without any provision for entertaining guests as in Rome and Pompeii.
+From the descriptions given by Vitruvius (ii. 8) it may be gathered that
+in his time many of the houses in Rome were built in unburnt brick, the
+walls of which, if properly protected at the top with a course of burnt
+brick projecting over the face of the brickwork, and coated inside and
+outside with stucco, were considered to be more lasting than those built
+in soft stone. Vitruvius refers also to Greek houses thus built, and
+states that in the house of Mausolus, at Halicarnassus, the walls were
+of unburnt brick, and the plastering with which they were covered was
+so polished that they sparkled like glass. In Rome, however, he points
+out, such walls ought to be forbidden, as they are not fit to carry an
+upper storey, unless they are of great thickness, and as upper storeys
+become necessary in a crowded city such walls would occupy too much
+space. The houses in Pompeii (q.v.) were built in rubble masonry with
+clay mortar, and their walls were protected at the top by burnt brick
+courses and their faces with stucco; they were, however, of a second- or
+third-rate class compared with those in Rome, the magnificence of which
+is attested in the descriptions given by various writers and
+substantiated by the remains occasionally found in excavations.
+Vitruvius refers to upper storeys, which were necessary in consequence
+of the limited area in Rome, and representations in mosaic floors and in
+bas-relief sculpture have been found on which two or three storeys are
+indicated. The plans of many Roman houses are shown on the _Marble
+Plan_, and they resemble those of Pompeii, but it is probable that the
+principal reception rooms were on an upper storey, long since destroyed.
+The house of Livia on the Palatine Hill was in two storeys, and the
+decoration was of a much finer character than those of Pompeii; this
+house and the House of the Vestals might be taken as representative of
+the Roman house in Rome itself. In those built in colder climates, as in
+England and Germany, account has to be taken of the special provision
+required for warming the rooms by hypocausts, of which numerous examples
+have been found, with rich mosaic floors over them.
+
+Of the houses in succeeding centuries, those found in the cities of
+central Syria, described in the article ARCHITECTURE, are wonderfully
+perfect, in consequence of their desertion at the time of the Mahommedan
+invasion in the 7th century. Very little is known of the houses in
+Europe during the dark ages, owing to the fact that they were generally
+built in wood, with thatched roofs. The only examples in stone which
+have been preserved are those in the island of Skellig Michael, Kerry,
+which were constructed like the beehive tombs at Mycenae with stone
+courses overlapping inside until they closed in at the top. These houses
+or cells were rectangular inside and round or oval outside, with a small
+low door at one end, and an opening above to let the smoke out.
+
+The houses, even in large towns like London, were built mainly in wood,
+in some cases down to the 17th century; in the country, the smaller
+houses were constructed with trunks of trees in pairs, one end of the
+trunk being sunk in the ground, the other bent over and secured by a
+ridge piece, thus forming a pointed arch, the opening of which was about
+11 ft. The pairs were fixed 16 ft. apart, and the space included
+constituted a bay, any requisite increase in the size of the house being
+made by doubling or trebling the bays. The roofs were thatched with
+straw on battens, and sometimes with a collar beam carrying a floor,
+which constituted an upper storey. The end walls were closed with wooden
+studs and wattle-and-daub filling. The pairs of trees were known as
+forks or crucks. Vitruvius (ii. 1) suggests a similar kind of building
+in ancient times, except that the interlaced twigs were covered with
+clay, so as to carry off the rain. In Yorkshire there was another type
+of house, known as a coit, which was a dwelling-house and barn (shippon)
+united; the latter contained the cow-stalls with loft above, and the
+former was in two storeys, with a ladder inside the room leading to the
+upper floor.[1]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 1.--Houses at Cluny.]
+
+Passing now to structures of a less ephemeral character, the earliest
+houses of which there still remain substantial relics are those built in
+stone (see MANOR HOUSE). The Jew's House at Lincoln, 12th century, is
+one of the best-known examples, and still preserves its street front in
+stone, with rich entrance doorway and first-floor windows lighting the
+principal room, which seems invariably in those early houses to have
+been on the first floor, the ground floor being used for service and
+stores (see Plate I. fig. 5). To the 13th century belongs the old
+Rectory House at West Dean, Sussex, and to the 14th century the
+Parsonage House at Market Deeping, Lincolnshire. The principal examples
+of the domestic architecture of this early period in the country are
+castles, manor houses and farm buildings, as town houses occupied sites
+too valuable to be left untouched; this, however, is not the case in
+France, and particularly in the south, where streets of early houses are
+still to be found in good preservation, such as those at Cluny (fig. 1)
+and Cordes (Tarn), and others at Montferrand, Cahors, Figeac, Angers,
+Provins, Sarlat (fig. 2), St Emilion, Perigueux, Soissons and Beauvais,
+dating from the 12th to the 14th centuries. One of the most remarkable
+examples is the Musician's House at Reims (see Plate I., fig. 4), with
+large windows on the first floor, between which are niches with
+life-size figures of musicians seated in them. Generally speaking, the
+ground storeys of these houses, which in many cases were occupied by
+shops, have been transformed, but occasionally the old shop fronts
+remain, as in Dinan, Morlaix and other old towns in Brittany. Houses of
+the first Renaissance of great beauty exist in Orleans, such as the
+house of Agnes Sorel; and the example in the Market Place illustrated in
+fig. 3; in Tours, Tristan's house in brick with stone quoins and
+dressings to windows; in Rouen, Caen, Bayeux, Toulouse, Dijon and, in
+fact, in almost every town throughout France. Of houses of large
+dimensions, which in France are termed _hotels_, there are also many
+other fine examples, the best known of which are the hotel de Jacques
+Coeur (see Plate II., fig. 7), at Bourges, and the hotel de Cluny at
+Paris (see Plate I., fig. 6). In the 15th and 16th centuries in France,
+owing to the value of the sites in towns, the houses rose to many
+storeys, the upper of which were built in half-timber, sometimes
+projecting on corbels and richly carved; of these numerous examples
+exist at Rouen, Beauvais, Bayeux and other towns in Normandy and
+Brittany. Of such structures in English towns (see Plate II. fig. 9)
+there are still preserved some examples in York, Southampton, Chester,
+Shrewsbury, Stratford-on-Avon, and many smaller towns; the greatest
+development in half-timber houses in England is that which is found more
+particularly throughout Kent, Sussex and Surrey, in houses of modest
+dimensions, generally consisting of ground and first floor only, with
+sometimes additional rooms in the roof; in these the upper storey
+invariably projects in front of the lower, giving increased dimensions
+to the rooms in the former, but adopted in order to protect the walls of
+the ground storey from rain, which in the upper storey was effected by
+the projecting eaves of the roof. In the north and west of England,
+where stone could be obtained at less cost than brick, and in the east
+of England, where brick, often imported from the Low Countries, was
+largely employed, the ordinary houses were built in those materials,
+and in consequence of their excellent construction many houses of the
+16th and 17th centuries have remained in good preservation down to the
+present day; they are found in the Cotswolds generally, and (among small
+towns) at Broadway in Worcestershire and (of brick) throughout Essex and
+Suffolk. Among the larger half-timber houses built in the 15th and 16th
+centuries, mention may be made of Bramhall Hall, near Manchester; Speke
+Hall, near Liverpool (see Plate III., fig. 10); The Oaks; West Bromwich;
+and Moreton Old Hall, Cheshire, one of the most elaborate of the series
+(see Plate III., fig. 11).
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 2.--House at Sarlat.]
+
+On the borders of the Rhine, as at Bacharach and Rhense, and throughout
+Germany, hall-timber houses of the most picturesque character are found
+in every town, large and small, those of Hildesheim (see Plate II., fig.
+8) dating from the 15th and 16th centuries, and in some cases rising to
+a great height with four or five storeys, not including those in the
+lofty roofs. Houses in stone from the 12th to the 16th century are found
+in Cologne, Metz, Trier, Hanover and Munster in Westphalia, where again
+there are whole streets remaining; and in brick at Rostock, Stralsund,
+Lubeck, Greifswald and Dantzig, forming a very remarkable series of 15th
+and 16th-century work.
+
+Of half-timber work in Italy there are no examples, but sometimes (as at
+Bologna) the rooms of the upper floors are carried on arcades, and
+sometimes on corbels, as the casa dei Carracci in the same town. The
+principal feature of the Italian house is the courtyard in the rear,
+with arcades on one or more sides, the front in stone or brick, or both
+combined, being of the greatest simplicity (examples in San Gimignano
+and Pisa). At Viterbo are small houses in stone, two of which have
+external stone staircases of fine design, and the few windows on the
+ground floor suggest that the rooms there were used only for stores.
+Houses with external staircases, but without any architectural
+pretensions, are found throughout the Balkan provinces.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 3.--Detail of house at Orleans.]
+
+The introduction of the purer Italian style into England in the 17th
+century created a great change in domestic architecture. Instead of the
+projecting wings and otherwise picturesque contour of the earlier work
+the houses were made square or rectangular on plan, in two or three
+storeys, crowned with a modillion cornice carrying a roof of red tiles;
+the only embellishments of the main front were the projecting courses of
+stone on the quoins and architraves round the windows, and flat
+pilasters carrying a hood or pediment flanking the entrance doorway. In
+the larger mansions more thought was bestowed on the introduction of
+porticoes (scarcely necessary in the English climate), with sometimes
+great flights of steps up to the principal floor, which was raised above
+a basement with cold and dark passages; a great saloon in the centre of
+the block, lighted from above, took the place of the great entrance hall
+of the Tudor period, and the rooms frequently led one out of the other,
+without an independent entrance door. On the other hand, in the ordinary
+houses, the deficiency in external ornament was amply made up for by the
+comfort in the interior and the decoration of the staircase and other
+rooms. Towards the close of the century the square mullioned and
+transomed windows, with opening casements, gave way to sash windows,
+introduced from Holland, and these with moulded and stout sash-bars gave
+a certain character to the outside of the houses, which are valued now
+for their quiet unpretentious character and excellent construction. In
+the closes of many English cathedrals, on the outskirts of London, and
+in some of the older squares, as Lincoln's Inn Fields and Queen Square,
+are examples of this style of house. The substitution of thin sash-bars
+in the 19th century, and their omission occasionally, in favour of
+plate-glass, deprived the house-front of one of its chief attractions;
+but the old English casements and oriels or bow-windows have been again
+introduced, and a return has been made to the style which prevailed in
+the beginning of the 18th century, commonly known as that of Queen Anne.
+
+[Illustration: PLATE III.
+
+  _Photo, Frith & Co._
+  FIG. 10.--SPEKE HALL, NEAR LIVERPOOL.
+
+  _Photo, F. Frith & Co._
+  FIG. 11.--MORETON OLD HALL, NEAR CONGLETON, CHESHIRE.]
+
+[Illustration: PLATE IV.
+
+  From Garner and Stratton, _Domestic Architecture of England during the
+  Tudor Period_, 1910. By permission of B. T. Batsford.
+
+  FIG. 12.--SOUTH COURT OF SUTTON PLACE, SURREY, 1525.
+
+  From _Gotch, Architecture of the Renaissance in England_, 1894. By
+  permission of B. T. Batsford.
+
+  FIG. 13.--MOYNS PARK, ESSEX, 1580.]
+
+[Illustration: PLATE V.
+
+  From Belcher and Macartney, _Later Renaissance Architecture in
+  England_, 1901. By permission of B. T. Batsford.
+
+  FIG. 14.--HAM HOUSE, PETERSHAM, 1610.
+
+  From Gotch, _Architecture of the Renaissance in England_, 1894. By
+  permission of B. T. Batsford.
+
+  FIG. 15.--BRAMSHILL, HAMPSHIRE, 1612.]
+
+[Illustration: PLATE VI.
+
+  From Belcher and MaCartney, _Later Renaissance Architecture in
+  England_, By permission of B. T. Batsford.
+
+  FIG. 16.--THE EARL OF BURLINGTON'S VILLA, CHISWICK. EIGHTEENTH
+  CENTURY.
+
+  From the same source as above.
+  FIG. 17.--HOUSES IN CAVENDISH SQUARE, LONDON. EIGHTEENTH CENTURY.]
+
+Perhaps in one respect the greatest change which has been made in the
+English house is the adoption of "flats"; commenced some time in the
+'fifties in Ashley Gardens, Westminster, they have spread throughout
+London. In consequence of the great value of the sites on which they are
+sometimes built, to which must be added the cost of the houses pulled
+down to make way for them, the question of expense in material and rich
+decoration has not always been worth considering, so that frontages in
+stone, with the classic orders brought in with many varieties of design,
+have given the character of a palace to a structure in which none of the
+rooms exceeds the modest height of 10 ft. The increasing demand for
+these, however, shows that they meet, so far as their accommodation and
+comfort are concerned, the wants and tastes of the upper and middle
+classes. In some of the London streets, where shops occupy the ground
+floor, a far finer type of house has been erected than that which could
+have been afforded for the shopkeeper's residence above, as in old
+times, so that London promises in time to become a city of palaces. The
+same change in the aspects of its streets has long been evident in
+Paris, but there is one feature in the latter city which has never yet
+found its way into London, much to the surprise of French visitors, viz.
+the _porte-cochere_, through which the occupants of the house can in wet
+weather drive and be landed in a covered hall or vestibule. This
+requires, of course, a small court at the back, so small that one
+wonders sometimes how it is possible for the carriage to turn round in
+it. The _porte-cochere_ also, from its dimensions, is a feature of more
+importance than the ordinary street doorway, even when a portico of some
+kind is added; on the other hand, the strict regulations in Paris as
+regards the projection of cornices and other decorative accessories
+gives to the stranger the appearance of monotony in their design, which
+certainly cannot be said of the houses in flats lately built in London.
+Within recent years an old English feature, known as the bow-window, has
+been introduced into Paris, the primary object of which does not seem
+yet to have been thoroughly understood by the French architect. An
+English bow-window, by its slight projection in front of the main wall,
+increases greatly the amount of light entering the room, and it is
+generally placed between solid piers of stone or brick. The French
+architects, however, project their piers on immense corbels, and then
+sink their windows with deep external reveals, so that no benefit
+accrues to the room, so far as the increased light is concerned. In
+Paris, since 1900, there has been a tendency to introduce a style of
+design in French houses which is known as "l'art nouveau," a style which
+commenced in furniture as a reaction against the revival of the Empire
+and Louis XIV. and XVI. periods, and was then extended to house fronts;
+this style has unfortunately spread through the various towns in France
+and apparently to Germany, again as a reaction against the formal
+classic style of the latter half of the 19th century. It is probable
+that in Italy and Spain "l'art nouveau" may meet with the same success,
+and for the same reasons, so that in the latter country it will be a
+revival, with modifications, of the well-known Churrigueresque style,
+the most debased Rococo style which has ever existed. In England it has
+never met with any response.     (R. P. S.)
+
+
+FOOTNOTE:
+
+  [1] A complete description of these houses will be found in _The
+    Evolution of the English House_, by S. O. Addy.
+
+
+
+
+HOUSEHOLD, ROYAL. In all the medieval monarchies of western Europe the
+general system of government sprang from, and centred in, the royal
+household. The sovereign's domestics were his officers of state, and the
+leading dignitaries of the palace were the principal administrators of
+the kingdom. The royal household itself had, in its turn, grown out of
+an earlier and more primitive institution. It took its rise in the
+_comitatus_ described by Tacitus, the chosen band of _comites_ or
+companions who, when the Roman historian wrote, constituted the personal
+following, in peace as well as in war, of the Teutonic chieftain. In
+England before the Conquest the _comitatus_ had developed or
+degenerated into the thegnhood, and among the most eminent and powerful
+of the king's thegns were his dishthegn, his bowerthegn, and his
+horsethegn or staller. In Normandy at the time of the Conquest a similar
+arrangement, imitated from the French court, had long been established,
+and the Norman dukes, like their overlords the kings of France, had
+their seneschal or steward, their chamberlain and their constable. After
+the Conquest the ducal household of Normandy was reproduced in the royal
+household of England; and since, in obedience to the spirit of
+feudalism, the great offices of the first had been made hereditary, the
+great offices of the second were made hereditary also, and were
+thenceforth held by the grantees and their descendants as
+grand-serjeanties of the crown. The consequence was that they passed out
+of immediate relation to the practical conduct of affairs either in both
+state and court or in the one or the other of them. The steward and
+chamberlain of England were superseded in their political functions by
+the justiciar and treasurer of England, and in their domestic functions
+by the steward and chamberlain of the household. The marshal of England
+took the place of the constable of England in the royal palace, and was
+associated with him in the command of the royal armies. In due course,
+however, the marshalship as well as the constableship became hereditary,
+and, although the constable and marshal of England retained their
+military authority until a comparatively late period, the duties they
+had successively performed about the palace had been long before
+transferred to the master of the horse. In these circumstances the
+holders of the original great offices of state and the household ceased
+to attend the court except on occasions of extraordinary ceremony, and
+their representatives either by inheritance or by special appointment
+have ever since continued to appear at coronations and some other public
+solemnities, such as the opening of the parliament or trials by the
+House of Lords.[1]
+
+The materials available for a history of the English royal household are
+somewhat scanty and obscure. The earliest record relating to it is of
+the reign of Henry II. and is contained in the _Black Book of the
+Exchequer_. It enumerates the various inmates of the king's palace and
+the daily allowances made to them at the period at which it was
+compiled. Hence it affords valuable evidence of the antiquity and
+relative importance of the court offices to which it refers,
+notwithstanding that it is silent as to the functions and formal
+subordination of the persons who filled them.[2] In addition to this
+record we have a series of far later, but for the most part equally
+meagre, documents bearing more or less directly on the constitution of
+the royal household, and extending, with long intervals, from the reign
+of Edward III. to the reign of William and Mary.[3] Among them, however,
+are what are known as the _Black Book of the Household_ and the
+_Statutes of Eltham_, the first compiled in the reign of Edward IV. and
+the second in the reign of Henry VIII., from which a good deal of
+detailed information may be gathered concerning the arrangements of the
+court in the 15th and 16th centuries. The _Statutes of Eltham_ were
+meant for the practical guidance merely of those who were responsible
+for the good order and the sufficient supply of the sovereign's
+household at the time they were issued. But the _Black Book of the
+Household_, besides being a sort of treatise on princely magnificence
+generally, professes to be based on the regulations established for the
+governance of the court by Edward III., who, it affirms, was "the first
+setter of certeynties among his domesticall meyne, upon a grounded rule"
+and whose palace it describes as "the house of very policie and flowre
+of England"; and it may therefore possibly, and even probably, take us
+back to a period much more remote than that at which it was actually put
+together.[4] Various orders, returns and accounts of the reigns of
+Elizabeth, James I., Charles I., Charles II., and William and Mary throw
+considerable light on the organization of particular sections of the
+royal household in times nearer to our own.[5] Moreover, there were
+several parliamentary inquiries into the expenses of the royal household
+in connexion with the settlement or reform of the civil list during the
+reigns of George III., George IV. and William IV.[6] But they add little
+or nothing to our knowledge of the subject in what was then its
+historical as distinguished from its contemporary aspects. So much,
+indeed, is this the case that, on the accession of Queen Victoria,
+Chamberlayne's _Present State of England_, which contains a catalogue of
+the officials at the court of Queen Anne, was described by Lord
+Melbourne the prime minister as the "only authority" which the advisers
+of the crown could find for their assistance in determining the
+appropriate constitution and dimensions of the domestic establishment of
+a queen regnant.[7]
+
+In its main outlines the existing organization of the royal household is
+essentially the same as it was under the Tudors or the Plantagenets. It
+is now, as it was then, divided into three principal departments, at the
+head of which are severally the lord steward, the lord chamberlain and
+the master of the horse, and the respective provinces of which may be
+generally described as "below stairs," "above stairs" and "out of
+doors." The duties of these officials, and the various officers under
+their charge are dealt with in the articles under those headings. When
+the reigning sovereign is a queen, the royal household is in some other
+respects rather differently arranged from that of a king and a queen
+consort. When there is a king and a queen consort there is a separate
+establishment "above stairs" and "out of doors" for the queen consort.
+She has a lord chamberlain's department of her own, and all the ladies
+of the court from the mistress of the robes to the maids of honour are
+in her service. At the commencement of the reign of Queen Victoria the
+two establishments were combined, and on the whole considerably reduced.
+On the accession of Edward VII. the civil list was again reconstituted;
+and while the household of the king and his consort became larger than
+during the previous reign, there was a tendency towards increased
+efficiency by abolishing certain offices which were either redundant or
+unnecessary.
+
+The royal households of such of the continental monarchies of Europe as
+have had a continuous history from medieval times resemble in general
+outlines that described above. There are, common to many, certain great
+offices, which have become, in course of time, merely titular and
+sometimes hereditary. In most cases, as the name of the office would
+suggest, they were held by those who discharged personal functions about
+the sovereign. Gradually, in ways or for reasons which might vary in
+each individual case, the office alone survived, the duties either
+ceasing to be necessary, or being transferred to officers of less
+exalted station and permanently attached to the sovereign's household.
+For example, in Prussia, there are certain great titular officers, such
+as the Oberstmarschall (great chamberlain); the Oberstjagermeister
+(grand master of the hunt); the Oberstschenk (grand cup-bearer) and the
+Obersttruchsess (grand carver), while, at the same time, there are also
+departments which correspond, to a great extent--both as to offices and
+their duties--to those of the household of the English sovereigns. This
+is a feature which must necessarily be reproduced in any monarchical
+country, whatever the date of its foundation, to a more or less limited
+extent, and varying in its constitution with the needs or customs of the
+particular countries.
+
+  See also LORD STEWARD; LORD CHAMBERLAIN; MASTER OF THE HORSE; PRIVY
+  PURSE; and CIVIL LIST.
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+  [1] The great officers of state and the household whom we have
+    particularly mentioned do not of course exhaust the catalogue of
+    them. We have named those only whose representatives are still
+    dignitaries of the court and functionaries of the palace. If the
+    reader consults Hallam (_Middle Ages_, i. 181 seq.), Freeman (_Norman
+    Conquest_, i. 91 seq., and v. 426 seq.) and Stubbs (_Const. Hist._ i.
+    343, seq.), he will be able himself to fill in the details of the
+    outline we have given above.
+
+  [2] The record in question is entitled _Constitutio Domus Regis de
+    Procurationibus_, and is printed by Hearne (_Liber Niger Scaccarii_,
+    i. 341 sq.). It is analysed by Stubbs (_Const. Hist._ vol. i. note 2,
+    p. 345).
+
+  [3] _A Collection of Ordinances and Regulations for the Government of
+    the Royal Household, made in Divers Reigns from King Edward III. to
+    King William and Queen Mary_, printed for the Society of Antiquaries,
+    (London, 1790). See also Pegge's _Curialia_, published partly before
+    and partly after this volume; and Carlisle's _Gentlemen of the Privy
+    Chamber_, published in 1829. Pegge and Carlisle, however, deal with
+    small and insignificant portions of the royal establishment.
+
+  [4] _Liber niger domus Regis Edward IV._ and _Ordinances for the
+    Household made at Eltham in the seventeenth year of King Henry VIII.,
+    A.D. 1526_, are the titles of these two documents. The earlier
+    documents printed in the same collection are _Household of King
+    Edward III. in Peace and War from the eighteenth to the twenty-first
+    year of his reign_; _Ordinances of the Household of King Henry IV. in
+    the thirty-third year of his reign, A.D. 1455_, and _Articles
+    ordained by King Henry VII. for the Regulation of his Household, A.D.
+    1494_.
+
+  [5] _The Book of the Household of Queen Elizabeth as it was ordained
+    in the forty-third year of her Reign delivered to our Sovereign Lord
+    King James, &c._, is simply a list of officers' names and allowances.
+    It seems to have been drawn up under the curious circumstances
+    referred to in _Archaeologia_ (xii. 80-85). For the rest of these
+    documents see _Ordinances and Regulations, &c._, pp. 299, 340, 347,
+    352, 368 and 380.
+
+  [6] Burke's celebrated Act "for enabling His Majesty to discharge the
+    debt contracted upon the civil list, and for preventing the same from
+    being in arrear for the future, &c.," 22 Geo. III. c. 82, was passed
+    in 1782. But it was foreshadowed in his great speech on "Economical
+    Reform" delivered two years before. Since the beginning of the 19th
+    century select committees of the House of Commons have reported on
+    the civil list and royal household in 1803, 1804, 1815, 1831 and
+    1901.
+
+  [7] Torrens's _Memoirs of William, second Viscount Melbourne_,
+    ii-303.
+
+
+
+
+HOUSEL, the English name, until the time of the Reformation, for the
+Eucharist. The word in O. Eng. was _husel_. Its proper meaning is
+"sacrifice," and thus the word _hunsl_ appears in Ulfilas' Gothic
+version of Matt. ix. 13, "I will have mercy and not sacrifice." The
+ultimate origin is doubtful. The _New English Dictionary_ connects it
+with a Teutonic stem meaning "holy"; from which is derived the
+Lithuanian _szwentas_, and Lettish _swets_. Skeat refers it to a root
+meaning "to kill," which may connect it with Gr. [Greek: kainein].
+
+
+
+
+HOUSELEEK, _Sempervivum_, a genus of ornamental evergreen plants
+belonging to the natural order _Crassulaceae_. About 30 species are
+known in gardens, some of which are hardy perennial herbs, and grow well
+in dry or rocky situations; the others are evergreen shrubs or
+undershrubs, fit only for cultivation in the greenhouse or conservatory.
+The genus _Sempervivum_ is distinguished from the nearly allied _Sedum_
+by having more than five (about 12) petals, and by the glands at the
+base of the ovary being laciniated if present. The common houseleek, _S.
+tectorum_ (Ger. _Hauswurzel_, Fr. _joubarbe_), is often met with in
+Britain on roofs of outhouses and wall-tops, but is not a native.
+Originally it was indigenous in the Alps, but it is now widely dispersed
+in Europe, and has been introduced into America. The leaves are thick,
+fleshy and succulent, and are arranged in the form of a rosette lying
+close to the soil. The plant propagates itself by offsets on all sides,
+so that it forms after a time a dense cushion or aggregation of
+rosettes. The flowering stem, which is of rather rare occurrence, is
+about 1 ft. high, reddish, cylindrical and succulent, and ends in a
+level-topped cyme, reflexed at the circumference, of reddish flowers,
+which bloom from June to September. The houseleek has been known
+variously as the houselick, homewort or great houseleek. _Sedum acre_
+(stone-crop) is styled the little houseleek. In Germany it is sometimes
+called _Donnerkraut_, from being supposed to protect the house on which
+it grows from thunder. The leaves are said to contain malic acid in
+considerable quantity, and have been eaten as salad, like _Portulaca_.
+_S. glutinosum_ and _S. balsamiferum_, natives respectively of Madeira
+and the Canary Islands, contain a very viscous substance in large
+quantity, and are used for the preparation of bird-lime; fishermen in
+Madeira, after dipping their nets in an alkaline solution, rub them with
+this substance, rendering them as tough as leather. _S. montanum_,
+indigenous in Central Europe, according to Gmelin, causes violent
+purging; _S. arboreum_, [Greek: to mega aeizoon] of Dioscorides, is
+employed in Cyprus, the East, and northern Africa as an external remedy
+for malignant ulcers, inflammations and burns, and internally for mucous
+discharges.
+
+
+
+
+HOUSING. The housing of the poorer classes has become a pressing problem
+in all populous Western countries, and has engaged, in a varying but
+constantly increasing measure, the attention of legislative and
+administrative bodies and of philanthropic individuals and societies.
+The general interest was signalized by an International Congress held
+in London in 1907. The recognition of the problem is due in the first
+instance to the science of public health, the rise of which dates from
+the second quarter of the 19th century; and in the second instance to
+the growth of urban populations consequent on the development of
+manufacturing industries and of trading and transporting agencies, both
+of which tend to mass increasing numbers of people in convenient
+centres. To have a clear view of the subject it is necessary to
+distinguish these factors and their respective influence upon the
+problem. Urban congestion is quite secondary, and only important because
+and so far as it has a prejudicial effect upon health and strength.
+Further, the requirements on the scientific side, made on behalf of
+public health, are of very much wider application and more expansive
+than those which arise from the mere growth of urban population. That is
+obvious at once from the fact that they extend to rural housing, which
+has indeed become a prominent feature of the question in recent years.
+To ascribe the housing problem to the "factory system," as some writers
+have done, is to put forward an inadequate and misleading view of it. It
+is, in fact, particularly acute in some places totally devoid of
+factories and least acute in some purely factory towns. If the factory
+system were abolished with all its effects the housing question would
+remain. But there is a more important distinction than extent of
+application. The requirements of public health are indeterminate and
+interminable; knowledge increases, or rather changes, and the standard
+constantly rises. It is the changing standard which gives most trouble;
+housing at one period thought good enough is presently condemned. Fifty
+years ago no house existed which would satisfy modern sanitary
+standards, and the mansions of the great were in some respects inferior
+to the worst quarters to-day. And to this process there is no end. It is
+quite conceivable that urban congestion might cease to be a difficulty
+at all. That actually happens in particular towns where the population
+is stationary or diminishing. One whole nation (France) has already
+reached that point, and others are moving towards it at varying rates.
+But even where the supply of houses exceeds the demand and many stand
+empty, the housing problem remains; condemnation of existing
+accommodation continues and the effort to provide superior houses goes
+on. In other words, there are two main aspects of the housing question,
+quality and quantity; they touch at various points and interact, but
+they are essentially distinct. The problem of quantity may be "solved,"
+that of quality has no finality.
+
+The importance attached to housing is much enhanced by the general
+tendency to lay stress on the material conditions of life, which
+characterizes the present age. Among material conditions environment
+takes a leading place, largely under the influence of the theory of
+evolution in a popular and probably erroneous form; and among the
+factors of environment the home assumes a more and more prominent
+position. There is reason in this, for whatever other provision be made
+for work or recreation the home is after all the place where people
+spend most of their time. Life begins there and generally ends there. At
+the beginning of life the whole time is spent there and home conditions
+are of paramount importance to the young, whose physical welfare has
+become the object of increasing care. But the usual tendency to run to
+extremes has asserted itself. It may be admitted that it is extremely
+difficult to raise the character and condition of those who live in
+thoroughly bad home surroundings, and that an indispensable or
+preliminary step is to improve the dwelling. But if in pursuit of this
+object other considerations are lost sight of, the result is failure.
+Bad housing is intimately connected with poverty; it is, indeed, largely
+a question of poverty now that the difference between good and bad
+housing is understood and the effects of the latter are recognized. The
+poorest people live under the worst housing conditions because they are
+the cheapest; the economic factor governs the situation. Poverty again
+is associated with bad habits, with dirt, waste, idleness and vice, both
+as cause and as effect. These factors cannot be separated in real life;
+they act and react upon each other in such a way that it is impossible
+to disentangle their respective shares in producing physical and moral
+evils. To lay all responsibility upon the structural environment is an
+error constantly exposed by experience.
+
+Defective quality embraces some or all of the following
+conditions--darkness, bad air, damp, dirt and dilapidation. Particular
+insanitary conditions independent of the structure are often associated;
+namely defects of water-supply, drainage, excrement and house refuse
+removal, back-yards and surrounding ground; they contribute to dirt,
+damp and bad air. Defective quantity produces high rents and
+overcrowding, both of which have a prejudicial effect upon health; the
+one by diminishing expenditure on other necessaries, the other by
+fouling the atmosphere and promoting the spread of infectious illness.
+The physical effects of these conditions have been demonstrated by
+comparative statistics of mortality general and special; among the
+latter particular stress is laid on the mortality of infants, that from
+consumption and from "zymotic" diseases. The statistical evidence has
+been especially directed to the effects of overcrowding, which can be
+stated with greater precision than other insanitary conditions. It
+generally takes the form of comparing the death-rates of different areas
+having widely contrasted densities of population or proportions of
+persons to a given space. It is not necessary to quote any of these
+figures, which have been produced in great abundance. They broadly
+establish a connexion between density and mortality; but the inference
+that the connexion can be reduced to a precise numerical statement and
+that the difference of mortality shown is all due to overcrowding or
+other housing conditions is highly fallacious. Many other factors ought
+to be taken into account, such as the age-distribution of the
+population, the birth-rate, the occupations, means, character and habits
+of the people, the geographical situation, the number of public
+institutions, hospitals, workhouses, asylums and so forth. The
+fallacious use of vital statistics for the purpose of proving some
+particular point has become so common that it is necessary to enter a
+warning against them; the subject of housing is a popular field for the
+exercise of that art, though there is no need of it.
+
+The actual state of housing in different countries and localities, the
+efforts made to deal with it by various agencies, the subsidiary points
+which arise in connexion with it and the results attained--all these
+heads embrace such a vast mass of facts that any attempt to treat them
+fully in detail would run to inordinate length. It must suffice to
+review the more salient points; and the most convenient way of doing so
+is to deal first with Great Britain, which has led the way historically
+in extent of need, in its recognition and in efforts to meet it, adding
+some notes upon other countries, in which the question is of more recent
+date and for which less information is available.
+
+
+THE UNITED KINGDOM
+
+The importance of housing and the need of improvement had by 1909
+received public recognition in England for nearly 70 years, a period
+coinciding almost exactly with the systematic study of sanitation or
+public health. The active movement definitely began about 1841 with
+voluntary effort in which Lord Shaftesbury was the most prominent and
+active figure. The motive was philanthropic and the object was to
+improve the condition of the working classes. It took the form of
+societies; one was the "Metropolitan Association for Improving the
+Dwellings of the Industrial Classes," incorporated in 1845 but founded
+in 1841; another was the "Society for Improving the Condition of the
+Labouring Classes," originally the "Labourers' Friend Society," of which
+the Prince Consort became president. That fact and the statement of the
+Society concerning improved housing that "the moral were almost equal to
+the physical benefits," sufficiently prove that public interest in the
+subject and a grasp of its significance already existed at that date.
+Legislation followed not long after and has continued at intervals ever
+since.
+
+  _Legislation._--Twenty-eight Housing and Health Acts, passed between
+  1851 and 1903, are enumerated by Mr Dewsnup, whose monograph on _The
+  Housing Problem in England_ is the fullest account of the subject
+  published. The first was the Shaftesbury Act of 1851 for the
+  establishment of lodging-houses for the working classes; the last was
+  the Housing of the Working Classes Act of 1903. The Shaftesbury Act
+  had in view the provision by local authorities of good lodging-houses
+  for the better class of artisans, and particularly of single persons,
+  male and female, though families were also contemplated. It was
+  accompanied in the same year by another act, not included in the list
+  of twenty-eight, for the regulation and control of common
+  lodging-houses, from which Mr Dewsnup reasonably infers that the
+  object of Lord Shaftesbury, who inspired both acts, was the separation
+  of the casual and disorderly class frequenting common lodging-houses
+  from the more regularly employed and respectable workers who were
+  sometimes driven to use them for lack of other accommodation. At any
+  rate this early legislation embodied the principle of differential
+  treatment and showed a grasp of the problem not always visible in
+  later procedure. The most important of the subsequent acts were those
+  of 1855 and 1866, both intended to encourage private enterprise in the
+  provision of working-class dwellings; the Torrens Act of 1868
+  (Artisans' and Labourers' Dwellings Act) for the improvement or
+  demolition of existing buildings; the Cross Act of 1875 (Artisans' and
+  Labourers' Dwellings Improvement Act), for extending that process to
+  larger areas; the Public Health Act of 1875; the Housing of the
+  Working Classes Act of 1885 following the report of the Royal
+  Commission on the Housing of the Working Classes, of which King
+  Edward, then prince of Wales, was a member; the Housing of the Working
+  Classes Act of 1890; the Public Health (London) Act of 1891. The acts
+  of 1875 (Public Health), of 1890 and of 1891 are still in force. The
+  story of this half-century of legislation (which also includes a
+  number of Scotch and Irish acts, local private acts and others bearing
+  on the question) is one of tentative efforts first in one direction
+  then in another, of laws passed, amended, extended, consolidated,
+  superseded. Many of the enactments, originally of limited application,
+  were subsequently extended, and the principal laws now in force apply
+  to the whole of the United Kingdom. Two main objects can be
+  distinguished--(1) the treatment of existing dwellings by demolition
+  or improvement; (2) the construction of new ones. The second head is
+  further subdivided into (a) municipal action, (b) private action.
+  These objects have been alternately promoted by legislative measures
+  conceived and carried out on no systematic plan, but gradually and
+  continuously developed into an effective body of law, particularly
+  with regard to the means of dealing with existing insanitary
+  dwellings. The advancing requirements of public health are clearly
+  traceable in the series of enactments directed to that end. The
+  Nuisances Removal Act of 1855 took cognizance of premises in such a
+  state as to be "a nuisance or injurious to health," and made provision
+  for obtaining an order to prohibit the use of such premises for human
+  habitation. In the same act overcrowding obtained statutory
+  recognition as a condition dangerous or prejudicial to health, and
+  provision was made for compelling its abatement. The campaign against
+  bad housing conditions thus inaugurated by the legislature was
+  extended by subsequent acts in 1860, 1866 and 1868, culminating in the
+  Cross Act of 1875 for the demolition (and reconstruction) of large
+  insanitary areas and the extremely important Public Health Act of the
+  same year. The constructive policy, begun still earlier in 1851 by
+  Lord Shaftesbury's Act, was concurrently pursued, and for some years
+  more actively than the destructive; but after 1866 the latter became
+  more prominent, and though the other was not lost sight of it fell
+  into the background until revived by the Royal Commission of 1885 and
+  the housing legislation which followed, particularly the Housing of
+  the Working Classes Act of 1890, amending and consolidating previous
+  acts.
+
+The laws in operation at the beginning of 1909 were the Public Health
+Acts of 1875 and 1891 (London), as amended by subsequent minor measures,
+and the Housing of the Working Classes Act of 1890, amended in 1894,
+1900 and 1903. The Public Health Acts place upon the local sanitary
+authority the obligation of securing, under by-laws, the proper
+construction, draining and cleaning of streets, removal of house refuse
+and building of houses, including structural details for the prevention
+of damp and decay, the provision of sanitary conveniences and an
+adequate water-supply; also of inquiring into and removing nuisances,
+which include any premises in such a condition as to be a nuisance or
+injurious to health and any house so overcrowded as to be dangerous or
+injurious to health. For the purpose of carrying out these duties the
+local authority has the power of inspection, of declaring a building
+unfit for human habitation and of closing it by order. The Housing Acts
+give more extended power to the local authority to demolish insanitary
+dwellings and clear whole areas or "slums," and also to construct
+dwellings for the working classes with or without such clearance; they
+also retain the older provisions for encouraging private enterprise in
+the erection of superior dwellings for the working classes. The
+procedure for dealing with insanitary property under these Acts is too
+intricate to be stated in detail; but, briefly, there are two ways of
+proceeding. In the first the local authority, on receiving formal
+complaint of an unhealthy area, cause an inspection to be made by their
+medical officer, and if the report in their opinion justifies action,
+they may prepare an "improvement scheme," which is submitted to the
+Local Government Board. The Board holds an inquiry, and, if satisfied,
+issues a provisional order, which has to be confirmed by a special act
+of parliament, under which the local authority can proceed to demolish
+the houses concerned after paying compensation to the owners. This
+procedure, which is authorized by part i. of the act of 1890, is
+obviously both cumbrous and costly. The second way, provided for by part
+ii. of the act, is much simpler and less ambitious; it only applies to
+single houses or groups of houses. The medical officer in the course of
+his duty reports to the local authority any houses which are in his
+opinion unfit for human habitation; the local authority can then make an
+order to serve notices on the owners to repair the houses at their own
+expense. Failing compliance on the part of the owners, an order for
+closing the houses can be obtained; and if nothing is done at the end of
+three months an order for demolition can be made. Buildings injurious by
+reason of their obstructive character (e.g. houses built back to back so
+as to be without through ventilation and commonly called "back-to-back"
+houses) can be dealt with in a similar manner. Small areas containing
+groups of objectionable houses of either kind may be made the subject of
+an improvement scheme, as above. Where areas are dealt with under
+improvement schemes there is a certain obligation to re-house the
+persons displaced. Building schemes are provided for under part iii. of
+the act. Land may be compulsorily purchased for the purpose and the
+money required may be raised by loans under certain conditions. The
+provisions thus summarized were considerably modified by the "Housing,
+Town Planning, &c., Act," passed at the end of 1909. It rendered
+obligatory the adoption (previously permissive) of the housing
+provisions (part iii.) of the act of 1890 by local authorities,
+simplified the procedure for the compulsory purchase of land required
+for the purpose and extended the facilities for obtaining loans. It
+further gave power to the Local Government Board to compel local
+authorities to put in force the act of 1890 in regard both to existing
+insanitary housing and the provision of new housing. Power was also
+given to county councils to act in default of rural district councils in
+regard to new housing. The procedure for dealing with insanitary houses
+by closing and demolition under part ii. (see above) was rendered more
+stringent. The general intention of the new act was partly to facilitate
+the administration of the previous one by local authorities and partly
+to provide means of compelling supine authorities to take action. Its
+town-planning provisions are noted below.
+
+_Effects of Legislation._--The efficacy of laws depends very largely on
+their administration; and when they are permissive and dependent on the
+energy and discretion of local bodies their administration varies
+greatly in different localities. That has been the case with the British
+housing and health laws, and is one cause of dissatisfaction with them.
+But in the aggregate they have effected very great improvement. Public
+action has chiefly taken effect in sanitary reform, which includes the
+removal of the worst housing, through demolition or alteration, and
+general sanitary improvements of various kinds. In some large towns the
+worst parts have been transformed, masses of old, narrow, crowded,
+dilapidated and filthy streets and courts have been swept away at one
+blow or by degrees; other parts have been reconstructed or improved. The
+extent to which this has been accomplished is not generally recognized.
+It is not easily demonstrated, and to realize it local knowledge,
+observation and memory are needed. The details of the story are hidden
+away in local annals and official reports; and writers on the subject
+are usually more concerned with what has not than with what has been
+done. Both the Public Health and the Housing Acts have had a share in
+the improvement effected. The operation of the former is slow and
+gradual, but it is continuous and far more general than that of the
+latter. It embraces many details which are not usually taken into
+account in discussing housing, but which have as much bearing on the
+healthiness of the home as the structure itself. The Public Health Acts
+have further had a certain preventive influence in laying down a
+standard for the erection of new houses by the ordinary commercial
+agencies. Such houses are not ideal, because the commercial builder
+studies economy and the question of rent; but the standard has risen,
+and building plans involving insufficient light and air, such as once
+were general, have now for several years been forbidden almost
+everywhere. Supervision of commercial building is, in fact, vastly more
+important than the erection of dwellings by public or philanthropic
+agencies, because it affects a vastly larger proportion of the
+population. The influence of the Public Health Acts in improving the
+conditions of home life cannot be estimated or summarized, but it is
+reflected in the general death-rate, which fell steadily in the United
+Kingdom from 21.1 per 1000 in 1878 to 15.4 per 1000 in 1907.
+
+  _Insanitary Areas._--The operation of the Housing Acts is more
+  susceptible of being stated in figures, though no fully comprehensive
+  information is available. The original Shaftesbury Act of 1851 for
+  erecting municipal lodging-houses appears to have been practically
+  inoperative and little or nothing was done for a good many years. In
+  1864, however, Liverpool obtained a private act and entered on the
+  policy of improvement by the demolition of insanitary dwellings on a
+  considerable scale, following it up in 1869 by re-housing. In 1866
+  Glasgow, also under a private act, created an Improvement Trust,
+  administered by the city council, and embarked on a large scheme of
+  improvement. These seem to have been the earliest examples. The
+  Torrens Act of 1868, which embodied the improvement policy, did not
+  produce much effect. According to a parliamentary return, during the
+  years 1883-1888, proceedings were only taken under this act in respect
+  of about 2000 houses in London and four provincial towns. More
+  advantage was taken of the Cross Act of 1875, which was intended to
+  promote large improvement schemes. Between 1875 and 1885 23 schemes
+  involving a total area of 51 acres and a population of about 30,000
+  were undertaken, in London; and 11 schemes in provincial towns. By far
+  the most important of these, and the largest single scheme ever
+  undertaken, was one carried out in Birmingham. It affected an area of
+  93 acres and involved a net cost of L550,000. Altogether between
+  L4,000,000 and L5,000,000 were raised for improvement schemes under
+  those acts. After the Housing Act of 1890 the clearance policy was
+  continued in London and extended in the provinces. During the period
+  1891-1905 loans to the amount of about L2,300,000 were raised for
+  improvement schemes by 28 provincial towns in England and Wales. The
+  largest of these were Leeds (L923,000), Manchester (L285,000),
+  Liverpool (L178,000), Sheffield (L131,000), Brighton (L112,000). The
+  Leeds scheme affected an area of 75 acres, which was cleared at a cost
+  of L500,000. In London the area cleared was raised to a total of 104
+  acres; the gross cost, down to March 31, 1908, was L3,417,337, the net
+  cost L2,434,096, and the number of persons displaced 48,525. Glasgow
+  has under its Improvement Trust cleared an area of 88 acres with a
+  population of 51,000. At the same time the policy of dealing with
+  houses unfit for habitation singly or in small groups by compelling
+  owners to improve them has been pursued by a certain number of local
+  authorities. In the six years 1899-1904 action was taken each year on
+  the average in respect of about 5000 houses by some 400 local
+  authorities large and small outside London. Representations were made
+  against 33,746 houses, 17,210 were rendered fit for habitation,
+  closing orders were obtained against 4220 and demolition orders
+  against 748. These figures do not include cases in which action was
+  taken under local acts and Public Health Acts. In Manchester, between
+  1885 and 1905, nearly 10,000 "back-to-back" houses were closed and
+  about half of them reopened after reconstruction. Hull, an old seaport
+  town with a great deal of extremely bad housing, has made very
+  effective use of the method of gradual improvement and has transformed
+  its worst areas without appearing in any list of improvement schemes.
+  In recent years this procedure has been systematically taken up in
+  Birmingham and other places, and has been strongly advocated by Mr J.
+  S. Nettlefold (_Practical Housing_) in preference to large improvement
+  schemes on account of the excessive expense involved by the latter in
+  buying up insanitary areas. In the six years 1902-1907 Birmingham
+  dealt with 4111 houses represented as unfit for habitation; 1780 were
+  thoroughly repaired, 1005 were demolished; the rest were under notice
+  or in course of repair at the end of the period. Among other towns
+  which have adopted this policy are Liverpool, Cardiff, York,
+  Warrington and two London boroughs.
+
+  _Building._--On the constructive side the operation of the Housing
+  Acts has been less extensive and much less general. In London alone
+  has the erection of working-class dwellings by municipal action and
+  organized private enterprise assumed large proportions. Philanthropic
+  societies were first in the field and date from a period anterior to
+  legislation, which however, stimulated their activity for many years
+  by affording facilities. Fourteen organizations were in operation in
+  London prior to 1890 and some of them on a large scale; others have
+  since been formed. The earliest was the Metropolitan Association for
+  Improving the Dwellings of the Industrial Classes, whose operations
+  date from 1847; it has built 1441 tenements containing 5105 rooms. The
+  largest of these enterprises are the Improved Industrial Dwellings
+  Company (1864), which has built 5421 tenements containing 19,945
+  rooms; the Peabody Fund (1864) with 5469 tenements containing 12,328
+  rooms; the Artisans', Labourers' and General Dwellings Company (1867),
+  with 1467 tenements containing 3495 rooms, and 6195 cottage dwellings;
+  the East-End Dwellings Company (1885) with 2096 tenements containing
+  4276 rooms; the Guinness Trust (1889) with 2574 tenements containing
+  5338 rooms. The Artisans' Dwellings Company alone has housed upwards
+  of 50,000 persons. In addition to these there are the Rowton Houses
+  (1892), which are hotels for working men, six in number, accommodating
+  5162 persons. So far as can be estimated, private enterprise has
+  housed some 150,000 persons in improved dwellings in London on a
+  commercial basis. The early activity of the building companies was
+  largely due to the policy of the Metropolitan Board of Works, which
+  adopted extensive improvement schemes and sold the cleared sites to
+  the companies, who carried out the re-housing obligations imposed by
+  the law. Since the London County Council, which replaced the Board of
+  Works in 1889, adopted the policy of undertaking its own re-housing,
+  their activity has greatly diminished. The buildings erected by them
+  are nearly all in the form of blocks of tenements; the Artisans'
+  Dwellings Company, which has built small houses and shops in outlying
+  parts of London, is an exception. The tenement blocks are scattered
+  about London in many quarters. For instance the Peabody Fund has 18
+  sets of dwellings in different situations, the Metropolitan
+  Association has 14; the Artisans' Dwellings Company has 10; the
+  Guinness Trust has 8. In 1909 an important addition to the list of
+  philanthropic enterprises in London was put in hand under the will of
+  Mr W. R. Sutton, who left nearly L2,000,000 for the purpose of
+  providing improved working-class dwellings. The erection of tenement
+  blocks containing accommodation for 300 families was begun on a site
+  in the City Road. In only a few provincial towns has private
+  enterprise contributed to improved housing in a similar manner and
+  that not upon a large scale; among them are Newcastle, Leeds, Hull,
+  Salford and Dublin.
+
+  _Municipal Building_ has been more generally adopted. The following
+  details are taken from Mr W. Thompson's _Housing up to Date_, which
+  gives comprehensive information down to the end of 1906. The number of
+  local authorities which had then availed themselves of part iii. of
+  the Housing Act of 1890, which provides for the erection of
+  working-class dwellings, was 142. They were the London County Council,
+  12 Metropolitan Boroughs, 69 County Boroughs and Town Councils, 49
+  Urban District Councils and 12 Rural District Councils. The dwellings
+  erected are classified as lodging-houses, block dwellings, tenement
+  houses, cottage flats and cottages. Lodging-houses have been built by
+  12 towns, of which 8 are in England, 3 in Scotland (Glasgow, Aberdeen
+  and Leith) and 1 in Ireland (Belfast). The total number of beds
+  provided was 6218, of which Glasgow accounts for 2414, London for
+  1846, Manchester and Salford together for 648. Four other towns have
+  built or are building municipal lodging-houses for which no details
+  are available. The other municipal dwellings erected are summarized as
+  follows:--
+
+    +------------------+-----------------+-------------+
+    | Kind of Dwelling.|No. of Dwellings.|No. of Rooms.|
+    +------------------+-----------------+-------------+
+    | Blocks           |     12,165      |   27,523    |
+    | Tenement Houses  |      2,507      |    6,068    |
+    | Cottage flats    |      2,004      |    5,747    |
+    | Cottages         |      3,830      |   17,611    |
+    +------------------+-----------------+-------------+
+    |      Total       |     20,506      |   56,949    |
+    +------------------+-----------------+-------------+
+
+  It appears from these figures that municipal building has provided for
+  a smaller number of persons in the whole of the United Kingdom than
+  private enterprise in London alone. The principal towns which have
+  erected dwellings in blocks are London (7786), Glasgow (2300),
+  Edinburgh (596), Liverpool (501), Dublin (460) and Manchester (420).
+  The great majority of such dwellings contain either two or three
+  rooms. Tenement houses have been built in Liverpool (1424), Manchester
+  (308), Sheffield (192), Aberdeen (128), and in seven other towns on a
+  small scale. Such tenements are generally somewhat larger than those
+  built in blocks; the proportion of three- and four-roomed dwellings is
+  higher and only a small number consist of a single room. Cottage flats
+  have been built in Dublin (528), West Ham (401), Battersea (320),
+  Plymouth (238), East Ham (212), and on a small scale in Liverpool,
+  Birmingham, Newcastle and seven other places. The majority of the
+  cottage flats contain three or more rooms, a considerable proportion
+  have four rooms. Cottages have been built in 67 places, chiefly small
+  towns and suburban districts. Of the large towns which have adopted
+  this class of dwellings Salford stands first with 633 cottages; three
+  London boroughs, all on the south side of the Thames, have built 234;
+  Manchester has 228, Sheffield 173, Huddersfield 157, Birmingham 103.
+  The number of rooms in municipal cottages ranges from three to eight,
+  but the great majority of these dwellings have four or five rooms.
+
+  Some further details of municipal housing in particular towns are of
+  interest. In London, the work of the London County Council down to
+  March 31, 1908, not including three lodging-homes containing 1845
+  cubicles, is given in the official volume of London Statistics,
+  published by the Council, as follows:--
+
+    _Buildings Erected and in Course of Erection._
+
+    +----------+--------+--------------+----------------+
+    |  No. of  | No. of | Cost of Land | No. of Persons |
+    |Dwellings.| Rooms. | and Building.| in Occupation. |
+    +----------+--------+--------------+----------------+
+    |  8,373   | 22,939 |  L2,438,263  |     26,687     |
+    +----------+--------+--------------+----------------+
+
+  With regard to the cost, it is to be noted that the actual cost of the
+  land purchased for improvement schemes was very much greater than that
+  stated, having been written down to an arbitrary figure called
+  "housing valuation." The financial accounts of L.C.C. dwellings for
+  the year ending March 31, 1908, are thus summarized:--
+
+    _London County Council Dwellings, Accounts 1907-1908._
+
+    +--------+--------------+-------------+-----------+--------+
+    |  Gross |Deductions for|             |Expenditure|  Net   |
+    | Rental.| Empties, &c. |Net Receipts.| including |Returns.|
+    |        |              |             | Interest. |        |
+    +--------+--------------+-------------+-----------+--------+
+    |L180,169|   L19,455    |  L160,714   |  L157,141 | L3,573 |
+    +--------+--------------+-------------+-----------+--------+
+
+  It appears from this that if the actual commercial cost of the land
+  were taken the housing of the Council would be run at a considerable
+  annual loss. The occupations of the tenants are stated in the
+  following proportions: labourers 789, clerks 312, policemen 251, shop
+  assistants 202, warehousemen 183, printers 182, charwomen 182, tailors
+  155, cabinetmakers 146, canvassers 122, cigarette makers 118, widows
+  116, tram drivers 110, postmen 107, packers 97, engineers 87,
+  dressmakers 41, coachmen 31, motormen 26, milliners 19. These
+  proportional figures show that though a considerable number of
+  labourers have been housed, the great majority of the occupants of
+  London municipal dwellings are of a superior class. The mean weekly
+  rent in London County Council dwellings is 2s. 10(1/2)d. per room
+  against 2s. 4d. in dwellings erected by other agencies. The most
+  important feature of the County Council's policy in recent years has
+  been the acquisition of suburban sites for the erection of cottages.
+  There are four such sites, two on the south, one on the north and one
+  on the west side of London; the total area is 349 acres, and the total
+  accommodation contemplated is for 66,000 persons at an estimated cost
+  of L3,105,840; the present accommodation is for about 8000. In
+  addition to the housing provided by the County Council, fourteen
+  London Borough Councils and the City Corporation had at the beginning
+  of 1909 erected or adapted 3136 dwellings containing 7999 rooms.
+
+  In Liverpool, down to 1907, about L920,000 had been spent in clearing
+  insanitary areas and building new dwellings; the demolition of about
+  8000 houses and purchase of land cost about L500,000; and the erection
+  of 2046 dwellings, containing 4961 rooms, cost about L350,000. The
+  size of the dwellings and the number of each class are: 1 room, 193; 2
+  rooms, 965; 3 rooms, 719; 4 rooms, 167. The great majority are in
+  tenement houses of three storeys. The mean weekly rent is 1s. 6(1/2)d.
+  per room, but a large number are let at less. The net return on the
+  total outlay is just over 1%, on the building outlay it is 2(2/3)%.
+  The principal classes of persons occupying the dwellings are labourers
+  675, carters 120, charwomen 103, firemen 93, porters 80, hawkers 64,
+  sailors 45, scavengers 40. These all belong to the poorest classes,
+  living by casual or irregular work. Liverpool has, in fact, succeeded
+  more than any other town in providing municipal dwellings in which the
+  really poor can afford to live.
+
+  In Manchester 956 dwellings have been built at a total cost for
+  building and improvement of L451,932; of the whole number 420 are in
+  blocks, 308 in tenement houses and 228 in cottages. The rents are much
+  higher than in Liverpool; in the tenement houses the mean weekly rent
+  is about 6d. per room more than in Liverpool. The gross profit on the
+  block dwellings is 1(1/3)% on the capital outlay, on the tenement
+  houses 3%, on the cottages 2(2/3)%. "The total loss during the last
+  seven to ten years, including loan charges, has amounted to about
+  L54,240" (Thompson).
+
+  In Glasgow the corporation has built under improvement schemes 2280
+  new dwellings containing 4013 rooms and 241 shops. The dwellings,
+  which are all in blocks and centrally situated, are occupied chiefly
+  by artisans; only 28% have been reserved for the poorest class of
+  tenants. The total amount taken from the rates on this account in 30
+  years is L600,000. Dwellings valued at L400,000 for building and
+  L300,000 for land give a net return of 3.06% on outlay; dwellings
+  valued at L280,000 for land and building return 3.03% on outlay;
+  leaving the sinking fund charges to be defrayed out of rates.
+
+  In Edinburgh insanitary areas have been bought for L107,023 and new
+  dwellings containing 1032 rooms have been built for L87,970. Nearly
+  all the dwellings are of one or two rooms only. The rents charged
+  average about 2s. a week per room; actual rents received average 1s.
+  4d. per room and they have to be subsidized out of the rates to the
+  extent of 2s. 3d. per room to meet the cost of site.
+
+  In Dublin provision has been or was in 1909 shortly to be made for
+  housing 5394 families or 19,000 persons; of which 1041 families, or
+  about one-fifth, are housed by the Corporation, the rest by companies
+  and private persons. Altogether it was estimated that L500,000 would
+  be spent under the act of 1890. Fifteen streets, containing 1665
+  houses, have been declared unhealthy areas by the medical officer, and
+  between 1879 and 1909 more than 3000 houses were closed as unfit for
+  habitation.
+
+  _Co-operative Building._--Municipal and philanthropic housing by no
+  means exhaust the efforts that have been made to provide working-class
+  dwellings outside the ordinary building market. Their special function
+  has been to substitute better dwellings for pre-existing bad ones,
+  which is the most costly and difficult, as well as the most urgent,
+  part of the problem in old towns. But in the provision of new
+  dwellings alone they have been far surpassed by organized self-help in
+  different forms. Down to 1906 there had been built 46,707 houses by
+  413 co-operative societies at a cost of nearly L10,000,000. They are
+  most numerous in the manufacturing towns and particularly in the
+  north-western district of England. Of the whole number 8530 were owned
+  by the societies which built them; 5577 had been sold to members, and
+  32,600 had been built by members on money lent by the societies. These
+  figures do not include the particular form of co-operative building
+  known as co-partnership housing, which will be mentioned later on, or
+  the operations of the so-called building societies, which are really
+  companies lending money to persons on mortgage for the purpose of
+  building. The difference between them and the co-operative societies
+  which do the same thing is that the latter retain the element of
+  co-operation by lending only to their own members, whereas the
+  building societies deal in the open market. Their operations are on an
+  immense scale; at the end of 1908 the invested funds of the registered
+  building societies exceeded L72,000,000. An agency working on this
+  scale, which far exceeds the operations of all the others put
+  together, is obviously an important factor in housing. The number of
+  houses built must help to relieve congestion, and since they are built
+  to suit the owners or tenants they cannot be of the worst class. They
+  also represent a form of thrift, and deserve notice on that account.
+
+  The Small Dwellings Acquisition Act of 1899, which has not previously
+  been mentioned, was intended to facilitate the building or purchase of
+  small houses by their tenants by means of loans advanced by local
+  authorities. Down to 1906 about L82,000 had been so advanced by 5
+  county boroughs, 17 urban councils and 1 rural district council.
+
+  _Housing by Employers._--No comprehensive information is available on
+  this head, but it has not been an important factor in towns, being
+  chiefly confined to agricultural, mining and suburban manufacturing
+  districts. The former two belong to the subject of Rural Housing,
+  which is separately discussed below; the third has an interest of its
+  own on account of its connexion with "model settlements." The building
+  of houses for their workpeople by industrial employers has never been
+  widely adopted in this country, but it has attracted considerable
+  attention at two different periods. Sir Titus Salt was a pioneer in
+  this direction, when he built his woollen mills at Saltaire, on the
+  outskirts of Bradford, and housed his workpeople on the spot. That
+  plan was maintained by his successors, who still own some 900
+  excellent and cheap cottages, and was adopted by a few other
+  manufacturers in the same neighbourhood. Saltaire was a model
+  settlement with many institutions for the benefit of the mill-hands,
+  and as such it attracted much attention; but the example was not
+  generally followed, and the interest lapsed. Recently it has been
+  revived by the model settlements at Port Sunlight, near Liverpool,
+  started about 1888, Bournville near Birmingham (1895), and Earswick,
+  near York (1904), which are of a much more elaborate character.
+  Elsewhere, employers setting down works in some new locality where no
+  provision existed, have had to build houses for their workmen; but
+  they have done so in a plain way, and this sort of housing has not
+  assumed large proportions.
+
+_Conditions in 1909._--It has been said above that great improvements
+have been effected, and of that there is no doubt at all. Both quantity
+and quality are more satisfactory than they were, though both are still
+defective. The conditions vary greatly in different places, and no
+general indictment can be sustained. The common practice of citing some
+exceptionally bad cases, and by tacit inference generalizing from them
+to the whole country, is in nothing more misleading than in the matter
+of housing. Local differences are due to several causes--age,
+population, occupations and means of the people, public opinion and
+municipal energy. The first three chiefly determine the difficulty and
+extent of the problem, the last two influence its treatment. The
+difficulty is greatest in towns which are old, have large populations
+and a high percentage of poor. Such pre-eminently are the large
+seaports, where much casual labour is employed. London, Liverpool,
+Glasgow, the Tyne, Hull, Sunderland are examples. Old inland towns
+having a large trading as well as an industrial element present the same
+features. Such are Manchester, Birmingham, Leeds, Sheffield and
+Bradford. In all these, and some others like them, the past has left a
+heavy legacy of bad housing by malconstruction and dilapidation, which
+has been increased by growth of population and overcrowding. They have
+attacked it with varying degrees of energy according to the prevalent
+local spirit and with varying results.
+
+_Overcrowding._--The one condition which permits of precise and
+comprehensive statement is overcrowding. A standard has been officially
+adopted in England based on the number of persons to a room in each
+dwelling; and the facts in relation to this standard are embodied in the
+census returns. It is a much better criterion than that of "density" or
+number of persons per acre, which is very deceptive; for an apparently
+low density may conceal much overcrowding within walls and an apparently
+high one may be comparatively guiltless. The room-density is the
+important thing in actual life. Some light is also thrown on this
+question by the number of rooms contained in each dwelling, and that is
+also given in the census. The standard of overcrowding is more than two
+persons to a room. In 1901 there were in England and Wales 2,667,506
+persons or 8.2% of the population living in a state of overcrowding
+according to this definition. Their distribution is extremely irregular
+and capricious. In rural districts the proportion was only 5.8%, in
+urban districts 8.9%; but these summary figures give no idea of the
+actual state of things in different localities. In both rural districts
+and in towns the proportion of overcrowding varies in different
+localities from less than 1% to over 30% of the population. The towns
+are the most important and we shall confine attention chiefly to them. A
+list of 84 having a population of 50,000 and upwards, exclusive of
+London, is given by Mr Dewsnup. The overcrowding ranges from 34.54% in
+Gateshead and 32.42% in South Shields to 0.97% in Northampton and 0.62%
+in Bournemouth. Of the whole number exactly one-half have less than 5%;
+15 have less than 2% and 22 have 10% or more. Neither size nor character
+has much to do with the variation. Bournemouth, at the bottom of the
+list with 0.62%, is a residential place and health resort with a
+population of about 50,000; so is Tynemouth, which is nearly at the top,
+with 30.71%. The two largest towns, Liverpool and Manchester, are 26th
+and 32nd on the list, with only 7.94% and 6.28% respectively, or
+considerably less than the average; and on the other hand none of the
+first 17 towns with the highest proportion of overcrowding are of the
+largest size. Again, with regard to character, Leicester and
+Northampton, which are almost at the bottom of the list, with 1.04% and
+0.97% respectively, are both purely industrial towns. The most striking
+facts are that the six towns, which alone have more than 20% of
+overcrowding, namely Gateshead (34.5), South Shields (32.4), Tynemouth
+(30.7), Newcastle (30.4), Sunderland (30.10), Plymouth (20.1) are all
+old seaports, that four of them at the head of the list are on the Tyne
+and the fifth on the Wear. This points strongly to special local
+conditions and it is borne out by the facts with regard to rural
+districts. Northumberland and Durham show a great excess of overcrowding
+over other counties; and some of their rural districts even surpass any
+of the towns. The highest of all is the district of Tynemouth, with
+38.18% of overcrowding. The explanation lies in a special combination of
+large families and small houses prevalent in this area. All the rural
+districts are seats of coal-mining, and miners are the most prolific
+section of the population. They also live in small houses of a
+traditional and antiquated character, often of one storey only or built
+back to back. Many are built by colliery proprietors. Large families
+and small houses also prevail in the towns. Some of them contain
+coal-pits and the rest of their industrial population is engaged chiefly
+in engineering and shipbuilding works, occupations also usually
+associated with a high birth-rate. The men live as near their work as
+possible and the practice of living in flats or occupying part of a
+house prevails extensively.
+
+In London the number of persons living in overcrowded conditions in 1901
+was 726,096 or 16.0% of the population. The proportion varied from 2.6%
+in Lewisham to 35.2% in Finsbury, but in 23 out of the 29 boroughs into
+which the county is divided it exceeded the urban mean for the whole
+country, and in 9 boroughs having an aggregate population of 1,430,000
+it was more than double the mean. Conditions in London are evidently
+untypical of English towns.
+
+In the light of the census figures it is clear that no large proportion
+of the English industrial population is living under conditions of
+serious overcrowding, outside the special districts mentioned and that
+the expression "house famine" cannot be properly applied to England or
+English towns in general. In the House of Commons, on the 16th of August
+1909, the president of the Local Government Board, Mr John Burns, gave a
+list of the number of unoccupied houses and tenements in each of the
+London boroughs and in the eight largest provincial towns, including
+Glasgow; the total was 104,107. By a further analysis of the census
+returns Mr Dewsnup shows that a great deal of the overcrowding is of a
+comparatively mild character and that it is due to a relatively small
+excess of population. Bradford, for instance, is credited with 40,896
+overcrowded persons, representing the high percentage of 14.61 of the
+population; but in the case of nearly 20,000 the excess over the
+standard is very slight, and the proportion of gross overcrowding comes
+down to 7.55%. Moreover, this serious overcrowding is produced by no
+more than 2.79 of the population, so that its cure presents no
+insuperable difficulty. The argument is confirmed by the very
+substantial diminution which actually took place between 1891 and 1901.
+The facts are so striking that they deserve to be presented in tabular
+form:--
+
+  _Percentage of Population Overcrowded._
+
+  +------------------+--------+--------+
+  |                  |  1891  |  1901  |
+  +------------------+--------+--------+
+  | England and Wales| 11.23  |  8.20  |
+  |                  |        |        |
+  | Gateshead        | 40.78  | 34.54  |
+  | Newcastle        | 35.08  | 30.47  |
+  | Sunderland       | 32.85  | 30.10  |
+  | Plymouth         | 26.27  | 20.19  |
+  | Halifax          | 21.31  | 14.49  |
+  | Bradford         | 20.61  | 14.61  |
+  | Huddersfield     | 19.89  | 12.88  |
+  | London           | 19.70  | 16.01  |
+  | Leeds            | 16.46  | 10.08  |
+  | St Helens        | 15.72  | 10.86  |
+  | Birmingham       | 14.27  | 10.32  |
+  | Burnley          | 12.74  |  7.14  |
+  | Sheffield        | 11.58  |  9.50  |
+  | Bolton           | 11.22  |  6.50  |
+  | Liverpool        | 10.96  |  7.94  |
+  | Oldham           | 10.13  |  7.42  |
+  | Salford          |  9.39  |  7.54  |
+  | West Ham         |  9.34  |  9.27  |
+  | Wolverhampton    |  9.31  |  4.67  |
+  | Swansea          |  9.25  |  5.57  |
+  | Stockport        |  8.50  |  4.98  |
+  | Manchester       |  8.25  |  6.28  |
+  | Bristol          |  8.03  |  3.55  |
+  | Hull             |  7.86  |  6.12  |
+  | Blackburn        |  7.05  |  3.92  |
+  | Birkenhead       |  6.80  |  5.02  |
+  | Norwich          |  4.91  |  3.34  |
+  | Brighton         |  4.56  |  3.07  |
+  | Cardiff          |  4.31  |  2.92  |
+  | Preston          |  4.13  |  2.64  |
+  | Nottingham       |  3.62  |  3.65  |
+  | Croydon          |  2.76  |  2.74  |
+  | Derby            |  2.69  |  1.18  |
+  | Leicester        |  2.22  |  1.04  |
+  | Portsmouth       |  1.74  |  1.19  |
+  +------------------+--------+--------+
+
+To what is this remarkable movement due? It is far too general to be
+attributed to the operation of the Housing Acts; for, though they have
+helped in some cases, a great diminution has occurred in many places in
+which no use has been made of them. Towns of all kinds and in all parts
+of the country exhibit the same movement in some degree; those which had
+little and those which had much overcrowding, the worst and the best. In
+London the percentage fell by 3.7, and the number of persons overcrowded
+was reduced by 103,669 in spite of an increase of population of 324,798.
+In Gateshead a fall of 6.2%, in Newcastle one of 4.6% took place; while
+at the other end of the scale Leicester and Derby reduced their already
+very low proportions by more than one-half. Nottingham is the only
+exception in the whole list. And in 28 out of the 35 towns the decrease
+of overcrowding was absolute as well as relative in spite of a large
+increase of population. London has been cited. The other large towns may
+be tabulated with it, thus:--
+
+  +------------+------------+------------+
+  |            |Increase of | Decrease of|
+  |    Town.   | Population.| Overcrowded|
+  |            |            |  Persons.  |
+  +------------+------------+------------+
+  | London     |  324,898   |  103,669   |
+  | Liverpool  |  166,978   |    2,381   |
+  | Manchester |   38,504   |    7,545   |
+  | Birmingham |   44,091   |   14,290   |
+  | Leeds      |   61,463   |   17,252   |
+  | Sheffield  |   56,550   |    1,388   |
+  | Bristol    |  107,367   |    6,105   |
+  | Bradford   |   63,406   |    3,696   |
+  +------------+------------+------------+
+
+The very divergencies make the uniform diminution of overcrowding the
+more remarkable. The large increase of population in Liverpool and
+Bristol no doubt means extension of boundaries, which might have the
+effect of reducing the proportions of overcrowding, but it cannot
+account for the actual decrease of overcrowded persons. The change seems
+to be due to three factors all of which have been in general operation
+though in varying degrees. They are (1) the centrifugal movement
+promoted by improved locomotive facilities, (2) the declining
+birth-rate, (3) public health administration. (1) The first is the most
+important and the chief element has been tramways, of which a great
+extension accompanied by electrification took place in the decade. Thus
+the process of urbanization has been modified by one of suburbanization.
+Bristol is a prominent case; its overcrowding has been reduced by more
+than one-half without any large and costly municipal interference,
+mainly through the operation of ordinary economic forces. Tramways have
+made the outskirts accessible and builders have utilized the
+opportunity. They have built good houses, too, under supervision, and
+Bristol, though an old seaport and industrial town with much poverty,
+has the lowest general death-rate and the lowest infantile death-rate of
+all the great towns. (2) The birth-rate and the size of families are
+conditions which affect overcrowding in a very marked degree, though no
+attention is paid to them in that connexion. The case of the mining
+districts and the towns on the Tyne has been mentioned above; the same
+thing is seen in London, where all the most overcrowded districts
+(Finsbury, Stepney, Shoreditch and Bethnal Green) have high birth-rates,
+ranging from 31.3 to 36.4 per 1000 in 1902-1906. The necessity imposed
+on poor parents of putting several children into a cheap and therefore
+small dwelling accounts for a large proportion of overcrowding, which
+automatically diminishes with a falling birth-rate. The ultimate
+advantage of this method of reducing overcrowding is a question on which
+opinions may differ, but there is no doubt about the fact. (3) Public
+health administration is the third general cause; it attracts no notice
+and works very gradually, but it does work. The last annual report (for
+1907) of the medical officer to the London County Council says of
+overcrowding: "There is reason for thinking that in recent years greater
+attention has been paid by sanitary authorities to the abatement of the
+nuisance, and Dr Newman states that in Finsbury there has been an
+enormous reduction in overcrowding, the reduction having been effected
+mainly in the years 1901-1905." The medical officers of the metropolitan
+boroughs reported in 1907 2613 dwellings overcrowded in 23 boroughs and
+3216 such dwellings remedied in 27 boroughs. It should not be forgotten
+that a good deal of overcrowding is voluntary. Families which have not
+enough room for their own members nevertheless take in lodgers; and in
+some places, of which London is the most conspicuous but not the only
+example, foreigners herd together thickly in a very small space.
+
+The improvement shown by the statistics of overcrowding is confirmed by
+those relating to the size of dwellings. Between 1891 and 1901 the
+percentage of the population living in very small dwellings appreciably
+diminished thus--in 1-roomed dwellings, from 2.2 to 1.6%; in 2-roomed
+dwellings, from 8.3 to 6.6%; in 3-roomed dwellings, from 11.1 to 9.8%;
+while the proportion living in dwellings of 5 rooms and upwards
+increased from 54.9 to 60.1%. This again is referable to the suburban
+movement and a higher standard of requirements. Six-roomed houses with a
+bathroom tend to replace the old four-roomed type. The general report
+accompanying the census says: "However the tenement figures for England
+and Wales are compared it is impossible to avoid the conclusion that the
+comparison affords satisfactory evidence of distinct improvement in the
+housing of the people during the ten years 1891-1901." In short, the
+problem of quantity is only acute in a few places and steadily becoming
+less so.
+
+  The foregoing facts apply only to England and Wales. In Scotland the
+  state of things is much less satisfactory. No statistics of
+  overcrowding are available, but the following comparative table shows
+  how different the housing conditions are in the two countries:--
+
+    _Size of Dwellings, England and Scotland, 1901._
+
+    +-----------------+-------------------------+
+    |                 |Percentage of Population.|
+    |    Dwelling.    +------------+------------+
+    |                 |  England.  |  Scotland. |
+    +-----------------+------------+------------+
+    | 1 room          |     1.6    |    11.1    |
+    | 2 rooms         |     6.6    |    39.5    |
+    | 3 rooms         |     9.8    |    19.9    |
+    | 4 rooms         |    21.9    |     9.1    |
+    | 5 rooms and over|    60.1    |    20.4    |
+    +-----------------+------------+------------+
+
+  Over 50% of the population of Scotland live in tenements of one or two
+  rooms; only 8.2% in England. A comparison of the largest towns in the
+  two countries gives the following result:--
+
+    _Percentage of Population._
+
+    +----------------------------+----------------------------+
+    |          Scotland.         |           England.         |
+    +-----------+-------+--------+-----------+-------+--------+
+    |   Town.   |1 Room.|2 Rooms.|   Town.   |1 Room.|2 Rooms.|
+    +-----------+-------+--------+-----------+-------+--------+
+    | Glasgow   | 16.2  |  38.9  | London    |  6.7  | 15.5   |
+    | Edinburgh |  8.9  |  32.4  | Liverpool |  2.7  |  5.9   |
+    | Dundee    | 11.3  |  51.7  | Manchester|  0.8  |  4.01  |
+    | Aberdeen  |  6.1  |  33.2  | Birmingham|  0.3  |  2.4   |
+    | Greenock  | 11.3  |  47.6  | Sheffield |  0.4  |  4.0   |
+    | Kilmarnock| 18.9  |  43.3  | Bristol   |  1.6  |  5.7   |
+    +-----------+-------+--------+-----------+-------+--------+
+    |    Mean   | 12.7  |  42.4  |    Mean   |  1.8  |  6.7   |
+    +-----------+-------+--------+-----------+-------+--------+
+
+  The conditions in Scottish towns where very tall tenement houses are
+  common, resemble those in other countries, in which overcrowding is
+  far greater than in England. All these matters are comparative, and
+  the superiority of conditions in England ought to be recognized. Yet,
+  in Scotland, too, great improvements have been effected. In 1861 there
+  were 25,959 houses without windows; in 1901 only 130. These facts
+  throw light on the long standing of the housing question, the change
+  of standard and the improvement effected.
+
+  In Ireland there is more overcrowding than in England, though probably
+  less than in Scotland, with the possible exception of Dublin, which
+  has a larger proportion of one-roomed dwellings than any Scottish
+  town, namely, 24.7%. The percentage of population living in
+  overcrowded conditions in the principal towns is--Dublin 40.6,
+  Limerick 31.7, Cork 23.4, Waterford 20.6, Londonderry 16.7, Belfast
+  8.2.
+
+_Sanitary Conditions._--With regard to the quality of existing housing
+reference has already been made to the effect of the Public Health Acts
+and the general improvement in sanitation. The only numerical measure is
+afforded by the death-rates, which have fallen in England from 20.9 per
+1000 in 1871-1875 to 15.4 per 1000 in 1903-1907 and in the United
+Kingdom from 21.3 to 15.7 per 1000 in the same period. The condition of
+the dwelling must be credited with a considerable share in this fall.
+There have, in fact, been great changes and all in the direction of
+improvement. The rise and development of sanitation, of house and main
+drainage and sewage disposal, the purification of water and provision of
+a constant service in the house, the removal of refuse, the segregation
+of infectious illness, sanitary inspection--all these, apart from the
+demolition of the worst housing and the provision of better, have raised
+the general healthiness of the dwellings of the people. In face of these
+facts and of the vital statistics, to say that the people are physically
+deteriorating through the influence of bad housing is to talk obvious
+nonsense, for all conditions have been improving for more than a
+generation. If physical deterioration is going on, of which there is no
+proof, either it is not caused by bad housing or there is less than
+there was. Deterioration may be caused by the continued process of
+urbanization and the congregating of an ever larger proportion of the
+population in towns; but that is a different question. If the town has
+any injurious influence it is not due to the sanitary condition of the
+houses, which is in general superior to that of houses in the country,
+but to the habits and occupations of the people or to the atmosphere and
+the mere aggregation. But much misapprehension prevails with regard to
+towns. The most distinctive and the most valuable feature of English
+housing is the general predominance of the small house or cottage
+occupied by a single family. Only in London and a few other towns do
+blocks of large tenement houses of the continental type exist, and even
+there they are comparatively few. In England and Wales 84% of the
+population live in dwellings of 4 rooms and upwards, which means broadly
+separate houses. Now the prevalence of small houses involves spreading
+out and the covering of much ground with many little streets, which
+produce a monotonous effect; a smoky atmosphere makes them grimy and
+dull skies contribute to the general dinginess. The whole presents to
+the eye a vast area of dreary meanness and monotony. Thus the best
+feature of English national housing turns to its apparent disadvantage
+and the impression is gained by superficial observers that the bulk of
+our working-class populations lives in "slums." The word "slum" has no
+precise meaning, but if it implies serious sanitary defects it is not
+applicable to most of our town housing. There are real slums still, but
+the bulk of the working class population do not live in them; they live
+in small houses, often of a mean and dingy exterior but in essential
+respects more sanitary than the large and often handsome blocks to be
+seen in foreign towns, which are not put down as slums because they do
+not look dirty. A smoky atmosphere is injurious to health, but it must
+be distinguished from defects of housing. Ideal houses in a smoky place
+soon look bad; inferior ones in a clean air look brighter and deceive
+the eye. The worst of the old housing has disappeared; the filthy,
+dilapidated, airless and sunless rookeries--the real slums--and the
+underground dwellings have been swept away in most cases, and what
+remains of them is not so bad as what has gone. But reform has been very
+regularly applied. Some towns have done much, others little. The large
+towns, in which the evil was most intense and most conspicuous in bulk,
+have as a class done far more than smaller ones in which the need
+perhaps was less great, but in which also a less healthy public spirit
+prevailed. The worst housing conditions to-day are probably to be found
+in old towns of small and medium size, in which the ratepayers have a
+great disinclination to spend money on anything, and the control of
+local affairs is apt to be in the hands of the owners of the most
+insanitary property. Nor is this state of things altogether confined to
+old places. Some of recent growth have been allowed, for the same
+reason, to spring up and develop without any regard to sanitary
+principles or the requirements of public health. There is therefore
+abundant scope for further reform and in not a few cases urgent need of
+it. On the other hand, we have a number of towns, particularly
+manufacturing towns, both large and small in the midlands and the north
+of England, which have already reached a good general standard of
+housing in all essential requirements, and only need the regular and
+steady exercise of vigilance by the public health service to remove such
+defects as still remain or may reveal themselves with the lapse of time.
+
+  _Rents._--Rent is a matter of great importance from every point of
+  view, and that is now being realized. A quantity of official
+  information on the subject has been collected and made available by an
+  elaborate inquiry ordered by the Board of Trade in 1905 and published
+  in 1908 (Cd. 3864). It relates to working class dwellings in the
+  principal industrial towns in the United Kingdom, 94 in all: namely,
+  77 in England and Wales, 11 in Scotland and 6 in Ireland. The
+  following tables give in a condensed form the chief statistical
+  results obtained in October 1905:--
+
+    _Predominant Range of Weekly Rents._
+
+    +----------+--------------------------+------------+------------+
+    |          |    England and Wales.    |            |            |
+    |          +-------------+------------+  Scotland. |  Ireland.  |
+    |          |   London.   | Provincial |            |            |
+    |          |             |   towns    |            |            |
+    +----------+-------------+------------+------------+------------+
+    | One room |     ..      |     ..     | 2/- to 2/6 | 1/6 to 2/6 |
+    | Two rooms| 4/6 to 7/6  | 3/- to 3/6 | 3/10 to 4/3| 2/6 to 3/6 |
+    | Three "  | 6/- to 9/-  | 3/9 to 4/6 | 5/2 to 6/5 | 4/- to 5/- |
+    | Four  "  | 7/6 to 10/6 | 4/6 to 5/6 |     ..     | 5/6 to 6/9 |
+    | Five  "  | 9/- to 13/- | 5/6 to 6/6 |     ..     |     ..     |
+    | Six   "  | 10/6 to 15/6| 6/6 to 7/9 |     ..     |     ..     |
+    +----------+-------------+------------+------------+------------+
+
+  Rents are lowest in Ireland and next lowest in English provincial
+  towns, considerably higher in Scotland and highest of all in London,
+  for which further special details are given. It is divided into three
+  zones (1) central, (2) middle, (3) outer, which have the following
+  mean weekly rents:--
+
+    _London Mean Weekly Rents._
+
+    +----------+---------------------------+
+    |          |           Zone.           |
+    |          +---------+--------+--------+
+    |          | Central.| Middle.| Outer. |
+    +----------+---------+--------+--------+
+    | One room |   4/6   |  3/9   |   ..   |
+    | Two rooms|   7/-   |  6/-   |   ..   |
+    | Three "  |   8/9   |  7/6   |  6/6   |
+    | Four  "  |    ..   |  9/-   |  7/9   |
+    | Five  "  |    ..   |  11/-  |  9/6   |
+    | Six   "  |    ..   |  13/-  |  11/-  |
+    +----------+---------+--------+--------+
+
+  In central London--which extends to Stepney in the East, Lambeth m the
+  South, Islington in the North, and includes Westminster, Holborn,
+  Finsbury, Marylebone, Shoreditch, most of Bethnal Green, Southwark and
+  Bermondsey--the rent of a single room may be as high as 6s. or even
+  6s. 6d. (Holborn) a week. It is here that overcrowding is greatest,
+  and block-tenements, philanthropic and municipal, most numerous. The
+  rentals of the block dwellings have not been taken into account in the
+  foregoing official statistics; they range as follows: 1 room, 2s. 6d.
+  to 5s.; 2 rooms, 5s. to 8s.; three rooms, 6s. 6d. to 11s. The lowest
+  rent for which a single room can be obtained in this area is 2s. 6d. a
+  week. In no English town are rents nearly so high as in London. If 100
+  is taken as the index number for rent in London the nearest towns to
+  it (Croydon and Plymouth) only reach 81, and one town on the list
+  (Macclesfield) is as low as 32. The index number of twenty-one towns
+  out of the whole is 50 or under, and these include a number of
+  important industrial centres--Hull, Leicester, Blackburn, Northampton,
+  Warrington, Coventry, Crewe and others. The index numbers of the great
+  towns are: Liverpool 65, Manchester and Salford 62, Birmingham 59,
+  Leeds 56, Sheffield 55, Bristol 53, Bradford 59, Hull 48; that is to
+  say the level of rents in these towns is little more than half that in
+  London. This is one more proof of the untypical character of London,
+  and of the fallacy of generalizing from it to the rest of the country.
+  Even in the overcrowded towns on Tyneside rents do not run to
+  three-fourths of the London level. When the towns are divided into
+  geographical groups the index numbers run thus: London 100, Northern
+  Counties 62, Yorkshire 56, Lancashire and Cheshire 54, Midlands 51,
+  Eastern Counties 50, Southern Counties 61, Wales and Monmouth 60.
+  Rents are always highest in capitals, and Edinburgh complies with the
+  rule; but it is very slightly in advance of Glasgow, and in Scotland
+  generally the range is much smaller than in England. Dublin, on the
+  other hand, is differentiated from the other Irish towns as widely as
+  London from English ones.
+
+  A general and progressive rise in rents has been taking place for many
+  years. The following index numbers for the great towns are given in
+  the second series of memoranda published by the Board of Trade in 1904
+  (Cd. 1761):--
+
+    _Relative Working-Class Rents._
+
+    1880   86.6  |  1890   89.9
+    1885   90.1  |  1900  100.0
+    1895   96.3  |
+
+  The tendency to rise is attributable to increased cost of labour, due
+  to higher wages and less work, increased cost of materials and higher
+  rates. Weekly working-class rents generally include rates which are
+  paid by the landlord. Housing reform has contributed to the rise, both
+  directly and through the rates, on which it has thrown a heavy burden
+  in various ways. When slums are cleared away and replaced by superior
+  dwellings the new rents are generally higher than the old and this
+  fact has proved a great difficulty. Most of the improved housing is
+  beyond the means of those who need it most, and they seek other
+  quarters resembling the old ones as nearly as possible. The example of
+  Liverpool, which has the largest proportion of casual and ill-paid
+  labour of all the great towns, and has been the most successful in
+  providing new dwellings of a fair quality, centrally situated and not
+  in blocks, at really low rates, shows that the problem is not
+  insoluble; but as a rule too little attention is paid to the question
+  of rent in housing reform, especially in building undertaken by
+  municipalities. It is not ignored, but the importance attached to it
+  by the poor is not realized. To them it is the first consideration
+  after four walls, a roof and a fire-place; and 6d. a week makes a vast
+  difference in their calculations. Reform which aims at raising the
+  lowest classes of tenants by improving their dwellings defeats itself
+  when it drives them away.
+
+_Rural Housing._--Little has hitherto been said about rural housing. It
+is of less importance than urban housing because it concerns a much
+smaller proportion of the population, and because in rural life the
+influence of inferior housing on health is offset by other conditions;
+but it has recently attracted much attention and was made the subject of
+inquiry by a Select Committee of the House of Commons in 1906. The
+report laid stress chiefly on the inaction of local rural authorities
+under the Public Health and Housing Acts, and on various obstacles in
+the way of improving existing houses and of providing more and better
+ones at rents which agricultural labourers can afford to pay. The
+available facts with regard to rural housing are scrappy and
+unsatisfactory. The word "rural" has no precise meaning and it includes
+several very different sections of the population; for instance, the
+inhabitants of suburbs, mining villages and mill villages as well as the
+real agricultural population. Complaint is made of both the quantity and
+the quality of rural housing. With regard to quantity it is said that in
+spite of migration to the towns there is a dearth of cottages through
+dilapidation and demolition without rebuilding. That may happen in
+particular localities, but there is no evidence to support a general
+allegation. Inquiries issued by the Board of Trade to agricultural
+correspondents brought the following replies: insufficient 56,
+sufficient 111, more than sufficient 32. Similar inquiries of land
+agents and owners resulted thus: insufficient 9, sufficient 11, more
+than sufficient 4, variable 6. From which it appears that insufficiency
+exists but is not general. The official evidence with regard to
+overcrowding is that it is much less acute than in the towns. The
+proportion of the rural population in England living in overcrowded
+conditions in 1901 was 5.8%; if the rural mining districts, the
+exceptional overcrowding of which has been noted above, be eliminated,
+the rest cannot be very bad. Moreover, the percentage has appreciably
+diminished; in 1891 it was 8.46. The complaint of bad quality is better
+founded. Some landowners take great pride in the state of their
+property, and excellent cottages may be found in model villages and
+elsewhere in many parts of the country; but much rural housing is of an
+extremely insanitary character. A good deal of evidence on this head has
+of late years been published In the reports of medical inspectors to the
+Local Government Board. And local authorities are very reluctant to set
+the law in motion against insanitary dwellings. On the other hand, they
+have in some cases hindered and prevented building by too rigid
+insistence on by-laws, framed with a view to urban housing and quite
+unsuited to rural conditions. A few rural authorities have taken action
+with regard to building schemes under Part III. of the Housing Act. A
+list of 31 in 17 counties is given in "Housing up to Date"; 13
+applications were refused and 13 granted by the respective county
+councils and others were dropped. Details are given by the same
+authority of 54 houses built by 17 rural district councils. Public
+action may thus be said to amount to nothing at all. Landowners,
+however, have borrowed under the Improvements of Lands Acts upwards of
+L1,250,000 for building labourers' cottages; and this is probably only a
+fraction of the amount spent privately.
+
+In Ireland a special condition of affairs exists. A series of about a
+dozen acts, dating from 1881 and culminating in the Labourers (Ireland)
+Act of 1906, have been passed for promoting the provision of labourers'
+cottages; and under them 20,634 cottages had been built and some
+thousands more authorized previous to the act of 1906, which extended
+the pre-existing facilities. The principle is that of the English
+Housing Acts applied to rural districts, but the procedure is simpler
+and quicker. The law provides that a representation may be made to the
+local authority by three ratepayers or resident labourers that "the
+existing house accommodation for agricultural labourers and their
+families is deficient having regard to the ordinary requirements of the
+district, or is unfit for human habitation owing to dilapidation, want
+of air, light, ventilation or other convenience or to any other sanitary
+defects," whereupon the local authority shall make an improvement
+scheme. It may also initiate a scheme without representation, or the
+Local Government Board may do so in default of the local authority. The
+scheme is published, an inquiry held, notice given and an order made
+with very much less delay and expense than under the English law. Land
+is purchased by agreement, or compulsorily and the money for land and
+building raised by loan. Loans amounting to about 3(1/2) millions
+sterling had been raised down to 1906. The great majority of the
+cottages built are in Munster and Leinster. They must have at least 2
+bedrooms and a kitchen, and the habitable rooms must be 8 ft. high. One
+of the most remarkable features is the low cost--about L150--at which
+these cottages have been built, including land and the expenses of
+procedure.
+
+_Recent Developments._--It is clear from a general review of the subject
+that the problem of housing the working classes in a satisfactory manner
+has proved more complex than was at one time realized. Experience has
+falsified hopes and led to a change of attitude. It is seen that there
+are limits to drastic interference with the normal play of economic
+forces and to municipal action on a large and ambitious scale. A
+reaction has set in against it. At the same time the problem is being
+attacked on other sides and from new points of departure. The tendency
+now is towards the more effectual application of gradual methods of
+improvement, the utilization of other means and the exercise of
+prevention in preference to cure. Under each of these heads certain
+movements may be noted.
+
+The most troublesome problem is the treatment of existing bad housing.
+In regard to this the policy of large improvement schemes under which
+extensive areas are bought up and demolished has had its day, and is not
+likely to be revived to any considerable extent. That is not only
+because it is extremely costly but also because it has in the main done
+its work. It has done what could not have been done otherwise, and has
+swept away the worst of the old housing _en masse_. To call it a failure
+because it is costly and of limited application would be as great a
+mistake as to regard it as a panacea. The procedure which seems to be
+coming into favour in place of it is that adopted in Birmingham and
+advocated by Mr J. S. Nettlefold (_Practical Housing_) coupled with a
+more general and effective use of the Public Health Acts. The principle
+is improvement in detail effected by pressure brought to bear on owners
+by public authority. The embodiment of this principle forms an important
+part of the Housing and Town Planning Bill introduced by the Local
+Government Board in 1908, which contained clauses empowering the central
+authority to compel apathetic local authorities to do their duty in
+regard to the closing of unfit houses, and authorizing local authorities
+both to issue closing orders and to serve notices on landlords requiring
+them "to execute such works as the local authority may specify as being
+necessary to make the house in all respects reasonably fit for human
+habitation."
+
+Among the other and less direct means to which attention is being turned
+is the policy of getting people away from the towns. The effect of
+improved travelling facilities in reducing urban overcrowding has been
+noted above. That object was not specifically contemplated in the
+building and electrification of tramways, and in the development of
+other means of cheap local travel, but the beneficial effect has caused
+them to be recognized as an important factor in relation to housing and
+to be more systematically applied in that connexion. A newer departure,
+however, is to encourage migration not to the outskirts of towns but
+altogether into the country by facilitating the acquisition of small
+holdings of land. This has been done by private landowners in an
+experimental way for some years, and in 1907 the policy was embodied in
+the Small Holdings Act, which gives county and borough councils power to
+purchase or hire land compulsorily and let it in holdings of not more
+than 50 acres or L50 annual value. Failing action on their part the
+Board of Agriculture may frame schemes. Power is also conferred on the
+Board and on County Councils to establish co-operative agricultural
+societies and credit banks. These measures have been adopted from
+foreign countries, and particularly from Denmark and Germany. A very
+large number of applications for holdings have been made under this act,
+but it is too early to state the effects. They will depend on the
+success of tenants in earning a livelihood by agricultural produce.
+
+Another new and quite different departure is the attempt to establish a
+novel kind of town, called a "Garden City," which shall combine the
+advantages of the town and the country. The principal points are the
+choice of a site, which must be sufficiently convenient to enable
+industries to be carried on, yet with rural surroundings, the laying out
+of the ground in such a way as to ensure plenty of open space and
+variety, the insistence on building of a certain standard and the
+limitation of size. One has been established at Letchworth in
+Hertfordshire, 34 m. from London, and so far seems to be prospering. It
+consists of an area of 3800 acres, bought from the previous owners by a
+company registered in 1903 and entitled First Garden City Ltd., with a
+capital of L300,000 in L5 shares. The interest is limited to a dividend
+of 5%, all further profits to be devoted to the benefit of the town. The
+estate is divided into a central urban area of 1200 and a surrounding
+agricultural belt of 2600 acres. The town is planned for an eventual
+population of 30,000 and at present (1909) has about 5000. Some London
+printing works and other small industrial establishments have been
+planted there, and a number of model cottages have been built. In this
+connexion another recent novelty has appeared in the shape of an
+exhibition of cottages. The idea, originated by Mr St Loe Strachey, was
+to encourage the art of designing and building cheap but good and
+convenient cottages, especially for the country. Two exhibitions have
+been held at Letchworth in 1905 and 1907, and others at Sheffield (1907)
+and Newcastle (1908). The two latter were held on municipal land, and it
+is proposed by the National Housing Reform Council to hold one every
+year.
+
+The "Garden City" has led to the "Garden Suburb," an adaptation of the
+same idea to suburban areas. One was opened near Hampstead Heath in
+1907: it consists of 240 acres, of which 72 have been reserved for
+working-class cottages with gardens. These developments, with which may
+be associated the model industrial villages, mentioned above, at
+Bournville, Port Sunlight and Earswick, represent an aspiration towards
+a higher standard of housing for families belonging to the upper ranks
+of the working classes; and the same movement is demonstrated in a still
+more interesting fashion by a particular form of co-operative activity
+known as Co-partnership Housing. The first complete example of this
+method of organization was the Ealing Tenants Limited, a society
+registered under the Industrial and Provident Societies Act in 1901,
+though the Tenant Co-operators Limited, formed in 1888, was a precursor
+on very nearly the same lines. The essential principle is self-help
+applied by combination to the provision of superior homes, and the
+chief material feature is the building of houses which are not only of
+good design and workmanship, but disposed on a systematic plan so as to
+utilize the ground to the best advantage. Land is bought and houses are
+built with combined capital to which each tenant contributes a
+substantial share; the houses are let at rents which will return 5% on
+share capital and 4% on loan capital after defraying all expenses, and
+the surplus profits are divided among the tenant members in proportion
+to the rents paid by them. Each tenant's share of profits is credited to
+him in shares until his share capital equals the value of the house he
+occupies, after which it is paid in cash. There is thus common ownership
+of the whole group, which forms a little community. This system has
+caught on in a remarkable way and has spread with great rapidity. In
+1905 a central organizing body was formed called the Co-partnership
+Housing Council, for the purpose of promoting the formation of societies
+and assisting them with advice; it is supported by voluntary
+contributions. In 1909 twelve societies, including the original Tenant
+Co-operators, had been formed with a total investment of L536,300. They
+are situated at Ealing, Letchworth, Seven-oaks, Leicester, Manchester,
+Hampstead (two), Harborne near Birmingham, Fallings Park,
+Stoke-on-Trent, Wayford and Derwentwater. The rapidity with which the
+movement has developed and spread since the establishment of the
+Co-partnership Housing Council indicates great vitality, and since it is
+based on thoroughly sound lines it has probably a large future. It is
+the most interesting and in many respects the best of all recent
+developments. The Report of the Select Committee on Rural Housing
+mentioned above suggested that a Co-partnership Housing Society should
+be formed in every county in England.
+
+All the enterprises just described have one feature in common, namely,
+the laying out of sites on a plan which takes cognizance of the future,
+secures a due proportion of open space, variety in the arrangement of
+streets and the most advantageous disposition of the houses and other
+buildings. They go beyond sanitary requirements and take account of
+higher needs. They have lent force to the advocacy of municipal
+"town-planning," as practised by several towns in Germany; and provision
+was made for this procedure in the Housing and Town Planning Act of
+1909. The act contains clauses giving local authorities power to prepare
+plans with reference to any land which appears likely to be used for
+building purposes within or near their own boundaries; and also to
+purchase land comprised in a town-planning scheme and either build on it
+themselves or let plots for building in accordance with the plan. The
+chief object is to safeguard the future, prevent the repetition of past
+defects and encourage a higher standard of housing.
+
+These new developments represent an upward movement at the higher end of
+the scale. They cater for the superior ranks of working classes, those
+who attach some importance to the aesthetic and moral influence of
+pleasant and wholesome surroundings, and are willing to sacrifice
+immediate gratifications to a higher end. They embody an aspiration, set
+an example and exercise an educative influence. But they have nothing to
+do with the housing of the really poor, which is the great difficulty;
+and their very attractiveness seems in some danger of drawing attention
+from it. Garden cities and suburbs will never house the poor or even the
+bulk of our working class population, and it would be a pity if the
+somewhat sentimental popularity of romantic schemes led to a distaste
+for the plodding effort which alone can effect a real cure of
+deep-seated social evils of long standing. All the new schemes and
+legislative proposals leave untouched the greatest difficulty of all,
+which lies not in the dwelling but in the tenant. It is comparatively
+easy to afford better opportunities to those who are willing to take
+advantage of them, but how to raise those who are not? The lesson taught
+by Miss Octavia Hill's classical experiment is, if not forgotten,
+certainly neglected in the presence of more showy efforts. Or perhaps it
+would be more true to say that half of it is neglected. Miss Hill was
+one of the pioneers in the comparatively modest method of improving and
+reconstructing bad houses, which, as we have noted, is now being more
+generally recognized and pursued; but that was only half her work. She
+improved bad dwellings and made them decent, but she also managed them
+on business lines, by a system of inspection and rent collection which
+combined a judicious discipline with the stimulus of reward. This was
+done by means of personal service, which is the secret of all really
+effective work among the poor. Her words written years ago remain true
+to-day: "The people's homes are bad partly because they are badly built
+and arranged; they are tenfold worse because the tenants' habits and
+lives are what they are. Transplant them to-morrow to healthy and
+commodious homes and they will pollute and destroy them."
+
+  The following is a list of the principal associations formed for the
+  promotion of housing reform: Mansion House Council on the Dwellings of
+  the Poor, Rural Housing and Sanitation Association, Workmen's National
+  Housing Council, National Housing Reform Council, Co-partnership
+  Tenants Housing Council. They are all of recent date, except the
+  first. There are also local associations at Liverpool, Oldham,
+  Rochdale, York, Plymouth, and elsewhere.
+
+
+OTHER COUNTRIES
+
+At the International Housing Congress organized by the National Housing
+Reform Council and held in London in 1907 representatives were present
+from a number of foreign countries and a good deal of information was
+collected and published in the report of the Congress. Further detailed
+data have been supplied by foreign correspondents to Mr W. Thompson and
+published in _Housing up to Date_. The more important facts relating to
+the principal industrial countries are here condensed from this and
+other sources of information.
+
+  _Austria._--An act for encouraging the building of cheap working-class
+  dwellings was passed in 1902; it provides for exemption from taxes for
+  24 years of working-class dwellings which fulfil certain conditions
+  including sanitary requirements, a minimum area per room, minimum
+  height, minimum door and window spaces, thickness of walls, a maximum
+  number of inhabitants (one to 4 sq. metres in sleeping rooms),
+  prohibition of lodgers, fixed rent and maximum profit. The
+  municipalities are the authority for administering sanitary and
+  housing laws; they have no power of compulsory purchase of land
+  without a special law. There is excessive overcrowding in the large
+  towns; in Vienna (1900) 43% of the population live in dwellings of 1
+  room or 1 room and a kitchen; in 60 provincial towns the proportion is
+  63%. Overcrowding is reckoned at more than 5 persons to a room and
+  more than 9 to two rooms; the proportion of overcrowded on this basis
+  is nearly one-fifth in Vienna and one-fourth in the provincial towns
+  (Thompson).
+
+  _Belgium._--An act was passed in 1889 instituting _Comites de
+  Patronage_; since then other Acts relating to loan societies, and to
+  inheritance and succession in the case of small properties. Comites de
+  Patronage are semi-official bodies, but without legal power, whose
+  function it is to study the subject of housing, to report to local
+  authorities on existing conditions, to advise, to collect funds and
+  promote the provision of good houses by any means in their power. They
+  influence public opinion and stimulate the activity of local
+  authorities which have the power to compel improvements and close
+  dwellings unfit for habitation; they have led to the formation of
+  numerous societies for erecting working-class dwellings. The latter
+  are encouraged by the law in various ways; they are exempt from the
+  payment of some government duties and partly exempt from others.
+  Working men buying or building houses liable to registration fees up
+  to from 72 to 171 francs are exempted from personal, provincial and
+  communal taxes. The National Savings Bank of Belgium is empowered to
+  lend money to working men for buying or building houses and to insure
+  the lives of those doing so, to preserve the home for the family. In
+  1904 the number of workmen's homes exempted from taxation was 164,387,
+  and the amount of taxation remitted considerably exceeded 3 million
+  francs; workmen had acquired lands and houses valued at nearly
+  L4,000,000; there were 161 societies for building working-class
+  dwellings; 30,000 workmen representing a population of 150,000 had
+  become owners of property; and 70,000 representing a population of
+  350,000 had availed themselves of the law in obtaining exemptions and
+  loans (O. Velghe). The foregoing results effected in 15 years are
+  remarkable and indicate a great capacity for self-help on the part of
+  Belgian workmen with suitable and well-considered assistance. But this
+  movement, in common with those of a similar character in other
+  countries, does not touch the problem of housing the very poor. No
+  statistics of overcrowding are available, but the average number of
+  persons to a dwelling is over 5 for the whole country and nearly 9 in
+  Brussels. The communal administrations are the authorities for health
+  and housing; they have power to abate nuisances but not to compel
+  landowners to sell land for building, though they have the right to
+  dispossession for "public purposes." No town has constructed quarters
+  devoted entirely to working-class dwellings and only one commune (St
+  Giles) has built any. In towns the height of buildings is regulated by
+  the width of streets; generally it is the width plus 6 metres. The
+  height of rooms and thickness of walls are prescribed by local
+  regulations but not the area of rooms. The housing difficulty has been
+  lessened in a notable degree by cheap transport facilities, including
+  railroads, light railroads and tramways; a large proportion of the
+  workpeople travel long distances to and from work. One-quarter travel
+  on the State railways alone; fares are 1s. 6d. a week for a daily
+  double journey of 20 m., 2s. for 44 m. and 2s. 6d. for 66 m. The area
+  of the labour market of Liege extends nearly to Ostend and out of 5830
+  workmen travelling over 1000 live more than 50 kilometres from Liege.
+  Some journeys last 3 hours.
+
+  _France._--The question of housing was publicly raised in France quite
+  as early as in England on grounds of public health in connexion with
+  the first visitation of cholera, and building societies were formed as
+  early as 1851, but little was done until after 1889, when the _Societe
+  Francaise des Habitations a Bon Marche_ was founded under the
+  inspiration of M. Siegfried. This led to the formation of several
+  societies, which increased rapidly after the passage of _la loi
+  Siegfried_ in 1894, for promoting the provision of working-class
+  dwellings. In 1902 a Public Health Act and in 1906 a Housing of the
+  Working Classes Act were passed, and these three enactments with
+  regulations made in 1907 govern the procedure. The act of 1906
+  embodies the Belgian system of Comites de Patronage, of which at least
+  one was to be established in each department with grants in aid, and
+  exemptions from certain taxes of working-class dwellings fulfilling
+  specified conditions as to sanitation and rent. The law promotes the
+  formation of Housing Societies by granting various facilities for the
+  investment of money in building by public bodies and benevolent
+  institutions by taking shares or by loans. Down to the end of 1906
+  there had been lent for this purpose L233,000 by savings banks,
+  L258,000 by the Caisse des Depots, and L14,000 by charitable
+  institutions. The law does not authorize municipalities to build
+  houses and none of the communes have acquired land for this purpose.
+  Under the Public Health Act of 1902 towns can purchase land
+  compulsorily in connexion with unhealthy areas. The Public Health and
+  Housing Acts are administered by the local authority, which makes
+  regulations for building and for laying out building land. A minimum
+  height of 2.6 metres and a minimum cubical content of 25 cubic metres
+  are prescribed for rooms; there are no regulations for thickness of
+  walls. Housing societies are under the Ministry of Works and a
+  Superior Housing Council, which is a central advisory body. These
+  societies are now numerous; there are 46 in Paris alone, but their
+  operations are not on a large scale. One of them deserves special
+  notice on account of its special object. It is called the _Societe de
+  logements pour familles nombreuses_ and it builds special flats called
+  _maisons des enfants_ which are let at low rents only to persons with
+  large families. In 1907 it had housed 168 families, averaging 6.8
+  persons, in two blocks at Belleville and Montmartre. The great defect
+  in France is the large quantity of old, bad, insanitary housing. Real
+  slums exist in all the old towns and in some of them, such as
+  Marseilles and Lyons, on an extensive scale. Very little has hitherto
+  been done to grapple with this difficulty. The standard of sanitation
+  is altogether lower in France than in England, as is shown by the
+  death-rates, and this holds good of the housing. But conditions vary
+  widely in different parts of the country. They are better, generally
+  speaking, in the industrial towns of the north, which are largely
+  Flemish and distinguished by the prevalence of small houses after the
+  English fashion, than in the central or southern districts where tall
+  old tenement houses of six and seven storeys abound. There are no
+  statistics and no standard of overcrowding; but the careful inquiry
+  carried out by the Board of Trade and published in 1909 shows the
+  extraordinary prevalence of tenements consisting of 1, 2 or 3 rooms.
+  In 16 towns for which information was obtained the average proportion
+  of dwellings containing less than 4 rooms was 75% of the whole; in
+  some it was as high as 89% and in none lower than 61%. In 8 towns,
+  including Paris, the number of one-roomed dwellings was more than a
+  quarter of the whole, and in two towns (Brest and Fougeres) it was
+  more than half. Some corresponding statistics for English and German
+  towns are given below in the section on Germany. According to the same
+  report, the general accuracy of which has been confirmed by personal
+  inquiries, made in 1909 by the writer in a number of towns, rents are
+  decidedly lower in France. If the London level be taken as 100 that of
+  Paris is only 78 and the other French towns are considerably lower, 21
+  out of 29 being less than half the London standard. A general
+  comparison between a number of English and French towns shows the
+  average level of French rents to be less than three-fourths of English
+  ones. A noticeable feature of housing in France is the large number of
+  dwellings built by employers in recent years. The mining companies,
+  particularly in the Pas de Calais, have built whole groups of
+  villages; the railway companies and various manufacturers have also
+  done a great deal, chiefly in rural areas. Among the manufacturers MM.
+  Schneider at Le Creusot and the textile mill-owners in the Vosges are
+  noticeable. The houses provided are of a charming type, white with red
+  roofs; the rooms are of good size, the rents low, and a large garden
+  is usually attached to every house.
+
+  _Germany._--In no country is the problem of housing more acute than
+  in Germany, where the increase of population, the growth of
+  manufacturing industry and the urbanization of the people have
+  proceeded at an exceptionally rapid pace in recent years and have
+  combined with increasing wealth and a rising standard of living to
+  force the question into prominence. Up to 1909 no uniform legislation
+  for the empire had been framed and no central authority existed for
+  dealing with housing; but the several states have their own public
+  health and housing laws, and great activity has been developed in
+  various directions. The most general difficulty is deficiency of
+  quantity consequent on the rapid change in the distribution of the
+  population. The proportion of the whole population living in the great
+  towns increased from 7.2% to 16.2%, or more than doubled between 1890
+  and 1900; in England it only increased by about one-tenth. Slums are a
+  much less conspicuous feature than in England because of the
+  comparatively recent development of German towns, but where old
+  quarters exist on a large scale, as in Hamburg, the conditions are
+  quite as bad as anything in English towns, and call for similar
+  measures. Public sanitation in Germany is still as a whole less
+  advanced than in England; but in some cases it is superior and in
+  general it is coming up rapidly; the administration of sanitary laws,
+  as of others, is more effective and uniform, and less subject to
+  evasion. This also contributes to the comparative absence of slums.
+  And there is a third factor which has perhaps the greatest influence
+  of all, and that is the superior manner in which German homes are
+  kept. But the pressure of inadequate quantity is urgent; it has caused
+  high rents, overcrowding, and the development of large barrack or
+  block dwellings which are becoming the prevailing type. At the same
+  time it has led to many and varied efforts to meet the difficulty.
+  Isolated attempts go back to an early date. For instance a building
+  society was formed in Berlin in 1849, Alfred Krupp began to build his
+  "colonies" at Essen in 1863, Barmen started a society in 1871 and
+  there were other cases; but general attention seems first to have been
+  drawn to the subject by the reforming efforts of Pastor Bodelschwingh
+  at Bielefeld about 1884 in connexion with his _Arbeiterheim_. In short
+  housing reform in Germany is really a matter of the last 20 years. The
+  first efficient by-laws for regulating building in Berlin were not
+  adopted till 1887; the previous regulations dating from 1853 permitted
+  many abuses and under them a great deal of bad housing was
+  constructed, especially after the establishment of the empire and the
+  beginning of the great development of the capital.
+
+  The worst feature is the general prevalence of dwellings containing a
+  very small number of rooms--from 1 to 3--and consequent overcrowding.
+  The following figures are extracted from the Report to the Board of
+  Trade on Rents, Housing, &c., in Germany (1908, Cd. 4032). They
+  indicate the proportion of dwellings containing 1, 2 or 3 rooms, or
+  (in a few cases) the proportion of the population living in such
+  dwellings. The towns are those for which the information is given.
+  They are not selected as particularly bad specimens but as
+  representative, and they include most of the capitals and chief
+  industrial centres. The figures relate to the year 1900, except in a
+  few cases, in which they are taken from a municipal house census in
+  1905.
+
+    _Percentage of Dwellings or Population living in Dwellings
+    containing_
+
+    +-------------------+--------+--------+--------+-----------+
+    |       Town.       |1 Room. |2 Rooms.|3 Rooms.|Total under|
+    |                   |        |        |        |  4 Rooms. |
+    +-------------------+--------+--------+--------+-----------+
+    | Berlin            |  8.0   |  37.2  |  30.6  |   75.8    |
+    | Aachen            | 13.7   |  32.0  |  21.9  |   67.6    |
+    | Barmen (pop.)     |  1.5   |  24.3  |  28.8  |   54.6    |
+    | Bremen            |  3.8(?)|  26.8  |  26.1  |   56.7(?) |
+    | Breslau (pop.)    |  3.9   |  46.0  |  24.4  |   74.3    |
+    | Chemnitz (pop.)   |  1.7   |  34.8  |  29.9  |   66.4    |
+    | Dantzig           |  3.3   |  45.0  |  29.9  |   78.2    |
+    | Dortmund          |  4.7   |  45.5  |  30.0  |   80.2    |
+    | Dresden           |  0.8   |   3.5  |  27.8  |   32.1    |
+    | Dusseldorf        |  5.0   |  26.4  |  22.7  |   54.1    |
+    | Elberfeld         |  8.4(?)|  36.9  |  21.7  |   67.0(?) |
+    | Essen             |  2.9   |  35.4  |  30.0  |   68.3    |
+    | Hamburg           |  1.0   |   3.9  |  24.7  |   29.6    |
+    | Konigshutte (pop.)| 10.0   |  60.4  |  16.8  |   87.2    |
+    | Leipzig (pop.)    |  0.4   |   1.7  |  14.5  |   16.6    |
+    | Mannheim          |  3.1   |  22.1  |  40.4  |   65.6    |
+    | Munich (pop.)     |  4.6   |  24.1  |  28.4  |   57.1    |
+    | Plauen (pop.)     |  1.3   |  14.2  |  21.8  |   36.3    |
+    +-------------------+--------+--------+--------+-----------+
+
+  The figures must be read with a certain amount of caution, as they are
+  not in every case compiled on a precisely uniform method with regard
+  to inclusion of kitchens and attics. For this reason the position of
+  Bremen and Elberfeld is probably more unfavourable than it ought to
+  be. But broadly the table shows that in most of the large towns in
+  Germany more than half, and in some cases more than three-quarters of
+  the dwellings have less than 4 rooms. Leipzig is the most striking
+  exception. If working-class quarters alone are taken it is found that
+  dwellings of more than 3 rooms are so few as to be negligible. In
+  Stuttgart, where housing is very dear, the percentages for
+  working-class quarters are--1 room 21.0, 2 rooms 51.8, 3 rooms 26.9;
+  total under 4 rooms 98.7. Konigshutte, the chief coal and iron centre
+  in Silesia and a purely working-class town, shows the same state of
+  things; 60% of the whole population live in dwellings of 2 rooms and
+  87% in less than four. It is interesting to compare English towns. The
+  proportion of dwellings containing less than 4 rooms in London was
+  (1901) 52.2%, in Berlin 75.8%; the proportion of the population living
+  in such dwellings was--London 38.7%, Berlin 71.5%. Not only is the
+  proportion of small dwellings very much higher in Berlin but the
+  proportion of the population living in them shows a far greater
+  discrepancy. This indicates a much higher degree of overcrowding. The
+  only point in which Berlin has the advantage is the smaller number of
+  single-room dwellings. The proportions are London 14.7%, Berlin 8.0%.
+  But it is to be observed that overcrowding is not so common in 1-room
+  dwellings, which are often occupied by a single person, as in those
+  with 2 or 3 rooms, which are occupied by families, though probably the
+  most extreme cases of overcrowding occur in particular 1-room
+  dwellings. In the English county boroughs the proportion of dwellings
+  with less than 4 rooms was 24.0%, in other urban districts 17.4, and
+  in all urban areas including London 26.4%. When all allowance is made
+  for minor errors and discrepancies it may be broadly concluded that
+  the proportion of small dwellings containing less than 4 rooms is at
+  least twice as great in German as in English towns, and that the
+  conditions as to accommodation which in England prevail only in London
+  are general in urban Germany. As a set-off German rooms are generally
+  larger than English ones and in block dwellings there is often a
+  little ante-room or landing which does not count but really increases
+  the space.
+
+  The German census does not take cognisance of overcrowding and there
+  is no general official standard; but some towns have adopted a
+  standard of their own, namely, six or more persons to 1 room and ten
+  or more to 2 rooms. In Breslau, which is one of the worst towns, 17.5%
+  of the population (53,000) of the "city" or inner ring were
+  overcrowded on this basis in 1900. In Barmen, which is not one of the
+  worst, 20% of the 2-roomed and 17% of the 3-roomed dwellings (together
+  housing more than half the population) were overcrowded according to
+  the English standard. Overcrowding and other bad conditions are worst
+  in the basement or cellar dwellings, of which some towns have a very
+  large number. In Breslau 15,000 persons were living in 3853 such
+  dwellings in 1900; in Berlin 91,426 persons were living in 24,088
+  basements. Some of these are free from objection, but 11,147, housing
+  38,663 persons, were situated in back buildings and unfit for
+  habitation on account of darkness, damp, dilapidation and the like.
+  "Back" houses are a feature of old towns; they are houses which do not
+  give on the street but lie behind and are approached by a passage;
+  they are what we call courts and quite as insanitary as anything of
+  the kind in English towns.
+
+  With regard to rents the Board of Trade (London) Report gives the
+  following figures for Berlin and a number of other towns:--
+
+    +-------------+-----------------------------------+
+    |No. of Rooms | Predominant Range of Weekly Rents.|
+    |per Dwelling.+----------------+------------------+
+    |             |     Berlin.    |   Other Towns.   |
+    +-------------+----------------+------------------+
+    | 2 rooms     |   5/- to 6/-   |    2/8 to 3/6    |
+    | 3 rooms     |   7/- to 9/3   |    3/6 to 4/9    |
+    | 4 rooms     |       ..       |    4/3 to 6/-    |
+    +-------------+----------------+------------------+
+
+  Rents are higher in Berlin than in any other town, though Stuttgart
+  comes very near it. The following table of index numbers shows the
+  relations of 32 towns to Berlin:--
+
+    +--------------+-------++---------------+-------+
+    |     Town.    | Index ||     Town.     | Index |
+    |              |Number.||               |Number.|
+    +--------------+-------++---------------+-------+
+    | Berlin       |  100  || Nuremberg     |   53  |
+    | Stuttgart    |   97  || Aachen        |   53  |
+    | Dusseldorf   |   79  || Crefeld       |   52  |
+    | Dortmund     |   68  || Bremen        |   52  |
+    | Anchaffenburg|   67  || Plauen        |   52  |
+    | Hamburg      |   66  || Leipzig       |   51  |
+    | Mannheim     |   64  || Dantzig       |   49  |
+    | Konigsberg   |   62  || Mulhausen     |   48  |
+    | Munich       |   63  || Konigshutte   |   47  |
+    | Essen        |   62  || Stettin       |   46  |
+    | Solingen     |   61  || Magdeburg     |   43  |
+    | Bochum       |   57  || Chemnitz      |   40  |
+    | Elberfeld    |   57  || Zwickau       |   38  |
+    | Barmen       |   57  || Brunswick     |   37  |
+    | Remscheid    |   56  || Stassfurt     |   33  |
+    | Breslau      |   56  || Oschersleben  |   28  |
+    | Dresden      |   54  ||               |       |
+    +--------------+-------++---------------+-------+
+
+  Comparing rents in Germany and England, the Board of Trade Report
+  gives the following table, to which the corresponding ratio of French
+  towns has been added.
+
+    +-------------+-------------------------+-------------+-------------+
+    |             |Predominant Weekly Rents.|   Ratio of  |   Ratio of  |
+    |No. of rooms.+-----------+-------------+  German to  |  French to  |
+    |             |  England. |   Germany.  |English (100)|English (100)|
+    +-------------+-----------+-------------+-------------+-------------+
+    | 2 rooms     |3/- to 3/6 | 2/8 to 3/6  |      95     |      79     |
+    | 3 rooms     |3/9 to 4/6 | 3/6 to 4/9  |     100     |      86     |
+    | 4 rooms     |4/6 to 5/6 | 4/3 to 6/-  |     102     |      78     |
+    +-------------+-----------+-------------+-------------+-------------+
+
+  If the mean of the English and German figures be taken it shows a very
+  slight difference in favour of Germany; the mean weekly rent per room
+  being 1s. 5d. in England and 1s. 4(3/4)d. in Germany. But in England
+  rent usually includes local taxation (rates) whereas in Germany it
+  does not; if this be added German rents are to English as 123 to 100,
+  or nearly one-fourth more.
+
+  The statistics given above indicate a wide range of variation in the
+  conditions prevailing in different towns in Germany; and that holds
+  good with regard to improvements. The administration of the laws
+  relating to public health and housing is in the hands of the local
+  authorities. The public health service is generally efficient and
+  sometimes very good. Increasing attention has been paid in recent
+  years to the sanitary inspection of houses and in some towns it is now
+  thorough and systematic, but active efforts to deal with old and
+  insanitary quarters _en masse_ are isolated and exceptional. Hamburg
+  is an instance; scared by the visitation of cholera in 1892 the
+  authorities put in hand an extensive improvement scheme on the English
+  plan at a cost of half a million sterling. But demolition is
+  exceptional; slums are usually subjected to supervision and are not
+  allowed to be in a state of dilapidation, and sometimes, as at
+  Mannheim, notices are served to abate overcrowding. In Munich a policy
+  of gradually buying up insanitary houses has been adopted. But
+  improvement has principally been promoted by new building and the
+  reduction of the population in old insanitary quarters, to which cheap
+  locomotive facilities have greatly contributed. The great bulk of
+  urban Germany is new, and the most valuable contribution made by it to
+  the housing question is the more effective control of new building and
+  particularly the principle of town-planning, coupled with the purchase
+  of neighbouring ground with a view to future extension. This policy is
+  comparatively recent and still very partially applied, but it is now
+  rapidly extending. A general act providing for the planning of streets
+  was passed in Prussia in 1875 and still forms the basis of building
+  legislation; but as noted above no effective by-laws were adopted even
+  in Berlin until after 1887, and consequently a very faulty style of
+  building was adopted, especially in large blocks which conceal grave
+  defects behind an imposing exterior. The Saxon towns have been
+  conspicuously successful in regard to housing. Leipzig stands alone
+  among German towns in having 83.4% of its population living in
+  dwellings of 4 rooms and upwards. Yet it is a great commercial city,
+  the fifth in the empire, with a population of upwards of half a
+  million. It also comes low on the rent table, having an index number
+  little more than half that of Berlin. All the Saxon towns are low,
+  Chemnitz and Zwickau particularly so, and the position of Dresden,
+  being a capital, is remarkable. More than two-thirds of the population
+  live in dwellings of 4 rooms or more, and the rent index number is
+  only 54. In Saxony a general Building Act, especially providing for
+  town planning, was passed in 1900; and the Grand Duchy of Hesse, which
+  alone among the German states has a government Housing Department,
+  adopted a Housing of the Working Classes Act in 1902. Other states
+  have followed or are following and the air is full of movement. The
+  distinctive features of urban housing reform in Germany are (1) the
+  systematic planning of extensions, (2) purchase of ground by
+  municipalities, (3) letting or sale of municipal land for building
+  under prescribed conditions. Many of the great towns, including
+  Berlin, Munich, Dresden, Leipzig, Cologne, Frankfort and Dusseldorf,
+  are owners of land to a variable but sometimes large extent. This
+  policy seems to have been originally adopted on economic grounds and
+  those municipalities which bought or otherwise came into possession of
+  town land at an early date derive a substantial revenue from it now,
+  besides being in a position to promote housing improvement. There is
+  comparatively little municipal building, and that as a rule only or
+  principally for municipal servants, as at Dusseldorf, Mannheim and
+  Nuremberg; but there seems to be a tendency to venture further in this
+  direction and some towns have built houses for letting. The
+  municipalities generally sell or let their land, and the building
+  agencies which enjoy most official favour are the societies "of public
+  utility"; they are encouraged in every way and have greatly developed,
+  particularly in the Rhine province. Some are co-operative, others
+  semi-philanthropic in that they aim at building good houses and limit
+  their profits. In 1901 the Prussian Government issued an order urging
+  municipalities to support these societies by remitting the cost of
+  constructing streets and sewers, placing the assistance of building
+  officials at their disposal, taking their shares, lending them money
+  and becoming security for them. A great deal of public money has been
+  advanced to building societies, and one very important source of
+  supply has been developed, since the Old Age and Infirmity Insurance
+  Act of 1889, in the National Insurance Funds which invest their
+  surplus capital in this way. Down to 1906 the Boards of insurance had
+  lent L8,650,000 to societies for building; the Imperial Government
+  had lent L1,250,000, the Prussian Government L1,825,000, and the other
+  states further large sums in addition to the municipalities. Money
+  lent by the state is usually limited to building houses for state
+  employees and Insurance Boards lend on condition that the houses are
+  let to persons who come under the insurance laws. The development of
+  building societies has been promoted by the formation of general
+  building associations of which the earliest was established in
+  Dusseldorf in 1897 for the Rhine provinces; under its influence
+  one-fifth of the new housing provided in 1901 was erected by the
+  societies. The example was followed at Frankfort, Munster and
+  Wiesbaden. Housing by employers has also been carried out on a large
+  scale in Germany. States and municipalities have to some extent built
+  houses as employers, the former chiefly for railwaymen, besides
+  lending money to societies for the purpose; but most housing of this
+  kind has been done by private employers. Krupps, who had built 4274
+  dwellings housing nearly 27,000 persons down to 1901, are the most
+  famous example; but they are only one among many. In Rhineland and
+  Westphalia employers had in 1902 provided 22,269 houses containing
+  62,539 dwellings at a cost of L10,500,000; more than half the families
+  so housed belonged to the mining industry, the rest to various
+  manufactures. These two provinces, in which industrial development has
+  been extremely rapid, are exceptional; but housing by employers is not
+  confined to them. At Mannheim for instance over 1000 working-class
+  households have been so provided. At Nuremberg the Siemens Schuckert
+  Company have encouraged an interesting system of collective building
+  among their employees, by which 722 dwellings have been provided.
+
+  _Holland._--In 1901 a Public Health and a Housing Act were passed, and
+  these two embody most of the features of housing reform adopted in
+  other countries. The first provides for a general sanitary service
+  under the Ministry of the Interior. The second ordains that local
+  authorities shall frame by-laws for building and for the maintenance
+  and proper use of dwellings; that they shall inspect existing
+  dwellings, order improvements or repairs or demolition; empowers them
+  to take land compulsorily for the purposes of the act, to prohibit
+  building or rebuilding on sites reserved for public purposes and to
+  make grants or loans to societies or companies operating exclusively
+  for the improvement of working-class dwellings. If they fail to make
+  by-laws the provincial authorities may take action. Land buying with a
+  view to extensions has been adopted by a number of municipalities
+  including Amsterdam, Rotterdam, Utrecht and other important towns, and
+  the practice is increasing. Amsterdam has also begun the systematic
+  planning of extensions. There has been a little municipal building in
+  some small places, but it is on an insignificant scale; the tendency
+  is rather to favour societies of public utility as in France, Germany
+  and Belgium. The new laws are too recent to have had much effect and
+  housing reform is as yet in an early stage. Rents are high in the
+  large towns, namely, 1 room 1s. 8d. to 3s.; 2 rooms 2s. 6d. to 5s.; 3
+  rooms 3s. 6d. to 6s; 4 rooms 4s. 2d. to 7s.
+
+  _Italy._--A Housing of the Working Classes Act was passed in 1903, to
+  promote the improvement and provision of workmen's dwellings.
+  Municipalities have the power to purchase land compulsorily for
+  housing purposes and also to build workmen's dwellings. A few towns,
+  of which Milan is one, have done so. There are building regulations
+  relating to the area and height of rooms and the thickness of walls.
+  The antiquity of the Italian towns and the great quantity of old and
+  insanitary building make housing improvement a very difficult matter.
+  _La Societa Umanitaria_, a benevolent trust founded by Prosper Loria
+  of Milan in 1902, has taken up this subject among others and has built
+  two model tenements, housing 2000 persons.
+
+  _United States._--Interest in the housing question in the United
+  States is confined to a few of the largest cities and can only be said
+  to be acute in New York, though there have been investigations by
+  commissions elsewhere and Miss Octavia Hill's work in London has found
+  admirers and imitators in Philadelphia and Boston as well as in New
+  York. The evils of housing in New York have been the subject of much
+  sensational writing which has elevated them to the position of a
+  world-wide scandal. It is not necessary to accept all the allegations
+  made in order to see that several circumstances have combined to
+  produce an exceptional state of things in this great city. The limited
+  space--the island or peninsula of Manhattan--in which central New York
+  is built has compelled the erection of large tenement blocks,
+  otherwise rare in American towns; the incessant inrush of immigrants
+  from the poorest parts of Europe has filled these tenements with
+  immense numbers of persons of many nationalities accustomed to a low
+  standard of living; the generally backward state of public sanitation
+  in America, and the absence or evasion of regulations and supervision,
+  have permitted the erection of bad dwellings, their deterioration into
+  worse, and their misuse by excessive overcrowding. Other large cities
+  in which bad housing conditions are known to exist are Chicago,
+  Philadelphia, Boston, Baltimore, Cincinnati, Pittsburg, Jersey City.
+  There are doubtless many others, but bad housing conditions are not so
+  general in the United States as in Europe. Outside the very large
+  cities there is more space, more light and air, less crowding
+  together, less darkness, dirt and dilapidation. Large houses, occupied
+  by two or perhaps three families, are common, but they have more room
+  space than is usual in Europe. The 18th annual report (1903) of the
+  Commissioner of Labour gives the result of a special inquiry embracing
+  23,447 families distributed in 33 states. The average number of rooms
+  was 4.95 per family and 1.04 per individual. It is a fair inference
+  that overcrowding is confined to a comparatively small number of
+  exceptional places. A large number of the schedules were furnished by
+  the eminently urbanized and manufacturing states of New York,
+  Pennsylvania, Massachusetts, Ohio and Illinois; and in all these the
+  average number of rooms to a family exceeded 4, ranging from 4.2 in
+  Ohio to 5.5 in Massachusetts. The condition of homes as to sanitation
+  and cleanliness was statistically stated thus: Sanitary
+  condition--good 61.46%, fair 32,59%, bad 5.95%; Cleanliness--good
+  79.63%, fair 14.66 bad 5.71%. Other special inquiries have been
+  carried out in particular towns. In 1891-1892 the tenements in Boston
+  were investigated for the Massachusetts Labour Bureau, which found
+  3657 sleeping rooms without outside windows and about 8% of the
+  population living in conditions objectionable from one cause or
+  another. In 1892 Congress authorized a special inquiry into the slum
+  population of New York, Chicago, Philadelphia and Baltimore, the
+  results of which were published in the seventh special report (1894)
+  of the United States Commissioner of Labour. It was estimated that the
+  total "slum population" (presumably those living in unhealthy
+  conditions) was--New York 360,000, Chicago 162,000, Philadelphia
+  35,000, Baltimore 25,000. In Baltimore 530 families, consisting of
+  1648 persons, were living in single rooms with an average of 3.15
+  persons to a room; in Philadelphia 401 families were so living with an
+  average of 3.11 persons to a room. The proportion of 1-room dwellings
+  was less in New York and Chicago. In New York 44.55% or nearly half
+  the families investigated were found living in 2-roomed dwellings, in
+  Baltimore 27.88%, in Philadelphia 19.41% and in Chicago 19.14%. These
+  figures conclusively prove that European conditions reproduce
+  themselves in American cities. Poverty was not the cause, as the
+  average earnings per family ranged from L3, 4s. a week in Baltimore to
+  L4, 6s. a week in Chicago. Another official investigation in New York
+  was carried out in 1895 by the Tenement House Commission appointed by
+  the State of New York. It reported "many houses in the city in an
+  insanitary condition which absolutely unfits them for habitation."
+  Further details have been compiled from the census by the New York
+  Federation of Churches, chiefly relating to density of population in
+  the city. In 1900, out of a total of nearly 250,000 dwellings, 95,433
+  (38.2%) contained from 2 to 6 persons, 60,672 (24.2%) from 7 to 10
+  persons and 89,654 (35.9%) 11 persons or more. The density of
+  population for the whole city as now constituted was 19 persons to the
+  acre, in Manhattan 149; in the south-eastern district of Manhattan 382
+  and in one ward 735. Between 1900 and 1905 the density increased in
+  every district, and in the latter year there were 12 blocks with from
+  1000 to 1400 persons to the acre. The number of persons to the acre in
+  London (1901) is 60.6; in the most densely populated borough 182, and
+  in the most densely populated district (a very small one) 396. This
+  will give a measure of comparison. The large tenement blocks in New
+  York have been constructed with far less regard to health than those
+  in Berlin, and reproduce in an aggravated form the same evil of
+  insufficient light and air. In place of the inadequate courts round
+  which many are built in Berlin, the New York tenements have merely
+  narrow air shafts. In 1904 there were reported to be 362,000 dark
+  interior rooms, that is with no outside windows.
+
+  If American cities have nothing to learn from other countries in
+  regard to bad housing, they have nothing to teach in the way of
+  reform. They are following Europe slowly and a long distance behind.
+  There is no serious attempt to deal with insanitary areas as they have
+  been dealt with in England, or to prevent the creation of new ones by
+  regulation and planning of extensions as in Germany, or to promote the
+  provision of superior houses by organized public effort as in several
+  countries. A little has been done in New York to improve the worst
+  housing. A Tenement House Act was passed after the report of the
+  Commission of 1895 and a Department formed to give effect to it. Some
+  cleansing and repairing and insertion of windows is carried out every
+  year, but more attention seems to be paid to fire escapes. Societies
+  for providing improved dwellings exist in New York, Boston, Chicago
+  and Philadelphia. The oldest is one formed in Boston in 1871, called
+  the Co-operative Building Company; it was followed in 1876 by an
+  Improved Dwellings Company in Brooklyn, and in 1879 by a similar
+  society in Manhattan, and in 1885 by another in Boston. The largest
+  concern of the kind is the City and Suburban Houses Company in New
+  York, formed in 1896 under the guidance of Dr E. R. L. Gould; it has
+  built four groups of tenements housing 1238 families in the city and
+  112 houses on a suburban estate at Brooklyn; in all it has housed some
+  6000 persons. More recently Mr Henry Phipps has given L200,000 for the
+  provision of model dwellings in New York, and a building has been
+  erected on the plan of the Maison des Enfants in Paris. In Chicago the
+  City Houses Association works at housing reforms in various ways.
+  There are some other institutions of a like kind, but the aggregate
+  results are inconsiderable. Two other building agencies have done far
+  more in the United States than philanthropic societies; these are the
+  building and loan associations and private employers. The former are
+  co-operative provident societies; they are widely diffused throughout
+  the United States and their operations are on a very large scale. They
+  date from 1831, when the Oxford Provident Building Association was
+  formed at Frankfort, near Philadelphia. Pennsylvania has still the
+  largest number of associations, but from 1843 onwards the movement
+  spread rapidly and continuously in other states. The high-water mark
+  appears to have been reached in 1897, when the total assets of the
+  associations amounted to about L133,000,000. In 1905 there were 5326
+  associations with an aggregate membership of 1,686,611 and assets of
+  about L130,000,000. The states of Pennsylvania and Ohio head the list,
+  but the movement is very strong in many others. It accounts for the
+  comparatively large number of houses owned by working-class families
+  in the United States. With regard to housing by employers, no
+  comprehensive information is available, but the total amount is
+  certainly considerable though probably not so large as in Germany or
+  in France. Some of the better-known instances are the Pelzer
+  Manufacturing Company at Pelzer in South Carolina, which has built
+  about 1000 dwellings; the Maryland Steel Company at Sparrows Point,
+  Maryland, 800 dwellings; Ludlow Manufacturing Associates at Ludlow,
+  Mass., 500 dwellings; Whitin Machine Works at Whitinsville, Mass., 600
+  dwellings; Westinghouse Air Brake Co. at Wilmerding, Penn., 360
+  dwellings; Draper Co., Hopedale, Mass., 250 dwellings. These are all
+  more or less "model" settlements, not in cities, but in outlying or
+  country places, where works have been established, and that is
+  generally true of housing by employers in the United States, whereas
+  in Germany much has been provided by them in the large towns. Rents
+  are very much higher in American cities than in European towns of
+  comparable size and character.
+
+  AUTHORITIES.--Board of Trade _Reports_--"Cost of Living of the Working
+  Classes (England)" (1908); "Cost of Living in German Towns" (1908);
+  "Cost of Living in French Towns" (1909). _Proceedings of International
+  Housing Congress_ (London, 1907); _The New Encyclopaedia of Social
+  Reform_; E. R. Dewsnup, _The Housing Problem in England_; T. C.
+  Horsfall, _The Example of Germany_; J. S. Nettlefold, _Practical
+  Housing Reform_; A. Shadwell, _Industrial Efficiency_, ch. xi. on
+  "Housing"; W. Thompson, _The Housing Handbook, Housing up to Date_.
+      (A. Sl.)
+
+
+
+
+HOUSMAN, LAURENCE (1867-   ), English writer and artist, was born on the
+18th of June 1867. Having studied at South Kensington, he first made a
+reputation as a book-illustrator. Some of his best pictorial work may be
+seen in the editions of Meredith's _Jump to Glory Jane_ (1892), the
+_Weird Tales of Jonas Lie_ (1892), Jane Barlow's _Land of Elfintoun_
+(1894), Christina Rossetti's _Goblin Market_ (1893), _Werewolf_ (1896),
+by his sister, Miss Clemence Housman, Shelley's _Sensitive Plant_
+(1898), and his own _Farm in Fairyland_ (1894). His designs were
+engraved on wood by Miss Housman. His volumes of verse include _Green
+Arras_ (1896), _Rue_ (1899), _Spikenard_ (1898) and _Mendicant Rhymes_
+(1906); and the mysticism which characterizes the devotional poems in
+_Spikenard_ recurs in his half-allegorical tales, _All Fellows_ (1896),
+_The Blue Moon_ (1904) and _The Cloak of Friendship_ (1906). His
+nativity play, _Bethlehem_, was presented in the Great Hall of London
+University at South Kensington for a week in December 1902. In 1900 he
+published anonymously _An Englishwoman's Love Letters_, which created a
+temporary sensation; and he followed this essay in popular fiction by
+the novels _A Modem Antaeus_ (1901) and _Sabrina Warham_ (1904). On the
+23rd of December 1904 his fantastic play _Prunella_, written in
+collaboration with Mr Granville Barker, was produced at the Court
+Theatre.
+
+His brother, Alfred Edward Housman (b. 1859), an accomplished scholar,
+professor of Latin at University College, London, is known as a poet by
+his striking lyrical series, _A Shropshire Lad_ (1896).
+
+
+
+
+HOUSSAYE, ARSENE (1815-1896), French novelist, poet and man of letters,
+was born at Bruyeres (Aisne), near Laon, on the 28th of March 1815. His
+real surname was Housset. In 1832 he found his way to Paris, and in 1836
+he published two novels, _La Couronne de bluets_ and _La Pecheresse_. He
+had many friends in Paris, among them Jules Janin and Theophile Gautier,
+and he wrote in collaboration with Jules Sandeau. He produced art
+criticism in _L'Histoire de la peinture flamande et hollandaise_ (1846);
+semi-historical sketches In _Mlle de la Valliere et Mme de Montespan_
+(1860) and _Galerie de portraits du XVII^e siecle_ (1844); literary
+criticism in _Le Roi Voltaire_ (1858) and his famous satirical _Histoire
+du quarante et unieme fauteuil de l'academie francaise_ (1855); drama in
+his _Comediennes_ (1857); poetry in his _Symphonie des vingt ans_
+(1867), _Cent et un sonnets_ (1873), &c.; and novels, _Les Filles
+d'Eve_ (1852) and many others. In 1849, through the influence of Rachel,
+he was entrusted with the administration of the Theatre Francais, a
+position he filled with unfailing tact and success until 1859, when he
+was made inspector-general of works of art. He died on the 26th of
+February 1896.
+
+  His _Confessions, souvenir; d'un demi-siecle_ appeared in 1885-1891.
+  See also J. Lemaitre, _Arsene Houssaye_ (1897), with a bibliography.
+
+His son, HENRY HOUSSAYE (1848-   ), the historian, was born in Paris. His
+early writings were devoted to classical antiquity, studied not only in
+books but on the actual Greek sites which he visited in 1868. He
+published successively _Histoire d'Apelles_ (1867), a study on Greek
+art; _L'Armee dans la Grece antique_ (1867); _Histoire d'Alcibiade et de
+la republique athenienne depuis la mort de Pericles jusqu'a l'avenement
+des trente tyrans_ (1873); Papers on _Le Nombre des citoyens d'Athenes
+au V^eme siecle avant l'ere chretienne_ (1882); _La Loi agraire a
+Sparte_ (1884); _Le Premier Siege de Paris en 52 av. J.-C._ (1876); and
+two volumes of miscellanies, _Athenes, Rome, Paris, l'histoire et les
+moeurs_ (1879), and _Aspasie, Cleopatre, Theodora_ (6th ed. 1889). The
+military history of Napoleon I. then attracted him. His first volume on
+this subject, called _1814_ (1888), went through no fewer than forty-six
+editions. It was followed by _1815_, the first part of which comprises
+the first Restoration, the return from Elba and the Hundred Days (1893);
+the second part, Waterloo (1899); and the third part, the second
+abdication and the White Terror (1905). He was elected a member of the
+French Academy in 1895.
+
+
+
+
+HOUSTON, SAM, or SAMUEL (1793-1863), American general and statesman, of
+Scotch-Irish descent, was born near Lexington, Virginia, on the 2nd of
+March 1793. His father, who had fought in the War of Independence, died
+in 1806, and soon afterward Samuel removed with his mother to the
+frontier in Blount county, Tennessee. When he was about fifteen his
+elder brothers obtained for him a place as clerk in a trader's store,
+but he ran away and lived with the Cherokee Indians of East Tennessee
+for nearly three years. On his return he opened a country school, and
+later attended a session or two of the Academy at Maryville. During the
+War of 1812 he served under Andrew Jackson against the Creek Indians,
+and his bravery at the battle of Tohopeka, in which he was disabled by
+several wounds, won promotion to a lieutenancy. In 1817 he was appointed
+sub-agent in managing the business relating to the removal of the
+Cherokees from East Tennessee to a reservation in what is now Arkansas,
+but he was offended at a rebuke from John C. Calhoun, then secretary of
+war, for appearing before him in Indian garments, as well as at an
+inquiry into charges affecting his official integrity, and he resigned
+in 1818. He entered a law office in Nashville, and was admitted to the
+bar, and was soon elected a district attorney. From 1823 to 1827 Houston
+represented the ninth district of Tennessee in Congress, and in 1827 was
+elected governor of the state by the Jackson Democrats. He married Eliza
+Allen in January 1829; his wife left him three months later, and he
+resigned his office of governor, again took up his residence among the
+Cherokees, who were at this time about to remove to Indian Territory,
+and was formally adopted a member of their nation.
+
+In 1830 and again in 1832 he visited Washington to expose the frauds
+practised upon the Cherokees by government agents, and attracted
+national attention by an encounter on the 13th of April 1832 with
+William Stanberry, a Congressman from Ohio, who intimated that Houston
+himself was seeking to defraud them. Commissioned by President Jackson,
+Houston went to Texas in December 1832 to negotiate treaties with the
+Indian tribes there for the protection of American traders on the
+border. He decided to remain in Texas, and was elected a delegate to the
+constitutional convention which met at San Felipe on the 1st of April
+1833 to draw up a memorial to the Mexican Congress asking for the
+separation of Texas from Coahuila, in which the anti-American party was
+in control, as well as to frame a constitution for the commonwealth as a
+new member of the Mexican Republic, and he served as chairman of the
+drafting committee, and took a prominent part in the preparations for
+war when next year the petition was refused. In October 1835, soon after
+the outbreak of the War for Texan Independence, the committees of the
+township of Nacogdoches chose Houston as commander-in-chief of the
+forces in eastern Texas, and after the San Felipe convention in November
+he was chosen commander-in-chief of the Texan army. On the 21st of April
+1836, while in command of 743 raw troops, he met on the bank of the San
+Jacinto about 1600 Mexican veterans led by Santa Anna and completely
+routed them; on the next day Santa Anna was taken prisoner.
+
+Texan independence was won by this victory (although the Mexican
+government repudiated the treaty negotiated by Santa Anna), and Houston
+was elected president of Texas (1st of September) and was inaugurated on
+the 22nd of October. His term expired in December 1838; he was elected
+again in 1841 and served until 1844. During his first term a newly
+founded city was named in his honour and this was the seat of government
+in 1837-39 and in 1842-45. Texas having been admitted as a state of the
+American Union in 1845, Houston was elected one of its first two United
+States senators. He served as a stalwart Union Democrat from March 1846
+until 1859; he opposed the Kansas-Nebraska bill in an able speech (3rd
+March 1854), and spoke frequently in defence of the rights of the
+Indians. In 1859 he was elected governor of Texas and tried to prevent
+the secession of his state; upon his refusal, in March 1861, to swear
+allegiance to the Confederacy he was declared deposed. He died at
+Huntsville, Texas, on the 26th of July 1863. Houston was an able
+soldier, wary, intrepid and resolute; and was a legislator of rare
+foresight, cool discrimination and fearless candour.
+
+  See A. M. Williams, _Sam Houston and the War of Independence in Texas_
+  (Boston, 1893); Henry Bruce, _Life of General Houston_ (New York,
+  1891); and W. C. Crane, _Life and Select Literary Remains of Sam
+  Houston_ (Philadelphia, 1884).
+
+
+
+
+HOUSTON, a city and the county-seat of Harris county, Texas, U.S.A., at
+the head of deep-sea navigation on Buffalo Bayou, a tributary of
+Galveston Bay, 50 m. N.W. of Galveston, and about 325 m. W. of New
+Orleans. Pop. (1880) 16,513; (1890) 27,557; (1900) 44,633, of whom 4415
+were foreign-born and 14,608 were negroes; (1910 census) 78,800. The
+land area in 1906 was 16.02 sq. m.; in 1908, about 20 sq. m. It is
+served by the Galveston, Harrisburg & San Antonio (Southern Pacific),
+the Galveston, Houston & Henderson, the Gulf, Colorado & Santa Fe, the
+Houston & Texas Central (Southern Pacific), the Houston, East & West
+Texas, the International & Great Northern, the Missouri, Kansas & Texas,
+the San Antonio & Aransas Pass, the Trinity & Brazos Valley, the St
+Louis, Brownsville & Mexico, the Texas & New Orleans, and the Houston
+Belt & Terminal railways, several of which have their headquarters at
+Houston. The Federal government has greatly improved the natural channel
+from the city to the Gulf of Mexico, straightening, widening and
+deepening it to a depth of 25 ft. for the entire distance from the
+Galveston jetties to the Houston turning basin--where the municipality
+has constructed free municipal wharves. The city occupies an unusually
+fine site on both sides of the Buffalo Bayou. Among the principal
+buildings are a Carnegie library, the Houston Lyceum, the Federal
+building, the Masonic temple, the city high school, the city hall and
+market house, the Harris County Court House, the Cotton Exchange, and
+the First and Commercial National banks. Houston is the seat of the
+Texas Dental College, of St Thomas College (1903), and of the Houston,
+Annunciation and St Agnes academies; and the will (1901) of William
+Marsh Rice provided an endowment (valued in 1908 at about $7,000,000)
+for the William M. Rice Institute for the Advancement of Literature,
+Science and Art, of which Dr Edgar Odell Lovett, formerly professor of
+mathematics (1900-1905) and of astronomy (1905-1908) in Princeton
+University, was made president in 1908. The city is the most important
+railway and shipping centre of South Texas, and has a large trade in
+cotton (the receipts for the year ending Aug. 31, 1907 being 2,967,535
+bales), cotton-seed oil, sugar, rice,[1] lumber and citrus fruits.
+Houston is important also as a manufacturing centre, its factory product
+being valued at $13,564,019 in 1905, an increase of 81% over the factory
+product in 1900. There are extensive railway car-shops, cotton-seed oil,
+petroleum and sugar refineries, cotton gins and compresses, steel
+rolling mills, car-wheel factories, boiler, pump and engine works, flour
+mills, rice mills and a rice elevator, breweries, planing and saw-mills,
+pencil factories, and brick and tile factories. Its proximity to the
+Texas oil fields gives the city a cheap factory fuel. The assessed
+valuation of taxable property in the city increased from $27,480,898 in
+1900 to $51,513,615 in 1908. The No-Tsu Oh Carnival week each November
+is a distinctive feature of the city. Houston, like Galveston, adopted
+in 1905 a very successful system of municipal government by commission,
+a commission of five (one of whom acts as mayor) being elected
+biennially and having both executive and legislative powers. The
+waterworks are owned and operated by the municipality, which greatly
+improved them from the city's surplus under the first two years of
+government by commission. In 1908 extensive improvements in paving,
+drainage and sewerage were undertaken by the city. The payment of an
+annual poll-tax of $2.50 is a prerequisite to voting. Houston was
+settled and laid out in 1836, and was named in honour of General Sam
+Houston, whose home in Caroline Street was standing in 1908. In
+1837-1839 and in 1842-1845 Houston was the capital of the Republic of
+Texas. About 15 m. E.S.E. of the city is the battleground of San
+Jacinto, which was bought by the state in 1906 for a public memorial
+park.
+
+
+FOOTNOTE:
+
+  [1] Much rice is cultivated in the vicinity of Houston by Japanese
+    farmers.
+
+
+
+
+HOUWALD, CHRISTOPH ERNST, FREIHERR VON (1778-1845), German dramatist and
+author, was born at Straupitz in Lower Lusatia, a son of the president
+of the district court of justice, on the 28th of November 1778. He
+studied law at the university of Halle, and on completion of his
+academic studies returned home, married, and managed the family estates.
+In 1816 he afforded a home to his friend K. W. S. Contessa (1777-1825),
+himself a poet, who had met with serious reverses of fortune; Contessa
+lived with Houwald, assisting and stimulating him in his literary work,
+for eight years. In 1821 Houwald was unanimously elected syndic for
+Lower Lusatia, an office which placed him at the head of the
+administration of the province. He died at Neuhaus, near Lubben, on the
+28th of January 1845.
+
+  Houwald is remembered as the author of several so-called "Fate
+  tragedies" (see GERMAN LITERATURE), of which the best known are _Das
+  Bild_, _Der Leuchtturm_, _Die Heimkehr_, _Fluch und Segen_ (all
+  published in 1821). They have, however, small literary value, and
+  Houwald is seen to better advantage in his narratives and books for
+  juvenile readers, such as _Romantische Akkorde_ (publ. by W. Contessa,
+  Berlin, 1817); _Buch fur Kinder gebildeter Stande_ (1819-1824); and
+  _Jakob Thau, der Hofnarr_ (1821). Houwald's collected works,
+  _Samtliche Werke_, were published in five volumes (Leipzig, 1851; 2nd
+  ed., 1858-1859). See J. Minor, _Die Schicksalstragodie in ihren
+  Hauptvertretern_ (Frankfurt, 1883), and _Das Schicksalsdrama_ in
+  Kurschner's _Deutsche Nationalliteratur_; vol. cli. (Stuttgart, 1884);
+  O. Schmidtborn, _C. E. von Houwald als Dramatiker_ (1909).
+
+
+
+
+HOVA, the name originally applied to the middle-class Malayo-Indonesian
+natives of Madagascar (q.v.), as distinct from the noble class
+_Andriana_ and the slave class _Andevo_. Hova has now come to mean the
+most numerous and powerful of the tribes which form the native
+population of Madagascar. The Hova, who occupy the province of Imerina,
+the central plateau of the island, are of Malayo-Indonesian origin. The
+period at which the Hova arrived in Madagascar is still a subject of
+dispute. Some think that the immigration took place in very early times,
+before Hinduism reached the Malay Archipelago, since no trace of
+Sanskrit is found in Malagasy. Others believe that the Hova did not
+reach the island until the 12th or 13th century. At the French conquest
+of Madagascar (1895), the Hova were the most powerful and, politically,
+the dominant people; but were far from having subjected the whole of the
+island to their rule. The Hova are short and slim, with a complexion of
+a yellowish olive, many being fairer than the average of southern
+Europeans. Their hair is long, black and smooth but coarse. Their heads
+are round, with flat straight foreheads, flat faces, prominent
+cheekbones, small straight noses, fairly wide nostrils, and small black
+and slightly oblique eyes. The physical contrast to the negro is usually
+very obvious, but, especially among the lower classes, there is a
+tendency to thick lips, kinky hair and dark skin. In many of their
+customs, such as taboo, infanticide, marriage and funeral rites, they
+show their Indonesian origin. Most of them now profess Christianity.
+
+
+
+
+HOVE, a municipal borough of Sussex, England, adjoining the
+watering-place of Brighton on the west, on the London, Brighton, & South
+Coast railway. Pop. (1901) 36,535. The great seawall of Brighton
+continues along the front at Hove, forming a pleasant promenade. Here is
+the Sussex county cricket ground. The municipal borough, incorporated in
+1898, includes the parishes of Hove and Aldrington, of which the first
+is within the parliamentary borough of Brighton, but the second is in
+the Lewes division of the county. The corporation consists of a mayor,
+10 aldermen and 30 councillors. Area, 1521 acres.
+
+
+
+
+HOVENDEN, THOMAS (1840-1895), American artist, was born in Dunmanway,
+Co. Cork, Ireland, on the 28th of December 1840. He was a pupil of the
+South Kensington Art Schools and those of the National Academy of
+Design, New York, whither he had removed in 1863. Subsequently he went
+to Paris and studied in the Ecole des Beaux Arts under Cabanel, but
+passed most of his time with the American colony in Brittany, at
+Pont-Aven, where he painted many pictures of the peasantry. Returning to
+America in 1880, he became an academician in 1882, and attracted
+attention by an important canvas of "The Last Moments of John Brown"
+(now in the Metropolitan Museum of Art). His "Breaking Home Ties," a
+picture of American farm life, was engraved with considerable popular
+success. Hovenden was mortally injured in a heroic effort to save a
+child from a railroad train in the station at Germantown, near
+Philadelphia, and died at Norristown, Pennsylvania, on the 14th of
+August 1895. Among his principal works are:--"News from the Conscript"
+(1877), "Loyalist Peasant Soldier of La Vendee" (1879). "A Breton
+Interior," "Image Seller" and "Jerusalem the Golden" (in the
+Metropolitan Museum of Art).
+
+
+
+
+HOW, WILLIAM WALSHAM (1823-1897), English divine, son of a Shrewsbury
+solicitor, was born on the 13th of December 1823, and was educated at
+Shrewsbury school and Wadham College, Oxford. He was ordained in 1846,
+and for upwards of thirty years was actively engaged in parish work at
+Whittington in Shropshire and Oswestry (rural dean, 1860). He refused
+preferment on several occasions, but his energy and success made him
+well known, and in 1879 he became a suffragan bishop in London, under
+the title of bishop of Bedford, his province being the East End. There
+he became the inspiring influence of a revival of church work. He
+founded the East London Church Fund, and enlisted a large band of
+enthusiastic helpers, his popularity among all classes being immense. He
+was particularly fond of children, and was commonly called "the
+children's bishop." In 1888 he was made bishop of Wakefield, and in the
+north of England he continued to do valuable work. His sermons were
+straightforward, earnest and attractive; and besides publishing several
+volumes of these, he wrote a good deal of verse, including such
+well-known hymns as "Who is this so weak and helpless," "Lord, Thy
+children guide and keep." In 1863-1868 he brought out a _Commentary on
+the Four Gospels_; and he also wrote a _Manual for the Holy Communion_.
+In the movement for infusing new spiritual life into the church
+services, especially among the poor, How was a great force. He died on
+the 10th of August 1897. He was much helped in his earlier work by his
+wife. Frances A. Douglas (d. 1887).
+
+  See his _Life_ by his son, F. D. How (1898).
+
+
+
+
+HOWARD (FAMILY). Among English families, the house of Howard has long
+held the first place. Its head, the duke of Norfolk, is the first of the
+dukes and the hereditary earl marshal of England, while the earls of
+Suffolk, Carlisle and Effingham and the Lord Howard of Glossop represent
+in the peerage its younger lines.
+
+Its founder was a Norfolk lawyer, William Howard or Haward, who was
+summoned to parliament as a justice in 1295, being appointed a justice
+of the common pleas in 1297. Over the parentage of this man genealogists
+have disputed for centuries. The pedigree-makers have hailed him in turn
+as the descendant of a Norman "Auber, earl of Passy" and as the heir of
+Hereward, "the last of the English." But out of the copies of Norfolk
+deeds and records collected for Thomas, earl of Arundel, in the early
+part of the 17th century, it seems clear enough that he sprang from a
+Norfolk family, several of whose members held lands at Wiggenhall near
+Lynn. These notes from deeds, evidently collected by an honest inquirer,
+make no extravagant claims of ancient ancestry or illustrious origin for
+the Howards, although the facts contained in them were recklessly
+manipulated by subservient genealogists. Doubtless the judge was the son
+of John Howard of Wiggenhall, living about 1260, whose widow Lucy,
+called by the genealogists the daughter of John Germund, was probably
+the wife of John Germund by her second marriage. William Howard was
+employed as counsel by the corporation of Lynn, and it is worthy of note
+that the "crosslets fitchy" in his shield of arms suggest the cross with
+which the dragon was discomfited by St Margaret, the patroness of Lynn.
+Prospering by the law, William Howard of Wiggenhall rose to knight's
+rank and acquired by purchase Grancourt's manor in East Winch, near
+Lynn, where he had his seat in a moated house whose ruins remain. He was
+probably dead and buried in his chapel at East Winch before November 27,
+1308, the date of the patent by which Henry Scrope succeeded him as a
+commissioner of trailbaston. His two wives, Alice Ufford and Alice
+Fitton--heir of Fitton's manor in Wiggenhall--were both daughters of
+knightly houses. Before his death his eldest son, John Howard, was a
+knight and already advanced by his marriage with Joan of Cornwall, one
+of the bastard line founded by Richard of Cornwall, king of the Romans.
+
+Sir John Howard served in Edward II.'s wars in Scotland and Gascony, was
+sheriff of Norfolk and Suffolk and governor of Norwich Castle. When he
+died in 1331 he was seised of many Norfolk manors. His son and heir,
+another Sir John, admiral of the king's navy in the north, was a
+banneret who displayed his banner in the army that laid siege to Calais.
+By the admiral's wife Alice, sister and heir of Sir Robert de Boys, the
+Howards had the Boys manor of Fersfield, near Diss, which is still among
+the possessions of the dukes of Norfolk. His son Sir Robert Howard, who
+had married a daughter of Sir Robert Scales (Lord Scales), died in 1388.
+From Sir John Howard, the only son of Sir Robert, two branches of the
+house of Howard spring. The elder line was soon extinct. By his first
+wife, Margaret, daughter and heir of Sir John Plays, Sir John Howard had
+a son who died before him, leaving a daughter through whom descended to
+her issue, the Veres, earls of Oxford, the ancient Norfolk estates of
+the Howards at East Winch and elsewhere, with the lands of the houses of
+Scales, Plays and Walton, brought in by the brides of her forefathers.
+After the death of Margaret Plays, her widower found, with the peculiar
+instinct of his race, a second well-endowed wife. By her, the heir of
+the Tendrings of Tendring, he had a second son, Sir Robert Howard, a
+knight who fought under Henry V. in France, and died, like his
+half-brother, before the old knight's career ended in 1436.
+
+It is to the marriage of this young knight that the house of Howard owes
+the tragedy of its greatness. He was a younger son, although he had some
+of his mother's inheritance. Had he married the landless daughter of a
+neighbour he might have been the ancestor of a line of Essex squires,
+whose careers would have had the parish topographer for chronicler. But
+his bride was Margaret Mowbray, daughter of the banished duke of
+Norfolk. Although this was a noble alliance, it is probable that the
+lady had no great portion. The head of her elder brother, the boy earl
+marshal, had been stricken off in the cornfield under the walls of York,
+but her younger brother's right to his father's dukedom was allowed by
+parliament in 1425.
+
+Sir John Howard, only son of the match between Howard and Mowbray, took
+service with his cousin the third duke of Norfolk, who had him returned
+as knight of the shire for Norfolk, where, according to the _Paston
+Letters_, this Howard of the Essex branch was regarded by the gentry as
+a strange man. He followed the White Rose and was knighted at the
+crowning of King Edward IV., who pricked him for sheriff of Norfolk and
+Suffolk. In the duke's quarrel he brawled with the Pastons, his wife
+boasting that, should her husband's men meet with John Paston "there
+should go no penny for his life." "And Howard," writes Clement Paston,
+"hath with the king a great fellowship." Offices and lands came to John
+Howard by reason of that fellowship. Henry VI., when restored, summoned
+him to parliament in 1470 as Lord Howard, a summons which may have been
+meant to lure him to London into Warwick's power, but he proclaimed the
+Yorkist sovereign on his return and fought at Barnet and Tewkesbury.
+When peace was made, Edward summoned him again as a baron and gave him
+the Garter and the treasurership of his household. After Edward's
+burial, at which he bore the king's banner, Howard, an enemy of the
+Wydviles, linked his fortunes with those of the duke of Gloucester. At
+this time came his sudden lifting to the highest rank in the peerage.
+The last of the dukes of Norfolk had left a child heir, Anne Mowbray,
+married to the infant duke of York, the younger of the princes doomed by
+Richard in the Tower. By the death of this little girl, John Howard
+became one of the coheirs of her illustrious house, which was now
+represented by the issue of Margaret Mowbray, his mother, and of her
+sister Isabel, who had married James, Lord Berkeley. A lion's share of
+the Mowbray estates, swollen by the great alliances of the house, heir
+of Breouse and Segrave, and, through Segrave, of Thomas of Brotherton,
+son of Edward I., fell to Howard, who, by a patent of June 28, 1483, was
+created duke of Norfolk and earl marshal of England with a remainder to
+the heirs male of his body. On the same day the lord Berkeley, the other
+coheir, was made earl of Nottingham. High steward at Richard's crowning,
+the duke bore the crown and rode as marshal into Westminster Hall. For
+the rest of his life he was Richard's man, and though warned by the
+famous couplet that "Dykon his master" was bought and sold, "Jack of
+Norfolk" led the archer vanguard at Bosworth and died in the fight, from
+which his son the earl of Surrey was carried away a wounded prisoner. An
+attainder by the first parliament of Henry VII. extinguished the honours
+of the father with those of the son, who had been created an earl when
+the lord Howard was raised to the dukedom. Their estates were forfeit.
+
+Thomas Howard, a politic mind, loyal to the powers that be, was released
+from the Tower of London in 1489, his earldom of Surrey and his Garter
+restored. Accepting the position in which the Tudor king would have his
+great nobles, he became the faithful soldier, diplomatist and official
+of the new power. In his seventieth year, as lieutenant-general of the
+North, he led the English host on the great day of Flodden, earning a
+patent of the dukedom of Norfolk, dated 1 February 1513/4, and that
+strange patent which granted to him and his heirs that they should bear
+in the midst of the silver bend of their Howard shield a demi-lion
+stricken in the mouth with an arrow, in the right colours of the arms of
+the king of Scotland. This augmentation has been interpreted as a golden
+scocheon with the demi-lion within the Scottish tressure. Thus charged
+on the silver bend, it makes bad armory and it is worthy of note that,
+although the grant of it is clearly to the duke and his heirs in fee
+simple, Howards of all branches descending from the duke bear it in
+their shields, even though all right to it has long passed from the
+house to the duke's heirs general, the Stourtons and Petres.
+
+The victor of Flodden is the common ancestor of all living Howards that
+can show a descent from the main stock. The second duke, twice married,
+was father of at least eleven sons and six daughters, the sons including
+Edward the lord high admiral, killed in boarding Pregent's galleys at
+Brest, Edmund the knight marshal of the army at Flodden, and William the
+first Lord Howard of Effingham. The eldest son, Thomas, succeeded as the
+third duke of his name, although the second under the patent of 1514. He
+had fought as captain of the vanguard at Flodden and after the victory
+was created earl of Surrey. When Richard III. was allying himself with
+the Howards, Thomas Howard, a boy of eleven, had been betrothed to Anne,
+daughter of the late King Edward IV., and Henry VII. allowed the
+marriage with his queen's sister to take place in 1495. This royal bride
+died of consumption, leaving no living child, and her husband took in
+1513, as his second wife, Elizabeth Stafford, daughter of that duke of
+Buckingham upon whom the old duke of Norfolk, the tears upon his cheeks,
+was forced to pass sentence of death. Succeeding his father in 1524,
+Norfolk was created earl marshal in 1533. An unsuccessful diplomatist,
+his chief services in arms were the butchery in the north after the
+Pilgrimage of Grace and the raid into Scotland which ended with the rout
+of Solway Moss. He left his wife for a mistress, Elizabeth Holland, was
+in discord with his family, and lived to see his two nieces, Anne Boleyn
+and Catherine Howard, and his son Surrey, the fiery-tempered poet, go in
+turn to the block. He himself was attainted and was lying a prisoner in
+the Tower, doomed to die in the morning, on the night of the death of
+Henry VIII. He was not released until the accession of Mary, parliament
+restoring his dukedom on his petition for reversal of the attainder. His
+grandson Thomas succeeded him in 1554, and in 1556 made the second of
+those marriages which have given the Howards their high place among the
+English nobility. The bride was Mary, sole heir in her issue of her
+father Henry, the last of the Fitzalan earls of Arundel. Her father's
+line and the royal Stewards of Scotland sprang from one forefather,
+Alan, son of Flaald the Breton. The Mowbray match had already brought to
+the Howards the representation of an elder line of the Fitzalan earls,
+who sat in the seats of their ancestors, the Aubignys and Warennes,
+great earls near akin to their sovereigns. And now the younger line,
+earls of Arundel and Lords Mautravers, were also to have a Howard to
+represent them. From this time the spreading genealogy of the Howards
+drew its origins from most of the illustrious names of the houses
+founded after the Norman Conquest.
+
+The young duchess died in her seventeenth year after giving birth to a
+son, and the duke took a second wife from a humble stock, newly enriched
+and honoured, the daughter of Henry VIII.'s subservient chancellor, the
+Lord Audley of Walden. Within ten years he married a third time, the
+lady being Elizabeth Leybourne, the widow of Lord Dacre of Gilsland. She
+survived her marriage but a few months and her husband then obtained the
+wardship of her Dacre offspring, a son who died young, and three
+daughters whom the duke, with the true Howard eye for a rich
+inheritance, gave as brides to three of his sons. After three such good
+fortunes by marriage Norfolk in his folly looked for a crown with a
+fourth match, listening to the laird of Lethington when he set forth the
+scheme by which the duke was to marry a restored queen of Scots and rule
+Scotland with her who should be recognized as Elizabeth's successor. Ten
+months in the Tower under strong suspicion would have warned another
+man, but Norfolk was unstable and false. After promising fidelity and
+the abandonment of the Scots marriage scheme, Cecil took him
+corresponding with Mary and tampering with the Ridolfi plot. He died on
+Tower Hill in 1572 for an example to the disloyal counties, protesting
+innocence and repentance, warning his children in a last letter to
+discredit all "false bruits" that he was a papist.
+
+By his attainder the Norfolk titles were once more forfeited. But Philip
+Howard, the son and heir, succeeded to the ancient earldom of Arundel in
+1580, on the death of his maternal grandfather, while the Lord Lumley,
+his uncle by marriage, surrendered to him his life interest in the
+castle and honour of Arundel. The next year an act of parliament
+restored the earl in blood. After a profligate youth at court, he
+followed his wife in professing the Roman faith, and in 1585 made an
+attempt to leave England to seek safety from the penal laws. But his
+ship was boarded in the Channel and the earl, condemned by the
+Star-Chamber to a heavy fine and to imprisonment during the queen's
+pleasure, suffered a harsh captivity in the Tower. After the defeat of
+the Armada he had been condemned to death on a charge of high treason,
+founded on the tale drawn by torture from a priest, that Arundel had
+urged him to say a mass for the success of the Spaniards. But he was
+allowed to linger in his prison until 1595 when he died, the sight of
+his wife and children being cruelly refused to the dying man. Thus it
+befell that, of the chiefs of the Howards born since the great Mowbray
+alliance, two had died by the axe and one in the prison from which a
+fourth had hardly escaped. A fifth had fallen in a lost battle, and only
+one had died in peace in his own house.
+
+The ill fate of the Howards seemed to be appeased by the death of
+Philip, earl of Arundel. Tudor policy did its work well, and noblemen,
+however illustrious their pedigrees, could no longer be counted as
+menaces by the Crown, which was, indeed, finding another rival to its
+power. In the first year of James I., Thomas, the young son of Earl
+Philip, was restored in blood and given the titles of Arundel and
+Surrey. But the lands belonging to these titles remained with the Crown
+and he had to repair his fortunes by one of those marriages which never
+failed his house, his wife being Alathea Talbot, who was at last the
+heir of Gilbert, earl of Shrewsbury. To the grief of his mother he left
+the Roman church. A knight of the Garter, he was in 1621 created earl
+marshal for life, and revived the jurisdiction belonging to the office.
+An act of 1627, one of several such aimed at aggrandizing families by
+diverting the descent of dignities in fee from heirs general, entailed
+the earldom and castle of Arundel upon Thomas, earl of Arundel and
+Surrey and the heirs male of his body "and for default of such issue, to
+the heirs of his body." His pride and austerity made him unpopular at
+court and he left the country in 1642, settling at last in Padua, where
+he died in 1646, impoverished by the sequestrations of the parliament,
+whose forces had taken and retaken his castle of Arundel. In answer to
+his petition for the dukedom, the king had, on the 6th of June 1644,
+given him a patent of the earldom of Norfolk, in order, as it would
+seem, to flatter him by suggesting that the title of Norfolk would at
+least be refused to any other family. He is celebrated as a collector of
+paintings, books, gems and sculptures, his "Arundel marbles" being given
+by his grandson in 1667 to the University of Oxford. The dukedom for
+which Arundel had petitioned Charles I. in vain was restored by act of
+the first parliament of Charles II. to his grandson Thomas, a lunatic
+living at Padua, on whose death in 1677 it passed to this Thomas's
+brother, Henry Frederick, who had been created earl of Norwich and
+hereditary earl marshal of England in 1672. In 1777 Edward, the ninth of
+the Howard dukes, died childless in his ninety-second year. With him
+ended the earldom of Norwich, while the representation of the Mowbrays
+and Segraves passed to his nieces, the Ladies Stourton and Petre, the
+abeyance of the two baronies being determined in 1878 in favour of Lord
+Stourton. Under the act of 1627 the earldom of Arundel and the castle
+passed with the dukedom to a second cousin, Charles Howard of Greystock
+(d. 1786), an eccentric recluse. At his death in 1786 he was succeeded
+by his son Charles, the notorious "Jockey of Norfolk," the big, coarse,
+generous, slovenly, hard-drinking Whig of whom all the memoir-writers of
+his age have their anecdotes. He conformed to the Church of England and
+spent a vast sum in restoring Arundel Castle. A third cousin succeeded
+him in 1815, Bernard Edward Howard, who, although a Roman Catholic, was
+enabled, by the act of 1824, to act as earl marshal. This was the
+grandfather of the fifteenth duke, earl of Arundel, Surrey and Norfolk,
+and hereditary earl marshal of England.
+
+  The eldest of the cadet branches of the ducal house has its origin in
+  William (c. 1510-1573), eldest son of the victor of Flodden by his
+  second marriage. He survived the reign of Henry VIII., that perilous
+  age for the Howards, with no worse misadventure than the conviction of
+  himself and his wife of misprision of treason in concealing the
+  offences of his niece, Queen Catherine. But both were pardoned. In
+  1553 he had the office of lord admiral of England, and in the next
+  year the Garter. For his services against Sir Thomas Wyat he was
+  created (March 11, 1553/4) Lord Howard of Effingham, the title being
+  taken from a Surrey manor granted him by Edward VI. Queen Elizabeth
+  continued his employment in diplomacy, and had he been richer he might
+  have had an earldom. His eldest son Charles (1536-1624), lord admiral
+  of England in 1585, sailed as commander in chief against the Spanish
+  Armada, and, although giving due weight to the counsel of Drake and
+  his other officers, showed himself a leader as prudent as courageous.
+  He was created earl of Nottingham in 1596 and died in 1624. The legend
+  that the admiral was a Roman Catholic has no authority. Two of his
+  sons succeeded in turn to the earldom of Nottingham, extinct on the
+  death of Charles, the third earl in 1681. Sir William Howard of
+  Lingfield, younger brother of the great admiral, carried on the
+  Effingham line, his great-grandson succeeding to the barony on the
+  extinction of the earldom. Francis, seventh Lord Howard of Effingham,
+  was created earl of Effingham in 1731, a title extinct in 1816 with
+  the fourth earl, but revived again in 1837 for the eleventh baron, who
+  had served as a general officer in the Peninsular campaign, the
+  great-grandfather of the present peer.
+
+  A patent of 1604 created Henry Howard (1540-1614), younger son of
+  Surrey the poet, earl of Northampton, a peerage which ended with the
+  death of this, the most unprincipled of his house.
+
+  Thomas, son of the fourth duke of Norfolk's marriage with the daughter
+  and heir of Thomas, Lord Audley of Walden, founded the line of the
+  present earls of Suffolk and Berkshire and of the extinct Lords Howard
+  of Escrick. His barony of Howard of Walden has descended to his heirs
+  general. Lord William Howard (1563-1640), the "belted Will" of Scott's
+  Lay and the "bauld Willie" of more authentic legend, was another of
+  the sons of the fourth duke and Margaret Audley. Married in 1577 to
+  one of the three co-heirs of the Lord Dacre of Gilsland he suffered
+  under Elizabeth more than one imprisonment with his brother the
+  unfortunate earl of Arundel. But in 1603 he was able, on the partition
+  of the Dacre lands, to make his home at Naworth Castle, where he
+  lived, a border patriarch, cultivating his estates and serving as a
+  commissioner of the borders. His great-grandson Charles Howard,
+  although fledged in a nest of cavaliers, changed sides and fought at
+  Worcester for the parliament. The Protector summoned him in 1657 to
+  his House of Lords, but he was imprisoned in 1659 on suspicion of a
+  share in Booth's insurrection and, after the Restoration, was created,
+  in 1661, earl of Carlisle, Viscount Morpeth and Lord Dacre of
+  Gilsland, titles which are still held by his descendants. From Sir
+  Francis Howard, a cavalier colonel and a younger son of "bauld
+  Willie," come the Howards of Corby Castle in Cumberland, a branch
+  without a hereditary title.
+
+  William Howard, Viscount Stafford, was the fifth son of Thomas, earl
+  of Arundel, and grandson of Philip the prisoner. Marrying the sister
+  and heir of the fifth Lord Stafford, who died in 1637, he and his wife
+  were created Baron and Baroness Stafford by a patent of 1640, with
+  remainder, in default of heirs male, to heirs female. A grant of the
+  precedence enjoyed by the bride's father being held illegal, her
+  husband was in the same year created Viscount Stafford. Roger
+  Stafford, the impoverished heir male of the ancient Staffords, had
+  been forced to surrender his barony to the king by a deed dated in the
+  preceding year, a piece of injustice which is in the teeth of all
+  modern conceptions of peerage law. The Viscount Stafford was one of
+  the "five Popish lords" committed to the Tower in 1678 as a result of
+  the slanders of Titus Oates and he died by the axe in 1680 upon
+  testimony which, as the diarist Evelyn protested, "should not be taken
+  against the life of a dog." But three earls of his own
+  house--Carlisle, Suffolk and Berkshire--and the Lord Howard of
+  Escrick, an ex-trooper of Cromwell's guard and an anabaptist sectary,
+  gave their votes against him, his nephew Mowbray being the only peer
+  of his name in the minority for acquittal. In 1688 his widow was
+  created countess of Stafford for life, and his eldest son, Henry, had
+  the earldom of Stafford, with special remainder to his brothers. This
+  earldom ended in 1762, but the attainder was reversed by an act of
+  1824 and in the following year Sir George Jerningham, the heir
+  general, established his claim to the Stafford barony of 1640.
+
+  AUTHORITIES.--State papers; patent, close and plea rolls. Tierney,
+  _History of Arundel_; G. E. C., _Complete Peerage_; J. H. Round,
+  _Peerage Studies_; Howard of Corby, _Memorials of the Family of
+  Howard_; Brenan and Statham, _House of Howard_; Howard, _Historical
+  Anecdotes of the Howard Family_; Morant, _Essex_; Blomefield,
+  _Norfolk_.     (O. Ba.)
+
+
+
+
+HOWARD, CATHERINE (d. 1542), the fifth queen of Henry VIII., was a
+daughter of Lord Edmund Howard and a granddaughter of Thomas Howard, 2nd
+duke of Norfolk (d. 1524). Her father was very poor, and Catherine lived
+mainly with Agnes, widow of the 2nd duke of Norfolk, meeting the king at
+the house of Stephen Gardiner, bishop of Winchester. Henry was evidently
+charmed by her; the Roman Catholic party, who disliked the marriage with
+Anne of Cleves, encouraged his attentions; and after Anne's divorce he
+was privately married to Catherine at Oatlands in July 1540. Soon
+afterwards she was publicly acknowledged as queen. Before her marriage
+Catherine had had several lovers, among them being a musician, Henry
+Mannock, or Manox; her cousin, Thomas Culpepper; and Francis Dereham, to
+whom she had certainly been betrothed. After becoming queen she
+occasionally met Dereham and Culpepper, and in November 1541 Archbishop
+Cranmer informed Henry that his queen's past life had not been
+stainless. Cranmer had obtained his knowledge indirectly from an old
+servant of the duchess of Norfolk. Dereham confessed to his relations
+with Catherine, and after some denials the queen herself admitted that
+this was true; but denied that she had ever been betrothed to Dereham,
+or that she had misconducted herself since her marriage. Dereham and
+Culpepper were executed in December 1541 and their accomplices were
+punished, but Catherine was released from prison. Some fresh
+information, however, very soon came to light showing that she had been
+unchaste since her marriage; a bill of attainder was passed through
+parliament, and on the 13th of February 1542 the queen was beheaded.
+
+  See A. Strickland, _Lives of the Queens of England_ (vol. iii. 1877).
+
+
+
+
+HOWARD, JOHN (1726-1790), English philanthropist and prison reformer,
+was born at Hackney, probably on the 2nd of September 1726. His
+childhood was passed at Cardington, near Bedford, where his father, a
+retired merchant of independent means, had a small estate. He was
+apprenticed to a firm of grocers in the city of London, but on the death
+of his father in 1742, by which he inherited considerable property, he
+bought up his indenture, and devoted more than a year to foreign travel.
+Never constitutionally strong, he became, on his return to England, a
+confirmed invalid. Having been nursed through an acute illness by an
+attentive landlady, a widow of some fifty-three years of age, Howard, in
+return for her kindness, offered her marriage and they were united in
+1752. Becoming a widower in less than three years, he determined to go
+abroad again, Portugal being his destination. The ship, however, in
+which he sailed was taken by a French privateer, the crew and passengers
+being carried to Brest, where they were treated with great severity.
+Howard was permitted to return to England on parole to negotiate an
+exchange, which he accomplished, as well as successfully representing
+the case of his fellow-captives. He now settled down on his Cardington
+property, interesting himself in meteorological observations. He was
+admitted a member of the Royal Society in 1756. In 1758 he married
+Henrietta, daughter of Edward Leeds, of Croxton, Cambridgeshire. He
+continued to lead a secluded life at Cardington and at Watcombe,
+Hampshire, busying himself in the construction of model cottages and the
+erection of schools. In 1765 his second wife died after giving birth to
+a son. In the following year Howard went for a prolonged foreign tour,
+from which he returned in 1770.
+
+In 1773 the characteristic work of his life may be said to have begun by
+his acceptance of the office of high sheriff of Bedford. When the
+assizes were held he did not content himself with sitting out the trials
+in open court, his inquisitiveness and his benevolence alike impelled
+him to visit the gaol. Howard found it, like all the prisons of the
+time, wretchedly defective in its arrangements; but what chiefly shocked
+him was the circumstance that neither the gaoler nor his subordinates
+were salaried officers, but were dependent for their livelihood on fees
+from the prisoners. He found that some whom the juries had declared not
+guilty, others in whom the grand jury had not found even such appearance
+of guilt as would warrant a trial, others whose prosecutors had failed
+to appear, were frequently detained in prison for months after they had
+ceased to be in the position of accused parties, until they should have
+paid the fees of gaol delivery (see Introduction to _The State of the
+Prisons of England and Wales_). His prompt application to the justices
+of the county for a salary to the gaoler in lieu of his fees was met by
+a demand for a precedent in charging the county with an expense. This he
+undertook to find if such a thing existed. He went accordingly from
+county to county, and though he could find no precedent for charging the
+county with the wages of its servants he did find so many abuses in
+prison management that he determined to devote himself to their reform.
+
+In 1774 he gave evidence before a committee of the House of Commons, and
+received the thanks of the house for "the humanity and zeal which have
+led him to visit the several gaols of this kingdom, and to communicate
+to the House the interesting observations which he has made on that
+subject." Almost immediately an act was passed which provided for the
+liberation, free of all charges, of every prisoner against whom the
+grand jury failed to find a true bill, giving the gaoler a sum from the
+county rate in lieu of the abolished fees. This was followed in June by
+another requiring justices of the peace to see that the walls and
+ceilings of all prisons within their jurisdiction were scraped and
+whitewashed once a year at least; that the rooms were regularly cleaned
+and ventilated; that infirmaries were provided for the sick, and proper
+care taken to get them medical advice; that the naked should be clothed;
+that underground dungeons should be used as little as could be; and
+generally that such courses should be taken as would tend to restore and
+preserve the health of the prisoners. It was highly characteristic of
+the man that, having caused the provisions of the new legislation to be
+printed at his own private cost in large type, he sent a copy to every
+gaoler and warder in the kingdom, that no one should be able to plead
+ignorance of the law if detected in the violation of its provisions. He
+then set out upon a new tour of inspection, from which, however, he was
+brought home by the approach of a general election in September 1774.
+Standing as one of the anti-ministerial candidates for Bedford, he was
+returned by a narrow majority but was unseated after a scrutiny.
+
+After a tour in Scotland and Ireland, he set out in April 1775 upon an
+extended tour through France, the Low Countries and Germany. At Paris he
+was at first denied access to the prisons; but, by recourse to an old
+and almost obsolete law of 1717, according to which any person wishing
+to distribute alms to the prisoners was to be admitted, he succeeded in
+inspecting the Bicetre, the Force l'Eveque and most of the other places
+of confinement, the only important exception being the Bastille. Even in
+that case he succeeded in obtaining possession of a suppressed pamphlet,
+which he afterwards translated and published in English, to the
+unconcealed chagrin of the French authorities. At Ghent he examined with
+special interest the great Maison de Force, then recently erected, with
+its distinctive features--useful labour, in the profits of which the
+prisoners had a share, and complete separation of the inmates by night.
+At Amsterdam, as in Holland generally, he was much struck with the
+comparative absence of crime, a phenomenon which he attributed to the
+industrial and reformatory treatment there adopted. In Germany he found
+little that was useful and much that was repulsive; in Hanover and
+Osnabruck, under the rule of a British sovereign, he even found traces
+of torture. After a short tour in England (Nov. 1775 to May 1776), he
+again went abroad, extending his tour to several of the Swiss cantons.
+In 1777 appeared _The State of the Prisons in England and Wales, with
+Preliminary Observations, and an Account of some Foreign Prisons_. One
+of the immediate results was the drafting a bill for the establishment
+of penitentiary houses, where by means of solitary imprisonment,
+accompanied by well-regulated labour and religious instruction, the
+object of reforming the criminal and inuring him to habits of industry
+might be pursued. New buildings were manifestly necessary; and Howard
+volunteered to go abroad again and collect plans. He first went to
+Amsterdam (April 1778), and carefully examined the "spin-houses" and
+"rasp-houses"[1] for which that city was famous; next he traversed
+Prussia, Saxony, Bohemia, Austria and Italy, everywhere inspecting
+prisons, hospitals and workhouses, and carefully recording the merits
+and defects of each. The information he thus obtained having been placed
+at the service of parliament, a bill was passed for building two
+penitentiary houses, and Howard was appointed first supervisor, but he
+resigned the post before anything practical had been achieved. In 1780
+he had published a quarto volume as an appendix (the first) to his
+_State of Prisons_; about the same time also he caused to be printed his
+translation of the suppressed French pamphlet on the Bastille; but on
+obtaining release from his employments at home his passion for
+accumulating statistics urged him to new and more extended continental
+tours, as far as to Denmark, Sweden and Russia in 1781, and to Spain and
+Portugal in 1783. The results of these journeys were embodied in 1784 in
+a second appendix, with the publication of which his direct labours in
+connexion with the subject of prison reform may be said to have ceased.
+
+The five remaining years of his life were chiefly devoted to researches
+on the means for prevention of the plague, and for guarding against the
+propagation of contagious distempers in general. After an extended tour
+on the continent his researches seemed to be complete; and with a great
+accumulation of papers and memoranda, he was preparing to return
+homewards from Constantinople by Vienna, when it occurred to his
+scrupulous mind that he still lacked any personal experience of
+quarantine discipline. He returned to Smyrna, and, deliberately choosing
+a foul ship, took a passage to Venice. A protracted voyage of sixty
+days, during which an attack by pirates gave Howard an opportunity of
+manifesting his personal bravery, was followed by a weary term of
+confinement which enabled him to gain the experience he had desired.
+While imprisoned in the Venetian lazaretto he received the information
+that his only son, a youth of twenty-two years of age, had lost his
+reason and had been put under restraint. Returning hastily by Trieste
+and Vienna (where he had a long and singular interview with the emperor
+Joseph II.), he reached England in February 1787. His first care related
+to his domestic concerns; he then set out upon another journey of
+inspection of the prisons of the United Kingdom, at the same time
+busying himself in preparing for the press the results of his recent
+tour. The somewhat rambling work containing them was published in 1798
+at Warrington, under the title _An Account of the Principal Lazarettos
+in Europe: with various Papers relative to the Plague, together with
+further Observations on some Foreign Prisons and Hospitals, and
+additional Remarks on the present State of those in Great Britain and
+Ireland_.
+
+In July 1789 he embarked on what proved to be his last journey.
+Travelling overland to St Petersburg and Moscow, and so southwards, and
+visiting the principal military hospitals that lay on his route, he
+reached Kherson in November. In the hospitals of this place and of the
+immediate neighbourhood he found more than enough to occupy his
+attention while he awaited the means of transit to Constantinople.
+Towards the end of the year his medical advice was asked in the case of
+a young lady who was suffering under the camp fever then prevalent, and
+in attending her he himself took the disease, which terminated fatally
+on the 20th of January 1790. He was buried near the village of Dauphigny
+on the road to St Nicholas. There is a statue by Bacon to his memory in
+St Paul's, London, and one at Bedford by A. Gilbert. In personal
+appearance Howard is described as having been short, thin and
+sallow--unprepossessing apart from the attraction of a penetrating eye
+and a benevolent smile.
+
+  AUTHORITIES.--_Anecdotes of the Life and Character of John Howard,
+  written by a Gentleman_ (1790); Aikin, _View of the Character and
+  Public Services of the late John Howard_. (1792); _Memoirs_ by J.
+  Baldwin Brown (1818); T. Taylor (1836), Hepworth Dixon (1849), J.
+  Field (1850), and J. Stoughton, _Howard the Philanthropist_ (1884).
+
+
+FOOTNOTE:
+
+  [1] The spinhouses were for women prisoners, who were set to spinning
+    or other useful work; in the rasp-houses, the prisoners were employed
+    in rasping wood.
+
+
+
+
+HOWARD, OLIVER OTIS (1830-1909), American soldier, was born in Leeds,
+Maine, on the 8th of November 1830. He graduated at Bowdoin College in
+1850, and at the U.S. Military Academy in 1854. In 1857 he served in
+Florida against the Seminole Indians, and from 1857 to 1861 he was
+assistant professor of mathematics at West Point. At the beginning of
+the Civil War he resigned to become colonel of the 3rd Maine volunteer
+regiment, and at the first battle of Bull Run was in command of a
+brigade. In September he was promoted brigadier-general of volunteers.
+He served in the Peninsular Campaign, and at the battle of Seven Pines
+(Fair Oaks) he was twice wounded, losing his right arm. On his return to
+active service in August 1862 he took part in the Virginian campaigns of
+1862-63; at Antietam he succeeded Sedgwick in command of a division,
+and he became major-general of volunteers in March 1863. In the campaign
+of Chancellorsville (see WILDERNESS) he commanded the XI. corps, which
+was routed by "Stonewall" Jackson, and in the first day's battle at
+Gettysburg he was for some hours (succeeding Doubleday after Reynolds's
+death) in command of the Union troops. The XI. corps was transferred to
+Tennessee after Rosecrans's defeat at Chickamauga, and formed part of
+Hooker's command in the great victory of Chattanooga. When Sherman
+prepared to invade Georgia in the spring of 1864 the XI. corps was
+merged with the XII. into the new XX., commanded by Hooker, and Howard
+was then placed, in command of the new IV. corps, which he led in all
+the actions of the Atlanta campaign, receiving another wound at
+Pickett's Mills. On the death in action of General M'Pherson, Howard, in
+July 1864, was selected to command the Army of the Tennessee. In this
+position he took part in the "March to the Sea" and the Carolinas
+campaign. In March 1865 he was breveted major-general U.S.A. "for
+gallant and meritorious service in the battle of Ezra Church and during
+the campaign against Atlanta," and in 1893 received a Congressional
+medal of honour for bravery at Fair Oaks. After the peace he served as
+commissioner of the Bureau of Refugees, Freedmen and Abandoned Lands
+from 1865 until 1874; in 1872 he was special commissioner to the hostile
+Apaches of New Mexico and Arizona; in 1874-1881 was in command of the
+Department of the Columbia and conducted the campaign against Chief
+Joseph in 1877 and that against the Bannocks and Piutes in 1878. In
+1881-1882 he was superintendent of West Point; and in 1882-1886 he
+commanded the Department of the Platte, in 1886-1888 the Department of
+the Pacific, and in 1888-1894 the Department of the East. In 1886 he was
+promoted major-general and in 1894 he retired. He died at Burlington,
+Vermont, on the 26th of October 1909.
+
+Howard was deeply interested, in the welfare of the negroes; and the
+establishment by the U.S. Government in 1867 of Howard University, at
+Washington, especially for their education, was largely due to him; it
+was named in his honour, and from 1869 to 1873 he presided over it. In
+1895 he founded for the education of the "mountain whites" the Lincoln
+Memorial University at Cumberland Gap, Tenn. (see CUMBERLAND MOUNTAINS),
+and became president of its board. He held honorary degrees of various
+universities, and was a chevalier of the Legion of Honour. He wrote,
+amongst other works, _Donald's Schooldays_ (1877); _Chief Joseph_
+(1881); a life of General Zachary Taylor (1892) in the "Great
+Commanders" series; _Isabella of Castile_ (1894); _Fighting for
+Humanity_ (1898); _Henry in the War_ (1898); papers in the "Battles and
+Leaders" collection on the Atlanta campaign; _My Life and Experience
+among our Hostile Indians_ (1907); and _Autobiography of O. O. Howard_
+(2 vols., New York, 1907).
+
+
+
+
+HOWARD, SIR ROBERT (1626-1698), English dramatist, sixth son of Thomas
+Howard, 1st earl of Berkshire, was born in 1626. He was knighted at the
+second battle of Newbury (1644) for his signal courage on the Royalist
+side. Imprisoned in Windsor Castle under the Commonwealth, his loyalty
+was rewarded at the Restoration, and he eventually became auditor of the
+exchequer. His best play is a comedy, _The Committee, or the Faithful
+Irishman_ (1663; printed 1665), which kept the stage, long after its
+interest as a political satire was exhausted, for the character of
+Teague, said to have been drawn from one of his own servants. He was an
+early patron of Dryden, who married his sister, Lady Elizabeth Howard,
+and in the _Indian Queen_, a tragedy in heroic verse (1664; pr. 1665)
+Howard had assistance from Dryden, although the fact was not made public
+until the production of Dryden's _Indian Emperor_. The magnificence of
+the spectacle, and the novelty of the costume of feathers, presented by
+Mrs. Aphra Behn, that was worn by Zempoalla, the Indian queen, made a
+great sensation. The scenery and accessories were unusually brilliant,
+the richest ever seen in England, according to Evelyn. In 1665 Howard
+published _Foure New Plays_, in the preface to which he opposed the view
+maintained by Dryden in the dedicatory epistle to _The Rival Ladies_,
+that rhyme was better suited to the heroic tragedy than blank verse.
+Howard made an exception in favour of the rhyme of Lord Orrery, but by
+his silence concerning Dryden implicated him in the general censure.
+Dryden answered by placing Howard's sentiments in the mouth of Crites in
+his own _Essay on Dramatic Poesy_ (1668). The controversy did not end
+here, but Dryden completely worsted his adversary in the 1668 edition of
+_The Indian Emperor_. Howard died on the 3rd of September 1698.
+
+His brother, James Howard, wrote two comedies, _All Mistaken, or the Mad
+Couple_, a comedy (1667; pr. 1672), and _The English Mounsieur_ (1666;
+pr. 1674), the success of which seems to have been partly due to the
+acting of Nell Gwynn.
+
+
+
+
+HOWARD, LORD WILLIAM (1563-1640), known as "Belted, or Bauld (bold)
+Will," 3rd son of Thomas Howard, 4th duke of Norfolk (executed in 1572),
+and of his second wife Margaret, daughter of Lord Audley, was born at
+Audley End in Essex on the 19th of December 1563. He married on the 28th
+of October 1577 Elizabeth, daughter of Thomas, Lord Dacre, and proceeded
+subsequently to the University of Cambridge. Being suspected of
+treasonable intentions together with his elder brother, Philip, earl of
+Arundel, he was imprisoned in 1583, 1585 and 1589. He joined the church
+of Rome in 1584, both brothers being dispossessed by the queen of a
+portion of their Dacre estates, which were, however, restored in 1601
+for a payment of L10,000. Howard then took up his residence with his
+children and grandchildren at Naworth Castle in Cumberland, restored the
+castle, improved the estate and established order in that part of the
+country. In 1603, on the accession of James, he had been restored in
+blood. In 1618 he was made one of the commissioners for the border, and
+performed great services in upholding the law and suppressing marauders.
+Lord William was a learned and accomplished scholar, praised by Camden,
+to whom he sent inscriptions and drawings from relics collected by him
+from the Roman wall, as "a singular lover of valuable antiquity and
+learned withal." He collected a valuable library, of which most of the
+printed works remain still at Naworth, though the MSS. have been
+dispersed, a portion being now in the Arundel MSS. in the Royal College
+of Arms; he corresponded with Ussher and was intimate with Camden,
+Spelman, and Cotton, whose eldest son married his daughter. He
+published, in 1592 an edition of Florence of Worcester's _Chronicon ex
+Chronicis_, dedicated to Lord Burghley, and drew up a genealogy of his
+family, now among the duke of Norfolk's MSS. at Norfolk House. He died
+in October 1640 at Greystock, to which place he had been removed when
+failing in health to escape the Scots who were threatening an advance on
+Naworth. He had a large family of children, of whom Philip, his heir,
+was the grandfather of Charles, 1st earl of Carlisle, and Francis was
+the ancestor of the Howards of Corby.
+
+
+
+
+HOWARD OF EFFINGHAM, WILLIAM HOWARD, 1st BARON (c. 1510-1573), English
+lord high admiral, was the son of the 2nd duke of Norfolk. He was
+popular with Henry VIII., and at Anne Boleyn's coronation was deputy
+earl marshal; and he was sent on missions to Scotland and France; but in
+1541 he was charged with abetting his relative Queen Catherine Howard,
+and was convicted of misprision of treason, but pardoned. In 1552 he was
+made governor of Calais, and in 1553 lord high admiral, being created
+Baron Howard of Effingham in 1554 for his defence of London in Sir
+Thomas Wyat's rebellion against Queen Mary. He befriended the princess
+Elizabeth, but his popularity with the navy saved him from Mary's
+resentment; and when Elizabeth became queen he had great influence with
+her and filled several important posts. His son, the second baron, who
+is famous in English naval history, was created earl of Nottingham
+(q.v.); and from a younger son the later earls of Effingham were
+descended. William's descendant, Francis (d. 1695), inherited the barony
+of Howard of Effingham on the death of his cousin, Charles, in 1681; and
+Francis's son, Francis (1683-1743), was created earl of Effingham in
+1731. This earldom became extinct on the death of Richard, the fourth
+holder, in 1816; but it was created again in 1837 in favour of Kenneth
+Alexander (1767-1845), another of William Howard's descendants, who had
+succeeded to the barony of Howard of Effingham in 1816.
+
+
+
+
+HOWE, ELIAS (1819-1867), American sewing-machine inventor, was born in
+Spencer, Massachusetts, on the 9th of July 1819. His early years were
+spent on his father's farm. In 1835 he entered the factory of a
+manufacturer of cotton-machinery at Lowell, Massachusetts, where he
+learned the machinist's trade. Subsequently, while employed in a machine
+shop at Cambridge, Mass., he conceived the idea of a sewing machine, and
+for five years spent all his spare time in its development. In September
+1846 a patent for a practical sewing machine was granted to him; and
+Howe spent the following two years (1847-1849) in London, employed by
+William Thomas, a corset manufacturer, to whom he had sold the English
+rights for L250. Years of disappointment and discouragement followed
+before he was successful in introducing his invention, and several
+imitations which infringed his patent, particularly that of Isaac
+Merritt Singer (1811-1875), had already been successfully introduced and
+were widely used. His rights were established after much litigation in
+1854, and by the date of expiration of his patent (1867) he had realized
+something over $2,000,000 out of his invention. He died in Brooklyn, New
+York, on the 3rd of October 1867.
+
+  See _History of the Sewing Machine and of Elias Howe, Jr., the
+  Inventor_ (Detroit, 1867); P. G. Hubert, Jr., _Inventors_, in "Men of
+  Achievement" series (New York, 1893).
+
+
+
+
+HOWE, JOHN (1630-1706), English Puritan divine, was born on the 17th of
+May 1630 at Loughborough, Leicestershire, where his father was vicar. On
+the 19th of May 1647 he entered Christ's College, Cambridge, as a sizar,
+and in the following year took his degree of B.A. During his residence
+at the university he made the acquaintance of Ralph Cudworth, Henry More
+and John Smith, from intercourse with whom, as well as from direct
+acquaintance with the _Dialogues_ themselves, his mind received that
+"Platonic tinge" so perceptible in his writings. Immediately after
+graduation at Cambridge, he migrated to Oxford, where he became fellow
+and chaplain of Magdalen College, proceeding M.A. in 1652. He was then
+ordained by Charles Herle (1598-1659), the Puritan rector of Winwick,
+and in 1654 went as perpetual curate to Great Torrington in Devon, where
+he preached the discourses which later took shape in his treatises on
+_The Blessedness of the Righteous_ and on _Delighting in God_. In the
+beginning of 1657 a journey to London accidentally brought Howe under
+the notice of Cromwell, who made him his domestic chaplain. In this
+position his conduct was such as to win the praise of even the bitterest
+enemies of his party. Without overlooking his fellow-Puritans, he was
+always ready to help pious and learned men of other schools. Seth Ward
+(afterwards bishop of Exeter) and Thomas Fuller were among those who
+profited by Howe's kindness, and were not ashamed subsequently to
+express their gratitude for it. On the resignation of Richard Cromwell,
+Howe returned to Great Torrington, to leave it again in 1662 on the
+passing of the Act of Uniformity. For several years he led a wandering
+and uncertain life, preaching in secret as occasion offered to handfuls
+of trusted hearers. Being in straits he published in 1668 _The
+Blessedness of the Righteous_; the reputation which he thus acquired
+procured him an invitation from Lord Massereene, of Antrim Castle,
+Ireland, with whom he lived for five or six years as domestic chaplain,
+frequently preaching in public, with the approval of the bishop of the
+diocese. Here too he produced the most eloquent of his shorter
+treatises, _The Vanity of Man as Mortal_, and _On Delighting in God_,
+and planned his best work, _The Living Temple_. In the beginning of 1676
+he accepted an invitation to become joint-pastor of a nonconformist
+congregation at Haberdashers' Hall, London; and in the same year he
+published the first part of _The Living Temple_ entitled _Concerning
+God's Existence and his Conversableness with Man: Against Atheism or the
+Epicurean Deism_. In 1677 appeared his tractate _On the
+Reconcileableness of God's Prescience of the Sins of Men with the Wisdom
+and Sincerity of His Counsels, Exhortations and whatsoever means He uses
+to prevent them_, which was attacked from various quarters, and had
+Andrew Marvell for one of its defenders. _On Thoughtfulness for the
+Morrow_ followed in 1681; _Self-Dedication_ and _Union among
+Protestants_ in 1682, and _The Redeemer's Tears wept over Lost Souls_ in
+1684.
+
+For five years after his settlement in London Howe enjoyed comparative
+freedom, and was on not unfriendly terms with many eminent Anglicans,
+such as Stillingfleet, Tillotson, John Sharp and Richard Kidder; but the
+greater severity which began to be exercised towards nonconformists in
+1681 so interfered with his liberty that in 1685 he gladly accepted the
+invitation of Philip, Lord Wharton, to travel abroad with him. In 1686
+he determined to settle for a time at Utrecht, where he officiated in
+the English chapel. Among his friends there was Gilbert Burnet, by whose
+influence he obtained several confidential interviews with William of
+Orange. In 1687 Howe availed himself of the declaration for liberty of
+conscience to return to England, and in the following year he headed the
+deputation of nonconformist ministers who went to congratulate William
+on his accession to the English throne. The remainder of his life was
+uneventful. His influence was always on the side of mutual forbearance,
+between conformists and dissenters in 1689, and between
+Congregationalists and Presbyterians in 1690. In 1693 he published three
+discourses _On the Carnality of Religious Contention_, suggested by the
+disputes that became rife among nonconformists as soon as liberty of
+doctrine and worship had been granted. In 1694 and 1695 he published
+various treatises on the subject of the Trinity, the principal being _A
+Calm and Solemn Inquiry concerning the Possibility of a Trinity in the
+Godhead_. The second part of _The Living Temple_, entitled
+_Animadversions on Spinosa and a French Writer pretending to confute
+him, with a recapitulation of the former part and an account of the
+destitution and restitution of God's Temple among Men_, appeared in
+1702. In 1701 he had some controversy with Daniel Defoe on the question
+of occasional conformity. In 1705 he published a discourse _On Patience
+in the Expectation of Future Blessedness_, but his health had begun to
+fail, and he died in London on the 2nd of April 1706. Richard Cromwell
+visited him in his last illness.
+
+Though excelled by Baxter as a pulpit orator, and by Owen in exegetical
+ingenuity and in almost every department of theological learning, Howe
+compares favourably with either as a sagacious and profound thinker,
+while he was much more successful in combining religious earnestness and
+fervour of conviction with large-hearted tolerance and cultured breadth
+of view. He was a man of high principle and fine presence, and it was
+said of him "that he never made an enemy and never lost a friend."
+
+  The works published in his lifetime, including a number of sermons,
+  were collected into 2 vols. fol. in 1724, and again reprinted in 3
+  vols. 8vo. in 1848. A complete edition of the _Whole Works_, including
+  much posthumous and additional matter, appeared with a memoir in 8
+  vols, in 1822; this was reprinted in 1 vol. in 1838 and in 6 vols. in
+  1862-1863. E. Calamy's _Life_ (1724) forms the basis of _The Life and
+  Character of Howe, with an Analysis of his Writings_, by Henry Rogers
+  (1836, new ed. 1863). See also a sketch by R. F. Horton (1896).
+
+
+
+
+HOWE, JOSEPH (1804-1873), Canadian statesman, was born at Halifax, Nova
+Scotia, on the 13th of December 1804, the son of John Howe (1752-1835),
+a United Empire Loyalist who was for many years king's printer and
+postmaster-general for the Maritime Provinces and the Bermudas. He
+received little regular education, and at the age of 13 entered his
+father's office. In 1827 he started the _Acadian_, a weekly
+non-political journal, but soon sold it, and in 1828 purchased the _Nova
+Scotian_, which later became amalgamated with the _Morning Chronicle_.
+From this date he devoted increasing attention to political affairs, and
+in 1835 was prosecuted for libelling the magistrates of Halifax. Being
+unable to find a lawyer willing to undertake his case, he pleaded it
+himself, and won his acquittal by a speech of over six hours, which
+secured for Nova Scotia the freedom of the press and for himself the
+reputation of an orator. In 1836 he was elected member for Halifax in
+the provincial assembly, and during the next twelve years devoted
+himself to attaining responsible government for Nova Scotia. This
+brought him into fierce conflict with the reigning oligarchy and with
+the lieutenant-governor, Lord Falkland (1803-1884), whom he forced to
+resign. Largely owing to Howe's statesmanship responsible government was
+finally conceded in 1848 by the imperial authorities, and was thus
+gained without the bloodshed and confusion which marked its acquisition
+in Ontario and Quebec. In 1850 he was appointed a delegate to England on
+behalf of the Intercolonial railway, for which he obtained a large
+imperial guarantee. In 1854 he resigned from the cabinet, and was
+appointed chief commissioner of railways. In 1855 he was sent by the
+imperial government to the United States in connexion with the Foreign
+Enlistment Act, to raise soldiers for the war in the Crimea. Through the
+rashness of others he got into difficulties, and was attacked in the
+British House of Commons by Mr Gladstone, whom he compelled to
+apologize.
+
+In 1855 he was defeated by Mr (afterwards Sir Charles) Tupper, but was
+elected by acclamation in the next year in Hants county, and was from
+1860 to 1863 premier of Nova Scotia. In the latter years he was
+appointed by the imperial government fishery commissioner to the United
+States, and thus took no part in the negotiations for confederation.
+Though his eloquence had done more than anything else to make
+practicable a union of the British North American provinces, he opposed
+confederation, largely owing to wounded vanity; but on finding it
+impossible to obtain from the imperial authorities the repeal of the
+British North America Act, he refused to join his associates in the
+extreme measures which were advocated, and on the promise from the
+Canadian government of better financial terms to his native province,
+entered (on the 30th of January 1869) the cabinet of Sir John Macdonald
+as president of the council. This brought upon him a storm of obloquy,
+under which his health gradually gave way. In May 1873 he was appointed
+lieutenant-governor of Nova Scotia, but died suddenly on the 1st of June
+of the same year.
+
+Howe's eloquence, and still more his unfailing wit and high spirits,
+made him for many years the idol of his province. He is the finest
+orator whom Canada has produced, and also wrote poetry, which shows in
+places high merit. Many of his sayings are still current in Nova Scotia.
+In 1904 a statue in his honour was erected in Halifax.
+
+  His _Letters and Speeches_ were published in 1858 in Boston, Mass., in
+  2 vols., edited nominally by William Annand, really by himself. See
+  also _Public Letters and Speeches of Joseph Howe_ (Halifax, 1909). The
+  _Life and Times_ by G. E. Fenety (1896) is poor. The _Life_ by the
+  Hon. James W. Longley (Toronto, 1904) is dispassionate, but otherwise
+  mediocre. _Joseph Howe_, by George Monro Grant (reprinted Halifax,
+  1904), is a brilliant sketch.     (W. L. G.)
+
+
+
+
+HOWE, JULIA WARD (1819-1910), American author and reformer, was born in
+New York City on the 27th of May 1819. Her father, Samuel Ward, was a
+banker; her mother, Julia Rush [Cutler] (1796-1824), a poet of some
+ability. When only sixteen years old she had begun to contribute poems
+to New York periodicals. In 1843 she married Dr Samuel Gridley Howe
+(q.v.), with whom she spent the next year in England, France, Germany
+and Italy. She assisted Dr Howe in editing the _Commonwealth_ in
+1851-1853. The results of her study of German philosophy were seen in
+philosophical essays; in lectures on "Doubt and Belief," "The Duality of
+Character," &c., delivered in 1860-1861 in her home in Boston, and later
+in Washington; and in addresses before the Boston Radical Club and the
+Concord school of philosophy. Samuel Longfellow, his brother Henry,
+Wendell Phillips, W. L. Garrison, Charles Sumner, Theodore Parker and
+James Freeman Clarke were among her friends; she advocated abolition,
+and preached occasionally from Unitarian pulpits. She was one of the
+organizers of the American Woman-Suffrage Association and of the
+Association for the Advancement of Women (1869), and in 1870 became one
+of the editors of the _Woman's Journal_, and in 1872 president of the
+New England Women's Club. In the same year she was a delegate to the
+Prison Reform Congress in London, and founded there the Woman's Peace
+Association, one of the many ways in which she expressed her opposition
+to war. She wrote _The World's Own_ (unsuccessfully played at
+Wallack's, New York, in 1855, published 1857), and in 1858, for Edwin
+Booth, _Hippolytus_, never acted or published. Her lyric poetry, thanks
+to her temperament, and possibly to her musical training, was her
+highest literary form: she published _Passion Flowers_ (anonymously,
+1854), _Words for the Hour_ (1856), _Later Lyrics_ (1866), and _From
+Sunset Ridge: Poems Old and New_ (1898); her most popular poem is _The
+Battle Hymn of the Republic_, written to the old folk-tune associated
+with the song of "John Brown's Body," when Mrs Howe was at the front in
+1861, and published (Feb. 1862) in the _Atlantic Monthly_, to which she
+frequently contributed. She edited _Sex and Education_ (1874), an answer
+to _Sex in Education_ (1873) by Edward Hammond Clarke (1820-1877); and
+wrote several books of travel, _Modern Society_ (1880) and _Is Polite
+Society Polite?_ (1895), collections of addresses, each taking its title
+from a lecture criticizing the shallowness and falseness of society, the
+power of money, &c., _A Memoir of Dr Samuel G. Howe_ (1876), _Life of
+Margaret Fuller_ (1883), in the "Famous Women" series. _Sketches of
+Representative Women of New England_ (1905) and her own _Reminiscences_
+(Boston, 1899). Her children were: Julia Romana Anagnos (1844-1886),
+who, like her mother, wrote verse and studied philosophy, and who taught
+in the Perkins Institution, in the charge of which her husband, Michael
+Anagnos (1837-1906), whose family name had been Anagnostopoulos,
+succeeded her father; Henry Marion Howe (b. 1848), the eminent
+metallurgist, and professor in Columbia University; Laura Elizabeth
+Richards (b. 1850), and Maud Howe Elliott (b. 1855), wife of John
+Elliott, the painter of a fine ceiling in the Boston library,--both
+these daughters being contributors to literature. Mrs Howe died on the
+17th of October 1910.
+
+
+
+
+HOWE, RICHARD HOWE, EARL (1726-1799), British admiral, was born in
+London on the 8th of March 1726. He was the second son of Emmanuel
+Scrope Howe, 2nd Viscount Howe, who died governor of Barbadoes in March
+1735, and of Mary Sophia Charlotte, a daughter of the baroness
+Kilmansegge, afterwards countess of Darlington, the mistress of George
+I.--a relationship which does much to explain his early rise in the
+navy. Richard Howe entered the navy in the "Severn," one of the squadron
+sent into the south seas with Anson in 1740. The "Severn" failed to
+round the Horn and returned home. Howe next served in the West Indies in
+the "Burford," and was present in her when she was very severely
+damaged, in the unsuccessful attack on La Guayra on the 18th of February
+1742. He was made acting-lieutenant in the West Indies in the same year,
+and the rank was confirmed in 1744. During the Jacobite rising of 1745
+he commanded the "Baltimore" sloop in the North Sea, and was dangerously
+wounded in the head while co-operating with a frigate in an engagement
+with two strong French privateers. In 1746 he became post-captain, and
+commanded the "Triton" (24) in the West Indies. As captain of the
+"Cornwall" (80), the flagship of Sir Charles Knowles, he was in the
+battle with the Spaniards off Havana on the 2nd of October 1748. While
+the peace between the War of the Austrian Succession and the Seven
+Years' War lasted, Howe held commands at home and on the west coast of
+Africa. In 1755 he went with Boscawen to North America as captain of the
+"Dunkirk" (60), and his seizure of the French "Alcide" (64) was the
+first shot fired in the war. From this date till the peace of 1763 he
+served in the Channel in various more or less futile expeditions against
+the coast of France, with a steady increase of reputation as a firm and
+skilful officer. On the 20th of November 1759 he led Hawke's fleet as
+captain of the "Magnanime" (64) in the magnificent victory of Quiberon.
+
+By the death of his elder brother, killed near Ticonderoga on the 6th of
+July 1758, he became Viscount Howe--an Irish peerage. In 1762 he was
+elected M.P. for Dartmouth, and held the seat till he received a title
+of Great Britain. During 1763 and 1765 he was a member of the Admiralty
+board, and from 1765 to 1770 was treasurer of the navy. In that year he
+was promoted rear-admiral, and in 1775 vice-admiral. In 1776 he was
+appointed to the command of the North American station. The rebellion
+of the colonies was making rapid progress, and Howe was known to be in
+sympathy with the colonists. He had sought the acquaintance of Benjamin
+Franklin, who was a friend of his sister Miss Howe, a clever eccentric
+woman well known in London society, and had already tried to act as a
+peacemaker. It was doubtless because of his known sentiments that he was
+selected to command in America, and was joined in commission with his
+brother Sir William Howe, the general at the head of the land forces, to
+make a conciliatory arrangement. A committee appointed by the
+Continental Congress conferred with the Howes in September 1776 but
+nothing was accomplished. The appointment of a new peace commission in
+1778 offended the admiral deeply, and he sent in a resignation of his
+command. It was reluctantly accepted by Lord Sandwich, then First Lord,
+but before it could take effect France declared war, and a powerful
+French squadron was sent to America under the count d'Estaing. Being
+greatly outnumbered, Howe had to stand on the defensive, but he baffled
+the French admiral at Sandy Hook, and defeated his attempt to take
+Newport in Rhode Island by a fine combination of caution and calculated
+daring. On the arrival of Admiral John Byron from England with
+reinforcements, Howe left the station in September. Until the fall of
+Lord North's ministry in 1782 he refused to serve, assigning as his
+reason that he could not trust Lord Sandwich. He considered that he had
+not been properly supported in America, and was embittered both by the
+supersession of himself and his brother as peace commissioners, and by
+attacks made on him by the ministerial writers in the press.
+
+On the change of ministry in March 1782 he was selected to command in
+the Channel, and in the autumn of that year, September, October and
+November, he carried out the final relief of Gibraltar. It was a
+difficult operation, for the French and Spaniards had in all 46
+line-of-battle ships to his 33, and in the exhausted state of the
+country it was impossible to fit his ships properly or to supply them
+with good crews. He was, moreover, hampered by a great convoy carrying
+stores. But Howe was eminent in the handling of a great multitude of
+ships, the enemy was awkward and unenterprising, and the operation was
+brilliantly carried out. From the 28th of January to the 16th of April
+1783 he was First Lord of the Admiralty, and he held that post from
+December 1783 till August 1788, in Pitt's first ministry. The task was
+no pleasant one, for he had to agree to economies where he considered
+that more outlay was needed, and he had to disappoint the hopes of the
+many officers who were left unemployed by the peace. On the outbreak of
+the Revolutionary war in 1793 he was again named to the command of the
+Channel fleet. His services in 1794 form the most glorious period of his
+life, for in it he won the epoch-making victory of the 1st of June (see
+FIRST OF JUNE, BATTLE OF). Though Howe was now nearly seventy, and had
+been trained in the old school, he displayed an originality not usual
+with veterans, and not excelled by any of his successors in the war, not
+even by Nelson, since they had his example to follow and were served by
+more highly trained squadrons than his. He continued to hold the nominal
+command by the wish of the king, but his active service was now over. In
+1797 he was called on to pacify the mutineers at Spithead, and his great
+influence with the seamen who trusted him was conspicuously shown. He
+died on the 5th of August 1799, and was buried in his family vault at
+Langar. His monument by Flaxman is in St Paul's Cathedral. In 1782 he
+was created Viscount Howe of Langar, and in 1788 Baron and Earl Howe. In
+June 1797 he was made a knight of the Garter. With the sailors he was
+always popular, though he was no popularity hunter, for they knew him to
+be just. His nickname of Black Dick was given on account of his swarthy
+complexion, and the well-known portrait by Gainsborough shows that it
+was apt.
+
+Lord Howe married, on the 10th of March 1758, Mary Hartop, the daughter
+of Colonel Chiverton Hartop of Welby in Leicestershire, and had issue
+two daughters. His Irish title descended to his brother William, the
+general, who died childless in 1814. The earldom, and the viscounty of
+the United Kingdom, being limited to heirs male, became extinct, but
+the barony, being to heirs general, passed to his daughter, Sophia
+Charlotte (1762-1835), who married the Hon. Penn Assheton Curzon. Their
+son, Richard William Curzon (1796-1870), who succeeded his paternal
+grandfather as Viscount Curzon in 1820, was created Earl Howe in 1821;
+he was succeeded by his son, George Augustus (1821-1876), and then by
+another son, Richard William (1822-1900), whose son Richard George Penn
+Curzon-Howe (b. 1861) became 4th Earl Howe in 1900.
+
+  The standard _Life_ is by Sir John Barrow (1838). Interesting
+  reminiscences will be found in the _Life of Codrington_, by Lady
+  Bourchier. Accounts of his professional services are in Charnock's
+  _Biographia Navalis_, v. 457, and in Ralf's _Naval Biographies_, i.
+  83. See also Beatson's _Naval and Military Annals_, James's _Naval
+  History_, and Chevalier's _Histoire de la Marine francaise_, vols. i.
+  and ii.     (D. H.)
+
+
+
+
+HOWE, SAMUEL GRIDLEY (1801-1876), American philanthropist, was born at
+Boston, Massachusetts, on the 10th of November 1801. His father, Joseph
+N. Howe, was a ship-owner and cordage manufacturer; and his mother,
+Patty Gridley, was one of the most beautiful women of her day. Young
+Howe was educated at Boston and at Brown University, Providence, and in
+1821 began to study medicine in Boston. But fired by enthusiasm for the
+Greek revolution and by Byron's example, he was no sooner qualified and
+admitted to practice than he abandoned these prospects and took ship for
+Greece, where he joined the army and spent six years of hardship amid
+scenes of warfare. Then, to raise funds for the cause, he returned to
+America; his fervid appeals enabled him to collect about $60,000, which
+he spent on provisions and clothing, and he established a relief depot
+near Aegina, where he started works for the refugees, the existing quay,
+or American Mole, being built in this way. He formed another colony of
+exiles on the Isthmus of Corinth. He wrote a _History of the Greek
+Revolution_, which was published in 1828, and in 1831 he returned to
+America. Here a new object of interest engaged him. Through his friend
+Dr John D. Fisher (d. 1850), a Boston physician who had started a
+movement there as early as 1826 for establishing a school for the blind,
+he had learnt of the similar school founded in Paris by Valentin Hauy,
+and it was proposed to Howe by a committee organized by Fisher that he
+should direct the establishment of a "New England Asylum for the Blind"
+at Boston. He took up the project with characteristic ardour, and set
+out at once for Europe to investigate the problem. There he was
+temporarily diverted from his task by becoming mixed up with the Polish
+revolt, and, in pursuit of a mission to carry American contributions
+across the Prussian frontier, he was arrested and imprisoned at Berlin,
+but was at last released through the intervention of the American
+minister at Paris. Returning to Boston in July 1832, he began receiving
+a few blind children at his father's house in Pleasant Street, and thus
+sowed the seed which grew into the famous Perkins Institution. In
+January 1833 the funds available were all spent, but so much progress
+had been shown that the legislature voted $6000, later increased to
+$30,000 a year, to the institution on condition that it should educate
+gratuitously twenty poor blind from the state; money was also
+contributed from Salem, and from Boston, and Colonel Thomas H. Perkins,
+a prominent Bostonian, presented his mansion and grounds in Pearl Street
+for the school to be held there in perpetuity. This building being later
+found unsuitable, Colonel Perkins consented to its sale, and in 1839 the
+institution was moved to South Boston, to a large building which had
+previously been an hotel. It was henceforth known as the "Perkins
+Institution and Massachusetts Asylum (or, since 1877, School) for the
+Blind." Howe was director, and the life and soul of the school; he
+opened a printing-office and organized a fund for printing for the
+blind--the first done in America; and he was unwearied in calling public
+attention to the work. The Institution, through him, became one of the
+intellectual centres of American philanthropy, and by degrees obtained
+more and more financial support. In 1837 Dr Howe went still further and
+brought the famous blind deaf-mute, Laura Bridgman (q.v.) to the
+school.
+
+It must suffice here to chronicle the remaining more important facts in
+Dr Howe's life, outside his regular work. In 1843 he married Julia Ward
+(see above), daughter of a New York banker, and they made a prolonged
+European trip, on which Dr Howe spent much time in visiting those public
+institutions which carried out the objects specially interesting to him.
+In Rome, in 1844, his eldest daughter, Julia Romana (afterwards the wife
+of Michael Anagnos, Dr Howe's assistant and successor), was born, and in
+September the travellers returned to America, and Dr Howe resumed his
+activities. In 1846 he became interested in the condition and treatment
+of idiots, and particularly in the experiments of Dr Guggenbuhl on the
+cretins of Switzerland. He became chairman of a state commission of
+inquiry into the number and condition of idiots in Massachusetts, and
+the report of this commission, presented in 1848, caused a profound
+sensation. An appropriation of $2500 per annum was made for training ten
+idiot children under Dr Howe's supervision, and by degrees the value of
+his School for Idiotic and Feeble-minded Youths, which, starting in
+South Boston, was in 1890 removed to Waltham, was generally appreciated.
+It was the first of its kind in the United States. An enthusiastic
+humanitarian on all subjects, Dr Howe was an ardent abolitionist and a
+member of the Free Soil party, and had played a leading part at Boston
+in the movements which culminated in the Civil War. When it broke out he
+was an active member of the sanitary commission. In 1871 he was sent to
+Santo Domingo as a member of the commission appointed by President Grant
+to examine the condition of the island, the government of which desired
+annexation; and when that scheme was defeated through Sumner's
+opposition he returned (1872) as the representative of the Samana Bay
+Company, which proposed to take a lease of the Samana peninsula; but
+though in 1874 he revisited the island, it was only to see the flag of
+the company hauled down. His health was then breaking and began soon
+after to fail rapidly, and on the 9th of January 1876 he died at Boston.
+The governor of the state sent a special message of grief to the
+legislature on his death, eulogies were delivered in the two houses, and
+a public memorial service was held, at which Dr O. W. Holmes read a
+poem. Whittier had in his lifetime commemorated him in his poem "The
+Hero," in which he called him "the Cadmus of the blind"; and in 1901 a
+centennial celebration of his birth was held at Boston, at which, among
+other notable tributes, Senator Hoar spoke of Howe as "one of the great
+figures of American history."
+
+  A _Memoir_ of Dr Howe by his wife appeared in 1876. See also the
+  _Letters and Journals of S. G. Howe_, edited by Laura E. Richards
+  (1910).     (H. Ch.)
+
+
+
+
+HOWE, WILLIAM HOWE, 5TH VISCOUNT (1729-1814), British general, was the
+younger brother of George Augustus, 3rd viscount, killed in the
+Ticonderoga expedition of 1758, and of Richard, 4th viscount and
+afterwards Earl Howe, the admiral. He entered the cavalry in 1746,
+becoming lieutenant a year later. On the disbanding of his regiment in
+1749 he was made captain-lieutenant and shortly afterwards captain in
+Lord Bury's (20th) regiment, in which Wolfe was then a field officer.
+Howe became major in 1756 and lieutenant-colonel in 1757 of the 58th
+(now Northampton) regiment, which he commanded at the capture of
+Louisburg. In Wolfe's expedition to Quebec he distinguished himself
+greatly at the head of a composite light battalion. He led the advanced
+party in the landing at Wolfe's Cove and took part in the battle of the
+Plains of Abraham which followed. He commanded his own regiment in the
+defence of Quebec in 1759-1760, led a brigade in the advance on Montreal
+and took part on his return to Europe in the siege of Belleisle (1761).
+He was adjutant-general of the force which besieged and took Havana in
+1762, and at the close of the war had acquired the reputation of being
+one of the most brilliant of the junior officers of the army. He was
+made colonel of the 46th foot in 1764 and lieutenant-governor of the
+Isle of Wight four years later. From 1758 to 1780 he was M.P. for
+Nottingham. In 1772 he became major-general, and in 1774 he was
+entrusted with the training of light infantry companies on a new system,
+the training-ground being Salisbury Plain.
+
+Shortly after this he was sent out to North America. He did not agree
+with the policy of the government towards the colonists, and regretted
+in particular that he was sent to Boston, where the memory of his eldest
+brother was still cherished by the inhabitants, and General Gage, in
+whom he had no confidence, commanded in chief. He was the senior officer
+after Gage, and led the troops actively engaged in the storming of
+Bunker Hill, he himself being in the thickest of the fighting. In the
+same year Howe was made a K.B. and a lieutenant-general, and appointed,
+with the local rank of general, to the chief command in the seat of war.
+For the events of his command see AMERICAN WAR OF INDEPENDENCE. He
+retained it until May 1778--on the whole with success. The cause of his
+resignation was his feeling that the home government had not afforded
+the proper support, and after his return to England, he and his brother
+engaged in a heated but fruitless controversy with the ministers. Howe's
+own defence is embodied in _Narrative of Sir William Howe before a
+Committee of the House of Commons_ (London, 1780). In 1782 Howe was made
+lieutenant-general of the ordnance; in 1790 he was placed in command of
+the forces organized for action against Spain, and in 1793 he was made a
+full general. He held various home commands in the early part of the
+French revolutionary war, in particular that of the eastern district at
+the critical moment when the French established their forces on the
+Dutch coast. When Earl Howe died in 1799, Sir William succeeded to the
+Irish viscounty. He had been made governor of Berwick-on-Tweed in 1795,
+and in 1805 he became governor of Plymouth, where he died on the 12th of
+July 1814. With his death the Irish peerage became extinct.
+
+
+
+
+HOWEL DDA ("the Good") (d. 950), prince of Deheubarth (South Central
+Wales) from before 915, and king of Wales from 943 to 950, was the
+grandson of Rhodri Mawr (the Great), who had united practically the
+whole of Wales under his supremacy. As Idwal Voel succeeded his father
+Anarawd, the elder son of Rhodri, as lord of Gwynedd in 915, so Howel at
+some time before that date succeeded Rhodri's younger son Cadell as
+prince of Deheubarth. Howel married Elen, daughter of the last king of
+Dyfed, and also added Kidweli and Gwyr to his dominions, while on the
+death of Idwal, who was slain by the English in 943, he took possession
+of Gwynedd. Both these princes had done homage to the English kings,
+Edward the Elder and Aethelstan, in 922 and 926, and we find that Howel
+attended the witans of the English kingdom and witnessed about ten
+charters between the years 931 and 949. He was secure, therefore, from
+attack on the eastern side of his kingdom, and it is not certain whether
+he was engaged in any of the battles recorded during these years in
+Wales, either in Mon 914, at Dinas Newydd 919 or at Brun 935. To the
+peaceful character of his reign is probably due the high place which he
+holds among the Welsh princes. From 943 to 950 Howel Dda was probably
+ruler of all Wales except Powys (apparently dependent on Mercia),
+Brecheiniog, Buallt, Gwent and Morgannwg. With Morgan Hen, king of
+Morgannwg, Howel had a dispute which was eventually settled in favour of
+the former at the court of the English king. Howel died in 950, and such
+unity as he had preserved at once disappeared in a war between his sons
+and those of Idwal Voel. The code of laws attributed to this prince is
+perhaps his chief claim to fame. He is said to have summoned four men
+from each cantref in his dominions to the Ty Gwyn (perhaps Whitland in
+Caermarthenshire) to codify existing custom. Three codes, accordingly
+called Venedotian, Demetian and Gwentian, are said to have been written
+down by Bleggwryd, archdeacon of Llandaff (see Welsh Laws).
+
+  See Sir John Rhys and Brynmor-Jones, _The Welsh People_ (London,
+  1900); and Aneurin Owen, _Ancient Laws and Institutions of Wales_
+  (London, 1841).
+
+
+
+
+HOWELL, JAMES (c. 1594-1666), British author, who came of an old Welsh
+family, was born probably at Abernant, in Carmarthenshire, where his
+father was rector. From the free grammar school at Hereford he went to
+Jesus College, Oxford, and took his degree of B.A. in 1613. About 1616
+he was steward in Sir Robert Mansell's glass-works in Broad Street, and
+was commissioned to go abroad to procure the services of expert
+workmen. It was not till 1622 that he returned, having visited Holland,
+France, Spain and Italy. With the intention of utilizing to better
+purpose his knowledge of continental languages and methods, he left the
+glass business and applied for a diplomatic post. Failing to obtain
+this, he was for a short time tutor in a nobleman's family. At the close
+of 1622 he was sent on a special mission to Madrid to obtain redress for
+the seizure of an English vessel, but, owing to the presence at the
+Spanish court of Prince Charles and the duke of Buckingham to arrange a
+marriage between the prince and the infanta of Spain, the negotiations
+had to be broken off. He made many friends among the prince's retinue,
+and, after his return in 1624, applied for employment to the duke of
+Buckingham, but without success. In 1626 he became secretary to Lord
+Scrope, Lord President of the North at York, and retained the office
+under Scrope's successor, Thomas Wentworth. In 1627 he was elected M.P.
+for Richmond; in 1632 he was sent as secretary to the embassy of the
+earl of Leicester to Denmark; and in 1642 the king appointed him one of
+the clerks of the privy council. In 1643 he was committed to the Fleet
+prison by the parliament, according to his own account, on suspicion of
+royalist leanings, or, as Anthony a Wood says, for debt. Whatever the
+reason, he remained in prison until 1651. He had acquired considerable
+fame by his allegorical [Greek: Dendrologia]: _Dodona's Grove, or the
+Vocall Forest_, published in 1640, and his _Instructions for Forreine
+Travell_ (1642), which has been described as the first continental
+handbook; and now he was driven to maintain himself by his pen. He
+edited and supplemented (1650) Cotgrave's French and English dictionary,
+compiled _Lexicon Tetraglotton, or an English, French, Italian and
+Spanish Dictionary_ (London, 1660), translated various works from
+Italian and Spanish, wrote a life of Louis XIII. and issued a number of
+political pamphlets, varying the point of view somewhat to suit the
+changes of the time. Among these tracts may be mentioned a rather
+malicious _Perfect Description of the People and Country of Scotland_,
+which was revived by John Wilkes and printed in the _North Briton_
+during the agitation directed against Lord Bute. In 1660 he asked for
+the place of clerk of the privy council; and, though this was not
+granted him, the post of historiographer royal was created for him. In
+1661 he applied for the office of tutor in foreign languages to the
+infanta Catherine of Braganza, and in 1662 published an _English Grammar
+translated into Spanish_. He was buried in the Temple Church on the 3rd
+of November 1666, having realized to the last his favourite motto,
+"Senesco non segnesco."
+
+All Howell's writings are imbued with a certain simplicity and
+quaintness. His elaborate allegories are forgotten; his linguistic
+labours, of value in their time, are now superseded; but his _Letters_,
+the _Epistolae Ho-elianae_ (four volumes issued in 1645, 1647, 1650 and
+1655), are still models of their kind. Their dates are often fictitious,
+and they are, in nearly every case, evidently written for publication.
+Thackeray said that the _Letters_ was one of his bedside books. He
+classes it with Montaigne and says he scarcely ever tired of "the
+artless prattle" of the "priggish little clerk of King Charles's
+council."
+
+  The _Epistolae_ have been frequently edited, notably by J. Jacobs in
+  1890, with a commentary (1891), and Agnes Repplier (1907).
+
+
+
+
+HOWELLS, WILLIAM DEAN (1837-   ), American novelist, was born at Martin's
+Ferry, Ohio, on the 1st of March 1837. His father, William Cooper
+Howells, a printer-journalist, moved in 1840 to Hamilton, Ohio, and here
+the boy's early life was spent successively as type-setter, reporter and
+editor in the offices of various newspapers. In the midst of routine
+work he contrived to familiarize himself with a wide range of authors in
+several modern tongues, and to drill himself thoroughly in the use of
+good English. In 1860, as assistant editor of the leading Republican
+newspaper in Ohio, he wrote--in connexion with the Presidential
+contest--the campaign life of Lincoln; and in the same year he was
+appointed consul at Venice, where he remained till 1865. On his return
+to America he joined the staff of the _Atlantic Monthly_, and from 1872
+to 1881 he was its editor-in-chief. Since 1885 he has lived in New York.
+For a time he conducted for _Harper's Magazine_ the department called
+"The Editor's Study," and in December 1900 he revived for the same
+periodical the department of "The Easy Chair," which had lapsed with the
+death of George William Curtis. Of Mr Howells's many novels, the
+following may be mentioned as specially noteworthy: _Their Wedding
+Journey_ (1872); _The Lady of the Aroostook_ (1879); _A Modern Instance_
+(1882); _The Rise of Silas Lapham_ (1885); _The Minister's Charge_
+(1886); _A Hazard of New Fortunes_ (1889); _The Quality of Mercy_
+(1892); _The Landlord at Lion's Head_ (1897). He also published _Poems_
+(1873 and 1886); _Stops of Various Quills_ (1895), a book of verse;
+books of travel; several amusing farces; and volumes of essays and
+literary criticism, among others, _Literary Friends and Acquaintance_
+(1901), which contains much autobiographical matter, _Literature and
+Life_ (1902), and _English Films_ (1905).
+
+Howells is by general consent the foremost representative of the
+realistic school of indigenous American fiction. From the outset his aim
+was to portray life with entire fidelity in all its commonplaceness, and
+yet to charm the reader into a liking for this commonplaceness and into
+reverence for what it conceals. Though in his earliest novels his method
+was not consistently realistic--he is at times almost as personal and as
+whimsical as Thackeray--yet his vivid impressionism and his choice of
+subjects, as well as an occasional explicit protest that "dulness is
+dear to him," already revealed unmistakably his realistic bias. In _A
+Modern Instance_ (1882) he gained complete command of his method, and
+began a series of studies of American life that are remarkable for their
+loyalty to fact, their truth of tone, and their power to reveal, despite
+their strictly objective method, both the inner springs of American
+character and the sociological forces that are shaping American
+civilization. He refuses to over-sophisticate or to over-intellectualize
+his characters, and he is very sparing in his use of psychological
+analysis. He insists on seeing and portraying American life as it exists
+in and for itself, under its own skies and with its own atmosphere; he
+does not scrutinize it with foreign comparisons in mind, and thus try to
+find and to throw into relief unsuspected configurations of surface. He
+keeps his dialogue toned down to almost the pitch of everyday
+conversation, although he has shown in his comedy sketches how easy a
+master he is of adroit and witty talk.
+
+  See also J. M. Robertson, _Essays towards a Critical Method_ (London,
+  1889); H. C. Vedder, _American Writers_ (Boston, 1894).
+
+
+
+
+HOWITT WILLIAM, (1792-1879), English author, was born on the 18th of
+December 1792 at Heanor, Derbyshire. His parents were Quakers, and he
+was educated at the Friends' public school at Ackworth, Yorkshire. In
+1814 he published a poem on the "Influence of Nature and Poetry on
+National Spirit." He married, in 1821, Mary Botham (1799-1888), like
+himself a Quaker and a poet. William and Mary Howitt collaborated
+throughout a long literary career, the first of their joint productions
+being _The Forest Minstrels and other Poems_ (1821). In 1831 William
+Howitt produced a work for which his habits of observation and his
+genuine love of nature peculiarly fitted him. It was a history of the
+changes in the face of the outside world in the different months of the
+year, and was entitled _The Book of the Seasons, or the Calendar of
+Nature_ (1831). His _Popular History of Priestcraft_ (1833) won for him
+the favour of active Liberals and the office of alderman in Nottingham,
+where the Howitts had made their home. They removed in 1837 to Esher,
+and in 1840 they went to Heidelberg, primarily for the education of
+their children, remaining in Germany for two years. In 1841 William
+Howitt produced, under the pseudonym of "Dr Cornelius," _The Student
+Life of Germany_, the first of a series of works on German social life
+and institutions. Mary Howitt devoted herself to Scandinavian
+literature, and between 1842 and 1863 she translated the novels of
+Frederika Bremer and many of the stories of Hans Andersen. With her
+husband she wrote in 1852 _The Literature and Romance of Northern
+Europe_. In June of that year William Howitt, with two of his sons, set
+sail for Australia, where he spent two years in the goldfields. The
+results of his travels appeared in _A Boy's Adventures in the Wilds
+of Australia_ (1854), _Land, Labour and Gold; or, Two Years in Victoria_
+(1855) and _Tallangetta, the Squatter's Home_ (1857). On his return to
+England Howitt had settled at Highgate and resumed his indefatigable
+book-making. From 1856 to 1862 he was engaged on Cassell's _Illustrated
+History of England_, and from 1861 to 1864 he and his wife worked at the
+_Ruined Abbeys and Castles of Great Britain_. The Howitts had left the
+Society of Friends in 1847, and became interested in spiritualism. In
+1863 appeared _The History of the Supernatural in all Ages and Nations,
+and in all Churches, Christian and Pagan, demonstrating a Universal
+Faith_, by William Howitt. He added "his own conclusions from a
+practical examination of the higher phenomena through a course of seven
+years." From 1870 onwards Howitt spent the summers in Tirol and the
+winters in Rome, where he died on the 3rd of March 1879. Mary Howitt was
+much affected by his death, and in 1882 she joined the Roman Catholic
+Church, towards which she had been gradually moving during her connexion
+with spiritualism. She died at Rome on the 30th of January 1888. The
+Howitts are remembered for their untiring efforts to provide wholesome
+and instructive literature. Their son, Alfred William Howitt, made
+himself a name by his explorations in Australia. Anna Mary Howitt
+married Alaric Alfred Watts, and was the author of _Pioneers of the
+Spiritual Reformation_ (1883).
+
+  Mary Howitt's autobiography was edited by her daughter, Margaret
+  Howitt, in 1889. William Howitt wrote some fifty books, and his wife's
+  publications, inclusive of translations, number over a hundred.
+
+
+
+
+HOWITZER (derived, through an earlier form _howitz_, and the Ger.
+_Haubitz_, from the Bohemian _houfnice_ = catapult, from which come
+also, through the Ital. _obiza_ or _obice_, the French forms _obus_ =
+shell and _obusier_ = howitzer), a form of mobile ordnance in use from
+the 16th century up to the present day. It is a short and therefore
+comparatively light gun, which fires a heavy projectile at low velocity.
+A high angle of elevation is always given and the angle of descent of
+the projectile is consequently steep (up to 70 deg.). On this fact is
+based the tactical use of the modern howitzer. The field howitzer is of
+the greatest value for "searching" trenches, folds of ground,
+localities, &c., which are invulnerable to direct fire, while the more
+powerful siege howitzer has, since the introduction of modern artillery
+and, above all, of modern projectiles, taken the foremost place amongst
+the weapons used in siege warfare.
+
+  See ARTILLERY, ORDNANCE and FORTIFICATION AND SIEGECRAFT.
+
+
+
+
+HOWLER, a name applied to the members of a group of tropical American
+monkeys, now known scientifically as _Alouata_, although formerly
+designated _Mycetes_. These monkeys, which are of large size, with thick
+fur, sometimes red and sometimes black in colour, are characterized by
+the inflation of the hyoid-bone (which supports the roof of the tongue)
+into a large shell-like organ communicating with the wind-pipe, and
+giving the peculiar resonance to the voice from which they take their
+title. To allow space for the hyoid, the sides of the lower jaw are very
+deep and expanded. The muzzle is projecting, and the profile of the face
+slopes regularly backwards from the muzzle to the crown. The long tail
+is highly prehensile, thickly furred, with the under surface of the
+extremity naked. Howlers dwell in large companies, and in the early
+morning, and again in the evening, make the woods resound with their
+cries, which are often continued throughout the night. They feed on
+leaves, and are in the habit of sitting on the topmost branches of
+trees. When active, they progress in regular order, led by an old male.
+     (R. L.*)
+
+
+
+
+HOWRAH, a city and district of British India, in the Burdwan division of
+Bengal. The city is situated opposite Calcutta, with which it is
+connected by a floating bridge. The municipal area is about 11 sq. m.;
+pop. (1901) 157,594, showing an increase of 35% in the decade. Since
+1872 the population has almost doubled, owing to the great industrial
+development that has taken place. Howrah is the terminus of the East
+Indian railway, and also of the Bengal-Nagpur and East Coast lines. It
+is also the centre of two light railways which run to Amta and
+Sheakhala. Further, it is the headquarters of the jute-manufacturing
+industry, with many steam mills, steam presses, also cotton mills, oil
+mills, rope-works, iron-works and engineering works. Sibpur Engineering
+College lies on the outskirts of the town. There is a hospital, with a
+department for Europeans, and Howrah forms a suburban residence for many
+people who have their place of business in Calcutta.
+
+The DISTRICT OF HOWRAH extends southwards down the right bank of the
+Hugli to the confluence of the river Damodar. For revenue purposes it is
+included within the district of Hugli Its area is 510 sq. m.; pop.
+(1901) 850,514, showing an increase of 11% in the decade. In addition to
+the two steam tramways and the East Indian railway, the district is
+crossed by the high-level canal to Midnapore, which communicates with
+the Hugli at Ulubaria. The manufacturing industries of Howrah extend
+beyond the city into the district. One or two systems of draining
+low-lying lands are maintained by the government.
+
+
+
+
+HOWSON, JOHN SAUL (1816-1885), English divine, was born at
+Giggleswick-in-Craven, Yorkshire, on the 5th of May 1816. After
+receiving his early education at Giggleswick school, of which his father
+was head-master, he went to Trinity College, Cambridge, and there became
+tutor successively to the marquis of Sligo and the marquis of Lorne. In
+1845 Howson, having taken orders, accepted the post of senior classical
+master at the Liverpool College under his friend W. J. Conybeare, whom
+he succeeded as principal in 1849. This post he held until 1865, and it
+was largely due to his influence that a similar college for girls was
+established at Liverpool. In 1866 he left Liverpool for the vicarage of
+Wisbech, and in 1867 he was appointed dean of Chester Cathedral, where
+he gave himself vigorously to the work of restoring the crumbling
+fabric, collecting nearly L100,000 in five years for this purpose. His
+sympathies were with the evangelical party, and he stoutly opposed the
+"Eastward position," but he was by no means narrow. He did much to
+reintroduce the ministry of women as deaconesses. The building of the
+King's School for boys, and the Queen's School for girls (both in
+Chester), was due in a great measure to the active interest which he
+took in educational matters. He died at Bournemouth on the 15th of
+December 1885, and was buried in the cloister garth of Chester. Howson's
+chief literary production was _The Life and Epistles of St Paul_ (1852)
+in which he collaborated with Conybeare.
+
+  The book is still of interest, especially for its descriptive
+  passages, which were mostly done by Howson; but later researches (such
+  as those of Sir W. M. Ramsay) have made the geographical and
+  historical sections obsolete, and the same may be said of the
+  treatment of the Pauline theology.
+
+
+
+
+HOWTH [pronounced _Hoth_], a seaside town of Co. Dublin, Ireland, on the
+rocky hill of Howth, which forms the northern horn of Dublin Bay, 9 m.
+N.E. by N. of Dublin by the Great Northern railway. Pop. (1901) 1166. It
+is frequented by the residents of the capital as a watering-place. The
+artificial harbour was formed (1807-1832) between the mainland and the
+picturesque island of Ireland's Eye, and preceded Kingstown as the
+station for the mail-packets from Great Britain, but was found after its
+construction to be liable to silt, and is now chiefly used by
+fishing-boats and yachts. The collegiate church, standing picturesquely
+on a cliff above the sea, was founded about 1235, and has a monastic
+building attached to it. The embattled castle contains the two-handed
+sword of Sir Almeric Tristram, the Anglo-Norman conqueror of the hill of
+Howth, and a portrait of Dean Swift holding one of the Drapier letters,
+with Wood, the coiner against whom he directed these attacks, prostrate
+before him. The view of Dublin Bay from the hill of Howth is of great
+beauty. Howth is connected with the capital by electric tramway, besides
+the railway, and another tramway encircles the hill.
+
+
+
+
+HOXTER, a town of Germany, in the Prussian province of Westphalia,
+prettily situated on the left bank of the Weser, and on the Prussian
+state railways Borssum-Soest and Scherfede-Holzminden, 32 m. N. of
+Cassel. Pop. (1905) 7699. It has a medieval town hall, and interesting
+houses with high gables and wood-carved facades of the 15th and 16th
+centuries. The most interesting of the churches is the Protestant church
+of St Kilian, with a pulpit dating from 1595 and a font dating from
+1631. There are a gymnasium, a school of architecture and a monument to
+Hoffmann von Fallersleben in the town. The Weser is crossed here by a
+stone bridge about 500 ft. in length, erected in 1833. On the Brunsberg
+adjoining the town there is an old watch-tower, said to be the remains
+of a fortress built by Bruno, brother of Widukind. Near Hoxter is the
+castle, formerly the Benedictine monastery, of Corvey. The principal
+manufactures of the town are linen, cotton, cement and gutta-percha, and
+there is also a considerable shipping trade. Hoxter (Lat. _Huxaria_) in
+the time of Charlemagne was a _villa regia_, and was the scene of a
+battle between him and the Saxons. Under the protection of the monastery
+of Corvey it gradually increased in prosperity, and became the chief
+town of the principality of Corvey. Later it asserted its independence
+and joined the Hanseatic League. It suffered severely during the Thirty
+Years' War. After the peace of Westphalia in 1648 it was united to
+Brunswick; in 1802 it was transferred to Nassau; and in 1807 to the
+kingdom of Westphalia, after the dismemberment of which, in 1814, it
+came into the possession of Prussia.
+
+  See Kampschulte, _Chronik der Stadt Hoxter_ (Hoxter, 1872).
+
+
+
+
+HOY (Norse _Haey_, "high island"), the second largest island of the
+Orkneys, county of Orkney, Scotland. Pop. (1901) 1216. It has an extreme
+length from N.W. to S.E. of 13(1/3) m., its greatest breadth from E. to
+W. is 8 m., and its area occupies 53 sq. m. It is situated 2 m. S.W. of
+Pomona, from which it is separated by Hoy Sound. As seen from the west
+it rises abruptly from the sea, presenting in this respect a marked
+contrast to the rest of the isles of the Orcadian group, which as a
+whole are low-lying. Its eastern and southern shores are indented by
+numerous bays, one of which, Long Hope, forms a natural harbour 4 m.
+long, with a breadth varying from 1/4 m. to more than 1 m., affording to
+any number of vessels a haven of refuge from the roughest weather of the
+Pentland Firth. Off the eastern coast lie the islands of Graemsay, Cava,
+Risa, Fara, Flotta and Switha, while the peninsula of South Walls,
+forming the southern side of the harbour of Long Hope, is an island in
+all but name. Red and yellow sandstone cliffs, sometimes over 1000 ft.
+in height, stretch for 10 to 12 m. on the Atlantic front. The detached
+pillar or stack called the Old Man of Hoy (450 ft.) is a well-known
+landmark to sailors. The only break in this remarkable run of rocky
+coast is at Rackwick in the bight below the head of Rora. In the
+interior, Ward Hill (1564 ft.) is the loftiest summit in either the
+Orkneys or Shetlands. In the valley between Ward Hill and the ridge of
+the Hamars to the south-east is situated the famous Dwarfie Stone, an
+enormous block of sandstone measuring 28 ft. long, from 11 ft. to 14(1/2)
+ft. broad, and 6(1/2) ft. high at one end and 2 ft. high at the other, in
+which two rooms have been artificially hollowed out, traditionally
+believed to be the bed-chambers of Trolld, the dwarf of the sagas, and
+his wife. A boulder lying at the narrow end was supposed to be used to
+close the entrance. The generally accepted theory is that it was a pagan
+altar which some hermit afterwards converted into a cell. Other hills in
+the island are the Cuilags (1420 ft.) and the Knap of Trewieglen (1308
+ft.), besides several peaks exceeding 1000 ft. in height. Hoy is
+commonly approached from Stromness, there being piers at Linksness, the
+nearest point to Graemsay, and at Hackness, South Ness and North Bay,
+the last three all on the harbour of Long Hope.
+
+
+
+
+HOYLAKE, a watering-place in the Wirral parliamentary division of
+Cheshire, England, 8 m. W. of Birkenhead, on the Wirral railway. With
+West Kirby to the south, at the mouth of the estuary of the Dee, it
+forms the urban district of Hoylake and West Kirby. Pop. (1901) 10,911.
+The well-known links of the Royal Liverpool Golf Club are at Hoylake.
+The town has a considerable population of fishermen.
+
+
+
+
+HOYLAND NETHER, an urban district in the Hallamshire parliamentary
+division of the West Riding of Yorkshire, England, 5(1/2) m. S.S.E. of
+Barnsley, on the Midland railway. Collieries and brickworks employ the
+large industrial population. Pop. (1901) 12,464.
+
+
+
+
+HOYLE, EDMUND, or EDMOND (1672-1769), the first systematizer of the laws
+of whist, and author of a book on games, was born in 1672. His parentage
+and place of birth are unknown, and few details of his life are
+recorded. For some time he was resident in London, and partially
+supported himself by giving instruction in the game of whist. For the
+use of his pupils he drew up a _Short Treatise_ on the game, which after
+circulating for some time in manuscript was printed by him and entered
+at Stationers' Hall in November 1742. The laws of Hoyle continued to be
+regarded as authoritative until 1864, since which time they have been
+gradually superseded by the new rules adopted by the Arlington and
+Portland clubs in that year (see Whist). He also published rules for
+various other games, and his book on games, which includes the _Short
+Treatise_, has passed into many editions. The weight of his authority is
+indicated by the phrase "according to Hoyle," which, doubtless first
+applied with reference to whist, has gained currency as a general
+proverb. Hoyle died in London on the 29th of August 1769.
+
+
+
+
+HOZIER, PIERRE D', SEIGNEUR DE LA GARDE (1592-1660), French genealogist,
+was born at Marseilles on the 10th of July 1592. In 1616 he entered upon
+some very extensive researches into the genealogy of the noble families
+of the kingdom, in which work he was aided by his prodigious memory for
+dates, names and family relationships, as well as by his profound
+knowledge of heraldry. In 1634 he was appointed historiographer and
+genealogist of France, and in 1641 _juge d'armes_ of France, an officer
+corresponding nearly to the Garter king-of-arms in England. In 1643 he
+was employed to verify the claims to nobility of the pages and equerries
+of the king's household. He accumulated a large number of documents, but
+published comparatively little, his principal works being _Recueil
+armorial des anciennes maisons de Bretagne_ (1638); _Les noms, surnoms,
+qualitez, armes et blasons des chevaliers et officiers de l'ordre du
+Saint-Esprit_ (1634); and the genealogies of the houses of La
+Rochefoucauld (1654), Bournonville (1657) and Amanze (1659). He was
+renowned as much for his uprightness as for his knowledge, no slight
+praise in a profession exposed to so many temptations to fraud. He died
+in Paris on the 1st of December 1660. At his death his collections
+comprised more than 150 volumes or portfolios of documents and papers
+relating to the genealogy of the principal families in France. Of his
+six sons, only two survived him. His eldest son, Louis Roger d'Hozier
+(1634-1708), succeeded him as _juge d'armes_, but became blind in 1675,
+and was obliged to surrender his office to his brother.
+
+CHARLES RENE D'HOZIER (1640-1732), younger son of Pierre, was the true
+continuator of his father. In addition to his commentary appended to
+Antoine Varillas's history of King Charles IX. (1686 ed.), he published
+_Recherches sur la noblesse de Champagne_ (1673). On the promulgation in
+1696 of an edict directing all who had armorial bearings to register
+them on payment of 20 livres, he was employed to collect the
+declarations returned in the various _generalites_, and established the
+_Armorial general de France_. This work, which contained not only the
+armorial bearings of noble families, but also of those commoners who
+were entitled to bear arms, is not complete, inasmuch as many refused to
+register their arms, either from vanity or from a desire to evade the
+fee.
+
+  The collection (now in the Bibliotheque Nationale) consists of 34
+  volumes of text and 35 of coloured armorial bearings, and in spite of
+  its deficiencies is a useful store of information for the history of
+  the old French families. It contains 60,000 names, grouped according
+  to provinces and provincial subdivisions. The sections relating to
+  Burgundy and Franche-Comte were published by Henri Bouchot
+  (1875-1876): those relating to the _generalite_ of Limoges, by Moreau
+  de Pravieux (1895); and those for the _election_ of Reims, by P.
+  Gosset (1903).
+
+In 1717, in consequence of a quarrel with his nephew Louis Pierre, son
+of Louis Roger, Charles sold his collection to the king. It then
+comprised 160 portfolios of genealogical papers arranged alphabetically,
+175 volumes of documents, and numerous printed books profusely
+annotated. In 1720 it was inventoried by P. de Clairambault, who added a
+certain number of genealogies taken from the papers of F. R. de
+Gaignieres, increasing the total to 217 boxes and portfolios. Thus
+originated the _Cabinet des titres_ of the Bibliotheque Nationale.
+Charles subsequently became reconciled to his nephew, to whom he left
+all the papers he had accumulated from the date of the quarrel until his
+death, which occurred in Paris on the 13th of February 1732.
+
+LOUIS PIERRE D'HOZIER (1685-1767), son of Louis Roger, succeeded his
+uncle Charles as _juge d'armes_. He published the _Armorial general, ou
+registre de la noblesse de France_ (10 vols., 1738-1768), which must not
+be confounded with the publication mentioned above, inasmuch as it
+related solely to noble families and was not an official collection.
+Complete copies of this work, which should contain six _registres_, are
+comparatively rare. A seventh _registre_, forming vol. xi., prepared by
+Ambroise Louis Marie, nephew of Louis Pierre, was published in 1847 by
+comte Charles d'Hozier. Louis Pierre died on the 25th of September 1767.
+His eldest son, Antoine Marie d'Hozier de Serigny (1721-c. 1810), was
+his father's collaborator and continuator; and his fourth son, Jean
+Francois Louis, wrote an account of the knights of St Michael in the
+province of Poitou, which was published in 1896 by the vicomte P. de
+Chabot.
+
+His nephew, AMBROISE LOUIS MARIE D'HOZIER (1764-1846), was the last of
+the _juges d'armes_ of France. He held the position of president of the
+_cour des comptes, aides et finances_ of Normandy, and was therefore
+generally known as President d'Hozier, to distinguish him from the other
+members of the family. After the Restoration he was employed to verify
+French armorial bearings for the _conseil du sceau des titres_. He died
+in obscurity. His collection, which was purchased in 1851 by the
+Bibliotheque Nationale, comprised 136 volumes, 165 portfolios of
+documents and 200 packets of extracts from title-deeds, known as the
+_Carres d'Hozier_.
+
+ABRAHAM CHARLES AUGUSTE D'HOZIER (1775-1846), who also belonged to his
+family, was implicated in the conspiracy of Georges Cadoudal, and was
+condemned to death, but Bonaparte spared his life. He did not, however,
+recover his liberty until after the fall of the emperor, and died at
+Versailles on the 24th of August 1846.     (C. B.*)
+
+
+
+
+HRABANUS MAURUS MAGNENTIUS (c. 776-856), archbishop of Mainz, and one of
+the most prominent teachers and writers of the Carolingian age, was born
+of noble parents at Mainz. Less correct forms of his name are Rabanus
+and Rhabanus. The date of his birth is uncertain, but in 801 he received
+deacon's orders at Fulda, where he had been sent to school; in the
+following year, at the instance of Ratgar, his abbot, he went together
+with Haimon (afterwards of Halberstadt) to complete his studies at Tours
+under Alcuin, who in recognition of his diligence and purity gave him
+the surname of Maurus, after St Maur the favourite disciple of Benedict.
+Returning after the lapse of two years to Fulda, he was entrusted with
+the principal charge of the school, which under his direction rose into
+a state of great efficiency for that age, and sent forth such pupils as
+Walafrid Strabo, Servatus Lupus of Ferieres and Otfrid of Weissenburg.
+At this period it is most probable that his _Excerptio_ from the grammar
+of Priscian, long so popular as a text-book during the middle ages, was
+compiled. In 814 he was ordained a priest; but shortly afterwards,
+apparently on account of disagreement with Ratgar, he was compelled to
+withdraw for a time from Fulda. This "banishment" is understood to have
+occasioned the pilgrimage to Palestine to which he alludes in his
+commentary on Joshua. He returned to Fulda on the election of a new
+abbot (Eigil) in 817, upon whose death in 822 he himself became abbot.
+The duties of this office he discharged with efficiency and success
+until 842, when, in order to secure greater leisure for literature and
+for devotion, he resigned and retired to the neighbouring cloister of St
+Peter's. In 847 he was again constrained to enter public life by his
+election to succeed Otgar in the archbishopric of Mainz, which see he
+occupied for upwards of eight years. The principal incidents of
+historical interest belonging to this period of his life were those
+which arose out of his relations to Gottschalk (q.v.): they may be
+regarded as thoroughly typical of that cruel intolerance which he shared
+with all his contemporaries, and also of that ardent zeal which was
+peculiar to himself; but they hardly do justice to the spirit of kindly
+benevolence which in less trying circumstances he was ever ready to
+display. He died at Winkel on the Rhine, on the 4th of February 856. He
+is frequently referred to as St Rabanus, but incorrectly.
+
+  His voluminous works, many of which remain unpublished, comprise
+  commentaries on a considerable number of the books both of canonical
+  and of apocryphal Scripture (Genesis to Judges, Ruth, Kings,
+  Chronicles, Judith, Esther, Canticles, Proverbs, Wisdom,
+  Ecclesiasticus, Jeremiah, Lamentations, Ezekiel, Maccabees, Matthew,
+  the Epistles of St Paul, including Hebrews); and various treatises
+  relating to doctrinal and practical subjects, including more than one
+  series of Homilies. Perhaps the most important is that _De
+  institutione clericorum_, in three books, by which he did much to
+  bring into prominence the views of Augustine and Gregory the Great as
+  to the training which was requisite for a right discharge of the
+  clerical function; the most popular has been a comparatively worthless
+  tract _De laudibus sanctae crucis_. Among the others may be mentioned
+  the _De universo libri xxii., sive etymologiarum opus_, a kind of
+  dictionary or encyclopaedia, designed as a help towards the historical
+  and mystical interpretation of Scripture, the _De sacris ordinibus_,
+  the _De disciplina ecclesiastica_ and the _Martyrologium_. All of them
+  are characterized by erudition (he knew even some Greek and Hebrew)
+  rather than by originality of thought. The poems are of singularly
+  little interest or value, except as including one form of the "Veni
+  Creator." In the annals of German philology a special interest
+  attaches to the _Glossaria Latino-Theodisca_. A commentary, _Super
+  Porphyrium_, printed by Cousin in 1836 among the _Ouvrages inedits
+  d'Abelard_, and assigned both by that editor and by Haureau to
+  Hrabanus Maurus, is now generally believed to have been the work of a
+  disciple.
+
+  The first nominally complete edition of the works of Hrabanus Maurus
+  was that of Colvener (Cologne, 6 vols. fol., 1627). The _Opera omnia_
+  form vols. cvii.-cxii. of Migne's _Patrologiae cursus completus_. The
+  _De universo_ is the subject of _Compendium der Naturwissenschaften an
+  der Schule zu Fulda im IX. Jahrhundert_ (Berlin, 1880). Maurus is the
+  subject of monographs by Schwarz (_De Rhabano Mauro primo Germaniae
+  praeceptore_, 1811), Kunstmann (_Historische Monographie uber Hrabanus
+  Magnentius Maurus_, 1841), Spengler (_Leben des heil. Rhabanus
+  Maurus_, 1856) and Kohler (_Rhabanus Maurus u. die Schule zu Fulda_,
+  1870). _Lives_ by his disciple Rudolphus and by Joannes Trithemius are
+  printed in the Cologne edition of the _Opera_. See also Pertz, _Monum.
+  Germ. Hist._ (i. and ii.); Bahr, _Gesch. d. romischen Literatur im
+  Karoling. Zeitalter_ (1840), and Hauck's article in the Herzog-Hauck
+  _Realencyklopadie_, ed. 3.
+
+
+
+
+HROLFR KRAKI, perhaps the most famous of the Danish kings of the heroic
+age. In _Beowulf_, where he is called Hrothwulf, he is represented as
+reigning over Denmark in conjunction with his uncle Hrothgar, one of the
+three sons of an earlier king called Healfdene. In the Old Norse sagas
+Hrolfe is the son of Helgi (Halga), the son of Halfdan (Healfdene). He
+is represented as a wealthy and peace-loving monarch similar to Hrothgar
+in _Beowulf_, but the latter (Hroarr, or Roe) is quite overshadowed by
+his nephew in the Northern authorities. The chief incidents in Hrolfr's
+career are the visit which he paid to the Swedish king Aethils
+(Beowulf's Eadgils), of which several different explanations are given,
+and the war, in which he eventually lost his life, against his
+brother-in-law Hiorvarethr. The name Kraki (pole-ladder) is said to have
+been given to him on account of his great height by a young knight named
+Voggr, whom he handsomely rewarded and who eventually avenged his death
+on Hiorvarethr. There is no reason to doubt that Hrolfr was an
+historical person and that he reigned in Denmark during the early years
+of the 6th century, but the statement found in all the sagas that he was
+the stepson of Aethils seems hardly compatible with the evidence of
+_Beowulf_, which is a much earlier authority.
+
+  See Saxo Grammaticus, _Gesta Danorum_, pp. 52-68, ed. A. Holder
+  (Strassburg, 1886); and A. Olrik, _Danmarks Hettedigtning_
+  (Copenhagen, 1903).
+
+
+
+
+HROSVITHA (frequently ROSWITHA, and properly HROTSUIT), early medieval
+dramatist and chronicler, occupies a very notable position in the
+history of modern European literature. Her endeavours formed part of the
+literary activity by which the age of the emperor Otto the Great sought
+to emulate that of Charles the Great. The famous nun of Gandersheim has
+occasionally been confounded with her namesake, a learned abbess of the
+same convent, who must have died at least half a century earlier. The
+younger Hrosvitha was born in all probability about the year 935; and,
+if the statement be correct that she sang the praises of the three
+Ottos, she must have lived to near the close of the century. Some time
+before the year 959 she entered the Benedictine nunnery of Gandersheim,
+a foundation which was confined to ladies of German birth, and was
+highly favoured by the Saxon dynasty. In 959 Gerberga, daughter of Duke
+Henry of Bavaria and niece of the emperor Otto I., was consecrated
+abbess of Gandersheim; and the earlier literary efforts of the youthful
+Hrosvitha (whose own connexion with the royal family appears to be an
+unauthenticated tradition) were encouraged by the still more youthful
+abbess, and by a nun of the name of Richarda.
+
+The literary works of Hrosvitha, all of which were as a matter of course
+in Latin, divide themselves into three groups. Of these the first and
+least important comprises eight narrative religious poems, in leonine
+hexameters or distichs. Their subjects are the Nativity of the Virgin
+(from the apocryphal gospel of St James, the brother of our Lord), the
+Ascension and a series of legends of saints (Gandolph, Pelagius,
+Theophilus, Basil, Denis, Agnes). Like these narrative poems, the dramas
+to which above all Hrosvitha owes her fame seem to have been designed
+for reading aloud or recitation by sisters of the convent. For though
+there are indications that the idea of their representation was at least
+present to the mind of the authoress, the fact of such a representation
+appears to be an unwarrantable assumption. The comedies of Hrosvitha are
+six in number, being doubtless in this respect also intended to recall
+their nominal model, the comedies of Terence. They were devised on the
+simple principle that the world, the flesh and the devil should not have
+all the good plays to themselves. The experiment upon which the young
+Christian dramatist ventured was accordingly, although not absolutely
+novel, audacious enough. In form the dramas of "the strong voice of
+Gandersheim," as Hrosvitha (possibly alluding to a supposed etymology of
+her name) calls herself, are by no means Terentian. They are written in
+prose, with an element of something like rhythm, and an occasional
+admixture of rhyme. In their themes, and in the treatment of these, they
+are what they were intended to be, the direct opposites of the lightsome
+adapter of Menander. They are founded upon legends of the saints,
+selected with a view to a glorification of religion in its supremest
+efforts and most transcendental aspects. The emperor Constantine's
+daughter, for example, Constantia, gives her hand in marriage to
+_Gallicanus_, just before he starts on a Scythian campaign, though she
+has already taken a vow of perpetual maidenhood. In the hour of battle
+he is himself converted, and, having on his return like his virgin bride
+chosen the more blessed unmarried state, dies as a Christian martyr in
+exile. The three holy maidens, Agape, Chionia and Irene, are preserved
+by a humorous miracle from the evil designs of _Dulcitius_, to offer up
+their pure lives as a sacrifice under Diocletian's persecutions.
+_Callimachus_, who has Romeo-like carried his earthly passion for the
+saintly Drusiana into her tomb, and among its horrors has met with his
+own death, is by the mediation of St John raised with her from the dead
+to a Christian life. All these themes are treated with both spirit and
+skill, often with instinctive knowledge of dramatic effect--often with
+genuine touches of pathos and undeniable felicities of expression. In
+_Dulcitius_ there is also an element of comedy, or rather of farce. How
+far Hrosvitha's comedies were an isolated phenomenon of their age in
+Germany must remain undecided; in the general history of the drama they
+form the visible bridge between the few earlier attempts at utilizing
+the forms of the classical drama for Christian purposes and the miracle
+plays. They are in any case the productions of genius; nor has Hrosvitha
+missed the usual tribute of the supposition that Shakespeare has
+borrowed from her writings.
+
+The third and last group of the writings of Hrosvitha is that of her
+versified historical chronicles. At the request of the abbess Gerberga,
+she composed her _Carmen de gestis Oddonis_, an epic attempting in some
+degree to follow the great Roman model. It was completed by the year
+968, and presented by the authoress to both the old emperor and his son
+(then already crowned as) Otto II. This poem so closely adheres to the
+materials supplied to the authoress by members of the imperial family
+that, notwithstanding its courtly omissions, it is regarded as an
+historical authority. Unfortunately only half of it remains; the part
+treating of the period from 953 to 962 is lost with the exception of a
+few fragments, and the period from 962 to 967 is summarized only.
+Subsequently, in a poem (of 837 hexameters) _De primordiis et
+fundatoribus coenobii Gandersheimensis_, Hrosvitha narrated the
+beginnings of her own convent, and its history up to the year 919.
+
+  The Munich MS., which contains all the works enumerated above except
+  the _Chronicle of Gandersheim_, was edited by the great Vienna
+  humanist, Conrad Celtes, in 1501. The edition of Celtes was published
+  at Nuremberg, with eight wood-cuts by Albrecht Durer. It was re-edited
+  by H. L. Schurzfleisch and published at Wittenberg in 1707. The
+  comedies have been edited and translated into German by J. Bendixen
+  (Lubeck, 1857), and into French by C. Magnin (Paris, 1845), whose
+  introduction gives a full account of the authoress and her works. See
+  also her _Poesies latines_, with a translation into French verse by V.
+  Retif de la Bretonne (Paris, 1854). A copious analysis of her plays
+  will be found in Klein, _Geschichte des Dramas_, iii. 665-754. See
+  also W. Creizenach, _Geschichte des neueren Dramas_, i. 17 sqq.
+  (Halle, 1893), and A. W. Ward, _History of English Dramatic
+  Literature_, i. 6 sqq. (Cambridge, 1899). Gustav Freytag wrote a
+  dissertation, _De Rosuitha poetria_ (Breslau, 1839), to qualify
+  himself as an academical teacher, which, as he records (_Erinnerungen
+  aus meinem Leben_, Leipzig, 1887, p. 1839), showed "how impossible it
+  was to the German, a thousand years since, to compose dramatically";
+  and at the beginning of Albert Cohn's _Shakespeare in Germany_
+  (Berlin, 1865) Shakespearean parallels are suggested to certain
+  passages in Hrosvitha's dramas. Her two chronicles in verse were
+  edited by Z. H. Pertz in the _Monumenta Germaniae_, iv. 306-335
+  (Hanover, 1841). See also J. P. Migne, _Patrologiae curs. compl._
+  (Paris, 1853, vol. 137). The _Carmen_ was included by Leibnitz in his
+  _Scriptores rer. Brunsvic._ (Hanover, 1707-1711). For other early
+  editions of these see A. Potthast, _Bibliotheca historica medii aevi_
+  (supplement, Berlin, 1862-1868); and for an appreciation of them see
+  Wattenbach, _Geschichtsquellen_, pp. 214-216, and Giesebrecht,
+  _Deutsche Kaiserzeit_, i. 780, who mentions a German translation by
+  Pfund (1860). There is a complete edition of the works of Hrosvitha by
+  K. A. Barack (Nurnberg, 1858). J. Aschbach (1867) attempted to prove
+  that Celtes had forged the productions which he published under the
+  name of Hrosvitha, but he was refuted by R. Kopke (Berlin, 1869).
+  Anatole France, _La Vie litteraire_ (3^eme serie, Paris, 1891), cited
+  by Creienach, mentions a curious recent experiment, the performance of
+  Hrosvitha's comedies in the Theatre des Marionettes at Paris.
+       (A. W. W.)
+
+
+
+
+HSUAN TSANG (HIOUEN THSANG, HIWEN T'SANG, YUAN TSANG, YUAN-CHWANG), the
+most eminent representative of a remarkable and valuable branch of
+Chinese literature, consisting of the narratives of Chinese Buddhists
+who travelled to India, whilst their religion flourished there, with the
+view of visiting the sites consecrated by the history of Sakya Muni, of
+studying at the great convents which then existed in India, and of
+collecting books, relics and other sacred objects.
+
+  The importance of these writings as throwing light on the geography
+  and history of India and adjoining countries, during a very dark
+  period, is great, and they have been the subject of elaborate
+  commentaries by modern students. Several Chinese memoirs of this kind
+  appear to have perished; and especially to be regretted is a great
+  collection of the works of travellers to India, religious and secular,
+  in sixty books, with forty more of maps and illustrations, published
+  at the expense of the emperor Kao-Tsung of the T'ang dynasty, A.D.
+  666, with a preface from the imperial hand. We will mention the
+  clerical travellers of this description who are known to us by name.
+
+  1. _Shi-tao-'an_ (d. 385) wrote a work on his travels to the "western
+  lands" (an expression applying often to India), which is supposed to
+  be lost. 2. _Fa-hien_ travelled to India in 399, and returned by sea
+  in 414. His work, called _Fo-Kwo-Ki, or Memoirs on the Buddha Realms_,
+  has been translated by Abel-Remusat and Landresse, and again into
+  English by the Rev. S. Beale; Mr Laidlay of Calcutta also published a
+  translation from the French, with interesting notes. 3. _Hwai Seng_
+  and _Sung-Yun_, monks, travelled to India to collect books and
+  reliques, 518-521. Their short narrative has been translated by Karl
+  Fried. Neumann, and also by Mr Beale (along with Fa-hien). 4. _Hsuan
+  Tsang_, the subject of this notice. In relation to his travels there
+  are two Chinese works, both of which have been translated with an
+  immense appliance of labour and learning by M. Stanislas Julien, viz.
+  (a) the _Ta-T'ang-Si-Yu-Ki, or Memoirs on Western Countries issued by
+  the T'ang Dynasty_, which was compiled under the traveller's own
+  supervision, by order of the great emperor Tai-Tsung; and (b) a
+  _Biography of Hsuan Tsang_ by two of his contemporaries. 5. _The
+  Itinerary of Fifty-six Religious Travellers_, compiled and published
+  under imperial authority, 730. 6. _The Itinerary of Khi-Nie_, who
+  travelled (964-976) at the head of a large body of monks to collect
+  books, &c. Neither of the last two has been translated.
+
+Hsuan Tsang was born in the district of Keu-Shi, near Honan-Fu, about
+605, a period at which Buddhism appears to have had a powerful influence
+upon a large body of educated Chinese. From childhood grave and
+studious, he was taken in charge by an elder brother who had adopted the
+monastic life, in a convent at the royal city of Loyang in Honan. Hsuan
+Tsang soon followed his brother's example. For some years he travelled
+over China, teaching and learning, and eventually settled for a time at
+the capital Chang-gan (now Si-gan-fu in Shensi), where his fame for
+learning became great. The desire which he entertained to visit India,
+in order to penetrate all the doctrines of the Buddhist philosophy, and
+to perfect the collections of Indian books which existed in China, grew
+irresistible, and in August 629 he started upon his solitary journey,
+eluding with difficulty the strict prohibition which was in force
+against crossing the frontier.
+
+The "master of the law," as his biographers call him, plunged alone into
+the terrible desert of the Gobi, then known as the Sha-mo or "Sand
+River," between Kwa-chow and Igu (now Hami or Kamil). At long intervals
+he found help from the small garrisons of the towers that dotted the
+desert track. Very striking is the description, like that given six
+centuries later by Marco Polo, of the quasi-supernatural horrors that
+beset the lonely traveller in the wilderness--the visions of armies and
+banners; and the manner in which they are dissipated singularly recalls
+passages in Bunyan's _Pilgrim's Progress_. After great suffering Hsuan
+Tsang reached Igu, the seat of a Turkish principality, and pursued his
+way along the southern foot of the T'ian-shan, which he crossed by a
+glacier pass (vividly described) in the longitude of Lake Issyk-kul. In
+the valley of the Talas river he encounters the great khan of the Turks
+on a hunting party,--a rencontre which it is interesting to compare with
+the visit of Zemarchus to the great khan Dizabul, sixty years before, in
+the same region. Passing by the present Tashkend, and by Samarkand, then
+inhabited by fire worshippers, he reached the basin of the Upper Oxus,
+which had recently been the seat of the powerful dominion of the
+Haiathelah, Ephthalites or White Huns, known in earlier days to the
+Greeks as _Tochari_, and to Hsuan Tsang (by the same name) as _Tuholo_
+or Tukhara. His account of the many small states into which the Tukhara
+empire had broken up is of great interest, as many of them are identical
+in name and topography with the high valley states and districts on the
+Upper Oxus, which are at this day the object of so much geographical and
+political interest.
+
+Passing by Bamian, where he speaks of the great idols still so famous,
+he crosses Hindu-Kush, and descends the valley of the Kabul river to
+Nagarahara, the site of which, still known as Nagara, adjoining
+Jalalabad, has been explored by Mr W. Simpson. Travelling thence to
+Peshawar (_Purushapura_), the capital of Gandhara, he made a digression,
+through the now inaccessible valley of Swat and the Dard states, to the
+Upper Indus, returning to Peshawar, and then crossing the Indus
+(_Sintu_) into the decayed kingdom of _Taxila_ (Ta-cha-si-lo,
+Takshasila), then subject to Kashmir. In the latter valley he spent two
+whole years (631-633) studying in the convents, and visiting the many
+monuments of his faith. In his further travels he visited Mathura
+(_Mot'ulo_, Muttra), whence he turned north to Thanesar and the upper
+Jumna and Ganges, returning south down the valley of the latter to
+Kanyakubja or Kanauj, then one of the great capitals of India. The
+pilgrim next entered on a circuit of the most famous sites of Buddhist
+and of ancient Indian history, such as Ajodhya, Prayaga (Allahabad),
+Kausambhi, Sravasti, Kapilavastu, the birth-place of Sakya, Kusinagara,
+his death-place, Pataliputra (Patna, the _Palibothra_ of the Greeks),
+Gaya, Rajagriha and Nalanda, the most famous and learned monastery and
+college in India, adorned by the gifts of successive kings, of the
+splendour of which he gives a vivid description, and of which traces
+have recently been recovered. There he again spent nearly two years in
+mastering Sanskrit and the depths of Buddhist philosophy. Again,
+proceeding down the banks of the Ganges, he diverged eastward to
+Kamarupa (Assam), and then passed by the great ports of Tamralipti
+(Tamluk, the misplaced _Tamalitis_ of Ptolemy), and through Orissa to
+Kanchipara (Conjeeveram), about 640. Thence he went northward across the
+Carnatic and Maharashtra to Barakacheva (Broach of our day, _Barygaza_
+of the Greeks). After this he visited Malwa, Cutch, Surashtra
+(peninsular Gujarat, _Syrastrene_ of the Greeks), Sind, Multan and
+Ghazni, whence he rejoined his former course in the basin of the Kabul
+river.
+
+This time, however, he crosses Pamir, of which he gives a remarkable
+account, and passes by Kashgar, Khotan (_Kustana_), and the vicinity of
+Lop-nor across the desert to Kwa-chow, whence he had made his venturous
+and lonely plunge into the waste fifteen years before. He carried with
+him great collections of books, precious images and reliques, and was
+received (April 645) with public and imperial enthusiasm. The emperor
+T'ai-Tsung desired him to commit his journey to writing, and also that
+he should abandon the eremitic rule and serve the state. This last he
+declined, and devoted himself to the compilation of his narrative and
+the translation of the books he had brought with him from India. The
+former was completed A.D. 648. In 664 Hsuan Tsang died in a convent at
+Chang-gan. Some things in the history of his last days, and in the
+indications of beatitude recorded, strongly recall the parallel history
+of the saints of the Roman calendar. But on the other hand we find the
+Chinese saint, on the approach of death, causing one of his disciples to
+frame a catalogue of his good works, of the books that he had translated
+or caused to be transcribed, of the sacred pictures executed at his
+cost, of the alms that he had given, of the living creatures that he had
+ransomed from death. "When Kia-shang had ended writing this list, the
+master ordered him to read it aloud. After hearing it the devotees
+clasped their hands, and showered their felicitations on him." Thus the
+"well-done, good and faithful" comes from the servant himself in
+self-applause.
+
+The book of the biography, by the disciples Hwai-li and Yen-t'sung, as
+rendered with judicious omissions by Stan. Julien, is exceedingly
+interesting; its Chinese style receives high praise from the translator,
+who says he has often had to regret his inability to reproduce its
+grace, elegance and vivacity.
+
+  AUTHORITIES.--_Fo-Koue-Ki_, trad. du Chinois, par Abel-Remusat, revu
+  et complete par Klaproth et Landresse (Paris, 1836); _H. de la vie de
+  Hiouen-Thsang, &c._, trad. du Chinois par Stanislas Julien (Paris,
+  1853); _Memoires sur les contrees occidentales ..._ trad. du Chinois
+  en Francais (par le meme) (2 vols., Paris, 1857-1858); _Memoire
+  analytique_, &c., attached to the last work, by L. Vivien de St
+  Martin; "Attempt to identify some of the Places mentioned in the
+  Itinerary of Hiuan Thsang," by Major Wm. Anderson, C.B., in _Journ.
+  As. Soc. Bengal_, vol. xvi. pt. 2, p. 1183 (the enunciation of a
+  singularly perverse theory); "Verification of the Itinerary of Hwan
+  Thsang, &c.," by Captain Alex. Cunningham, Bengal Engineers, ibid.
+  vol. xvii. pt. 1, p. 476; _Travels of Fah-hian and Sung-Yan, Buddhist
+  Pilgrims, &c._, by Sam. Beal (1869); _The Ancient Geography of India_,
+  by Major-General Alex. Cunningham, R.E. (1871); "Notes on Hwen
+  Thsang's Account of the Principalities of Tokharistan," by Colonel H.
+  Yule, C.B., in _Journ. Roy. As. Soc._, new ser., vol. vi. p. 82; "On
+  Hiouen Thsang's Journey from Patna to Ballabhi," by James Fergusson,
+  D.C.L., ibid. p. 213.     (H. Y.; R. K. D.)
+
+
+
+
+HUAMBISAS, a tribe of South American Indians on the upper Maranon and
+Santiago rivers, Peru. In 1841 they drove all the civilized Indians from
+the neighbouring missions. In 1843 they killed all the inhabitants of
+the village of Santa Teresa, between the mouths of the Santiago and
+Morona. They are fair-skinned and bearded, sharing with the Jeveros a
+descent from the Spanish women captured by their Indian ancestors at the
+sack of Sevilla del Oro in 1599.
+
+
+
+
+HUANCAVELICA, a city of central Peru and capital of a department, 160 m.
+S.E. of Lima. The city stands in a deep ravine of the Andes at an
+elevation of about 12,400 ft. above the sea, the ravine having an
+average width of 1 m. Pop. (1906 estimate) 6000. The city is solidly and
+regularly built, the houses being of stone and the stream that flows
+through the town being spanned by several stone bridges. Near
+Huancavelica is the famous quicksilver mine of Santa Barbara, with its
+subterranean church of San Rosario, hewn from the native
+cinnabar-bearing rock. Huancavelica was founded by Viceroy Francisco de
+Toledo in 1572 as a mining town, and mining continues to be the
+principal occupation of its inhabitants. The department is traversed by
+the Cordillera Occidental, and is bounded N., E. and S. by Junin and
+Ayacucho. Pop. (1906 official estimate) 167,840; area, 9254 sq. m. The
+principal industry is mining for silver and quicksilver. The best-known
+silver mines are the Castrovirreyna.
+
+
+
+
+HUANUCO, a city of central Peru, capital of a department, 170 m. N.N.E.
+of Lima in a beautiful valley on the left bank of the Huallaga river,
+nearly 6000 ft. above sea-level. Pop. (1906 estimate) about 6000. The
+town was founded in 1539 by Gomez Alvarado. Huanuco is celebrated for
+its fruits and sweetmeats, the "chirimoya" (_Anona chirimolia_) of this
+region being the largest and most delicious of its kind. Mining is one
+of the city's industries. Huanuco was the scene of one of the
+bloodthirsty massacres of which the Chileans were guilty during their
+occupation of Peruvian territory in 1881-1883. The department of Huanuco
+lies immediately N. of Junin, with Ancachs on the W. and San Martin and
+Loreto on the N. and E. Pop. (1906 estimate) 108,980; area, 14,028 sq.
+m. It lies wholly in the Cordillera region, and is traversed from S. to
+N. by the Maranon and Huallaga rivers.
+
+
+
+
+HUARAZ, a city of northern Peru and capital oL the department of
+Ancachs, on the left bank of the Huaraz, or Santa river, about 190 m.
+N.N.W. of Lima and 58 m. from the coast. Pop. (1876) 4851, (1906
+estimate) 6000. Huaraz is situated in a narrow fertile valley of the
+Western Cordillera, at a considerable elevation above sea-level, and has
+a mild climate. A railway projected to connect Huaraz with the port of
+Chimbote, on the Bay of Chimbote, a few miles S. of the mouth of the
+Santa river, was completed from Chimbote to Suchiman (33 m.) in 1872,
+when work was suspended for want of money. In the valley of the Huaraz
+cattle are raised, and wheat, sugar and fruit, gold, silver, copper and
+coal are produced. Alfalfa is grown by stock-raisers, and the cattle
+raised here are among the best in the Peruvian market. In the vicinity
+of Huaraz are megalithic ruins similar to those of Tiahunaco and Cuzco,
+showing that the aboriginal empire preceding the Incas extended into
+northern Peru.
+
+
+
+
+HUARTE DE SAN JUAN, or HUARTE Y NAVARRO, JUAN (c. 1530-1592), Spanish
+physician and psychologist, was born at Saint-Jean-Pied-de-Port (Lower
+Navarre) about 1530, was educated at the university of Huesca, where he
+graduated in medicine, and, though it appears doubtful whether he
+practised as a physician at Huesca, distinguished himself by his
+professional skill and heroic zeal during the plague which devastated
+Baeza in 1566. He died in 1592. His _Examen de ingenios para las
+ciencias_ (1575) won him a European reputation, and was translated by
+Lessing. Though now superseded, Huarte's treatise is historically
+interesting as the first attempt to show the connexion between
+psychology and physiology, and its acute ingenuity is as remarkable as
+the boldness of its views.
+
+
+
+
+HUASTECS, a tribe of North American Indians of Mayan stock, living to
+the north of Vera Cruz. They are of interest to the ethnologist as being
+so entirely detached from the other Mayan tribes of Central America. The
+theory is that the Mayas came from the north and that the Huastecs were
+left behind in the migration southward.
+
+
+
+
+HUBER, FRANCOIS (1750-1831), Swiss naturalist, was born at Geneva on the
+2nd of July 1750. He belonged to a family which had already made its
+mark in the literary and scientific world: his great-aunt, Marie Huber
+(1695-1753), was known as a voluminous writer on religious and
+theological subjects, and as the translator and epitomizer of the
+_Spectator_ (Amsterdam, 3 vols., 1753); and his father Jean Huber
+(1721-1786), who had served for many years as a soldier, was a prominent
+member of the coterie at Ferney, distinguishing himself by his
+_Observations sur le vol des oiseaux_ (Geneva, 1784). Francois Huber was
+only fifteen years old when he began to suffer from an affection of the
+eyes which gradually resulted in total blindness; but, with the aid of
+his wife, Marie Aimee Lullin, and of his servant, Francois Burnens, he
+was able to carry out investigations that laid the foundations of our
+scientific knowledge of the life history of the honey-bee. His
+_Nouvelles Observations sur les abeilles_ was published at Geneva in
+1792 (Eng. trans., 1806). He assisted Jean Senebier in his _Mem. sur
+l'influence de l'air, &c., dans la germination_ (Geneva, 1800); and he
+also wrote "Mem. sur l'origine de la cire" (_Bibliotheque britannique_,
+tome xxv.), a "Lettre a M. Pictet sur certains dangers que courent les
+abeilles" (_Bib. brit_. xxvii), and "Nouvelles Observ. rel. au sphinx
+Atropos" (_Bib. brit_. xxvii). He died at Lausanne on the 22nd of
+December 1831. De Candolle gave his name to a genus of Brazilian
+trees--_Huberia laurina_.
+
+PIERRE HUBER (1777-1840) followed in his father's footsteps. His
+best-known work is _Recherches sur les moeurs des fourmis indigenes_
+(Geneva and Paris, 1810; new ed., Geneva, 1861), and he also wrote
+various papers on entomological subjects.
+
+  See the account of Francois Huber, by De Candolle, in _Bibl.
+  universelle_ (1832); and the notice of Pierre in _Bibl. univ._ (1886);
+  also Haag, _La France protestante_.
+
+
+
+
+HUBER, JOHANN NEPOMUK (1830-1879), German philosophical and theological
+writer, a leader of the Old Catholics, was born at Munich on the 18th of
+August 1830. Originally destined for the priesthood, he early began the
+study of theology. By the writings of Spinoza and Oken, however, he was
+strongly drawn to philosophical pursuits, and it was in philosophy that
+he "habilitated" (1854) in the university of his native place, where he
+ultimately became professor (extraordinarius, 1859; ordinarius, 1864).
+With Dollinger and others he attracted a large amount of public
+attention in 1869 by the challenge to the Ultramontane promoters of the
+Vatican council in the treatise _Der Papst und das Koncil_, which
+appeared under the pseudonym of "Janus," and also in 1870 by a series of
+letters (_Romische Briefe_, a redaction of secret reports sent from Rome
+during the sitting of the council), which were published over the
+pseudonym Quirinus in the _Allgemeine Zeitung_. He died suddenly of
+heart disease at Munich on the 20th of March 1879.
+
+WORKS.--The treatise _Uber die Willensfreiheit_ (1858), followed in 1859
+by _Die Philosophie der Kirchenvater_, which was promptly placed upon
+the _Index_, and led to the prohibition of all Catholic students from
+attending his lectures; _Johannes Scotus Erigena_ (1861); _Die Idee der
+Unsterblichkeit_ (1864); _Studien_ (1867); _Der Proletarier; zur
+Orientirung in der sozialen Frage_ (1865); _Der Jesuitenorden nach
+seiner Verfassung und Doctrin, Wirksamkeit und Geschichte_ (1873), also
+placed upon the _Index_; _Der Pessimismus_ (1876); _Die Forschung nach
+der Materie_ (1877); _Zur Philosophie der Astronomie_ (1878); _Das
+Gedachtnis_ (1878). He also published adverse criticisms of Darwin,
+Strauss, Hartmann and Hackel; pamphlets on _Das Papsttum und der Staat_
+(1870), and on _Die Freiheiten der franzosischen Kirche_ (1871); and a
+volume of _Kleine Schriften_ (1871).
+
+See E. Zirngiebl, _Johannes Huber_ (1881); and M. Carriere in
+_Allgemeine deutsche Biographie_, xiii. (1881), and in _Nord und Sud_
+(1879).
+
+
+
+
+HUBER, LUDWIG FERDINAND (1764-1804), German author, was born in Paris on
+the 14th of September 1764, the son of Michael Huber (1727-1804), who
+did much to promote the study of German literature in France. In his
+infancy young Huber removed with his parents to Leipzig, where he was
+carefully instructed in modern languages and literature, and showed a
+particular inclination for those of France and England. In Leipzig he
+became intimate with Christian Gottfried Korner, father of the poet; in
+Dresden Huber became engaged to Dora Stock, sister of Korner's
+betrothed, and associated with Schiller, who was one of Korner's
+stanchest friends. In 1787 he was appointed secretary to the Saxon
+legation in Mainz, where he remained until the French occupation of
+1792. While here he interested himself for the welfare of the family of
+his friend Georg Forster, who, favouring republican views, had gone to
+Paris, leaving his wife Therese Forster (1764-1829) and family in
+destitute circumstances. Huber, enamoured of the talented young wife,
+gave up his diplomatic post, broke off his engagement to Dora Stock,
+removed with the Forster family to Switzerland, and on the death of her
+husband in 1794 married Therese Forster. In 1798 Huber took over the
+editorship of the _Allgemeine Zeitung_ in Stuttgart. The newspaper
+having been prohibited in Wurttemberg, Huber continued its editorship in
+Ulm in 1803. He was created "counsellor of education" for the new
+Bavarian province of Swabia in the following year, but had hardly
+entered upon the functions of his new office when he died on the 24th of
+December 1804.
+
+Huber was well versed in English literature, and in 1785 he published
+the drama _Ethelwolf_, with notes on Beaumont and Fletcher and the old
+English stage. He also wrote many dramas, comedies and tragedies, most
+of which are now forgotten, and among them only _Das heimliche Gericht_
+(1790, new ed. 1795) enjoyed any degree of popularity. As a critic he is
+seen to advantage in the _Vermischte Schriften von dem Verfasser des
+heimlichen Gerichts_ (2 vols., 1793). As a publicist he made his name in
+the historical-political periodicals _Friedenspraliminarien_ (1794-1796,
+10 vols.) and _Klio_ (1795-1798, 1819).
+
+  His collected works, _Samtliche Werke seit dem Jahre 1802_ (4 vols.,
+  1807-1819), were published with a biography by his wife Therese Huber.
+  See L. Speidel and H. Wittmann, _Bilder aus der Schiller-Zeit_ (1884).
+
+
+
+
+HUBERT (HUCBERTUS, HUGBERTUS), ST (d. 727), bishop of Liege, whose
+festival is celebrated on the 3rd of November. The Bollandists have
+published seven different lives of the saint. The first is the only one
+of any value, and is the work of a contemporary. Unfortunately, it is
+very sparing of details. In it we see that Hubert in 708 succeeded
+Lambert in the see of Maestricht (Tongres), and that he erected a
+basilica to his memory. In 825 Hubert's remains were removed to a
+Benedictine cloister in the Ardennes, which thenceforth bore his name
+(St Hubert, province of Luxemburg, Belgium), and ultimately became a
+considerable resort of pilgrims. The later legends (_Bibliotheca
+hagiographica latina_, nos. 3994-4002) are devoid of authority. One of
+them relates, probably following the legend of St Eustace, the miracle
+of the conversion of St Hubert. This conversion, represented as having
+been brought about while he was hunting on Good Friday by a miraculous
+appearance of a stag bearing between his horns a cross or crucifix
+surrounded with rays of light, has frequently been made the subject of
+artistic treatment. He is the patron of hunters, and is also invoked in
+cases of hydrophobia. Several orders of knighthood have been under his
+protection; among these may be mentioned the Bavarian, the Bohemian and
+that of the electorate of Cologne.
+
+  See _Acta Sanctorum_, Novembris, i. 759-930; G. Kurth, _Chartes de
+  l'abbaye de St Hubert en Ardenne_ (Brussels, 1903); Anna Jameson,
+  _Sacred and Legendary Art_, i. 732-737 (London, 1896); Cahier,
+  _Caracteristiques des saints_, pp. 183, 775, &c. (Paris, 1867).
+       (H. De.)
+
+
+
+
+HUBERTUSBURG, a chateau in the kingdom of Saxony, near the village of
+Wermsdorf and midway 6 m. between the towns Oschatz and Grimma. It was
+built in 1721-1724 by Frederick Augustus II., elector of Saxony,
+subsequently King Augustus III. of Poland, as a hunting box, and was
+often the scene of brilliant festivities. It is famous for the peace
+signed here on the 15th of February 1763, which ended the Seven Years'
+War. After undergoing various vicissitudes, it now serves the purpose of
+a lunatic asylum and a training school for nursing sisters.
+
+  See Riemer, _Das Schloss Hubertusburg, sonst und jetzt_ (Oschatz,
+  1881).
+
+
+
+
+HUBLI, a town of British India, in the Dharwar district of Bombay, 15 m.
+S.E. of Dharwar town. Pop. (1901) 60,214. It is a railway junction on
+the Southern Mahratta system, where the lines to Bangalore and Bezwada
+branch off south and west. It is an important centre of trade and of
+cotton and silk weaving, and has two cotton mills and several factories
+for ginning and pressing cotton. Hubli was in early times the seat of an
+English factory, which, with the rest of the town, was plundered in 1673
+by Sivaji, the Mahratta leader.
+
+
+
+
+HUBNER, EMIL (1834-1901), German classical scholar, son of the
+historical painter Julius Hubner (1806-1882), was born at Dusseldorf on
+the 7th of July 1834. After studying at Berlin and Bonn, he travelled
+extensively with a view to antiquarian and epigraphical researches. The
+results of these travels were embodied in several important works:
+_Inscriptiones Hispaniae Latinae_ (1869, supplement 1892), _I. H.
+Christianae_ (1871, supplement 1900); _Inscriptiones Britanniae Latinae_
+(1873), _I. B. Christianae_ (1876); _La Arqueologia de Espana_ (1888);
+_Monumenta linguae Hibericae_ (1893). Hubner was also the author of two
+books of the greatest utility to the classical student: _Grundriss zu
+Vorlesungen uber die romische Literaturgeschichte_ (4th ed. 1878,
+edited, with large additions, by J. E. B. Mayor as _Bibliographical Clue
+to Latin Literature_, 1875), and _Bibliographie der classischen
+Altertumswissenschaft_ (2nd ed., 1889); mention may also be made of
+_Romische Epigraphik_ (2nd ed., 1892); _Exempla Scripturae Epigraphicae
+Latinae_ (1885); and _Romische Herrschaft in Westeuropa_ (1890). In 1870
+Hubner was appointed professor of Classical Philology in the university
+of Berlin, where he died on the 21st of February 1901.
+
+
+
+
+HUBNER, JOSEPH ALEXANDER, COUNT (1811-1892), Austrian diplomatist, was
+born in Vienna on the 26th of November 1811. His real name was
+Hafenbredl, which he afterwards changed to Hubner. He began his public
+career in 1833 under Metternich, whose confidence he soon gained, and
+who sent him in 1837 as attache to Paris. In 1841 he became secretary of
+embassy at Lisbon, and in 1844 Austrian consul-general at Leipzig. In
+1848 he was sent to Milan to conduct the diplomatic correspondence of
+Archduke Rainer, viceroy of Lombardy. On the outbreak of the revolution
+he was seized as a hostage, and remained a prisoner for some months.
+Returning to Austria, he was entrusted with the compilation of the
+documents and proclamations relating to the abdication of the Emperor
+Ferdinand and the accession of Francis Joseph. His journal, an
+invaluable clue to the complicated intrigues of this period, was
+published in 1891 in French and German, under the title of _Une Annee de
+ma vie, 1848-1849_. In March 1849 he was sent on a special mission to
+Paris, and later in the same year was appointed ambassador to France. To
+his influence was in large measure due the friendly attitude of Austria
+to the Allies in the Crimean War, at the close of which he represented
+Austria at the congress of Paris in 1856. He allowed himself, however,
+to be taken by surprise by Napoleon's intervention on behalf of Italian
+unity, of which the first public intimation was given by the French
+emperor's cold reception of Hubner on New Year's Day, 1859, with the
+famous words: "I regret that our relations with your Government are not
+so good as they have hitherto been." He did not return to Paris after
+the war, and after holding the ministry of police in the Goluchowski
+cabinet from August to October 1859, lived in retirement till 1865, when
+he became ambassador at Rome. Quitting this post in 1867, he undertook
+extensive travels, his descriptions of which appeared as _Promenade
+autour du monde, 1871_ (1873; English translation by Lady Herbert, 1874)
+and _Through the British Empire_ (1886). Written in a bright and
+entertaining style, and characterized by shrewd observation, they
+achieved considerable popularity in their time. A more serious effort
+was his _Sixte-Quint_ (1870, translated into English by H. E. H.
+Jerningham under the title of _The Life and Times of Sixtus the Fifth_,
+1872), an original contribution to the history of the period, based on
+unpublished documents at the Vatican, Simancas and Venice. In 1879 he
+was made a life-member of the Austrian Upper House, where he sat as a
+Clerical and Conservative. He had received the rank of Baron (Freiherr)
+in 1854, and in 1888 was raised to the higher rank of Count (Graf). He
+died at Vienna on the 30th of July 1892. Though himself of middle-class
+origin, he was a profound admirer of the old aristocratic regime, and
+found his political ideals in his former chiefs, Metternich and
+Schwarzenberg. As the last survivor of the Metternich school, he became
+towards the close of his life more and more out of touch with the trend
+of modern politics, but remained a conspicuous figure in the Upper House
+and at the annual delegations. That he possessed the breadth of mind to
+appreciate the working of a system at total variance with his own school
+of thought was shown by his grasp of British colonial questions. It is
+interesting, in view of subsequent events, to note his emphatic belief
+in the loyalty of the British colonies--a belief not shared at that time
+by many statesmen with far greater experience of democratic
+institutions.
+
+  See Sir Ernest Satow, _An Austrian Diplomatist in the Fifties_ (1908).
+
+
+
+
+HUC, EVARISTE REGIS (1813-1860), French missionary-traveller, was born
+at Toulouse, on the 1st of August 1813. In his twenty-fourth year he
+entered the congregation of the Lazarists at Paris, and shortly after
+receiving holy orders in 1839 went out to China. At Macao he spent some
+eighteen months in the Lazarist seminary, preparing himself for the
+regular work of a missionary. Having acquired some command of the
+Chinese tongue, and modified his personal appearance and dress in
+accordance with Chinese taste, he started from Canton. He at first
+superintended a Christian mission in the southern provinces, and then
+passing to Peking, where he perfected his knowledge of the language,
+eventually settled in the Valley of Black Waters or He Shuy, a little to
+the north of the capital, and just within the borders of Mongolia.
+There, beyond the Great Wall, a large but scattered population of native
+Christians had found a refuge from the persecutions of Kia-King, to be
+united half a century later in a vast but vague apostolic vicariate. The
+assiduity with which Huc devoted himself to the study of the dialects
+and customs of the Tatars, for whom at the cost of much labour he
+translated various religious works, was an admirable preparation for
+undertaking in 1844, at the instigation of the vicar apostolic of
+Mongolia, an expedition whose object was to dissipate the obscurity
+which hung over the country and habits of the Tibetans. September of
+that year found the missionary at Dolon Nor occupied with the final
+arrangements for his journey, and shortly afterwards, accompanied by his
+fellow-Lazarist, Joseph Gabet, and a young Tibetan priest who had
+embraced Christianity, he set out. To escape attention the little party
+assumed the dress of lamas or priests. Crossing the Hwang-ho, they
+advanced into the terrible sandy tract known as the Ordos Desert. After
+suffering dreadfully from want of water and fuel they entered Kansu,
+having recrossed the flooded Hwang-ho, but it was not till January 1845
+that they reached Tang-Kiul on the boundary. Rather than encounter alone
+the horrors of a four months' journey to Lhasa they resolved to wait for
+eight months till the arrival of a Tibetan embassy on its return from
+Peking. Under an intelligent teacher they meanwhile studied the Tibetan
+language and Buddhist literature, and during three months of their stay
+they resided in the famous Kunbum Lamasery, which was reported to
+accommodate 4000 persons. Towards the end of September they joined the
+returning embassy, which comprised 2000 men and 3700 animals. Crossing
+the deserts of Koko Nor, they passed the great lake of that name, with
+its island of contemplative lamas, and, following a difficult and
+tortuous track across snow-covered mountains, they at last entered Lhasa
+on the 29th of January 1846. Favourably received by the regent, they
+opened a little chapel, and were in a fair way to establish an important
+mission, when the Chinese ambassador interfered and had the two
+missionaries conveyed back to Canton, where they arrived in October of
+the same year. For nearly three years Huc remained at Canton, but Gabet,
+returning to Europe, proceeded thence to Rio de Janeiro, and died there
+shortly afterwards. Huc returned to Europe in shattered health in 1852,
+visiting India, Egypt and Palestine on his way, and, after a prolonged
+residence in Paris, died on the 31st of March 1860.
+
+  His writings comprise, besides numerous letters and memoirs in the
+  _Annales de la propagation de la foi_, the famous _Souvenirs d'un
+  voyage dans la Tartarie, le Thibet, et la Chine pendant les annees
+  1844-1846_ (2 vols., Paris, 1850; Eng. trans. by W. Hazlitt, 1851,
+  abbreviated by M. Jones, London, 1867); its supplement, crowned by the
+  Academy, entitled _L'Empire chinois_ (2 vols., Paris, 1854; Eng.
+  trans., London, 1859); and an elaborate historical work, _Le
+  Christianisme en Chine, &c._ (4 vols., Paris, 1857-1858; Eng. trans.,
+  London, 1857-1858). These works are written in a lucid, racy,
+  picturesque style, which secured for them an unusual degree of
+  popularity. The _Souvenirs_ is a narrative of a remarkable feat of
+  travel, and contains passages of so singular a character as in the
+  absence of corroborative testimony to stir up a feeling of
+  incredulity. That Huc was suspected unjustly was amply proved by later
+  research. But he was by no means a practical geographer, and the
+  record of his travels loses greatly in value from the want of precise
+  scientific data.
+
+  See, for information specially relating to the whole subject, the Abbe
+  Desgodin's _Mission du Thibet de 1855 a 1870_ (Verdun, 1872); and
+  "Account of the Pundit's Journey in Great Tibet," in the _Royal
+  Geographical Society's Journal_ for 1877.
+
+
+
+
+HUCBALD (HUGBALDUS, HUBALDUS), Benedictine monk, and writer on music,
+was born at the monastery of Saint Amand near Tournai, in or about 840,
+if we may believe the statement of his biographers to the effect that he
+died in 930, aged 90. He studied at the monastery, where his uncle Milo
+occupied an important position. Hucbald made rapid progress in the
+acquirement of various sciences and arts, including that of music, and
+at an early age composed a hymn in honour of St Andrew, which met with
+such success as to excite the jealousy of his uncle. It is said that
+Hucbald in consequence was compelled to leave St Amand, and started an
+independent school of music and other arts at Nevers. In 860, however,
+he was at St Germain d'Auxerre, bent upon completing his studies, and in
+872 he was back again at St Amand as the successor in the headmastership
+of the convent school of his uncle, to whom he had been reconciled in
+the meantime. Between 883 and 900 Hucbald went on several missions of
+reforming and reconstructing various schools of music, including that of
+Rheims, but in the latter year he returned to St Amand, where he
+remained to the day of his death on the 25th of June 930, or, according
+to other chroniclers, on the 20th of June 932. The only work which can
+positively be ascribed to him is his _Harmonica Institutio_. The _Musica
+Enchiriadis_, published with other writings of minor importance in
+Gerbert's _Scriptores de Musica_, and containing a complete system of
+musical science as well as instructions regarding notation, has now been
+proved to have originated about half a century later than the death of
+the monk Hucbald, and to have been the work of an unknown writer
+belonging to the close of the 10th century and possibly also bearing the
+name of Hucbald. This work is celebrated chiefly for an essay on a new
+form of notation described in the present day as _Dasia Notation_. The
+author of the _Harmonica Institutio_ wrote numerous lives of the saints
+and a curious poem on bald men, dedicated to Charles the Bald.
+
+  AUTHORITIES.--Sir John Hawkins, _General History of the Science and
+  Practice of Music_ (i. 153); _Histoire litteraire de la France_ (vi.
+  216 et seq.); Coussemaker, _Memoire sur Hucbald_ (Paris, 1841); Hans
+  Muller, _Hucbald's echte und unechte Schriften uber Musik_ (Leipzig,
+  1884); Spitta, _Die Musica Enchiriadis und seine Zeitalter_
+  (_Vierteljahresschrift fur Musikwissenschaft_, 1889, 5th year).
+
+
+
+
+HU-CHOW-FU, a city of China, in the province of Cheh-Kiang (30 deg. 48'
+N., 120 deg. 3' E.), a little S. of Tai-hu Lake, in the midst of the
+central silk district. According to Chinese authorities it is 6 m. in
+circumference, and contains about 100,000 families. A broad stream or
+canal crosses the city from south to north, and forms the principal
+highway for boat traffic. The main trade of the place is in raw silk,
+but some silk fabrics, such as flowered crape (_chousha_), are also
+manufactured. Silk is largely worn even by the lowest classes of the
+inhabitants.
+
+
+
+
+HUCHOWN, "of the Awle Ryale" (fl. 14th century), Scottish poet, is
+referred to by Wyntoun in his _Chronicle_ in these words:--
+
+                    "Hucheon,
+  that cunnande was in littratur.
+  He made a gret Gest of Arthure,
+  And the Awntyr of Gawane,
+  The Pistil als of Suet Susane.
+  He was curyousse in his stille,
+  Fayr of facunde and subtile,
+  And ay to pleyssance hade delyte,
+  Mad in metyr meit his dyte
+  Litil or noucht neuir the lesse
+  Wauerande fra the suythfastnes."
+       (Cott. MS. bk. v. II, 4308-4318).
+
+Much critical ingenuity has been spent in endeavouring to identify (a)
+the poet and (b) the works named in the foregoing passage. It has been
+assumed that "Huchown," or "Hucheon," represents the "gude Sir Hew of
+Eglyntoun" named by Dunbar (q.v.) in his _Lament for the Makaris_ (i.
+53). The only known Sir Hugh of Eglintoun of the century is frequently
+mentioned in the public records from the middle of the century onwards,
+as an auditor of accounts and as witness to several charters. By 1360 he
+had married Dame Egidia, widow of Sir James Lindsay and half-sister of
+Robert the Steward. His public office and association with the Steward
+sorts well with the designation "of the Awle Ryale," if that be
+interpreted as "Aula Regalis" or "Royal Palace." He appears to have died
+late in 1376 or early in 1377.
+
+The first of the poems named above, the _Gest of Arthure_ or _Gest
+Historyalle_ (_ib._ i. 4288), has been identified by Dr Trautmann,
+"Anglia," _Der Dichter Huchown_ (1877), with the alliterative _Morte
+Arthure_ in the Thornton MS. at Lincoln, printed by the E.E.T.S. (ed.
+Brock, 1865). The problem of the second (_The Awntyr of Gawane_) is
+still in dispute. There are difficulties in the way of accepting the
+conjecture that the poem is the "Awntyres of Arthure at the Tern
+Wathelyne" (see S.T.S., _Scottish Alliterative Poems_, 1897, and
+Introduction, pp. 11 et seq.), and little direct evidence in favour of
+the view that the reference is to the greatest of middle English
+romances, _Sir Gawain and the Grene Knight_. The third may be safely
+accepted as the well-known _Pistil_ [Epistle] _of Swete Susan_, printed
+by Laing (_Select Remains_, 1822) and by the S.T.S. (_Scottish
+Alliterative Poems, u.s._).
+
+  See, in addition to the works named, above, G. Neilson's _Sir Hew of
+  Eglintoun and Huchown of the Awle Ryale_ (Glasgow, 1901), which
+  contains a full record of references to the historical Sir Hew of
+  Eglintoun; _Huchown of the Awle Ryale, the Alliterative Poet_
+  (Glasgow, 1902) by the same; J. T. T. Brown's _Huchown of the Awle
+  Ryale and his Poems_ (Glasgow, 1902), in answer to the foregoing. See
+  also the correspondence in the _Athenaeum_, 1900-1901, and the review
+  of Mr Neilson's pamphlets, ib. (Nov. 22, 1902); and J. H. Millar's
+  _Literary History of Scotland_ (1903), pp. 8-14.
+
+
+
+
+HUCHTENBURG, the name of two brothers who were Dutch painters in the
+second half of the 17th century. Both were natives of Haarlem. Jacob,
+the elder, of whom very little is known, studied under Berghem, and went
+early to Italy, where he died young about 1667. His pictures are
+probably confounded with those of his brother. In Copenhagen, where
+alone they are catalogued, they illustrate the style of a Dutchman who
+transfers Berghem's cattle and flocks to Italian landscapes and
+marketplaces.
+
+John van Huchtenburg (1646-1733), born at Haarlem it is said in 1646,
+was first taught by Thomas Wyk, and afterwards induced to visit the
+chief cities of Italy, where, penetrating as far as Rome, he met and
+dwelt with his brother Jacob. After the death of the latter he wandered
+homewards, taking Paris on his way, and served under Van der Meulen,
+then employed in illustrating for Louis XIV. the campaign of 1667-1668
+in the Low Countries. In 1670 he settled at Haarlem, where he married,
+practised and kept a dealer's shop. His style had now merged into an
+imitation of Philip Wouvermans and Van der Meulen, which could not fail
+to produce pretty pictures of hunts and robber camps, the faculty of
+painting horses and men in action and varied dress being the chief point
+of attraction. Later Huchtenburg ventured on cavalry skirmishes and
+engagements of regular troops generally, and these were admired by
+Prince Eugene and William III., who gave the painter sittings, and
+commissioned him to throw upon canvas the chief incidents of the battles
+they fought upon the continent of Europe. When he died at Amsterdam in
+1733, Huchtenburg had done much by his pictures and prints to make
+Prince Eugene, King William and Marlborough popular. Though clever in
+depicting a _melee_ or a skirmish of dragoons, he remained second to
+Philip Wouvermans in accuracy of drawing, and inferior to Van der Meulen
+in the production of landscapes. But, nevertheless, he was a clever and
+spirited master, with great facility of hand and considerable natural
+powers of observation.
+
+  The earliest date on his pictures is 1674, when he executed the
+  "Stag-Hunt" in the Museum of Berlin, and the "Fight with Robbers" in
+  the Lichtenstein collection at Vienna. A "Skirmish at Fleurus" (1690)
+  in the Brussels gallery seems but the precursor of larger and more
+  powerful works, such as the "Siege of Namur" (1695) in the Belvedere
+  at Vienna, where William III. is seen in the foreground accompanied by
+  Max Emmanuel, the Bavarian elector. Three years before, Huchtenburg
+  had had sittings from Prince Eugene (Hague museum) and William III.
+  (Amsterdam Trippenhuis). After 1696 he regularly served as court
+  painter to Prince Eugene, and we have at Turin (gallery) a series of
+  eleven canvases all of the same size depicting the various battles of
+  the great hero, commencing with the fight of Zentha against the Turks
+  in 1697, and concluding with the capture of Belgrade in 1717. Had the
+  duke of Marlborough been fond of art he would doubtless have possessed
+  many works of our artist. All that remains at Blenheim, however, is a
+  couple of sketches of battles, which were probably sent to Churchill
+  by his great contemporary. The pictures of Huchtenburg are not very
+  numerous now in public galleries. There is one in the National
+  Gallery, London, another at the Louvre. But Copenhagen has four,
+  Dresden six, Gotha two, and Munich has the well-known composition of
+  "Tallart taken Prisoner at Blenheim in 1704."
+
+
+
+
+HUCKABACK,[1] the name given to a type of cloth used for towels. For
+this purpose it has perhaps been more extensively used in the linen
+trade than any other weave. One of the chief merits of a towel is its
+capacity for absorbing moisture; plain and other flat-surfaced cloths do
+not perform this function satisfactorily, but cloths made with
+huckaback, as well as those made with the honeycomb and similar weaves,
+are particularly well adapted for this purpose. The body or foundation
+of the cloth is plain and therefore sound in structure (see designs A
+and B in figure), but at fixed intervals some of the warp threads float
+on the surface of the cloth, while at the same time a number of weft
+threads float on the back. Thus the cloth has a somewhat similar
+appearance on both sides. Weave A is the ordinary and most used huck or
+huckaback, while weave B, which is usually woven with double weft, is
+termed the Devon or medical huck. The cloths made by the use of these
+weaves were originally all linen, but are too often adulterated with
+inferior fibres.
+
+[Illustration]
+
+
+FOOTNOTE:
+
+  [1] Skeat, _Etym. Dict._ (1898), says, "The word bears so remarkable
+    resemblance to Low Ger. _hukkebak_, Ger. _huckeback_, pick-a-back,
+    that it seems reasonable to suppose that it at first meant 'peddler's
+    ware.'" The _New English Dictionary_ does not consider that the
+    connexion can at present be assumed.
+
+
+
+
+HUCKLEBERRY, in botany, the popular name in the north-eastern United
+States of the genus _Gaylussacia_, small branching shrubs resembling in
+habit the English bilberry (_Vaccinium_), to which it is closely allied,
+and bearing a similar fruit. The common huckleberry of the northern
+states is _G. resinosa_; while _G. brachycera_ and _G. dumosa_ are known
+respectively as box and dwarf huckleberry. The name _Gaylussacia_
+commemorates the famous French chemist Gay-Lussac.
+
+
+
+
+HUCKNALL TORKARD, a town in the Rushcliffe parliamentary division of
+Nottinghamshire, England; 132 m. N.N.W. from London by the Great Central
+railway, served also by the Great Northern and Midland railways. Pop.
+(1901) 15,250. The church of St Mary Magdalene contains the tomb of Lord
+Byron. There are extensive collieries in the vicinity, and the town has
+tobacco and hosiery works. Small traces are found of Beauvale Abbey, a
+Carthusian foundation of the 14th century, in the hilly, wooded district
+W. of Hucknall; and 3 m. N. is Newstead Abbey, in a beautiful situation
+on the border of Sherwood Forest. This Augustinian foundation owed its
+origin to Henry II. It came into the hands of the Byron family in 1540,
+and the poet Byron resided in it at various times until 1818. There
+remain the Early English west front of the church, a Perpendicular
+cloister and the chapter-house; while in the mansion, wholly restored
+since Byron's time, and in the demesne, many relics of the poet are
+preserved. To the S. of Hucknall are traces of Gresley Castle, of the
+14th century.
+
+
+
+
+HUCKSTER, a dealer or retailer of goods in a small way. The word, in
+various forms, is common to many Teutonic languages. In Early English it
+is found as _howkester_, _hokester_, _huxter_; in early modern Dutch as
+_heuker_, and Medieval Low German as _hoker_; but the ultimate origin is
+unknown. Huckster apparently belongs to that series of words formed from
+a verb,--as brew, brewer; but the noun "huckster" is found in use before
+the verb to huck. Hawker and pedlar are nearly synonymous in meaning,
+but "huckster" may include a person in a small way of trade in a settled
+habitation, while a hawker or pedlar invariably travels from place to
+place offering his wares. In a contemptuous sense, huckster is used of
+any one who barters, or makes gain or profit in underhand or mean ways,
+or who over-reaches another, to get advantage for himself.
+
+
+
+
+HUDDERSFIELD, a municipal, county and parliamentary borough in the West
+Riding of Yorkshire, England, 190 m. N.N.W. from London. Pop. (1901)
+95,047. It is served by the Lancashire & Yorkshire and London & North
+Western railways, and has connexion with all the important railway
+systems of the West Riding, and with the extensive canal system of
+Lancashire and Yorkshire. It is well situated on a slope above the river
+Colne, a tributary of the Calder. It is built principally of stone, and
+contains several handsome streets with numerous great warehouses and
+business premises, many of which are of high architectural merit. Of the
+numerous churches and chapels all are modern, and some of considerable
+beauty. The parish church of St Peter, however, though rebuilt in 1837,
+occupies a site which is believed to have carried a church since the
+11th century. The town hall (1880) and the corporation offices (1877)
+are handsome classic buildings; the Ramsden Estate buildings are a very
+fine block of the mixed Italian order. The market hall (1880) surmounted
+by a clock-tower is in geometrical Decorated style. The cloth-hall dates
+from 1784, when it was erected as a clothiers' emporium. It is no longer
+used for any such purpose, but serves as an exchange news-room. The
+Armoury, erected as a riding-school, was the headquarters of a volunteer
+corps, and is also used for concerts and public meetings. The chief
+educational establishments are the Huddersfield College (1838), a
+higher-grade school, the technical school and several grammar-schools,
+of which Longwood school was founded in 1731. The Literary and
+Scientific Society possesses a museum. Of the numerous charitable
+institutions, the Infirmary, erected in 1831, is housed in a building of
+the Doric order. The chief open spaces are Greenhead and Beaumont parks,
+the last named presented to the town by Mr H. F. Beaumont in 1880. There
+is a sulphurous spa in the district of Lockwood.
+
+Huddersfield is the principal seat of the fancy woollen trade in
+England, and fancy goods in silk and cotton are also produced in great
+variety. Plain cloth and worsteds are also manufactured. There are silk
+and cotton spinning-mills, iron foundries and engineering works. Coal is
+abundant in the vicinity. The parliamentary borough returns one member.
+The county borough was created in 1888. The municipal borough is under a
+mayor, 15 aldermen and 45 councillors. Area, 11,859 acres.
+
+Huddersfield (_Oderesfelte_) only rose to importance after the
+introduction of the woollen trade in the 17th century. After the
+Conquest William I. granted the manor to Ilbert de Laci, of whom the
+Saxon tenant Godwin was holding as underlord at the time of the Domesday
+Survey. In Saxon times it had been worth l00s., but after being laid
+waste by the Normans was still of no value in 1086. From the Lacys the
+manor passed to Thomas Plantagenet, duke of Lancaster, through his
+marriage with Alice de Lacy, and so came to the crown on the accession
+of Henry IV. In 1599 Queen Elizabeth sold it to William Ramsden, whose
+descendants still own it. Charles II. in 1670 granted to John Ramsden a
+market in Huddersfield every Wednesday with the toll and other profits
+belonging. By the beginning of the 18th century Huddersfield had become
+a "considerable town," chiefly owing to the manufacture of woollen
+kersies, and towards the end of the same century the trade was increased
+by two events--the opening of navigation on the Calder in 1780, and in
+1784 that of the cloth-hall or piece-hall, built and given to the town
+by Sir John Ramsden, baronet. Since 1832 the burgesses have returned
+members to parliament. The town possesses no charter before 1868, when
+it was created a municipal borough.
+
+
+
+
+HUDSON, GEORGE (1800-1871), English railway financier, known as the
+"railway king," was born in York in March 1800. Apprenticed to a firm of
+linendrapers in that city, he soon became a successful merchant, and in
+1837 was elected lord mayor of York. Having inherited, in 1827, a sum of
+L30,000, he invested it in North Midland Railway shares, and was shortly
+afterwards appointed a director. In 1833 he had founded and for some
+time acted as manager of the York Banking Company. He had for long been
+impressed with the necessity of getting the railway to York, and he took
+an active part in securing the passing of the York and North Midland
+Bill, and was elected chairman of the new company--the line being opened
+in 1839. From this time he turned his undivided attention to the
+projection of railways. In 1841 he initiated the Newcastle and
+Darlington line. With George Stephenson he planned and carried out the
+extension of the Midland to Newcastle, and by 1844 had over a thousand
+miles of railway under his control. In this year the mania for railway
+speculation was at its height, and no man was more courted than the
+"railway king." All classes delighted to honour him, and, as if a
+colossal fortune were an insufficient reward for his public services,
+the richest men in England presented him with a tribute of L20,000.
+Deputy-lieutenant for Durham, and thrice lord mayor of York, he was
+returned in the Conservative interest for Sunderland in 1845, the event
+being judged of such public interest that the news was conveyed to
+London by a special train, which travelled part of the way at the rate
+of 75 m. an hour. Full of rewards and honours, he was suddenly ruined by
+the disclosure of the Eastern Railway frauds. Sunderland clung to her
+generous representative till 1859, but on the bursting of the bubble he
+had lost influence and fortune at a single stroke. His later life was
+chiefly spent on the continent, where he benefited little by a display
+of unabated energy and enterprise. Some friends gave him a small annuity
+a short time before his death, which took place in London, on the 14th
+of December 1871. His name has long been used to point the moral of
+vaulting ambition and unstable fortune. The "big swollen gambler," as
+Carlyle calls him in one of the _Latter-Day Pamphlets_, was savagely and
+excessively reprobated by the world which had blindly believed in his
+golden prophecies. He certainly ruined scrip-holders, and disturbed the
+great centres of industry; but he had an honest faith in his own
+schemes, and, while he beggared himself in their promotion, he succeeded
+in overcoming the powerful landed interest which delayed the adoption of
+railways in England long after the date of their regular introduction
+into America.
+
+
+
+
+HUDSON, HENRY, English navigator and explorer. Nothing is known of his
+personal history excepting such as falls within the period of the four
+voyages on which his fame rests. The first of these voyages in quest of
+new trade and a short route to China by way of the North Pole, in
+accordance with the suggestion of Robert Thorne (d. 1527), was made for
+the Muscovy Company with ten men and a boy in 1607. Hudson first coasted
+the east side of Greenland, and being prevented from proceeding
+northwards by the great ice barrier which stretches thence to
+Spitzbergen sailed along it until he reached "Newland," as Spitzbergen
+was then called, and followed its northern coast to beyond 80 deg. N.
+lat. On the homeward voyage he accidentally discovered an island in lat.
+71 deg. which he named Hudson's Touches, and which has since been
+identified with Jan Mayen Island. Molineux's chart, published by Hakluyt
+about 1600, was Hudson's blind guide in this voyage, and the polar map
+of 1611 by Pontanus illustrates well what he attempted, and the valuable
+results both negative and positive which he reached. He investigated the
+trade prospects at Bear Island, and recommended his patrons to seek
+higher game in Newland; hence he may be called the father of the English
+whale-fisheries at Spitzbergen.
+
+Next year Hudson was again sent by the Muscovy Company to open a passage
+to China, this time by the north-east route between Spitzbergen and
+Novaya Zemlya, which had been attempted by his predecessors and
+especially by the Dutch navigator William Barents. This voyage lasted
+from the 22nd of April to the 26th of August 1608. He raked the Barents
+Sea in vain between 75 deg. 30' N.W. and 71 deg. 15' S.E. for an opening
+through the ice, and on the 6th of July, "voide of hope of a north-east
+passage (except by the Waygats, for which I was not fitted to trie or
+prove)," he resolved to sail to the north-west, and if time and means
+permitted to run a hundred leagues up Lumley's Inlet (Frobisher Strait)
+or Davis's "overfall" (Hudson Strait). But his voyage being delayed by
+contrary winds he was finally compelled to return without accomplishing
+his wish. The failure of this second attempt satisfied the Muscovy
+Company, which thenceforward directed all its energies to the profitable
+Spitzbergen trade.
+
+Towards the end of 1608 Hudson "had a call" to Amsterdam, where he saw
+the celebrated cosmographer the Rev. Peter Plancius and the cartographer
+Hondius, and after some delay, due to the rivalry which was exhibited in
+the attempt to secure his services, he undertook for the Dutch East
+India Company his important third voyage to find a passage to China
+either by the north-east or north-west route. With a mixed crew of
+eighteen or twenty men he left the Texel in the "Half-Moon" on the 6th
+of April, and by the 5th of May was in the Barents Sea, and soon
+afterwards among the ice near Novaya Zemlya, where he had been the year
+before. Some of his men becoming disheartened and mutinous (it is now
+supposed that he had arrived two or three months too early), he lost
+hope of effecting anything by that route, and submitted to his men, as
+alternative proposals, either to go to Lumley's Inlet and follow up
+Waymouth's light, or to make for North Virginia and seek the passage in
+about 40 deg. lat., according to the letter and map sent him by his
+friend Captain John Smith. The latter plan was adopted, and on the 14th
+of May Hudson set his face towards the Chesapeake and China. He touched
+at Stromo in the Faroe Islands for water, and on the 15th of June off
+Newfoundland the "Half-Moon" "spent overboard her foremast." This
+accident compelled him to put into the Kennebec river, where a mast was
+procured, and some communication and an unnecessary encounter with the
+Indians took place. Sailing again on the 26th of July, he began on the
+28th of August the survey where Smith left off, at 37 deg. 36' according
+to his map, and coasted northwards. On the 3rd of September, in 40 deg.
+30', he entered the fine bay of New York, and after having gone 150 m.
+up the river which now bears his name to near the position of the
+present Albany, treating with the Indians, surveying the country, and
+trying the stream above tide-water, he became satisfied that this course
+did not lead to the South Sea or China, a conclusion in harmony with
+that of Champlain, who the same summer had been making his way south
+through Lake Champlain and Lake St Sacrement (now Lake George). The two
+explorers by opposite routes approached within 20 leagues of each other.
+On the 4th of October the "Half-Moon" weighed for the Texel, and on the
+7th of November arrived at Dartmouth, where she was seized and detained
+by the English government, Hudson and the other Englishmen of the ship
+being commanded not to leave England, but rather to serve their own
+country. The voyage had fallen short of Hudson's expectations, but it
+served many purposes perhaps as important to the world. Among other
+results it exploded Hakluyt's myth, which from the publication of Lok's
+map in 1582 to the 2nd charter of Virginia in May 1609 he had lost no
+opportunity of promulgating, that near 40 deg. lat. there was a narrow
+isthmus, formed by the sea of Verrazano, like that of Tehuantepec or
+Panama.
+
+Hudson's confidence in the existence of a North-West Passage had not
+been diminished by his three failures, and a new company was formed to
+support him in a fourth attempt, the principal promoters being Sir
+Thomas Smith (or Smythe), Sir Dudley Digges and John (afterwards Sir
+John) Wolstenholme. He determined this time to carry out his old plan of
+searching for a passage up Davis's "overfall"--so-called in allusion to
+the overfall of the tide which Davis had observed rushing through the
+strait. Hudson sailed from London in the little ship "Discovery" of 55
+tons, on the 17th of April 1610, and entered the strait which now bears
+his name about the middle of June. Sailing steadily westward he entered
+Hudson Bay on the 3rd of August, and passing southward spent the next
+three months examining the eastern shore of the bay. On the 1st of
+November the "Discovery" went into winter quarters in the S.W. corner of
+James Bay, being frozen in a few days later, and during the long winter
+months which were passed there only a scanty supply of game was secured
+to eke out the ship's provisions. Discontent became rife, and on the
+ship breaking out of the ice in the spring Hudson had a violent quarrel
+with a dissolute young fellow named Henry Greene, whom he had befriended
+by taking him on board, and who now retaliated by inciting the
+discontented part of the crew to put Hudson and eight others (including
+the sick men) out of the ship. This happened on the 22nd of June 1611.
+Robert Bylot was elected master and brought the ship back to England.
+During the voyage home Greene and several others were killed in a fight
+with the Eskimo, while others again died of starvation, and the feeble
+remnant which reached England in September were thrown into prison. No
+more tidings were ever received of the deserted men.
+
+Although it is certain that the four great geographical landmarks which
+to-day serve to keep Hudson's memory alive, namely the Hudson Bay,
+Strait, Territory and River, had repeatedly been visited and even drawn
+on maps and charts before he set out on his voyages, yet he deserves to
+take a very high rank among northern navigators for the mere extent of
+his discoveries and the success with which he pushed them beyond the
+limits of his predecessors. The rich fisheries of Spitzbergen and the
+fur industry of the Hudson Bay Territory were the immediate fruit of his
+labours.
+
+  See _Henry Hudson, the Navigator_ (Hakluyt Society, 1860); and T. A.
+  Janvier, _Henry Hudson_ (1909). In 1909 a great celebration of the
+  tercentenary was held in the United States.
+
+
+
+
+HUDSON, JOHN (1662-1719), English classical scholar, was born at Wythop
+in Cumberland. He was educated at Oxford, where the remainder of his
+life was spent. In 1701 he was appointed Bodley's librarian, and in 1711
+principal of St Mary's Hall. His political views stood in the way of his
+preferment in the church and university. He died on the 26th of November
+1719. As an editor and commentator he enjoyed a high reputation both at
+home and abroad. His works, chiefly editions of classical authors,
+include the following: Velleius Paterculus (1693); Thucydides (1696);
+_Geographiae Veteris Scriptores Graeci minores_ (1698-1712) containing
+the works and fragments of 21 authors and the learned, though diffuse,
+dissertations of H. Dodwell--a rare and valuable work, which in spite of
+its faulty text was not superseded until the appearance of C. W.
+Muller's edition in the Didot series: the editio princeps of Moeris, _De
+Vocibus Atticis et Hellenicis_ (1712); Josephus (1720, published
+posthumously by his friend Anthony Hall, the antiquary), a correct and
+beautifully printed edition, with variorum notes and translation.
+
+  See Wood, _Athenae Oxonienses_, iv.; introduction to the edition of
+  Josephus; W. Hutchinson, _History of Cumberland_ (1794).
+
+
+
+
+HUDSON, a city and the county-seat of Columbia county, New York, U.S.A.,
+on the E. side of the Hudson river, about 114 m. N. of New York City and
+about 28 m. S. of Albany. Pop. (1890) 9970; (1900) 9528, of whom 1155
+were foreign-born; (1910 census) 11,417. It is served by the Boston &
+Albany, the New York Central & Hudson River and the (electric) Albany &
+Hudson railways, by river steamboats, and by a steam ferry to Athens and
+Catskill across the river. The city is picturesquely situated on the
+slope of Prospect Hill; and Promenade Park, on a bluff above the
+steamboat landing, commands a fine view of the river and of the Catskill
+Mountains. Among the public buildings and institutions are a fine city
+hall, the Columbia County Court House, a public library, a Federal
+building, a State Training School for Girls, a State Firemen's Home, an
+Orphan Asylum, a Home for the Aged and a hospital. The city's
+manufactures include hosiery and knit goods, Portland cement (one of the
+largest manufactories of that product in the United States being here),
+foundry and machine shop products, car wheels, ice tools and machinery,
+ale, beer, bricks and tiles and furniture. The value of the factory
+products in 1905 was $4,115,525, an increase of 58.1% over that in 1900.
+The municipality owns and operates the water-works. Hudson, which was
+originally known as Claverack Landing, was for many years merely a
+landing with two rude wharfs and two small storehouses, to which farmers
+in the neighbourhood brought their produce for shipment on the river.
+Late in 1783 the place was settled by an association of merchants and
+fishermen from Rhode Island, Nantucket and Martha's Vineyard. The
+present name was adopted in 1784, and the city was chartered in 1785.
+For many years Hudson had a considerable foreign commerce and whaling
+interests, but these were practically destroyed by the war of 1812.
+
+
+
+
+HUDSON BAY (less often, but more correctly, Hudson's Bay), an inland sea
+in the N.E. of Canada, extending from 78 deg. to 95 deg. W. and from 51
+deg. to 70 deg. N. On the east it is connected with the Atlantic Ocean
+by Hudson Strait, and on the north with the Arctic Ocean by Fox Channel
+and Fury and Hecla Strait. Its southern extremity between 55 deg. and 51
+deg. N. is known as James Bay. It is 590 m. in width, and 1300 from S.
+to N., including James Bay (350 m.) and Fox Channel (350 m.). The
+customary use of the term includes James Bay, but not Fox Channel. The
+average depth of water is about 70 fathoms, deepening at the entrance of
+Hudson Strait to 100 fathoms. James Bay is much shallower, and unfit for
+shipping save for a central channel leading to the mouth of the Moose
+river. The centre and west of the main bay are absolutely free from
+shoals, rocks or islands, but down its east coast extend two lines of
+small islands, one close to shore, the other at 70 to 100 m. distance,
+and comprising a number of scattered groups (the Ottawa Islands, the
+Sleepers, the Belchers, &c.).
+
+Into Hudson and James Bays flow numerous important rivers, so much so
+that the water of the latter is rather brackish than salt. Beginning at
+the north-west, the chief of these are Churchill, Nelson (draining Lake
+Winnipeg, and the numerous inland rivers of which it is the basin),
+Hayes (the old boat route of the _voyageurs_ to Winnipeg), Severn,
+Albany, Moose, Rupert river (draining Lake Mistassini), Nottaway, East
+Main, Great Whale and Little Whale.
+
+Save for some high bluffs on the east and north-east, the shores of the
+bay are low. Around much of James Bay extend marshes and swampy ground.
+Geologically the greater part of the Hudson Bay district belongs to the
+Laurentian system, though there are numerous outcrops of later
+formation; Cambro-Silurian on the south and west, and to the north of
+Cape Jones (the north-eastern extremity of James Bay) a narrow belt of
+Cambrian rocks, of which the islands are composed. Coal, plumbago, iron
+and other minerals have been found in various districts near the coast.
+The climate is harsh, though vegetables and certain root crops ripen in
+the open air as far north as Fort Churchill; cattle flourish, and are
+fed chiefly on the native grasses; spruce, balsam and poplar grow to a
+fair size as far as the northern limit of James Bay. Caribou, musk ox
+and other animals are still found in large numbers, and there is an
+abundance of feathered game--ducks, geese, loons and ptarmigan; hunting
+and fishing form the chief occupations of the Indians and Eskimo who
+live in scattered bands near the shore. The bay abounds with fish, of
+which the chief are cod, salmon, porpoise and whales. The last have long
+been pursued by American whalers, whose destructive methods have so
+greatly depleted the supply that the government of Canada is anxious to
+declare the bay a _mare clausum_.
+
+Hudson Strait is about 450 m. long with an average breadth of 100 m.,
+narrowing at one point to 45. Its shores are high and bold, rarely less
+in height than 1000 ft., save on the coast of Ungava Bay, a deep
+indentation on the south-east. No islands or rocks impede navigation.
+Its depth is from 100 to 200 fathoms. Owing to the violence of the
+tides, which rise to a height of 35 ft., it never absolutely freezes
+over.
+
+  After three centuries of exploration, the navigability of Hudson Bay
+  and Strait remains a vexed question. To Canada it is one of great
+  commercial interest, and numerous expeditions have been made and
+  reports issued by the Geological Survey. From Winnipeg to Liverpool
+  via Churchill is over 500 m. less than via Montreal, and from Edmonton
+  to Liverpool almost 1000 m. less. Were navigation open for a
+  sufficient time, such a route for the grain of the Canadian and
+  American west would be of enormous advantage. But the inlet from the
+  Arctic sends down masses of heavy ice, which drift about in the bay
+  and the strait. Past the mouth of the strait flows a stream often over
+  100 m. wide, of berg and floe ice, carried by the Arctic current.
+  Owing to the proximity of the Magnetic Pole (in Boothia) the compass
+  often refuses to work. For sailing ships, such as the Hudson's Bay
+  Company has long employed, the season for safe navigation is from the
+  15th of July to the 1st of October. In over 200 years very few serious
+  accidents have occurred to the company's ships within these limits. It
+  is claimed that specially built and protected steamers would be safe
+  from the 15th of June till the 1st of November, and the problem may be
+  solved by ice-breaking vessels of great power. The only good harbour
+  available is Fort Churchill, at the mouth of the Churchill river,
+  which is large and easy of access. Moose Factory (at the foot of James
+  Bay) and York Factory (at the mouth of the Nelson) are mere
+  roadsteads. Marble Island, south of Chesterfield Inlet, where the
+  whalers winter, is too far north for regular shipping.
+
+  The Cabots entered the strait in 1498, and during the next century a
+  series of Elizabethan mariners; but the bay was not explored until
+  1610, when Henry Hudson pushed through the ice and explored to the
+  southern limit of James Bay.
+
+  See Lieutenant Gordon, R.N., _Reports on the Hudson's Bay Expeditions_
+  (1884, 5, 6); William Ogilvie, _Exploratory Survey to Hudson's Bay in
+  1890_ (Ottawa, 1891); R. F. Stupart, _The Navigation of Hudson's Bay
+  and Straits_ (Toronto, 1904).
+
+
+
+
+
+
+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th
+Edition, Volume 13, Slice 7, by Various
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