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| author | Roger Frank <rfrank@pglaf.org> | 2025-10-14 20:11:45 -0700 |
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| committer | Roger Frank <rfrank@pglaf.org> | 2025-10-14 20:11:45 -0700 |
| commit | bf758bd95747507175672dc520fde30c5784b8fa (patch) | |
| tree | 4ae52251655cbaa57379f2bf2cf8a19b090cc3ea /39029-h | |
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You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + +Title: Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th Edition, Volume 13, Slice 7 + "Horticulture" to "Hudson Bay" + +Author: Various + +Release Date: March 2, 2012 [EBook #39029] + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1 + +*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA *** + + + + +Produced by Marius Masi, Don Kretz and the Online +Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net + + + + + + +</pre> + + + +<table border="0" cellpadding="10" style="background-color: #dcdcdc; color: #696969; " summary="Transcriber's note"> +<tr> +<td style="width:25%; vertical-align:top"> +Transcriber’s note: +</td> +<td class="norm"> +A few typographical errors have been corrected. They +appear in the text <span class="correction" title="explanation will pop up">like this</span>, and the +explanation will appear when the mouse pointer is moved over the marked +passage. Sections in Greek will yield a transliteration +when the pointer is moved over them, and words using diacritic characters in the +Latin Extended Additional block, which may not display in some fonts or browsers, will +display an unaccented version. <br /><br /> +<a name="artlinks">Links to other EB articles:</a> Links to articles residing in other EB volumes will +be made available when the respective volumes are introduced online. +</td> +</tr> +</table> +<div style="padding-top: 3em; "> </div> + +<h2>THE ENCYCLOPÆDIA BRITANNICA</h2> + +<h2>A DICTIONARY OF ARTS, SCIENCES, LITERATURE AND GENERAL INFORMATION</h2> + +<h3>ELEVENTH EDITION</h3> +<div style="padding-top: 3em; "> </div> + +<hr class="full" /> +<h3>VOLUME XIII SLICE VII<br /><br /> +Horticulture to Hudson Bay</h3> +<hr class="full" /> +<div style="padding-top: 3em; "> </div> + +<p class="center1" style="font-size: 150%; font-family: 'verdana';">Articles in This Slice</p> +<table class="reg" style="width: 90%; font-size: 90%; border: gray 2px solid;" cellspacing="8" summary="Contents"> + +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar1">HORTICULTURE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar67">HOVE</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar2">HORTON, CHRISTIANA</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar68">HOVENDEN, THOMAS</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar3">HORTON, ROBERT FORMAN</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar69">HOW, WILLIAM WALSHAM</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar4">HORTON, SAMUEL DANA</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar70">HOWARD</a> (family)</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar5">HORUS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar71">HOWARD, CATHERINE</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar6">HORWICH</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar72">HOWARD, JOHN</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar7">HOSANNA</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar73">HOWARD, OLIVER OTIS</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar8">HOSE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar74">HOWARD, SIR ROBERT</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar9">HOSEA</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar75">HOWARD, LORD WILLIAM</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar10">HOSE-PIPE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar76">HOWARD OF EFFINGHAM, WILLIAM HOWARD</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar11">HOSHANGABAD</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar77">HOWE, ELIAS</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar12">HOSHEA</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar78">HOWE, JOHN</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar13">HOSHIARPUR</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar79">HOWE, JOSEPH</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar14">HOSIERY</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar80">HOWE, JULIA WARD</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar15">HOSIUS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar81">HOWE, RICHARD HOWE</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar16">HOSIUS, STANISLAUS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar82">HOWE, SAMUEL GRIDLEY</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar17">HOSKINS, JOHN</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar83">HOWE, WILLIAM HOWE</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar18">HOSMER, HARRIET GOODHUE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar84">HOWEL DDA</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar19">HOSPICE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar85">HOWELL, JAMES</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar20">HOSPITAL</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar86">HOWELLS, WILLIAM DEAN</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar21">HOSPITIUM</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar87">HOWITT WILLIAM</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar22">HOSPODAR</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar88">HOWITZER</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar23">HOST</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar89">HOWLER</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar24">HOSTAGE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar90">HOWRAH</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar25">HOSTE, SIR WILLIAM</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar91">HOWSON, JOHN SAUL</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar26">HOSTEL</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar92">HOWTH</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar27">HOSTIUS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar93">HÖXTER</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar28">HOSUR</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar94">HOY</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar29">HOTCH-POT</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar95">HOYLAKE</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar30">HÔTEL-DE-VILLE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar96">HOYLAND NETHER</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar31">HÔTEL-DIEU</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar97">HOYLE, EDMUND</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar32">HOTHAM, SIR JOHN</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar98">HOZIER, PIERRE D’</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar33">HOTHAM, WILLIAM HOTHAM</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar99">HRABANUS MAURUS MAGNENTIUS</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar34">HOTHO, HEINRICH GUSTAV</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar100">HRÓLFR KRAKI</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar35">HOTI-MARDAN</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar101">HROSVITHA</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar36">HOTMAN, FRANÇOIS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar102">HSÜAN TSANG</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar37">HOT SPRINGS</a> (Arkansas, U.S.A.)</td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar103">HUAMBISAS</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar38">HOT SPRINGS</a> (Virginia, U.S.A.)</td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar104">HUANCAVELICA</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar39">HOTTENTOTS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar105">HUÁNUCO</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar40">HOTTINGER, JOHANN HEINRICH</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar106">HUARAZ</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar41">HOUBRAKEN, JACOBUS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar107">HUARTE DE SAN JUAN</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar42">HOUDENC, RAOUL DE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar108">HUASTECS</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar43">HOUDETOT</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar109">HUBER, FRANÇOIS</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar44">HOUDETOT, ELISABETH DE BELLEGARDE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar110">HUBER, JOHANN NEPOMUK</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar45">HOUDON, JEAN ANTOINE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar111">HUBER, LUDWIG FERDINAND</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar46">HOUFFALIZE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar112">HUBERT, ST</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar47">HOUGHTON, RICHARD MONCKTON MILNES</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar113">HUBERTUSBURG</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar48">HOUGHTON-LE-SPRING</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar114">HUBLI</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar49">HOUND</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar115">HÜBNER, EMIL</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar50">HOUNSLOW</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar116">HÜBNER, JOSEPH ALEXANDER</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar51">HOUR</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar117">HUC, ÉVARISTE RÉGIS</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar52">HOUR ANGLE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar118">HUCBALD</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar53">HOUR-GLASS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar119">HU-CHOW-FU</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar54">HOURI</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar120">HUCHOWN</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar55">HOURS, CANONICAL</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar121">HUCHTENBURG</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar56">HOUSE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar122">HUCKABACK</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar57">HOUSEHOLD, ROYAL</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar123">HUCKLEBERRY</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar58">HOUSEL</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar124">HUCKNALL TORKARD</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar59">HOUSELEEK</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar125">HUCKSTER</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar60">HOUSING</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar126">HUDDERSFIELD</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar61">HOUSMAN, LAURENCE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar127">HUDSON, GEORGE</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar62">HOUSSAYE, ARSÈNE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar128">HUDSON, HENRY</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar63">HOUSTON, SAM</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar129">HUDSON, JOHN</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar64">HOUSTON</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar130">HUDSON</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar65">HOUWALD, CHRISTOPH ERNST</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar131">HUDSON BAY</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar66">HÒVA</a></td> <td> </td></tr> +</table> + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page741" id="page741"></a>741</span></p> +<p><span class="bold">HORTICULTURE<a name="ar1" id="ar1"></a></span> (Lat. <i>hortus</i>, a garden), the art and science +of the cultivation of garden plants, whether for utilitarian or +for decorative purposes. The subject naturally divides itself +into two sections, which we here propose to treat separately, +commencing with the science, and passing on to the practice +of the cultivation of flowers, fruits and vegetables as applicable +to the home garden. The point of view taken is necessarily, +as a rule, that of a British gardener.</p> + +<p class="pt2 center sc">Part I.—Principles or Science of Horticulture</p> + +<p>Horticulture, apart from the mechanical details connected +with the maintenance of a garden and its appurtenances, may +be considered as the application of the principles of plant physiology +to the cultivation of plants from all parts of the globe, +and from various altitudes, soils and situations. The lessons +derived from the abstract principles enunciated by the physiologist, +the chemist and the physicist require, however, to be +modified to suit the special circumstances of plants under cultivation. +The necessity for this modification arises from the fact +that such plants are subjected to conditions more or less unnatural +to them, and that they are grown for special purposes +which are at variance, in degree at any rate, with their natural +requirements.</p> + +<p>The life of the plant (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Plants</a></span>) makes itself manifest in +the processes of growth, development and reproduction. By +growth is here meant mere increase in bulk, and by development +the series of gradual modifications by which a plant, +originally simple in its structure and conformation, becomes +eventually complicated, and endowed with distinct parts or +organs. The reproduction of the higher plants takes place +either asexually by the formation of buds or organs answering +thereto, or sexually by the production of an embryo plant +within the seed. The conditions requisite for the growth, +development and reproduction of plants are, in general terms, +exposure, at the proper time, to suitable amounts of light, heat +and moisture, and a due supply of appropriate food. The +various amounts of these needed in different cases have to be +adjusted by the gardener, according to the nature of the plant, +its “habit” or general mode of growth in its native country, +and the influence to which it is there subjected, as also in accordance +with the purposes for which it is to be cultivated, &c. +It is but rarely that direct information on all these points can be +obtained; but inference from previous experience, especially +with regard to allied forms, will go far to supply such deficiencies. +Moreover, it must be remembered that the conditions most +favourable to plants are not always those to which they are +subjected in nature, for, owing to the competition of other +forms in the struggle for existence, liability to injury from +insects, and other adverse circumstances, plants may actually +be excluded from the localities best suited for their development. +The gardener therefore may, and does, by modifying, improve +upon the conditions under which a plant naturally exists. Thus +it frequently happens that in our gardens flowers have a beauty +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page742" id="page742"></a>742</span> +and a fragrance, and fruits a size and savour denied to them +in their native haunts. It behooves the judicious gardener, +then, not to be too slavish in his attempts to imitate natural +conditions, and to bear in mind that such attempts sometimes +end in failure. The most successful gardening is that which +turns to the best account the plastic organization of the plant, +and enables it to develop and multiply as perfectly as possible. +Experience, coupled with observation and reflection, as well +as the more indirect teachings of tradition, are therefore of +primary importance to the practical gardener.</p> + +<p>We propose here to notice briefly the several parts of a flowering +plant, and to point out the rationale of the cultural procedures +connected with them (see the references to separate articles +at the end of article on <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Botany</a></span>).</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p><i>The Root.</i>—The root, though not precluded from access of air, +is not directly dependent for its growth on the agency of light. +The efficiency of drainage, digging, hoeing and like operations is +accounted for by the manner in which they promote aeration of +the soil, raise its temperature and remove its stagnant water. Owing +to their growth in length at, or rather in the immediate vicinity of, +their tips, roots are enabled to traverse long distances by surmounting +some obstacles, penetrating others, and insinuating themselves +into narrow crevices. As they have no power of absorbing solid +materials, their food must be of a liquid or gaseous character. +It is taken up from the interstices between the particles of soil +exclusively by the finest subdivisions of the fibrils, and in many +cases by the extremely delicate thread-like cells which project from +them and which are known as root-hairs. The importance of the +root-fibres, or “feeding roots” justifies the care which is taken by +every good gardener to secure their fullest development, and to +prevent as far as possible any injury to them in digging, potting +and transplanting, such operations being therefore least prejudicial +at seasons when the plant is in a state of comparative rest.</p> + +<p><i>Root-Pruning and Lifting.</i>—In apparent disregard of the general +rule just enunciated is the practice of root-pruning fruit trees, +when, from the formation of wood being more active than that of +fruit, they bear badly. The contrariety is more apparent than real, +as the operation consists in the removal of the coarser roots, a +process which results in the development of a mass of fine feeding +roots. Moreover, there is a generally recognised quasi-antagonism +between the vegetative and reproductive processes, so that, other +things being equal, anything that checks the one helps forward +the other.</p> + +<p><i>Watering.</i>—So far as practical gardening is concerned, feeding +by the roots after they have been placed in suitable soil is confined +principally to the administration of water and, under certain circumstances, +of liquid or chemical manure; and no operations +demand more judicious management. The amount of water required, +and the times when it should be applied, vary greatly +according to the kind of plant and the object for which it is grown, +the season, the supply of heat and light, and numerous other conditions, +the influence of which is to be learnt by experience only. +The same may be said with respect to the application of manures. +The watering of pot-plants requires especial care. Water should as +a rule be used at a temperature not lower than that of the surrounding +atmosphere, and preferably after exposure for some time +to the air.</p> + +<p><i>Bottom-Heat.</i>—The “optimum” temperature, or that best suited +to promote the general activity of roots, and indeed of all vegetable +organs, necessarily varies very much with the nature of the plant, +and the circumstances in which it is placed, and is ascertained by +practical experience. Artificial heat applied to the roots, called by +gardeners “bottom-heat,” is supplied by fermenting materials +such as stable manure, leaves, &c., or by hot-water pipes. In winter +the temperature of the soil, out of doors, beyond a certain depth is +usually higher than that of the atmosphere, so that the roots are +in a warmer and more uniform medium than are the upper parts +of the plant. Often the escape of heat from the soil is prevented by +“mulching,” <i>i.e.</i> by depositing on it a layer of litter, straw, dead +leaves and the like.</p> + +<p>The <i>Stem</i> and its subdivisions or branches raise to the light and +air the leaves and flowers, serve as channels for the passage to them +of fluids from the roots, and act as reservoirs for nutritive substances. +Their functions in annual, biennial and herbaceous perennial plants +cease after the ripening of the seed, whilst in plants of longer duration +layer after layer of strong woody tissue is formed, which enables +them to bear the strains which the weight of foliage and the exposure +to wind entail. The gardener aims usually at producing stout, +robust, short-jointed stems, instead of long lanky growths defective +in woody tissue. To secure these conditions free exposure to light +and air is requisite; but in the case of coppices and woods, or +where long straight spars are needed by the forester, plants are +allowed to grow thickly so as to ensure development in an upward +rather than in a lateral direction. This and like matters will, however, +be more fitly considered in dealing hereafter with the buds +and their treatment.</p> + +<p><i>Leaves.</i>—The work of the leaves may briefly be stated to consist +of the processes of nutrition, respiration and transpiration. Nutri tion +(assimilation) by the leaves includes the inhalation of air, and +the interaction under the influence of light and in the presence of +chlorophyll of the carbon dioxide of the air with the water received +from the root, to form carbonaceous food. Respiration in plants, +as in other organisms, is a process that goes on by night as well as +by day and consists in plants in the breaking up of the complex +carbonaceous substances formed by assimilation into less complex +and more transportable substances. This process, which is as +yet imperfectly understood, is attended by the consumption of +oxygen, the liberation of energy in the form of heat, and the exhalation +of carbon dioxide and water vapour. Transpiration is +loss of water by the plant by evaporation, chiefly from the minute +pores or stomata on the leaves. In xerophytic plants (<i>e.g.</i> cacti, +euphorbias, &c.) from hot, dry and almost waterless regions where +evaporation would be excessive, the leaf surface, and consequently +the number of stomata, are reduced to a minimum, as it would be +fatal to such plants to exhale vapour as freely in those regions as the +broad-leaved plants that grow in places where there is abundance of +moisture. Although transpiration is a necessary accompaniment of +nutrition, it may easily become excessive, especially where the plant +cannot readily recoup itself. In these circumstances “syringing” +and “damping down” are of value in cooling the temperature of +the air in hothouses and greenhouses and increasing its humidity, +thereby checking excessive transpiration. Shading the glass with +canvas or washes during the summer months has the same object +in view. Syringing is also beneficial in washing away dirt and +insects.</p> + +<p><i>Buds.</i>—The recognition of the various forms of buds and their +modes of disposition in different plants is a matter of the first +consequence in the operations of pruning and training. Flower-buds +are produced either on the old wood, <i>i.e.</i> the shoots of the +past year’s growth, or on a shoot of the present year. The peach, +horse-chestnut, lilac, morello cherry, black currant, rhododendron +and many other trees and shrubs develop flower-buds for the next +season speedily after blossoming, and these may be stimulated into +premature growth. The peculiar short, stunted branches or “spurs” +which bear the flower-buds of the pear, apple, plum, sweet cherry, +red currant, laburnum, &c., deserve special attention. In the rose, +passion-flower, clematis, honeysuckle, &c., in which the flower-buds +are developed at the ends of the young shoot of the year, +we have examples of plants destitute of flower-buds during the +winter.</p> + +<p><i>Propagation by Buds.</i>—The detached leaf-buds (<i>gemmae</i> or <i>bulbils</i>), +of some plants are capable under favourable conditions of forming +new plants. The edges of the leaves of <i>Bryophyllum calycinum</i> +and of <i>Cardamine pratensis</i>, and the growths in the axils of the +leaves of <i>Lilium bulbiferum</i>, as well as the fronds of certain ferns +(<i>e.g.</i> <i>Asplenium bulbiferum</i>), produce buds of this character. It is +a matter of familiar observation that the ends of the shoots of +brambles take root when bent down to the ground. In some instances +buds form on the roots, and may be used for purposes of +propagation, as in the Japan quince, the globe thistle, the sea holly, +some sea lavenders, <i>Bocconia</i>, <i>Acanthus</i>, &c. Of the tendency in buds +to assume an independent existence gardeners avail themselves in +the operations of striking “cuttings,” and making “layers” and +“pipings,” as also in budding and grafting. In taking a slip or +cutting the gardener removes from the parent plant a shoot having +one or more buds or “eyes,” in the case of the vine one only, and +places it in a moist and sufficiently warm situation, where, as +previously mentioned, undue evaporation from the surface is prevented. +For some cuttings, pots filled with light soil, with the +protection of the propagating-house and of bell-glasses, are requisite; +but for many of our hardy deciduous trees and shrubs no such +precautions are necessary, and the insertion of a short shoot about +half its length into moist and gritty ground at the proper season +suffices to ensure its growth. In the case of the more delicate plants, +the formation of roots is preceded by the production from the +cambium of the cuttings of a succulent mass of tissue, the <i>callus</i>. +It is important in some cases, <i>e.g.</i> zonal pelargoniums, fuchsias, +shrubby calceolarias, dahlias, carnations, &c., to retain on the +cutting some of its leaves, so as to supply the requisite food for +storage in the callus. In other cases, where the buds themselves +contain a sufficiency of nutritive matter for the young growths, the +retention of leaves is not necessary. The most successful mode of +forming roots is to place the cuttings in a mild bottom-heat, which +expedites their growth, even in the case of many hardy plants whose +cuttings strike roots in the open soil. With some hard-wooded +trees, as the common white-thorn, roots cannot be obtained without +bottom-heat. It is a general rule throughout plant culture that +the activity of the roots shall be in advance of that of the leaves. +Cuttings of deciduous trees and shrubs succeed best if planted +early in autumn while the soil still retains the solar heat absorbed +during summer. For evergreens August or September, and for +greenhouse and stove-plants the spring and summer months, are +the times most suitable for propagation by cuttings.</p> + +<p><i>Layering</i> consists simply in bending down a branch and keeping +it in contact with or buried to a small depth in the soil until roots +are formed; the connexion with the parent plant may then be +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page743" id="page743"></a>743</span> +severed. Many plants can be far more easily propagated thus than +by cuttings.</p> + +<p><i>Grafting</i> or “<i>working</i>” consists in the transfer of a branch, the +“graft” or “scion,” from one plant to another, which latter is +termed the “stock.” The operation must be so performed that the +growing tissues, or cambium-layer of the scion, may fit accurately +to the corresponding layer of the stock. In <i>budding</i>, as with roses +and peaches, a single bud only is implanted. <i>Inarching</i> is essentially +the promotion of the union of a shoot of one plant to that of another +of the same or allied species or variety. The outer bark of each +being removed, the two shoots are kept in contact by ligature until +union is established, when the scion is completely severed from its +original attachments. This operation is varied in detail according +to the kind of plant to be propagated, but it is essential in all cases +that the affinity between the two plants be near, that the union be +neatly effected, and that the ratio as well as the season of growth +of stock and scion be similar.</p> + +<p>The selection of suitable stocks is a matter still requiring much +scientific experiment. The object of grafting is to expedite and +increase the formation of flowers and fruit. Strong-growing pears, +for instance, are grafted on the quince stock in order to restrict +their tendency to form “gross” shoots and a superabundance of +wood in place of flowers and fruit. Apples, for the same reason, are +“worked” on the “paradise” or “doucin” stocks, which from +their influence on the scion are known as dwarfing stocks. Scions +from a tree which is weakly, or liable to injury by frosts, are +strengthened by engrafting on robust stocks. Lindley has pointed +out that, while in Persia, its native country, the peach is probably +best grafted on the peach, or on its wild type the almond, in England, +where the summer temperature of the soil is much lower than that +of Persia, it might be expected, as experience has proved, to be +most successful on stocks of the native plum.</p> + +<p>The soil in which the stock grows is a point demanding attention. +From a careful series of experiments made in the Horticultural +Society’s Garden at Chiswick, it was found that where the soil is +loamy, or light and slightly enriched with decayed vegetable matter, +the apple succeeds best on the doucin stock, and the pear on the +quince; and where it is chalky it is preferable to graft the apple +on the crab, and the pear on the wild pear. For the plum on loamy +soils the plum, and on chalky and light soils the almond, are the +most desirable stocks, and for the cherry on loamy or light rich +soils the wild cherry, and on chalk the “mahaleb” stock.</p> + +<p>The form and especially the quality of fruit is more or less affected +by the stock upon which it is grown. The Stanwick nectarine, so +apt to crack and not to ripen when worked in the ordinary way, is +said to be cured of these propensities by being first budded close +to the ground, on a very strong-growing Magnum Bonum plum, +worked on a Brussels stock, and by then budding the nectarine on +the Magnum Bonum about a foot from the ground. The fruit of +the pear is of a higher colour and smaller on the quince stock than +on the wild pear; still more so on the medlar. On the mountain ash +the pear becomes earlier.</p> + +<p>The effects produced by stock on scion, and more particularly +by scion on stock, are as a rule with difficulty appreciable. Nevertheless, +in exceptional cases modified growths, termed “graft-hybrids,” +have been obtained which have been attributed to the +commingling of the characteristics of stock and scion (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Hybridism</a></span>). +Of these the most remarkable example is <i>Cytisus Adami</i>, a tree +which year after year produces some shoots, foliage and flowers +like those of the common laburnum, others like those of the very +different looking dwarf shrub <i>C. purpureus</i>, and others again intermediate +between these. We may hence infer that <i>C. purpureus</i> +was grafted or budded on the common laburnum, and that the +intermediate forms are the result of graft-hybridization. Numerous +similar facts have been recorded. Among gardeners the general +opinion is against the possibility of graft-hybridization. The +wonder, however, seems to be that it does not occur more frequently, +seeing that fluids must pass from stock to scion, and matter elaborated +in the leaves of the scion must certainly to some extent enter the +stock. It is clear, nevertheless, from examination that as a rule +the wood of the stock and the wood of the scion retain their external +characters year by year without change. Still, as in the laburnum +just mentioned, in the variegated jasmine and in <i>Abutilon Darwinii</i>, +in the copper beech and in the horse-chestnut, the influence of a +variegated scion has occasionally shown itself in the production +from the stock of variegated shoots. At a meeting of the Scottish +Horticultural Association (see <i>Gard. Chron.</i>, Jan. 10, 1880, figs. 12-14) +specimens of a small roundish pear, the “Aston Town,” and of the +elongated kind known as “Beurré Clairgeau,” were exhibited. +Two more dissimilar pears hardly exist. The result of working the +Beurré Clairgeau upon the Aston Town was the production of fruits +precisely intermediate in size, form, colour, speckling of rind and +other characteristics. Similar, though less marked, intermediate +characters were obvious in the foliage and flowers.</p> + +<p>Double grafting (French, <i>greffe sur greffe</i>) is sufficiently explained +by its name. By means of it a variety may often be propagated, +or its fruit improved in a way not found practicable under ordinary +circumstances. For its successful prosecution prolonged experiments +in different localities and in gardens devoted to the purpose are +requisite.</p> + +<p><i>Planting.</i>—By removal from one place to another the growth of +every plant receives a check. How this check can be obviated or +reduced, with regard to the season, the state of atmosphere, and the +condition and circumstances of the plant generally, is a matter to +be considered by the practical gardener.</p> + +<p>As to season, it is now admitted with respect to deciduous trees +and shrubs that the earlier in autumn planting is performed the +better; although some extend it from the period when the leaves +fall to the first part of spring, before the sap begins to move. If +feasible, the operation should be completed by the end of November, +whilst the soil is still warm with the heat absorbed during summer. +Attention to this rule is specially important in the case of rare +and delicate plants. Early autumn planting enables wounded +parts of roots to be healed over, and to form fibrils, which will be +ready in spring, when it is most required, to collect food for the +plant. Planting late in spring should, as far as possible, be avoided, +for the buds then begin to awaken into active life, and the draught +upon the roots becomes great. It has been supposed that because +the surface of the young leaves is small transpiration is correspondingly +feeble; but it must be remembered, not only that their newly-formed +tissue is unable without an abundant supply of sap from the +roots to resist the excessive drying action of the atmosphere, but +that, in spring, the lowness of the temperature at that season in +Great Britain prevents the free circulation of the sap. The comparative +dryness of the atmosphere in spring also causes a greater +amount of transpiration then than in autumn and winter. Another +fact in favour of autumnal planting is the production of roots in +winter.</p> + +<p>The best way of performing transplantation depends greatly on +the size of the trees, the soil in which they grow, and the mechanical +appliances made use of in lifting and transporting them. The +smaller the tree the more successfully can it be removed. The more +argillaceous and the less siliceous the soil the more readily can balls +of earth be retained about the roots. All planters lay great stress +on the preservation of the fibrils; the point principally disputed is +to what extent they can with safety be allowed to be cut off in +transplantation. Trees and shrubs in thick plantations, or in +sheltered warm places, are ill fitted for planting in bleak and cold +situations. During their removal it is important that the roots +be covered, if only to prevent desiccation by the air. Damp days +are therefore the best for the operation; the dryest months are the +most unfavourable. Though success in transplanting depends much +on the humidity of the atmosphere, the most important requisite +is warmth in the soil; humidity can be supplied artificially, but +heat cannot.</p> + +<p><i>Pruning</i>, or the removal of superfluous growths, is practised in +order to equalize the development of the different parts of trees, +or to promote it in particular directions so as to secure a certain +form, and, by checking undue luxuriance, to promote enhanced +fertility. In the rose-bush, for instance, in which, as we have seen, +the flower-buds are formed on the new wood of the year, pruning +causes the old wood to “break,” <i>i.e.</i> to put forth a number of new +buds, some of which will produce flowers at their extremities. The +manner and the time in which pruning should be accomplished, and +its extent, vary with the plant, the objects of the operation, <i>i.e.</i> +whether for the production of timber or fruit, the season and +various other circumstances. So much judgment and experience +does the operation call for that it is a truism to say that bad pruning +is worse than none. The removal of weakly, sickly, overcrowded +and gross infertile shoots is usually, however, a matter about which +there can be few mistakes when once the habit of growth and the +form and arrangement of the buds are known. Winter pruning +is effected when the tree is comparatively at rest, and is therefore +less liable to “bleeding” or outpouring of sap. Summer pruning or +pinching off the tips of such of the younger shoots as are not required +for the extension of the tree, when not carried to too great an extent, +is preferable to the coarser more reckless style of pruning. The +injury inflicted is less and not so concentrated; the wounds are +smaller, and have time to heal before winter sets in. The effects +of badly-executed pruning, or rather hacking, are most noticeable +in the case of forest trees, the mutilation of which often results in +rotting, canker and other diseases. Judicious and timely thinning +so as to allow the trees room to grow, and to give them sufficiency +of light and air, will generally obviate the need of the pruning-saw, +except to a relatively small extent.</p> + +<p><i>Training</i> is a procedure adopted when it is required to grow plants +in a limited area, or in a particular shape, as in the case of many +plants of trailing habit. Judicious training also may be of importance +as encouraging the formation of flowers and fruit. Growth +in length is mainly in a vertical direction, or at least at the ends of +the shoots; and this should be encouraged, in the case of a timber +tree, or of a climbing plant which it is desired should cover a wall +quickly; but where flowers or fruit are specially desired, then, +when the wood required is formed, the lateral shoots may often be +trained more or less downward to induce fertility. The refinements +of training, as of pruning, may, however, be carried too far; and not +unfrequently the symmetrically trained trees of the French excite +admiration in every respect save fertility.</p> + +<p><i>Sports or Bud Variations.</i>—Here we may conveniently mention +certain variations from the normal condition in the size, form or +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page744" id="page744"></a>744</span> +disposition of buds or shoots on a given plant. An inferior variety +of pear, for instance, may suddenly produce a shoot bearing fruit of +superior quality; a beech tree, without obvious cause, a shoot +with finely divided foliage; or a camellia an unwontedly fine flower. +When removed from the plant and treated as cuttings or grafts, +such sports may be perpetuated. Many garden varieties of flowers +and fruits have thus originated. The cause of their production is +very obscure.</p> + +<p><i>Formation of Flowers.</i>—Flowers, whether for their own sake or +as the necessary precursors of the fruit and seed, are objects of the +greatest concern to the gardener. As a rule they are not formed +until the plant has arrived at a certain degree of vigour, or until a +sufficient supply of nourishment has been stored in the tissues of +the plant. The reproductive process of which the formation of the +flower is the first stage being an exhaustive one, it is necessary that +the plant, as gardeners say, should get “established” before it +flowers. Moreover, although the green portions of the flower do +indeed perform the same office as the leaves, the more highly coloured +and more specialized portions, which are further removed from the +typical leaf-form, do not carry on those processes for which the +presence of chlorophyll is essential; and the floral organs may, +therefore, in a rough sense, be said to be parasitic upon the green +parts. A check or arrest of growth in the vegetative organs seems +to be a necessary preliminary to the development of the flower.</p> + +<p>A diminished supply of water at the root is requisite, so as to check +energy of growth, or rather to divert it from leaf-making. Partial +starvation will sometimes effect this; hence the grafting of free-growing +fruit trees upon dwarfing stocks, as before alluded to, +and also the “ringing” or girdling of fruit trees, <i>i.e.</i> the removal +from the branch of a ring of bark, or the application of a tight +cincture, in consequence of which the growth of the fruits above +the wound or the obstruction is enhanced. On the same principle +the use of small pots to confine the roots, root-pruning and lifting +the roots, and exposing them to the sun, as is done in the case +of the vine in some countries, are resorted to. A higher temperature, +especially with deficiency of moisture, will tend to throw a plant +into a flowering condition. This is exemplified by the fact that +the temperature of the climate of Great Britain is too low for the +flowering, though sufficiently high for the growth of many plants. +Thus the Jerusalem artichoke, though able to produce stems and +tubers abundantly, only flowers in exceptionally hot seasons.</p> + +<p><i>Forcing.</i>—The operation of forcing is based upon the facts just +mentioned. By subjecting a plant to a gradually increasing temperature, +and supplying water in proportion, its growth may be accelerated; +its season of development may be, as it were, anticipated; +it is roused from a dormant to an active state. Forcing therefore +demands the most careful adjustment of temperature and supplies +of moisture and light.</p> + +<p>Deficiency of light is less injurious than might at first be expected, +because the plant to be forced has stored up in its tissues, and +available for use, a reserve stock of material formed through the +agency of light in former seasons. The intensity of the colour of +flowers and the richness of flavour of fruit are, however, deficient +where there is feebleness of light. Recent experiments show that +the influence of electric light on chlorophyll is similar to that of +sunlight, and that deficiencies of natural light may to some extent +be made good by its use. The employment of that light for forcing +purposes would seem to be in part a question of expense. The +advantage hitherto obtained from its use has consisted in the +rapidity with which flowers have been formed and fruits ripened +under its influence, circumstances which go towards compensating +for the extra cost of production.</p> + +<p><i>Retardation.</i>—The art of retarding the period of flowering in certain +plants consists, in principle, in the artificial application of cold +temperatures whereby the resting condition induced by low winter +temperature is prolonged. For commercial purposes, crowns of lily +of the valley, tulip and other bulbs, and such deciduous woody +plants as lilac and deciduous species of rhododendron, while in a +state of rest, are packed in wet moss and introduced into cold-storage +chambers, where they may be kept in a state of quiescence, +it desired, throughout the following summer. The temperature of +the cold chamber is varied from the freezing-point of water, to a +few degrees lower, according to the needs of the plants under treatment. +When required for use they are removed to cool sheds to +thaw, and are then gradually inured to higher temperatures. The +chief advantages of retarded plants are:—(<i>a</i>) they may be flowered +almost at will; (<i>b</i>) they are readily induced to flower at those +times when unretarded plants refuse to respond to forcing. Cold-storage +chambers form a part of the equipment of most of the +leading establishments where flowers are grown for market.</p> + +<p><i>Double Flowers.</i>—The taste of the day demands that “double +flowers” should be largely grown. Though in many instances, as +in hyacinths, they are less beautiful than single ones, they always +present the advantage of being less evanescent. Under the vague +term “double” many very different morphological changes are +included. The flower of a double dahlia, <i>e.g.</i> offers a totally different +condition of structure from that of a rose or a hyacinth. The double +poinsettia, again, owes its so-called double condition merely to the +increased number of its scarlet involucral leaves, which are not +parts of the flower at all. It is reasonable, therefore, to infer that +the causes leading to the production of double flowers are varied. +A good deal of difference of opinion exists as to whether they are +the result of arrested growth or of exuberant development, and +accordingly whether restricted food or abundant supplies of nourishment +are the more necessary for their production. It must suffice +here to say that double flowers are most commonly the result of the +substitution of brightly-coloured petals for stamens or pistils or +both, and that a perfectly double flower where all the stamens +and pistils are thus metamorphosed is necessarily barren. Such a +plant must needs be propagated by cuttings. It rarely happens, +however, that the change is quite complete throughout the flower, +and so a few seeds may be formed, some of which may be expected +to reproduce the double-blossomed plants. By continuous selection +of seed from the best varieties, and “roguing” or eliminating plants +of the ordinary type, a “strain” or race of double flowers is gradually +produced.</p> + +<p><i>Formation of Seed—Fertilization.</i>—In fertilization—the influence +in flowering plants of the male-cell in the pollen tube upon the egg-cell +in the ovule (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Botany</a></span>)—there are many circumstances of +importance horticulturally, to which, therefore, brief reference must +be made. Flowers, generally speaking, are either self-fertilized, +cross-fertilized or hybridized. Self-fertilization occurs when the +pollen of a given flower affects the egg-cell of the same individual +flower. Cross-fertilization varies both in manner and degree. In +the simplest instances the pollen of one flower fertilizes the ovules +of another on the same plant, owing to the stamens arriving at +maturity in any one flower earlier or later than the pistils.</p> + +<p>Cross-fertilization must of necessity occur when the flowers are +structurally unisexual, as in the hazel, in which the male and female +flowers are monoecious, or separate on the same plant, and in the +willow, in which they are dioecious, or on different plants. A +conspicuous example of a dioecious plant is the common aucuba, of +which for years only the female plant was known in Britain. When, +through the introduction of the male plant from Japan, its fertilization +was rendered possible, ripe berries, before unknown, became +common ornaments of the shrub.</p> + +<p>The conveyance of pollen from one flower to another in cross-fertilization +is effected naturally by the wind, or by the agency of +insects and other creatures. Flowers that require the aid of insects +usually offer some attraction to their visitors in the shape of bright +colour, fragrance or sweet juices. The colour and markings of a +flower often serve to guide the insects to the honey, in the obtaining +of which they are compelled either to remove or to deposit pollen. +The reciprocal adaptations of insects and flowers demand attentive +observation on the part of the gardener concerned with the growing +of grapes, cucumbers, melons and strawberries, or with the raising +of new and improved varieties of plants. In wind-fertilized plants +the flowers are comparatively inconspicuous and devoid of much +attraction for insects; and their pollen is smoother and smaller, +and better adapted for transport by the wind, than that of insect-fertilized +plants, the roughness of which adapts it for attachment +to the bodies of insects.</p> + +<p>It is very probable that the same flower at certain times and +seasons is self-fertilizing, and at others not so. The defects which +cause gardeners to speak of certain vines as “shy setters,” and of +certain strawberries as “blind,” may be due either to unsuitable +conditions of external temperature, or to the non-accomplishment, +from some cause or other, of cross-fertilization. In a vinery, tomato-house +or a peach-house it is often good practice at the time of +flowering to tap the branches smartly with a stick so as to ensure +the dispersal of the pollen. Sometimes more delicate and direct +manipulation is required, and the gardener has himself to convey +the pollen from one flower to another, for which purpose a small +camel’s-hair pencil is generally suitable. The degree of fertility +varies greatly according to external conditions, the structural and +functional arrangements just alluded to, and other causes which +may roughly be called constitutional. Thus, it often happens that +an apparently very slight change in climate alters the degree of +fertility. In a particular country or at certain seasons one flower +will be self-sterile or nearly so, and another just the opposite.</p> + +<p><i>Hybridization.</i>—Some of the most interesting results and many of +the gardener’s greatest triumphs have been obtained by hybridization, +<i>i.e.</i> the crossing of two individuals not of the same but of +two distinct species of plants, as, for instance, two species of +rhododendron or two species of orchid (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Hybridism</a></span>). It is +obvious that hybridization differs more in degree than in kind from +cross-fertilization. The occurrence of hybrids in nature explains the +difficulty experienced by botanists in deciding on what is a species, +and the widely different limitations of the term adopted by different +observers in the case of willows, roses, brambles, &c. The artificial +process is practically the same in hybridization as in cross-fertilization, +but usually requires more care. To prevent self-fertilization, +or the access of insects, it is advisable to remove the stamens and +even the corolla from the flower to be impregnated, as its own pollen +or that of a flower of the same species is often found to be “prepotent.” +There are, however, cases, <i>e.g.</i> some passion-flowers and +rhododendrons, in which a flower is more or less sterile with its +own, but fertile with foreign pollen, even when this is from a distinct +species. It is a singular circumstance that reciprocal crosses are +not always or even often possible; thus, one rhododendron may +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page745" id="page745"></a>745</span> +afford pollen perfectly potent on the stigma of another kind, by the +pollen of which latter its own stigma is unaffected.</p> + +<p>The object of the hybridizer is to obtain varieties exhibiting +improvements in hardihood, vigour, size, shape, colour, fruitfulness, +resistance to disease or other attributes. His success depends not +alone on skill and judgment, for some seasons, or days even, are +found more propitious than others. Although promiscuous and +hap-hazard procedures no doubt meet with a measure of success, +the best results are those which are attained by systematic work with +a definite aim.</p> + +<p>Hybrids are sometimes less fertile than pure-bred species, and +are occasionally quite sterile. Some hybrids, however, are as +fertile as pure-bred plants. Hybrid plants may be again crossed, +or even re-hybridized, so as to produce a progeny of very mixed +parentage. This is the case with many of our roses, dahlias, begonias, +pelargoniums, orchids and other long or widely cultivated garden +plants.</p> + +<p><i>Reversion.</i>—In modified forms of plants there is frequently a +tendency to “sport” or revert to parental or ancestral characteristics. +So markedly is this the case with hybrids that in a +few generations all traces of a hybrid origin may disappear. The +dissociation of the hybrid element in a plant must be obviated by +careful selection. The researches of Gregor Johann Mendel (1822-1884), +abbot of the Augustinian monastery at Brünn, in connexion +with peas and other plants, apparently indicate that there is a +definite natural law at work in the production of hybrids. Having +crossed yellow and green seeded peas both ways, he found that the +progeny resulted in <i>all yellow</i> coloured seeds. These gave rise in due +course to a second generation in which there were three yellows to +one green. In the third generation the yellows from the second +generation gave the proportion of one pure yellow, two impure +yellows, and one green; while the green seed of the second generation +threw only green seeds in the third, fourth and fifth generations. +The pure yellow in the third generation also threw pure yellows in the +fourth and fifth and succeeding generations. The impure yellows, +however, in the next generation gave rise to one pure yellow, one pure +green, to two impure yellows, and so on from generation to generation. +Accordingly as the green or the yellow predominated in the +progeny it was termed “dominant,” while the colour that disappeared +was called “recessive.” It happened, however, that a +recessive colour in one generation becomes the dominant in a succeeding +one.</p> + +<p><i>Germination.</i>—The length of the period during which seeds +remain dormant after their formation is very variable. The conditions +for germination are much the same as for growth in general. +Access to light is not required, because the seed contains a sufficiency +of stored-up food. The temperature necessary varies according to +the nature and source of the seed. Some seeds require prolonged +immersion in water to soften their shells; others are of so delicate a +texture that they would dry up and perish if not kept constantly +in a moist atmosphere. Seeds buried too deeply receive a deficient +supply of air. As a rule, seeds require to be sown more deeply in +proportion to their size and the lightness of the soil.</p> + +<p>The time required for germination in the most favourable circumstances +varies very greatly, even in the same species, and in +seeds taken from one pod. Thus the seeds of <i>Primula japonica</i>, +though sown under precisely similar conditions, yet come up at +very irregular intervals of time. Germination is often slower where +there is a store of available food in the perisperm, or in the endosperm, +or in the embryo itself, than where this is scanty or wanting. +In the latter case the seedling has early to shift for itself, and to +form roots and leaves for the supply of its needs.</p> + +<p><i>Selection.</i>—Supposing seedlings to have been developed, it is +found that a large number of them present considerable variations, +some being especially robust, others peculiar in size or form. Those +most suitable for the purpose of the gardener are carefully selected +for propagation, while others not so desirable are destroyed; and +thus after a few generations a fixed variety, race or strain superior +to the original form is obtained. Many garden plants have originated +solely by selection; and much has been done to improve our breeds +of vegetables, flowers and fruit by systematic selection.</p> + +<p>Large and well-formed seeds are to be preferred for harvesting. +The seeds should be kept in sacks or bags in a dry place, and if from +plants which are rare, or liable to lose their vitality, they are advantageously +packed for transmission to a distance in hermetically +sealed bottles or jars filled with earth or moss, without the addition +of moisture.</p> + +<p>It will have been gathered from what has been said that seeds +cannot always be depended on to reproduce exactly the characteristics +of the plant which yielded them; for instance, seeds of the +greengage plum or of the Ribston pippin will produce a plum or +an apple, but not these particular varieties, to perpetuate which +grafts or buds must be employed.</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(M. T. M.; W. R. W.)</div> + +<p class="pt2 center sc">Part II.—The Practice of Horticulture</p> + +<p>The details of horticultural practice naturally range under +the three heads of flowers, fruits and vegetables (see also <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Fruit +and Flower Farming</a></span>). There are, however, certain general +aspects of the subject which will be more conveniently noticed +apart, since they apply alike to each department. We shall +therefore first treat of these under four headings: formation +and preparation of the garden, garden structures and edifices, +garden materials and appliances, and garden operations.</p> + +<p class="pt2 center">I. <i>Formation and Preparation of the Garden.</i></p> + +<p><i>Site.</i>—The site chosen for the mansion will more or less +determine that of the garden, the pleasure grounds and flower +garden being placed so as to surround or lie contiguous to it, +while the fruit and vegetable gardens, either together or separate, +should be placed on one side or in the rear, according to fitness +as regards the nature of the soil and subsoil, the slope of the +surface or the general features of the park scenery. In the +case of villa gardens there is usually little choice: the land +to be occupied is cut up into plots, usually rectangular, and +of greater or less breadth, and in laying out these plots there +is generally a smaller space left in the front of the villa residence +and a larger one behind, the front plot being usually devoted +to approaches, shrubbery and plantations, flower beds being +added if space permits, while the back or more private plot +has a piece of lawn grass with flower beds next the house, and a +space for vegetables and fruit trees at the far end, this latter +being shut off from the lawn by an intervening screen of evergreens +or other plants. Between these two classes of gardens +there are many gradations, but our remarks will chiefly apply +to those of larger extent.</p> + +<p>The almost universal practice is to have the fruit and vegetable +gardens combined; and the flower garden may sometimes +be conveniently placed in juxtaposition with them. When the +fruit and vegetable gardens are combined, the smaller and choicer +fruit trees only should be admitted, such larger-growing hardy +fruits as apples, pears, plums, cherries, &c., being relegated to +the orchard.</p> + +<p>Ground possessing a gentle inclination towards the south +is desirable for a garden. On such a slope effectual draining +is easily accomplished, and the greatest possible benefit is +derived from the sun’s rays. It is well also to have an open +exposure towards the east and west, so that the garden may +enjoy the full benefit of the morning and evening sun, especially +the latter; but shelter is desirable on the north and north-east, +or in any direction in which the particular locality may happen +to be exposed. In some places the south-western gales are so +severe that a belt of trees is useful as a break wind and shelter.</p> + +<p><i>Soil and Subsoil.</i>—A hazel-coloured loam, moderately light +in texture, is well adapted for most garden crops, whether +of fruits or vegetables, especially a good warm deep loam resting +upon chalk; and if such a soil occurs naturally in the selected +site, but little will be required in the way of preparation. If +the soil is not moderately good and of fair depth, it is not so +favourable for gardening purposes. Wherever the soil is not +quite suitable, but is capable of being made so, it is best to remedy +the defect at the outset by trenching it all over to a depth +of 2 or 3 ft., incorporating plenty of manure with it. A heavy +soil, although at first requiring more labour, generally gives far +better results when worked than a light soil. The latter is +not sufficiently retentive of moisture and gets too hot in +summer and requires large quantities of organic manures +to keep it in good condition. It is advantageous to possess +a variety of soils; and if the garden be on a slope it will +often be practicable to render the upper part light and dry, +while the lower remains of a heavier and damper nature.</p> + +<p>Natural soils consist of substances derived from the decomposition +of various kinds of rocks, the bulk consisting of +clay, silica and lime, in various proportions. As regards preparation, +draining is of course of the utmost importance. +The ground should also be trenched to the depth of 3 ft. at +least, and the deeper the better so as to bring up the subsoil—whether +it be clay, sand, gravel, marl, &c.—for exposure to +the weather and thus convert it from a sterile mass into a living +soil teeming with bacteria. In this operation all stones larger +than a man’s fist must be taken out, and all roots of trees and of +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page746" id="page746"></a>746</span> +perennial weeds carefully cleared away. When the whole +ground has been thus treated, a moderate liming will, in general, +be useful, especially on heavy clay soils. After this, supposing +the work to have occupied most of the summer, the whole may +be laid up in ridges, to expose as great a surface as possible +to the action of the winter’s frost.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>Argillaceous or clay soils are those which contain a large percentage +(45-50) of clay, and a small percentage (5 or less) of lime. +These are unfitted for garden purposes until improved by draining, +liming, trenching and the addition of porous materials, such as +ashes, burnt ballast or sand, but when thoroughly improved they +are very fertile and less liable to become exhausted than most other +soils. Loamy soils contain a considerable quantity (30-45%) +of clay, and smaller quantities of lime, humus and sand. Such +soils properly drained and prepared are very suitable for orchards, +and when the proportion of clay is smaller (20-30%) they form +excellent garden soils, in which the better sort of fruit trees luxuriate. +Marly soils are those which contain a considerable percentage +(10-20) of lime, and are called clay marls, loamy marls and sandy +marls, according as these several ingredients preponderate. The +clay marls are, like clay soils, too stiff for garden purposes until +well worked and heavily manured; but loamy marls are fertile +and well suited to fruit trees, and sandy marls are adapted for +producing early crops. Calcareous soils, which may also be heavy, +intermediate or light, are those which contain more than 20% of +lime, their fertility depending on the proportions of clay and sand +which enter into their composition; they are generally cold and wet. +Vegetable soils or moulds, or humus soils, contain a considerable +percentage (more than 5) of humus, and embrace both the rich +productive garden moulds and those known as peaty soils.</p> +</div> + +<p>The nature of the subsoil is of scarcely less importance than +that of the surface soil. Many gardeners are still afraid to disturb +an unsuitable subsoil, but experienced growers have proved +that by bringing it up to the surface and placing plenty of +manure in the bottoms of the various trenches, the very best +results are attained in the course of a season or so. An uneven +subsoil, especially if retentive, is most undesirable, as water +is apt to collect in the hollows, and thus affect the upper soil. +The remedy is to make the plane of its surface agree with that +of the ground. When there is a hard pan this should be broken +up with the spade or the fork, and have plenty of manure mixed +with it. When there is an injurious preponderance of metallic +oxides or other deleterious substances, the roots of trees would +be affected by them, and they must therefore be removed. When +the subsoil is too compact to be pervious to water, effectual +drainage must be resorted to; when it is very loose, so that it +drains away the fertile ingredients of the soil as well as those +which are artificially supplied, the compactness of the stratum +should be increased by the addition of clay, marl or loam. The +best of all subsoils is a dry bed of clay overlying sandstone.</p> + +<p><i>Plan.</i>—In laying out the garden, the plan should be prepared +in minute detail before commencing operations. The form +of the kitchen and fruit garden should be square or oblong, +rather than curvilinear, since the working and cropping of +the ground can thus be more easily carried out. The whole +should be compactly arranged, so as to facilitate working, +and to afford convenient access for the carting of the heavy +materials. This access is especially desirable as regards the +store-yards and framing ground, where fermenting manures +and tree leaves for making up hot beds, coals or wood for fuel +and ingredients for composts, together with flower-pots and +the many necessaries of garden culture, have to be accommodated. +In the case of villas or picturesque residences, +gardens of irregular form may be permitted; when adapted +to the conditions of the locality, they associate better with +surrounding objects, but in such gardens wall space is usually +limited.</p> + +<p>The distribution of paths must be governed by circumstances. +Generally speaking, the main paths for cartage should be 8 ft. +wide, made up of 9 in. hard core covered by 4 in. of gravel +or ash, with a gentle rise to centre to throw off surface water. +The smaller paths, not intended for cartage, should be 4 ft. +to 6 ft. wide, according to circumstances, made up of 6 in. +hard core and 3 in. of gravel or ash, and should be slightly +raised at centre.</p> + +<p>A considerable portion of the north wall is usually covered +in front with the glazed structures called forcing-houses, and to +these the houses for ornamental plants are sometimes attached; +but a more appropriate site for the latter is the flower garden, +when that forms a separate department. It is well, however, +that everything connected with the forcing of fruits or flowers +should be concentrated in one place. The frame ground, including +melon and pine pits, should occupy some well-sheltered +spot in the slips, or on one side of the garden, and adjoining to +this may be found a suitable site for the compost ground, in +which the various kinds of soils are kept in store, and in which +also composts may be prepared.</p> + +<p>As walls afford valuable space for the growth of the choicer +kinds of hardy fruits, the direction in which they are built +is of considerable importance. In the warmer parts of the +country the wall on the north side of the garden should be so +placed as to face the sun at about an hour before noon, or a +little to the east of south; in less favoured localities it should +be made to face direct south, and in still more unfavourable +districts it should face the sun an hour after noon, or a little +west of south. The east and west walls should run parallel +to each other, and at right angles to that on the north side, +in all the most favoured localities; but in colder or later ones, +though parallel, they should be so far removed from a right angle +as to get the sun by eleven o’clock. On the whole, the form of +a parallelogram with its longest sides in the proportion of about +five to three of the shorter, and running east and west, may be +considered the best form, since it affords a greater extent of +south wall than any other.</p> + +<table class="flt" style="float: right; width: 370px;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:318px; height:229px" src="images/img746.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption1"><span class="sc">Fig. 1.</span>—Plan of Garden an acre in area.</td></tr></table> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>Fig. 1 represents a garden of one acre and admits of nearly double +the number of trees on the south aspect as compared with the east +and west; it allows a greater number of espalier or pyramid trees +to face the south; and it admits of being divided into equal principal +compartments, each of +which forms nearly a +square. The size of course +can be increased to any +requisite extent. That of +the royal gardens at Frogmore, +760 ft. from east to +west and 440 ft. from +north to south, is nearly +of the same proportions.</p> +</div> + +<p>The spaces between +the walls and the outer +fence are called “slips.” +A considerable extent is +sometimes thus enclosed, +and utilized for the +growth of such vegetables as potatoes, winter greens and sea-kale, +for the small bush fruits, and for strawberries. The +slips are also convenient as affording a variety of aspects, +and thus helping to prolong the season of particular vegetable +crops.</p> + +<p><i>Shelter.</i>—A screen of some kind to temper the fury of the +blast is absolutely necessary. If the situation is not naturally +well sheltered, the defect may be remedied by masses of forest +trees disposed at a considerable distance so as not to shade the +walls or fruit trees. They should not be nearer than, say, 50 yds., +and may vary from that to 100 or 150 yds. distance according +to circumstances, regard being had especially to peculiarities +occasioned by the configuration of the country, as for instance to +aerial currents from adjacent eminences. Care should be taken, +however, not to hem in the garden by crowded plantations, shelter +from the prevailing strong winds being all that is required, while +the more open it is in other directions the better. The trees +employed for screens should include both those of deciduous +and of evergreen habit, and should suit the peculiarities of local +soil and climate. Of deciduous trees the sycamore, wych-elm, +horse-chestnut, beech, lime, plane and poplar may be used,—the +abele or white poplar, <i>Populus alba</i>, being one of the most rapid-growing +of all trees, and, like other poplars, well suited for +nursing other choicer subjects; while of evergreens, the holm +oak, holly, laurel (both common and Portugal), and such conifers +as the Scotch, Weymouth and Austrian pines, with spruce and +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page747" id="page747"></a>747</span> +silver firs and yews, are suitable. The conifers make the most +effective screens.</p> + +<p>Extensive gardens in exposed situations are often divided +into compartments by hedges, so disposed as to break the force +of high winds. Where these are required to be narrow as well +as lofty, holly, yew or beech is to be preferred; but, if there +is sufficient space, the beautiful laurel and the bay may be +employed where they will thrive. Smaller hedges may be +formed of evergreen privet or of tree-box. These subordinate +divisions furnish, not only shelter but also shade, which, at +certain seasons, is peculiarly valuable.</p> + +<p>Belts of shrubbery may be placed round the slips outside +the walls; and these may in many cases, or in certain parts, +be of sufficient breadth to furnish pleasant retired promenades, +at the same time that they serve to mask the formality of the +walled gardens, and are made to harmonize with the picturesque +scenery of the pleasure ground.</p> + +<p><i>Water Supply.</i>—Although water is one of the most important +elements in plant life, we do not find one garden in twenty where +even ordinary precautions have been taken to secure a competent +supply. Rain-water is the best, next to that river or pond +water, and last of all that from springs; but a chemical analysis +should be made of the last before introducing it, as some spring +waters contain mineral ingredients injurious to vegetation. Iron +pipes are the best conductors; they should lead to a capacious +open reservoir placed outside the garden, and at the highest +convenient level, in order to secure sufficient pressure for effective +distribution, and so that the wall trees also may be effectually +washed. Stand-pipes should be placed at intervals beside the +walks and in other convenient places, from which water may at +all times be drawn; and to which a garden hose can be attached, +so as to permit of the whole garden being readily watered. +The mains should be placed under the walks for safety, and also +that they may be easily reached when repairs are required. +Pipes should also be laid having a connexion with all the various +greenhouses and forcing-houses, each of which should be provided +with a cistern for aerating the daily supplies. In fact, +every part of the garden, including the working sheds and +offices, should have water supplied without stint.</p> + +<p><i>Fence.</i>—Gardens of large extent should be encircled by an +outer boundary, which is often formed by a sunk wall or ha-ha +surrounded by an invisible wire fence to exclude ground game, +or consists of a hedge with low wire fence on its inner side. +Occasionally this sunk wall is placed on the exterior of the +screen plantations, and walks lead through the trees, so that +views are obtained of the adjacent country. Although the +interior garden receives its form from the walls, the ring fence +and plantations may be adapted to the shape and surface of +the ground. In smaller country gardens the enclosure or outer +fence is often a hedge, and there is possibly no space enclosed +by walls, but some divisional wall having a suitable aspect is +utilized for the growth of peaches, apricots, &c., and the hedge +merely separates the garden from a paddock used for grazing. +The still smaller gardens of villas are generally bounded by a wall +or wood fence, the inner side of which is appropriated to fruit +trees. For the latter walls are much more convenient and +suitable than a boarded fence, but in general these are too low to +be of much value as aids to cultivation, and they are best covered +with bush fruits or with ornamental plants of limited growth.</p> + +<p><i>Walks.</i>—The best material for the construction of garden +walks is good binding gravel. The ground should be excavated +to the depth of a foot or more—the bottom being made firm and +slightly concave, so that it may slope to the centre, where a drain +should be introduced; or the bottom may be made convex and +the water allowed to drain away at the sides. The bottom 9 in. +should be filled in compactly with hard, coarse materials, such +as stones, brickbats, clinkers, burned clay, &c., on which should +be laid 2 or 3 in. of coarse gravel, and then 1 or 2 in. of firm +binding gravel on the surface. The surface of the walks should be +kept well rolled, for nothing contributes more to their elegance +and durability.</p> + +<p>All the principal lines of walk should be broad enough to allow +at least three persons to walk abreast; the others may be +narrower, but a multitude of narrow walks has a puny effect. +Much of the neatness of walks depends upon the material of +which they are made. Gravel from an inland pit is to be preferred; +though occasionally very excellent varieties are found +upon the sea-coast. Gravel walks must be kept free from weeds, +either by hand weeding, or by the use of one of the many weed +killers now on the market. In some parts of the country the +available material does not bind to form a close, even surface, +and such walks are kept clean by hoeing.</p> + +<p>Grass walks were common in English gardens during the prevalence +of the Dutch taste, but, owing to the frequent humidity +of the climate, they have in a great measure been discarded. +Grass walks are made in the same way as grass lawns. When the +space to be thus occupied is prepared, a thin layer of sand or poor +earth is laid upon the surface and over this a similar layer of +good soil. This arrangement is adopted in order to prevent +excessive luxuriance in the grass. In many modern gardens +pathways made of old paving stones lead from the house to +different parts. They give an old-fashioned and restful appearance +to a garden, and in the interstices charming little plants like +thyme, <i>Ionopsidium acaule</i>, &c., are allowed to grow.</p> + +<p><i>Edgings.</i>—Walks are separated from the adjoining beds and +borders in a variety of ways. If a living edging is adopted, +by far the best is afforded by the dwarf box planted closely +in line. It is of extremely neat growth, and when annually +clipped will remain in good order for many years. Very good +edgings, but of a less durable character, are formed by thrift +(<i>Armeria vulgaris</i>), double daisy (<i>Bellis perennis</i>), gentianella +(<i>Gentiana acaulis</i>) and London pride (<i>Saxifraga umbrosa</i>), +<i>Cerastium tomentosum</i>, <i>Stachys lavata</i> and the beautiful evergreen +<i>Veronica rupestris</i> with sheets of bright blue flowers +close to the ground, or by some of the finer grasses very carefully +selected, such as the sheep’s fescue (<i>Festuca ovina</i>) or its +glaucous-leaved variety. Indeed, any low-growing herbaceous +plant, susceptible of minute division, is suitable for an edging. +Amongst shrubby plants suitable for edgings are the evergreen +candytuft (<i>Iberis sempervirens</i>), <i>Euonymus radicans variegata</i>, +ivy, and <i>Euonymus microphyllus</i>—a charming little evergreen +with small serrated leaves. Edgings may also be formed of +narrow slips of sandstone flag, slate, tiles or bricks. One +advantage of using edgings of this kind, especially in kitchen +gardens, is that they do not harbour slugs and similar vermin, +which all live edgings do, and often to a serious extent, if they +are left to grow large. In shrubberies and large flower-plots, +verges of grass-turf, from 1 to 3 ft. in breadth, according to the +size of the border and width of the walk, make a very handsome +edging, but they should not be allowed to rise more than an +inch and a half above the gravel, the grass being kept short by +repeated mowings, and the edges kept trim and well-defined +by frequently clipping with shears and cutting once or twice a +year with an edging iron.</p> + +<p class="pt2 center">II. <i>Garden Structures.</i></p> + +<p><i>Walls.</i>—The position to be given to the garden walls has +been already referred to. The shelter afforded by a wall, and the +increased temperature secured by its presence, are indispensable +in the climate of Great Britain, for the production of all the +finer kinds of outdoor fruits; and hence the inner side of a north +wall, having a southern aspect, is appropriated to the more +tender kinds. It is, indeed, estimated that such positions +enjoy an increased temperature equal to 7° of latitude—that +is to say, the mean temperature within a few inches of the wall +is equal to the mean temperature of the open plain 7° farther +south. The eastern and western aspects are set apart for fruits +of a somewhat hardier character.</p> + +<p>Where the inclination of the ground is considerable, and the +presence of high walls would be objectionable, the latter may +be replaced by sunk walls. These should not rise more than +3 ft. above the level of the ground behind them. As dryness is +favourable to an increase of heat, such walls should be either +built hollow or packed behind to the thickness of 3 or 4 ft. +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page748" id="page748"></a>748</span> +with rubble stones, flints, brickbats or similar material, thoroughly +drained at bottom. For mere purposes of shelter a height of +6 or 7 ft. will generally be sufficient for the walls of a garden, +but for the training of fruit trees it is found that an average +height of 12 ft. is more suitable. In gardens of large size the +northern or principal wall may be 14 ft., and the side walls 12 ft. in +height; while smaller areas of an acre or so should have the +principal walls 12 and the side walls 10 ft. in height. As brick +is more easily built hollow than stone, it is to be preferred for +garden walls. A 14-in. hollow wall will take in its construction +12,800 bricks, while a solid 9-in. one, with piers, will take 11,000; +but the hollow wall, while thus only a little more costly, will +be greatly superior, being drier and warmer, as well as more +substantial. Bricks cannot be too well burnt for garden walls; +the harder they are the less moisture will they absorb. Many +excellent walls are built of stone. The best is dark-coloured +whinstone, because it absorbs very little moisture, or in Scotland +Caithness pavement 4 in. thick. The stones can be cut (in the +quarries) to any required length, and built in regular courses. +Stone walls should always be built with thin courses for convenience +of training over their surface. Concrete walls, properly coped +and provided with a trellis, may in some places be cheapest, and +they are very durable. Common rubble walls are the worst of all.</p> + +<p>The coping of garden walls is important, both for the preservation +of the walls and for throwing the rain-water off their surfaces. +It should not project less than from 2 to 2½ in., but in wet +districts may be extended to 6 in. Stone copings are best, +but they are costly, and Portland cement is sometimes substituted. +Temporary copings of wood, which may be fixed +by means of permanent iron brackets just below the stone coping, +are extremely useful in spring for the protection of the blossoms +of fruit trees. They should be 9 in. or 1 ft. wide, and should +be put on during spring before the blossom buds begin to expand; +they should have attached to them scrim cloth (a sort of thin +canvas), which admits light pretty freely, yet is sufficient to +ward off ordinary frosts; this canvas is to be let down towards +evening and drawn up again in the morning. These copings +should be removed when they are of no further utility as protectors, +so that the foliage may have the full benefit of rain +and dew. Any contrivance that serves to interrupt radiation, +though it may not keep the temperature much above freezing, +will be found sufficient. Standard fruit trees must be left to +take their chance; and, indeed from the lateness of their flowering, +they are generally more injured by blight, and by drenching +rains, which wash away the pollen of the flowers, than by the +direct effects of cold.</p> + +<p><i>Espalier Rails.</i>—Subsidiary to walls as a means of training +fruit trees, espalier rails were formerly much employed, and +are still used in many gardens. In their simplest form, they +are merely a row of slender stakes of larch or other wood driven +into the ground, and connected by a slight rod or fillet at top. +The use of iron rails has now been almost wholly discontinued +on account of metallic substances acting as powerful conductors +of both heat and cold in equal extremes. Standards from +which galvanized wire is tightly strained from one end to the +other are preferable and very convenient. Trees trained to +them are easily got at for all cultural operations, space is saved, +and the fruit, while freely exposed to sun and air, is tolerably +secure against wind. They form, moreover, neat enclosures +for the vegetable quarters, and, provided excess of growth +from the centre is successfully grappled with, they are productive +in soils and situations which are suitable.</p> + +<p><i>Plant Houses.</i>—These include all those structures which are +more intimately associated with the growth of ornamental +plants and flowers, and comprise conservatory, plant stove, +greenhouse and the subsidiary pits and frames. They should +be so erected as to present the smallest extent of opaque surface +consistent with stability. With this object in view, the early +improvers of hot-house architecture substituted metal for wood +in the construction of the roofs, and for the most part dispensed +with back walls; but the conducting power of the metal caused +a great irregularity of temperature, which it was found difficult +to control; and, notwithstanding the elegance of metallic +houses, this circumstance, together with their greater cost, +has induced most recent authorities to give the preference to +wood. The combination of the two, however, shows clearly +that, without much variation of heat or loss of light, any extent +of space may be covered, and houses of any altitude constructed.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>The earliest notice we have of such structures is given in the Latin +writers of the 1st century (Mart. <i>Epigr.</i> viii. 14 and 68); the +<span class="grk" title="Adônidos kêpoi">Ἀδὠνιδος κῆποι</span>, to which allusion is made by various Greek authors, +have no claim to be mentioned in this connexion. Columella +(xi. 3, 51, 52) and Pliny (<i>H.N.</i> xix. 23) both refer to their use in +Italy for the cultivation of the rarer and more delicate sorts of plants +and trees. Seneca has given us a description of the application of +hot water for securing the necessary temperature. The botanist +Jungermann had plant houses at Altdorf in Switzerland; those of +Loader, a London merchant, and the conservatory in the Apothecaries’ +Botanic Garden at Chelsea, were among the first structures +of the kind erected in British gardens. These were, however, ill +adapted for the growth of plants, as they consisted of little else than +a huge chamber of masonry, having large windows in front, with +the roof invariably opaque. The next step was taken when it became +fashionable to have conservatories attached to mansions, instead of +having them in the pleasure grounds. This arrangement brought +them within the province of architects, and for nearly a century +utility and fitness for the cultivation of plants were sacrificed, as still +is often the case, to the unity of architectural expression between +the conservatory and the mansion.</p> +</div> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:431px; height:312px" src="images/img748.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 2.</span>—Lean-to Plant House.</td></tr></table> + +<p>Plant houses must be as far as possible impervious to wet and +cold air from the exterior, provision at the same time being +made for ventilation, while the escape of warm air from the interior +must also be under control. The most important part of the +enclosing material is necessarily glass. But as the rays of light, +even in passing through transparent glass, lose much of their +energy, which is further weakened in proportion to the distance +it has to travel, the nearer the plant can be placed to the glass +the more perfectly will its functions be performed; hence the +importance of constructing the roofs at such an angle as will +admit the most light, especially sunlight, at the time it is most +required. Plants in glass houses require for their fullest development +more solar light probably than even our best hot-houses +transmit—certainly much more than is transmitted through +the roofs of houses as generally constructed.</p> + +<p>Plant houses constructed of the best Baltic pine timber are +very durable, but the whole of the parts should be kept as light +as possible. In many houses, especially those where ornament +is of no consequence, the rafters are now omitted, or only used +at wide intervals, somewhat stouter sash-bars being adopted, and +stout panes of glass (usually called 21-oz.) 12 to 18 in. wide, made +use of. Such houses are very light; being also very close, they +require careful ventilation. The glass roof is commonly designed +so as to form a uniform plane or slope from back to front in lean-to +houses (fig. 2), and from centre to sides in span-roofed houses. +To secure the greatest possible influx of light, some horticulturists +recommend curvilinear roofs; but the superiority of these is +largely due to the absence of rafters, which may also be dispensed +with in plain roofs. They are very expensive to build +and maintain. Span and ridge-and-furrow roofs, the forms now +mostly preferred, are exceedingly well adapted for the admission +of light, especially when they are glazed to within a few inches +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page749" id="page749"></a>749</span> +of the ground. They can be made, too, to cover in any extent +of area without sustaining walls. Indeed, it has been proposed +to support such roofs to a great extent upon suspension principles, +the internal columns of support being utilized for conducting +the rain-water off the roof to underground drains or reservoirs. +The lean-to is the least desirable form, since it scarcely admits of +elegance of design, but it is necessarily adopted in many cases.</p> + +<p>In glazing, the greater the surface of glass, and the less space +occupied by rafters and astragals as well as overlaps, the greater +the admission of light. Some prefer that the sash-bars should +be grooved instead of rebated, and this plan exposes less putty +to the action of the weather. The simple bedding of the glass, +without the use of over putty, seems to be widely approved; but +the glass may be fixed in a variety of other ways, some of which +are patented.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>The <i>Conservatory</i> is often built in connexion with the mansion, +so as to be entered from the drawing-room or boudoir. But when +so situated it is apt to suffer from the shade of the building, and +is objectionable on account of admitting damp to the drawing-room. +Where circumstances will admit, it is better to place it at some +distance from the house, and to form a connexion by means of a +glass corridor. In order that the conservatory may be kept gay with +flowers, there should be a subsidiary structure to receive the plants +as they go out of bloom. The conservatory may also with great +propriety be placed in the flower garden, where it may occupy an +elevated terrace, and form the termination of one of the more important +walks.</p> + +<p>Great variety of design is admissible in the conservatory, but it +ought always to be adapted to the style of the mansion of which it +is a prominent appendage. Some very pleasing examples are to be +met with which have the form of a parallelogram with a lightly-rounded +roof; others of appropriate character are square or nearly +so, with a ridge-and-furrow roof. Whatever the form, there must be +light in abundance; and the shade both of buildings and of trees +must be avoided. A southern aspect, or one varying to south-east or +south-west, is preferable; if these aspects cannot be secured, the +plants selected must be adapted to the position. The central part of +the house may be devoted to permanent plants; the side stages and +open spaces in the permanent beds should be reserved for the +temporary plants.</p> + +<table class="flt" style="float: right; width: 400px;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:347px; height:260px" src="images/img749a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 3.</span>—Section of Greenhouse.</td></tr></table> + +<p>The <i>Greenhouse</i> is a structure designed for the growth of such +exotic plants as require to be kept during winter in a temperature +considerably above the freezing-point. The best form is the +span-roofed, +a single span being better even than a series of spans such +as form the ridge-and-furrow roof. For plant culture, houses at a +comparatively low pitch are better than higher ones where the plants +have to stand at a greater distance from the glass, and therefore in +greater gloom. Fig. 3 represents a convenient form of greenhouse. +It is 20 ft. wide and +12 ft. high, and may +be of any convenient +length. The side +walls are surmounted +by short upright +sashes which open +outwards by machinery +a, and the +roof is provided with +sliding upper sashes +for top ventilation. +The upper sashes +may also be made to +lift, and are in many +respects more convenient +to operate. +In the centre is a +two-tier stage 6 ft. +wide, for plants, with a pathway on each side 3 ft. wide, and a +side stage 4 ft. wide, the side stages being flat, and the centre stage +having the middle portion one-third of the width elevated 1 ft. +above the rest so as to lift up the middle row of plants nearer +the light. Span-roofed houses of this character should run north +and south so as to secure an equalization of light, and should +be warmed by two flow, and one or two return 4-in. hot-water pipes, +carried under the side stages along each side and across each end. +Where it is desired to cultivate a large number of plants, it is much +better to increase the number of such houses than to provide larger +structures. The smaller houses are far better for cultural purposes, +while the plants can be classified, and the little details of management +more conveniently attended to. Pelargoniums, cinerarias, calceolarias, +cyclamens, camellias, heaths, roses and other specialities might thus +have to themselves either a whole house or part of a house, the conditions +of which could then be more accurately fitted to the wants of +the inmates.</p> + +<p>The lean-to house is in most respects inferior to the span-roofed; +one of the latter could be converted into two of the former of opposite +aspects by a divisional wall along the centre. Except where space +does not permit a span-roofed building to be introduced, a lean-to +is not to be recommended; but a house of this class may often be +greatly improved by adopting a half-span or hipped roof—that is, +one with a short slope behind and a longer in front.</p> + +<table class="flt" style="float: left; width: 370px;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figleft1"><img style="width:324px; height:272px" src="images/img749b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 4.</span>—Section of Plant Stove.</td></tr></table> + +<p>Where the cultivation of large specimens has to be carried on, a +span-roofed house of greater height and larger dimensions may +sometimes prove useful; but space for this class of plants may +generally be secured in a house of the smaller elevation, simply by +lowering or removing altogether the staging erected for smaller +plants, and allowing the larger ones to stand on or nearer the floor. +The <i>Plant Stove</i> differs in no respect from the greenhouse except +in having a greater extent of hot-water pipes for the purpose of +securing a greater degree of heat, although, as the plants in stove +houses often attain a +larger size, and many of +them require a bed of +coco-nut fibre, tan or +leaf mould to supply +them with bottom heat, +a somewhat greater +elevation may perhaps +be occasionally required +in some of the houses. +For the smaller plants, +and for all choicer subjects, +the smaller size +of house already recommended +for greenhouses, +namely 20 ft. wide and +12 ft. high, with a side +table of 4 ft. on each side, +a pathway of 3 ft. and a +central stage on two levels +of 6 ft. wide, will be preferable, because more easily managed as to the +supply of heat and moisture. It will be seen (fig. 4) that along the +ridge of the roof a raised portion or lantern light <i>b</i>, <i>b</i> is introduced, +which permits of the fixing of two continuous ventilators, one along +each side, for the egress of heated and foul air, openings <i>a</i>, <i>a</i> being +also provided in the side walls opposite the hot-water pipes for the +admission of pure cold air. This type of house is also very suitable +for greenhouse plants, but would not need so much heating apparatus. +Three or four rows of flow and return pipes respectively will be required +on each side, according to the heat proposed to be maintained.</p> + +<p>In their interior fittings plant stoves require more care than greenhouses, +which are much drier, and in which consequently the staging +does not so soon decay. In stoves the stages should be of slate or +stone where practicable, and the supports of iron. These should be +covered with a layer of 2 or 3 in. of some coarse gritty material, such +as pounded spar, or the shell sand obtained on the sea-coast, on which +the pots are to stand; its use is to absorb moisture and gradually +give it out for the benefit of the plants. The pathways should be +paved with tiles, brick or stone, or made of concrete and cement, and +the surface should be gently rounded so that the water required for +evaporation may drain to the sides while the centre is sufficiently +dry to walk upon; they should also have brick or stone edgings to +prevent the water so applied soaking away at the sides and thus +being wasted.</p> +</div> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:458px; height:343px" src="images/img749c.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 5.</span>—Lean-to Vinery.</td></tr></table> + +<p><i>Fruit Houses.</i>—The principal of these are the vinery, peach +house, cucumber and melon house and orchard house. These, +or a portion of them, +especially the vineries +and peacheries, are +frequently brought +together into a range +along the principal +interior or south wall +of the garden, where +they are well exposed +to sun and light, an +ornamental plant +house being sometimes +introduced into the centre of the range in order to give +effect to the outline of the buildings. When thus associated, +the houses are usually of the lean-to class, which have the +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page750" id="page750"></a>750</span> +advantage of being more easily warmed and kept warm than +buildings having glass on both sides, a matter of great importance +for forcing purposes.</p> + +<table class="flt" style="float: right; width: 350px;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:298px; height:274px" src="images/img750a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 6.</span>—Hip-Roofed Vinery.</td></tr></table> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>The <i>Vinery</i> is a house devoted to the culture of the grape-vine, +which is by far the most important exotic fruit cultivated in English +gardens. When forming part of a range a vinery would in most cases +be a lean-to structure, with a sharp pitch (45-50°) if intended for +early forcing, and a flatter roof (40°) with longer rafters if designed +for the main and late crops. (1) The <i>lean-to</i> (fig. 5) is the simplest +form, often erected against some existing wall, and the best for early +forcing, being warmer on account of the shelter afforded by the back +wall. In this house the principal part of the roof is a fixture, ventilation +being provided for by small lifting sashes against the back wall, +and by the upright front sashes being hung on a pivot so as to swing +outwards on the lower side. +The necessary heat is provided +by four 4-in. hot-water +pipes, which would perhaps +be best placed if all laid +side by side, while the vines +are planted in front and +trained upwards under the +roof. A second set of vines +may be planted against the +back wall, and will thrive +there until the shade of the +roof becomes too dense. (2) +The <i>hip-roofed</i> or three-quarter +span (fig. 6) is a +combination of the lean-to +and the span-roofed, uniting +to a great degree the advantages +of both, being +warmer than the span and +lighter than the lean-to. The heating and ventilating arrangements +are much the same as in the lean-to, only the top sashes which open +are on the back slope, and therefore do not interfere so much with +the vines on the front slope. In both this and the lean-to the aspect +should be as nearly due south as possible. Houses of this form are +excellent for general purposes, and they are well adapted both for +muscats, which require a high temperature, and for late-keeping +grapes. (3) The <i>span-roofed</i> (fig. 7), the most elegant and ornamental +form, is especially adapted for isolated positions; indeed, no other +form affords so much roof space for the development of the vines. +The amount of light admitted being very great, these houses answer +well for general purposes and for the main crop. The large amount of +glass or cooling surface, however, makes it more difficult to keep up +a high and regular temperature in them, and from this cause they +are not so well adapted for very early or very late crops. They are +best, nevertheless, when grapes and ornamental plants are grown in +the same house, except, indeed, in very wet and cold districts, where, +in consequence of its greater warmth, the lean-to is to be preferred. +This type of house, cheaply constructed, is in general use for raising +grapes for market.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:453px; height:331px" src="images/img750b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 7.</span>—Span-Roofed Vinery.</td></tr></table> + +<p>The <i>Peach House</i> is a structure in which the ripening of the fruit +is accelerated by the judicious employment of artificial heat. For +early forcing, as in vineries, the lean-to form is to be preferred, and +the house may have a tolerably sharp pitch. A width of 7 or 8 ft., +with the glass slope continued down to within a foot or two of the +ground, and without any upright front sashes, will be suitable for +such a house, which may also be conveniently divided into compartments +of from 30 to 50 ft. in length according to the extent of +the building, small houses being preferable to larger ones. As a very +high temperature is not required, two or three pipes running the +whole length of the house will suffice. The front wall should be built +on piers and arches to allow the roots to pass outwards into a prepared +border, the trees being planted just within the house. Abundant +means of ventilation should be provided.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:446px; height:453px" src="images/img750c.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 8.</span>—Peach House.</td></tr></table> + +<p>For more general purposes the house represented in fig. 8 will be +found more useful. One set of trees is planted near the front, and +trained to an arched trellis <i>b</i>. +Another set is planted at the +back, and trained on a trellis +c, which is nearly upright, and +leans against the back wall; +or the back wall itself may +be used for training. There +are no upright front sashes, +but to facilitate ventilation +there are ventilators d in the +front wall, and the upper roof +sashes are made to move up +and down for the same object. Two or three hot-water pipes +are placed near the front wall. The back wall is usually planted +with dwarf and standard trees alternately, the latter being temporary, +and intended to furnish the upper part of the trellis, while the permanent +dwarfs arc gradually filling up the trellis from below. In any +case the front trellis should stop conveniently short of the top of the +sashes if there are trees against the back wall, in order to admit light +to them. They would also be better carried up nearly parallel to +the roof, and at about 1 ft. distant from it, supposing there were no +trees at the back.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:514px; height:431px" src="images/img750d.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 9.</span>—Forcing House.</td></tr></table> + +<p>A span-roofed house, being lighter than a lean-to, would be so +much the better for peach culture, especially for the crop grown just +in anticipation of those from the open walls since a high temperature +is not required. A low span, with dwarf side walls, and a lantern +ventilator along the ridge, the height in the centre being 9 ft., would +be very well adapted for the purpose. The trees should be planted +inside and trained up towards the ridge on a trellis about a foot from +the glass, the walls being arched to permit the egress of the roots. +A trellis path should run along the centre, and movable pieces of +trellis should be provided to prevent trampling on the soil while +dressing and tying in the young wood.</p> + +<p>The <i>Forcing House</i>.—Whenever continuous supplies of cucumbers, +melons and tomatoes are required, it is most convenient to grow them +in properly constructed forcing houses. Span-roofed houses (fig. 9) +arc probably the most useful for the purpose. They are usually +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page751" id="page751"></a>751</span> +12 to 14 ft. wide, by 10 to 12 ft. high, and of any convenient length. +Heating is effected by means of hot-water pipes below the beds, and +against the side ventilators. The walls bordering the central paths +are arched or clotted to admit heat from the chambers below the +beds. Side pipes are occasionally dispensed with, heat being obtained +by means of slots at the back of the beds, communicating with the +chambers. The beds are also of use for plunging pot plants. Ventilation +is provided at sides and top.</p> + +<p>Pits and frames of various kinds are frequently used for the cultivation +of cucumbers and melons, as well as hot beds covered by +ordinary garden frames. In these cases the first supply of heat is +derived from the hot bed made up within the pit. When the heat +of the original bed subsides, linings of fermenting dung must be +added, and these must be kept active by occasional turnings and the +addition of fresh material as often as required. It is better, however, +to effect both top and bottom heating by hot-water pipes.</p> + +<p><i>Orchard Houses</i> are span-roofed or lean-to structures, in which +various fruits are cultivated without the aid of artificial heat. +Peaches, nectarines, apricots, cherries and the more tender varieties +of plums and pears succeed well in houses of this kind. The types of +houses in general use are substantially as shown in fig. 7, for span-roofed, +and as fig. 5, for lean-to; in each case without the heating +apparatus. The orchard house is among the most generally useful +of all garden structures. These houses require careful management +in early summer so as to induce the more delicate varieties of peaches +and nectarines to complete and ripen their growth before cold, sunless +weather sets in.</p> + +<p>In commercial establishments where utility is of more importance +than ornament, the glass houses and hot water apparatus are not of +so elaborate a type as indicated in the foregoing remarks, and in +many cases excellent produce is grown in structures more or less +dilapidated. In some places movable greenhouses have been erected +for market purposes, so that the soil may be exposed to the sweetening +effect of the weather, when the glass roof is moved to an adjoining +patch.</p> +</div> + +<p><i>Pits and Frames.</i>—These are used both for the summer +growth and winter protection of various kinds of ornamental +plants, for the growth of such fruits as cucumbers, melons and +strawberries, and for the forcing of vegetables. When heat is +required, it is sometimes supplied by means of fermenting dung, +or dung and leaves, or tanner’s bark, but it is much more economically +provided by hot-water pipes. Pits of many different +forms have been designed, but it may be sufficient here to +describe one or two which can be recommended for general +purposes.</p> + +<table class="flt" style="float: right; width: 380px;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:331px; height:229px" src="images/img751a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 10.</span>—Ventilated Plant Pit.</td></tr></table> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>An excellent pit for wintering bedding-out plants or young greenhouse +stock is shown at fig. 10. It is built upon the pigeon-hole +principle as high as the +ground level <i>a</i>, <i>a</i>, and +above that in 9-in. +brickwork. At a distance +of 9 in. retaining +walls <i>b</i>, <i>b</i> are built up +to the ground level, +and the spaces between +the two are +covered by thick +boarding, which is to +be shut down as +shown at <i>c</i> in cold +weather to exclude +frost, and opened as +shown at <i>d</i> in mild +weather to promote +a free circulation of air through the pit. The height of the pit +might be reduced according to the size of the plants; and, to +secure the interior against frost, flow and return hot-water pipe e +should pass along beneath the staging, which should be a strong +wooden trellis supported by projections in the brickwork. The +water which drains from the plants or is spilt in watering would fall +on the bottom, which should be made porous to carry it away. For +many plants this under current of ventilation would be exceedingly +beneficial, especially when cold winds prevented the sashes from +being opened. A pit of this character may be sunk into the ground +deeper than is indicated in the figure if the subsoil is dry and gravelly, +bat in the case of a damp subsoil it should rather be more elevated, +as the soil could easily be sloped up to meet the retaining wall.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:359px; height:130px" src="images/img751b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 11.</span>—Hot-Bed Three-Light Frame.</td></tr></table> + +<p><i>Frames.</i>—Frames (fig. 11) should be made of the best red deal, +1¼ in. thick. A convenient size is 6 ft. wide, 24 in. high at the back +and 15 in front; and they are usually 12 ft. long, which makes three +lights and sashes, though they can be made with two lights or one +light for particular purposes. Indeed, a one-light frame is often +found very convenient for many purposes. The lights should be +2 in. thick, and glazed with 21 oz. sheet glass, in broad panes four or +five to the breadth of a light, and of a length which will work in +conveniently and economically, very long panes being undesirable +from the havoc caused by accidents, and very short ones being +objectionable as multiplying the chances of drip, and the exclusion +of light by the numerous lappings; panes about 12 in. long are of +convenient size for garden lights of this character. In all gardens +the frames and lights should be of one size so as to be interchangeable, +and a good supply of extra lights (sashes) may always be turned to +good account for various purposes.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:359px; height:137px" src="images/img751c.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 12.</span>—Span-Roof Frame.</td></tr></table> + +<p>Span-roof garden frame (fig. 12) may under some circumstances be +useful as a substitute for the three-light frame. It is adapted for +storing plants in winter, for nursing small plants in summer and for +the culture of melons and other crops requiring glass shelter. These +frames are made 11 in. high in front, 22 at the back and 32 at the +ridge, with ends of 1½-in. red deal; the sashes, which are 2 in. thick, +open by gearing, the front and back separately. The lights are +hinged so that they can be turned completely back when necessary. +This more direct and ready access to the plants within is one of the +principal recommendations of this form of pit.</p> +</div> + +<p><i>Mushroom House.</i>—Mushrooms may be grown in sheds and +cellars, or even in protected ridges in the open ground, but a +special structure is usually devoted to them. A lean-to against +the north side of the garden wall will be found suitable for the +purpose, though a span-roofed form may also be adopted, +especially if the building stands apart.</p> + +<table class="flt" style="float: right; width: 370px;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:323px; height:473px" src="images/img751d.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 13.</span>—Lean-to Mushroom House.</td></tr></table> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>The internal arrangement of a lean-to mushroom house is shown in +fig. 13. The length may vary from 30 ft. to 60 ft.; a convenient +width is 10 ft., which admits of a 3½ ft. central path, and beds 3 ft. +wide on each side. The +shelves should be of slate +<i>a</i>, <i>a</i>, supported by iron +uprights <i>b</i>, <i>b</i>, each half +having a front ledge of +bricks set on edge in +cement <i>c</i>, <i>c</i>. The slabs of +slate forming the shelves +should not be too closely +fitted, as a small interval +will prevent the accumulation +of moisture at the +bottom of the bed. They +may be supported by iron +standards or brick piers, +back and front, bearing +up a flat bar of iron on +which the slates may +rest; the use of the bar +will give wider intervals +between the supports, +which will be found convenient +for filling and +emptying the beds. The +roof may be tiled or +slated; but, to prevent +the injurious influence +of hot sun, there should +be an inner roof or ceiling +<i>d</i>, the space between +which and the outer roof +<i>e</i> should be packed with +sawdust. A hot-water pipe <i>f</i> should run along both sides of the +pathway, close to the front ledge of the lowest beds. The different +shelves can be planted in succession; and the lower ones, especially +those on the floor level, as being most convenient, can be utilized +for forcing sea-kale and rhubarb.</p> +</div> + +<p><i>The Fruit Room.</i>—This important store should be dark, +moderately dry, with a steady, moderately cool atmosphere, +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page752" id="page752"></a>752</span> +and with the means of giving sufficient ventilation to keep the air +sweet. It should also be sufficiently commodious to permit of the +fruit being arranged in single layers on the shelves or trays. A +type of building which is becoming increasingly popular for this +purpose, and which is in many respects superior to the older, and +often more expensive structures, is built of wood, with or without +brick foundations, and is thickly thatched with reeds or other +non-conducting material externally—on walls and roof—while +the interior is matchboarded. Ventilation is afforded at the +ends, usually by tilting laths, operated by a cord. Two doors +are provided at one end—an inner, and an outer—the inner +being glazed at the top to admit light. They are generally span-roofed, +about 6 ft. high at the eaves, and 8 or 10 ft. high at the +ridge, according to width.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>The length and breadth of these stores should be governed by the +amount and character of the storage accommodation to be provided. +If intended for storage only, a width of 9 ft. 6 in. would suffice, but if +intended to combine display with storage, the internal diameter +should be about 13 ft. In the former type, the walls are fitted with +four rows of shelves, about 3 ft. wide, and about 1 ft. 6 in. apart. +The shelves are of deal strips, 2 or 3 in. wide, laid about 1 in. apart +for ventilation. These are being superseded, however, by sliding-out +trays of convenient lengths and about 9 in. deep, working on fixed +framework. By this means the storage accommodation is nearly +doubled and the fruit is more easily manipulated. The central +gangway is about 3 ft. 6 in. wide. In the latter a central exhibition +bench about 3 ft. wide and of convenient height is provided. Gangways +2½ ft. wide flank this, while the shelves or drawers with which +the walls are fitted are about 2½ ft. wide.</p> + +<p><i>Care of the Fruit Room.</i>—This consists mainly in the storing only +of such fruits as are dry and in proper condition; in judicious +ventilation, especially in the presence of large quantities of newly-gathered +fruit; in the prompt removal of all decaying fruit; and in +the exclusion of vermin. It is also advisable to wash all woodwork +and gangways annually with a weak solution of formalin, or other +inodorous germicide.</p> +</div> + +<p><i>Heating Apparatus.</i>—Plant houses were formerly heated in +a variety of ways—by fermenting organic matter, such as dung, +by smoke flues, by steam and by hot water circulating in iron +pipes. The last-named method has proved so satisfactory in +practice that it is now in general use for all ordinary purposes. +The water is heated by a furnace, and is conveyed from the boiler +into the houses by a main or “flow” pipe, connected by means +of syphon branches with as many pipes as it is intended to serve. +When cooled it is returned to the boiler by another main or +“return” pipe. Heat is regulated in the structures by means of +valves on the various branch pipes. The flow pipe is attached +to the boiler at its highest point, to take the heated water as it +ascends. The return pipe is connected with the boiler at or near +its lowest point. The highest points of the pipes are fitted with +small taps, for the removal of air, which would retard circulation +if allowed to remain. Heating by hot water may be said to +depend, in part, on the influence of gravity on water being to +some extent overcome by heating in a boiler. It ascends the +flow pipe by convection, where its onward journey would +speedily end if it were not for the driving force of other molecules +of water following, and the suction set up by the gravitation into +the boiler of the cooled water by the return pipe. The power +of water to conduct heat is very low. The conducting power +of the iron in which it is conveyed is high. It is, however, probable +that conduction is to some extent a factor in the process.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>Pipes.—It is a mistake to stint the quantity of piping, since it is +far more economical and better for the plants to have a larger +surface heated moderately than a smaller surface heated excessively. +In view of the fact that air expands, becomes lighter and rises, under +the influence of heat, the pipes should be set near the floor. If +intended to raise the temperature of the structure, they should be +set on iron or brick supports just clear of walls, earth or other heat-absorbing +bodies. Those intended to provide bottom heat, however, +are set in (<i>a</i>) water tanks running under the beds, or (<i>b</i>) in enclosed +dry chambers under the beds, or are (<i>c</i>) embedded in the soil or +plunging material. The first-named method is distinctly superior to +the others. Pipes of 2 in., 3 in., 4 in. and 6 in. diameters are mostly +used, the 4 in. size being the most convenient for general purposes. +The joints are packed or caulked with tow, smeared with a mixture +of white and red lead. Flanged joints are made to bolt together on +washers of vulcanized rubber.</p> + +<p><i>Boilers.</i>—There are numerous types of boilers in use, illustrative +of efforts to secure as much exposure as possible to the action of the +flames. The water-tube type, with multiple waterways, consists of a +number of separate tubes joined together in various ways. Some of +these are built in the form of a blunt cone, and are known as conical +tubular boilers. Others are built with the tubes arranged horizontally, +and are known as horizontal tubular boilers. The majority of +the latter are more or less saddle-shaped. Boilers with a single +waterway are of three principal types, the Cornish, the saddle and the +conical. The Cornish is cylindrical with the furnace occupying about +half the length of the cylinder. The saddle is so named from its +supposed resemblance to a saddle. It is set to span the furnace, +additional exposure to heat being secured in a variety of ways by +flues. Exposure in the conical boiler is direct on its inner surface, +and is supplemented by flues. Tubular boilers, especially the +horizontal types, are very powerful and economical. The Cornish +type is a rather slow and steady boiler, and is much used for providing +heat for large areas. The saddle boiler is very commonly +employed to provide heat for moderately sized and small areas. +Both are powerful and economical. Conical boilers are more expensive +to set by reason of their shape, and are not so convenient to +manipulate as the horizontal kinds. All the above types require a +setting of masonry. Portable boilers are convenient for heating +small areas, and are less expensive to <span class="correction" title="amended from instal">install</span> than those described +above. They are less economical, however, owing to loss of heat from +their exposed surfaces. What are called sectional boilers as used in +America and on the Continent are being introduced to British +gardens. Portions can be added or taken away according to the +amount of heating surface required.</p> + +<p><i>Water Supply.</i>—Wastage of water in the boilers should be made +good automatically from a cistern controlled by means of a ball-cock. +It should be placed as high above the boiler as practicable. The feed +should connect with the return pipe near the point at which it enters +the boiler.</p> + +<p><i>Stokeholds.</i>—These have usually to be excavated to admit of the +boilers being set below the level of the pipes they are intended to +serve. In consequence of their depth, the draining of stokeholds often +presents difficulties. Care should be taken to allow sufficient room +to properly manipulate the fires and to store fuel. It is important +that the ventilation should be as efficient as practicable, especially +where coke fuel is to be used.</p> + +<p><i>Stoking.</i>—The management of the furnaces is relatively easy, and +consists in adapting the volume and intensity of the fires to particular +needs. It involves the keeping dean of flues, ashpits and especially +the fires themselves. Where coke or ordinary hard coal are used, the +removal of clinkers should be done systematically, and the fires +stirred. Anthracite coal fires should not be stirred more than is +absolutely necessary, and should not be fed in driblets. They require +more draught than coke fires, but care must be taken not to give too +much, as excessive heat is likely to melt or soften the fire-bars. +Draught is regulated in the ashpit by opening or closing the bottom +door of the furnace and by the damper on the smoke shaft. The latter +must be of a fairly good height, according to circumstances, to secure +a good draught.</p> + +<p><i>Solar Heat.</i>—The importance of sun heat to the general well-being +of plant life, its influence on the production of flowers and the +ripening of edible fruits, has long been appreciated in horticulture. +The practice of “closing up” early in the afternoon, <i>i.e.</i> the closing +of ventilators (accompanied by syringing and damping of surfaces to +produce a humid atmosphere) has for its object the conservation of +as much solar heat as practicable.</p> + +<p><i>Ventilation.</i>—This consists in the admission of air for the purpose +of preventing stagnation of the atmosphere and for the regulation of +temperature. Means of affording ventilation in all plant houses +should be provided in at least two places—as near the floor as +practicable, and at the top. Mechanical contrivances whereby +whole sets of ventilators may be operated simultaneously are now +in common use, and are much more convenient and economical than +the older method of working each ventilator separately. Efficient +ventilating can only be effected by the exercise of common sense and +vigilance, and care must be taken to avoid cold draughts through the +houses.</p> +</div> + +<p class="pt2 center">III. <i>Garden Materials and Appliances.</i></p> + +<p><i>Soils and Composts.</i>—The principal soils used in gardens, +either alone, or mixed to form what are called composts, are—loam, +sand, peat, leaf-mould and various mixtures and combinations +of these made up to suit the different subjects under +cultivation.</p> + +<p><i>Loam</i> is the staple soil for the gardener; it is not only used +extensively in the pure and simple state, but enters into most +of the composts prepared specially for his plants. For garden +purposes loam should be rather unctuous or soapy to the touch +when moderately dry, not too clinging nor adhesive, and should +readily crumble when a compressed handful is thrown on the +ground. If it clings together closely it is too heavy and requires +amelioration by the admixture of gritty material; if it has +little or no cohesion when squeezed tightly in the hand, it is +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page753" id="page753"></a>753</span> +too light, and needs to be improved by the addition of heavier +or clayey material. Sound friable loam cut one sod deep from +the surface of a pasture, and stacked up for twelve months in +a heap or ridge, is invaluable to the gardener. When employed +for making vine borders, loam of a somewhat heavier nature can +be used with advantage, on account of the porous materials +which should accompany it. For stone fruits a calcareous +loam is best; indeed, for these subjects a rich calcareous loam +used in a pure and simple state cannot be surpassed. Somewhat +heavy loams are best for potting pine apples, for melons and +strawberries, fruit trees in pots, &c., and may be used with the +addition of manures only; but for ornamental plants a loam +of a somewhat freer texture is preferable and more pleasant +to work. Loam which contains much red matter (iron) should +be avoided.</p> + +<p><i>Sand</i> is by itself of little value except for striking cuttings, +for which purpose fine clean sharp silver sand is the best; and +a somewhat coarser kind, if it is gritty, is to be preferred to +the comminuted sands which contain a large proportion of +earthy matter. River sand and the sharp grit washed up +sometimes by the road side are excellent materials for laying +around choice bulbs at planting time to prevent contact with +earth which is perhaps manure-tainted. Sea sand may be +advantageously used both for propagating purposes and for +mixing in composts. For the growth of pot plants sand is an +essential part of most composts, in order to give them the needful +porosity to carry off all excess of moisture from the roots. If +the finer earthy sands only are obtainable, they must be rendered +sharper by washing away the earthy particles. Washed sand +is best for all plants like heaths, which need a pure and lasting +peaty compost.</p> + +<p><i>Peat</i> soil is largely employed for the culture of such plants +as rhododendrons, azaleas, heaths, &c. In districts where +heather and gritty soil predominate, the peat soil is poor and +unprofitable, but selections from both the heathy and the +richer peat soils, collected with judgment, and stored in a dry +part of the compost yard, are essential ingredients in the cultivation +of many choice pot plants, such as the Cape heaths and +many of the Australian plants. Many monocotyledons do well +in peat, even if they do not absolutely require it.</p> + +<p><i>Leaf-mould</i> is eminently suited for the growth of many free-growing +plants, especially when it has been mixed with stable +manure and has been subjected to fermentation for the formation +of hot beds. It any state most plants feed greedily upon +it, and when pure or free from decaying wood or sticks it is a +very safe ingredient in composts; but it is so liable to generate +fungus, and the mycelium or spawn of certain fungi is so injurious +to the roots of trees, attacking them if at all sickly or weakened +by drought, that many cultivators prefer not to mix leaf-mould +with the soil used for permanent plants, as peaches or choice +ornamental trees. For quick growing plants, however, as +for example most annuals cultivated in pots, such as balsams, +cockscombs, globe-amaranths and the like, for cucumbers, +and for young soft-wooded plants generally, it is exceedingly +useful, both by preventing the consolidation of the soil and as +a manure. The accumulations of light earth formed on the +surface in woods where the leaves fall and decay annually are +leaf-mould of the finest quality. Leaves collected in the autumn +and stored in pits or heaps, and covered with a layer of soil, +make beautiful leaf-mould at the end of about twelve months, +if frequently drenched with water or rain during this period.</p> + +<p><i>Composts</i> are mixtures of the foregoing ingredients in varying +proportions, and in combination with manures if necessary, +so as to suit particular plants or classes of plants. The chief +point to be borne in mind in making these mixtures is not to +combine in the same compost any bodies that are antagonistic +in their nature, as for example lime and ammonia. In making +up composts for pot plants, the fibrous portion should not be +removed by sifting, except for small-sized pots, but the turfy +portions should be broken up by hand and distributed in smaller +or larger lumps throughout the mass. When sifting is had +recourse to, the fibrous matter should be rubbed through the +meshes of the sieve along with the earthy particles. Before being +used the turfy ingredients of composts should lie together in +a heap only long enough for the roots of the herbage to die, not +to decompose.</p> + +<p><i>Manures</i> (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Manure</a></span>).—These are of two classes, organic +and inorganic—the former being of animal and vegetable, the +latter of mineral origin. The following are organic manures:</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p><i>Farm-yard manure</i> consists of the mixed dung of horses and cattle +thrown together, and more or less soaked with liquid drainings of the +stable or byre. It is no doubt the finest stimulant for the growth of +plants, and that most adapted to restore the fertile elements which +the plants have abstracted from exhausted soils. This manure is +best fitted for garden use when in a moderately fermented state.</p> + +<p><i>Horse dung</i> is generally the principal ingredient in all hot bed +manure; and, in its partially decomposed state, as afforded by exhausted +hot beds, it is well adapted for garden use. It is most +beneficial on cold stiff soils. It should not be allowed to lie too long +unmoved when fresh, as it will then heat violently, and the ammonia +is thus driven off. To avoid this, it should be turned over two or +three times if practicable, and well moistened—preferably with +farm-yard drainings.</p> + +<p><i>Cow dung</i> is less fertilizing than horse dung, but being slower in +its action it is more durable; it is also cooler, and therefore better +for hot dry sandy soils. Thoroughly decayed, it is one of the best of +all manures for mixing in composts for florists’ flowers and other +choice plants.</p> + +<p><i>Pig dung</i> is very powerful, containing more nitrogen than horse +dung; it is therefore desirable that it should undergo moderate +fermentation, which will be secured by mixing it with litter and a +portion of earth. When weeds are thrown to the pigs, this fermentation +becomes specially desirable to kill their seeds.</p> + +<p><i>Night-soil</i> is an excellent manure for all bulky crops, but requires +to be mixed with earth or peat, or coal-ashes, so as both to deodorize +it and to ensure its being equally distributed. Quicklime should not +be used, as it dispels the greater part of the ammonia. When +prepared by drying and mixing with various substances, night-soil +is sold as desiccated night-soil or native guano, the value of which +depends upon the materials used for admixture.</p> + +<p><i>Malt-dust</i> is an active manure frequently used as a top-dressing, +especially for fruit trees in pots. It is rapid in its action, but its +effects are not very permanent. <i>Rape dust</i> is somewhat similar in its +character and action.</p> + +<p><i>Bones</i> are employed as a manure with decided advantage both to +vegetable crops and to fruit trees, as well as to flowers. For turnips +bone manure is invaluable. The effects of bones are no doubt +mainly due to the phosphates they contain, and they are most +effectual on dry soils. They are most quickly available when dissolved +in sulphuric acid.</p> + +<p><i>Guano</i> is a valuable manure now much employed, and may be +applied to almost every kind of crop with decided advantage. It +should be mixed with six or eight times its weight of loam or ashes, +charred peat, charcoal-dust or some earthy matter, before it is +applied to the soil, as from its causticity it is otherwise not unlikely +to kill or injure the plants to which it is administered. Peruvian +guano is obtained from the excreta of South American sea-birds, and +fish guano from the waste of fish. Both are remarkable for the +quantity of nitrates and phosphates they contain.</p> + +<p><i>Pigeon dung</i> approaches guano in its power as manure. It should +be laid up in ridges of good loamy soil in alternate layers to form a +compost, which becomes a valuable stimulant for any very choice +subjects if cautiously used. The dung of the domestic fowl is very +similar in character.</p> + +<p><i>Horn</i>, <i>hoof-parings</i>, <i>woollen rags</i>, <i>fish</i>, <i>blubber</i> and <i>blood</i>, after treatment +with sulphuric acid, are all good manures, and should be utilized +if readily obtainable.</p> + +<p><i>Liquid manure</i>, consisting of the drainings of dung-heaps, stables, +cowsheds, &c., or of urine collected from dwelling houses or other +sources, is a most valuable and powerful stimulant, and can be +readily applied to the roots of growing plants. The urine should be +allowed to putrefy, as in its decomposition a large amount of ammonia +is formed, which should then be fixed by sulphuric acid or gypsum; +or it may be applied to the growing crops after being freely diluted +with water or absorbed in a compost heap. Liquid manures can be +readily made from most of the solid manures when required, simply +by admixture with water. When thus artificially compounded, +unless for immediate use, they should be made strong for convenience +of storage, and applied as required much diluted.</p> + +<p>The following are inorganic manures:</p> + +<p><i>Ammonia</i> is the most powerful and one of the most important of +the constituents of manures generally, since it is the chief source +whence plants derive their nitrogen. It is largely supplied in all the +most fertilizing of organic manures, but when required in the inorganic +state must be obtained from some of the salts of ammonia, as +the sulphate, the muriate or the phosphate, all of which, being +extremely energetic, require to be used with great caution. These +salts of ammonia may be used at the rate of from 2 to 3 cwt. per acre +as a top-dressing in moist weather. When dissolved in water they +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page754" id="page754"></a>754</span> +form active liquid manures. The most commonly used nitrogenous +manures are nitrate of soda, nitrate of potash and sulphate of +ammonia, the prices of which are constantly fluctuating.</p> + +<p><i>Potash</i> and <i>soda</i> are also valuable inorganic manures in the form +of carbonates, sulphates, silicates and phosphates, but the most +valuable is the nitrate of potash. The price, however, is generally so +high that its use is practically nil, except in small doses as a liquid +manure for choice pot plants. Cheaper substitutes, however, are +now found in sulphate of potash, and muriate of potash and kainit. +The two last-named must not be applied direct to growing crops, but +to the soil some weeks in advance of sowing or cropping. The +manures of this class are of course of value only in cases where the +soil is naturally deficient in them. On this account the salts of soda +are of less importance than those of potash. The value of wood ashes +as a manure very much depends upon the carbonate and other +salts of potash which they contain.</p> + +<p><i>Phosphoric acid</i>, in the form of phosphates, is a most valuable +plant food, and is absorbed by most plants in fairly large quantities +from the soil. It induces the earlier production of flowers and +fruits. In a natural state it is obtained from bones, guano and +wood ashes; and in an artificial condition from basic slag or Thomas’s +phosphate, coprolites and superphosphate of lime.</p> + +<p><i>Lime</i> in the caustic state is beneficially applied to soils which +contain an excess of inert vegetable matter, and hence may be used +for the improvement of old garden soils saturated with humus, or +of peaty soils not thoroughly reclaimed. It does not supply the +place of organic manures, but only renders that which is present +available for the nourishment of the plants. It also improves the +texture of clay soils.</p> + +<p><i>Gypsum</i>, or sulphate of lime, applied as a top-dressing at the rate +of 2 to 3 cwt. per acre, has been found to yield good results, +especially on light soils. It is also employed in the case of liquid +manures to fix the ammonia.</p> + +<p><i>Gas lime</i>, after it has been exposed to the air for a few months is +an excellent manure on heavy soils. In a fresh state it is poisonous +and fatal to vegetation, and is often used for this reason to dress land +infested with wireworms, grubs, club-root fungus, &c.</p> + +<p><i>Burnt clay</i> has a very beneficial effect on clay land by improving +its texture and rendering soluble the alkaline substances it contains. +The clay should be only slightly burnt, so as to make it crumble +down readily; in fact, the fire should not be allowed to break +through, but should be constantly repressed by the addition of +material. The burning should be effected when the soil is dry.</p> + +<p><i>Vegetable refuse</i> of all kinds, when smother-burned in a similar +way, becomes a valuable mechanical improver of the soil; but the +preferable course is to decompose it in a heap with quicklime and +layers of earth, converting it into leaf-mould. Potato haulms, and +club-rooted cabbage crops should, however, never be mixed with +ordinary clean vegetable refuse, as they would be most likely to +perpetuate the terrible diseases to which they are subject. The +refuse of such plants should be burned as early as possible. The ash +may be used as manure.</p> + +<p><i>Soot</i> forms a good top-dressing; it consists principally of charcoal, +but contains ammonia and a smaller proportion of phosphates and +potash, whence its value as a manure is derived. It should be kept +dry until required for use. It may also be used beneficially in preventing +the attacks of insects, such as the onion gnat and turnip fly, +by dusting the plants or dressing the ground with it.</p> + +<p><i>Common salt</i> acts as a manure when used in moderate quantities, +but in strong doses is injurious to vegetation. It suits many of +the esculent crops, as onions, beans, cabbages, carrots, beet-root, +asparagus, &c.; the quantity applied varies from 5 to 10 bushels +per acre. It is used as a top-dressing sown by the hand. Hyacinths +and other bulbs derive benefit from slight doses, while to asparagus +as much as 20 ℔ to the rood has been used with beneficial effect. +At the rate of from 6 to 10 bushels to the acre it may be used on +garden lawns to prevent worm casts. For the destruction of weeds +on gravel walks or in paved yards a strong dose of salt, applied +either dry or in a very strong solution, is found very effective, +especially a hot solution, but after a time much of it becomes washed +down, and the residue acts as a manure; its continued application is +undesirable, as gravel so treated becomes pasty.</p> +</div> + +<p><i>Garden Tools, &c.</i>—Most of these are so well known that we +shall not discuss them here. They are, moreover, illustrated +and described in the catalogues of most nurserymen and dealers +in horticultural sundries.</p> + +<p><i>Tallies or Labels.</i>—The importance of properly labelling plants +can hardly be over-estimated. For ordinary purposes labels of +wood of various sizes (sold in bundles) are the most convenient. +These should be wiped with a little white paint or linseed oil, and +written with a soft lead pencil before the surface becomes dry. +Copying-ink pencils should not be used, as water will wash away +the writing. For permanent plants, as trees, roses, &c., metallic +labels with raised type are procurable from dealers, and are +neat, durable and convenient. Permanent labels may also be +made from sheet lead, the names being punched in by means +of steel type. For stove and greenhouse plants, orchids, ferns, +&c., labels made of xylonite, zinc and other materials are +also used.</p> + +<p class="pt2 center">IV. <i>Garden Operations.</i></p> + +<p><i>Propagation.</i>—The increase of plants, so far as the production +of new individuals of particular kinds is concerned, is one of +the most important and constantly recurring of gardening operations. +In effecting this, various processes are adopted, which +will now be described.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>1. <i>By Seeds.</i>—This may be called the natural means of increasing +the number of any particular kind of plant, but it is to be remembered +that we do not by that means secure an exact reproduction +of the parent, especially in the case of plants raised or evolved in the +course of generations by hybridization and selection. We may get +a progeny very closely resembling it, yet each plant possessing a +distinct individuality of its own; or we may get a progeny very +unlike the parent, or a mixed progeny showing various degrees of +divergence. Many seeds will grow freely if sown in a partially +ripened state; but as a general rule seeds have to be kept for some +weeks or months in store, and hence they should be thoroughly +ripened before being gathered. They should be sown in fine rich soil, +and such as will not readily get consolidated. In the case of outdoor +crops, if the soil is inclined to be heavy, it is a good plan to cover all +the smaller seeds with a light compost. Very small seeds should only +have a sprinkling of light earth or of sand, and sometimes only a thin +layer of soft moss to exclude light and preserve an equable degree +of moisture. Somewhat larger seeds sown indoors may be covered +to the depth of one-eighth or one-fourth of an inch, according to +their size. Outdoor crops require to be sown, the smaller seeds +from ½ to 1 in., and the larger ones from 2 to 4 in. under the +surface, the covering of the smaller ones especially being light +and open. Many seeds grow well when raked in; that is, the +surface on which they are scattered is raked backwards and forwards +until most of them are covered. Whatever the seeds, the ground +should be made tolerably firm both beneath and above them; this +may be done by treading in the case of most kitchen garden crops, +which are also better sown in drills, this admitting the more readily +of the ground being kept clear from weeds by hoeing. All seeds +require a certain degree of heat to induce germination. For tropical +plants the heat of a propagating house—75° to 80°, with a bottom +heat of 80° to 90°—is desirable, and in many cases absolutely +necessary; for others, such as half-hardy annuals, a mild hot bed, +or a temperate pit ranging from 60° to 70°, is convenient; while of +course all outdoor crops have to submit to the natural temperature +of the season. It is very important that seeds should be sown when +the ground is in a good working condition, and not clammy with +moisture.</p> + +<p>2. <i>By Offsets.</i>—This mode of increase applies specially to bulbous +plants, such as the lily and hyacinth, which produce little bulbs on +the exterior round their base. Most bulbs do so naturally to a +limited but variable extent; when more rapid increase is wanted the +heart is destroyed, and this induces the formation of a larger number +of offsets. The stem bulbs of lilies are similar in character to the +offsets from the parent bulb. The same mode of increase occurs in +the gladiolus and crocus, but their bulb-like permanent parts are +called corms, not bulbs. After they have ripened in connexion with +the parent bulb, the offsets are taken off, stored in appropriate +places, and at the proper season planted out in nursery beds.</p> + +<p>3. <i>By Tubers.</i>—The tuber is a fleshy underground stem, furnished +with eyes which are either visible, as in the potato and in some +familiar kinds of <i>Tropaeolum</i> (<i>T. tuberosum</i>) and of <i>Oxalis</i> (<i>O. crenata</i>), +or latent, as in the Chinese yam (<i>Dioscorea Batatas</i>). When used +for propagation, the tubers are cut up into what are called “sets,” +every portion having an eye attached being capable of forming an +independent plant. The cut portions of bulky sets should be suffered +to lie a short time before being planted, in order to dry the surface +and prevent rotting; this should not, however, be done with such +tropical subjects as caladiums, the tubers of which are often cut up +into very small fragments for propagation, and of course require to +be manipulated in a properly heated propagating pit. No eyes are +visible in the Chinese yam, but slices of the long club-shaped tubers +will push out young shoots and form independent plants, if planted +with ordinary care.</p> + +<p>4. <i>By Division.</i>—Division, or partition, is usually resorted to in +the case of tufted growing plants, chiefly perennial herbs; they +may be evergreen, as chamomile or thrift, or when dormant may +consist only of underground crowns, as larkspur or lily-of-the-valley; +but in either case the old tufted plant being dug up may +be divided into separate pieces, each furnished with roots, and, +when replanted, generally starting on its own account without much +check. Suffruticose plants and even small shrubs may be propagated +in this way, by first planting them deeper than they are ordinarily +grown, and then after the lapse of a year, which time they require to +get rooted, taking them up again and dividing them into parts or +separate plants. Box-edging and southernwood are examples. +The same ends may sometimes be effected by merely working fine +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page755" id="page755"></a>755</span> +soil in amongst the base of the stems, and giving them time to throw +out roots before parting them.</p> + +<p>5. <i>By Suckers.</i>—Root suckers are young shoots from the roots of +plants, chiefly woody plants, as may often be seen in the case of the +elm and the plum. The shoots when used for propagation must be +transplanted with all the roots attached to them, care being taken +not to injure the parent plant. If they spring from a thick root it is +not to be wantonly severed, but the soil should be removed and the +sucker taken off by cutting away a clean slice of the root, which will +then heal and sustain no harm. Stem suckers are such as proceed +from the base of the stem, as is often seen in the case of the currant +and lilac. They should be removed in any case; when required for +propagation they should be taken with all the roots attached to +them, and they should be as thoroughly disbudded below ground as +possible, or they are liable to continue the habit of suckering. In +this case, too, the soil should be carefully opened and the shoots removed +with a suckering iron, a sharp concave implement with long +iron handle (fig. 14). When the number of roots is limited, the tops +should be shortened, and some care in watering and mulching should +be bestowed on the plant if it is of value.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:383px; height:50px" src="images/img755a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 14.</span>—Suckering Iron.</td></tr></table> + +<p>6. <i>By Runners.</i>—The young string-like shoots produced by the +strawberry are a well-known example of runners. The process of +rooting these runners should be facilitated by fixing them close down +to the soil, which is done by small wooden hooked pegs or by stones; +hair-pins, short lengths of bent wire, &c., may also be used. After +the roots are formed, the strings are cut through, and the runners +become independent plants.</p> + +<p>7. <i>By Proliferous Buds.</i>—Not unlike the runner, though growing +in a very different way, are the bud-plants formed on the fronds of +several kinds of ferns belonging to the genera <i>Asplenium</i>, <i>Woodwardia</i>, +<i>Polystichum</i>, <i>Lastrea</i>, <i>Adiantum</i>, <i>Cystopteris</i>, &c. In some of these +(<i>Adiantum caudatum</i>, <i>Polystichum lepidocaulon</i>) the rachis of the +frond is lengthened out much like the string of the strawberry +runner, and bears a plant at its apex. In others (<i>Polystichum +angulare proliferum</i>) the stipes below and the rachis amongst the +pinnae develop buds, which are often numerous and crowded. In +others again (<i>Woodwardia orientalis</i>, <i>Asplenium bulbiferum</i>), buds are +numerously produced on the upper surface of the fronds. These will +develop on the plant if allowed to remain. For propagation the +buibiferous portion is pegged down on the surface of a pot of suitable +soil; if kept close in a moist atmosphere, the little buds will soon +strike root and form independent plants. In <i>Cystopteris</i> the buds +are deciduous, falling off as the fronds acquire maturity, but, if +collected and pressed into the surface of a pot of soil and kept close, +they will grow up into young plants the following season. In some +genera of flowering plants, and notably in Bryophyllum, little plants +form on various parts of the leaves. In some Monocotyledons, ordinarily +in Chlorophytum, and exceptionally in Phalaenopsis and others, +new plants arise on the flower stems.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:427px; height:275px" src="images/img755b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 15.</span>—Propagation by Layers—<i>a</i>, tonguing; <i>b</i>, ringing.</td></tr></table> + +<p>8. <i>By Layers.</i>—Layering consists in preparing the branch of a +plant while still attached to the parent, bending it so that the part +operated on is brought under ground, and then fixing it there by +means of a forked peg. Some plants root so freely that they need +only pegging down; but in most cases the arrest of the returning sap +to form a callus, and ultimately young roots, must be brought about +artificially, either by twisting the branch, by splitting it, by girding +it closely with wire, by taking off a ring of bark, or by “tonguing.” +In tonguing the leaves are cut off the portion which has to be brought +under ground, and a tongue or slit is then cut from below upwards +close beyond a joint, of such length that, when the cut part of the +layer is pegged an inch or two (or in larger woody subjects 3 or 4 in.) +below the surface, the elevation of the point of the shoot to an upright +position may open the incision, and thus set it free, so that it may +be surrounded by earth to induce it to form roots. The whole +branch, except a few buds at the extremity, is covered with soil. +The best seasons for these operations are early spring and mid-summer, +that is, before the sap begins to flow, and after the first +flush of growth has passed off. One whole summer, sometimes two, +must elapse before the layers will be fully rooted in the case of woody +plants; but such plants as carnations and picotees, which are +usually propagated in this way, in favourable seasons take only a +few weeks to root, as they are layered towards the end of the blooming +season in July, and are taken off and planted separately early in +the autumn. Fig. 15 shows a woody plant with one layer prepared +by tonguing and another by ringing.</p> + +<p>In general, each shoot makes one layer, but in plants like the +<i>Wistaria</i> or <i>Clematis</i>, which make long shoots, what is called serpentine +layering may be adopted; that is, the shoot is taken alternately +below and above the surface, as frequently as its length permits. +There must, however, be a joint at the underground part where it is +to be tongued and pegged, and at least one sound bud in each exposed +part, from which a shoot may be developed to form the top of +the young plant.</p> + +<p>9. <i>By Circumposition.</i>—When a plant is too high or its habit does +not conveniently admit of its being layered, it may often be increased +by what is called circumposition, the soil being carried up to the +branch operated on. The branch is to be prepared by ringing or +notching or wiring as in layering, and a temporary stand made to +support the vessel which is to contain the soil. The vessel may be a +flower-pot sawn in two, so that the halves may be bound together +when used, or it may be a flower-pot or box with a side slit which +will admit the shoot; this vessel is to be filled compactly with suitable +porous earth, the opening at the slit being stopped by pieces of +slate or tile. The earth must be kept moist, which is perhaps best +done by a thick mulching of moss, the moss being also bound closely +over the openings in the vessel, and all being kept damp by frequent +syringings. Gardeners often dispense with the pot, using sphagnum +moss and leaf-mould only when propagating india-rubber plants, +perpetual carnations, dracaenas, &c.</p> + +<p>10. <i>By Grafts.</i>—Grafting is so extensively resorted to that it is impossible +here to notice all its phases. It is perhaps of most importance +as the principal means of propagating our hardy kinds of fruit, +especially the apple and the pear; but the process is the same with +most other fruits and ornamental hardy trees and shrubs that are +thus propagated. The stocks are commonly divided into two +classes:—(1) free stocks, which consist of seedling plants, chiefly +of the same genus or species as the trees from which the scions are +taken; and (2) dwarfing stocks, which are of more diminutive +growth, either varieties of the same species or species of the same or +some allied genus as the scion, which have a tendency to lessen the +expansion of the engrafted tree. The French Paradise is the best +dwarfing stock for apples, and the quince for pears. In determining +the choice of stocks, the nature of the soil in which the grafted trees +are to grow should have full weight. In a soil, for example, naturally +moist, it is proper to graft pears on the quince, because this plant +not only thrives in such a soil, but serves to check the luxuriance +thereby produced. The scions should always be ripened portions of +the wood of the preceding year, selected from healthy parents; in +the case of shy-bearing kinds, it is better to obtain them from the +fruitful branches. The scions should be taken off some weeks before +they are wanted, and half-buried in the earth, since the stock at the +time of grafting should in point of vegetation be somewhat in advance +of the graft. During winter, grafts may be conveyed long distances, +if carefully packed. If they have been six weeks or two months +separated from the parent plant, they should be grafted low on the +stock, and the earth should be ridged up round them, leaving only +one bud of the scion exposed above ground. The best season for +grafting apples and similar hardy subjects in the open air is in March +and April; but it may be commenced as soon as the sap in the stock +is fairly in motion.</p> + +<p><i>Whip-grafting</i> or <i>Tongue-grafting</i> (fig. 16) is the most usual mode +of performing the operation when there is no great difference in +thickness between the stock and scion. The stock is headed off by +an oblique transverse cut as shown at <i>a</i>, a slice is then pared off the +side as at <i>b</i>, and on the face of this a tongue or notch is made, the cut +being in a downward direction; the scion <i>c</i> is pared off in a similar +way by a single clean sharp cut, and this is notched or tongued in the +opposite direction as the figure indicates; the two are then fitted +together as shown at <i>d</i>, so that the inner bark of each may come in +contact at least on one side, and then tied round with damp soft +bast as at <i>e</i>; next some grafting clay is taken on the forefinger and +pushed down on each side so as to fill out the space between the +top of the stock and the graft, and a portion is also rubbed over +the ligatures on the side where the graft is placed, a handful of the +clay is then taken, flattened out, and rolled closely round the whole +point of junction, being finished off to a tapering form both above and +below, as shown by the dotted line <i>f</i>. To do this deftly, the hands +should be plunged from time to time in dry ashes, to prevent the clay +from sticking to them. Various kinds of grafting wax are now +obtainable, and are a great improvement upon the clay process. +Some cold mastics become very pliable with the warmth of the hands. +They are best applied with a piece of flat wood; or very liquid waxes +may be applied with a brush.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page756" id="page756"></a>756</span></p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:418px; height:354px" src="images/img756a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 16.</span>—Whip-grafting or Tongue-grafting.</td></tr></table> + +<p><i>Cleft-grafting</i> (fig. 17) is another method in common use. The +stock <i>a</i> is cleft down from the horizontal cut <i>d</i> (but not nearly so +much as the sketch would indicate), and the scion, when cut to a thin +wedge form, as shown at <i>c</i> and <i>e</i>, is inserted into the cleft; the whole +is then bound up and clayed as in the former case. This is not so +good a plan as whip-grafting; it is improved by sloping the stock +on one side to the size of the graft.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter" colspan="2"><img style="width:459px; height:269px" src="images/img756b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 17.</span>—Cleft-grafting.</td> +<td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 18.</span>—Crown-Grafting.</td></tr></table> + +<p><i>Crown-grafting</i> or <i>Rind-grafting</i> (fig. 18) is preferable to cleft-grafting, +inasmuch as it leaves no open spaces in the wood. The +stock <i>b</i> is cut off horizontally or nearly so in January or February. +At grafting time a slit is cut in the bark <i>f</i>, <i>f</i>, a wedge-shaped piece of +iron or a small chisel being inserted to raise the bark; the scion is +then cut to the same wedge-shaped form <i>g</i>, <i>h</i>, and inserted in the space +opened for it between the alburnum and the bark, after which it is +tied down and clayed or waxed over in the manner already described.</p> + +<p><i>Side-grafting</i> is performed like whip-grafting, the graft being +inserted on the side of a branch and not at the cut end of the stock. +It may be practised for the purpose of changing a part of the tree, +and is sometimes very useful for filling out vacant spaces, in trained +trees especially.</p> + +<p><i>Inarching</i> is another form of side-grafting. Here the graft is fixed +to the side of the stock, which is planted or potted close to the plant +to be worked. The branches are applied to the stock while yet +attached to the parent tree, and remain so until united. In the +case of trained trees, a young shoot is sometimes inarched to its +parent stem to supply a branch where one has not been developed +in the ordinary way.</p> + +<p>For the propagation by grafts of stove and greenhouse plants the +process adopted is whip-grafting or a modification of it. The parts +are, however, sometimes so small that the tongue of the graft is +dispensed with, and the two stems simply pared smooth and bound +together. In this way hardy rhododendrons of choice sorts, greenhouse +azaleas, the varieties of the orange family, camellias, roses, rare +conifers, clematises and numerous other plants are increased. +Raffia—which has taken the place of bast—is generally used for +tying, and grafting wax is only used occasionally with such plants +under glass. All grafting of this kind is done in the propagating +house, at any season when grafts are obtainable in a fit state—the +plants when operated on being placed in close frames warmed to a +suitable temperature. Roses and clematis, however, are generally +grafted from January to March and April.</p> + +<p><i>Root-grafting</i> is sometimes resorted to where extensive increase is +an object, or where stem-grafting or other means of propagation are +not available. In this case the scion is grafted directly on to a +portion of the root of some appropriate stock, both graft and stock +being usually very small; the grafted root is then potted so as to +cover the point of junction with the soil, and is plunged in the bed +of the propagating house, where it gets the slight stimulus of a +gentle bottom heat. Dahlias (fig. 19), paeonies, and Wistarias may be +grafted by inserting young shoots into the neck of one of the fleshy +roots of each kind respectively—the best method of doing so being +to cut a triangular section near the upper end of the root, just large +enough to admit the young shoot when slightly pared away on two +sides to give it a similar form. In the case of large woody plants thus +worked (fig. 20) the grafted roots, after the operation is completed, +are planted in nursery beds, so that the upper buds only are exposed +to the atmosphere, as shown in the figure.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter" colspan="2"><img style="width:530px; height:490px" src="images/img756c.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 19.</span>—Root-grafting<br />of Dahlia.</td> +<td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 20.</span>—Root-grafting of<br />Woody Plant.</td></tr></table> + +<p>11. <i>By Buds.</i>—Budding is the inserting of a bud of a choice variety +cut with a portion of bark into the bark of the stock of an inferior +nature where it is bound gently but firmly. Stone fruits, such as +peaches, apricots, plums, cherries, &c., are usually propagated in this +way, as well as roses and many other plants. In the propagating +house budding may be done at any season when the sap is in motion; +but for fruit trees, roses, &c., in the open air, it is usually done in July +or August, when the buds destined for the following year are completely +formed in the axils of the leaves, and when the bark separates +freely from the wood it covers. Those buds are to be preferred, as +being best ripened, which occur on the middle portion of a young +shoot, and which are quite dormant at the time.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:449px; height:296px" src="images/img756d.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 21.</span>—Shield-budding.</td></tr></table> + +<p>The simplest and most generally practised form of budding is that +called <i>shield-budding</i> or <b>T</b>-<i>budding</i> (fig. 21). The operator should be +provided with a sharp budding knife having a thin ivory or bone +handle, for raising the bark of the stock. A horizontal incision is +made in the bark quite down to the wood, and from this a perpendicular +slit is drawn upwards to the extent of perhaps an inch, so that +the slit has a resemblance to the letter <b>T</b>, as at <i>a</i>. A bud is then cut +by a clean incision from the tree intended to be propagated, having a +portion of the wood attached to it, and so that the whole may be +about 1 in. long, as at <i>d</i>. The bit of wood e must be gently withdrawn, +care being taken that the bud adheres wholly to the bark or shield, +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page757" id="page757"></a>757</span> +as it is called, of which f is a side view. The bark on each side of the +perpendicular slit being then cautiously opened, as at <i>b</i>, with the +handle of the knife, the bud and shield are inserted as shown at <i>c</i>. +The upper tip of the shield is cut off horizontally, and brought to fit +the bark of the stock at the transverse incision. Slight ties of soft +cotton wool or worsted, or moist raffia, are then applied. In about a +month or six weeks the ligatures may be removed or slit with the +knife to allow for the swelling stem, when, if the operation has been +successful, the bud will be fresh and full, and the shield firmly +united to the wood. In the following spring a strong shoot will be +thrown out, and to prevent its being blown out by the wind, must be +fastened to a stake, or to the lower portion of the old stock which +has been left for the purpose.</p> + +<p>To be successful the operation should be performed with a quick +and light hand, so that no part of the delicate tissues be injured, as +would happen if they were left for a time exposed, or if the bud were +forced in like a wedge. The union is effected as in grafting, by means +of the organizable sap or cambium, and the less this is disturbed until +the inner bark of the shield is pressed and fixed against it the better. +Trees to be grown in the form of a bush are usually budded low down +on the stem of the stock as near the root as possible to obviate the +development of wild suckers later on. Standard trees, however, are +budded on a sturdy young shoot close to the top. In either case the +stocks should have been carefully planted at least the previous +November when the work is to be done in the open air the following +July or August.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:450px; height:383px" src="images/img757a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 22.</span>—Propagation by Cuttings.</td></tr></table> + +<p>12. <i>By Branch Cuttings.</i>—Propagation by cuttings is the mode +of increase most commonly adopted, next to that by seeds. It is +effected by taking a portion from a branch or shoot of the plant, +and placing it in the soil. There are great differences to be observed +in the selection and treatment of cuttings. Sometimes soft green +leafy shoots, as in <i>Verbena</i> (fig. 22, <i>a</i>), are used; sometimes the shoots +must be half-ripened, and sometimes fully matured. So of the mode +of preparation; some will root if cut off or broken off at any point +and thrust into wet earth or sand in a warm place (fig. 22, <i>a</i>); others +require to be cut with the utmost care just below a joint or leaf-base, +and by a keen blade so as to sever the tissues without tearing or +bruising; and others again after being cut across may be split up for +a short distance, but there seems to be no particular virtue in this. +It is usual and in most cases necessary to cut away the lower portion +of a cutting up to just below the node or joint (fig. 22, <i>b</i>, <i>d</i>, <i>e</i>). The +internodal parts will not often divide so as to form separate individual +plants; sometimes, however, this happens; it is said that the +smallest piece of <i>Torenia asiatica</i>, for instance, will grow. Then as to +position, certain cuttings grow readily enough if planted outdoors in +the open soil, some preferring shade, others sunshine, while less +hardy subjects must be covered with a bell-glass, or must be in a close +atmosphere with bottom heat, or must have the aid of pure silver +sand to facilitate their rooting (fig. 22, <i>c</i>). Cuttings should in all +cases be taken from healthy plants, and from shoots of a moderate +degree of vigour. It is also important to select leafy growths, and +not such as will at once run up to flower. Young shoots which have +become moderately firm generally make the best cuttings, but sometimes +the very softest shoots strike more readily. For all indoor +plants in a growing state spring is a good time for taking cuttings, but +at any time during the summer months is also favourable if cuttings +are obtainable.</p> + +<p>Cuttings of deciduous plants should be taken off after the fall +of the leaf. These cuttings should be about 6 in. to 1 ft. in length, and +should be planted at once in the ground so as to leave only the top +with the two or three preserved buds exposed. If a clean stem, +however, is desired, a longer portion may be left uncovered. Gooseberries, +currants, roses and many hardy deciduous trees and shrubs +are easily propagated in this way if the cuttings are inserted in well-drained +soil about the end of October or early in November.</p> + +<p>Cuttings of growing plants are prepared by removing with a sharp +knife, and moderately close, the few leaves which would otherwise +be buried in the soil; they are then cut clean across just below a +joint; the fewer the leaves thus removed, however, the better, +as if kept from being exhausted they help to supply the elaborated +sap out of which the roots are formed. Free-rooting subjects strike +in any lightish sandy mixture; but difficult subjects should have +thoroughly well-drained pots, a portion of the soil proper for the +particular plants made very sandy, and a surfacing of clean sharp +silver sand about as deep as the length of the cutting.</p> + +<table class="flt" style="float: right; width: 430px;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:377px; height:437px" src="images/img757b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 23.</span>—Leaf Cuttings.</td></tr></table> + +<p>Such difficult plants as heaths are reared in silver sand, a stratum +of which is placed over the sandy peat soil in a specially prepared +cutting pot, and +thus the cuttings, +though rooting in +the sand under a +bell-glass, find at +once on the emission +of roots congenial +soil for +them to grow in +(fig. 22, <i>c</i>).</p> + +<p>Hardy plants, +such as pinks, +pansies, &c., are +propagated by +cuttings planted +during early summer +in light rich +soil. The cuttings +of pinks are called +pipings (fig. 22, <i>d</i>), +and are planted +about June, while +pansies may be +renewed in this +way both in spring +and in autumn.</p> + +<p>13. <i>By Leaf +Cuttings.</i>—Many +plants may be propagated +by planting +their leaves or portions of the leaves as cuttings, as, for example, +the <i>Gloxinia</i> (fig. 23, <i>a</i>) and <i>Gesnera</i>, the succulent <i>Sempervivum</i>, +<i>Echeveria</i>, <i>Pachyphytum</i> and their allies, and such hard-leaved plants +as <i>Theophrasta</i> (fig. 23, <i>b</i>). The leaves are best taken off with the +base whole, and should be planted in well-drained sandy soil; in +due time they form roots, and ultimately from some latent bud +a little shoot which forms the young plant. The treatment is +precisely like that of branch cuttings. Gloxinias, begonias, &c., grow +readily from fragments of the leaves cut clean through the thick +veins and ribs, and planted edgewise like cuttings. This class of +subjects may also be fixed flat on the surface of the cutting pot, by +means of little pegs or hooks, the +main ribs being cut across at intervals, +and from these points roots, +and eventually young tubers, will be +produced (fig. 24).</p> + +<table class="flt" style="float: left; width: 290px;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figleft1"><img style="width:233px; height:162px" src="images/img757c.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption1"><span class="sc">Fig. 24.</span>—Leaf-Propagation of Begonia.</td></tr></table> + +<p>14. <i>By Root Cuttings.</i>—Some +plants which are not easily increased +by other means propagate readily +from root cuttings. Amongst the +indoor plants which may be so +treated, <i>Bouvardia</i>, <i>Pelargonium</i>, +<i>Aralia</i> and <i>Wigandia</i> may be mentioned. +The <i>modus operandi</i> is to +turn the plant out of its pot, +shake away the soil so as to free +the roots, and then select as many pieces of the stouter roots as may +be required. These are cut up into half-inch lengths (more or less), +and inserted in light sandy soil round the margin of a cutting pot, so +that the upper end of the root cutting may be level with the soil or +only just covered by it. The pots should be watered so as to settle the +soil, and be placed in the close atmosphere of the propagating pit or +frame, where they will need scarcely any water until the buds are +seen pushing through the surface.</p> + +<p>There are various herbaceous plants which may be similarly +treated, such as sea-kale and horseradish, and, among ornamental +plants, the beautiful autumn-blooming <i>Anemone japonica</i>, <i>Bocconia +cordata</i>, <i>Dictamnus Fraxinella</i>—the burning bush; the sea hollies +(<i>Eryngium</i>), the globe thistle (<i>Echinops ritro</i>), the Oriental poppy +(Papaver orientale), the sea lavender (<i>Statice latifolia</i>), <i>Senecio pulcher</i>, +&c. The sea-kale and horseradish require to be treated in the open +garden, where the cut portions should be planted in lines in well-worked +soil; but the roots of the others should be planted in pots +and kept in a close frame with a little warmth till the young shoots +have started.</p> + +<p>Various hardy ornamental trees are also increased in this way, as +the quince, elm, robinia and mulberry, and the rose amongst shrubs. +The most important use to which this mode of propagation is put is, +however, the increase of roses, and of the various plums used as +stocks for working the choicer stone fruits. The method in the +latter case is to select roots averaging the thickness of the little +finger, to cut these into lengths of about 3 or 4 in., and to plant them +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page758" id="page758"></a>758</span> +in lines just beneath the surface in nursery beds. The root cuttings +of rose-stocks are prepared and treated in a similar way.</p> + +<table class="flt" style="float: right; width: 385px;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:335px; height:547px" src="images/img758a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 25.</span>—Cutting of Single Eye.</td></tr></table> + +<p>15. <i>By Cuttings of Single Eyes.</i>—This mode of propagation is +by cutting the ripened young branches into short lengths, each containing +one well-matured bud or eye, with a short portion of the +stem above and below. +It is a common mode of +propagating vines, the +eyes being in this case +cut from the ripened +leafless wood. The eyes +(fig. 25, <i>a</i>) are planted +just below the surface in +pots of light soil, which +are placed in a hot bed +or propagating pit, and +in due time each pushes +up a young shoot which +forms the future stem, +while from about its +base the young roots are +produced (fig. 25, <i>b</i>) +which convert it into +an independent plant. +In the case of plants +with persistent leaves, +the stem may be cut +through just above and +below the bud, retaining +the leaf which is left on +the cutting, the old +wood and eye being +placed beneath the soil +and the leaf left exposed. +In this way the +india-rubber tree (<i>Ficus +elastica</i>), for example, +and many other tender +plants may be increased +with the aid of a brisk +bottom heat. Many of +the free-growing soft-wooded plants may also be grown from cuttings +of single joints of the young wood, where rapid increase is +desired; and in the case of opposite-leaved plants two cuttings +may often be made from one joint by splitting the stem longitudinally, +each cutting consisting of a leaf and a perfect bud +attached to half the thickness of the stem.</p> +</div> + +<p><i>Planting and Transplanting.</i>—In preparing a fruit tree for +transplantation, the first thing to be done is to open a trench +round it at a distance of from 3 to 4 ft., according to size. The +trench should be opened to about two spades’ depth, and any +coarse roots which may extend thus far from the trunk may be +cut clean off with a sharp knife. The soil between the trench +and the stem is to be reduced as far as may seem necessary or +practicable by means of a digging fork, the roots as soon as they +are liberated being fixed on one side and carefully preserved. +By working in this way all round the ball, the best roots will be +got out and preserved, and the ball lightened of all superfluous +soil. The tree will then be ready to lift if carefully prized up from +beneath the ball, and if it does not lift readily, it will probably +be found that a root has struck downwards, which will have to +be sought out and cut through. Whenever practicable, it is best +to secure a ball of earth round the roots. On the tree being lifted +from its hole the roots should be examined, and all which have +been severed roughly with the spade should have the ends cut +smooth with the knife to facilitate the emission of fibres. The +tree can then be transported to its new position. The hole for its +reception should be of sufficient depth to allow the base of the +ball of earth, or of the roots, to stand so that the point whence the +uppermost roots spring from the stem may be 2 or 3 in. below +the general surface level. Then the bottom being regulated so +as to leave the soil rather highest in the centre, the plant is to +be set in the hole in the position desired, and steadied there by +hand. Next the roots from the lower portion of the ball are to +be sought out and laid outwards in lines radiating from the stem, +being distributed equally on all sides as nearly as this can be done; +some fine and suitable good earth should be thrown amongst +the roots as they are thus being placed, and worked in well +up to the base of the ball. The soil covering the roots may be +gently pressed down, but the tree should not be pulled up and +down, as is sometimes done, to settle the soil. This done, +another set of roots higher up the ball must be laid out in the +same way, and again another, until the whole of the roots, thus +carefully laid, are embedded as firmly as may be in the soil, which +may now receive another gentle treading. The stem should +next be supported permanently, either by one stake or by three, +according to its size. The excavation will now be filled up about +two-thirds perhaps; and if so the tree may have a thorough +good watering, sufficient to settle the soil closely about its roots. +After twenty-four hours the hole may be levelled in, with +moderate treading, if the water has soaked well in, the surface +being left level and not sloping upwards towards the stem of the +tree. In transplanting trees of the ornamental class, less need +be attempted in respect to providing new soil, although the soil +should be made as congenial as practicable. Generally speaking, +fruit trees are best transplanted when three or four years of age, +in which time they will have acquired the shape given by the +nurseryman, who generally transplants his stock each autumn +to produce large masses of root fibres. Nowadays, however, +quite large trees, chiefly of an ornamental character, and perhaps +weighing several tons, are lifted with a large ball of soil attached +to the roots, by means of a special tree-lifting machine, and are +readily transferred from one part of the garden to another, or +even for a distance of several miles, without serious injury. +The best season for transplanting deciduous trees is during +the early autumn months. As regards evergreens opinions are +divided, some preferring August and September, others April +or May. They can be successfully planted at either period, but +for subjects which are at all difficult to remove the spring +months are to be preferred.</p> + +<p>In transplanting smaller subjects, such as plants for the flower +garden, much less effort is required. The plant must be lifted +with as little injury to its rootlets as possible, and carefully set +into the hole, the soil being filled in round it, and carefully +pressed close by the hand. For moving small plants the garden +trowel is a very convenient tool, but we are inclined to give the +preference to the hand-fork. For larger masses, such as strong-growing +herbaceous plants, a spade or digging-fork will be +requisite and the soil may be trodden down with the feet.</p> + +<p>When seedlings of vigorous plants have to be “pricked out,” +a dibble or dibber is the best implement to be used. The ground +being prepared and, if necessary, enriched, and the surface made +fine and smooth, a hole is made with the dibble deep enough and +large enough to receive the roots of the seedling plants without +doubling them up, and the hole is filled in by working the soil close +to the plant with the point of the dibble. The pricking out of +seedlings in pots in the propagating pit is effected in a similar +way. The plants, indeed, often require to be removed and set +from ½ in. to 1 in. apart before they have become sufficiently +developed to admit of being handled with any degree of facility, +and for these a pointed stick of convenient size is used as a dibble. +In delicate cases, such as seedling gloxinias and begonias, it is +best to lift the little seedling on the end of a flattish pointed +stick, often cleft at the apex, pressing this into the new soil where +the plant is to be placed, and liberating it and closing the earth +about it by the aid of a similar stick held in the other hand.</p> + +<table class="flt" style="float: right; width: 220px;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:163px; height:160px" src="images/img758b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption1"><span class="sc">Fig. 26.</span>—Section of Pot showing Crocks.</td></tr></table> + +<p><i>Potting and Repotting.</i>—Garden pots are made with a comparatively +large hole in the bottom, and those of the largest size +have also holes at the side near the bottom; these openings +are to prevent the soil becoming saturated +or soured with superabundant +water. To prepare the pot for the +plant, a broadish piece of potsherd, +called a “crock,” is placed over the +large hole, and if there be side holes +they also are covered. The bottom +crock is made from a piece of a broken +garden pot, and is laid with the convex +side upwards; then comes a layer +of irregular pieces of crock of various +sizes, about 1 in. deep in a 5-in. pot, +2 in. in an 11-in. or 12-in. pot, &c. The mode of crocking a +pot is shown in fig. 26. A few of the coarser lumps from the outer +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page759" id="page759"></a>759</span> +edge of the heap of potting soil are spread over the crocks. +The same end, that of keeping the finer particles of the soil from +mixing with the drainage crocks, may be attained by shaking +in a little clean moss. A handful or two of the soil is then put +in, and on this the plant with its roots spread out is to be set, a +trifle higher than the plant should stand in the pot when finished +off; more soil is to be added, and the whole pressed firmly with +the fingers, the base of the stem being just below the pot-rim, +and the surface being smoothed off so as to slope a little outwards. +When finished off, the pots should be watered well, to settle the +soil; but they should stand till the water has well drained away, +since, if they are moved about while the fresh soil is very wet, +there will be a risk of its becoming puddled or too much consolidated. +Larger plants do not need quite such delicate treatment, +but care should be taken not to handle the roots roughly. +The soil for these may be somewhat coarser, and the amount of +drainage material more ample. Larger bodies of soil also require +to be more thoroughly consolidated before watering; otherwise +they would settle down so as to leave an unsightly void at the +pot-rim.</p> + +<p>Some plants, especially when potted temporarily, may be +dealt with in a simpler way. A single crock may be used in some +cases, and in others no crock at all, but a handful of half-decayed +leaves or half-decayed dung thrown into the bottom of the pot. +This mode of potting does well for bulbs, such as hyacinths, +which are either thrown away or planted out when the bloom +is over. The bedding plants generally may be potted in this way, +the advantage being that at planting-out time there is less risk +of disturbing the roots than if there were potsherds to remove. +Plants of this character should be potted a little less firmly than +specimens which are likely to stand long in the pot, and indeed the +soil should be made comparatively light by the intermixture +of leaf-mould or some equivalent, in order that the roots may run +freely and quickly into it.</p> + +<p>For epiphytal plants like orchids the most thorough drainage +must be secured by the abundant use of potsherds, small pots +being sometimes inserted inside the larger ones, or by planting +in shallow pots or pans, so that there shall be no large mass of soil +to get consolidated. For most of these the lightest spongy but +sweet turfy peat must be used, this being packed lightly about +the roots, and built up above the pot-rim, or in some cases freely +mixed before use with chopped sphagnum moss and small pieces +of broken pots or nodules of charcoal. The plants under these +conditions often require to be supported by wooden pegs or sticks. +Some of the species grow better when altogether taken out of +the soil and fixed to blocks of wood, but in this case they require +a little coaxing with moss about the roots until they get established. +In other cases they are planted in open baskets of wood +or wire, using the porous peat and sphagnum compost. Both +blocks and baskets are usually suspended from the roof of the +house, hanging free, so that no accumulation of water is possible. +These conditions of orchid-growing have undergone great changes +of late years, and the plants are grown much as other stove and +greenhouse plants in ordinary pots with composts not only of peat +but of leaf-mould, and fibres from osmunda and polypodium +ferns.</p> + +<p>When repotting is adopted as a temporary expedient, as in +the case of bedding-out plants which it is required to push forward +as much as possible, it will suffice if provision is made to +prevent the drainage hole from getting blocked, and a rich light +compost is provided for the encouragement of the roots. When, +however, a hard-wooded plant has to be repotted, the case is +different; it may stand without further potting for one year +or two years or more, and therefore much more care is necessary. +The old ball of earth must be freed from all or most of the old +crocks without doing injury to the roots, and the sharp edge of +the upper surface gently rubbed off. If there be any sour or +sodden or effete soil into which the roots have not run, this +should be carefully picked out with a pointed stick. The ball +is to be set on the new soil just high enough that when finished +the base of the stem may be somewhat below the pot-rim, and +the space between the old ball and the sides of the pot is to +be filled in gradually with the prepared compost, which is from +time to time to be pressed down with a blunt-ended flat piece +of wood called a potting-stick, so as to render the new soil as +solid as the old. The object of this is to prevent the plant from +starving by the water applied all running off by way of the new +soil, and not penetrating the original ball of earth. When this +amount of pressure is necessary, especially in the case of loamy +composts, the soil itself should be rather inclined to dryness, and +should in no case be sufficiently moist to knead together into a +pasty mass. In ordinary cases the potting soil should be just so +far removed from dryness that when a handful is gently pressed +it may hang together, but may lose its cohesion when dropped.</p> + +<p>When plants are required to stand in ornamental china pots +or vases, it is better, both for the plants and for avoiding risk +of breakage, to grow them in ordinary garden pots of a size that +will drop into the more valuable vessels. Slate pots or tubs, +usually square, are sometimes adopted, and are durable and +otherwise unobjectionable, only, their sides being less porous, the +earth does not dry so rapidly, and some modification of treatment +as to watering is necessary. For large conservatory specimens +wooden tubs, round or square, are frequently used; these should +be coated with pitch inside to render them more durable.</p> + +<p>Various other contrivances take the place of garden pots for +special purposes. Thus shallow square or oblong wooden +boxes, made of light, inexpensive wood, are very useful for seed-sowing, +for pricking out seedlings, or for planting cuttings. +When the disturbance of the roots incidental to all transplanting +is sought to be avoided, the seed or plant is started in some +cases in squares of turf (used grassy-side downwards), which can +when ready be transferred to the place the plant is to occupy. +Cucumber and melon plants and vines reared from eyes are sometimes +started in this way, both for the reason above mentioned +and because it prevents the curling of the roots apt to take +place in plants raised in pots. Strips of turf are sometimes used +for the rearing of early peas, which are sown in a warmish house +or frame, and gradually hardened so as to bear exposure before +removal to the open air.</p> + +<p><i>Watering.</i>—The guiding principle in watering plants is to do +it thoroughly when it is required, and to abstain from giving +a second supply till the first has been taken up.</p> + +<p>When watering becomes necessary for kitchen-garden crops, +the hose should be laid on and the lines of esculents allowed to +drink their fill, if fresh succulent vegetables are desired. So also, +if well-swelled and luscious fruits, such as strawberries, are +required, there must be no parching at the roots. This applies +even more strongly to conservatory borders and to forcing-houses +than to the outside fruit-tree borders, because from these +the natural rain supply is in most cases more distinctly cut off. +In the case of forcing-houses, the water should be heated before +being applied to the borders containing the roots of the trees.</p> + +<p>In the watering of pot plants the utmost care is requisite if +the plant be a shy-growing or valuable one, and yet it is almost +impossible to give any intelligible instruction for performing +the operation. The roots should never be suffered either to get +thoroughly dry or to get sodden with excess of water. An adept +will know by the ring of the pot on striking it with his knuckles +whether water is wanted or not, according as it rings loud and +clear or dull and heavy. With very choice subjects watering +may be necessary two or three times a day in drying summer +weather. It is a wrong though common practice to press the +surface of the soil in the pot in order to feel if it is moist enough, +as this soon consolidates it, and prevents it from getting the full +benefit of aeration.</p> + +<p>In all heated houses the water used should be warmed at +least up to the temperature of the atmosphere, so as to avoid +chilling the roots. This is also necessary in the case of water +used for syringing the plants, which should be done two or three +times a day in all stoves and forcing-houses, especially during +the period when the young growth is being developed. The +damping of all absorbent surfaces, such as the floors or bare +walls, &c., is frequently necessary several times a day in the +growing season, so as to keep up a humid atmosphere; hence +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page760" id="page760"></a>760</span> +the advantage of laying the floors a little rounded, as then the +water draws off to the sides against the kerbstone, while the +centre remains dry for promenaders.</p> + +<p>In cooler structures it becomes necessary in the dull season +of the year to prevent the slopping of water over the plants +or on the floor, as this tends to cause “damping off,”—the +stems assuming a state of mildewy decay, which not infrequently, +if it once attacks a plant, will destroy it piece by piece. For +the same reason cleanliness and free ventilation under favourable +weather conditions are of great importance.</p> + +<p><i>Pruning.</i>—Pruning is a very important operation in the +fruit garden, its object being twofold—(1) to give form to the +tree, and (2) to induce the free production of flower buds as the +precursors of a plentiful crop of fruit. To form a standard tree, +either the stock is allowed to grow up with a straight stem, by +cutting away all side branches up to the height required, say +about 6 ft., the scion or bud being worked at that point, and +the head developed therefrom; or the stock is worked close +to the ground, and the young shoot obtained therefrom is allowed +to grow up in the same way, being pruned in its progress to +keep it single and straight, and the top being cut off when the +desired height is reached, so as to cause the growth of lateral +shoots. If these are three or four in number, and fairly balanced +as to strength and position, little pruning will be required. +The tips of unripened wood should be cut back about one-third +their length at an outwardly placed bud, and the chief pruning +thereafter required will be to cut away inwardly directed shoots +which cross or crowd each other and tend to confuse the centre +of the tree. Bushy heads should be thinned out, and those +that are too large cut back so as to remodel them. If the shoots +produced are not sufficient in number, or are badly placed, or +very unequal in vigour, the head should be cut back moderately +close, leaving a few inches only of the young shoots, which should +be pruned back to buds so placed as to furnish shoots in the +positions desired. When worked at the top of a stem formed +of the stock, the growth from the graft or bud must be pruned +in a similar way. Three or four leading shoots should be selected +to pass ere long into boughs and form a well-balanced framework +for the tree; these boughs, however, will soon grow beyond +any artificial system the pruner may adopt.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:443px; height:420px" src="images/img760a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 27.</span>—Dwarf-Tree Pruning.</td></tr></table> + +<p>To form a dwarf or bush fruit tree the stock must be worked +near the ground, and the young shoot produced from the scion +or bud must be cut back to whatever height it is desired the +dwarf stem should be, say 1½ to 2 ft. The young shoots produced +from the portion of the new wood retained are to form the +framework of the bush tree, and must be dealt with as in the +case of standard trees. The growth of inwardly directed shoots +is to be prevented, and the centre kept open, the tree assuming +a cup-shaped outline. Fig. 27, reduced from M. Hardy’s +excellent work, <i>Traité de la taille des arbres fruitiers</i>, will give +a good idea how these dwarf trees are to be manipulated, <i>a</i> +showing the first year’s development from the maiden tree after +being headed back, and <i>b</i> the form assumed a year or two later.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:409px; height:702px" src="images/img760b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 28.</span>—Pyramid Pruning.</td></tr></table> + +<p>In forming a pyramidal tree, the lateral growths, instead of +being removed, as in the standard tree, are encouraged to +the utmost; and in order to strengthen them the upper part +of the leading shoot is removed annually, the side branches +being also shortened somewhat as the tree advances in size. +In fig. 28, reduced from M. Hardy’s work, <i>a</i> shows a young +tree with its second year’s growth, the upright shoot of the maiden +tree having been moderately headed back, being left longer +if the buds near the base promise to break freely, or cut shorter +if they are weak and wanting in vigour. The winter pruning, +carried out with the view to shape the tree into a well-grown +pyramid, would be effected at the places marked by a cross line. +The lowest branch would have four buds retained, the end one +being on the lower side of the branch. The two next would be +cut to three buds, which here also are fortunately so situated +that the one to be left is on the lower side of the branches. +The fourth is not cut at all owing to its shortness and weakness, +its terminal bud being allowed to grow to draw strength into it. +The fifth is an example where the bud to which the shoot should +be cut back is badly placed; a shoot resulting from a bud left +on the upper side is apt instead of growing outwards to grow erect, +and lead to confusion in the form of the tree; to avoid +this it is tied down in its proper place during the summer by a +small twig. The upper shoots are cut closer in. Near the base +of the stem are two prominent buds, which would produce two +vigorous shoots, but these would be too near the ground, and +the buds should therefore be suppressed; but, to strengthen +the lower part, the weaker buds just above and below the lowest +branch should be forced into growth, by making a transverse +incision close above each. Fig. 28, <i>b</i>, shows what a similar tree +would be at the end of the third year’s growth.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page761" id="page761"></a>761</span></p> + +<p>In order to bring a young tree into the cordon shape, all its +side branches are shortened back, either to form permanent +spurs, as in the case of pears, or to yield annual young shoots, +as in peaches and nectarines. The single-stemmed cordon may +be trained horizontally, obliquely at any required angle, or +vertically if required, the first two arrangements being preferable. +If a double cordon is required, the original young stem must be +headed back, and the two best shoots produced must be selected, +trained right and left, and treated as for the single cordon.</p> + +<p>The forms chiefly adopted for trees trained to walls and +espalier rails are the fan-shaped, the half-fan and the horizontal, +with their various modifications.</p> + +<p>The maiden tree is headed down, and two shoots led away +right and left. Two laterals should be allowed to grow from +the upper side of them, one from near the base, the other from +near the middle, all others being pinched out beyond the second +or third leaf during summer, but cut away to the last bud in +winter. The tree will thus consist of six shoots, probably 3 ft. +to 4 ft. long, which are not to be pruned unless they are unequal +in strength, a defect which is rather to be remedied by summer +pinching than by winter pruning. The second year three young +shoots are to be left on each of the six, one close to the base, +one about the middle, and one at the point, the rest being rubbed +off. These three shoots will produce laterals, of which one or +two may be selected and laid in; and thus a number of moderately +strong fertile shoots will be obtained, and at the end of +the season a comparatively large tree will be the result.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter" colspan="2"><img style="width:471px; height:150px" src="images/img761a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 29.</span>—Pruning for Fan-<br />shaped Tree.</td> +<td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 30.</span>—The same—<br />third year.</td></tr></table> + +<table class="flt" style="float: right; width: 360px;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:306px; height:207px" src="images/img761b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 31.</span>—The same—fourth year.</td></tr></table> + +<p>The method of pruning formerly adopted for the formation +of a fan-shaped tree was to head down the maiden plant to +about two eyes, so placed as to yield a young shoot on each +side (fig. 29), the supernumerary shoots being rubbed off while +quite young, and the reserved shoots trained against the wall +during the summer so as to get them well matured. The next +year they were cut back again; often nearly to the base, in +order that the lower pair of these shoots might each produce +two well-placed young shoots, and the upper pair three young +shoots. The tree would thus consist of ten shoots, to be laid +out at regular distances, and then if closely cut the frame-work +of the tree would be as in fig. 30. These main shoots were not +again to be shortened back, but from each of them three young +shoots were to be selected and trained in two, on the upper side, +one near the base, and the other halfway up, and one on the lower +side placed about midway between these two; these with the +leading shoot, which was also to be nailed in, made four branches +of the current year from each of the ten main branches, and +the form of the tree would therefore be that of fig. 31. The +other young shoots +produced were +pinched off while +quite young, to throw +all the strength of +the tree into those +which were to form +its basis, and to secure +abundant light and +air. In after years +the leading shoot was +not to be cut back, but +all the lateral shoots +were to be shortened, and from these year by year other shoots +were to be selected to fill up the area occupied by the tree.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter" colspan="2"><img style="width:416px; height:108px" src="images/img761c.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 32.</span>—Pruning for<br />Horizontally trained Tree.</td> +<td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 33.</span>—The same—<br />third year.</td></tr></table> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:422px; height:284px" src="images/img761d.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 34.</span>—The same—fifth year.</td></tr></table> + +<p>In pruning for a horizontal tree the young maiden tree has +to be headed back nearly to its base, and from the young shoots +three are to be selected, the two best-placed lower ones to form +an opposite or nearly opposite pair of main branches, and the +best-placed upper one to continue the erect stem (fig. 32). This +upper shoot is at the next winter pruning to be cut down to +within about a foot of the point whence it sprung, and its buds +rubbed off except the upper one for a leader, and one on each +side just below it to furnish another pair of side shoots; these +being trained in position, the tree would appear as in fig. 33. +The same course is to be followed annually till the space is filled. +Sometimes in very favourable soils and with vigorous trees +two pairs of branches may be obtained in one season by summer-stopping +the erect shoots and selecting others from the young +growths thus induced, but more commonly the trees have to +be built up by forming one pair of branches annually. The +shoots are not at first lowered to the horizontal line, but are +brought down gradually and tied to thin stakes; and while +the tree is being formed weak shoots may be allowed to grow +in a more erect position than it is ultimately intended they +should occupy. Thus in four or five years the tree will have +acquired something of the character of fig. 34, and will go on +thus increasing until the space is filled.</p> + +<p>The half-fan is a combination of the two forms, but as regards +pruning does not materially differ from the horizontal, as two +opposite side branches are produced in succession upwards +till the space is filled, only they are not taken out so abruptly, +but are allowed to rise at an acute angle and then to curve +into the horizontal line.</p> + +<p>In all the various forms of cordons, in horizontal training, +and in fan and half-fan training, the pruning of the main branches +when the form of the tree is worked out will vary in accordance +with the kind of fruit under treatment. Thus in the peach, +nectarine, apricot, plum and cherry, which are commonly +trained fan-fashion, the first three (and also the morello cherry +if grown) will have to be pruned so as to keep a succession of +young annual shoots, these being their fruit-bearing wood. +The others are generally pruned so as to combine a moderate +supply of young wood with a greater or less number of fruit +spurs. In the pear and apple the fruit is borne principally on +spurs, and hence what is known as spur-pruning has to be +adopted, the young shoots being all cut back nearly to their +base, so as to cause fruit buds to evolve from the remaining +eyes or buds. Cordons of apples and pears have to be similarly +treated, but cordons of peaches and nectarines are pruned so as +to provide the necessary annual succession of young bearing +wood.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page762" id="page762"></a>762</span></p> + +<p>Fruit trees trained as espaliers, fans or cordons against walls, +trellises or fences, are not only pruned carefully in the winter +but must be also pruned during the early summer months. +Many of the smaller, useless shoots are rubbed out altogether; +the best are allowed to grow perhaps a foot or more in length, +and then either have the tips pinched out with the finger and +thumb, or the ends may be cracked or broken, and allowed +to hang down, but are not detached completely. This is called +summer pruning, and is an important operation requiring +knowledge on the part of the gardener to perform properly. +Shoots of peaches, nectarines and morello cherries are “laid +in,” that is, placed in between fruiting shoots where there is the +space to be ripened for next year’s crop.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:165px; height:218px" src="images/img762a.jpg" alt="" /></td> +<td class="figcenter"><img style="width:156px; height:148px" src="images/img762b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption" colspan="2"><span class="sc">Fig. 35.</span>—Summer Pruning for Spurs.</td></tr></table> + +<p><i>Summer Pruning</i> should be performed while the shoots are yet +young and succulent, so that they may in most cases be nipped +off with the thumb-nail. It is very necessary in the case of trees +trained to a flat surface, as a wall or espalier rail, to prevent +undue crowding. In some cases, as, for example, with peaches, +the superfluous shoots are wholly removed, and certain selected +shoots reserved to supply bearing wood for next year. In others, +as pears, the tops of the young shoots are +removed, leaving three or four leaves +and their buds at the base, to be developed +into fruit buds by the additional +nourishment thus +thrown into them +(fig. 35, <i>a</i>). One +or two may push +out a late summer +growth, <i>b</i>; this +will serve as a +vent for the vigour +of the tree, and +if the lowermost only go to the formation of a fruit spur, the +object will have been gained. They are cut to the last dormant +bud in winter.</p> + +<p>But summer pruning has been much extended since the +introduction of restricted growth and the use of dwarfing stocks. +Orchard-house trees, and also pyramidal and bush trees of apples, +pears and plums, are mainly fashioned by summer pruning; +in fact, the less the knife is used upon them, except in the +necessary cutting of the roots in potted trees, the better. In +the case of orchard-house plants no shoots are suffered to lengthen +out, except as occasionally wanted to fill up a gap in the outline +of the tree. On the contrary, the tops of all young shoots are +pinched off when some three or four leaves are formed, and this +is done again and again throughout the season. When this +pruning is just brought to a balance with the vigour of the roots, +the consequence is that fruit buds are formed all over the tree, +instead of a thicket of sterile and useless wood. Pyramidal +and bush trees out of doors are, of course, suffered to become +somewhat larger, and sufficient wood must be allowed to grow +to give them the form desired; but after the first year or two, +when the framework is laid out, they are permitted to extend +very slowly, and never to any great extent, while the young +growths are continually nipped off, so as to clothe the branches +with fruit buds as closely placed as will permit of their healthy +development.</p> + +<p>The nature of the cut itself in pruning is of more consequence, +especially in the case of fruit trees, than at first sight may appear. +The branches should be separated by a clean cut at an angle of +about 45°, just at the back of a bud, the cut entering on a level +with the base of the bud and passing out on a level with its +top (fig. 36, <i>a</i>), for when cut in this way the wound becomes +rapidly covered with new wood, as soon as growth recommences, +whereas if the cut is too close the bud is starved, or if less close an +ugly and awkward snag is left. Fig 36, <i>b</i> and <i>c</i>, are examples of +the former, and <i>d</i>, <i>e</i>, <i>f</i> of the latter. In fact there is only one +right way to cut a shoot and that is as shown at <i>a</i>.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:377px; height:170px" src="images/img762c.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 36.</span>—Cuts—Good and Bad.</td></tr></table> + +<p>The <i>Pruning of flowering plants</i> is generally a much lighter +matter than the pruning of fruit trees. If a young seedling +or cutting of any soft-wooded plant is to be bushy, it must have +its top nipped out by the thumb-nail or pruning-scissors at a +very early stage, and this stopping must be repeated frequently. +If what is called a well-furnished plant is required, an average +of from 2 to 3 in. is all the extension that must be permitted—sometimes +scarcely so much—before the top is nipped out; and +this must be continued until the desired size is attained, whether +that be large or small. Then generally the plant is allowed to +grow away till bloom or blooming shoots are developed. To +form a pyramidal plant, which is a very elegant and useful +shape to give to a decorative pot plant, the main stem should +be encouraged to grow upright, for a length perhaps of 6 or 8 in. +before it is topped; this induces the formation of laterals, and +favours their development. The best-placed upper young shoot +is selected and trained upright to a slender stake, and this also +is topped when it has advanced 6 or 8 in. further, in order to +induce the laterals on the second portion to push freely. This +process is continued till the required size is gained. With all the +difficult and slow-growing plants of the hard-wooded section, all +the pruning must be done in this gradual way in the young wood +as the plant progresses.</p> + +<table class="flt" style="float: right; width: 425px;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:375px; height:179px" src="images/img762d.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 37.</span></td></tr></table> + +<p>Some plants, like pelargoniums, can only be kept handsomely +formed and well furnished by cutting them down severely every +season, after the blooming is over. The plants should be prepared +for this by keeping them rather dry at the root, and after cutting +they must stand with little or no water till the stems heal over, +and produce young shoots, or “break,” as it is technically termed. +The appearance of a specimen pelargonium properly pruned is +shown in fig. 37, in which <i>a</i> shows a young plant, the head of +which has been +taken off to form +a cutting, and +whose buds are +ready to break +into young +shoots. Three +shoots will be +produced, and +these, after +growing from 4 +to 6 in. in length, +should be stopped by pinching out the point, this giving rise to +lateral shoots. These will blossom in due course, and, after being +ripened thoroughly by full exposure to the sun, should be cut +back as shown at <i>b</i>. This is the proper foundation for a good +specimen, and illustrates how all such subjects should be pruned +to keep them stocky and presentable in form.</p> + +<p><i>Root-pruning</i> is most commonly practised in fruit-tree cultivation. +It is often resorted to as a means of restoring fertility in +plants which have become over rank from an excess of nourishment +in the soil, or sterile from want of it. The effect of root-pruning +in the first case is to reduce the supply of crude sap to the +branches, and consequently to cause a check in their development. +In the second case all roots that have struck downwards +into a cold uncongenial subsoil must be pruned off if they cannot +be turned in a lateral direction, and all the lateral ones that +have become coarse and fibreless must also be shortened back by +means of a clean cut with a sharp knife, while a compost of rich +loamy soil with a little bone-meal, and leaf-mould or old manure, +should be filled into the trenches from which the old sterile +soil has been taken. The operation is best performed early in +autumn, and may be safely resorted to in the case of fruit trees +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page763" id="page763"></a>763</span> +of moderate age, and even of old trees if due care be exercised. +In transplanting trees all the roots which may have become +bruised or broken in the process of lifting should be cut clean +away behind the broken part, as they then more readily strike +out new roots from the cut parts. In all these cases the cut +should be a clean sloping one, and made in an upward and outward +direction.</p> + +<p>The root-pruning of pot-plants is necessary in the case of many +soft-wooded subjects which are grown on year after year—pelargoniums +and fuchsias, for example. After the close pruning +of the branches to which they are annually subjected, and when +the young shoots have shot forth an inch or two in length, they are +turned out of their pots and have the old soil shaken away from +their roots, the longest of which, to the extent of about half the +existing quantity, are then cut clean away, and the plants +repotted into small pots. This permits the growing plant to be +fed with rich fresh soil, without having been necessarily transferred +to pots of unwieldy size by the time the flowering stage +is reached.</p> + +<p><i>Ringing.</i>—One of the expedients for inducing a state of fruitfulness +in trees is the ringing of the branches or stem, that is, +removing a narrow annular portion of the bark, by which means, +it is said, the trees are not only rendered productive, but the +quality of the fruit is at the same time improved. The advantage +depends on the obstruction given to the descent of the sap. +The ring should be cut out in spring, and be of such a width that +the bark may remain separated for the season. A tight ligature +of twine or wire answers the same end. The advantages of the +operation may generally be gained by judicious root pruning, +and it is not at all adapted for the various stone fruits.</p> + +<table class="flt" style="float: right; width: 420px;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:372px; height:221px" src="images/img763a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 38.—Diagram illustrating Branch +Distribution.</td></tr></table> + +<p><i>Training.</i>—What is called training is the guiding of the +branches of a tree or plant in certain positions which they would +not naturally assume, the object being partly to secure their +full exposure to light, and partly to regulate the flow and distribution +of the sap. To secure the former object, the branches +must be so fixed as to shade each other as little as possible; and +to realize the +second, the +branches must +have given to +them an upward +or downward +direction, as they +may require to +be encouraged +or repressed. +Something of the +same vegetative +vigour which is +given to a plant +or tree by hard +pruning is afforded by training in an upward direction so as +to promote the flow of the sap; while the repression effected +by summer pruning is supplemented by downward training, +which acts as a check. One main object is the preservation +of equilibrium in the growth of the several parts of the tree; +and for this various minor details deserve attention. Thus +a shoot will grow more vigorously whilst waving in the air +than when nailed close to the wall; consequently a weak +shoot should be left free, whilst its stronger antagonist should +be restrained; and a luxuriant shoot may be retarded for +some time by having its tender extremity pinched off to allow +a weaker shoot to overtake it.</p> + +<p>By the prudent use of the knife, fruit trees may be readily +trained into the forms indicated below, which are amongst the +best out of the many which have been devised.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter" colspan="2"><img style="width:405px; height:335px" src="images/img763b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 39.</span>—Pyramidal Training.</td> +<td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 40.</span>—Training <i>en quenouille</i>.</td></tr></table> + +<p>The training of standard and bush trees in the open ground has +been already referred to under the section <i>Pruning</i>. When the +growth of pyramids is completed, the outline is something like +that of fig. 39, and very pretty trees are thus formed. It is +better, however, especially if the tendency to bear fruit is rather +slack, to adopt what the French call <i>en quenouille</i> training +(fig. 40), which consists in tying or weighting the tips of the +branches so as to give them all a downward curve. Pear trees +worked on the quince stock, and trained en quenouille, are +generally very fertile.</p> + +<p>Wall trees, it must be evident, are placed in a very unnatural +and constrained position, and would in fact soon be reduced to a +state of utter confusion if allowed to grow unrestricted; hence +the following modes of training have been adopted.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:386px; height:235px" src="images/img763c.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 41.</span>—Horizontal Training.</td></tr></table> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:399px; height:230px" src="images/img763d.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 42.</span>—Forms of Horizontal Training.</td></tr></table> + +<p><i>Horizontal Training</i> (fig. 41) has long been a favourite form in +England. There is one principal ascending stem, from which +the branches depart at right angles, at intervals of about a foot. +Horizontal training is best adapted to the apple and the pear; +and for the more twiggy growing slender varieties, the forms +shown in fig. 42 have been recommended. In these the horizontal +branches are placed wider, 18 to 20 in. apart, and the smaller +shoots are trained between them, either on both sides, as at <i>a</i>, +or deflexed from the lower side, as at <i>b</i>. The latter is an excellent +method of reclaiming neglected trees. Every alternate +branch should be taken away, and the spurs cut off, after which +the young shoots are trained in, and soon produce good fruit.</p> + + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:440px; height:236px" src="images/img764a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 43.</span>—Fan Training.</td></tr></table> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:413px; height:236px" src="images/img764b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 44.</span>—Modified Fan Training.</td></tr></table> + +<p>In <i>Fan Training</i> (fig. 43) there is no leading stem, but the +branches spring from the base and are arranged somewhat like +the ribs of a fan. This mode of training is commonly adopted +for the peach, nectarine, apricot and morello cherry, to which +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page764" id="page764"></a>764</span> +it is best adapted. Though sometimes adopted, it is not so +well suited as the horizontal form for apples and pears, because, +when the branches reach the top of the wall, where they must +be cut short, a hedge of young shoots is inevitable. A modification +of the fan shape (fig. 44) is sometimes adopted for stone +fruits, such as the plum and apricot. In this the object is to +establish a number of mother branches, and on these to form a +series of subordinate members, chiefly composed of bearing wood. +The mother branches or limbs should not be numerous, but +well marked, equal in strength and regularly disposed. The +side branches should be pretty abundant, short and not so +vigorous as to rival the leading members.</p> + +<p>The <i>Half-fan</i> mode of training, which is intermediate between +horizontal and fan training, is most nearly allied to the former, +but the branches leave the stem at an acute angle, a disposition +supposed to favour the more equal distribution of the sap. Sometimes, +as in fig. 45, two vertical stems are adopted, but there is no +particular advantage in this, and a single-stemmed tree is more +manageable. The half-fan form is well adapted for such fruits +as the plum and the cherry; and, indeed, for fruits of vigorous +habit, it seems to combine the advantages of both the foregoing.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:408px; height:246px" src="images/img764c.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 45.</span>—Half-Fan Training.</td></tr></table> + +<p>Trees must be fixed to the walls and buildings against which +they are trained by means of nails and shreds (neat medicated +strips are now sold for this purpose), or in cases where it is +desired to preserve the wall surface intact, by permanent nails +or studs driven in in regular order. Sometimes the walls are +furnished with galvanized wires, but this has been objected to +as causing cankering of the shoots, for which, however, painting +is recommended as a remedy. By crossing the tying material +between the wire and the wood, however, and so preventing +them from coming in contact, there is no danger. If they are +adopted, the wires should be a few inches away from the wall, to +allow free circulation of air between it and the tree, and thus +avoid the scorching or burning of leaves and fruits during the +summer months in very hot places. Care should be taken that +the ties or fastenings do not eventually cut into the bark as the +branches swell with increased age. When shreds and nails are +used, short thick wire nails and “medicated shreds” are the +best; the ordinary cast iron wall nails being much too brittle +and difficult to drive into the wall. It must be remembered that +nails spoil a wall sooner or later, whereas a wire trellis is not only +much neater, but enables the gardener to tie his trees up much +more quickly.</p> + +<p>For tying plants to trellises and stakes soft tarred string or +raffia (the fibre from the Raphia palm of Madagascar) is used.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:459px; height:517px" src="images/img764d.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 46.</span>—Clematis trained on Balloon-Shaped Trellis.</td></tr></table> + +<p>In training greenhouse plants the young branches should be +drawn outwards by means of ties fastened to a string or wire +under the pot-rim; the centre then fills up, and slender stakes +are used as required; but the fewer these are in number the +better. Climbers are trained from the bottom around or across +trellises, of which the cylindrical or the balloon-shaped, or +sometimes the flat oval or circular, are the best forms. The size +should be adapted to the habit of the plant, which should cover +the whole by the time flowers are produced. Bast fibre and +raffia fibre are to be preferred for light subjects of this character, +as they can be split to any degree of fineness. Very durable +trellises for greenhouse climbers are made of slender round iron +rods for standards, having a series of hooks on the inner edge, +into which rings of similar metal are dropped; the rings may be +graduated so as to form a broad open top, or may be all of the +same size, when the trellis will assume the cylindrical form. +Fig. 46 shows a pot specimen of clematis trained, over a +balloon-shaped +trellis.</p> + +<p>The training of certain bedding plants over the surface of +the soil is done by small pegs of birch wood or bracken, by +loops of wire or cheap hair-pins, or sometimes by loops of raffia +having the ends fixed in the soil by the aid of the dibble. The +object is to fill up the blank space as quickly and as evenly as +possible.</p> + +<p><i>Forcing</i> is the accelerating, by special treatment, of the growth +of certain plants, which are required to be had in leaf, in flower +or in fruit before their natural season,—as, for instance, the leaves +of mint at Eastertide or the leafstalks of sea-kale and rhubarb +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page765" id="page765"></a>765</span> +at Christmas, the flowers of summer in the depth of winter, or +some of the choicest fruits perfected so much before their normal +period as to complete, with the retarded crops of winter, the circle +of the seasons.</p> + +<p>In the management of artificial heat for this purpose, a +considerable degree of caution is required. The first stages +of forcing should, of course, be very gentle, so that the whole +growth of the plants may advance in harmony. The immediate +application of a very hot atmosphere would unduly force the +tops, while the roots remained partially or wholly inactive; and +a strong bottom heat, if it did not cause injury by its excess, would +probably result in abortive growth.</p> + +<p>Any sudden decrease of warmth would be very prejudicial +to the progress of vegetation through the successive stages of +foliation, inflorescence and fructification. But it is not necessary +that one unvarying range of temperature should be kept up at +whatever pains or risk. Indeed, in very severe weather it is +found better to drop a little from the maximum temperature by +fire heat, and the loss so occasioned may be made good by a little +extra heat applied when the weather is more genial. Night +temperatures also should always be allowed to drop somewhat, +the heat being increased again in the morning. In other words, +the artificial temperature should increase by day and decrease +by night, should rise in summer and fall in winter, should, in +short, imitate as nearly as possible the varying influence of the +sun.</p> + +<p>For the growth of flowers generally, and for that of all fruits, +every ray of light to be obtained in the dull winter season is +required, and therefore every possible care should be taken to +keep the glass clean. A moist genial atmosphere too is essential, +a point requiring unremitting attention on account of the +necessity of keeping up strong fires. With moisture as with heat, +the cultivator must hold his hand somewhat in very severe or +very dull weather; but while heat must not drop so as to chill +the progressing vegetation, so neither must the lack of moisture +parch the plants so as to check their growth.</p> + +<p>There are some few subjects which when forced do not require +a light house. Thus amongst flowers the white blossoms of the +lilac, so much prized during winter, are produced by forcing +purple-flowered plants in darkness. Rhubarb and sea-kale among +esculents both need to be forced in darkness to keep them crisp +and tender, and mushrooms also are always grown in dark +structures. In fact, a roomy mushroom house is one of the most +convenient of all places for forcing the vegetables just referred +to. The lilac would be better placed in a dark shed heated to +about 70° or 80°, in which some dung and leaves could be +allowed to lie and ferment, giving off both a genial heat +and moisture.</p> + +<p>One of the most important preliminaries to successful forcing +is the securing to the plants a previous state of rest. The +thorough ripening of the preceding season’s wood in fruit trees +and flowering plants, and of the crown in perennial herbs like +strawberries, and the cessation of all active growth before the +time they are to start into a new growth, are of paramount importance. +The ripening process must be brought about by free +exposure to light, and by the application of a little extra heat with +dryness, if the season should be unfavourable; and both roots +and tops must submit to a limitation of their water supply. +When the ripening is perfected, the resting process must be +aided by keeping the temperature in which they await the forcing +process as low as each particular subject can bear. (See <i>Retardation</i> +above.)</p> + +<p class="pt2 center">V. <i>Flowers.</i></p> + +<p><i>Flower Garden and Pleasure Grounds.</i>—Wherever there is a +flower garden of considerable magnitude, and in a separate +situation, it should be constructed on principles of its own. +The great object must be to exhibit to advantage the graceful +forms and glorious hues of flowering plants and shrubs. Two +varieties of flower gardens have chiefly prevailed in Britain. +In one the ground is turf, out of which flower-beds, of varied +patterns, are cut; in the other the flower-beds are separated +by gravel walks, without the introduction of grass. When +the flower garden is to be seen from the windows, or any other +elevated point of view, the former is to be preferred; but where +the surface is irregular, and the situation more remote, and +especially where the beauty of flowers is mainly looked to, the +choice should probably fall on the latter.</p> + +<p>The flower garden may include several different compartments. +Thus, for example, there is the “Rock Garden,” which should +consist of variously grouped masses of large stones, those which +are remarkable for being figured by water-wearing, or containing +petrifactions or impressions, or showing something of natural +stratification, being generally preferred. In the cavities between +the stones, filled with earth, alpine or trailing plants are inserted, +and also some of the choicest flowers. In proper situations, a +small pool of water may be introduced for the culture of aquatic +plants. In these days the rock-garden is a most important +feature, and it requires a good deal of care and skill to arrange +the boulders, walks, pools or streams in natural and artistic +fashion. The selection of suitable alpines, perennials and +shrubs and trees also necessitates considerable knowledge +on the part of the gardener. A separate compartment laid out +on some regular plan is often set apart for roses, under the name +of the “Rosery.” A moist or rather a shady border, or a section +of the pleasure ground supplied with bog earth, may be devoted +to what is called the “American Garden,” which, as it includes +the gorgeous rhododendrons and azaleas, forms one of the +grandest features of the establishment during the early summer, +while if properly selected the plants are effective as a garden +of evergreens at all seasons. The number of variegated and +various-coloured hardy shrubs is now so great that a most +pleasant plot for a “Winter Garden” may be arrayed with plants +of this class, with which may be associated hardy subjects which +flower during that season or very early spring, as the Christmas +rose, and amongst bulbs the crocus and snowdrop. Later the +spring garden department is a scene of great attraction; and +some of the gardens of this character, as those of Cliveden and +Belvoir, are among the most fascinating examples of horticultural +art. The old-fashioned stereotyped flower garden +that one met with almost everywhere is rapidly becoming a +thing of the past, and grounds are now laid out more in accordance +with their natural disposition, their climatic conditions +and their suitability for certain kinds of plants. Besides the +features already mentioned there are now bamboo gardens, +Japanese gardens, water gardens and wall gardens, each +placed in the most suitable position and displaying its own +special features.</p> + +<table class="flt" style="float: right; width: 300px;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:244px; height:255px" src="images/img765.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 47.</span>—Turf-Beater.</td></tr></table> + +<p><i>Lawns.</i>—In the formation of lawns the ground must be +regularly broken up so that it may settle down evenly, any deep +excavations that may have to be filled in being very carefully +rammed down to prevent subsequent settlement. The ground +must also be thoroughly cleared of the roots of all coarse, perennial +weeds, and be worked to a fine +tilth ready for turfing or sowing. +The more expeditious +method is of course to lay +down turf, which should be free +from weeds, and is cut usually +in strips of 1 ft. wide, 3 ft. long, +and about 1 in. in thickness. +This must be laid very evenly +and compactly, and should then +be beaten down firmly with the +implement called a turf-beater +(fig. 47). When there is a large +space to cover, it is much the +cheaper plan to sow the lawn +with grass-seeds, and equally effective, though the sward takes +much longer to thicken. It is of the utmost importance that +a good selection of grasses be made, and that pure seeds +should be obtained (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Grass and Grassland</a></span>). The following +sorts can be recommended, the quantities given being those +for sowing an acre of ground:—</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page766" id="page766"></a>766</span></p> + +<table class="ws f90" summary="Contents"> +<tr><td class="tcl"><i>Cynosurus cristatus</i>—Crested Dog’s-tail</td> <td class="tcr">6 ℔</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><i>Festuca duriuscula</i>—Hard Fescue</td> <td class="tcr">3 ℔</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><i>Festuca ovina</i>—Sheep’s Fescue</td> <td class="tcr">3 ℔</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><i>Lolium perenne tenue</i></td> <td class="tcr">18 ℔</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><i>Poa nemoralis sempervirens</i>—Evergreen Meadow-grass</td> <td class="tcr">3 ℔</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><i>Poa trivialis</i>—Trivial Meadow-grass</td> <td class="tcr">3 ℔</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><i>Trisetum flavescens</i>—Yellow Oat-grass</td> <td class="tcr">2 ℔</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><i>Trifolium repens</i>—Dutch Clover</td> <td class="tcr">6 ℔</td></tr> +</table> + +<p>The seeds should be thoroughly mixed, and very evenly sown, +after which the surface should be raked over to bury them, and +then rolled down while dry so as to finish it off smooth and level. +When thus sown, lawns require to be promptly weeded. During +the growing season established lawns should be mown at least +once a week. They should be occasionally rolled, and towards +autumn they require frequent sweepings to remove worm-casts.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p><span class="sc">Hardy Annuals.</span>—Annual plants are those which grow up +from seed, flower, ripen seed, and die in the course of one season—one +year. They are useful in the mixed garden, for though in some +cases they are of short duration, many of them are possessed of much +beauty of hue and elegance of form. Annuals may be divided into +three classes: the <i>hardy</i>, which are sown at once in the ground +they are to occupy; the <i>half-hardy</i>, which succeed best when aided +at first by a slight hot bed, and then transplanted into the open air; +and the <i>tender</i>, which are kept in pots, and treated as greenhouse +or stove plants, to which departments they properly belong. Some +of the more popular annuals, hardy and half-hardy, have been very +much varied as regards habit and the colour of the flowers, and +purchases may be made in the seed shops of such things as China +asters, stocks, Chinese and Indian pinks, larkspurs, phloxes and +others, amongst which some of the most beautiful of the summer +flowers may be found.</p> + +<p>The hardy annuals may be sown in the open ground during +the latter part of March or beginning of April, as the season may +determine, for the weather should be dry and open, and the soil in +a free-working condition before sowing is attempted. In favourable +situations and seasons some of the very hardiest, as <i>Silene pendula</i>, +Saponaria, Nemophila, Gilia, &c., may be sown in September or +October, and transplanted to the beds or borders for very early spring +flowering. Those sown in spring begin to flower about June. The +plants, if left to flower where they are sown, should be thinned out +while young, to give them space for proper development. It is +from having ample room that pricked out transplanted seedlings +often make the finest plants. The soil should be rich and light.</p> + +<p>The half-hardy series are best sown in pots or pans under glass in +mild heat, in order to accelerate germination. Those of them which +are in danger of becoming leggy should be speedily removed to a +cooler frame and placed near the glass, the young plants being +pricked off into fresh soil, in other pots or pans or boxes, as may +seem best in each case. All the plants must be hardened off gradually +during the month of April, and may generally be planted out some +time in May, earlier or later according to the season.</p> + +<p>The class of tender annuals, being chiefly grown for greenhouse +decoration, should be treated much the same as soft-wooded plants, +being sown in spring, and grown on rapidly in brisk heat, near the +glass, and finally hardened off to stand in the greenhouse when in +flower.</p> + +<p>We add a select list of some of the more distinct annuals desirable +for general cultivation as decorative plants for the open air:—</p> + +<p><i>Acroclinium roseum</i>: half-hardy, 1 ft., rose-pink or white; everlasting.</p> + +<p><i>Agrostis pulchella</i>: hardy, 6 in.; a most graceful grass for bouquets.</p> + +<p><i>Amberboa moschata atropurpurea</i> (Sweet Sultan): hardy, 1½ ft., +purple: musk-scented.</p> + +<p><i>Antirrhinum majus</i> (Snapdragon): hardy, 6 in. to 2 ft., white, +yellow and red. This plant is perennial, but is best treated as an +annual.</p> + +<p><i>Arnebia cornuta</i>: hardy, 1½ to 2 ft. yellow.</p> + +<p><i>Bartonia aurea</i>: hardy, 2 ft., golden yellow; showy and free.</p> + +<p><i>Brachycome iberidifolia</i>: half-hardy, 1 ft., blue or white with dark +disk.</p> + +<p><i>Calendula officinalis Meteor</i>: hardy, 1 ft., orange striped with +yellow.</p> + +<p><i>Calliopsis</i> or <i>Coreopsis bicolor</i> (<i>tinctoria</i>): hardy, 2 to 3 ft., yellow +and chestnut-brown.</p> + +<p><i>Calliopsis</i> or <i>Coreopsis Drummondii</i>: hardy, 1 to 2 ft., golden +yellow with red disk.</p> + +<p><i>Callistephus hortensis</i> or <i>chinensis</i> (the China aster): half-hardy, +6 in. to 1½ ft.; there arc several groups of various colours. The +species itself is a very handsome plant.</p> + +<p><i>Campanula Loreyi</i>: hardy, 1½ ft., purplish-lilac or white.</p> + +<p><i>Campanula macrostyla</i>: hardy, 1 to 2 ft., purple, beautifully veined.</p> + +<p><i>Carnations</i>, <i>Marguerite</i>: half-hardy, 9 to 12 in., colours various.</p> + +<p><i>Centaurea Cyanus</i>: hardy, 3 ft., blue, purple, pink or white; +showy.</p> + +<p><i>Centranthus macrosiphon</i>: hardy, 1½ to 2 ft., rosy-carmine.</p> + +<p><i>Centranthus ruber</i> (known as Pretty Betsy and Red Valerian): +hardy, 2 to 3 ft., red.</p> + +<p><i>Chrysanthemum carinatum</i>: a charming half-hardy annual, 2 to +3 ft. high, with several varieties, of which C. Burridgeanum with zones +of white, crimson and yellow is best.</p> + +<p><i>C. coronarium</i>, a yellow-flowered species requires similar treatment.</p> + +<p><i>Clarkia pulchella</i>: hardy, 1½ ft., rosy-purple; some varieties very +handsome.</p> + +<p><i>Collinsia bicolor</i>: hardy, 1½ ft., white and purple; pretty.</p> + +<p><i>Collinsia verna</i>: hardy, 1 ft., white and azure; sow as soon as +ripe.</p> + +<p><i>Convolvulus tricolor atroviolacea</i>: hardy, 1 ft., white, blue and +yellow. This is the <i>Convolvulus minor</i> of gardens.</p> + +<p><i>Cosmos bipinnatus</i>: half-hardy, 3 ft., rose, purple, white; requires +sunny spots.</p> + +<p><i>Dianthus chinensis</i> (Indian pink): half-hardy, 6 in. to 1 ft., various +shades of red and white.</p> + +<p><i>Delphinium Ajacis</i> and <i>Delphinium Consolida</i> (Larkspurs): hardy, +3 ft., various colours.</p> + +<p><i>Erysimum Peroffskianum</i>: hardy, 2 ft., deep orange; in erect +racemes.</p> + +<p><i>Eschscholtzia californica</i>: hardy, 1½ ft., yellow with saffron eye.</p> + +<p><i>Eschscholtzia crocea flore-pleno</i>: hardy, 1½ ft., orange yellow; +double.</p> + +<p><i>Eutoca viscida</i>: hardy, 2 ft., bright blue, with white hairy centre.</p> + +<p><i>Gaillardia Drummondii</i> (<i>picta</i>): half-hardy, 1½ ft., crimson, yellow +margin.</p> + +<p><i>Gilia achilleaefolia</i>: hardy, 2 ft., deep blue; in large globose heads.</p> + +<p><i>Godetia Lindleyana</i>: hardy, 2 to 3 ft., rose-purple, with crimson +spots.</p> + +<p><i>Godetia Whitneyi</i>: hardy, 1 ft., rosy-red, with crimson spots. The +variety <i>Lady Albemarle</i> is wholly crimson, and very handsome.</p> + +<p><i>Gypsophila elegans</i>: hardy, 1½ ft., pale rose; branched very +gracefully.</p> + +<p><i>Helianthus cucumerifolius</i>: hardy, 3 to 4 ft., golden yellow, black +disk; branching, free and bold without coarseness.</p> + +<p><i>Helichrysum bracteatum</i>: half-hardy, 2 ft., the incurved crimson, +rose and other forms very handsome.</p> + +<p><i>Hibiscus Trionum</i> (<i>africanus</i>): hardy, 1½ ft., cream colour, dark +purple centre.</p> + +<p><i>Iberis umbellata</i> (Candytuft): hardy, 1 ft., white, rose, purple, +crimson. Some new dwarf white and flesh-coloured varieties are very +handsome.</p> + +<p><i>Kaulfussia amelloides</i>: hardy, 1 ft., blue or rose; the var. +kermesina is deep crimson.</p> + +<p><i>Kochia scoparia</i> (Belvedere or lawn cypress): hardy, graceful +green foliage, turning purple in autumn.</p> + +<p><i>Königa maritima</i> (Sweet Alyssum): hardy, 1 ft., white; fragrant, +compact.</p> + +<p><i>Lathyrus odoratus</i> (Sweet Pea): hardy; there are two races, +dwarf and tall, the latter—far and away the most beautiful—requires +support; various colours; numerous immensely popular forms.</p> + +<p><i>Lavatera trimestris</i>: hardy, 3 ft., pale-rose, showy malvaceous +flowers.</p> + +<p><i>Leptosiphon densiflorus</i>: hardy in light soil, 1 ft., purplish or +rosy-lilac.</p> + +<p><i>Leptosiphon roseus</i>: hardy in light soil, 6 in., delicate rose; fine in +masses.</p> + +<p><i>Linaria bipartita splendida</i>: hardy, 1 ft., deep purple.</p> + +<p><i>Linum grandiflorum</i>: hardy, 1 ft., splendid crimson; var. +roseum is pink.</p> + +<p><i>Lupinus luteus</i>: hardy, 2 ft., bright yellow, fragrant.</p> + +<p><i>Lupinus mutabilis Cruickshanksii</i>: hardy, 4 ft., blue and yellow; +changeable.</p> + +<p><i>Lupinus nanus</i>: hardy, 1 ft., bluish-purple; abundant flowering.</p> + +<p><i>Lychnis Coeli-rosa</i>: hardy, 1½ ft., rosy-purple, with pale centre; +pretty.</p> + +<p><i>Lychnis oculata cardinalis</i>: hardy, 1½ ft., rosy-crimson; very +brilliant.</p> + +<p><i>Malcolmia maritima</i> (Virginian Stock): hardy, 6 in., lilac, rose or +white.</p> + +<p><i>Malope trifida</i>: hardy, 3 ft., rich glossy purplish-crimson; showy. +<i>M. grandiflora</i> is a finer plant in every way.</p> + +<p><i>Matthiola annua</i> (Ten-week Stock and its variety, the intermediate +stock): half-hardy, 1 to 2 ft., white, rose and red.</p> + +<p><i>Matthiola graeca</i> (Wallflower-lvd. Stock): hardy, 1 ft., various as +in Stock.</p> + +<p><i>Mesembryanthemum tricolor</i>: half-hardy, 3 in., pink and crimson, +with dark centre.</p> + +<p><i>Mimulus cupreus</i>: half-hardy, 6 in., coppery red, varying considerably.</p> + +<p><i>Mimulus luteus tigrinus</i>: half-hardy, 1 ft., yellow spotted with +red; var. <i>duplex</i> has hose-in-hose flowers.</p> + +<p><i>Mirabilis Jalapa</i>: half-hardy, 3 ft., various colours; flowers +evening-scented.</p> + +<p><i>Nemesia floribunda</i>: hardy, 1 ft., white and yellow; pretty and +compact.</p> + +<p><i>Nemophila insignis</i>: hardy, 6 in., azure blue, with white centre.</p> + +<p><i>Nemophila maculata</i>: hardy, 6 in., white, with violet spots at the +edge.</p> + +<p><i>Nicotiana affinis</i>: half-hardy, 2 to 3 ft., white.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page767" id="page767"></a>767</span></p> + +<p><i>Nicotiana Sanderae</i>: half-hardy, 2 to 3 ft., white, crimson, +scarlet, &c.</p> + +<p><i>Nigella hispanica</i>: hardy, 1½ ft., pale blue, white or dark purple.</p> + +<p><i>Oenothera odorata</i>: hardy, 2 to 3 ft., yellow; fragrant.</p> + +<p><i>Omphalodes linifolia</i> (Venus’s Navelwort): hardy, 1 ft., white.</p> + +<p><i>Papaver Rhoeas flore-pleno</i>: hardy, 2 ft., scarlet and other colours; +showy.</p> + +<p><i>Papaver somniferum flore-pleno</i>: hardy, 3 ft., white, lilac, rose, +&c.; petals sometimes fringed.</p> + +<p><i>Petunia violacea hybrida</i>: half-hardy, 1½ ft., various colours; sow +in heat.</p> + +<p><i>Pharbitis hispida</i>: hardy, 6 ft., various; the many-coloured +twining <i>Convolvulus major</i>.</p> + +<p><i>Phlox Drummondii</i>: half-hardy, 1 ft., various colours.</p> + +<p><i>Platystemon californicus</i>: hardy, 1 ft., sulphur yellow; neat and +distinct.</p> + +<p><i>Portulaca splendens</i>: half-hardy, 6 in., crimson, rose, yellow, white, +&c., single and double; splendid prostrate plants for sunny rockwork.</p> + +<p><i>Pyrethrum Parthenium aureum</i>: half-hardy, 1 ft.; grown for its +golden foliage, and much used for bedding.</p> + +<p><i>Reseda odorata</i> (Mignonette): hardy, 1 ft., greenish, but exquisitely +fragrant; there are some choice new sorts.</p> + +<p><i>Rhodanthe maculata</i>: half-hardy, 1½ ft., rosy-pink or white; +larger flower-heads than the next.</p> + +<p><i>Rhodanthe Manglesii</i>: half-hardy, 1 ft., rosy-pink; a drooping +everlasting.</p> + +<p><i>Salpiglossis sinuata</i>: half-hardy, 2 to 3 ft., yellow, purple, crimson, +&c.; much varied and beautifully veined.</p> + +<p><i>Sanvitalia procumbens flore-pleno</i>: half-hardy, 6 in., golden yellow; +procumbent.</p> + +<p><i>Saponaria calabrica</i>: hardy, 6 to 8 in., bright rose pink or white; +continuous blooming, compact-growing.</p> + +<p><i>Scabiosa atropurpurea</i>: hardy, 1 to 2 ft., rose, white, lilac, crimson, +&c.</p> + +<p><i>Schizanthus pinnatus</i>: hardy, 1 to 2 ft., purple-lilac, prettily +blotched; curiously lobed flowers.</p> + +<p><i>Schizopetalon Walkeri</i>: hardy, 1 ft., white, sweet-scented at night; +curiously fringed petals.</p> + +<p><i>Senecio elegans</i>: half-hardy, 1½ ft., white, rose or purple; the +various double forms are showy.</p> + +<p><i>Silene pendula</i>: hardy, 1 ft., bright rose pink; very showy in +masses; var. <i>compacta</i> forms close dense tufts.</p> + +<p><i>Silene Pseudo-Atocion</i>: hardy, 1 ft., rose pink; free-flowering.</p> + +<p><i>Specularia Speculum</i>: hardy, 6 in., reddish-violet; free-flowering.</p> + +<p><i>Sphenogyne speciosa</i>: half-hardy, 1 ft., orange-yellow, with black +ring around the disk.</p> + +<p><i>Statice Bonduelli</i> (Sea Lavender): half-hardy, 1½ ft., yellow.</p> + +<p><i>S. Limonum</i>: bluish purple.</p> + +<p><i>S. sinuata</i>: white, blue, yellow.</p> + +<p><i>S. Suworowi</i>: lilac.</p> + +<p><i>Tagetes signata</i>: half-hardy, 1½ ft., golden yellow; continuous +blooming, with elegant foliage. The French and African marigolds, +favourites of some, are allied to this.</p> + +<p><i>Tropaeolum aduncum</i> (Canary creeper): half-hardy, 10 ft., yellow, +fringed; an elegant climber.</p> + +<p><i>Tropaeolum majus</i> (the nasturtium of gardens): hardy. There are +two races, dwarf and tall, various shades of red and yellow.</p> + +<p><i>Waitzia aurea</i>: half-hardy, 1½ ft., golden yellow; a showy +everlasting.</p> + +<p><i>Xeranthemum annuum flore-pleno</i>: hardy, 2 ft., lilac-purple; +floriferous.</p> + +<p><i>Zinnia elegans</i>: half-hardy, 1 to 2 ft., various colours.</p> + +<p><span class="sc">Hardy Biennials.</span>—Biennials live through one winter period. +They require to be sown in the summer months, about June or July, +in order to get established before winter; they should be pricked out +as soon as large enough, and should have ample space so as to become +hardy and stocky. They should be planted in good soil, but not of +too stimulating a character. Those that are perfectly hardy are best +planted where they are to flower in good time during autumn. +This transplanting acts as a kind of check, which is rather beneficial +than otherwise. Of those that are liable to suffer injury in winter, +as the Brompton and Queen Stocks, a portion should be potted and +wintered in cold frames ventilated as freely as the weather will +permit.</p> + +<p>The number of biennials is not large, but a few very desirable +garden plants, such as the following, occur amongst them:—</p> + +<p><i>Agrostemma coronaria</i> (Rose Campion): hardy, 1½ ft., bright +rose-purple or rose and white.</p> + +<p><i>Beta Cicla variegata</i>: hardy, 2 ft., beautifully coloured leaves and +midribs, crimson, golden, &c.</p> + +<p><i>Campanula Medium</i> (Canterbury Bell): hardy, 2 ft., blue, white, +rose, &c. The double-flowered varieties of various colours are very +handsome.</p> + +<p><i>Campanula Medium calycanthema</i>: hardy, 2 ft., blue or white; +hose-in-hose flowered.</p> + +<p><i>Catananche coerulea</i>: hardy, 2 to 3 ft., blue or white.</p> + +<p><i>Celsia cretica</i>: hardy, 4 to 5 ft., yellow, with two dark spots near +centre; in spikes.</p> + +<p><i>Cheiranthus Cheiri</i> (Wallflower): hardy, 1½ to 2 ft., red, purple, +yellow, &c.; really a perennial but better as a biennial.</p> + +<p><i>Coreopsis grandiflora</i>: hardy, 2 to 3 ft., bright yellow; the finest +member of the genus.</p> + +<p><i>Dianthus barbatus</i> (Sweet William): hardy, 1 to 1½ ft., crimson, +purple, white or parti-coloured.</p> + +<p><i>Dianthus chinensis</i> (Indian Pink): half-hardy, 1 ft., various; +flower earlier if treated as biennials; must be protected from frost.</p> + +<p><i>Digitalis purpurea</i> (Foxglove): hardy, 3 to 5 ft., rosy-purple or +white; beautifully spotted; the variety called <i>gloxinioides</i> has +regular, erect flowers.</p> + +<p><i>Echium pomponium</i>: hardy, 4 ft., rosy-pink.</p> + +<p><i>Hedysarum coronarium</i> (French Honeysuckle): hardy, 2 to 3 ft., +scarlet or white; fragrant.</p> + +<p><i>Hesperis tristis</i> (Night-scented Rocket): hardy, 3 ft., dull purplish; +fragrant at night.</p> + +<p><i>Lunaria biennis</i> (Honesty): hardy, 2 to 3 ft., purple; the silvery +dissepiment attractive among everlastings.</p> + +<p><i>Matthiola incana</i> (two groups, the Brompton and the Queen +stocks): hardy, 2 to 2½ ft., white, red and purple.</p> + +<p><i>Meconopsis.</i> Charming members of the poppy family, of which +<i>M. aculeata</i>, purple; <i>M. grandis</i>, purple; <i>M. heterophylla</i>, coppery-orange; +<i>M. nepalensis</i>, golden yellow; <i>M. integrifolia</i>, yellow; +<i>M. simplicifolia</i>, violet purple, are grown with care in sheltered spots, +and in rich, very gritty soil.</p> + +<p><i>Michauxia campanuloides</i>, a remarkable bell flower, 3 to 8 ft. high, +white tinged purple. Requires rich loam in warm sheltered spots.</p> + +<p><i>Oenothera biennis</i> and <i>O. Lamarckiana</i> (Evening primrose): hardy, +5 ft., bright yellow; large.</p> + +<p><i>Scabiosa caucasica</i>: hardy, 3 ft., blue, white.</p> + +<p><i>Silene compacta</i>: half-hardy, 3 to 6 inches, bright pink; clustered +as in S. Armeria.</p> + +<p><i>Verbascum Blattaria</i>: hardy, 3 to 4 ft., yellowish, with purple hairs +on the filaments; in tall spikes.</p> + +<p><span class="sc">Hardy Herbaceous Perennials.</span>—This term includes not only +those fibrous-rooted plants of herbaceous habit which spring up from +the root year after year, but also those old-fashioned subjects known +as florists’ flowers, and the hardy bulbs. Some of the most beautiful +of hardy flowering plants belong to this class. When the length of +the flowering season is considered, it will be obvious that it is impossible +to keep up the show of a single border or plot for six months +together, since plants, as they are commonly arranged, come dropping +into and out of flower one after another; and even where a certain +number are in bloom at the same time, they necessarily stand apart, +and so the effects of contrast, which can be perceived only among +adjacent objects, are lost. To obviate this defect, it has been recommended +that ornamental plants should be formed into four or five +separate suites of flowering, to be distributed over the garden. +Not to mention the more vernal flowers, the first might contain the +flora of May; the second that of June; the third that of July; and +the fourth that of August and the following months. These compartments +should be so intermingled that no particular class may be +entirely absent from any one quarter of the garden.</p> + +<p>Before beginning to plant, it would be well to construct tables or +lists of the plants, specifying their respective times of flowering, +colours and heights. To diversify properly and mingle well together +the reds, whites, purples, yellows and blues, with all their intervening +shades, requires considerable taste and powers of combination; +and ascertained failures may be rectified at the proper time the next +season. The one great object aimed at should be to present an +agreeable contrast—a floral picture; and, as at particular seasons a +monotony of tint prevails, it is useful at such times to be in possession +of some strong glaring colours. White, for instance, should be much +employed in July, to break the duller blues and purples which then +preponderate. Orange, too, is very effective at this season. On the +other hand, yellows are superabundant in autumn, and therefore reds +and blues should then be sought for. The flower-gardener should +have a small nursery, or reserve garden, for the propagation of the +finer plants, to be transferred into the borders as often as is required.</p> + +<p>As a rule, all the fibrous-rooted herbaceous plants flourish in good +soil which has been fairly enriched with manure, that of a loamy +character being the most suitable. Many of them also grow satisfactorily +in a peaty soil if well worked, especially if they have a cool +moist subsoil. Pentstemons and phloxes, amongst others, succeed well +in soil of this character, but the surface must be well drained; the former +are rather apt to perish in winter in loamy soil, if at all close and heavy. +The herbaceous border should be a distinct compartment varying +from 6 to 10 ft. in width, and perhaps backed up by evergreens under +certain conditions. Such a border will take in about four lines of +plants, the tallest being placed in groups at the back and in the centre, +and the others graduated in height down to the front. In the front +row patches of the white arabis, the yellow alyssum, white, yellow, +blue, or purple violas, and the purple aubrietia, recurring at intervals +of 5 or 6 yards on a border of considerable length, carry the eye +forwards and give a balanced kind of finish to the whole. The same +might be done with dianthuses or the larger narcissi in the second +row, with paeonies, columbines and phloxes in the third, and with +delphiniums, aconitums and some of the taller yellow composites as +helianthus and rudbeckia at the back. Spring and autumn flowers, +as well as those blooming in summer, should be regularly distributed +throughout the border, which will then at no season be devoid of +interest in any part. Many of the little alpines may be brought into +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page768" id="page768"></a>768</span> +the front line planted between suitable pieces of stone, or they +may be relegated to a particular spot, and placed on an artificial +rockery. Most of the hardy bulbs will do well enough in the border, +care being taken not to disturb them while leafless and dormant.</p> + +<p>Some deep-rooting perennials do not spread much at the surface, +and only require refreshing from time to time by top-dressings. +Others, as the asters, spread rapidly; those possessing this habit +should be taken up every second or third year, and, a nice patch being +selected for replanting from the outer portions, the rest may be either +thrown aside, or reserved for increase; the portion selected for +replanting should be returned to its place, the ground having meanwhile +been well broken up. Some plants are apt to decay at the base, +frequently from exposure caused by the lifting process going on +during their growth; these should be taken up annually in early +autumn, the soil refreshed, and the plants returned to their places, +care being taken to plant them sufficiently deep.</p> + +<p>Only a section of some of the best of the decorative hardy perennials +can be noted, before we pass on to those popular subjects of +this class which have been directly influenced by the hybridizer and +improver. Many more might be added to the subjoined list:—</p> + +<p><i>Acaena.</i>—Neat trailing plants adapted for rockwork, thriving in +sandy soil. <i>A. microphylla</i> and <i>A. myriophylla</i> have pretty spiny +heads of flowers.</p> + +<p><i>Acantholimon.</i>—Pretty dwarf tufted plants, with needle-shaped +leaves, adapted for rockwork. <i>A. glumaceum</i> and <i>A. venustum</i> bear +bright pink flowers in July and August. Light sandy loam.</p> + +<p><i>Acanthus.</i>—Bold handsome plants, with stately spikes, 2 to 3 ft. +high, of flowers with spiny bracts. <i>A. mollis</i>, <i>A. latifolius</i>, and <i>A. +longifolius</i> are broad-leaved sorts; <i>A. spinosus</i> and <i>A. spinosissimus</i> +have narrower spiny toothed leaves.</p> + +<p><i>Achillea.</i>—Handsome composite plants, the stronger ones of easy +culture in common soil. <i>A. Eupatorium</i> and <i>filipendula</i>, 3 to 4 ft., +have showy yellow corymbose flowers; <i>A. rosea</i>, 2 ft., rosy-crimson; +and <i>A. Ptarmica flore-pleno</i>, 2 ft., double white flowers. Others +suitable for front lines or rockwork are <i>A. tomentosa</i>, 9 in., bright +yellow; <i>A. aegyptiaca</i>, 1 ft., silvery leaves and yellow flowers; +<i>A. umbellata</i>, 8 in., silvery leaves and white flowers; and <i>A. Clavennae</i>, +6 in., with silvery leaves and pure white flowers.</p> + +<p><i>Aconitum.</i>—Handsome border plants, the tall stems crowned by +racemes of showy hooded flowers. <i>A. Camarum</i>, 3 to 4 ft., has deep +purple flowers in August; <i>A. sinense</i>, 1½ to 2 ft., has large dark +purple flowers in September; <i>A. variegatum</i>, 3 ft., has the flowers +white edged with blue; <i>A. autumnale</i>, 3 ft., has pale blue flowers; +<i>A. Anthora</i>, 1 to 2 ft., yellow; and <i>A. japonicum</i>, 2½ ft., deep blue +flowers, produced in September and October. <i>A. Wilsoni</i>, a new +species from China, 6 ft. high, with bluish-purple flowers.</p> + +<p><i>Adenophora.</i>—Bell-shaped flowers. <i>A. stylosa</i>, 2 ft., pale blue, +elegant; <i>A. denticulata</i>, 1½ ft., dark blue; and in <i>A. liliifolia</i>, 1½ ft., +pale blue, sweet-scented—all blooming during summer. Light soil.</p> + +<p><i>Adonis.</i>—<i>A. vernalis</i>, 1 ft., has large bright yellow stellate flowers +in April. Deep light soil. <i>A. amurensis</i> is a fine Chinese species.</p> + +<p><i>Ajuga.</i>—Free growing, dwarf and showy. <i>A. reptans</i>, 8 in., has +creeping runners, which <i>A. genevensis</i> has not; both bear handsome +spikes of blue labiate flowers. Ordinary soil.</p> + +<p><i>Allium.</i>—Hardy bulbs of the garlic family, some species of which +are ornamental; the inflorescence is umbellate. In <i>A. azureum</i>, +1 to 2 ft., the flowers are deep-blue; in <i>A. Moly</i>, 1 ft., golden yellow; +in <i>A. neapolitanum</i>, 1½ ft., white, very handsome; in <i>A. triquetrum</i>, +8 in., white with green central stripes; in <i>A. pedemontanum</i>, 9 in., +reddish-violet, very beautiful, the umbels nodding.</p> + +<p><i>Alstroemeria.</i>—Beautiful plants with fleshy tuberous roots, which +are the better if not often disturbed. <i>A. aurantiaca</i>, 2 to 3 ft., +orange streaked with red, in July and August; <i>A. chilensis</i>, 2 to 3 ft., +blood-red, streaked with yellow, affording many varieties. Deep +sandy loam or peat. Should be planted at least 6 or 8 in. deep.</p> + +<p><i>Althaea rosea.</i>—The hollyhock is a noble perennial, 6 to 15 ft. +high, with flowers of every colour except blue. Requires rich loamy +soil and plenty of space.</p> + +<p><i>Alyssum.</i>—Showy rockwork or front row border plants of easy +culture in any light soil; the plants should be frequently renewed +from cuttings. <i>A. saxatile</i>, with greyish leaves, and deep yellow +flowers, produced in April and May, and the dwarfer <i>A. montanum</i> +are useful.</p> + +<p><i>Amaryllis.</i>—Noble half-hardy bulbs, for planting near the front +wall of a hothouse or greenhouse; the soil must be deep, rich and +well drained. <i>A. Belladonna</i>, the Belladonna Lily, 3 ft., has large +funnel-shaped flowers in September, of a delicate rose colour. The +variety <i>A. blanda</i> has paler flowers, almost white.</p> + +<p><i>Anchusa.</i>—Pretty boraginaceous herbs, easily grown. <i>A. italica</i>, +3 to 4 ft., has blue star-like flowers. <i>A. sempervirens</i>, 1½ ft., rich +blue, is well suited for rough borders.</p> + +<p><i>Androsace.</i>—Pretty dwarf rock plants, requiring rather careful +management and a gritty soil. <i>A. Vitaliana</i>, yellow; <i>A. Wulfeniana</i>, +purplish-crimson; <i>A. villosa</i>, white or pale rose; <i>A. lactea</i>, white +with yellow eye; <i>A. lanuginosa</i>, delicate rose; and <i>A. Chamaejasme</i>, +delicate rose, are some of the best.</p> + +<p><i>Anemone.</i>—The Japanese kinds, <i>A. japonica</i>, flowers white and +purple, are very easily grown and are particularly fine in autumn. +The scarlet <i>A. fulgens</i>, and <i>A. coronaria</i>, the poppy anemone, are +useful for the front, or in nooks in the rockery; while the common +hepatica (<i>A. hepatica</i>) with its bright blue flowers should also have a +place.</p> + +<p><i>Antennaria.</i>—Composite plants, with everlasting flowers. <i>A. +margaritacea</i>, 1½ to 2 ft., has white woolly stems and leaves, and +white flower-heads.</p> + +<p><i>Anthericum.</i>—Charming border flowers. <i>A. Liliastrum</i>, St Bruno’s +Lily, 1½ ft., bears pretty white sweet-scented flowers in May; <i>A. +Hookeri</i> (<i>Chrysobactron</i>), 2 ft., with long racemes of bright golden +yellow flowers, requires cool peaty soil.</p> + +<p><i>Aquilegia.</i>—The Columbine family, consisting of beautiful border +flowers in great variety, ranging from 1 to 2 or 3 ft. in height. Besides +the common purple <i>A. vulgaris</i> with its numerous varieties, double +and single, there are of choice sorts <i>A. alpina</i> and <i>A. pyrenaica</i>, blue; +<i>A. glandulosa</i>, <i>A. jucunda</i>, and <i>A. coerulea</i>, blue and white; <i>A. +leptoceras</i>, blue and yellow; <i>A. canadensis</i>, <i>A. Skinneri</i>, and <i>A. +truncata</i> (<i>californica</i>), scarlet and yellow; <i>A. chrysantha</i>, yellow; +and <i>A. fragrans</i>, white or flesh-colour, very fragrant. Light rich +garden soil.</p> + +<p><i>Arabis.</i>—Dwarf close-growing evergreen cruciferous plants, +adapted for rockwork and the front part of the flower border, and +of the easiest culture. <i>A. albida</i> forms a conspicuous mass of greyish +leaves and white blossoms. There is also a charming double variety. +<i>A. lucida</i>, which is also white-flowered, bears its bright green leaves +in rosettes, and has a variety with prettily gold-margined leaves.</p> + +<p><i>Arenaria.</i>—Evergreen rock plants of easy culture. <i>A. graminifolia</i>, +and <i>A. laricifolia</i> are tufted, with grassy foliage and white flowers, +while <i>A. balearica</i>, a creeping rock plant, has tiny leaves and solitary +white flowers.</p> + +<p><i>Armeria.</i>—The Thrift or Sea-Pink, of which the common form <i>A. +maritima</i> is sometimes planted as an edging for garden walks; there +are three varieties, the common pale pink, the deep rose, and the +white, the last two being the most desirable. <i>A. cephalotes</i>, 1½ ft., +is a larger plant, with tufts of linear lance-shaped leaves, and +abundant globular heads of deep rose flowers, in June and July.</p> + +<p><i>Asclepias.</i>—<i>A. tuberosa</i> is a handsome fleshy-rooted plant, very +impatient of being disturbed, and preferring good peat soil; it +grows 1 to 1½ ft. high, and bears corymbs of deep yellow and orange +flowers in September. <i>A. incarnata</i>, 2 to 4 ft., produces deep rose +sweet-scented flowers towards the end of summer.</p> + +<p><i>Asperula odorata.</i>—The woodruff, a charming white-flowered +plant with leaves in circles. Well adapted for carpeting the border +or rockery.</p> + +<p><i>Asphodelus.</i>—Handsome liliaceous plants, with fleshy roots, erect +stems, and showy flowers, thriving in any good garden soil. <i>A. +albus</i>, 4 ft., <i>A. aestivus</i>, 4 ft., and <i>A. ramosus</i>, 4 ft., have all long +tapering keeled leaves, and simple or branched spikes of white +flowers; <i>A. luteus</i>, 2 ft., has awl-shaped leaves and dense spikes +of fragrant yellow flowers; <i>A. capillaris</i> is similar to <i>A. luteus</i>, but +more slender and elegant.</p> + +<p><i>Aster.</i>—A very large family of autumn-blooming composites, including +some ornamental species, all of the easiest culture. Of +these, <i>A. alpinus</i>, 1 ft., and <i>A. Amellus</i>, 1½ ft., with its var. <i>bessarabicus</i>, +have broadish blunt leaves, and large starry bluish flowers; +<i>A. longifolius formosus</i>, 2 ft., bright rosy lilac; <i>A. elegans</i>, 3 to 5 ft., +small pale purple or whitish; <i>A. laxus</i>, 2 ft., purplish-blue; <i>A. +pendulus</i>, 2½ ft., white, changing to rose; <i>A. pyrenaeus</i>, 2 to 3 ft., +lilac-blue; <i>A. turbinellus</i>, 2 to 3 ft., mauve-coloured, are showy +border plants; and <i>A. Novae Angliae</i>, 5 to 6 ft., rosy-violet; <i>A. +cyaneus</i>, 5 ft., blue-lilac; and <i>A. grandiflorus</i>, 3 ft., violet, are +especially useful from their late-flowering habit.</p> + +<p><i>Astilbe.</i>—<i>A. japonica</i>, 1 to 1½ ft., better known as <i>Hoteia japonica</i> +or <i>Spiraea japonica</i>, thrives in peaty or sandy soil; its glossy +tripinnate leaves, and feathery panicles of white flowers early in +summer, are very attractive. It proves to be a fine decorative pot-plant, +and invaluable for forcing during the spring.</p> + +<p><i>Astragalus.</i>—Showy pea-flowered plants, the smaller species +adapted for rockwork; sandy soil. <i>A. dasyglottis</i>, 6 in., has bluish-purple +flowers in August and September; and <i>A. monspessulanus</i>, +8 in., crimson-purple in July; while <i>A. hypoglottis</i>, 6 in., produces +in summer compact heads of pretty flowers, which are either purple +or white. There are many very ornamental kinds.</p> + +<p><i>Aubrietia.</i>—Beautiful dwarf spring-blooming rock plants, forming +carpety tufts of flowers of simple cruciferous form. <i>A. delioidea</i> is +of a deep lilac-blue; <i>A. Campbelliae</i> is more compact and rather +darker, approaching to purple; <i>A. grandiflora</i> and <i>graeca</i> are rather +larger, but of a lighter hue. Light sandy soil.</p> + +<p><i>Bambusa.</i>—The bamboo family are elegant arborescent grasses +(see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Bamboo</a></span>).</p> + +<p><i>Baptisia.</i>—Stoutish erect-growing, 2 to 3 ft., with smooth foliage +and spikes of pea-like flowers. <i>B. australis</i> is purplish-blue, +<i>B. alba</i>, white, <i>B. exaltata</i>, deep blue; all flowering in the summer +months.</p> + +<p><i>Bellis.</i>—<i>B. perennis flore-pleno</i>, the Double Daisy, consists of +dwarf showy plants 3 to 4 in. high, flowering freely in spring if grown +in rich light soil, and frequently divided and transplanted. The +white and pink forms, with the white and red quilled, and the variegated-leaved +<i>aucubaefolia</i>, are some of the best.</p> + +<p><i>Bocconia.</i>—Stately poppyworts, 6 to 8 ft. <i>B. cordata</i> has heart-shaped +lobed leaves, and large panicles of small flesh-coloured +flowers. Sometimes called <i>Macleaya</i>. Deep sandy loam.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page769" id="page769"></a>769</span></p> + +<p><i>Brodiaea.</i>—Pretty bulbous plants. <i>B. grandiflora</i>, 1 ft., has large +bluish-purple flowers; <i>B. coccinea</i>, 2 to 3 ft., has tubular campanulate +nodding flowers of a rich crimson with green tips. Sandy loam.</p> + +<p><i>Bulbocodium.</i>—Pretty spring-flowering crocus-like bulbs. <i>B. +vernum</i>, 4 to 6 in. high, purplish-lilac, blooms in March. Good +garden soil.</p> + +<p><i>Buphthalmum.</i>—Robust composite herbs with striking foliage, for +the back of herbaceous or shrubbery borders. <i>B. cordifolium</i>, 4 ft., +has large cordate leaves, and heads of rich orange flowers in cymose +panicles in July. Also called <i>Telekia speciosa</i>.</p> + +<p><i>Calandrinia.</i>—Showy dwarf plants for sunny rockwork, in light +sandy soil. <i>C. umbellata</i>, 3 to 4 in., much branched, with narrow +hairy leaves, and corymbs of magenta-crimson flowers in the summer +months.</p> + +<p><i>Calochortus.</i>—Beautiful bulbous plants, called mariposa lilies, +requiring warm sheltered spots in rich gritty and well-drained soil. +There are several species known, the best being <i>albus</i>, <i>elegans</i>, +<i>luteus</i>, <i>Plummerae</i>, <i>splendens</i>, <i>Purdyi</i>, <i>venustus</i> and <i>Weedi</i>.</p> + +<p><i>Caltha.</i>—Showy marsh plants, adapted for the margins of lakes, +streamlets or artificial bogs. <i>C. palustris flore-pleno</i>, 1 ft., has double +brilliant yellow flowers in May.</p> + +<p><i>Calystegia.</i>—Twining plants with running perennial roots. <i>C. +pubescens flore-pleno</i>, 8 to 10 ft., has showy double-pink convolvuloid +flowers in July; <i>C. dahurica</i> is a handsome single-flowered summer-blooming +kind, with rosy-coloured flowers.</p> + +<p><i>Camassia esculenta.</i>—A beautiful bulbous plant 2 to 3 ft. high +with large pale blue flowers. Also a white variety.</p> + +<p><i>Campanula.</i>—Beautiful, as well as varied in habit and character. +They are called bell-flowers. <i>C. pulla</i>, 6 in., purplish, nodding, on +slender erect stalks; <i>C. turbinata</i>, 9 in., purple, broad-belled; +<i>C. carpatica</i>, 1 ft., blue, broad-belled; <i>C. nobilis</i>, 1½ ft., long-belled, +whitish or tinted with chocolate; <i>C. persicifolia</i>, 2 ft., a fine border +plant, single or double, white or purple, blooming in July; and +<i>C. pyramidalis</i>, 6 ft., blue or white, in tall branching spikes, are +good and diverse. There are many other fine sorts.</p> + +<p><i>Centaurea.</i>—Bold-habited composites of showy character; common +soil. <i>C. babylonica</i>, 5 to 7 ft., has winged stems, silvery leaves, +and yellow flower-heads from June to September; <i>C. montana</i>, +3 ft., deep bright blue or white.</p> + +<p><i>Centranthus.</i>—Showy free-flowering plants, for rockwork, banks, +or stony soil. <i>C. ruber</i>, 2 ft., branches and blooms freely all summer, +and varies with rosy, or crimson, or white flowers. It clothes the +chalk cuttings on some English railways with a sheet of colour in +the blooming season.</p> + +<p><i>Cheiranthus.</i>—Pretty rock plants, for light stony soils. <i>C. alpinus</i>, +6 in., grows in dense tufts, and bears sulphur-yellow flowers in May. +<i>C. ochroleucus</i> is similar in character.</p> + +<p><i>Chionodoxa.</i>—Charming dwarf hardy bulbous plants of the +liliaceous order, blooming in the early spring in company with <i>Scilla +sibirica</i>, and of equally easy cultivation. <i>C. Luciliae</i>, 6 in., has star-shaped +flowers of a brilliant blue with a white centre. <i>C. gigantea</i> +is the finest of the few known species. It blooms from February to +April.</p> + +<p><i>Chrysanthemum.</i>—Apart from the florist’s varieties of <i>C. indicum</i> +there are a few fine natural species. One of the best for the flower +border is <i>C. maximum</i> and its varieties—all with beautiful white +flowers having yellow centres. <i>C. latifolium</i> is also a fine species.</p> + +<p><i>Colchicum.</i>—Showy autumn-blooming bulbs (corms), with crocus-like +flowers, all rosy-purple or white. <i>C. speciosum</i>, <i>C. autumnale</i>, +single and double, <i>C. byzantinum</i>, and <i>C. variegatum</i> are all worth +growing.</p> + +<p><i>Convallaria.</i>—<i>C. majalis</i>, the lily of the valley, a well-known +sweet-scented favourite spring flower, growing freely in rich garden +soil; its spikes, 6 to 9 in. high, of pretty white fragrant bells, are +produced in May and June. Requires shady places, and plenty of +old manure each autumn.</p> + +<p><i>Coreopsis.</i>—Effective composite plants, thriving in good garden +soil. <i>C. auriculata</i>, 2 to 3 ft., has yellow and brown flowers in July +and August; <i>C. lanceolata</i>, 2 to 3 ft., bright yellow, in August; +next to the biennial <i>C. grandiflora</i> it is the best garden plant.</p> + +<p><i>Corydalis.</i>—Interesting and elegant plants, mostly tuberous, +growing in good garden soil. <i>C. bracteata</i>, 9 in., has sulphur-coloured +flowers in April, and <i>C. nobilis</i>, 1 ft., rich yellow, in May; <i>C. solida</i>, +with purplish, and <i>C. tuberosa</i>, with white flowers, are pretty spring-flowering +plants, 4 to 6 in. high. <i>C. thalictrifolia</i>, 1 ft., yellow, May +to October.</p> + +<p><i>Cyclamen.</i>—Charming tuberous-rooted plants of dwarf habit, +suitable for sheltered rockeries, and growing in light gritty soil. +<i>C. europaeum</i>, reddish-purple, flowers in summer, and <i>C. hederae-folium</i> +in autumn.</p> + +<p><i>Cypripedium.</i>—Beautiful terrestrial orchids, requiring to be +planted in peat soil, in a cool and rather shady situation. <i>C. spectabile</i>, +1½ to 2 ft., white and rose colour, in June, is a lovely species, +as is <i>C. Calceolus</i>, 1 ft., yellow and brown, in May; all are full of +interest and beauty.</p> + +<p><i>Delphinium.</i>—The Larkspur family, tall showy plants, with spikes +of blue flowers in July. Distinct sorts are <i>D. grandiflorum</i> and <i>D. +grandiflorum flore-pleno</i>, 2 to 3 ft., of the richest dazzling blue, +flowering on till September; <i>D. chinense</i>, 2 ft., blue, and its double-flowered +variety, are good, as is <i>D. Barlowi</i>, 3 ft., a brilliant double +blue-purple. <i>D. nudicaule</i>, 2 ft., orange-scarlet, very showy, is best +treated as a biennial, its brilliant flowers being produced freely +in the second year from the seed.</p> + +<p><i>Dianthus.</i>—Chiefly rock plants with handsome and fragrant +flowers, the smaller sorts growing in light sandy soil, and the larger +border plants in rich garden earth. Of the dwarfer sorts for rock +gardens, <i>D. alpinus</i>, <i>D. caesius</i>, <i>D. deltoides</i>, <i>D. dentosus</i>, <i>D. neglectus</i>, +<i>D. petraeus</i>, and <i>D. glacialis</i> are good examples; while for borders +or larger rockwork <i>D. plumarius</i>, <i>D. superbus</i>, <i>D. Fischeri</i>, <i>D. +cruentus</i>, and the clove section of <i>D. Caryophyllus</i> are most desirable.</p> + +<p><i>Dicentra.</i>—Very elegant plants, of easy growth in good soil. +<i>D. spectabilis</i>, 2 to 3 ft., has paeony-like foliage, and gracefully +drooping spikes of heart-shaped pink flowers, about May, but it +should have a sheltered place, as it suffers from spring frosts and +winds; <i>D. formosa</i> and <i>D. eximia</i>, 1 ft., are also pretty rosy-flowered +species.</p> + +<p><i>Dictamnus.</i>—<i>D. Fraxinella</i> is a very characteristic and attractive +plant, 2 to 3 ft., with bold pinnate leaves, and tall racemes of irregular-shaped +purple or white flowers. It is everywhere glandular, +and strongly scented.</p> + +<p><i>Digitalis.</i>—Stately erect-growing plants, with long racemes of +pouch-shaped drooping flowers. The native D. purpurea, or foxglove, +3 to 5 ft., with its dense racemes of purple flowers, spotted +inside, is very showy, but is surpassed by the garden varieties that +have been raised. It is really a biennial, but grows itself so freely +as to become perennial in the garden. An erect flowered form is +called <i>gloxinioides</i>. The yellow-flowered <i>D. lutea</i> and <i>D. grandiflora</i> +are less showy. Good garden soil, and frequent renewal from seeds.</p> + +<p><i>Doronicum.</i>—Showy composites of free growth in ordinary soil. +<i>D. caucasicum</i> and <i>D. austriacum</i>, 1 to 1½ ft., both yellow-flowered, +bloom in spring and early summer. <i>D. plantagineum excelsum</i>, +3 to 5 ft. high, is the best garden plant.</p> + +<p><i>Draba.</i>—Good rockwork cruciferous plants. <i>D. alpina</i>, <i>D. aizoides</i>, +<i>D. ciliaris</i>, <i>D. Aizoon</i>, and <i>D. cuspidata</i> bear yellow flowers in early +spring; <i>D. cinerea</i> and <i>D. ciliata</i> have white flowers. Gritty well-drained +soil.</p> + +<p><i>Dracocephalum.</i>—Handsome labiate plants, requiring a warm +and well-drained soil. <i>D. argunense</i>, 1½ ft., <i>D. austriacum</i>, 1 ft., +<i>D. grandiflorum</i>, 1 ft., and <i>D. Ruyschianum</i>, 1½ ft., with its var. +japonicum, all produce showy blue flowers during the summer +months.</p> + +<p><i>Echinacea.</i>—Stout growing showy composites for late summer and +autumn flowering, requiring rich deep soil, and not to be often disturbed. +<i>E. angustifolia</i>, 3 to 4 ft., light purplish-rose, and <i>E. intermedia</i>, +3 to 4 ft., reddish-purple, are desirable kinds. <i>E. purpurea</i> +(often called Rudbeckia) is the showiest species. Height 3 to 4 ft., +with rosy-purple flowers.</p> + +<p><i>Eomecon chionanthus.</i>—A lovely poppywort about 1 ft. high, +with pure white flowers 2 to 3 in. across. Root-stocks thick, creeping.</p> + +<p><i>Epimedium.</i>—Pretty plants, growing about 1 ft. high, with +elegant foliage, and curious flowers. <i>E. macranthum</i>, white flowers, +and <i>E. rubrum</i>, red, are distinctly spurred; <i>E. pinnatum</i> and <i>E. +Perralderianum</i>, yellow, less so. They bloom in spring, and prefer +a shady situation and a peaty soil.</p> + +<p><i>Eranthis hyemalis.</i>—A charming tuberous rooted plant, called +winter aconite. Flowers bright yellow, January to March, close to +the ground.</p> + +<p><i>Eremurus.</i>—Noble plants with thick rootstocks, large sword-like +leaves, and spikes of flowers from 3 to 10 ft. high. They require +warm sunny spots and rich gritty soil. The best kinds are <i>robustus</i>, +pink, 6 to 10 ft.; <i>himalaicus</i>, 4 to 8 ft., white; <i>Aitchisoni</i>, 3 to 5 ft., +red; <i>Bungei</i>, 2 to 3 ft., yellow; and <i>aurantiacus</i>, 2 to 3 ft., orange-yellow. +There are now several hybrid forms.</p> + +<p><i>Erigeron.</i>—Composite plants, variable in character. <i>E. purpureus</i>, +1½ ft., with pink flower-heads, having narrow twisted ray-florets; +<i>E. Roylei</i>, 1 ft., dark blue; and <i>E. pulchellus</i>, 1 ft., rich orange, +flowering during the summer, are among the best kinds. Good +ordinary garden soil.</p> + +<p><i>Erinus.</i>—<i>E. alpinus</i> is a beautiful little alpine for rockwork, +3 to 6 in., of tufted habit, with small-toothed leaves, and heads of +pinkish-purple or, in a variety, white flowers, early in summer. +Sandy well-drained soil.</p> + +<p><i>Erodium.</i>—Handsome dwarf tufted plants. <i>E. Manescavi</i>, 1 to +1½ ft., has large purplish-red flowers in summer; <i>E. Reichardi</i>, a +minute stemless plant, has small heart-shaped leaves in rosette-like +tufts, and white flowers striped with pink, produced successively. +Light soil.</p> + +<p><i>Eryngium.</i>—Very remarkable plants of the umbelliferous order, +mostly of an attractive character. <i>E. amethystinum</i>, 2 ft., has the +upper part of the stem, the bracts, and heads of flowers all of an +amethystine blue. Some of more recent introduction have the +aspect of the pine-apple, such as <i>E. bromeliaefolium</i>, <i>E. pandanifolium</i>, +and <i>E. eburneum</i>. Deep light soil.</p> + +<p><i>Erythronium.</i>—<i>E. dens-canis</i>, the Dog’s Tooth Violet, is a pretty +dwarf bulbous plant with spotted leaves, and rosy or white flowers +produced in spring, and having reflexed petals. Mixed peaty and +loamy soil, deep and cool. Several charming American species are +now in cultivation.</p> + +<p><i>Euphorbia.</i>—Plants whose beauty resides in the bracts or floral +leaves which surround the inconspicuous flowers. <i>E. aleppica</i>, 2 ft., +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page770" id="page770"></a>770</span> +and <i>E. Characias</i>, 2 to 3 ft., with green bracts, are fine plants for +rockwork or sheltered, corners.</p> + +<p><i>Ferula.</i>—Gigantic umbelliferous plants, with magnificent foliage, +adapted for shrubbery borders or open spots on lawns. They have +thick fleshy roots, deeply penetrating, and therefore requiring deep +soil, which should be of a light or sandy character. <i>F. communis</i>, +<i>F. glauca</i>, and <i>F. tingitana</i>, the last with glossy lozenge-shaped +leaflets, grow 8 to 10 ft. high; <i>F. Ferulago</i>, with more finely cut +leaves, grows 5 to 6 ft. high. They flower in early spring, and all +have a fine appearance when in bloom, on account of their large +showy umbels of yellow flowers.</p> + +<p><i>Fritillaria.</i>—A large genus of liliaceous bulbs, the best known of +which is the crown imperial (<i>F. imperialis</i>) and the snake’s head +(<i>F. Meleagris</i>). There are many charming species grown, such as +<i>aurea</i>, <i>pudica</i>, <i>recurva</i>, <i>sewerzowi</i>, <i>askabadensis</i>, &c.</p> + +<p><i>Funkia.</i>—Pretty liliaceous plants, with simple conspicuously +longitudinal-ribbed leaves, the racemose flowers funnel-shaped and +deflexed. <i>F. Sieboldiana</i>, 1 ft., has lilac flowers; <i>F. grandiflora</i>, +18 in., is white and fragrant; <i>F. coerulea</i>, 18 in., is violet-blue; <i>F. +albo-marginata</i>, 15 in., has the leaves edged with white, and the flowers +lilac. Rich garden soil.</p> + +<p><i>Gaillardia.</i>—Showy composite plants, thriving in good garden soil. +<i>G. aristata</i>, 2 ft., has large yellow flower-heads, 2 or 3 in. across, in +summer; <i>G. Baeselari</i> and <i>G. Loiselii</i> have the lower part of the ray-florets +red, the upper part yellow.</p> + +<p><i>Galanthus.</i>—The Snowdrop. Early spring-flowering amaryllidaceous +bulbs, with pretty drooping flowers, snow-white, having the tips +of the enclosed petals green. The common sort is <i>G. nivalis</i>, which +blossoms on the first break of the winter frosts; <i>G. Imperoti</i>, <i>G. +Elwesi</i> and <i>G. plicatus</i> have larger flowers.</p> + +<p><i>Galax aphylla.</i>—A neat little rock plant, 6 to 8 in. high, with +pretty round leaves and white flowers. Requires moist peaty soil.</p> + +<p><i>Galega officinalis.</i>—A strong-growing leguminous plant, 2 to 5 ft. +high, with pinnate leaves, and masses of pinkish purple pea-like +flowers. Also a white variety. Grows anywhere.</p> + +<p><i>Galtonia candicans.</i>—~A fine bulbous plant, 3 to 4 ft. high, with +drooping white flowers.</p> + +<p><i>Gaura.</i>—<i>G. Lindheimeri</i>, 3 to 5 ft., is much branched, with elegant +white and red flowers of the onagraceous type, in long slender +ramose spikes during the late summer and autumn months. Light +garden soil; not long-lived.</p> + +<p><i>Gentiana.</i>—Beautiful tufted erect-stemmed plants preferring a +strong rich loamy soil. <i>G. acaulis</i>, known as the Gentianella, forms +a close carpet of shining leaves, and in summer bears large erect +tubular deep blue flowers. <i>G. Andrewsii</i>, 1 ft., has, during summer, +large deep blue flowers in clusters, the corollas closed at the mouth; +<i>G. asclepiadea</i>, 18 in., purplish-blue, flowers in July.</p> + +<p><i>Geranium.</i>—Showy border flowers, mostly growing to a height +of 1½ or 2 ft., having deeply cut leaves, and abundant saucer-shaped +blossoms of considerable size. <i>G. ibericum</i>, <i>platypetalum</i>, +<i>armenum</i> and <i>Endressi</i> are desirable purple- and rose-flowered sorts; +<i>G. sanguineum</i>, a tufted grower, has the flowers a deep rose colour; +and the double-flowered white and blue forms of <i>G. pratense</i> and +<i>G. sylvaticum</i> make pretty summer flowers. Good garden soil.</p> + +<p><i>Gerbera.</i>—A South African genus of composites requiring very +warm sunny spots and rich gritty soil. <i>G. Jamesoni</i>, with large +scarlet marguerite-like flowers, and <i>G. viridiflora</i>, with white flowers +tinged with lilac, are best known. Numerous hybrids have been +raised, varying in colour from creamy white to salmon, pink, yellow, +red and orange.</p> + +<p><i>Geum.</i>—Pretty rosaceous plants. The single and double flowered +forms of <i>G. chiloense</i> and its varieties <i>grandiflorum</i> and <i>miniatum</i>, +2 ft., with brilliant scarlet flowers; <i>G. coccineum</i>, 6 to 12 in., scarlet, +and <i>G. montana</i>, 9 in., yellow, are among the best sorts. Good +garden soil.</p> + +<p><i>Gillenia trifoliata</i>.—A pretty rosaceous plant about 2 ft. high. +Flowers white in graceful panicles; flourishes in a mixture of sandy +peat and loam.</p> + +<p><i>Gunnera.</i>—Remarkable rhubarb-like plants with huge lobed +leaves, often 6 ft. across. They should be grown near water as they +like much moisture, and a good loamy soil. <i>G. manicata</i> and <i>G. +scabra</i> are the two kinds grown.</p> + +<p><i>Gynerium.</i>—The Pampas-Grass, a noble species, introduced from +Buenos Aires; it forms huge tussocks, 4 or 5 ft. high, above which +towards autumn rise the bold dense silvery plumes of the inflorescence. +It does best in sheltered nooks.</p> + +<p><i>Gypsophila.</i>—Interesting caryophyllaceous plants, thriving in +dryish situations. <i>G. paniculata</i>, 2 ft., from Siberia, forms a dense +semi-globular mass of small white flowers from July onwards till +autumn, and is very useful for cutting.</p> + +<p><i>Haberlea rhodopensis.</i>—A pretty rock plant with dense tufts of +leaves and bluish-lilac flowers. It likes fibrous peat in fissures of the +rocks.</p> + +<p><i>Helenium.</i>—Showy composites of free growth in lightish soil. +<i>H. autumnale</i>, 4 ft., bears a profusion of yellow-rayed flower-heads +in August and September.</p> + +<p><i>Helianthemum.</i>—Dwarf subshrubby plants well suited for rockwork, +and called Sun-Roses from their blossoms resembling small wild +roses and their thriving best in sunny spots. Some of the handsomest +are <i>H. roseum</i>, <i>mutabile</i>, <i>cupreum</i> and <i>rhodanthum</i>, with red +flowers; <i>H. vulgare flore-pleno</i>, <i>grandiflorum</i> and <i>stramineum</i>, with +yellow flowers; and <i>H. macranthum</i> and <i>papyraceum</i>, with the +flowers white.</p> + +<p><i>Helianthus.</i>—The Sunflower genus, of which there are several +ornamental kinds. <i>H. multiflorus</i>, 4 ft., and its double-flowered +varieties, bear showy golden yellow flower-heads in profusion, and +are well adapted for shrubbery borders; <i>H. orgyalis</i>, 8 ft., has drooping +willow-like leaves. Many other showy species.</p> + +<p><i>Helichrysum.</i>—Composite plants, with the flower-heads of the +scarious character known as Everlastings. <i>H. arenarium</i>, 6 to 8 in., +is a pretty species, of dwarf spreading habit, with woolly leaves and +corymbs of golden yellow flowers, about July.</p> + +<p><i>Helleborus.</i>—Charming very early blooming dwarf ranunculaceous +herbs. <i>H. niger</i> or Christmas Rose, the finest variety of which is +called <i>maximus</i>, has white showy saucer-shaped flowers; <i>H. orientalis</i>, +1 ft., rose-coloured; <i>H. atrorubens</i>, 1 ft., purplish-red; and +<i>H. colchicus</i>, 1 ft., deep purple. Deep rich loam.</p> + +<p><i>Hemerocallis.</i>—The name of the day lilies of which <i>H. fulva</i>, +<i>H. disticha</i>, <i>H. flava</i>, <i>H. Dumortieri</i> and <i>H. aurantiaca major</i> are the +most showy, all with yellow or orange flowers. They flourish in +any garden soil.</p> + +<p><i>Hepatica.</i>—Charming little tufted plants requiring good loamy +soil, and sometimes included with Anemone. <i>H. triloba</i>, 4 in., has +three-lobed leaves, and a profusion of small white, blue, or pink +single or double flowers, from February onwards; <i>H. angulosa</i>, +from Transylvania, 6 to 8 in., is a larger plant, with sky-blue flowers.</p> + +<p><i>Hesperis.</i>—<i>H. matronalis</i>, 1 to 2 ft., is the old garden Rocket, of +which some double forms with white and purplish blossoms are +amongst the choicest of border flowers. They require a rich loamy +soil, not too dry, and should be divided and transplanted into fresh +soil annually or every second year, in the early autumn season.</p> + +<p><i>Heuchera.</i>—<i>H. sanguinea</i> and its varieties are charming and +brilliant border plants with scarlet flowers in long racemes. Rich +and well-drained soil.</p> + +<p><i>Hibiscus.</i>—Showy malvaceous plants. <i>H. Moscheutos</i>, rose-coloured, +and <i>H. palustris</i>, purple, both North American herbs, +3 to 5 ft. high, are suitable for moist borders or for boggy places +near the margin of lakes.</p> + +<p><i>Iberis.</i>—The Candytuft, of which several dwarf spreading subshrubby +species are amongst the best of rock plants, clothing the +surface with tufts of green shoots, and flowering in masses during +May and June. The best are <i>I. saxatilis</i>, 6 to 10 in.; <i>I. sempervirens</i>, +12 to 15 in.; and <i>I. Pruitii</i> (variously called <i>coriacea</i>, <i>carnosa</i>, +<i>correaefolia</i>), 12 in.</p> + +<p><i>Incarvillea.</i>—<i>I. Delavayi</i> is the best species for the open air. It +grows 2 ft. high and has large tubular rosy carmine blossoms. It +likes rich sandy loam and sunny spots.</p> + +<p><i>Lathyrus.</i>—Handsome climbing herbs, increased by seeds or +division. <i>L. grandiflorus</i>, 3 ft., has large rose-coloured flowers with +purplish-crimson wings, in June; <i>L. latifolius</i>, the everlasting pea, +6 ft., has bright rosy flowers in the late summer and autumn; the +vars. <i>albus</i>, white, and <i>superbus</i>, deep rose, are distinct. Ordinary +garden soil.</p> + +<p><i>Lavatera.</i>—<i>L. thuringiaca</i>, 4 ft., is a fine erect-growing malvaceous +plant, producing rosy-pink blossoms freely, about August and +September. Good garden soil.</p> + +<p><i>Leucojum.</i>—Snowflake. Pretty early-blooming bulbs, quite hardy. +<i>L. vernum</i>, 6 in., blooms shortly after the snowdrop, and should +have a light rich soil and sheltered position; <i>L. carpaticum</i>, flowers +about a month later; <i>L. pulchellum</i>, 1½ ft., blooms in April and +May; and <i>L. aestivum</i>, 2 ft., in May. All have white pendant +flowers, tipped with green.</p> + +<p><i>Liatris.</i>—Pretty composites with the flower-heads collected into +spikes. <i>L. pumila</i>, 1 ft., <i>L. squarrosa</i>, 2 to 3 ft., <i>L. spicata</i>, 3 to 4 ft., +<i>L. pycnostachya</i>, 3 to 4 ft., all have rosy-purplish flowers. Deep, +cool, and moist soil.</p> + +<p><i>Lilium.</i>—See <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Lily</a></span>.</p> + +<p><i>Linaria.</i>—Toadflax. Pretty scrophulariads, of which <i>L. alpina</i>, +3 to 6 in., with bluish-violet flowers having a brilliant orange spot, +is suitable for rockwork; <i>L. dalmatica</i>, 4 ft., and <i>L. genistifolia</i>, 3 ft., +both yellow-flowered, are good border plants; <i>L. vulgaris</i>, the +common British toad-flax, and its regular peloriate form, are very +handsome and free flowering during the summer months.</p> + +<p><i>Linum.</i>—Flax. <i>L. alpinum</i>, 6 in., large, dark blue; <i>L. narbonnense</i>, +1½ ft., large, blue; <i>L. perenne</i>, 1½ ft., cobalt blue; and <i>L. +arboreum</i> (<i>flavum</i>), 1 ft., yellow, are all pretty. The last is liable +to suffer from damp during winter, and some spare plants should be +wintered in a frame. It is really shrubby in character.</p> + +<p><i>Lithospermum.</i>—<i>L. prostratum</i>, 3 in., is a trailing evergreen herb, +with narrow hairy leaves, and paniculate brilliant blue flowers in +May and June. Well adapted for rockwork or banks of sandy soil.</p> + +<p><i>Lupinus.</i>—Showy erect-growing plants with papilionaceous +flowers, thriving in good deep garden soil. <i>L. polyphyllus</i>, 3 ft., +forms noble tufts of palmate leaves, and long spikes of bluish-purple +or white flowers in June and July; <i>L. arboreus</i> is subshrubby, +and has yellow flowers.</p> + +<p><i>Lychnis.</i>—Brilliant erect-growing caryophyllaceous plants, thriving +best in beds of peat earth or of deep sandy loam. <i>L. chalcedonica</i>, +3 ft., has dense heads of bright scarlet flowers, both single and +double, in June and July; <i>L. fulgens</i>, 1 ft., vermilion; <i>L. Haageana</i>, +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page771" id="page771"></a>771</span> +1½ ft., scarlet; and <i>L. grandiflora</i>, 1 to 2 ft., with clusters of scarlet, +crimson, pink and white flowers. All large-flowered and showy, +but require a little protection in winter.</p> + +<p><i>Lysimachia.</i>—The best known is the Creeping Jenny, <i>L. Nummularia</i>, +much used for trailing over rockeries and window boxes, +with bright yellow flowers. The variety <i>aurea</i> with golden leaves +is also popular. Other species that grow from 2 to 3 ft. high, and +are good border plants, are <i>L. clethroides</i>, with white spikes of +flowers; <i>L. vulgaris</i>, <i>L. thyrsiflora</i>, <i>L. ciliata</i>, <i>L. verticillata</i> and +<i>L. punctata</i>, all yellow.</p> + +<p><i>Malva.</i>—<i>M. moschata</i>, 2 ft., with a profusion of pale pink or white +flowers, and musky deeply cut leaves, though a British plant, is +worth introducing to the flower borders when the soil is light and +free.</p> + +<p><i>Meconopsis.</i>—The Welsh poppy, <i>M. cambrica</i>, 1 to 2 ft. high, +yellow, and <i>M. Wallichi</i>, from the Himalayas, 4 to 6 ft. high with +pale blue flowers, are the best known perennials of the genus. The +last-named, however, is best raised from seeds every year, and treated +like the biennial kinds.</p> + +<p><i>Mertensia.</i>—<i>M. virginica</i>, 1 to 1½ ft., azure blue, shows flowers in +drooping panicles in May and June. It does best in shady peat +borders.</p> + +<p><i>Mimulus.</i>—Monkey-flower. Free-blooming, showy scrophulariaceous +plants, thriving best in moist situations. <i>M. cardinalis</i>, +2 to 3 ft., has scarlet flowers, with the limb segments reflexed; <i>M. +luteus</i> and its many garden forms, 1 to 1½ ft., are variously coloured +and often richly spotted; and <i>M. cupreus</i>, 8 to 10 in., is bright +coppery-red. <i>M. moschatus</i> is the Musk-plant, of which the variety +<i>Harrisoni</i> is a greatly improved form, with much larger yellow +flowers.</p> + +<p><i>Monarda.</i>—Handsome labiate plants, flowering towards autumn, +and preferring a cool soil and partially shaded situation. <i>M. didyma</i>, +2 ft., scarlet or white; M. fistulosa, 3 ft., purple; and <i>M. purpurea</i>, +2 ft., deep purple, are good border flowers.</p> + +<p><i>Muscari.</i>—Pretty dwarf spring-flowering bulbs. <i>M. botryoides</i> +(Grape Hyacinth), 6 in., blue or white, is the handsomest; <i>M. +moschatum</i> (Musk Hyacinth), 10 in., has peculiar livid greenish-yellow +flowers and a strong musky odour; <i>M. monstrosum</i> (Feather +Hyacinth) bears sterile flowers broken up into a feather-like mass. +Good garden soil.</p> + +<p><i>Myosotidium nobile.</i>—A remarkable plant, 1½ to 2 ft. high, with +large blue forget-me-not-like flowers. Requires gritty peat soil and +cool situations, but must be protected from frost in winter.</p> + +<p><i>Myosotis.</i>—Forget-me-not. Lovely boraginaceous plants. M. +dissitiflora, 6 to 8 in., with large, handsome and abundant sky-blue +flowers, is the best and earliest, flowering from February onwards; +it does well in light cool soils, preferring peaty ones, and should be +renewed annually from seeds or cuttings. <i>M. rupicola</i>, 2 to 3 in., +intense blue, is a fine rock plant, preferring shady situations and +gritty soil; <i>M. sylvatica</i>, 1 ft., blue, pink or white, used for spring +bedding, should be sown annually in August.</p> + +<p><i>Narcissus.</i>—See <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Narcissus</a></span>.</p> + +<p><i>Nepeta.</i>—<i>N. Mussinii</i>, 1 ft., is a compactly spreading greyish-leaved +labiate, with lavender-blue flowers, and is sometimes used for +bedding or for marginal lines in large compound beds.</p> + +<p><i>Nierembergia.</i>—<i>N. rivularis</i>, 4 in., from La Plata, has slender, +creeping, rooting stems, bearing stalked ovate leaves, and large +funnel-shaped white flowers, with a remarkably long slender tube; +especially adapted for rockwork, requiring moist sandy loam.</p> + +<p><i>Nymphaea.</i>—See <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Water-Lily</a></span>.</p> + +<p><i>Oenothera.</i>—The genus of the Evening Primrose, consisting of +showy species, all of which grow and blossom freely in rich deep +soils. <i>Oe. missouriensis</i> (<i>macrocarpa</i>), 6 to 12 in., has stout trailing +branches, lance-shaped leaves and large yellow blossoms; <i>Oe. +taraxacifolia</i>, 6 to 12 in., has a stout crown from which the trailing +branches spring out, and these bear very large white flowers, changing +to delicate rose; this perishes in cold soils, and should therefore be +raised from seed annually. Of erect habit are <i>Oe. speciosa</i>, 1 to 2 ft., +with large white flowers; <i>Oe. fruticosa</i>, 2 to 3 ft., with abundant +yellow flowers; and <i>Oe. serotina</i>, 2 ft., also bright yellow.</p> + +<p><i>Omphalodes.</i>—Elegant dwarf boraginaceous plants. <i>O. verna</i>, +4 to 6 in., a creeping, shade-loving plant, has bright blue flowers +in the very early spring; <i>O. Luciliae</i>, 6 in., has much larger lilac-blue +flowers, and is an exquisite rock plant for warm, sheltered spots. +Light sandy soil.</p> + +<p><i>Onosma.</i>—<i>O. taurica</i>, 6 to 8 in., is a charming boraginaceous plant +from the Caucasus, producing hispid leaves and cymose heads of +drooping, tubular, yellow flowers. It is of evergreen habit, and +requires a warm position on the rockwork and well-drained sandy +soil; or a duplicate should be sheltered during winter in a cold, dry +frame.</p> + +<p><i>Ornithogalum.</i>—The Star of Bethlehem. <i>O. arabicum</i> can only +be grown in the warmest parts of the kingdom, and then requires +protection in winter. Other species, all bulbous, are <i>O. nutans</i>, +<i>O. pyramidale</i>, <i>O. pyrenaicum</i>, and the common Star of Bethlehem, +<i>O. umbellatum</i>; all are easily grown, and have white flowers.</p> + +<p><i>Ostrowskya magnifica.</i>—A magnificent bellflower from Bokhara, +4 to 5 ft. high, and white flowers tinted and veined with lilac, 3 to +5 in. across. Requires rich, gritty loam of good depth, as it produces +tuberous roots 1 to 2 ft. long.</p> + +<p><i>Ourisia.</i>—Handsome scrophulariaceous plants, from Chile, thriving +in moist, well-drained peaty soil, and in moderate shade. <i>O. coccinea</i>, +1 ft., has erect racemes of pendent crimson flowers.</p> + +<p><i>Papaver.</i>—The Poppy. Very showy plants, often of strong growth, +and of easy culture in ordinary garden soil. <i>P. orientale</i>, 3 ft., has +crimson-scarlet flowers, 6 in. across, and the variety <i>bracteatum</i> +closely resembles it, but has leafy bracts just beneath the blossom. +<i>P. alpinum</i>, 6 in., white with yellow centre; <i>P. nudicaule</i>, 1 ft., +yellow, scented, and <i>P. pilosum</i>, 1 to 2 ft., deep orange, are ornamental +smaller kinds.</p> + +<p><i>Pentstemon.</i>—The popular garden varieties have sprung from <i>P. +Hartwegii</i> and <i>P. Cobaea</i>. Other distinct kinds are <i>P. campanulatus</i>, +1½ ft., pale rose, of bushy habit; <i>P. humilis</i>, 9 in., bright blue; +<i>P. speciosus</i>, <i>cyananthus</i> and <i>Jaffrayanus</i>, 2 to 3 ft., all bright blue; +<i>P. barbatus</i>, 3 to 4 ft., scarlet, in long terminal panicles; <i>P. Murrayanus</i>, +6 ft., with scarlet flowers and connate leaves; and <i>P. Palmeri</i>, +3 to 4 ft., with large, wide-tubed, rose-coloured flowers.</p> + +<p><i>Petasites.</i>—<i>P. fragrans</i>, the Winter Heliotrope, though of weedy +habit, with ample cordate coltsfoot-like leaves, yields in January +and February its abundant spikes, about 1 ft. high, of greyish +flowers scented like heliotrope; it should have a corner to itself.</p> + +<p><i>Phlomis.</i>—Bold and showy labiates, growing in ordinary soil. +<i>P. Russelliana</i> (<i>lunariaefolia</i>), 4 ft., yellow, and <i>P. tuberosa</i>, 3 ft., +purplish-rose, both with downy hoary leaves, come in well in broad +flower borders.</p> + +<p><i>Phygelius.</i>—<i>P. capensis</i> from South Africa is hardy south of the +Thames and in favoured localities. Flowers tubular scarlet, on +branching stems, 2 to 3 ft. high. Requires light, rich soil.</p> + +<p><i>Physalis.</i>—<i>P. Alkekengi</i> from South Europe has long been known +in gardens for its bright orange-red globular calyxes. It has been +surpassed by the much larger and finer <i>P. Francheti</i> from Japan; +the brilliant calyxes are often 3 in. in diameter in autumn. Grows +in any garden soil.</p> + +<p><i>Physostegia.</i>—Tall, autumn-blooming labiates, of easy growth in +ordinary garden soils. <i>P. imbricata</i>, 5 to 6 ft., has pale purple +flowers in closely imbricated spikes.</p> + +<p><i>Phytolacca.</i>—Ornamental strong-growing perennials requiring +much space. <i>P. acinosa</i>, from the Himalayas, 3 to 4 ft., with +whitish flowers in erect spikes. <i>P. decandra</i>, the North American +Poke Weed or Red Ink plant, grows 5 to 10 ft. high, has fleshy +poisonous roots, erect purple stems and white flowers. <i>P. icosandra</i>, +from Mexico, 2 to 3 ft., pinky white. The foliage in all cases is +handsome. Ordinary garden soil.</p> + +<p><i>Platycodon.</i>—<i>P. grandiflorum</i>, 6 to 24 in. high, is a fine Chinese +perennial with flattish, bell-shaped flowers, 2 to 3 in. across, and +purple in colour. The variety <i>Mariesi</i> (or <i>pumilum</i>) is dwarf, with +larger, deeper-coloured flowers. Requires rich sandy loam.</p> + +<p><i>Podophyllum.</i>—Ornamental herbs with large lobed leaves. <i>P. +Emodi</i>, 6 to 12 in. high, from the Himalayas, has large white or pale-rose +flowers, and in autumn bright red, hen’s-egg-like fruits. <i>P. +peltatum</i>, the North American mandrake, has large umbrella-like +leaves and white flowers; <i>P. pleianthum</i>, from China, purple. They +all require moist, peaty soil in warm, sheltered nooks.</p> + +<p><i>Polemonium.</i>—Pretty border flowers. <i>P. coeruleum</i> (Jacob’s +Ladder), 2 ft., has elegant pinnate leaves, and long panicles of blue +rotate flowers. The variety called variegatum has very elegantly +marked leaves, and is sometimes used as a margin or otherwise in +bedding arrangements. Good garden soil.</p> + +<p><i>Polygonatum.</i>—Elegant liliaceous plants, with rhizomatous stems. +<i>P. multiflorum</i> (Solomon’s Seal), 2 to 3 ft., with arching stems, and +drooping white flowers from the leaf axils, is a handsome border +plant, doing especially well in partial shade amongst shrubs, and +also well adapted for pot culture for early forcing. Good garden +soil.</p> + +<p><i>Polygonum.</i>—A large family, varying much in character, often +weedy, but of easy culture in ordinary soil. <i>P. vacciniifolium</i>, 6 to +10 in., is a pretty prostrate subshrubby species, with handsome +rose-pink flowers, suitable for rockwork, and prefers boggy soil; +<i>P. affine</i> (<i>Brunonis</i>), 1 ft., deep rose, is a showy border plant, flowering +in the late summer; <i>P. cuspidatum</i>, 8 to 10 ft., is a grand object for +planting where a screen is desired, as it suckers abundantly, and its +tall spotted stems and handsome cordate leaves have quite a noble +appearance. Other fine species are <i>P. baldschuanium</i>, a climber, +<i>P. sphaerostachyum</i>, <i>P. lanigerum</i>, <i>P. polystachyum</i> and <i>P. sachalinense</i>, +all bold and handsome.</p> + +<p><i>Potentilla.</i>—The double varieties are fine garden plants obtained +from <i>P. argyrophylla atrosanguinea</i> and <i>P. nepalensis</i>. The colours +include golden-yellow, red, orange-yellow, crimson, maroon and +intermediate shades. They all flourish in rich sandy soil.</p> + +<p><i>Primula.</i>—Beautiful and popular spring flowers, of which many +forms are highly esteemed in most gardens. <i>P. vulgaris</i>, 6 in., +affords numerous handsome single- and double-flowered varieties, +with various-coloured flowers for the spring flower-beds and +borders. Besides this, <i>P. Sieboldii</i> (<i>cortusoides amoena</i>), 1 ft., +originally deep rose with white eye, but now including many varieties +of colour, such as white, pink, lilac and purple; <i>P. japonica</i>, 1 to +2 ft., crimson-rose; <i>P. denticulata</i>, 1 ft., bright bluish-lilac, with +its allies <i>P. erosa</i> and <i>P. purpurea</i>, all best grown in a cold frame; +<i>P. viscosa</i>, 6 in., purple, and its white variety nivalis, with <i>P. pedemontana</i> +and <i>P. spectabilis</i>, 6 in., both purple; and the charming +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page772" id="page772"></a>772</span> +little Indian <i>P. rosea</i>, 3 to 6 in., bright cherry-rose colour, are but a +few of the many beautiful kinds in cultivation.</p> + +<p><i>Pulmonaria.</i>—Handsome dwarf, boraginaceous plants, requiring +good deep garden soil. <i>P. officinalis</i>, 1 ft., has prettily mottled leaves +and blue flowers; <i>P. sibirica</i> is similar in character, but has broader +leaves more distinctly mottled with white.</p> + +<p><i>Pyrethrum.</i>—Composite plants of various character, but of easy +culture. <i>P. Parthenium eximium</i>, 2 ft., is a handsome double white +form of ornamental character for the mixed border; <i>P. uliginosum</i>, +5 to 6 ft., has fine large, white, radiate flowers in October; <i>P. +Tchihatchewii</i>, a close-growing, dense evergreen, creeping species, +with long-stalked, white flower-heads, is adapted for covering slopes +in lieu of turf, and for rockwork.</p> + +<p><i>Ramondia.</i>—<i>R. pyrenaica</i>, 3 to 6 in., is a pretty dwarf plant, +requiring a warm position on the rockwork and a moist, peaty soil +more or less gritty; it has rosettes of ovate spreading root-leaves, +and large purple, yellow-centred, rotate flowers, solitary, or two to +three together, on naked stalks.</p> + +<p><i>Ranunculus.</i>—The florists’ ranunculus is a cultivated form of +<i>R. asiaticus</i> (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Ranunculus</a></span>). <i>R. amplexicaulis</i>, 1 ft., white; +<i>R. aconitifolius</i>, 1 to 2 ft., white, with its double variety <i>R. aconitifolius +flore-pleno</i> (Fair Maids of France); and <i>R. acris flore-pleno</i> +(Bachelor’s Buttons), 2 ft., golden yellow, are pretty. Of dwarfer +interesting plants there are <i>R. alpestris</i>, 4 in., white; <i>R. gramineus</i>, +6 to 10 in., yellow; <i>R. parnassifolius</i>, 6 in., white; and <i>R. rutaefolius</i>, +4 to 6 in., white with orange centre.</p> + +<p><i>Rodgersia.</i>—Handsome herbs of the saxifrage family. <i>R. podophylla</i> +with large bronzy-green leaves cut into 5 large lobes, and +tall branching spikes 3 to 4 ft. high—the whole plant resembling one +of the large meadow sweets. <i>R. aesculifolia</i>, yellowish-white; <i>R. +Henrici</i>, deep purple; <i>R. pinnata</i>, fleshy pink; and <i>R. sambucifolia</i>, +white, are recently introduced species from China. They require +rich sandy peat and warm sheltered spots.</p> + +<p><i>Romneya.</i>—<i>R. Coulteri</i>, a fine Californian plant, with large white +flowers on shoots often as high as 7 ft.; <i>R. trichocalyx</i> is similar. +Both require very warm, sunny spots and rich, sandy soil, and +should not be disturbed often.</p> + +<p><i>Rudbeckia.</i>—Bold-habited composite plants, well suited for +shrubbery borders, and thriving in light loamy soil. The flower-heads +have a dark-coloured elevated disk. <i>R. Drummondii</i>, 2 to +3 ft., with the ray-florets reflexed, yellow at the tip and purplish-brown +towards the base; <i>R. fulgida</i>, 2 ft. golden-yellow with dark +chocolate disk, the flower-heads 2 to 3 in. across; and <i>R. speciosa</i>, +2 to 3 ft., orange-yellow with blackish-purple disk, the flower-heads +3 to 4 in. across, are showy plants.</p> + +<p><i>Sagittaria.</i>—Graceful water or marsh plants with hastate leaves, +and tuberous, running and fibrous roots. <i>S. japonica plena</i>; <i>S. +lancifolia</i>, <i>S. macrophylla</i> and <i>S. sagittifolia</i>, are among the best +kinds, all with white flowers.</p> + +<p><i>Salvia.</i>—The Sage, a large genus of labiates, often very handsome, +but sometimes too tender for English winters. <i>S. Sclarea</i>, 5 to 6 ft., +is a very striking plant little more than a biennial, with branched +panicles of bluish flowers issuing from rosy-coloured bracts; <i>S. +patens</i>, 2 ft., which is intense azure, has tuberous roots, and may be +taken up, stored away and replanted in spring like a dahlia. <i>S. +pratensis</i>, 2 ft., blue, a showy native species, is quite hardy; the +variety lupinoides has the centre of the lower lip white.</p> + +<p><i>Saxifraga.</i>—A very large genus of rock and border plants of easy +culture. The Megasea group, to which <i>S. ligulata</i>, <i>S. cordifolia</i> and +<i>S. crassifolia</i> belong, are early-flowering kinds of great beauty, +with fleshy leaves and large cymose clusters of flowers of various +shades of rose, red and purple. Another very distinct group with +silvery foliage—the crustaceous group—contains some of our +choicest Alpines. Of these <i>S. caesia</i>, <i>S. calyciflora</i>, <i>S. Cotyledon</i> are +among the best known. Some of the species look more like lichens +than flowering plants. The green moss-like saxifrages are also a +very distinct group, with dense tufted leaves which appear greener +in winter than in summer. The flowers are borne on erect branching +stems and are chiefly white in colour. <i>Saxifraga umbrosa</i> (London +Pride) and <i>S. Geum</i> belong to still another group, and are valuable +alike on border and rockery. <i>S. peltata</i> is unique owing to its large +peltate leaves, often 1 ft. to 18 in. across, with stalks 1 to 2 ft. long. +Flowers in April, white or pinkish. Likes plenty of water and a +moist peaty soil or marshy place. <i>S. sarmentosa</i>, the well-known +“mother of thousands,” is often grown as a pot plant in cottagers’ +windows.</p> + +<p><i>Scilla.</i>—Beautiful dwarf bulbous plants, thriving in well-worked +sandy loam, or sandy peat. <i>S. bifolia</i>, 3 in., and <i>S. sibirica</i>, 4 in., +both intense blue, are among the most charming of early spring +flowers; <i>S. patula</i>, 6 to 8 in., and <i>S. campanulata</i>, 1 ft., with +tubular greyish-blue flowers, freely produced, are fine border plants, +as is the later-blooming <i>S. peruviana</i>, 6 to 8 in., dark blue or white.</p> + +<p><i>Sedum.</i>—Pretty succulent plants of easy growth, and mostly +suitable for rockwork. They are numerous, varied in the colour of +both leaves and foliage, and mostly of compact tufted growth. +<i>S. spectabile</i>, 1 to 1½ ft., pink, in great cymose heads, is a fine plant +for the borders, and worthy also of pot-culture for greenhouse +decoration. Mention may also be made of the common <i>S. acre</i> +(Stonecrop), 3 in., yellow, and its variety with yellow-tipped leaves.</p> + +<p><i>Sempervivum.</i>—House-Leek. Neat-growing, succulent plants, +forming rosettes of fleshy leaves close to the ground, and rapidly +increasing by runner-like offsets; they are well adapted for rockwork, +and do best in sandy soil. The flowers are stellate, cymose, +on stems rising from the heart of the leafy rosettes. <i>S. arachnoideum</i>, +purplish, <i>S. arenarium</i>, yellow, <i>S. globiferum</i> and <i>S. Laggeri</i>, rose, +grow when in flower 3 to 6 in. high; <i>S. calcareum</i>, rose colour, and +<i>S. Boutignianum</i>, pale rose, both have glaucous leaves tipped with +purple; <i>S. Heuffelii</i>, yellow, with deep chocolate leaves, and <i>S. +Wulfeni</i>, sulphur-yellow, are from 8 to 12 in. high.</p> + +<p><i>Senecio.</i>—A large genus with comparatively few good garden +plants. Large and coarse-growing kinds like <i>S. Doria</i>, <i>S. macrophyllus</i> +and <i>S. sarracenicus</i> are good for rough places; all yellow-flowered. +<i>S. pulcher</i> is a charming plant, 2 to 3 ft. high, with rosy-purple +flower-heads, having a bright orange centre. It likes a warm +corner and moist soil. <i>S. clivorum</i>, from China, has large roundish +leaves and orange-yellow flowers. It flourishes near water and in +damp places.</p> + +<p><i>Shortia.</i>—<i>S. galacifolia</i>, a beautiful tufted plant 2 to 3 in. high, +with roundish crenate leaves, on long stalks, and white funnel-shaped +flowers in March and April. <i>S. uniflora</i> from Japan is closely +related. The leaves of both assume rich purple-red tints in autumn. +Warm sunny situations and rich sandy loam and peat are required.</p> + +<p><i>Silene.</i>—Pretty caryophyllaceous plants, preferring sandy loam, +and well adapted for rockwork. <i>S. alpestris</i>, 6 in., white, and <i>S. +quadridentata</i>, 4 in., white, are beautiful tufted plants for rockwork +or the front parts of borders; <i>S. maritima flore-pleno</i>, 6 in., white, +<i>S. Elizabethae</i>, 4 in., bright rose, and <i>S. Schafta</i>, 6 in., purplish-rose, +are also good kinds.</p> + +<p><i>Sisyrinchium.</i>—Pretty dwarf iridaceous plants, thriving in peaty +soil. <i>S. grandiflorum</i>, 10 in., deep purple or white, blooms about +April, and is a fine plant for pot-culture in cold frames.</p> + +<p><i>Sparaxis.</i>—Graceful bulbous plants from South Africa. <i>S. grandiflora</i>, +with deep violet-purple, and <i>S. tricolor</i>, with rich orange-red, +flowers are best known. <i>S. pulcherrima</i>, a lovely species, 3 to 6 ft. +high, with drooping blood-red blossoms, is now referred to the genus +<i>Dierama</i>. A warm, light, but rich soil in sheltered spots required.</p> + +<p><i>Spiraea.</i>—Vigorous growing plants of great beauty, preferring +good, deep, rather moist soil; the flowers small but very abundant, +in large corymbose or spicate panicles. <i>S. Aruncus</i>, 4 ft., white; +<i>S. astilbioides</i>, 2 ft., white; <i>S. Filipendula</i>, 1½ ft., and <i>S. Ulmaria</i>, +3 ft., both white; <i>S. palmata</i>, 2 ft., rosy-crimson; and <i>S. venusta</i>, +3 ft., carmine rose, are some of the best.</p> + +<p><i>Statice.</i>—Pretty plants with broad, radical leaves, and a much-branched +inflorescence of numerous small flowers. <i>S. latifolia</i>, 2 ft., +greyish-blue; <i>S. tatarica</i>, 1 ft., lavender-pink; <i>S. speciosa</i>, 1½ ft., +rose colour; and <i>S. eximia</i>, 1½ ft., rosy-lilac—are good border plants. +<i>S. bellidifolia</i>, 9 in., lavender; <i>S. emarginata</i>, 6 in., purple; <i>S. +globulariaefolia</i>, 9 in., white; and <i>S. nana</i>, 4 in.—are good sorts for +the rockery.</p> + +<p><i>Stenactis.</i>—<i>S. speciosa</i>, 1 to 2 ft., is a showy composite, of easy +culture in good garden soil; it produces large corymbs of flower-heads, +with numerous narrow blue ray-florets surrounding the +yellow disk. Now more generally known as Erigeron.</p> + +<p><i>Stipa.</i>—<i>S. pennata</i> (Feather Grass), 1½ ft., is a very graceful-habited +grass, with stiff slender erect leaves, and long feathery +awns to the seeds.</p> + +<p><i>Stokesia.</i>—<i>S. cyanea</i>, 2 ft., is a grand, autumn-flowering, composite +plant, with blue flower-heads, 4 in. across. Sandy loam and warm +situation.</p> + +<p><i>Symphytum.</i>—Rather coarse-growing but showy boraginaceous +plants, succeeding in ordinary soil. <i>S. caucasicum</i>, 2 ft., with blue +flowers changing to red, is one of the finer kinds for early summer +blooming.</p> + +<p><i>Thalictrum.</i>—Free-growing but rather weedy ranunculaceous +plants, in many cases having elegantly cut foliage. <i>T. aquilegifolium</i>, +2 ft., purplish from the conspicuous stamens, the leaves glaucous, +is a good border plant; and <i>T. minus</i> has foliage somewhat resembling +that of the Maidenhair fern. Ordinary garden soil.</p> + +<p><i>Tiarella.</i>—<i>T. cordifolia</i>, the foam flower, is very ornamental in +border or rockery. Leaves heart-shaped lobed and toothed; +flowers white starry; ordinary garden soil.</p> + +<p><i>Tigridia.</i>—Lovely bulbous plants called tiger flowers, useful in +the warmest parts of the kingdom for the border in rich but gritty +soil. <i>T. Pavonia</i>, the peacock tiger flower, from Mexico, grows 1 +to 2 ft. high, with plaited sword-like leaves, and large flowers about +6 in. across, having zones of violet and yellow blotched with purple +and tipped with scarlet. There are many varieties, all charming.</p> + +<p><i>Trillium.</i>—<i>T. grandiflorum</i>, the wood-lily of North America, is +the finest. It has large white flowers and grows freely in peaty soil +in shady borders. There are several other species, some with +purplish flowers.</p> + +<p><i>Tritonia.</i>—A genus of South African plants with fibrous-coated +corms or solid bulbs, often known as montbretas. <i>T. crocata</i>, 2 ft., +orange-yellow, <i>T. crocosmiaeflora</i>, 2 to 2½ ft., orange-scarlet, and +<i>T. Pottsi</i>, 3 to 4 ft., bright yellow, are the best-known varieties, of +which there are many subsidiary ones, some being very large and +free in flowering. A rich, gritty soil, and warm, sunny situations are +best for these plants.</p> + +<p><i>Triteleia.</i>—Charming spring-flowering bulbs, thriving in any good +sandy soil. <i>T. Murrayana</i>, 8 in., lavender-blue, and <i>T. uniflora</i>, +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page773" id="page773"></a>773</span> +6 in., white, are both pretty plants of the easiest culture, either for +borders or rockeries.</p> + +<p><i>Tritoma.</i>—Splendid stoutish-growing plants of noble aspect, +familiarly known as the Poker plant, from their erect, rigid spikes +of flame-coloured flowers; sometimes called Kniphofia. <i>T. Uvaria</i>, +3 to 4 ft., bright orange-red, passing to yellow in the lower flowers, +is a fine autumnal decorative plant. They should be protected +from frosts by a covering of ashes over the crown during winter.</p> + +<p><i>Trollius.</i>—Showy ranunculaceous plants, of free growth, flowering +about May and June. <i>T. europaeus</i>, 18 in., lemon globular; <i>T. +asiaticus</i>, 2 ft., deep yellow; and <i>T. napellifolius</i>, 2 to 2½ ft., +golden yellow, are all fine showy kinds. Rich and rather moist +soil.</p> + +<p><i>Tulipa.</i>—Splendid dwarfish bulbs, thriving in deep, sandy, well-enriched +garden soil, and increased by offsets. They bloom during +the spring and early summer months. <i>T. Gesneriana</i>, the parent +of the florists’ tulip, 12 to 18 in., crimson and other colours; +<i>T. Eichleri</i>, 1 ft., crimson with dark spot; <i>T. Greigi</i>, 1 ft., orange +with dark spot edged with yellow, and having dark spotted leaves; +<i>T. oculus solis</i>, 1 ft., scarlet with black centre; and <i>T. sylvestris</i>, +12 to 18 in., bright yellow, are showy kinds.</p> + +<p><i>Veratrum.</i>—Distinct liliaceous plants with bold ornamental leaves +regularly folded and plaited. <i>V. album</i>, 3 to 5 ft., has whitish +blossoms in dense panicles, 1 to 2 ft. long. <i>V. nigrum</i>, 2 to 3 ft., has +blackish-purple flowers, also <i>V. Maacki</i>, 2 ft. Rich sandy loam and +peat.</p> + +<p><i>Verbascum.</i>—Showy border flowers of erect spire-like habit, of +the easiest culture. <i>V. Chaixii</i>, 4 to 5 ft., yellow, in large pyramidal +panicles; <i>V. phoeniceum</i>, 3 ft., rich purple or white; and <i>V. formosum</i>, +6 ft., golden yellow in dense panicles, are desirable species.</p> + +<p><i>Veronica.</i>—The Speedwell family, containing many ornamental +members; all the hardy species are of the easiest cultivation in +ordinary garden soil. The rotate flowers are in close, erect spikes, +sometimes branched. <i>V. crassifolia</i>, 2 ft., dark blue; <i>V. incarnata</i>, +1½ ft., flesh-colour; <i>V. corymbosa</i>, 1½ ft., pale blue in corymbosely-arranged +racemes; <i>V. gentianoides</i>, 2 ft., grey with blue streaks; +<i>V. spicata</i>, blue, and its charming white variety <i>alba</i>; and <i>V. +virginica</i>, 5 ft., white, are distinct.</p> + +<p><i>Vinca.</i>—Periwinkle. Pretty rock plants, growing freely in ordinary +soil. <i>V. herbacea</i>, of creeping habit, with purplish-blue flowers; +<i>V. minor</i>, of trailing habit, blue; and <i>V. major</i>, 1 to 2 ft. high, also +trailing, are suitable for the rock garden. The last two are evergreen, +and afford varieties which differ in the colour of their flowers, +while some are single and others double.</p> + +<p><i>Viola.</i>—Violet. Charming dwarf plants, mostly evergreen and of +tufted habit, requiring well-worked rich sandy soil. <i>V. calcarata</i>, +6 in., light blue; <i>V. cornuta</i>, 6 to 8 in., blue; <i>V. lutea</i>, 4 in., yellow; +<i>V. altaica</i>, 6 in., yellow or violet with yellow eye; <i>V. palmaensis</i>, +6 to 8 in., lavender-blue; <i>V. pedata</i>, 6 in., pale blue; and <i>V. odorata</i>, +the Sweet Violet, in its many single and double flowered varieties, +are all desirable.</p> + +<p><i>Yucca.</i>—Noble subarborescent liliaceous plants, which should be +grown in every garden. They do well in light, well-drained soils, +and have a close family resemblance, the inflorescence being a +panicle of white, drooping, tulip-shaped flowers, and the foliage +rosulate, sword-shaped and spear-pointed. Of the more shrubby-habited +sorts <i>Y. gloriosa</i>, <i>recurvifolia</i> and <i>Treculeana</i> are good and +distinct; and of the dwarfer and more herbaceous sorts <i>Y. filamentosa</i>, +<i>flaccida</i> and <i>angustifolia</i> are distinct and interesting kinds, +the first two flowering annually.</p> + +<p>The taste for cultivation of the class of plants, of which the foregoing +list embraces some of the more prominent members, is on the +increase, and gardens will benefit by its extension.</p> + +<p><span class="sc">Hardy Trees and Shrubs.</span>—Much of the beauty of the pleasure +garden depends upon the proper selection and disposition of ornamental +trees and shrubs. We can only afford space here for lists of +some of the better and more useful and ornamental trees and shrubs, +old and new.</p> + +<p>The following list, which is not exhaustive, furnishes material +from which a selection may be made to suit various soils and situations. +The shrubs marked * are climbers.</p> + +<p class="pt1 center"><i>Hardy Deciduous Trees.</i></p> + +<table class="ws" summary="Contents"> +<tr><td class="tcl">Acer—Maple.</td> <td class="tcl">Larix—Larch.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Aesculus—Horse-Chestnut.</td> <td class="tcl">Liriodendron—Tulip-tree.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Ailantus—Tree of Heaven.</td> <td class="tcl">Magnolia.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Alnus—Alder.</td> <td class="tcl">Morus—Mulberry.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Amygdalus—Almond.</td> <td class="tcl">Negundo—Box-Elder.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Betula—Birch.</td> <td class="tcl">Ostrya—Hop Hornbeam.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Carpinus—Hornbeam.</td> <td class="tcl">Paulownia.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Carya—Hickory.</td> <td class="tcl">Planera.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Castanea—Sweet Chestnut.</td> <td class="tcl">Platanus—Plane.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Catalpa.</td> <td class="tcl">Populus—Poplar.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Celtis—Nettle Tree.</td> <td class="tcl">Prunus (Plums, Cherries, &c.).</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Cercis—Judas Tree.</td> <td class="tcl">Ptelea—Hop Tree.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Cotoneaster (some species).</td> <td class="tcl">Pyrus—Pear, &c.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Crataegus—Thorn.</td> <td class="tcl">Quercus—Oak.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Davidia.</td> <td class="tcl">Rhus—Sumach.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Diospyros.</td> <td class="tcl">Robinia—Locust Tree.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Fagus—Beech.</td> <td class="tcl">Salix—Willow.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Fraxinus—Ash.</td> <td class="tcl">Sophora.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Ginkgo—Maidenhair Tree.</td> <td class="tcl">Taxodium—Deciduous Cypress.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Gleditschia—Honey Locust.</td> <td class="tcl">Tilia—Lime.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Gymnocladus—Kentucky Coffee Tree.</td> <td class="tcl">Ulmus—Elm.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Juglans—Walnut.</td> <td class="tcl">Virgilia.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Kolreuteria.</td> <td class="tcl">Xanthoceras.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Laburnum.</td> <td class="tcl"> </td></tr> +</table> + +<p class="pt1 center"><i>Hardy Evergreen Trees.</i></p> + +<table class="ws" summary="Contents"> +<tr><td class="tcl">Abies—Silver Fir.</td> <td class="tcl">Libocedrus.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Araucaria—Chili Pine.</td> <td class="tcl">Magnolia grandiflora.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Arbutus—Strawberry Tree.</td> <td class="tcl">Picea—Spruce Fir.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Biota—Arbor Vitae.</td> <td class="tcl">Pinus—Pine.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Buxus—Box.</td> <td class="tcl">Quercus Ilex—Holm-Oak.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Cedrus—Cedar.</td> <td class="tcl">Retinospora.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Cephalotaxus.</td> <td class="tcl">Sciadopitys—Umbrella Pine.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Cryptomeria—Japan Cedar.</td> <td class="tcl">Sequoia (Wellingtonia).</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Cupressus—Cypress.</td> <td class="tcl">Taxus—Yew.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Ilex—Holly.</td> <td class="tcl">Thuiopsis.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Juniperus—Juniper.</td> <td class="tcl">Thuya—Arbor Vitae.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Laurus—Bay Laurel.</td> <td class="tcl">Tsuga.</td></tr> +</table> + +<p class="pt1 center"><i>Hardy Deciduous Shrubs.</i></p> + +<table class="ws" summary="Contents"> +<tr><td class="tcl">Abelia.</td> <td class="tcl">Halesia—Snowdrop Tree.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Acer—Maple.</td> <td class="tcl">Hamamelis—Wych Hazel.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Amelanchier.</td> <td class="tcl">Hibiscus—Althaea frutex, &c.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Ampelopsis.*</td> <td class="tcl">Hippophaë—Sea Buckthorn.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Amygdalopsis.</td> <td class="tcl">Hypericum—St John’s Wort.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Aralia.</td> <td class="tcl">Jasminum*—Jasmine.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Aristolochia.*</td> <td class="tcl">Kerria.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Berberis—Berberry.</td> <td class="tcl">Lonicera*—Honeysuckle.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Bignonia*—Trumpet Flower.</td> <td class="tcl">Lycium.*</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Buddleia.</td> <td class="tcl">Magnolia.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Calophaca.</td> <td class="tcl">Menispermum*—Moonseed.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Calycanthus—Carolina Allspice.</td> <td class="tcl">Periploca.*</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Caragana.</td> <td class="tcl">Philadelphus—Mock Orange.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Chimonanthus.</td> <td class="tcl">Rhus—Wig Tree, &c.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Clematis.*</td> <td class="tcl">Ribes—Flowering Currant.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Colutea—Bladder Senna.</td> <td class="tcl">Robinia—Rose Acacia, &c.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Cornus—Dogwood.</td> <td class="tcl">Rosa—Rose.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Cotoneaster (some species).</td> <td class="tcl">Rubus*—Bramble.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Crataegus—Thorn.</td> <td class="tcl">Spartium—Spanish Broom.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Cydonia—Japan Quince.</td> <td class="tcl">Spiraea.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Cytisus—Broom, &c.</td> <td class="tcl">Staphylaea—Bladder-Nut.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Daphne.</td> <td class="tcl">Symphoricarpus—Snowberry.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Deutzia.</td> <td class="tcl">Syringa—Lilac.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Edwardsia.</td> <td class="tcl">Tamarix—Tamarisk.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Euonymus europaeus—Spindle Tree.</td> <td class="tcl">Viburnum—Guelder Rose, &c.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Forsythia.</td> <td class="tcl">Vitis*—Vine.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Fremontia.</td> <td class="tcl">Weigela.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Genista.</td> <td class="tcl"> </td></tr> +</table> + +<p class="pt1 center"><i>Hardy Evergreen Shrubs.</i></p> + +<table class="ws" summary="Contents"> +<tr><td class="tcl">Akebia.*</td> <td class="tcl">Hedera*—Ivy.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Arbutus.</td> <td class="tcl">Hypericum—St John’s Wort.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Aucuba—Japan Laurel.</td> <td class="tcl">Ilex—Holly.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Azara.</td> <td class="tcl">Jasminum*—Jasmine.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Bambusa—Bamboo.</td> <td class="tcl">Kadsura.*</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Berberidopsis.*</td> <td class="tcl">Lardizabala.*</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Berberis—Berberry.</td> <td class="tcl">Laurus—Sweet Bay.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Buddleia.</td> <td class="tcl">Ligustrum—Privet.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Bupleurum.</td> <td class="tcl">Lonicera*—Honeysuckle.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Buxus—Box.</td> <td class="tcl">Osmanthus.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Ceanothus.</td> <td class="tcl">Pernettya.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Cerasus—Cherry-Laurel, &c.</td> <td class="tcl">Phillyrea.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Cistus-Sun-Rose.</td> <td class="tcl">Photinia.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Cotoneaster.</td> <td class="tcl">Rhamnus Alaternus.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Crataegus Pyracantha—Fire Thorn.</td> <td class="tcl">Rhododendron—Rose-Bay.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Daphne.</td> <td class="tcl">Rosa*—Rose.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Desfontainea.</td> <td class="tcl">Ruscus.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Elaeagnus—Oleaster.</td> <td class="tcl">Skimmia.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Erica—Heath.</td> <td class="tcl">Smilax.*</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Escallonia.</td> <td class="tcl">Stauntonia.*</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Euonymus.</td> <td class="tcl">Ulex—Furze.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Fabiana.</td> <td class="tcl">Viburnum—Laurustinus.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Fatsia (Aralia).</td> <td class="tcl">Vinca—Periwinkle.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Garrya.</td> <td class="tcl">Yucca—Adam’s Needle.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Griselinia.</td> <td class="tcl"> </td></tr> +</table> + +<p><span class="sc">Bedding Plants.</span>—This term is chiefly applied to those summer-flowering +plants, such as ivy-leaved and zonal pelargoniums, petunias, +dwarf lobelias, verbenas, &c., which are employed in masses for +filling the beds of a geometrical parterre. Of late years, however, +more attention has been bestowed on arrangements of brilliant +flowering plants with those of fine foliage, and the massing also of +hardy early-blooming plants in parterre fashion has been very greatly +extended. Bedding plants thrive best in a light loam, liberally +manured with thoroughly rotten dung from an old hotbed or +thoroughly decomposed cow droppings and leaf-mould.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page774" id="page774"></a>774</span></p> + +<p><i>Spring Bedding.</i>—For this description of bedding, hardy plants +only must be used; but even then the choice is tolerably extensive. +For example, there are the Alyssums, of which <i>A. saxatile</i> and <i>A. +gemonense</i> are in cultivation; <i>Antennaria tomentosa</i>; the double +white <i>Arabis albida</i>; Aubrietias, of which the best sorts are <i>A. +Campbelliae</i> and <i>A. grandiflora</i>; the double <i>Bellis perennis</i> or Daisy; +the Wallflowers, including <i>Cheiranthus Cheiri</i> (the Common Wallflower), +<i>C. alpina</i> and <i>C. Marshallii</i>; Hepaticas, the principal of +which are the varieties of <i>H. triloba</i>, and the blue <i>H. angulosa</i>; +Iberis or Candytuft; <i>Lithospermum fruticosum</i>; Myosotis or Forget-me-not, +including <i>M. alpestris</i>, <i>M. dissitiflora</i>, <i>M. azorica</i> and <i>M. +sylvestris</i>; Phloxes, like <i>P. subulata</i>, with its varieties <i>setacea</i>, +<i>Nelsoni</i>, <i>nivalis</i>; the single-flowered varieties of the Primrose, +<i>Primula vulgaris</i>; the Polyanthuses; <i>Pyrethrum Parthenium +aureum</i>, called Golden Feather; <i>Sempervivum calcareum</i>; the pink-flowered +<i>Silene pendula</i>; self-coloured varieties of the Pansy, <i>V. +tricolor</i>, and of <i>V. lutea</i> and <i>V. cornuta</i>, as well as some recent hybrids. +Besides these there are the various spring-flowering bulbs, such as +the varieties of Hyacinthus, Tulipa, Narcissus, Fritillaria, Muscari +or Grape Hyacinth, Crocus, Scilla, Chionodoxa and Galanthus or +Snowdrop.</p> + +<p><i>Summer Bedding.</i>—There is great variety amongst the plants +which are used for bedding-out in the garden during the summer +months, but we can note only some of the most important of them. +Amongst them are the Ageratums, the old tall-growing sorts of +which have been superseded by dwarfer blue and white flowered +varieties; Alternantheras, the principal of which are <i>A. amoena</i>, +<i>amoena spectabilis</i>, <i>magnifica</i>, <i>paronychioides major aurea</i> and +<i>amabilis</i>; <i>Alyssum maritimum variegatum</i>; some of the dwarf +varieties of <i>Antirrhinum majus</i>; <i>Arundo Donax variegata</i>; Begonias; +Calceolarias; Cannas; <i>Centaurea ragusina</i>; Clematises, of which +the hybrids of the <i>Jackmanni</i> type are best; <i>Dahlia variabilis</i>, +and the single-flowered forms of <i>D. coccinea</i>; Echeverias, of +which <i>E. secunda</i> and <i>E. metallica</i> are much employed; Gazanias; +Heliotropes; Iresines; Lantanas; Lobelias; <i>Mesembryanthemum +cordifolium variegatum</i>; Pelargoniums, of which the various classes +of zonal or bedding varieties are unapproachable for effect and general +utility; Petunias; Phloxes; <i>Polemonium coeruleum variegatum</i>; +<i>Pyrethrum Parthenium aureum</i>, the well-known Golden Feather, +especially useful as an edging to define the outline of beds upon +grass; Tropaeolums, especially some of the varieties of <i>T. Lobbianum</i>; +and Verbenas, the offspring of <i>Tweedieana</i>, <i>chamaedrifolia</i> +and others. Few bulbs come into the summer flower gardens, but +amongst those which should always be well represented are the +Gladiolus, the Lilium, the Tigridia and the Montbretia.</p> + +<p><i>Subtropical Bedding.</i>—Foliage and the less common flowering +plants may be used either in masses of one kind, or in groups arranged +for contrast, or as the centres of groups of less imposing or +of dwarfer-flowering subjects; or they may be planted as single +specimens in appropriate open spaces, in recesses, or as distant +striking objects terminating a vista.</p> + +<p><i>Carpet Bedding</i> consists in covering the surface of a bed, or a +series of beds forming a design, with close, low-growing plants, in +which certain figures are brought out by means of plants of a different +habit or having different coloured leaves. Sometimes, in addition +to the carpet or ground colour, individual plants of larger size and +handsome appearance are dotted symmetrically over the beds, an +arrangement which is very telling. Some of the best plants for +carpeting the surface of the beds are: <i>Antennaria tomentosa</i> and +<i>Leucophytum Browni</i>, white; <i>Sedum acre</i>, <i>dasyphyllum</i>, <i>corsicum</i> +and <i>glaucum</i>, grey; and <i>Sedum Lydium</i>, <i>Mentha Pulegium gibraltarica</i>, +<i>Sagina subulata</i> and <i>Herniaria glabra</i>, green. The Alternantheras, +Amaranthuses, Iresines and <i>Coleus Verschaffelti</i> furnish high +and warm colours; while <i>Pyrethrum Parthenium aureum</i> yields +greenish-yellow: <i>Thymus citriodorus aureus</i>, yellowish; <i>Mesembryanthemum +cordifolium variegatum</i>, creamy yellow; Centaureas +and others, white; <i>Lobelia Erinus</i>, blue; and the succulent Echeverias +and Sempervivums, glaucous rosettes, which last add much +to the general effect. In connexion with the various designs such +fine plants as <i>Agave americana</i>, <i>Dracaena indivisa</i> are often used as +centre-pieces.</p> + +<p><span class="sc">Greenhouse Plants.</span>—These are plants requiring the shelter of +a glass house, provided with a moderate degree of heat, of which +45° Fahr. may be taken as the minimum in winter. The house +should be opened for ventilation in all mild weather in winter, and +daily throughout the rest of the year. The following is a select list +of genera of miscellaneous decorative plants (orchids, palms and +ferns excluded; climbers are denoted by *; bulbous and tuberous +plants by †):</p> + +<table class="ws" summary="Contents"> +<tr><td class="tcl">Abutilon</td> <td class="tcl">Coleus</td> <td class="tcl">Lachenalia†</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Acacia</td> <td class="tcl">Coprosma</td> <td class="tcl">Lantana</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Agapanthus</td> <td class="tcl">Cordyline</td> <td class="tcl">Lapageria*</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Agathaea</td> <td class="tcl">Correa</td> <td class="tcl">Lilium†</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Agave</td> <td class="tcl">Cuphea</td> <td class="tcl">Lophospermum*</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Alonsoa</td> <td class="tcl">Cyclamen†</td> <td class="tcl">Mandevillea*</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Aloysia</td> <td class="tcl">Cyperus</td> <td class="tcl">Manettia*</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Amaryllis†</td> <td class="tcl">Cytisus</td> <td class="tcl">Mutisia*</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Ardisia</td> <td class="tcl">Darwinia (Genetyllis)</td> <td class="tcl">Myrsiphyllum*</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Asparagus</td> <td class="tcl">Diosma</td> <td class="tcl">Maurandya*</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Aspidistra</td> <td class="tcl">Dracaena</td> <td class="tcl">Nerine†</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Asystasia (Mackaya)</td> <td class="tcl">Eccremocarpus*</td> <td class="tcl">Nerium</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Azalea</td> <td class="tcl">Epacris</td> <td class="tcl">Pelargonium</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Bauera</td> <td class="tcl">Epiphyllum</td> <td class="tcl">Petunia</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Begonia†</td> <td class="tcl">Erica</td> <td class="tcl">Pimelia</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Blandfordia</td> <td class="tcl">Eriostemon</td> <td class="tcl">Plumbago*</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Bomarea*</td> <td class="tcl">Erythrina</td> <td class="tcl">Polianthes†</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Boronia</td> <td class="tcl">Eucalyptus</td> <td class="tcl">Primula</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Bougainvillea*</td> <td class="tcl">Eupatorium</td> <td class="tcl">Rhododendron</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Bouvardia</td> <td class="tcl">Eurya</td> <td class="tcl">Richardia (Calla)†</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Brugmansia</td> <td class="tcl">Ficus</td> <td class="tcl">Salvia</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Calceolaria</td> <td class="tcl">Fuchsia</td> <td class="tcl">Sarracenia</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Camellia</td> <td class="tcl">Grevillea</td> <td class="tcl">Solanum</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Campanula</td> <td class="tcl">Haemanthus†</td> <td class="tcl">Sparmannia</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Canna</td> <td class="tcl">Heliotropium</td> <td class="tcl">Statice</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Celosia</td> <td class="tcl">Hibiscus</td> <td class="tcl">Strelitzia</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Cestrum*</td> <td class="tcl">Hoya*</td> <td class="tcl">Streptocarpus</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Chorizema*</td> <td class="tcl">Hydrangea</td> <td class="tcl">Swainsonia</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Chrysanthemum</td> <td class="tcl">Impatiens</td> <td class="tcl">Tacsonia*</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Cineraria</td> <td class="tcl">Jasminum*</td> <td class="tcl">Tecoma</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Clianthus</td> <td class="tcl">Justicia</td> <td class="tcl">Tradescantia</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Clivia</td> <td class="tcl">Kalosanthes</td> <td class="tcl">Vallota†</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Cobaea*</td> <td class="tcl"> </td> <td class="tcl"> </td></tr> +</table> + +<p><span class="sc">Stove Plants.</span>—For the successful culture of stove plants two +houses at least, wherein different temperatures can be maintained, +should be devoted to their growth. The minimum temperature +during winter should range at night from about 55° in the cooler +to 65° in the warmer house, and from 65° to 75° by day, allowing a +few degrees further rise by sun heat. In summer the temperature +may range 10° higher by artificial heat, night and day, and will +often by sun heat run up to 90° or even 95°, beyond which it should +be kept down by ventilation and frequent syringing and damping +down of the pathways. During the growing period the atmosphere +must be kept moist by damping the walls and pathways, and by +syringing the plants according to their needs; when growth is +completed less moisture will be necessary. Watering, which, except +during the resting period, should generally be copious, is best done +in the forenoon; while syringing should be done early in the morning +before the sun becomes too powerful, and late in the afternoon to +admit of the foliage drying moderately before night. The following +is a select list of genera of stove plants (climbers are denoted by *, +bulbous and tuberous plants by †):</p> + +<table class="ws" summary="Contents"> +<tr><td class="tcl">Acalypha</td> <td class="tcl">Cyanophyllum (Miconia)</td> <td class="tcl">Musa</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Achimenes†</td> <td class="tcl">Cycas</td> <td class="tcl">Nelumbium†</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Aeschynanthus</td> <td class="tcl">Dieffenbachia</td> <td class="tcl">Nepenthes</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Allamanda*</td> <td class="tcl">Dipladenia*</td> <td class="tcl">Nymphaea†</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Alocasia†</td> <td class="tcl">Dracaena</td> <td class="tcl">Oxera*</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Amaryllis†</td> <td class="tcl">Eranthemum</td> <td class="tcl">Pancratium†</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Anthurium</td> <td class="tcl">Eucharis†</td> <td class="tcl">Pandanus</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Aphelandra</td> <td class="tcl">Euphorbia</td> <td class="tcl">Passiflora*</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Aralia</td> <td class="tcl">Ficus</td> <td class="tcl">Pavetta</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Ardisia</td> <td class="tcl">Franciscea</td> <td class="tcl">Petraea*</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Arisaema†</td> <td class="tcl">Gardenia</td> <td class="tcl">Pleroma*</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Aristolochia*</td> <td class="tcl">Gesnera</td> <td class="tcl">Poinsettia</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Ataccia</td> <td class="tcl">Gloriosa*</td> <td class="tcl">Rondeletia</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Begonia</td> <td class="tcl">Gloxinia†</td> <td class="tcl">Sanchezia</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Bertolonia</td> <td class="tcl">Heliconia†</td> <td class="tcl">Schubertia*</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Bignonia*</td> <td class="tcl">Hoffmannia</td> <td class="tcl">Scutellaria</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Bromeliads</td> <td class="tcl">Ipomaea*</td> <td class="tcl">Stephanotis</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Cactus</td> <td class="tcl">Ixora</td> <td class="tcl">Tabernaemontana</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Caladium†</td> <td class="tcl">Jacobinia</td> <td class="tcl">Terminalia</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Calathea</td> <td class="tcl">Jasminum*</td> <td class="tcl">Thunbergia</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Centropogon</td> <td class="tcl">Luculia</td> <td class="tcl">Torenia</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Cissus*</td> <td class="tcl">Maranta</td> <td class="tcl">Thyrsacanthus</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Clerodendron*</td> <td class="tcl">Medinilla</td> <td class="tcl">Tydaea</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Crinum†</td> <td class="tcl">Meyenia</td> <td class="tcl">Vinca</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Codiaeum (Croton)</td> <td class="tcl"> </td> <td class="tcl"> </td></tr> +</table> + +<p><span class="sc">Orchids.</span>—For the successful cultivation of a mixed collection +of tropical orchids, it is necessary that two or three houses, in which +different temperatures can be maintained, should be provided. +The greater number of them are epiphytes or plants that grow on +others without absorbing nourishment from them, and heat and +moisture afford all or nearly all the nourishment they require. At +one time it was thought the plants themselves were better for being +associated with such objects as ferns and palms, but they are best +grown by themselves.</p> + +<p>The East Indian orchid house takes in those species which are +found in the warm parts of the eastern hemisphere, as well as those +from the hottest parts of the western, and its temperature should +range from about 70° to 80° during the summer or growing season +and from 65° to 70° during winter. The Mexican or Brazilian orchid +house accommodates the plants from the warm parts of South +America, and its temperature should range from about 65° to 75° +during summer and from 60° to 65° in winter. A structure called +the cool orchid house is set apart for the accommodation of the many +lovely mountain species from South America and India, such as +<i>odontoglossums</i>, <i>masdevallias</i>, &c., and in this the more uniform the +temperature can be kept the better, that in summer varying between +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page775" id="page775"></a>775</span> +60° and 65°, and in winter from 45° to 60°. A genial moist atmosphere +must be kept up in the hottest houses during the growing +season, with a free circulation of air admitted very cautiously by +well-guarded ventilators. In winter, when the plants are at rest, +little water will be necessary; but in the case of those plants which +have no fleshy pseudobulbs to fall back upon for sustenance, they +must not be suffered to become so dry as to cause the leaves to +shrivel. In the Mexican house the plants will generally be able to +withstand greater drought occasionally, being greatly assisted by +their thick pseudobulbs. In the cool or odontoglossum house a +considerable degree of moisture must be maintained at all times, +for in these the plants keep growing more or less continuously.</p> + +<p>For potting or basketing purposes, or for plants requiring block-culture, +the materials used are light fibrous peat, special leaf-mould, +osmunda or polypodium fibre and living sphagnum moss, which +supply free drainage for the copious supply of water required. +Good turfy loam is also used for some, such as <i>cypripediums</i> and +<i>calanthes</i>. Indeed the composts now used are varied considerably +according to the particular group of orchids. The water should, +however, be so used as not to run down into the sheathing bases of +the leaves. While in flower, orchids may with advantage be removed +to a drier and cooler situation, and may be utilized in the +drawing-room or boudoir. Of late years not only have many fine +hybrids been raised artificially between various species, but some +remarkable bigeneric hybrids (between what are considered two +distinct genera) have also been produced (indicated in the list +below by *). To keep a valuable collection of orchids in good +condition requires the services of an expert orchid grower.</p> + +<p>The following is a select list of genera in cultivation:—</p> + +<table class="ws" summary="Contents"> +<tr><td class="tcl">Acineta</td> <td class="tcl">Cymbidium</td> <td class="tcl">Peristeria</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Ada</td> <td class="tcl">Cypripedium</td> <td class="tcl">Pescatorea</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Aërides</td> <td class="tcl">Cyrtopodium</td> <td class="tcl">Phajus</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Angraecum</td> <td class="tcl">Dendrobium</td> <td class="tcl">Phaio-calanthe*</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Anguloa</td> <td class="tcl">Diacrium</td> <td class="tcl">Phalaenopsis</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Anoectochilus</td> <td class="tcl">Disa</td> <td class="tcl">Pilumna</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Ansellia</td> <td class="tcl">Epidendrum</td> <td class="tcl">Platyclinis</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Arachnanthe</td> <td class="tcl">Eulophia</td> <td class="tcl">Pleione</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Arpophyllum</td> <td class="tcl">Eulophiella</td> <td class="tcl">Pleurothallis</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Barkeria</td> <td class="tcl">Galeandra</td> <td class="tcl">Polystachya</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Batemannia</td> <td class="tcl">Gongora</td> <td class="tcl">Promenaea</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Bifrenaria</td> <td class="tcl">Grammatophyllum</td> <td class="tcl">Renanthera</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Brassavola</td> <td class="tcl">Habenaria</td> <td class="tcl">Restrepia</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Brassia</td> <td class="tcl">Houlletia</td> <td class="tcl">Rodriguezia</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Brasso-Cattleya*</td> <td class="tcl">Ionopsis</td> <td class="tcl">Saccolabium</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Broughtonia</td> <td class="tcl">Ipsea</td> <td class="tcl">Schomburgkia</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Bulbophyllum</td> <td class="tcl">Laelia</td> <td class="tcl">Scuticaria</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Burlingtonia</td> <td class="tcl">Laelio-Cattleya*</td> <td class="tcl">Sobralia</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Calanthe</td> <td class="tcl">Leptotes</td> <td class="tcl">Sophro-cattleya*</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Catasetum</td> <td class="tcl">Lissochilus</td> <td class="tcl">Sophronitis</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Cattleya</td> <td class="tcl">Lycaste</td> <td class="tcl">Spathoglottis</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Chysis</td> <td class="tcl">Masdevallia</td> <td class="tcl">Stanhopea</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Cirrhopetalum</td> <td class="tcl">Miltonia</td> <td class="tcl">Thunia</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Cochlioda</td> <td class="tcl">Mormodes</td> <td class="tcl">Trichopilia</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Coelia</td> <td class="tcl">Odontoglossum</td> <td class="tcl">Trichosma</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Coelogyne</td> <td class="tcl">Odontioda*</td> <td class="tcl">Vanda</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Comparettia</td> <td class="tcl">Oncidium</td> <td class="tcl">Zygo-colax*</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Cycnoches</td> <td class="tcl">Pachystoma</td> <td class="tcl">Zygopetalum</td></tr> +</table> + +<p><span class="sc">Palms.</span>—These form charming table and drawing-room plants +when quite young. When more fully developed, and long before +their full growth is attained, they are among the most decorative +plants known for the conservatory and for subtropical gardening. +They are easily cultivated, but should not be allowed to become +dry. The soil should consist of about 3 parts turfy loam, 1 part leaf +mould, 1 part coarse silver sand, with enough chemical or other +manure added to render the whole moderately rich. The older +plants will occasionally require the roots pruned in order to keep +them in as small pots as possible without being starved. This +should be done early in the spring, and the plants heavily shaded +until feeding roots are again produced. It is of advantage to afford +stove culture while the plants are quite young. A little later most +of the genera succeed well under moderately cool conditions.</p> + +<p>The following genera are among those most commonly cultivated:</p> + +<table class="ws" summary="Contents"> +<tr><td class="tcl">Acanthophoenix</td> <td class="tcl">Chamaerops</td> <td class="tcl">Martinezia</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Acanthorhiza</td> <td class="tcl">Cocos</td> <td class="tcl">Oreodoxa</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Areca</td> <td class="tcl">Corypha</td> <td class="tcl">Phoenix</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Bactris</td> <td class="tcl">Geonoma</td> <td class="tcl">Pritchardia</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Brahea</td> <td class="tcl">Hyophorbe</td> <td class="tcl">Rhapis</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Calamus</td> <td class="tcl">Kentia</td> <td class="tcl">Sabal</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Caryota</td> <td class="tcl">Latania</td> <td class="tcl">Stevensonia</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Ceroxylon</td> <td class="tcl">Livistonia</td> <td class="tcl">Thrinax</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Chamaedorea</td> <td class="tcl"> </td> <td class="tcl"> </td></tr> +</table> + +<p><span class="sc">Ferns.</span>—These popular plants are usually increased by means of +their spores, the “dust” produced on the back of their fronds. +The spores should be sown in well-drained pots or seed pans on the +surface of a mixture of fibrous sifted peat and small broken crocks or +sandstone; this soil should be firmly pressed and well-watered, and +the spores scattered over it, and at once covered with propagating +glasses or pieces of sheet glass, to prevent water or dry air getting +to the surface. The pots should be placed in pans full of water, +which they will absorb as required. A shady place is desirable, +with temperature of 50° to 55° by night and 65° to 70° by day, or +they may be set on a shelf in an ordinary propagating pit. The +spores may be sown as soon as ripe, and when the young plants can +be handled, or rather can be lifted with the end of a pointed flat +stick, they should be pricked out into well-drained pots or pans +filled with similar soil and should be kept moist and shady. As +they become large enough, pot them singly in 3-in. pots, and when +the pots are fairly filled with roots shift on into larger ones.</p> + +<p>The best time for a general repotting of ferns is in spring, just +before growth commences. Those with creeping rhizomes can be +propagated by dividing these into well-rooted portions, and, if a +number of crowns is formed, they can be divided at that season. +In most cases this can be performed with little risk, but the gleichenias, +for example, must only be cut into large portions, as small +divisions of the rhizomes are almost certain to die; in such cases, +however, the points of the rhizomes can be led over and layered into +small pots, several in succession, and allowed to remain unsevered +from the parent plant until they become well-rooted. In potting +the well-established plants, and all those of considerable size, the +soil should be used in a rough turfy state, not sifted but broken, +and one-sixth of broken crocks or charcoal and as much sand as will +insure free percolation should be mixed with it.</p> + +<p>The stove ferns require a day temperature of 65° to 75°, but do +not thrive in an excessively high or close dry atmosphere. They +require only such shade as will shut out the direct rays of the sun, +and, though abundant moisture must be supplied, the atmosphere +should not be overloaded with it. Ferns should not be allowed to +become quite dry at the root, and the water used should always be +at or near the temperature of the house in which the plants are +growing. Some ferns, as the different kinds of Gymnogramme and +Cheilanthes, prefer a drier atmosphere than others, and the former +do not well bear a lower winter temperature than about 60° by +night. Most other stove ferns, if dormant, will bear a temperature +as low as 55° by night and 60° by day from November to February. +About the end of the latter month the whole collection should be +turned out of the pots, and redrained or repotted into larger pots +as required. This should take place before growth has commenced. +Towards the end of March the night temperature may be raised to +60°, and the day temperature to 70° or 75°, the plants being shaded +in bright weather. Such ferns as Gymnogrammes, which have their +surface covered with golden or silver powder, and certain species of +scaly-surfaced Cheilanthes and Nothochlaena, as they cannot bear +to have their fronds wetted, should never be syringed; but most +other ferns may have a moderate sprinkling occasionally (not +necessarily daily), and as the season advances, sufficient air and +light must be admitted to solidify the tissues.</p> + +<p>Hardy British ferns belonging to such genera as Asplenium, +Nephrodium, Aspidium, Scolopendrium, have become fairly popular +of late years, and many charming varieties are now used in borders +and rockeries. Spores may be sown as above described, but in a +much lower temperature.</p> + +<p>The following is a select list of genera:—</p> + +<table class="ws" summary="Contents"> +<tr><td class="tcl">Acrostichum</td> <td class="tcl">Davallia</td> <td class="tcl">Osmunda</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Actiniopteris</td> <td class="tcl">Dicksonia</td> <td class="tcl">Onoclea</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Adiantum</td> <td class="tcl">Gleichenia</td> <td class="tcl">Phlebodium</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Alsophila</td> <td class="tcl">Gymnogramme</td> <td class="tcl">Platycerium</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Aspidium</td> <td class="tcl">Hymenophyllum</td> <td class="tcl">Polypodium</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Asplenium</td> <td class="tcl">Lastrea</td> <td class="tcl">Pteris</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Blechnum</td> <td class="tcl">Lomaria</td> <td class="tcl">Scolopendrium</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Cheilanthes</td> <td class="tcl">Lygodium</td> <td class="tcl">Todea</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Cibotium</td> <td class="tcl">Nephrodium</td> <td class="tcl">Trichomanes</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Cyathea</td> <td class="tcl">Nephrolepis</td> <td class="tcl">Woodwardia</td></tr> +</table> +</div> + +<p class="pt2 center">VI. <i>Fruits.</i></p> + +<p><i>Fruit-Tree Borders.</i>—No pains should be spared, in the preparation +of fruit-tree borders, to secure their thorough drainage. +In case of adhesive clayey subsoil this can generally be secured +by placing over the sloping bottom a good layer of coarse rubbly +material, communicating with a drain in front to carry off the +water, while earthenware drain tubes may be laid beneath the +rubble from 8 to 10 ft. apart, so as to form air drains, and +provided with openings both at the side of the walk and also +near the base of the wall. Over this rubbly matter, rough turfy +soil, grass-side downwards, should be laid, and on this the good +prepared soil in which the trees are to be planted.</p> + +<p>The borders should consist of 3 parts rich turfy loam, +the top spit of a pasture, and 1 part light gritty earth, such +as road-grit, with a small portion (one-sixth) of fine brick rubbish. +They should not be less than 12 ft. in breadth, and may vary +up to 15 or 18 ft., with a fall from the wall of about 1 in. in +3 ft. The border itself should be raised a foot or more above +the general level. The bottom of the border as well as that +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page776" id="page776"></a>776</span> +of the drain must be kept lower than the general level of the +subsoil, else the soakage will gather in all the little depressions +of its surface. Fruit-tree borders should not be at all cropped +with culinary vegetables, or very slightly so, as the process of +digging destroys the roots of the trees, and drives them from +near the surface, where they ought to be.</p> + +<p>Shallow planting, whether of wall trees or standards, is generally +to be preferred, a covering of a few inches of soil being +sufficient for the roots, but a surface of at least equal size to the +surface of the hole should be covered with dung or litter so as +to restrain evaporation and preserve moisture. In the case +of wall trees, a space of 5 or 6 in. is usually left between the +stem at the insertion of the roots and the wall, to allow for +increase of girth. Young standard trees should be tied to +stakes so as to prevent their roots being ruptured by the wind-waving +of the stems and to keep them erect. The best time +for planting fruit trees in the open air is from the end of September +till the end of November in open weather.</p> + +<p>In the selection and distribution of fruit trees regard must of +course be had to local situation and climate. The best walls +having a south or south-east aspect are devoted to the peach, +nectarine, apricot, dessert pears, plums and early cherries. +Cherries and the generality of plums succeed very well either +on an east or a west aspect. Morello cherries, apples and stewing +pears succeed well on a north wall. In Scotland the mulberry +requires the protection of a wall, and several of the finer apples +and pears do not arrive at perfection without this help and a +tolerably good aspect. The wall-trees intended to be permanent +are called dwarfs, from their branches springing from near +the ground. Between these, trees with tall stems, called riders, +are planted as temporary occupants of the upper part of the +wall. The riders should have been trained in the nursery into +good-sized trees, in order that when planted out they may come +into bearing as speedily as possible.</p> + +<p><i>Standard Fruit Trees</i> should not be planted, if it can be avoided, +in the borders of the kitchen garden, but in the outer slips, +where they either may be allowed to attain their full size or +may be kept dwarfed. Each sort of fruit should be planted +by itself, for the sake of orderly arrangement, and in order to +facilitate protection when necessary by a covering of nets. +Their produce is often superior in flavour to that of the same +kind of fruit grown on walls.</p> + +<p><i>Orchard-house Trees.</i>—Peaches, nectarines, apricots, figs +and dessert plums, cherries, apples and pears are commonly +cultivated in the orchard-house. Peaches and nectarines are +generally planted out, while the rest are more commonly cultivated +in pots. This allows of the hardier pot plants being removed +out of doors while those planted out are in need of the +room. The pot plants are overhauled in the autumn, the roots +pruned, a layer being cut off to allow new soil to be introduced. +Surface dressing and feeding by liquid manure should also be +afforded these plants while the fruit is swelling. Every effort +should be made to complete the growth of peaches and nectarines +while the sun is sufficiently strong to ripen them. Tomatoes +are frequently employed to fill gaps in the orchard-house. Should +it be provided with a central path, requiring shade, Hambro +and Sweet-water grapes serve the purpose well, and in favourable +seasons afford excellent crops of fruit.</p> + +<p class="pt2 center">VII. <i>Vegetables.</i></p> + +<p>Under this head are included those esculents which are largely +eaten as “vegetables” or as “salads.” The more important +are treated under their individual headings (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Artichoke</a></span>, +<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Asparagus</a></span>, <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Bean</a></span>, &c. &c.). The culinary herbs used for +flavouring and garnishing are for the most part dwarf perennial +plants requiring to be grown on a rich soil in an open sunny +aspect, or annuals for which a warm sheltered border is the most +suitable place; and they may therefore be conveniently grown +together in the same compartment—a herb garden. The +perennials should be transplanted either every year or every +second year. For winter use the tops of the most useful kinds +of herbs should be cut when in flower or full leaf and quite +dry, and spread out in an airy but shady place so as to part +slowly with the moisture they contain and at the same time +retain their aromatic properties. When quite dry they should +be put into dry wide-mouthed bottles and kept closely corked. +In this way such herbs as basil, marjoram, mint, sage, savory, +thyme, balm, chamomile, horehound, hyssop and rue, as well +as parsley, may be had throughout the season with almost the +full flavour of the fresh herb.</p> + +<p><i>Intensive Cultivation.</i>—This name has been applied to the +method of forcing early vegetables and salads during the winter +and spring months in the market gardens in the neighbourhood +of Paris. The system is now popularly known in England as +“French gardening.” Although a few assert that it is an old +English one that has been discarded in favour of superior methods, +there seems to be little or no evidence in support of this contention. +The system itself has been practised for about 300 +years in the “marais” gardens round Paris. At one time +these gardens were in the centre of the city itself, but owing to +modern improvements they have been gradually pushed out +beyond the city boundaries farther and farther. Most of these +gardens are small—not more than a couple of acres in extent, +and the rent paid by the <i>maraîcher</i>, or market gardener, is very +high—as much as £30 to £40 per acre.</p> + +<p>The French <i>maraîcher</i> does not use hot-water apparatus +for forcing his plants into early growth. He relies mainly upon +the best stable manure, a few shallow frames about 4½ ft. wide +covered with lights, and a number of large bell glasses or +“cloches.” The work is carried on from October till the end of +March and April, after which, with the exception of melons, the +cultures are carried on in the open air.</p> + +<p>The chief crops grown for early supplies, or “primeurs” as +they are called, are special varieties of cos and cabbage lettuces, +short carrots, radishes, turnips, cauliflowers, endives, spinach, +onions, corn salad and celery. To these is added a very important +crop of melons, a special large-fruited variety known as the +Prescott Canteloup being the most favoured.</p> + +<p>It is astonishing how much produce is taken off one of these +small intensive gardens during the year, and especially during +the worst months when prices usually run fairly high. The +fact that rents are so heavy around Paris is in itself an indication +of the money that is realized by the growers not only in the Paris +markets, but also in Covent Garden.</p> + +<p>During the winter season narrow beds are made up of manure, +either quite fresh or mixed with old manure, according to the +amount of heat required. These beds are covered with a few +inches of the fine old mould obtained from the decayed manure +of previous years. In the early stages seeds of carrots and +radishes are sown simultaneously on the same beds, and over +them young lettuces that have been raised in advance are +planted. In this way three crops are actually on the same beds +at the same time. Owing, however, to the difference in their +vegetative growth, they mature one after the other instead of +simultaneously. Thus with the genial warmth and moisture of the +hotbeds, all crops grow rapidly, but the radishes mature first, +then the lettuces are taken off in due course, thus leaving the +beds to finish up with the carrots by themselves. Later on in the +season, perhaps small cauliflowers will be planted along the +margins of the beds where the carrots are growing, and will be +developing into larger plants requiring more space by the time +all the carrots have been picked and marketed. So on throughout +the year with other crops, this system of intercropping or +overlapping of one crop with another is carried out in a most +ingenious manner, not only under glass lights, but also in the open +air. Spinach, corn salad, radishes and carrots are the favourite +crops for sowing between others such as lettuces and cauliflowers.</p> + +<p>Although enormous quantities of water are required during the +summer season, great care must be exercised in applying water +to the winter crops. When severe frost prevails the lights or +cloches are rarely taken off except to gather mature specimens; +and no water is given directly overhead to the plants for fear +of chilling them and checking growth. They must secure their +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page777" id="page777"></a>777</span> +supply of moisture from the rain that falls on the glass, and +flows into the narrow pathways from 9 in. to 12 in. wide between +each range of frames. As the beds are only about 4½ ft. wide, +the water from the pathways is soaked up on each side by +capillary attraction, and in this way the roots secure a sufficient +supply.</p> + +<p>Besides an abundance of water in summer there must also +be an enormous quantity of good stable manure available during +the winter months. This is necessary not only to make up the +required hotbeds in the first place, but also to fill in the pathways +between the frames, wherever it is considered advisable to +maintain the heat within the frames at a certain point. As it is +impossible to use an ordinary wheelbarrow in these narrow +pathways, the workman carries a specially made wicker basket +called a “hotte” on his shoulders by means of two straps. +In this way large quantities of manure are easily transported +to any required spot, and although the work looks hard to an +English gardener, the Frenchman says he can carry more +manure with less fatigue in half a day than an Englishman can +transport in a day with a wheelbarrow.</p> + +<p>This is merely an outline of the system, which is now being +taken up in various parts of the United Kingdom, but not too +rapidly. The initial expenses for frames, lights, cloches, mats +and water-supply are in many cases prohibitive to men with +the necessary gardening experience, while on the other hand +those who have the capital lack the practical knowledge so +essential to success.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>For full details of this system see <i>French Market-Gardening, with +details of Intensive Cultivation</i>, by John Weathers (London, 1909).</p> + +<p class="pt2 center">VIII.—<i>Calendar of Garden Operations</i> (A) <i>for Great Britain.</i></p> + +<p class="pt1 center sc">January</p> + +<p><i>Kitchen Garden.</i>—Wheel out manure and composts during frosty +weather; trench vacant ground not turned up roughly in autumn. +Sow early peas in a cold frame for transplanting. Sow also first-crop +peas, early in the month, and William I. towards the end; Early +Seville and Early Longpod beans; and short-topped radish in two +or three sowings, at a week’s interval, all on a warm border; also +Hardy Green and Brown cos lettuce in a frame or on south border. +Plant shallots and Ashleaf potatoes on a warm border. Protect +broccoli as it becomes fit for use, or remove to a dry shed or cellar; +lettuces and endive, which are best planted in frames; and parsley +in frames so as to be accessible.</p> + +<p><i>Fruit Garden.</i>—Plant fruit trees in open weather, if not done in +autumn, which is the proper season, mulching over the roots to +protect them from frost, and from drought which may occur in +spring. Prune fruit trees in mild weather or in moderate frosts, +nailing only in fine weather. Wash trees infested with insects with +one of the many insecticides now obtainable. Take off grafts, and +lay them aside in moist earth in a shady place.</p> + +<p><i>Forcing.</i>—Prepare manure for making up hotbeds for early +cucumbers and melons, where pits heated with hot water are not in +use; also for Ashleaf potatoes. Sow also in heat mustard and cress +for salads, onions for salads; tomatoes, celery to be pricked out for +an early crop; and Early Horn carrot and kidney-beans on slight +hotbeds. Force asparagus, sea-kale and rhubarb, in hotbeds, in +pits, in the mushroom-house or in the open garden by the use of +covers surrounded with warm litter; for cucumbers a top heat of +70°; for vines in leaf and flower a temperature ranging from 65° +to 70°. Keep forced strawberries with swelling fruit well watered. +Plant vine eyes for propagation in a brisk heat.</p> + +<p><i>Plant Houses.</i>—Give abundance of air to the greenhouse, conservatory +and alpine frame in mild weather, but use little water. +A supply of roses, kalmias, rhododendrons, &c., and of hardy flowers +and bulbs, as lily of the valley, hyacinths, tulips, daffodils, &c., +should be kept up by forcing.</p> + +<p><i>Flower Garden.</i>—Plant out tubers and bulbs of border flowers, +where neglected in autumn, deferring the finer florists’ flowers till +next month. Transplant herbaceous plants in light soils, if not +done in autumn; also deciduous trees, shrubs and hedges. Lay +edgings in fine weather. Sow mignonette, stocks, &c., in pots; +sow sweet peas and a few hardy annuals on a warm border. Give +auriculas and carnations abundance of air, but keep the roots rather +dry to prevent damping off.</p> + +<p class="pt1 center sc">February</p> + +<p><i>Kitchen Garden.</i>—Sow successional crops of Early Seville beans, +and William I., American Wonder or other peas in the beginning +and end of the month; early cabbages to follow the last sowing in +August; red cabbages and savoys towards the end. Sow also Early +Horn carrot; Early Purple-top Munich turnip; onions for a full +crop in light soils, with a few leeks and some parsley. Sow lettuce +for succession, with radishes and Round-leaved spinach, twice in the +course of the month; and small salads every fortnight. Plant +Jerusalem artichokes, shallots, garlic, horse-radish and early +potatoes. Transplant to the bottom of a south wall a portion of +the peas sown in pots in frames in November and January for the +first crop. Sow Brussels sprouts in gentle heat for an early crop.</p> + +<p><i>Fruit Garden.</i>—Prune apricots, peaches, nectarines and plums, +before the buds are much swelled; finish pruning apples, pears, +cherries, gooseberries, currants and raspberries, before the end of +the month; also the dressing of vines. Keep the fruit-room free +from spoiled fruit, and shut it close. Cut down the double-bearing +raspberries to secure strong autumn-fruiting shoots. Head back +stocks preparatory to grafting.</p> + +<p><i>Forcing.</i>—Sow melons and cucumbers on hotbeds and in pits. +Sow carrots, turnips, early celery, also aubergines or egg-plants, +capsicums, tomatoes and successional crops of kidney-beans; +cauliflower and Brussels sprouts, in gentle heat, to be afterwards +planted out. Plant early potatoes on slight hotbeds. Continue +the forcing of asparagus, rhubarb and sea-kale. Commence or +continue the forcing of the various choice fruits, as vines, peaches, +figs, cherries, strawberries, &c. Pot roots of mint and place in heat +to produce sprigs for mint sauce. Be careful to protect the stems +of vines that are outside the forcing-houses.</p> + +<p><i>Plant Houses.</i>—Let the greenhouse and conservatory have plenty +of air in mild weather. Pot and start tuberous-rooted begonias and +gloxinias. Pot young plants of Hippeastrum, and start the +established ones. Propagate chrysanthemums in cool-house or +vinery under hand lights or frames. Put plants of fuchsias, petunias, +verbenas, heliotropes, salvias and other soft-wooded subjects, into +a propagating house to obtain cuttings, &c., for the flower garden. +Sow stocks, dahlias and a few tender and half-hardy annuals, on +a slight hotbed, or in pots. Propagate old roots of dahlias by +cuttings of the young shoots in a hotbed. Sow petunias in heat, +and prick out and harden for bedding out; also gloxinias to be +grown on in heat till the flowering season.</p> + +<p><i>Flower Garden.</i>—In dry open weather plant dried roots, including +most of the finer florists’ flowers; continue the transplanting of +hardy biennial flowers and herbaceous plants. Sow in the last +week mignonette, and hardy annuals, in a warm border, for subsequent +transplanting.</p> + +<p class="pt1 center sc">March</p> + +<p><i>Kitchen Garden.</i>—Sow main crops of wrinkled marrow peas; +Longpod and Windsor beans; cabbage, onions, leeks, Early Horn +carrots, parsnips, salsafy, scorzonera, Brussels sprouts, borecoles, +lettuces and spinach. In the beginning and also at the end of the +month sow Early Strap-leaf and Early Snowball turnips and savoys. +In the last fortnight sow asparagus, cauliflower and the various +sweet and savoury herbs; also sea-kale, radishes, celery, celeriac +and parsley. Small salads should be sown every ten days. Make +up beds for mushrooms with well-prepared dung towards the end +of the month. Plant early potatoes in the first week, and a main +crop during the last fortnight. Sea-kale, asparagus and peas raised +in frames may now be planted; also garlic and shallots. Full crops +of cabbages should be planted out; also cauliflowers under hand-glasses. +Propagate by slips, or by earthing up the old stems, the +various pot-herbs.</p> + +<p><i>Fruit Garden.</i>—Finish the pruning of fruit trees before the middle +of the month. Protect those coming into blossom. Begin grafting +in the third week; dig and dress between the rows of gooseberries, +currants and other fruit trees, if not already done. Kill wasps +assiduously as soon as they appear.</p> + +<p><i>Forcing.</i>—Continue the forcing of melons, cucumbers, tomatoes +and the various fruits. In the vinery and peach-house, attend to +the keeping down of insects by syringing; and promote the growth +of the young shoots, by damping the walls and paths morning and +evening. Sow capsicum and tomato; also in slight heat such tender +herbs as basil and marjoram.</p> + +<p><i>Plant Houses.</i>—More water may be given than formerly. Sow +seeds of greenhouse and hothouse plants; also the different sorts of +tender annuals; pot off those sown last month; sow cineraria for +the earliest bloom; also Chinese primulas. Shift heaths and other +hard-wooded subjects and stove-plants; plant tuberoses in pots +for forcing. Begin to propagate greenhouse plants by cuttings; also +coleuses by cuttings in heat, potting them off as soon as rooted.</p> + +<p><i>Flower Garden and Shrubbery.</i>—In the last week, sow hardy +annuals in the borders, with biennials that flower the first season, +as also perennials. Plant anemone and ranunculus roots and +the corms of gladiolus. Transplant from the nursery to their final +sites annuals sown in autumn, with biennials and herbaceous plants. +Propagate perennials from root-slips and offsets. Continue to +propagate the finer sorts of dahlias, both by cuttings and by division +of the roots. Finish the pruning of all deciduous trees and hedges +as soon as possible. Attend to the dressing of shrubberies; lay +turf-edgings, and regulate the surface of gravel walks.</p> + +<p class="pt1 center sc">April</p> + +<p><i>Kitchen Garden.</i>—Sow asparagus, sea-kale, Turnip-rooted beet, +salsafy, scorzonera, skirret, carrots and onions on heavy soils; also +marrow peas, Longpod and Windsor beans, turnips, spinach, celery, +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page778" id="page778"></a>778</span> +cabbage, savoys and Brussels sprouts for succession. Sow broccoli +and kidney-beans both in the second and in the last week, and +lettuces and small salads twice or thrice during the month; sow +all herbs, if not done last month. Sow vegetable marrow. Plant +cauliflower, cabbages, sea-kale, lettuce; and finish the planting of +the main crops of potatoes; divide and replant globe-artichokes. +Propagate all sorts of pot-herbs, and attend to the hoeing and +thinning of spinach, onions, turnips, carrots, beet, &c. Earth up +cabbages, cauliflower, peas, beans and early potatoes. Stake up +peas; blanch sea-kale and rhubarb in the open air by covering with +straw or leaves.</p> + +<p><i>Fruit Garden.</i>—If vines have been neglected to be pruned, rub +off the buds that are not wanted; this is safer than pruning now. +Protect the finer sorts of fruit trees on the walls. The hardier +orchard-house fruits should now be moved outdoors under temporary +awnings, to give the choicer fruits more space,—the roots being +protected by plunging the pots. Mulch all newly-planted fruit trees, +watering abundantly in dry weather.</p> + +<p><i>Forcing.</i>—Continue the preparation of succession beds and pits +for cucumbers and melons. Sow; pot tomatoes and capsicums for +succession. Pollinate tomatoes by hand to ensure early fruit on +plants intended for outdoor culture. In the forcing-houses, from +the variable state of the weather, considerable vigilance is required +in giving air. Keep down red spider (Acarus) in the more advanced +houses by frequent syringings and a well-moistened atmosphere. +Continue the usual operations of disbudding and thinning of fruit, +and take care to keep up the proper temperatures.</p> + +<p><i>Plant Houses.</i>—Still sow tender annuals if required; also cinerarias +and primulas. Proceed with all necessary shiftings. Propagate rare +and fine plants by cuttings or grafting; increase bouvardias by +cuttings, and grow on for winter flowering. Pot off tender annuals, +and cuttings of half-hardy greenhouse plants put in during February +to get them well established for use in the flower garden. Transfer +chrysanthemums to sheltered positions out of doors, and provide +means of protecting them from frost and cutting winds.</p> + +<p><i>Flower Garden and Shrubbery.</i>—Sow main or successional crops +of annuals of all sorts—half-hardy annuals in warm borders, or on +slight hotbeds. Biennials and perennials should be sown before +the middle of the month. Plant out gladioli, if not done, tigridias +and fine stocks. Finish the transplanting of herbaceous plants by +the end of the first week. Cuttings of border chrysanthemums may +now be dibbled in a warm spot out of doors. Protect stage auriculas +and hyacinths from extremes of every description of weather; and +tulips from hoar-frosts and heavy rains. Plant out tender deciduous +trees and shrubs raised in pots; plant out tea-roses, mulching the +roots. Remove part of the coverings of all tender shrubs and +plants in the first week, and the remainder at the end of the month. +Form and repair lawns and grass walks by laying turf and sowing +perennial grass-seeds; mow the lawns frequently; plant evergreens.</p> + +<p class="pt1 center sc">May</p> + +<p><i>Kitchen Garden.</i>—Sow main crop of beet in the first week, small +salads every week, radishes and lettuces thrice, spinach once a +fortnight, carrots and onions for late drawing, kidney-beans in the +first week and together with scarlet runners in the last fortnight; +endive for an early crop; also peas and Longpod and Windsor +beans, cauliflowers, Early York or Little Pixie cabbages, Brussels +sprouts, borecole, broccoli, savoys and kale for late crops. Sow +vegetable marrows and hardy cucumbers on a warm border in the +last week; sow cardoons in trenches, or (in the north) in pots under +glass shelter; sow chicory for salading. Continue hoeing and earthing +up the several crops.</p> + +<p><i>Fruit Garden.</i>—Disbud peaches, nectarines and other early trees +against the walls; also attend to the thinning of fruit. Give +occasional washings with the engine to keep down insects. Pick +caterpillars from gooseberries and wall trees on their first appearance. +Remove from raspberries and strawberries all suckers and runners +that are not wanted.</p> + +<p><i>Forcing.</i>—Plant melons and cucumbers on the hotbeds prepared +for vegetables in February, and now free. Plant out vegetable +marrows and pumpkins on dung-ridges, under hand-glasses. Sow +late crops of cucumbers and melons.</p> + +<p><i>Plant Houses.</i>—Turn out hardy plants about the middle, and the +more tender at the latter end of the month. Sow tender annuals +for succession, potting and shifting those sown at an earlier period; +sow cinerarias for succession; and a few hardy annuals and ten-week +stock, &c., for late crops. Pot off all rooted cuttings. Put +in cuttings of the different desirable species which are now fit for +that purpose. Plant out in rich soil Richardias, to be potted up in +autumn for flowering. Bedding plants should be placed to harden +in sheltered positions out of doors towards end of month. Towards +the end of the month many of the main stock of chrysanthemums +will be ready for the final potting.</p> + +<p><i>Flower Garden.</i>—Sow annuals for succession in the last week, +also biennials and perennials in the nursery compartment, for +planting out next year. Propagate plants of which more stock is +required either by cuttings or by dividing the roots. Plant out, +during the last week, dahlias, hardy pelargoniums, stocks and +calceolarias, protecting the dahlias from slight frosts. By the end +of the month, masses of the following plants may be formed with +safety in warm localities:—pelargonium, heliotropium, fuchsia, +petunia, nierembergia, salvia, verbena, bouvardia and lobelia. +Protect tulips, ranunculuses and anemones from the mid-day sun, +and from rains and winds. Remove the coverings from all tender +plants in the open air.</p> + +<p><i>Shrubbery.</i>—Transplant all kinds of evergreens, this month and +September being the proper seasons. The rarer conifers should +be planted now and in June, after they have commenced to grow. +Proceed with the laying down of lawns and gravel-walks, and keep +the former regularly mown.</p> + +<p class="pt1 center sc">June</p> + +<p><i>Kitchen Garden.</i>—Sow kidney-beans for succession; also the +wrinkled marrow peas and Seville Longpod and Windsor beans for +late crops. Sow salading every ten days; also carrots, onions +and radishes for drawing young; and chicory for salads; sow +endive for a full crop. In the first week sow Early Munich and +Golden Ball turnips for succession, and in the third week for a full +autumn crop. Sow scarlet and white runner beans for a late crop, +and cabbages for coleworts. Make up successional mushroom beds +early in the month. Plant full crops of broccoli, Brussels sprouts, +savoys, kales, leeks and early celery, with successional crops of +cabbage and cauliflower. In the first fortnight of the month, plant +hardy cucumbers for pickling, in a warm border, placing hand-glasses +over them towards the end of the month. Plant out capsicums +and tomatoes in sunny positions, and stake and tie securely. +Pull and store winter onions, if ripe.</p> + +<p><i>Fruit Garden.</i>—Train and prune the summer shoots of wall and +trellis and other trained trees. Mulch and water fruit trees and +strawberries in dry weather, desisting when the fruit begins to ripen. +Net over cherry-trees. Destroy aphides and other insects by +syringing with tobacco water, or by fumigating, or by dusting with +tobacco powder.</p> + +<p><i>Forcing.</i>—Proceed with planting melons, cucumbers and tomatoes. +Keep up the necessary temperatures for the ripening of +the various fruits. Ventilation will still require constant care. +Tomatoes will now be fruiting freely; thin out judiciously, +avoiding excessive pruning at one time. Attend to the gathering +of fruit as it ripens.</p> + +<p><i>Plant Houses.</i>—These will now be occupied with tender greenhouse +plants and annuals, and the more hardy plants from the stove. +Shift, repot and propagate all plants that are desirable. Sow fragrant +or showy annuals to flower in pots during winter; and grow on a +set of decorative plants for the same object. Continue the final +potting of chrysanthemums as the plants become ready.</p> + +<p><i>Flower Garden.</i>—Plant out dahlias and other tender subjects, if +risk of frost is past. Take up bulbs and tuberous roots and dry +them in the shade before removing them to the store-room. Fill +up with annuals and greenhouse plants those beds from which the +bulbs and roots have been raised. After this season, keep always +a reserve of annuals in pots, or planted on beds of thin layers of +fibrous matter, so as to be readily transplanted. Layer carnations +and pipe pinks in the end of the month. Keep the lawns closely +mown.</p> + +<p class="pt1 center sc">July</p> + +<p><i>Kitchen Garden.</i>—Watering will be necessary in each department, +if the weather is hot and dry. In the first week, sow peas for the last +crop of the season; also Longpod beans and French beans. In the +last week, sow red globe or Chirk Castle turnip for a full winter crop, +spinach for an early winter supply and Enfield Market cabbage +for early summer use. Sow endive, for autumn and winter use, in +the beginning and end of the month; also successional crops of +lettuce and small salads. Make up successional mushroom beds. +Plant full crops of celery, celeriac, endive about the middle and end +of the month; late crops of broccoli, cauliflower and coleworts in the +last week. Gather and dry herbs; also propagate these by slips +and cuttings.</p> + +<p><i>Fruit Garden.</i>—Continue the pruning and training of wall and +espalier trees, and the destruction of noxious insects. Pot strawberries +for forcing next winter, and make new beds out of doors as +soon as well-rooted runners can be obtained. Propagate the different +sorts of stone fruit trees by budding on other trees or on prepared +stocks. Gather fruits of all kinds as they ripen.</p> + +<p><i>Forcing.</i>—Prune melons and cucumbers, giving air and water and +maintaining heat, &c. Continue the routine treatment in the tomato-houses. +Feed the plants artificially as soon as good crops are set; +do not wait for signs of distress. The forcing-houses ought to have +abundance of fresh air and moisture where required, along with the +necessary heat.</p> + +<p><i>Plant Houses.</i>—Ventilation will be necessary to keep down excessive +heat; and attention must be paid to potting, shifting and +putting in cuttings, and giving abundance of water to the potted +plants, both indoors and out. Sow seed of herbaceous calceolarias; +shift heaths, if they require it; cut down pelargoniums past flowering, +and plant the cuttings.</p> + +<p><i>Flower Garden and Shrubbery.</i>—Take up the remaining tuberous +roots, such as anemones, ranunculuses, &c., by the end of the first +week; fill up their places, and any vacancies that may have occurred, +with annuals or bedding plants from the reserve ground. +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page779" id="page779"></a>779</span> +Repot auriculas, and sow auricula seed in boxes under glass. Propagate +herbaceous and other plants that have gone out of flower, +by means of cuttings and slips, especially those required for spring +bedding; propagate also the various summer bedding plants increased +by cuttings. Increase roses and American shrubs, by layering, +budding or cuttings, and go on with the layering of carnations +and picotees. Stake and tie up dahlias and strong herbaceous +plants.</p> + +<p class="pt1 center sc">August</p> + +<p><i>Kitchen Garden.</i>—Sow winter and spring spinach in the beginning +and about the end of the month; parsley and winter onions, for a +full crop, in the first week; cabbages about the middle of the +month, for planting out in spring; cauliflower in the first half +(Scotland) and in the second half (England) of the month; Hardy +Hammersmith and Brown Cos lettuce in the first and last week; +small salads occasionally; and Black Spanish radish, for winter +crops. Plant out kales and broccoli for late crops; plant celery +(earthing up the advancing crops as required), endive for succession, +and a few coleworts. Take up shallots, garlic, &c.</p> + +<p><i>Fruit Garden.</i>—Proceed in training and regulating the summer +shoots of all fruit trees as directed for the last three months. Net +up, in dry weather, gooseberry and currant bushes, to preserve the +fruit till late in the autumn. Make new strawberry beds if required. +Preserve the ripening fruits on the wall and other trees from insects, +and destroy wasp nests. Gather fruits as they ripen.</p> + +<p><i>Forcing.</i>—The routine of cultivation in hotbeds and pits may be +continued. Sow tomatoes and cucumbers for a winter crop. Make +up mushroom beds. In the forcing-houses, where the crops are past, +part of the sashes may be removed, so as to permit thorough ventilation.</p> + +<p><i>Plant Houses.</i>—Attend to the propagation of all sorts of greenhouse +plants by cuttings, and to the replacing in the greenhouse and +stoves the more tender species, by the end of the month in ordinary +seasons, but in wet weather in the second week. Sow half-hardy +annuals, as Nemophila, Collinsia, Schizanthus, Rhodanthe, &c., to +flower during winter.</p> + +<p><i>Flower Garden and Shrubbery.</i>—Sow in the second and the last +week, on a warm border of a light sandy soil, with an east aspect, +any free-flowering hardy annuals as <i>Silene pendula</i>, Nemophila, &c., +for planting in spring; and auricula and primula seeds in pots +and boxes. Propagate, all sorts of herbaceous plants by rooted +slips or suckers; take off layers of carnations, picotees and +pansies. Plant cuttings of bedding plants, and of bedding pelargoniums +in boxes for convenience of removal. Layer the tops of +chrysanthemums, to obtain dwarf flowering plants. Transplant +evergreens in moist weather, about the end of the month; and propagate +them by layers and cuttings. Pot Neapolitan violets for +forcing; or plant out on a mild hotbed. Clip box edgings.</p> + +<p class="pt1 center sc">September</p> + +<p><i>Kitchen Garden.</i>—Sow small salading for late crops; and lettuce +and spinach, if not done last month, for spring crops. Plant endive +and lettuce at the foot of a south wall to stand the winter; plant +out cabbages from the chief autumn sowing. Plant cauliflowers on +a warm border in spaces such as can be protected by hand-lights. +Thin the winter spinach, when large enough, that it may have space +to grow. If broccoli be too rank or tall to withstand the winter, +lift and lay nearly up to the neck in the earth, the heads sloping +towards the north. Lift onions, and lay them out to ripen on a +dry border or gravel-walk. Lift potatoes and store them.</p> + +<p><i>Fruit Garden.</i>—Finish the summer pruning and training. Where +the walls are heated, assist the maturing of peaches and nectarines, +and the ripening of the young wood for next year, by fires during +the day. Gather and lay up in the fruit-room with care the autumnal +sorts of apples and pears. Prepare borders and stations for fruit +trees during dry weather. Plant strawberries for a main crop. +Repot orchard-house trees, disrooting if necessary.</p> + +<p><i>Forcing.</i>—Take care that late melons, cucumbers and tomatoes be +not injured by getting too much water and too little air. Sow a few +kidney beans for an early forced crop. Expel damp, and assist the +ripening of late grapes and peaches with fires during the day. +Prune early vines and peaches.</p> + +<p><i>Plant Houses.</i>—The various pot plants should now be put in +their winter quarters. Keep up moderate temperatures in the stove, +and merely repel frosts in the greenhouse, guarding against damp, +by ventilation and by the cautious use of water. Pot hyacinths, +tulips and other bulbs for forcing; and propagate half-hardy +plants by cuttings. Begin the housing of the main stock of chrysanthemums.</p> + +<p><i>Flower Garden, &c.</i>—Sow in the beginning of this month all half-hardy +annuals required for early flowering; also mignonette in pots, +thinning the plants at an early stage; the different species of primula; +and the seeds of such plants as, if sown in spring, seldom come up +the same season, but if sown in September and October, vegetate +readily the succeeding spring. Put in cuttings of bedding pelargoniums +in boxes, which may stand outdoors exposed to the sun, but +should be sheltered from excessive rains. Continue the propagation +of herbaceous plants, taking off the layers of carnations, picotees, +pansies and chrysanthemums, by the end of the month; choice +carnations and picotees may be potted and wintered in cold frames +if the season is wet and ungenial. Plant evergreens; lay and +put in cuttings of most of the hard-wooded sorts of shrubby +plants.</p> + +<p class="pt1 center sc">October</p> + +<p><i>Kitchen Garden.</i>—Sow small salading and radishes in the first +week, and lettuces in frames on a shallow hotbed for planting out in +spring. If the winter prove mild they will be somewhat earlier +than those sown next month or in January. Plant parsley in pots +or boxes to protect under glass in case very severe weather occurs. +Plant cabbages in beds or close rows till wanted in spring; and +cauliflowers in the last week, to receive the protection of frames, or +a sheltered situation. Store potatoes, beet, salsafy, scorzonera, +skirret, carrots and parsnips, by the end of the month. Band and +earth up cardoons.</p> + +<p><i>Fruit Garden.</i>—Such fruit trees as have dropped their leaves may +be transplanted; this is the best season for transplanting (though +with care it may be done earlier), whether the leaves have fallen or +not. Protect fig-trees, if the weather proves frosty, as soon as they +have cast their leaves. Plant out raspberries. The orchard-house +trees should be got under glass before the end of the month. Gather +and store all sorts of apples and pears, the longest-keeping sorts +not before the end of the month, if the weather be mild.</p> + +<p><i>Forcing.</i>—Maintain the heat in hotbeds and pits by means of +fresh dung linings. Give abundance of air in mild bright weather. +Dress vines and peaches. Clean and repair the forcing-houses, and +overhaul the heating apparatus to see it is in good working condition. +Plant chicory in boxes or on hotbeds for blanching. Sow +kidney beans. Make up successional winter mushroom beds.</p> + +<p><i>Plant Houses.</i>—Replace all sorts of greenhouse plants. Fill the +pits with pots of stocks, mignonette and hardy annuals for planting +out in spring, along with many of the hardy sorts of greenhouse +plants; the whole ought to be thoroughly ventilated, except in +frosty weather. From this time till spring keep succulent plants +almost without water. Begin to force roses, hyacinths and a few +other bulbs, for winter and early spring decoration. Plant hyacinths +in glasses for windows. The last of the pot chrysanthemums should +be housed by the end of the first week.</p> + +<p><i>Flower Garden.</i>—Sow a few pots of hardy annuals in a frame, or +on a sheltered border, for successional spring use if required. Plant +the greater part of the common border bulbs, as hyacinths, narcissi, +crocuses and early tulips, about the end of the month, with a few +anemones for early flowering. Transplant strong plants of biennials +and perennials to their final situations; also the select plants used +for spring bedding. Protect alpine plants, stage auriculas, and choice +carnations and picotees with glass frames; and tea roses and other +tender plants with bracken or other protective material. Take up, +dry and store dahlias and all tender tubers at the end of the month; +pot lobelias and similar half-hardy plants from the open borders. +Transplant all sorts of hardy evergreens and shrubs, especially in dry +soils, giving abundance of water. Put in cuttings of all sorts of evergreens, +&c. Plant out the hardier sorts of roses.</p> + +<p class="pt1 center sc">November</p> + +<p><i>Kitchen Garden.</i>—Trench up all vacant ground as soon as cleared +of its crops, leaving the surface as rough as possible. Sow early peas +and Early Dwarf Prolific beans in the second week, for an early +crop; also in frames for transplanting. Protect endive, celery, +artichoke and sea-kale with stable-litter or fern, or by planting the +former in frames; take up late cauliflower, early broccoli and lettuces, +and place them in sheltered pits or lay them in an open shed; earth +up celery; manure and dress up asparagus beds.</p> + +<p><i>Fruit Garden.</i>—Plant all sorts of fruit trees in fine weather—the +earlier in the month the better. Protect fig-trees. Commence +pruning and nailing. Gather and store the latest apples and pears. +Examine the fruit-room and remove all decayed fruit.</p> + +<p><i>Forcing.</i>—Keep up the requisite degree of heat in hotbeds and +pits. Cucumbers and tomatoes will require more than ordinary +attention. Force asparagus, rhubarb and sea-kale, in the mushroom-house, +in pits, or in the open border under boxes or cases surrounded +and covered by well-fermented stable dung and leaves. Sow Early +Horn carrot; also kidney beans and radishes, on hotbeds. In the +forcing-houses prune and train the trees; fork over and dress the +borders of such houses as have not been already done.</p> + +<p><i>Plant Houses.</i>—The directions for the greenhouse and conservatory +in January apply also to this month generally. Continue the forcing +of roses, hyacinths, &c. Houses containing large-flowered Japanese +chrysanthemums will require to be kept dry, airy and moderately +warm to prevent “damping-off” of petals.</p> + +<p><i>Flower Garden, &c.</i>—Plant dried tubers of border flowers, but the +finer sorts had better be deferred till spring. Plant tulips in the +early part of the month. Put in cuttings of bedding calceolarias, +choosing the shoots that will not run up to flower. Protect such +half-hardy plants as are not already sheltered. Plant deciduous +trees and shrubs so long as the weather continues favourable, and +before the soil has parted with the solar heat absorbed during summer. +Dig and dress such flower borders and shrubberies as may now be +cleared of annuals and the stems of herbaceous plants.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page780" id="page780"></a>780</span></p> + +<p class="pt1 center sc">December</p> + +<p><i>Kitchen Garden.</i>—Collect and smother-burn all vegetable refuse, +and apply it as a dressing to the ground. Sow a few peas and beans, +in case of accident to those sown in November, drawing up the soil +towards the stems of those which are above ground as a protection; +earth up celery; blanch endive with flower-pots; sow radishes in a +very sheltered place. Attend to trenching and digging in dry +weather.</p> + +<p><i>Fruit Garden.</i>—Plant all sorts of fruit trees in mild weather. +Proceed with pruning and nailing wall-trees. Examine the fruit-room +every week, removing promptly all decaying fruit.</p> + +<p><i>Forcing.</i>—The same degree of attention to hotbeds and pits will be +necessary as in the last month. Continue the forcing of asparagus, +rhubarb and sea-kale, in pits and in the mushroom-house. Proceed +with the usual routine of culture commenced last month. Make +the necessary preparations to begin forcing early or succession crops +by the last week of this or the first of next month.</p> + +<p><i>Plant Houses, Frames, &c.</i>—Carnations and picotees in pots must +be kept rather dry to prevent damping off. Heaths and Australian +plants must be very sparingly watered, and kept with only fire heat +enough to repel frost. Cut down plants of chrysanthemums, which +should be placed in a cool pit, near the glass, in order to afford hard +sturdy cuttings in February. Shy plants should be given gentle +bottom heat to induce growth, which should be gently hardened by +exposure under cooler conditions.</p> + +<p><i>Flower Garden, &c.</i>—Plant shrubs in open weather. Prune shrubs. +Sweep and roll the lawns, and put in repair the gravel-walks, keeping +the surface frequently rolled.</p> +<div class="author">(J. Ws.; W. R. W.)</div> + +<p class="pt2 center">(B) <i>For the United States</i> (<i>chiefly for the latitude of New York</i>).</p> + +<p class="pt1 center sc">January</p> + +<p><i>Flower Garden and Greenhouse.</i>—Little is to be done in either. +In the greenhouse care must be used to protect against frost. Ventilate +but little, and with care; raise the ventilating sash only high +enough to let the heated air from the greenhouse drive back the +outer air so as not to chill the plants. To destroy the red spider, +syringe the plants copiously at night, and splash the paths with +water. The aphis, or “green fly,” must also be destroyed; tobacco +may be used. Various new preparations are coming on the market +for the destruction of greenhouse pests. Several new effective +preparations of tobacco have been brought into use. The white-fly +is now a common pest in greenhouses, the nymphs being greenish +scale-like objects on the under sides of the leaves, and adults very +small white flies. The remedy is to spray with kerosene emulsion +or whale-oil soap; or if on cucumbers or tomatoes, it is best to +fumigate with hydrocyanic acid gas, using one ounce of potassium +cyanide to each 1000 cubic ft. of space. (This material is very +poisonous.) Many greenhouse insects can be kept more or less in +check by careful and effective hosing of the plants at proper times. +At this season roses, grape vines and other plants are often affected +by mildew; an effectual remedy is to paint the hot-water pipes with +a mixture of sulphur and lime, put on as thick as ordinary whitewash, +once each week until it is checked; but care must be taken +not to apply it on any surface at a higher temperature than 212°. +Hyacinths and other bulbs that have been kept in a cellar or other +dark cool place may now be brought into the light of the greenhouse +or sitting-room, provided they have filled the pots with roots. If +they are not well rooted, leave them until they are, or select such of +them as are best, leaving the others. In the outside flower garden +little can be done except that shrubs may be pruned, or new work, +such as making walks or grading, performed, if weather permits. See +that the ornamental plants and trees are not injured by heavy +weights of ice or snow.</p> + +<p><i>Fruit Garden.</i>—Pruning, staking up or mulching can be done if the +weather is such that the workmen can stand out. In all warm or +comfortable days the fruit trees may be pruned.</p> + +<p><i>Grapery.</i>—Graperies used for the forcing of foreign grapes may be +started, beginning at a temperature of 50° at night, with 10° or 15° +higher during the day. The borders must be covered sufficiently +deep with leaves or manure to prevent the soil from freezing, as it +would be destruction to the vines to start the shoots if the roots were +frozen; hence, when forcing is begun in January, the covering should +be put on in November, before severe frosts begin.</p> + +<p><i>Vegetable Garden.</i>—But little can be done in the northern states +except to prepare manure, and get sashes, tools, &c., in working +order; but in sections of the country where there is little or no frost +the hardier kinds of seeds and plants may be sown and planted, such +as asparagus, cabbage, cauliflower, carrot, leek, lettuce, onion, parsnip, +peas, spinach, turnip, &c. In any section where these seeds can +be sown in open ground, it is an indication that hotbeds may be +started for the sowing of such tender vegetables as tomatoes, egg +and pepper plants, &c.; though, unless in the extreme southern +states, hotbeds should not be started before the beginning or middle +of February. Make orders for the spring seeds.</p> + +<p class="pt1 center sc">February</p> + +<p><i>Flower Garden and Greenhouse.</i>—The directions for January will in +the main apply to this month, except that now some of the hardier +annuals may be sown in hotbed or greenhouse, and also the propagation +of plants by cuttings may be done rather better now than in +January, as the greater amount of light gives more vitality to the +cutting.</p> + +<p><i>Fruit Garden.</i>—But little can be done in most of the northern +states as yet, and in sections where there is no frost in the ground +it is likely to be too wet to work; but in many southern states this +will be the best month for planting fruit trees and plants of all kinds, +particularly strawberries, raspberries, blackberries, pear and apple +trees, while grape vines will do, though they will also do well quite a +month later. Continue the pruning. Fruit trees for spring planting +should be ordered, if not already done.</p> + +<p><i>Grapery.</i>—The graperies started last month at 50° at night may +now be increased to 60°, with a correspondingly higher day temperature. +Great care must be taken to syringe the leaves thoroughly at +least once a day, and to deluge the paths with water, so as to produce +a moist atmosphere. Paint the hot-water pipes with sulphur +mixture, as recommended in January.</p> + +<p><i>Vegetable Garden.</i>—Leaves from the woods, house manure or +refuse hops from breweries may be got together towards the latter +part of this month, and mixed and turned to get “sweetened” +preparatory to forming hotbeds. Cabbage, lettuce and cauliflower +seeds, if sown early this month in hotbed or greenhouse, will make fine +plants if transplanted into hotbed in March. This is preferable +to the use of fall-sown plants. Manure that is to be used for the crop +should be broken up as fine as possible, for the more completely +manure of any kind can be mixed with the soil the better the crop +will be, and, of course, if it is dug or ploughed in in large unbroken +lumps it cannot be properly commingled.</p> + +<p class="pt1 center sc">March</p> + +<p><i>Flower Garden and Greenhouse.</i>—The long days and bright sunshine +will now begin to tell on the plants under glass. Examine all +plants that are vigorous and healthy; if the roots have matted the +“ball” of earth they must be shifted into a larger-sized pot. Plants +from cuttings struck last month may now be shifted, and the propagation +of all plants that are likely to be wanted should be continued. +Hardier kinds of annuals may be sown; it is best done in shallow +boxes, say 2 in. deep.</p> + +<p><i>Lawns</i> can be raked off and mulched with short manure, or rich +garden earth where manure cannot be obtained. Flower-beds on +light soils may be dug up so as to forward the work of the coming +busy spring season. Lawns may be benefited by a good dressing, in +addition to the manure, of some reliable commercial fertilizer. If +the lawn is thin in spots, these places may be raked over heavily and +new grass seed sown.</p> + +<p><i>Fruit Garden.</i>—In many sections, planting may now be done with +safety, provided the soil is light and dry, but not otherwise. Although +a tree or plant will receive no injury when its roots are undisturbed +in the soil should a frost come after planting, the same amount of +freezing will, and very often does, greatly injure the plant if the roots +are exposed.</p> + +<p><i>Grapery.</i>—The grapery started in January will have set its fruit, +which should be thinned by one-third. The temperature may now +be further advanced to 70° at night, with 15° higher in the daytime. +The same precautions must be used against mildew and insects as +given in January. Graperies wanted for succession may be started +in February or this month.</p> + +<p><i>Vegetable Garden.</i>—This is a busy month. In localities where +the frost is out of the ground, if it is not wet, seeds of the hardier +vegetables can be sown. The list of seeds given for the southern +states in January may now be used at the north, while for most of +the southern states tender vegetables, such as egg plant, okra, sweet +potatoes, melon, squash, potatoes, tomatoes, &c., may be sown and +planted. Hotbeds must now be all started. In March flower seeds +and vegetable seeds may be sown in boxes or flats in the greenhouse, +or in residence windows, or near the kitchen stove. Unless one has +space under glass, or in hotbeds, in which the plants may be transplanted +before they are set in the open ground, it is well not to start +the seeds too early, inasmuch as the plants are likely to become too +large or to be pot-bound, or to become drawn.</p> + +<p class="pt1 center sc">April</p> + +<p><i>Flower Garden and Greenhouse.</i>—Window and greenhouse plants +require more water and ventilation. Due attention must be paid to +shifting well-rooted plants into larger pots; and, if space is desired, +many kinds of hardier plants can be safely put out in cold frames. +Towards the end of the month it may be necessary slightly to shade +the glass of the greenhouse. All herbaceous plants and hardy shrubs +may be planted in the garden. The covering of leaves or litter should +be taken off bulbs and tender plants that were covered up for winter, +so that the beds can be lightly forked and raked. Sow tender annual +flower seeds in boxes inside.</p> + +<p><i>Fruit Garden.</i>—Strawberries that have been covered up with straw +or leaves should be relieved around the plants, leaving the covering +between them. Special care must be exercised that the mulch be +not left on too long; the plants should not become whitened or +“drawn.” Raspberries, grape vines, &c., that have been laid down +may now be uncovered and tied up to stakes or trellises, and all new +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page781" id="page781"></a>781</span> +plantations of these and other fruits may now be made. Fruit trees +may be grafted.</p> + +<p><i>Vegetable Garden.</i>—Asparagus, rhubarb, spinach, &c., should be +uncovered., and the beds hoed or dug lightly. Hardier sorts of +vegetable seeds and plants, such as beets, cabbage, cauliflower, +celery, lettuce, onions, parsley, parsnips, peas, potatoes, radishes, +spinach, turnip, &c., should all be sown or planted by the middle of +the month if the soil is dry and warm, and in all cases, where practicable, +before the end of the month. It is essential, in sowing seeds +now, that they be well firmed in the soil. Any who expect to get +early cabbage, cauliflower, lettuce or radishes, while planting or +sowing is delayed until the time of sowing tomato and egg plant in +May, are sure to be disappointed of a full crop. Frequent rotation of +crops should be practised in the vegetable garden, in order to head +off insects and diseases; and also to make the best use of the land. +Every three or four years the vegetable garden should be laid out in +some new place; but if this cannot be done, the crops should be +rotated on different parts of the old garden.</p> + +<p class="pt1 center sc">May</p> + +<p><i>Flower Garden and Greenhouse.</i>—Window and greenhouse plants +should be in their finest bloom. Firing may be entirely dispensed +with, though care must still be exercised in ventilating. If weather is +cold and backward, however, and in very northern regions, care must +be taken not to stop firing too soon, or the plants will mildew and +become stunted. Every precaution must be used to keep the air +moist. “Moss culture” may be tried, the common sphagnum or +moss of the swamps, mixed with one-twentieth of its bulk of bone-dust, +being laid as a mulch on the top of the earth of the flower-pots; +its effect is to shield the pots from the sun, and at the same time +stimulate the roots to come to the surface. By the end of the month +all of the plants that are wanted for the summer decoration of the +flower border may be planted out, first loosening a little the ball of +earth at the roots. If the weather is dry, water freely after planting. +When the greenhouse is not to be used during the summer months, +camellias, azaleas and plants of that character should be set out of +doors under partial shade; but most of the other plants usually +grown in the conservatory or window garden in winter may be set +in the open border. Flower-beds should be kept well hoed, and raked, +to prevent the growth of weeds next month.</p> + +<p>Pelargoniums, pinks, monthly roses and all the half-hardy kinds of +flowering plants should be planted early, but coleus, heliotrope and +the more tender plants should be delayed until the end of the month. +Annuals that have been sown in the greenhouse or hotbed may be +planted out, and seeds of such sorts as mignonette, sweet alyssum, +Phlox Drummondii, portulaca, &c., may be sown in the beds or +borders. The china aster is now one of the most popular of summer +and fall plants. The seed may be sown in the north as late as the +middle of May, or even the first of June, with good results for fall +blooming. If the plants are started early in the greenhouse, they are +likely to spend themselves before fall, and therefore a later sowing +should be provided.</p> + +<p><i>Lawns</i> should be mown, and the edgings trimmed.</p> + +<p><i>Fruit Garden.</i>—The hay or leaf mulching on the strawberry beds +should be removed and the ground deeply hoed (if not removed in +April in the more forward places), after which it may be placed on +again to keep the fruit clean and the ground from drying. Where it +has not been convenient before, most of the smaller fruits may yet +be planted during the first part of the month. Tobacco dust will +dislodge most of the numerous kinds of slugs, caterpillars or worms +that make their appearance on the young shoots of vines or trees. +Fruit trees may be planted this month, if they were not planted in +March or April. If they have been kept fresh and dormant, they +should still be in good condition. The broken roots should be cut +back to fresh wood, and the tops should be headed back in proportion.</p> + +<p><i>Vegetable Garden.</i>—Attention should be given to new sowings and +plantings for succession. Crops sown last month will have to be +thinned out if large enough. Hoe deeply all transplanted crops, such +as cabbage, cauliflower, lettuce, &c. Tender vegetables, such as +tomatoes, egg and pepper plants, sweet potatoes, &c., can be planted +out. Seeds of Lima beans, sweet corn, melon, okra, cucumbers, &c., +should be sown; and sow for succession peas, spinach, lettuce, beans, +radishes, &c., every ten days.</p> + +<p class="pt1 center sc">June</p> + +<p><i>Flower Garden and Greenhouse.</i>—Tropical plants can now be used +to fill up the greenhouse during the summer months. It should be +well shaded, and fine specimens of fancy caladiums, dracaenas, +coleus, crotons, palms, ferns and such plants as are grown for the +beauty of their foliage, will make a very attractive show. If these +cannot be had, common geraniums may be used. The “moss +culture” will be found particularly valuable for these plants. Hyacinths, +tulips and other spring bulbs may be dug up, dried and placed +away for next fall’s planting, and their places filled with bedding +plants, such as coleus, achyranthes, pelargoniums, and the various +white and coloured leaf plants. It will be necessary to mow the lawn +once a week, and sometimes oftener.</p> + +<p><i>Fruit Garden.</i>—The small fruits should be mulched about the roots, +if this has not yet been done. If the fruit garden is large enough to +admit of horse culture, it is best to keep the bush-fruits well cultivated +during the season; this tillage conserves the moisture and helps to +make a full and plump crop of berries. In small areas the mulching +system is sometimes preferable.</p> + +<p><i>Vegetable Garden.</i>—Beets, beans, carrots, corn, cucumbers, lettuce, +peas and radishes may be sown for succession. This is usually a busy +month, as many crops have to be gathered, and, if hoeing is not +promptly seen to, weeds are certain to give great trouble. Tomatoes +should be tied up to trellises or stakes if fine-flavoured and handsome +fruit is desired, for if left to ripen on the ground they are apt to have +a gross earthy flavour.</p> + +<p class="pt1 center sc">July</p> + +<p><i>Flower Garden and Greenhouse.</i>—Watering, ventilating and fumigating +(or the use of tobacco in other forms for destruction of aphides) +must be attended to. The atmosphere of the greenhouse must be +kept moist. Watch the plants that have been plunged out of doors, +and see if any require repotting. All plants that require staking, such +as dahlias, roses, gladioli and many herbaceous plants, should now +be looked to. Carnations and other plants that are throwing up +flower stems, if wanted to flower in winter, should be cut back, that +is, the flower stems should be cut off to say 5 in. from the ground.</p> + +<p><i>Fruit Garden.</i>—If grape vines show any signs of mildew, dust +them over with dry sulphur, selecting a still warm day. The fruit +having now been gathered from strawberry plants, if new beds are to +be formed, the system of layering the plants in small pots is the best. +In general, field strawberries are not grown from potted layers, but +from good strong layers that strike naturally in the field. In the +north, spring planting of strawberries is generally advised for market +conditions; although planting in early fall or late summer is +successful when the ground is well prepared and when it does not +suffer from drought. Where apples, pears, peaches, grapes, &c., have +set fruit thickly, thin out at least one-half to two-thirds of the young +fruit.</p> + +<p><i>Vegetable Garden.</i>—The first ten days of this month will yet be +time enough to sow sweet corn, beets, lettuce, beans, cucumbers and +ruta-baga turnips. Such vegetables as cabbage, cauliflower, celery, +&c., wanted for fall or winter use, are best planted this month, though +in some sections they will do later. Keep sweet potatoes hoed to +prevent the vines rooting at the joints.</p> + +<p class="pt1 center sc">August</p> + +<p><i>Flower Garden and Greenhouse.</i>—But little deviation is required in +these departments from the instructions for July. See that sufficient +water is applied; the walks may be wet in the houses.</p> + +<p><i>Fruit Garden.</i>—Strawberries that have fruited will now be making +“runners,” or young plants. These should be kept cut off close to the +old plant, so that the full force of the root is expended in making the +“crowns” or fruit buds for next season’s crop. If plants are required +for new beds, only the required number should be allowed to +grow, and these may be layered in pots as recommended in July. +The old stems of raspberries and blackberries that have borne fruit +should be cut away, and the young shoots thinned to three or four +canes to each hill or plant. If tied to stakes and topped when 4 or +5 ft. high, they will form three or four branches on a cane, and will +make stronger fruiting plants for next year.</p> + +<p><i>Vegetable Garden.</i>—Hoe deeply such crops as cabbage, cauliflower +and celery. The earthing up of celery this month is not to be +recommended, unless a little very early supply is wanted. Onions in +many sections can be harvested. The proper condition is when the +tops are turning yellow and falling down. They are dried best by +placing them in a dry shed in thin layers. Sow spinach for fall use, +but not yet for the winter crop. Red top, white globe, and yellow +Aberdeen turnips should now be sown; ruta-baga turnips sown last +month will need thinning, and in extreme southern states they may +yet be sown.</p> + +<p class="pt1 center sc">September</p> + +<p><i>Flower Garden and Greenhouse.</i>—The flower-beds in the lawn should +be at their best. If planted in “ribbon lines” or “massing,” strict +attention must be given to pinching off the tops, so that the lines or +masses will present an even surface. Tender plants will require to +be put in the greenhouse or housed in some way towards the end of +this month; but be careful to keep them as cool as possible during +the day. Cuttings of bedding plants may now be made freely if +wanted for next season, as young cuttings rooted in the fall make +better plants for next spring’s use than old plants, in the case of such +soft-wooded plants as pelargoniums, fuchsias, verbenas, heliotropes, +&c.; with roses and plants of a woody nature, however, the old +plants usually do best. Dutch bulbs, such as hyacinths, tulips, +crocus, &c., and most of the varieties of lilies, may be planted. +Violets that are wanted for winter flowering will now be growing +freely, and the runners should be trimmed off. Sow seeds of sweet +alyssum, candytuft, daisies, mignonette, pansies, &c. Visit the +roadsides and woods for interesting plants to put in the hardy +borders.</p> + +<p><i>Fruit Garden.</i>—Strawberry plants that have been layered in pots +may yet be planted, or in southern districts the ordinary ground +layers may be planted. The sooner in the month both are planted +the better crop they will give next season; and, as these plants soon +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page782" id="page782"></a>782</span> +make runners, it will be necessary to trim them off. Attend to raspberries +and blackberries as advised for last month, if they have +not already been attended to. All fruit trees should be gone over for +borers before cold weather sets in; they also should have been gone +over for the same purpose in May and June.</p> + +<p><i>Vegetable Garden.</i>—If cabbage, cauliflower and lettuce are wanted +to plant in cold frames, the seed should be sown from about the 10th +to the 20th of this month; but judgment should be exercised, +for, if sown too early, cabbage and cauliflower are apt to run to seed. +The best date for latitude of New York is September 15th. The +main crop of spinach or sprouts that is wanted for winter or spring +use should be sown about the same date. The earth should be drawn +up to celery with a hoe preparatory to earthing up with a spade. +Onions that were not harvested and dried last month must now be +attended to. Turnips of the early or flat sorts may yet be sown the +first week of this month in the northern states, and in the south +from two to four weeks later.</p> + +<p class="pt1 center sc">October</p> + +<p><i>Flower Garden and Greenhouse.</i>—In northern sections of the United +States, tender plants that are still outside should be got under cover +as early as possible. Delay using fire heat as long as possible, unless +the nights become so cold as to chill the plants inside the house. +Roses, carnations, camellias, azaleas, pelargoniums and the hardier +sorts of plants will do better if placed in a cold frame or pit until the +middle of November than they would in an ordinary greenhouse. +Look out for insects. Fall bulbs of all kinds may be planted. Take +up summer-flowering bulbs and tubers, such as dahlias, tuberoses, +gladioli, cannas, caladiums, tigridias, and dry them off thoroughly, +stowing them away afterwards in some place free from frost and +moisture during the winter. Before winter sets in see that the lawn +is freely top-dressed. Be careful not to mow the grass too short in +fall.</p> + +<p><i>Fruit Garden.</i>—Strawberries that have been grown from pot-grown +layers may yet be planted in southern states; keep the runners +trimmed off. Fruit trees and shrubs may be set out; but, if planting +is deferred to the last of the month, the ground around the roots +should be mulched to the thickness of 3 or 4 in. with straw, leaves or +rough manure, as a protection against frost. The fruit garden must +be protected from the ravages of mice in winter. Mice will nest about +the plants if there is straw or other litter around them. Before +winter, all tall grass and loose litter should be taken away; if this is +not done, then the first snow should be tramped heavily around the +plants, in order to destroy any nesting-places.</p> + +<p><i>Vegetable Garden.</i>—Celery will now be in full growth, and will +require close attention to earthing up, and during the last part of the +month the first lot may be stored away in trenches for winter. All +vegetable roots not designed to be left in the ground during the +winter should be dug up, such as beets, carrots, parsnips, sweet +potatoes, &c. The cabbage, cauliflower and lettuce plants grown +from seed sown last month should be pricked out in cold frames. If +lettuce is wanted for winter use, it may now be planted in the greenhouse +or cold frame, and will be ready for use about Christmas. If +asparagus or rhubarb is wanted for winter use, it should be taken +up and stowed away in pit, frame, shed or cellar for a month or +two. It may then be taken into the greenhouse and packed closely +together under the stage, and will be fit for use from January to +March, according to the temperature of the house. Vegetable +gardens often become infested with diseases that are carried over +from year to year in the old plants and litter; this is specially true +of water-melons and of some diseases of tomatoes. It is well, therefore, +to burn the tops of the plants in the fall, rather than to plough +them under or to throw them on the compost heap.</p> + +<p class="pt1 center sc">November</p> + +<p><i>Flower Garden and Greenhouse.</i>—Plants intended to be grown +inside should now all be indoors. Keep a sharp look-out for cold +snaps, as they come very unexpectedly in November, and many +plants are lost thereby. In cases where it is not convenient to use +fire heat, 5° to 10° of cold can be resisted by covering the plants over +with paper, and by using this before frost has struck the plants +valuable collections may be saved. When fire heat is freely used, be +careful to keep up the proper amount of moisture by sprinkling the +paths with water. Little can be done in the flower garden, except to +clean off all dead stalks, and straw up tender roses, vines, &c., and, +wherever there is time, to dig up and rake the borders, as it will +greatly facilitate spring work. Cover up all beds in which there are +hyacinths, tulips and other bulbs with a litter of leaves or straw to +the depth of 2 or 3 in. If short, thoroughly-decayed manure can +be spared, a good sprinkling spread over the lawn will help it to a +finer growth next spring.</p> + +<p><i>Fruit Garden.</i>—Strawberry beds should be covered (in cold sections) +with hay, straw or leaf mulching, to a depth not exceeding 2 in. +Fruit trees and grape vines generally should be pruned; and, if the +wood of the vine is wanted for cuttings, or scions of fruit trees for +grafts, they should be tied in small bundles and buried in the ground +until spring. They may be taken in December or January if preferred.</p> + +<p><i>Vegetable Garden.</i>—Celery that is to be stored for winter use should +be put away before the end of the month in all sections north of +Virginia; south of that it may be left in most places where grown +throughout the winter if well covered up. The stalks of the asparagus +bed should be cut off, and burned if there are berries on them, as the +seeds scattered in the soil sometimes produce troublesome weeds. +Mulch the beds with 2 or 3 in. of rough manure. All vegetable roots +that are yet in the ground, and not designed to be left there over +winter, must be dug up in this latitude before the middle of the +month or they may be frozen in. Cover up onions, spinach, sprouts, +cabbage or lettuce plants with a covering of 2 or 3 in. of leaves, hay, +or straw, to protect them during the winter. Cabbages that have +headed may usually be preserved against injury by frost until the +middle of next month, by simply pulling them up and packing them +closely in a dry spot in the open field with the heads down and roots +up. On approach of cold weather in December they should be covered +up with leaves as high as the tops of the roots, or, if the soil is light, +it may be thrown over them, if leaves are not convenient. Cabbages +will keep this way until March if the covering has not been put on +too early. Plough all empty ground if practicable, and, whenever +time will permit, do trenching and subsoiling. Cabbage, cauliflower +and lettuce plants that are in frames should be regularly +ventilated by lifting the sash on warm days, and on the approach +of very cold weather they should be covered with straw mats or +shutters. In the colder latitudes, and even in the middle states, it +is absolutely necessary to protect cauliflower in this way, as it is much +more tender than cabbage and lettuce plants.</p> + +<p class="pt1 center sc">December</p> + +<p><i>Flower Garden and Greenhouse.</i>—Close attention must be paid to +protecting all tender plants, for it is not uncommon to have the care +of a whole year spoiled by one night’s neglect. Vigilance and extra +hot fires will have to be kept up when the thermometer falls to 34° +or 35° in the parlour or conservatory. It is well to set the plants +under the benches or on the walks of the greenhouses; if they are in +the parlour move them away from the cold point and protect them +with paper; this will usually save them even if the thermometer +falls to 24° or 26°. Another plan in the greenhouse is to dash water +on the pipes or flues, which causes steam to rise to the glass and +freeze there, stopping up all the crevices. With plants outside that +require strawing up or to be mulched, this will have now to be +finished.</p> + +<p><i>Fruit Garden.</i>—In sections where it is an advantage to protect +grape vines, raspberries, &c., from severe frost, these should be laid +down as close to the ground as possible, and covered with leaves, +straw or hay, or with a few inches of soil. Grapes may be pruned. +Fruit trees may be pruned from now till March in the north.</p> + +<p><i>Vegetable Garden.</i>—Celery in trenches should receive the final +covering for the winter, which is best done by leaves or light stable +litter; in the latitude of New York it should not be less than 12 in. +thick. Potatoes, beets, turnips or other roots in pits, the spinach +crop in the ground, or any other article in need of protection, should +be attended to before the end of the month; manure and compost +heaps should be forwarded as rapidly as possible, and turned and +mixed so as to be in proper condition for spring. Remove the snow +that accumulates on cold frames or other glass structures, particularly +if the soil which the glass covers was not frozen before the snow +fell; it may remain on the sashes longer if the plants are frozen in, +since they are dormant, and would not be injured if deprived of light +for eight or ten days. If roots have been placed in cellars, attention +must be given to ventilation, which can be done by making a wooden +box, say 6 by 8 in., to run from the ceiling of the cellar to the eaves +of the building above.</p> +<div class="author">(L. H. B.; P. H.)</div> + +<p><span class="sc">Bibliography of Modern Works on Horticulture.</span>—W. +Robinson, <i>Alpine Flowers</i>; Lord Redesdale (A. B. Freeman Mitford), +<i>The Bamboo Garden</i>; J. Weathers, <i>Bulbous Plants</i> (33 col. plates); +H. H. Cousins, <i>Chemistry of the Garden</i>; W. Watson, <i>Cactus Culture +for Amateurs</i>; R. P. Brotherston and M. R. Smith, <i>Book of the +Carnation</i>; J. Weathers, <i>Cottage and Allotment Gardening</i>; J. Veitch +and Sons, <i>Manual of Coniferae</i>; W. Wells, <i>Culture of the Chrysanthemum</i>; +Rev. S. E. Bourne, <i>Book of the Daffodil</i>; Geo. Nicholson, +<i>Dictionary of Gardening</i> (5 vols.); W. Robinson, <i>The English Flower +Garden</i>; Geo. Schneider, <i>Book of Choice Ferns</i> (3 vols.); W. Robinson, +<i>Flora and Sylva</i> (3 vols.; col. plates by the late H. G. Moon); +J. Weathers, <i>Flowering Trees and Shrubs</i> (33 col. plates); J. Weathers, +<i>French Market-Gardening and Intensive Cultivation</i>; T. Smith, +<i>French Gardening</i>; Geo. Bunyard and O. Thomas, <i>The Fruit +Garden</i>; Josh. Brace, Fruit Trees in Pots; Dr R. Hogg, The Fruit +Manual; M. C. Cooke, <i>Fungoid Pests of Cultivated Plants</i>; Thos. H. +Mawson, <i>The Art and Craft of Garden-Making</i>; J. Weathers, <i>A +Practical Guide to Garden Plants</i>; W. Watson, <i>The Gardeners’ +Assistant</i>; C. H. Wright and D. Dewar, <i>The Gardeners’ Dictionary</i>; +J. Weathers, <i>Garden Flowers for Town and Country</i> (33 col. plates); +Chas. Baltet, <i>The Art of Grafting and Budding</i>; W. Thomson, <i>The +Grape Vine</i>; Thos. Baines, <i>Greenhouse and Stove Plants</i>; R. Irwin +Lynch, <i>The Book of the Iris</i>; G. Jekyll, <i>Lilies for English Gardens</i>; +E. A. Ormerod, <i>Manual of Injurious Insects</i>; Dr A. B. Griffiths, +<i>Manures for Fruit and other Trees</i>; F. W. Burbridge and J. G. Baker, +<i>The Narcissus</i> (48 col. plates); H. A. Burberry, <i>The Orchid Cultivator’s +Handbook</i>; B. S. Williams, <i>The Orchid Grower’s Manual</i>; +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page783" id="page783"></a>783</span> +J. Veitch & Sons, <i>Manual of Orchidaceous Plants</i>; Dr Paul Sorauer +and F. E. Weiss, <i>Physiology of Plants</i>; W. Watson, <i>Orchids, their +Culture and Management</i>; G. Massee, <i>Plant Diseases</i>; Rev. A. +Foster-Melliar, <i>Book of the Rose</i>; Wm. Paul, <i>The Rose Garden</i> (20 +col. plates); G. Jekyll and E. Mawley, <i>Roses for English Gardens</i>; +J. Weathers, <i>Roses for Garden and Greenhouse</i> (33 col. plates); <i>Nat. +Rose Society, Handbook on Pruning Roses</i>; Rev. J. H. Pemberton, +<i>Roses, their History, Development and Culture</i>; Very Rev. Dean Hole, +<i>A Book about Roses</i>; J. Hoffmann, <i>The Amateur Gardener’s Rose +Book</i> (20 col. plates; translated from the German); A. Gaut, +<i>Seaside Planting of Trees and Shrubs</i>; E. Beckett, <i>Book of the +Strawberry</i>; W. Iggulden, <i>The Tomato</i>; J. Weathers, <i>Trees and +Shrubs for English and Irish Gardens</i> (33 col. plates); Vilmorin et +Cie., <i>The Vegetable Garden</i> (Eng. ed. by W. Robinson); A. F. Barron, +<i>Vines and Vine Culture</i>; G. Jekyll, <i>Wall and Water Gardens</i>; W. +Robinson, <i>The Wild Garden</i>; L. H. Bailey, <i>Practical Garden Book</i> +(New York, 1908).</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(J. Ws.; W. R. W.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HORTON, CHRISTIANA<a name="ar2" id="ar2"></a></span> (<i>c.</i> 1696-<i>c.</i> 1756), English actress, +first appeared in London as Melinda in <i>The Recruiting Officer</i> +in 1714 at Drury Lane. Here she remained twenty years, +followed by fifteen at Covent Garden. At both houses during +this long career she played all the leading tragedy and comedy +parts, and Barton Booth (who “discovered” her) said she was +the best successor of Mrs. Oldfield. She was the original Mariana +in Fielding’s <i>Miser</i> (1733).</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HORTON, ROBERT FORMAN<a name="ar3" id="ar3"></a></span> (1855-  ), British Nonconformist +divine, was born in London on the 18th of September +1855. He was educated at Shrewsbury school and New College, +Oxford, where he took first classes in classics. He was president +of the Oxford Union in 1877. He became a fellow of his college +in 1879, and lectured on history for four years. In 1880 he +accepted an influential invitation to become pastor of the Lyndhurst +Road Congregational church, Hampstead, and subsequently +took a very prominent part in church and denominational +work generally. He delivered the Lyman Beecher +lectures at Yale in 1893; in 1898 he was chairman of the London +Congregational Union; and in 1903 of the Congregational Union of +England and Wales. In 1909 he took a prominent part in the +75th anniversary celebration of Hartford Theological Seminary. +His numerous publications include books on theological, critical, +historical, biographical and devotional subjects.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HORTON, SAMUEL DANA<a name="ar4" id="ar4"></a></span> (1844-1895), American writer +on bimetallism, was born in Pomeroy, Ohio, on the 16th of +January 1844. He graduated at Harvard in 1864, and at the +Harvard Law School in 1868, studied Roman law in Berlin in +1869, and in 1871 was admitted to the Ohio bar. He practised +law in Cincinnati, and then in Pomeroy until 1885, when he gave +up law for the advancement of bimetallism. His attention had +been turned to monetary questions by the “greenback campaign” +of 1875 in Ohio, in which, as in former campaigns, he +had spoken, particularly effectively in German, for the Republican +party. He was secretary of the American delegation to the +Monetary Conference which met in Paris in 1878, and edited +the report of the delegation. To the conference of 1881 he was +a delegate, and thereafter he spent much of his time in Europe, +whither he was sent by President Harrison in 1889 as special +commissioner to promote the international restoration of silver. +He died in Washington, D.C., on the 23rd of February 1895. +Horton’s principal works were <i>The Silver Pound</i> (1887) and +<i>Silver in Europe</i> (1890), a volume of essays.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HORUS<a name="ar5" id="ar5"></a></span> (Egyptian <i>Hōr</i>), the name of an Egyptian god, +if not of several distinct gods. To all forms of Horus the falcon +was sacred; the name Hōr, written with a standing figure of that +bird, <img style="width:35px; height:37px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img783a.jpg" alt="" /> is connected with a root signifying “upper,” and +probably means “the high-flyer.” The tame sacred falcon on +its perch <img style="width:28px; height:37px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img783b.jpg" alt="" /> is the commonest symbol of divinity in early +hieroglyphic writing; the commonest title of the king in the +earliest dynasties, and his first title later, was that which named +him Horus. Hawk gods were the presiding deities of Poi (Pe) +and Nekhen, which had been the royal quarters in the capitals +of the two primeval kingdoms of Upper and Lower Egypt, at Buto +and opposite El Kab. A principal festival in very early times +was the “worship of Horus,” and the kings of the prehistoric +dynasties were afterwards called “the worshippers of Horus.” +The Northern Kingdom in particular was under the patronage +of Horus. He was a solar divinity, but appears very early in +the Osiris cycle of deities, a son of Isis and probably of Osiris, +and opponent of Sēth. On monuments of the Middle Kingdom +or somewhat later we find besides Hōr the following special +forms: Har-behtet, <i>i.e.</i> Hōr of Beht, the winged solar disk, +god of Edfu (<i>Apollinopolis Magna</i>); Har-khentekthai, god of +Athribis; Har-mesen (whose principal sacred animal was a +lion), god of the Sethroite (?) nome; Har-khentemna, <i>i.e.</i> the +blind (?) Horus (with a shrew-mouse) at Letopolis; Har-mert +(“of two eyes”) at Pharbaethus; Har-akht, Ra-har-akht, or +Har-m-akhi (Harikakhis, “Hor of the horizon”), the sun-god +of Heliopolis.</p> + +<p>As a sun-god Horus not only worsted the hostile darkness and +avenged his father, but also daily renewed himself. He was thus +identical with his own father from one point of view. In the +mythology, especially that of the New Kingdom, or of quite late +times, we find the following standing epithets applied to more or +less distinct forms or phases: Harendotes (Har-ent-yotf), +<i>i.e.</i> “Hōr, avenger of his father (Osiris)”; Harpokhrates +(Har-p-khrat), <i>i.e.</i> “Hōr the child,” with finger in mouth, +sometimes seated on a lotus-flower; Harsiesis (Har-si-Ēsi), +<i>i.e.</i> “Hōr, son of Isis,” as a child; Har-en-khēbi, “Hōr in +Chemmis,” a child nursed by Isis in the papyrus marshes; +Haroeris (Har-uēr), <i>i.e.</i> “the elder Hōr,” at Ombos, &c., human-headed +or falcon-headed; Harsemteus (Har-sem-teu), <i>i.e.</i> +“Hōr, uniter of the two lands,” and others.</p> + +<p>In the judgment scene Horus introduces the deceased to Osiris. +To the Greeks Horus was equivalent to Apollo, but in the name +of Hermopolis Parva (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Damanhur</a></span>), which must have been +among the first of the Egyptian cities to be known to them, he +was apparently identified with Hermes. Although the falcon +was the bird most properly sacred to Horus, not only its varieties, +but also the sparrow-hawk, kestrel and other small hawks were +mummified in his honour in late times.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Egypt</a></span>: section <i>Religion</i>; Meyer, art. “Horos” in Röscher, +<i>Lexicon der Griech. und Rom. Mythologie</i>.</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(F. Ll. G.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HORWICH,<a name="ar6" id="ar6"></a></span> an urban district in the Westhoughton parliamentary +division of Lancashire, England, 4 m. W.N.W. of +Bolton, on the Lancashire and Yorkshire railway. Pop. (1901) +15,084. It lies beneath the considerable elevation of Rivington +Pike, where formerly was a great forest. It has extensive +locomotive works, and there are large stone quarries in the +district. Bleaching and cotton-spinning and the manufacture +of fire-bricks and tiles are carried on.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HOSANNA,<a name="ar7" id="ar7"></a></span> the cry of praise or adoration shouted in recognition +of the Messiahship of Jesus on his entry into Jerusalem +(Matt. xxi. 9, 15; Mark xi. 9 sq.; John xii. 13), and since used +in the Christian Church. It is also a Jewish liturgical term, +and was applied specifically to the “hosanna” branches carried +in procession in the Feast of Booths or Tabernacles, the seventh +day of which was called the Hosanna-day (so also in Syrian +usage; cf. “Palm” Sunday). This festival (for which see Lev. +xxiii. 39 sqq.; 2 Macc. x. 7; Jos. <i>Ant.</i> xii. 10. 4, xiii. 13. 15; and +the Talmudic tractate <i>Sukkah</i>) already suggested a Dionysiac +celebration to Plutarch (<i>Symp.</i> iv. 6), and was associated with +a ceremonial drawing of water which, it was believed, secured +fertilizing rains in the following year; the penalty for abstinence +was drought (cf. Zech. xiv. 16 seq.). The evidence (see further +<i>Ency. Bib.</i> cols. 3354, 4880 seq.; I. Levy, <i>Rev. des Ét. juives</i>, +1901, pp. 192 sqq.) points to rites of nature-worship, and it +is possible that in these the term Hosanna had some other +application.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>The old interpretation “save, now!” which may be a popular +etymology, is based on Ps. cxviii. 25 (Heb. <i>hōshī‘ah-nnā</i>), but this +does not explain the occurrence of the word in the Gospels, a complicated +problem, on which see the articles of J. H. Thayer in Hastings’s +<i>Dict. Bib.</i>, and more especially T. K. Cheyne, <i>Ency. Bib.</i> s.v.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HOSE<a name="ar8" id="ar8"></a></span> (a word common to many Teutonic languages; cf. +Dutch, <i>hoos</i>, stocking, Ger. <i>Hose</i>, breeches, tights; the +ultimate origin is unknown), the name of an article of dress, +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page784" id="page784"></a>784</span> +used as a covering for the leg and foot. The word has been +used for various forms of a long stocking covering both the foot +and leg (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Hosiery</a></span>), and this is the usual modern sense. But +it also formerly meant a kind of gaiter covering the leg from the +knee to the ankle only, of the long tight covering for the whole +of the lower limbs, and later of the short puffed or slashed +breeches worn with the doublet—at this period, from the early +part of the 16th century onwards, comes the distinction between +the “hose” or “trunk hose” and the stocking (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Costume</a></span>). +The term is applied to certain objects resembling such a covering, +as in its application to flexible rubber or canvas piping used +for conveying water (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Hosepipe</a></span>), and in botany, to the +“sheath” covering, <i>e.g.</i> the ear of corn. The term “hose-in-hose” +is thus used in botany for a flower in which the corolla +has become doubled, as though a second were inserted in the +throat of the first; it occurs sometimes in the primrose.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HOSEA,<a name="ar9" id="ar9"></a></span> the son of Beērī, the first in order of the minor +prophets of the Old Testament. The name Hosea (<span title="Hoshea">הושע</span>, LXX. +<span class="grk" title="Ôsêe">Ὠσηέ</span>, Vulg. <i>Osee</i>, and so the English version in Rom. ix. 25) +ought rather to be written Hoshea, and is identical with that +borne by the last king of Ephraim, and by Joshua in Num. +xiii. 16, Deut. xxxii. 44. Of the life of Hosea<a name="fa1a" id="fa1a" href="#ft1a"><span class="sp">1</span></a> we know nothing +beyond what can be gathered from his prophecies. That he +was a citizen of the northern kingdom appears from the whole +tenor of the book, but most expressly from i. 2, where “the +land,” the prophet’s land, is the realm of Israel, and vii. 5, +where “our king” is the king of Samaria. The date at which +Hosea flourished is given in the title, i. 1, by the reigning kings +of Judah and Israel. He prophesied (i) in the days of Uzziah, +Jotham, Ahaz and Hezekiah, kings of Judah; (2) in the days +of Jeroboam the son of Joash, king of Israel. The dates indicated +by the title, which may be regarded as editorial, are, +for the four kings of the southern kingdom, 789-740, 739-734, +733-721 and 720-693 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> respectively; and, for Jeroboam II., +782-743 (cf. <i>Ency. Bib.</i> col. 797-798). The book itself, however, +plainly belongs to the period prior to 734 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> since, in that +year, (<i>a</i>) the Syro-Ephraimitic war began, to which there is +here no reference, nor is Assyria yet the open foe it then became; +(<i>b</i>) Gilead became Tiglath-Pileser’s (2 Kings xv. 29), whereas +it is here described as still part of the territory of Israel (vi. 8; +xii. 11; cf. the included place-names of v. 1). On the other hand, +the prophet connects with the birth of his eldest child the +approaching fall of the house of Jehu (i. 4), thus anticipating +the death of Jeroboam II. in 743, and the period of anarchy +which followed (2 Kings xv.). Thus the prophetic work of +Hosea may be dated, with practical certainty, as beginning +from some point previous to 743 and extending not later than +734.<a name="fa2a" id="fa2a" href="#ft2a"><span class="sp">2</span></a> This is corroborated by the general character of the +book. Of its two parts, i.-iii. reflects the wealth and prosperity +of the reign of Jeroboam II., whilst iv.-xiv. contains frequent references +to the social disorder and anarchy of the subsequent years.</p> + +<p>The first part of Hosea’s prophetic work, corresponding to +chs. i.-iii., lay in the years of external prosperity immediately +preceding the catastrophe of the house of Jehu in or near the year +743. The second part of the book is a summary of prophetic +teaching during the subsequent troublous reign of Menahem, +and, perhaps, that of his successor, Pekahiah, and must have +been completed before 734 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> Apart from the narrative +in chs. i.-iii., to which we shall presently recur, the book throws +little or no light on the details of Hosea’s life. It appears from +ix. 7, 8, that his prophetic work was greatly embarrassed by +opposition: “As for the prophet, a fowler’s snare is in all his +ways, and enmity in the house of his God.” The enmity which +had its centre in the sanctuary probably proceeded from the +priests (comp. Amos vii.), against whose profligacy and profanation +of their office our prophet frequently declaims—perhaps +also from the degenerate prophetic gilds which had their seats +in the holy cities of the northern kingdom, and with whom +Hosea’s elder contemporary Amos so indignantly refuses to +be identified (Amos vii. 14). In ch. iv. 5 Hosea seems to +comprise priests and prophets in one condemnation, thus placing +himself in direct antagonism to all the leaders of the religious +life of his nation. He is not less antagonistic to the kings and +princes of his day (vii. 3-7, viii. 4, viii. 10 Septuagint, x. 7-15, +xiii. 11).<a name="fa3a" id="fa3a" href="#ft3a"><span class="sp">3</span></a> In view of the familiarity shown with the intrigues +of rulers and the doings of priests, it has been conjectured that +Hosea held a prominent position, or even (by Duhm) that he +was himself a priest (Marti, p. 2).</p> + +<p>The most interesting problem of Hosea’s history lies in the +interpretation of the story of his married life (chs. i.-iii.). We +read in these chapters that God’s revelation to Hosea began +when in accordance with a divine command he married a profligate +wife, Gomer, the daughter of Diblaim. Three children were born +in this marriage and received symbolical names, illustrative of +the divine purpose towards Israel, which are expounded in ch. +i. In ch. ii. the faithlessness of Israel to Jehovah (Yahweh), +the long-suffering of God, the moral discipline of sorrow and +tribulation by which He will yet bring back His erring people +and betroth it to Himself for ever in righteousness, love and +truth, are depicted under the figure of the relation of a husband +to an erring spouse. The suggestion of this allegory lies in +the prophet’s marriage with Gomer, but the details are worked +out quite independently, and under a rich multiplicity of figures +derived from other sources. In the third chapter we return +to the personal experience of the prophet. His faithless wife +had at length left him and fallen, under circumstances which are +not detailed, into a state of misery, from which Hosea, still +following her with tender affection, and encouraged by a divine +command, brought her back and restored her to his house, +where he kept her in seclusion, and patiently watched over +her for many days, yet not readmitting her to the privileges +of a wife.</p> + +<p>In these experiences the prophet again recognizes a parallel +to Yahweh’s long-suffering love to Israel, and the discipline +by which the people shall be brought back to God through a +period in which all their political and religious institutions are +overthrown. Throughout these chapters personal narrative +and prophetic allegory are interwoven with a rapidity of transition +very puzzling to the modern reader; but an unbiassed +exegesis can hardly fail to acknowledge that chs. i. and iii. +narrate an actual passage in the prophet’s life. The names of the +three children are symbolical, but Isaiah in like manner gave +symbolical names to his sons, embodying prominent points +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page785" id="page785"></a>785</span> +in his prophetic teaching (Shear-jashub, Isa. vii. 3, comp. x. 21; +Maher-shalal-hash-baz, viii. 3). And the name of Gomer bath +Diblaim is certainly that of an actual person, upon which all +the allegorists, from the Targum, Jerome and Ephraem Syrus +downwards, have spent their arts in vain, whereas the true symbolical +names in the book are perfectly easy of interpretation.<a name="fa4a" id="fa4a" href="#ft4a"><span class="sp">4</span></a> +That the ancient interpreters take the whole narrative as a mere +parable is no more than an application of their standing rule that +everything in the Biblical history is allegorical which in its literal +sense appears offensive to propriety (comp. Jerome’s proem to +the book). But the supposed offence to propriety seems to rest +on mistaken exegesis and too narrow a conception of the way +in which the Divine word was communicated to the prophets.<a name="fa5a" id="fa5a" href="#ft5a"><span class="sp">5</span></a> +There is no reason to suppose that Hosea knowingly married +a woman of profligate character. The point of the allegory +in i. 2 is plainly infidelity after marriage as a parallel to Israel’s +departure from the covenant God, and a profligate wife (<span title="eshet znunim">אשת זנונים</span>) +is not the same thing with an open prostitute (<span title="zonna">זונה</span>). The +marriage was marred by Gomer’s infidelity; and the struggle +of Hosea’s affection for his wife with this great unhappiness—a +struggle inconceivable unless his first love had been pure and +full of trust in the purity of its object—furnished him with a new +insight into Yahweh’s dealings with Israel. Then he recognized +that the great calamity of his life was God’s own ordinance and +appointed means to communicate to him a deep prophetic lesson. +The recognition of a divine command after the fact has its +parallel, as Wellhausen observes, in Jer. xxxii. 8.</p> + +<p>It was in the experiences of his married life, and in the spiritual +lessons opened to him through these, that Hosea first heard +the revealing voice of Yahweh (i. 2).<a name="fa6a" id="fa6a" href="#ft6a"><span class="sp">6</span></a> Like Amos (Amos iii. 8), +he was called to speak for God by an inward constraining voice, +and there is no reason to think that he had any connexion with +the recognized prophetic societies, or ever received such outward +adoption to office as was given to Elisha. His position in Israel +was one of tragic isolation. Amos, when he had discharged his +mission at Bethel, could return to his home and to his friends; +Hosea was a stranger among his own people, and his home was +full of sorrow and shame. Isaiah in the gloomiest days of Judah’s +declensions had faithful disciples about him, and knew that there +was a believing remnant in the land. Hosea knows no such +remnant, and there is not a line in his prophecy from which +we can conclude that his words ever found an obedient ear.</p> + +<p>As already stated, this prophecy falls into two clearly distinguished +sections,<a name="fa7a" id="fa7a" href="#ft7a"><span class="sp">7</span></a> the former (i.-iii.), already dealt with, +accounting for the general standpoint of the latter (iv.-xiv.). +It is not possible to make any convincing subdivisions of this +latter section (cf. G. A. Smith, i. p. 223) which is best regarded +as a series of separate discourses on certain recurrent topics, +viz. (<i>a</i>) the cultus, (<i>b</i>) the social disorder and immorality, (<i>c</i>) +political tendencies (alliance with either Assyria or Egypt sought).<a name="fa8a" id="fa8a" href="#ft8a"><span class="sp">8</span></a> +In regard to each of these topics, the attitude of the prophet +involves the discernment of present guilt, and the assertion +of future punishment. For him the present condition of the +people contained no germ or pledge of future amendment, and +he describes the impending judgment, not as a sifting process +(Amos ix. 9, 10) in which the wicked perish and the righteous +remain, but as the total wreck of the nation which has wholly +turned aside from its God. In truth, while the idolatrous feasts of +Ephraim still ran their joyous round, while the careless people +crowded to the high places, and there in unbridled and licentious +mirth flattered themselves that their many sacrifices ensured the +help of their God against all calamity, the nation was already +in the last stage of internal dissolution. To the prophet’s eye +there was “no truth, nor mercy, nor knowledge of God in the +land—nought but swearing, and lying, and killing, and stealing +and adultery; they break out, and blood toucheth blood” +(iv. 1, 2). The root of this corruption lay in total ignorance of +Yahweh, whose precepts were no longer taught by the priests, +while in the national calf-worship, and in the local high places, +this worship was confounded with the service of the Canaanite +Baalim. Thus the whole religious constitution of Israel was +undermined. And the political state of the realm was in Hosea’s +eyes not more hopeful. The dynasty of Jehu, still great and +powerful when the prophet’s labours began, is itself an incorporation +of national sin. Founded on the bloodshed of Jezreel, it +must fall by God’s vengeance, and the state shall fall with it +(i. 4, iii. 4). This sentence stands at the head of Hosea’s predictions, +and throughout the book the civil constitution of +Ephraim is represented as equally lawless and godless with the +corrupt religious establishment. The anarchy that followed +on the murder of Zachariah appears to the prophet as the natural +decadence of a realm not founded on divine ordinance. The +nation had rejected Yahweh, the only helper. And now the +avenging Assyrian<a name="fa9a" id="fa9a" href="#ft9a"><span class="sp">9</span></a> is at hand. Samaria’s king shall pass away +as foam on the water. Fortress and city shall fall before the +ruthless invader, who spares neither age nor sex, and thistles shall +cover the desolate altars of Ephraim.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>In our present book of Hosea, this condemnatory judgment on +contemporary Israel culminates in a chapter of appeal for penitence, +with promise of divine forgiveness. The question of the authenticity +of this and of other “restoration” passages<a name="fa10a" id="fa10a" href="#ft10a"><span class="sp">10</span></a> forms the chief problem +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page786" id="page786"></a>786</span> +for literary criticism presented by the book.<a name="fa11a" id="fa11a" href="#ft11a"><span class="sp">11</span></a> Amongst the more +recent commentators, Davidson, G. A. Smith and Nowack regard +Hosea xiv. as written by the prophet, though the second admits +its chronological misplacement and the third its later expansion. +On the other hand, it is altogether rejected by Cheyne, Wellhausen, +Marti and Harper. These claim that the passage reflects the later +standpoint of completed punishment, and is therefore inconsistent +in the prophet who anticipates that punishment. But the case is +different from that of the epilogue to Amos, since Hosea’s personal +experience covers forgiveness as well as discipline (Marti consistently, +though without ground, rejects this experience also). There seems, +therefore, to be no sufficient evidence for denying thoughts of +restoration to Hosea, whilst it is highly probable that such passages +would be amplified in a later age. Indeed, the importance of these +passages for the interpretation of Hosea is apt to be overrated, +for, as one of those rejecting them remarks, though Hosea “promised +nothing,” yet he “contributed a conception of Yahweh which made +such a future not only possible but even probable” (Harper, p. cliii.). +We may therefore read the closing chapter as, at least, the explicit +statement of a hope implicit in Hosea’s teaching.</p> +</div> + +<p>Hosea could discern no faithful remnant in Ephraim, yet +Ephraim in all his corruption is the son of Yahweh, a child +nurtured with tender love, a chosen people, whose past history +declares in every episode the watchful and patient affection +of his father. And that father is God and not man, the Holy +One who will not and cannot sacrifice His love even to the justest +indignation (chap. xi.). To the prophet who knows this love of +Yahweh, who has learned to understand it in the like experience +of his own life, the very ruin of the state of Israel is a step in the +loving guidance which makes the valley of trouble a door of hope +(ii. 15), and the wilderness of tribulation as full of promise as +the desert road from Egypt to Canaan was to Israel of old. Of the +manner of Israel’s repentance and conversion Hosea presents no +clear image—nay, it is plain that on this point he had nothing to +tell. The certainty that the people will at length return and +seek Yahweh their God rests, not on any germ of better things +in Israel, but on the invincible supremacy of Yahweh’s love. +And so the two sides of his prophetic declaration, the passionate +denunciation of Israel’s sin and folly, and the not less passionate +tenderness with which he describes the final victory of divine +love, are united by no logical bond. The unity is one of feeling +only, and the sob of anguish in which many of his appeals to a +heedless people seem to end turns once and again with sudden +revulsion into the clear accents of evangelical promise, which in +the closing chapter swell forth in pure and strong cadence out +of a heart that has found its rest with God from all the troubles +of a stormy life.</p> + +<p>The strongly emotional temperament of Hosea suggests comparison +with that of Jeremiah, who like himself is the prophet +of the decline and fall of a kingdom. The subsequent influence +of Hosea on the literature of the Old and New Testaments is +very marked. Not only is it seen in the conception of the +relation between God and His people as a marriage, which +he makes current coin (cf. Marti, p. 15), but still more in the +fact that his conception of the divine character becomes the +inspiration of the book of Deuteronomy and so of the whole +canon of Scripture. “In a special degree, the author of +Deuteronomy is the spiritual heir of Hosea.”<a name="fa12a" id="fa12a" href="#ft12a"><span class="sp">12</span></a></p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p><span class="sc">Recent Literature</span> (where references to older works will be +found): Cheyne, “Hosea” in <i>Cambridge Bible</i> (1884); W. R. +Smith, <i>The Prophets of Israel</i>,<span class="sp">2</span> with Cheyne’s introduction (1895); +G. A. Smith, “The Book of the Twelve,” i., in <i>The Expositor’s Bible</i> +(1896); Nowack, <i>Die Kleinen Propheten</i> (1897); Wellhausen, <i>Die +Kleinen Propheten</i><span class="sp">3</span> (1898); Smend, <i>Alttest. Religionsgeschichte</i>,<span class="sp">2</span> +pp. 204 f. (1899); Davidson, art. “Hosea” in Hastings’ <i>Dictionary +of the Bible</i>, ii. pp. 419 f. (1900); Marti, art. “Hosea” in <i>Ency. +Biblica</i>, ii. c. 2119 (1901) (a revision of the original article by W. R. +Smith, in the <i>Ency. Britannica</i>, partially reproduced above); Marti, +<i>Dodekapropheton</i> (1903); W. R. Harper, “Amos and Hosea” in +<i>Inter. Critical Commentary</i> (1905) (with copious bibliography).</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(W. R. S.; H. W. R.*)</div> + +<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note"> + +<p><a name="ft1a" id="ft1a" href="#fa1a"><span class="fn">1</span></a> <i>Traditions about Hosea.</i>—Beērī, the prophet’s father, is identified +by the Rabbins with Beērah (1 Chron. v. 6), a Reubenite prince +carried captive by Tiglath-Pileser. This view is already expressed +by Jerome, <i>Quaest. in Paralip.</i>, and doubtless underlies the statement +of the Targum to Chronicles that Beērah was a prophet. For +it is a Jewish maxim that when a prophet’s father is named, he, too, +was a prophet, and accordingly a tradition of R. Simon makes +Isa. viii. 19, 20 a prophecy of Beērī (Ḳimcḥi in loc.; <i>Leviticus +Rabba</i>, par. 15). According to the usual Christian tradition, however, +Hosea was of the tribe of Issachar, and from an unknown town, +Belemoth or Belemon (pseudo-Epiphanius, pseudo-Dorotheus, +Ephraem Syr. ii. 234; <i>Chron. Pasch.</i>, Bonn ed., i. 276). As the +tradition adds that he died there, and was buried in peace, the +source of the story lies probably in some holy place shown as his +grave. There are other traditions as to the burial-place of Hosea. +A Jewish legend in the <i>Shalshelet haqqabala</i> (Carpzov, <i>Introd.</i>, pt. iii. +ch. vii. § 3) tells that he died in captivity at Babylon, and was +carried to Upper Galilee, and buried at <span title="Zefat">צפת</span>, that is, Safed (Neubauer, +Géog. <i>du Talmud</i>, p. 227); and the Arabs show the grave of Nebi +’Osha, east of the Jordan, near Es-Salt (Baedeker’s <i>Palestine</i>, p. 337; +Burckhardt’s <i>Syria</i>, p. 353).</p> + +<p><a name="ft2a" id="ft2a" href="#fa2a"><span class="fn">2</span></a> The supposed reference of viii. 9-10 to the tribute paid by +Menahem to Tiglath-Pileser (2 Kings xv. 19), and dated, on the +monuments, 738 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>, depends on a corrupt text: read v. 10 with +Septuagint.</p> + +<p><a name="ft3a" id="ft3a" href="#fa3a"><span class="fn">3</span></a> Some scholars hold that his attack is directed against the very +principle of monarchy (Nowack, p. 8; Smend, p. 209: “Hosea +rejects the kingship in itself”; Wellhausen, p. 125: “The making +of kings in Israel is for him, together with the heathen cultus, the +fundamental evil”). This view depends on a disputed interpretation +of the reference to Gibeah (x. 9; cf. ix. 9); and on the words: +“I give thee kings in mine anger, and I take them away in my +wrath” (xiii. 11), which may refer to the rise and fall of contemporary +kings (cf. Marti, ad loc). In any case, as Wellhausen himself +says (p. 132): “He does not start from a dogmatic theory, but +simply from historical experience.”</p> + +<p><a name="ft4a" id="ft4a" href="#fa4a"><span class="fn">4</span></a> Theodorus Mops. remarks very justly, <span class="grk" title="kai to onoma kai ton patera +legei, ôs mê plasma psilon ti dokoiê to legomenon, historia de alêthês tôn +pragmatôn.">καὶ τὸ ὄνομα καὶ τὸν πατέρα +λέγει, ὡς μὴ πλάσμα ψιλόν τι δοκοίη τὸ λεγόμενον, +ἱστορία δὲ ἀληθὴς τῶν πραγμάτων</span>.</p> + +<p><a name="ft5a" id="ft5a" href="#fa5a"><span class="fn">5</span></a> This explanation of the narrative, which is essentially Ewald’s, +is now generally accepted. It has the great advantage of supplying +a psychological key to the conception of Israel or the land of Israel +(i. 2) as the spouse of Yahweh, which dominates these chapters, +but in the later part of the book gives way to the personification of +the nation as God’s son. This conception has, indeed, formal points +of contact with notions previously current, and even with the ideas +of Semitic heathenism. On the one hand, it is a standing Hebrew +usage to represent the land as mother of its people, while the representation +of worshippers as children of their god is found in Num. +xxi. 29, where the Moabites are called children of Chemosh, and is +early and widespread throughout the Semitic field (cf. <i>Trans. Bib. +Arch.</i> vi. 438; <i>Jour. of Phil.</i> ix. 82). The combination of these +two notions gives at once the conception of the national deity as +husband of the land. On the other hand, the designation of Yahweh +as Baal, which, in accordance with the antique view of marriage, +means husband as well as lord and owner, was current among the +Israelites in early times, perhaps, indeed, down to Hosea’s age +(ii. 16). Now it is highly probable that among the idolatrous +Israelites the idea of a marriage between the deity and individual +worshippers was actually current and connected with the immorality +which Hosea often condemns in the worship of the local Baalim +whom the ignorant people identified with Yahweh. For we have +a Punic woman’s name, <span title="areshetbaal">ארשתבעל</span>, “the betrothed of Baal” (Euting, +Punische Steine, pp. 9, 15), and a similar conception existed among +the Babylonians (Herod. i. 181, 182). But Hosea takes the idea of +Yahweh as husband, and gives it an altogether different turn, +filling it with a new and profound meaning, based on the psychical +experiences of a deep human affection in contest with outraged +honour and the wilful self-degradation of a spouse. It can hardly +be supposed that all that lies in these chapters is an abstract study +in the psychology of the emotions. It is actual human experience +that gives Hosea the key to divine truth.</p> + +<p><a name="ft6a" id="ft6a" href="#fa6a"><span class="fn">6</span></a> Davidson (<i>D.B.</i> ii. 422) remarks that “it was not his misfortunes +that gave Hosea his prophetic word. Israel’s apostasy was +plain to him, and he foreshadowed her doom in Jezreel, the name +of his first child, before any misfortunes overtook him. At most, +his misfortunes may at a later time have given a complexion to his +prophetic thoughts.” Wellhausen (p. 108) objects to the emergence +of the call from the experience, on the ground that the name given +to the first child gives no indication that Hosea had yet reached his +specific message, the infidelity of his wife and of Israel, though it +shows him already as a prophet. Marti (p. 15) agrees with Davidson +in making the order (<i>a</i>) call, (<i>b</i>) marriage and birth of three children, +(<i>c</i>) comprehension of the significance of the marriage for himself +and for Israel. The statement made above must be interpreted of +Hosea’s <i>specific</i> message from Yahweh, as recorded in his book.</p> + +<p><a name="ft7a" id="ft7a" href="#fa7a"><span class="fn">7</span></a> Marti disregards this generally accepted division, arguing that +(<i>a</i>) i.-iii. was not written earlier than iv.-xiv., (<i>b</i>) iii. is not Hoseanic, +(<i>c</i>) ii. is much more akin to iv.-xiv. than to i.-iii. (<i>Comm.</i> p. 1; cf. +<i>Enc. Bib.</i> 2123 n.<span class="sp">3</span>). He holds that another wife, not Gomer, is +intended in iii., which is an allegory referring to Israel, as Gomer +referred to Judah. His arguments are not convincing.</p> + +<p><a name="ft8a" id="ft8a" href="#fa8a"><span class="fn">8</span></a> So, practically, Davidson, <i>D.B.</i> ii. p. 423 seq., where the detailed +references will be found.</p> + +<p><a name="ft9a" id="ft9a" href="#fa9a"><span class="fn">9</span></a> This is too definite for the data; cf. Davidson, <i>l.c.</i> “Hosea has +no clear idea of the instrument or means of Israel’s destruction. +It is ‘the sword’ (vii. 16, xi. 6), the ‘enemy’ (viii. 3, v. 8-9); +or it is natural, internal decay (vii. 8-9, ix. 16), the moth and +rottenness (v. 12).”</p> + +<p><a name="ft10a" id="ft10a" href="#fa10a"><span class="fn">10</span></a> <i>e.g.</i> i. 10-ii. 1, ii. 14 f., iii. 5, v. 15-vi. 3, xi. 10-11.</p> + +<p><a name="ft11a" id="ft11a" href="#fa11a"><span class="fn">11</span></a> Apart from glosses and minor alterations, the only other critical +problem of importance is that of the references to <i>Judah</i> scattered +throughout the book (i. 7, iv. 15, v. 5, v. 10 f., vi. 4, 11, viii. +14, x. 11, xi. 12). There is no inherent improbability in some +mention of the sister kingdom; but some of the actual references +do suggest interpolation, especially i. 7, where the deliverance of +Judah from Sennacherib in 701 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> seems intended. Each case, +as Wellhausen implies, is to be considered on its merits. On +these and other suspected passages, cf. Cheyne, Intro. to W. R. +Smith’s <i>Prophets of Israel</i>, pp. xvii.-xxii.; Marti, p. 8; Harper, +p. clix.</p> + +<p><a name="ft12a" id="ft12a" href="#fa12a"><span class="fn">12</span></a> Driver, <i>Deuteronomy</i>, p. xxvii.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HOSE-PIPE,<a name="ar10" id="ar10"></a></span> or simply “hose,” the name given to flexible +piping by means of which water may be conveyed from one +place to another. One end of the pipe is connected to the source +of the water, while the other end is free, so that the direction of +the stream of water which issues from the pipe may be changed +at will. The method of manufacture and the strength of the +materials used depend naturally upon the particular use to +which the finished article is to be put. Simple garden hose is +often made of india-rubber or composition, but the hose intended +for fire brigade and similar important purposes must be of a much +more substantial material. The most satisfactory material is +the best long flax, although cotton is also extensively used for +many types of this fabric.</p> + +<p>The flax fibre, after having been carefully spun into yarn, +is boiled twice and then beetled; these two processes remove +all injurious matter, and make the yarn soft and lustrous. The +yarn is then wound on to large bobbins, and made into a chain; +the number of threads in the chain depends upon the size of the +hose, which may be anything from half an inch to 15 in. or even +more in diameter. When the chain is warped, it is beamed +upon the weaver’s beam, and the ends—either double or triple—are +drawn through the leaves of the cambs of heddles, passed +through the reed and finally tied to the cloth beam. The preparation +of the warp for any kind of loom varies very little, but the +weaving may vary greatly. In all cases the hose fabric is +essentially circular, although it appears quite flat during the +weaving operation.</p> + +<p>There are very few hand-made fabrics which can compete +with the machine-made article, but the very best type of hose-pipe +is certainly one of the former class. The cloth can be made +much more cheaply in the power-loom than in the hand-loom, but, +up to the present, no power-loom has been made which can weave +as substantial a cloth as the hand-loom product; the weak +part in all hose-pipes is where the weft passes round the sides from +top to bottom of the fabric or vice versa, that is, the side corresponding +to the selvages in an ordinary cloth; the hand-loom +weaver can draw the weft tighter than is possible in the power-loom, +hence the threads at the sides can be brought close together, +and by this means the fabric is made almost, but not +quite, as perfect here as in other parts. It is essential that the +warp threads be held tightly in the loom, and to secure this, they +pass alternately over and under three or four back rests before +reaching the heddles or cambs, which are almost invariably +made of wire. Although the warp yarn is made very soft and +pliable by boiling and beetling, the weaver always tallows +it in order to make it work more easily.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter" colspan="2"><img style="width:529px; height:94px" src="images/img786.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 1.</span></td> +<td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 2.</span></td></tr></table> + +<table class="flt" style="float: right; width: 275px;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:225px; height:217px" src="images/img787.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption1"><span class="sc">Fig. 3.</span>—Section through the Warp.</td></tr></table> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>The commonest type of hose-pipe is made on the double-plain +principle of weaving, the cloth being perfectly plain but woven in +such a manner that the pipe is without seams of any kind. Fig. 1 +is a design showing two repeats or eight shots in the way of the weft, +and six repeats or twenty-four-threads in the way of the warp, +consequently the weave is complete on four threads, or leaves, and +four picks. Fig. 2 illustrates the method of interlacing the threads +and the picks: this figure shows that twenty-three threads only are +used, the first thread—shown shaded in fig. 1—having been left out. +It is necessary to use a number of threads which is either one less +or one more than some multiple of four—the number of threads in +the unit weave. The sectional view (fig. 2), although indicating +the crossings of the warp and the weft, is quite different from an +actual section through the threads: the warp is almost invariably +two or three ply, and in addition two or more of these twisted +threads pass through the same heddle-eye in the camb; moreover, +they are set very closely together—so closely, indeed, that the threads +entirely conceal the weft; it is, therefore, impossible to give a correct +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page787" id="page787"></a>787</span> +sectional view with satisfactory clearness, as the threads are so very +rank, but fig. 3 gives some idea of the structure of the fabric. This +view shows ninety-nine threads and one complete round of weft; +this round is, of course, equal to two picks or shots—one pick for +the top part of the cloth and one for the bottom part. A comparison +of this figure with fig. 2 will, +perhaps, make the description clearer. +The weft in fig. 3 is thinner than the +warp, but, in practice, it is always +much thicker, and may consist of +from two to seventy threads twisted +together.</p> + +<p>Hose-pipes are also woven with the +three-leaf twill on both sides, and +occasionally with the four-leaf twill. +These pipes, woven with the twill +weaves, are usually lined with a pure +rubber tube which is fixed to the +inside of the cloth by another layer +of rubber after the cloth leaves the +loom. Such pipes have usually, but +not invariably, a smoother inner surface +than those which are unlined, hence, when they are used, less +friction is presented to the flow of water, and there is less tendency +for the pipe to leak. They are, therefore, suitable for +hotels, public buildings and similar places where their temporary +use will not result in undue damage to articles of furniture, carpets +and general decoration.</p> + +<p>The greatest care must be observed in the weaving of these +fabrics, the slightest flaw in the structure rendering the article +practically useless. After the cloth has been woven, it is carefully +examined, and then steeped in a chemical solution which acts as +an antiseptic. The cloth is thus effectively preserved from mildew, +and is, in addition, made more pliable. Finally the hose-pipe is dried +artificially, and then fitted with the necessary couplings and nozzles.</p> + +<p>For a more detailed description of circular weaving see Woodhouse +and Milne, <i>Textile Design: Pure and Applied</i>.</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(T. Wo.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HOSHANGABAD,<a name="ar11" id="ar11"></a></span> a town and district of British India, in +the Nerbudda division of the Central Provinces. The town +stands on the left bank of the Nerbudda, 1009 ft. above the sea, +and has a railway station. Pop. (1901), 14,940. It is supposed +to have been founded by Hoshang Shah, the second of the Ghori +kings of Malwa, in the 15th century; but it remained an insignificant +place till the Bhopal conquest about 1720, when a +massive stone fort was constructed, with its base on the river, +commanding the Bhopal road. It sustained several sieges during +the 18th century, and passed alternately into the hands of the +Bhopal and Nagpur rulers. Since 1818 it has been the residence +of the chief British officials in charge of the district. It has a +government high school, and agricultural school and a brass-working +industry.</p> + +<p>The <span class="sc">District of Hoshangabad</span> has an area of 3676 sq. m. +Pop. (1901), 449,165, showing a decrease of 10% in the decade, +due to famine. It may be described as a valley of varying +breadth, extending for 150 m. between the Nerbudda river and +the Satpura mountains. The soil consists chiefly of black basaltic +alluvium, often more than 20 ft. deep; but along the banks of the +Nerbudda the fertility of the land compensates for the tameness +of the scenery. Towards the west, low stony hills and broken +ridges cut up the level ground, while the Vindhyas and the +Satpuras throw out jutting spurs and ranges. In this wilder +country considerable regions are covered with jungle. On the +south the lofty range which shuts in the valley is remarkable +in mountain scenery, surpassing in its picturesque irregularity +the Vindhyan chain in the north. Many streams take their +rise amid its precipices, then, winding through deep glens, flow +across the plain between sandy banks covered with low jungle till +they swell the waters of the Nerbudda. None is of any importance +except the Tawa, which is interesting to the geologist on +account of the many minerals to be found along its course. The +boundary rivers, the Nerbudda and Tapti, are the only considerable +waters in Hoshangabad. The principal crops are +wheat, millets and oil-seeds. The district is traversed throughout +its length by the Great Indian Peninsula railway.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HOSHEA<a name="ar12" id="ar12"></a></span> (Heb. for “deliverance”), the last king of Israel, +in the Bible. The attempt of his predecessor Pekah to take +Jerusalem with the help of his ally Rasun (Rezin) of Damascus +was frustrated by the intervention of Tiglath-Pileser IV. +(see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Ahaz</a></span>), who attacked Gilead, Galilee and the north frontier, +and carried off some of its population (cp. 1 Chron. v. 26). +Pekah’s resistance to Assyria led to a conspiracy in which +he lost his life, and Hoshea the son of Elah became king +(2 Kings xv. 27-30). The Assyrian king held him as his vassal +(and indeed claims to have set him on the throne), and exacted +from him a yearly tribute. Meanwhile, Damascus was besieged +(733-732 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>), Raṣun was slain and the inhabitants deported +(2 Kings xvi. 9; LXX. omits “to Kir,” but see Amos i. 5). +The impending fate of Damascus is illustrated by Isaiah (vii. 16, +viii. 4, xvii. 1-11), who also gives a vivid description of the +impression left by the Assyrian army (v. 26-30). After the +death of Tiglath-Pileser, Israel regained confidence (Isa. ix. 8-x. 4) +and took steps to recover its independence. Its policy vacillated—“like +a silly dove” (Hos. vii. 11), and at length negotiations +were opened with Mizraim. The annual payment of tribute +ceased and Shalmaneser IV. (who began to reign in 727 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>) +at once laid siege to Samaria, which fell at the end of three years +(722-721 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>). The achievement is claimed by his successor +Sargon. Hoshea was killed, the land was again partly depopulated +and a governor appointed (2 Kings xviii. 9-12; cp. xvii. +1 sqq.). For other allusions to this period see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Hosea</a></span>, <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Isaiah</a></span>.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>2 Kings xvii. 3 and 5 imply <i>two</i> attacks by Shalmaneser: in the +first of which Hoshea was imprisoned and perhaps blinded (Cheyne, +emending, “shut him up” in <i>v.</i> 4), although in v. 6 he is still reigning; +see on this Winckler, <i>Keilinschr. u. Alte Test.</i><span class="sp">3</span> p. 268; Burney, +<i>Kings</i>, p. 328 seq.; Skinner, <i>Kings</i>, p. 372 seq. The chronological +notes, moreover, are extremely confused; contrast xv. 30 with +xvii. 1. The usual identification of So (or Seve), king of Mizraim, +with Shabaka of Egypt is difficult, partly on chronological grounds +(which Petrie, <i>History of Egypt</i>, pp. 277, 281 sqq. does not remove), +and partly because the Ethiopian dominion in Egypt appears to be +still weak and divided. The Assyrian records name a certain Sibi +as <i>officer</i>, and also Piru (Pharaoh!) as <i>king</i> of Musri, and it is +doubtful whether Hoshea’s ally was a petty prince of Egypt or of +a N. Arabian district (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Mizraim</a></span>). If the latter, Hoshea’s policy +becomes more intelligible; see Whitehouse, <i>Isaiah</i>, p. 17 seq.; +<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Jews</a></span>: <i>History</i>; <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Philistines</a></span>. On the depopulation of Samaria +and the introduction of colonists, see Winckler’s objections, +<i>Alttest. Untersuch.</i> pp. 95-107, with Burney’s criticisms, <i>Kings</i>, +p. 334 seq.</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(S. A. C.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HOSHIARPUR,<a name="ar13" id="ar13"></a></span> a town of British India, in the Jullundur +division of the Punjab. Pop. (1901), 17,549. It was founded, +according to tradition, about the early part of the 14th century. +In 1809 it was occupied by Ranjit Singh. The maharaja and +his successors maintained a considerable cantonment 1 m. S.E. +of the town, and the British government kept it up for several +years after the annexation of the Punjab in 1849. There are +manufactures of cotton goods, inlaid woodwork, lacquered ware, +shoes and copper vessels.</p> + +<p>The <span class="sc">District of Hoshiarpur</span> comprises an area of 2244 +sq. m.; pop. (1901) 989,782, showing a decrease of 2% in the +decade, compared with an increase of 12% during the previous +decade. It falls into two nearly equal portions of hill and +plain country. Its eastern face consists of the westward slope +of the Solar Singhi Hills; parallel with that ridge, a line of +lower heights belonging to the Siwalik range traverses the +district from south to north, while between the two chains +stretches a valley of uneven width, known as the Jaswan Dun. +Its upper portion is crossed by the Sohan torrent, while the +Sutlej sweeps into its lower end through a break in the hills, +and flows in a southerly direction till it turns the flank of the +central range, and debouches westwards upon the plains. This +western plain consists of alluvial formation, with a general +westerly slope owing to the deposit of silt from the mountain +torrents in the sub-montane tract. The Beas has a fringe of +lowland, open to moderate but not excessive inundations, and +considered very fertile. A considerable area is covered by +government woodlands, under the care of the forest department. +Rice is largely grown, in the marshy flats along the banks of +the Beas. Several religious fairs are held, at Anandpur, Mukerian +and Chintpurni, all of which attract an enormous concourse +of people. The district, owing to its proximity to the hills, +possesses a comparatively cool and humid climate. Cotton +fabrics are manufactured, and sugar, rice and other grains, +tobacco and indigo are among the exports.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page788" id="page788"></a>788</span></p> + +<p>The country around Hoshiarpur formed part of the old Hindu +kingdom of Katoch In Jullundur. The state was eventually +broken up, and the present district was divided between the +rajas of Ditarpur and Jaswan. They retained undisturbed +possession of their territories until 1759, when the rising Sikh +chieftains commenced a series of encroachments upon the hill +tracts. In 1815 the aggressive maharaja, Ranjit Singh, forced +the ruler of Jaswan to resign his territories in exchange for +an estate on feudal tenure; three years later the raja of Ditarpur +met with similar treatment. By the close of the year 1818 the +whole country from the Sutlej to the Beas had come under +the government of Lahore, and after the first Sikh war in 1846 +passed to the British government. The deposed rajas of Ditarpur +and Jaswan received cash pensions from the new rulers, but +expressed bitter disappointment at not being restored to their +former sovereign position. Accordingly the outbreak of the +second Sikh war, in 1848 found the disaffected chieftains ready +for rebellion. They organized a revolt, but the two rajas and +the other ringleaders were captured, and their estates confiscated.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HOSIERY,<a name="ar14" id="ar14"></a></span> a term used to designate all manufactured textile +fabrics which in their process of manufacture have been built +on the principle of looping or loop structure. The origin of the +term is obvious, being derived from “hose” or stocking, this +being one of the earliest garments made by the process of +knitting (<i>q.v.</i>). While it still forms one of the staples of the +trade, it is only one of a very numerous and diversified range +of applications of the entire industry. The elastic structure +of knitting makes it very adaptable for all kinds of body or +underwear. There is scarcely a single textile article manufactured +but can be reproduced on the knitting or loop structure principle. +The art of knitting is of very modern origin as compared with +that of weaving. No certain allusion to the art occurs before +the beginning of the 15th century. In an act of parliament +of Henry VII. (1488) knitted woollen caps are mentioned. It +is supposed that the art was first practised in Scotland, and +thence carried into England, and that caps were made by knitting +for some period before the more difficult feat of stocking-making +was attempted. In an act of Edward VI. (1553) “knitte hose, +knitte peticotes, knitte gloves and knitte sleeves” are enumerated, +and the trade of hosiers, among others, included in an act +dated 1563. Spanish silk stockings were worn on rare occasions +by Henry VIII., and the same much-prized articles are also +mentioned in connexion with the wardrobe of Edward VI.</p> + +<p>Knitting, or loop formation by mechanical means, is divided +into two distinct principles—frame-work knitting and warp +knitting. Both principles may be employed in the formation +of a large variety of plain and fancy stitches or a combination +of the two.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p><i>Frame-work Knitting</i> in its simplest form consists of rows of +loops supporting each other—built from one continuous thread of +yarn and running from one side of the fabric to the other and back +(fig. 1). It is on this principle of stitch that the greatest amount +of hosiery is built (hose, shirts, pants).</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:201px; height:242px" src="images/img788a.jpg" alt="" /></td> +<td class="figcenter"><img style="width:213px; height:130px" src="images/img788b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl f90" style="width: 50%"><span class="sc">Fig. 1.</span>—The Stitch or Loop +Structure of Plain Knitting +(back of fabric).</td> +<td class="tcl f90"><span class="sc">Fig. 2.</span>—A Single Thread +formed into a Chain of +Crocket Work, showing the +Loop Structure of the plain +Warp-knitted Fabric. It +is built up as shown in the +diagram by a number of +threads running up the fabric.</td></tr></table> + +<p class="pt2"><i>Warp Knitting</i> in its simplest form consists of rows of loops, but +the number of threads employed are equal to the number of loops +in the width of the fabric. Thus it will be seen that the threads +run lengthwise of the fabric (fig. 2). This principle gives greater +scope for reproducing designs in openwork and colour than that of +frame-work knitting. For this reason it is largely used in the shawl, +glove and fancy hosiery industries.</p> + +<table class="flt" style="float: right; width: 420px;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:373px; height:513px" src="images/img788c.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 3.</span>—Hand Stocking Frame.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:353px; height:225px" src="images/img788d.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 4.</span></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption1"> +<p>A, The leads into which the needles (B) are cast.</p> +<p>D, The old loops or work.</p> +<p>C, The new loops formed and brought under the beards.</p></td></tr></table> + +<p><i>Machinery.</i>—In hand knitting the implements employed (a few +needles or wires) are very simple and inexpensive. In the manufacturing +industry +the most complex +and ingenious +machinery is used. +In 1589 the Rev. +William Lee, a +graduate of St +John’s College, +Cambridge, while +acting as curate (or +vicar) of Calverton, +Nottinghamshire, +introduced his +stocking-frame. +This machine was +the first mechanical +means employed to +produce a looped or +knitted fabric. This +frame or machine of +Lee’s was the origin +of all the hosiery +and lace machines +at present in use. +One of the most +remarkable points +about his invention +was its completeness +and adaptability +for the work +for which its inventor +intended it. The +main principles of +Lee’s frame are embodied +in most of the rotary or power frames of the present day. +Fig. 3 shows a hand frame of the present day.</p> + +<p>In hand knitting an indefinite number of loops are skewered on +a wire or pin, but, in Lee’s frame, an individual hooked or bearded +needle is employed for the support and formation of each loop in +the breadth of the fabric. This needle consists of a shank with a +terminal spring-pointed hook (or beard), the point of which can be +pressed at will into a groove or eye in the shank. For method by +which the loops are formed on the needles of the frame see fig. 4. +This shows a few of Lee’s hooked or bearded needles having the old +loops or work hanging round the needle shanks. The thread of +yarn which is to form the new row of loops is laid over the needle +shanks and waved or looped between each pair of needles. This +waving or looping ensures sufficient yarn being drawn and loops of +a uniform size being made, so that a regular and level fabric will be +produced. The looping or waving is obtained by having thin plates +of shaped metal, called sinkers, which have a nose-shaped point +and hang between +the needles. When +looping they have +an individual +movement downwards +between the +needles, and as +they fall the nose-shaped +point carries +the yarn down, +thus forming the +new loop (fig. 5). +The size of the loop +is regulated by the +distance the sinker +is allowed to fall. +After the thread +of yarn has been +looped between +the needle shanks +by the sinkers, the +loops are brought +forward under the needle beards or hooks. A presser bar is +now brought down to close or press all the points of the needle +beards into the eye in the shank. Thus all the hook ends of the +needles are temporarily closed, with the newly formed loops under +them. While in this position, the old loops hanging round the +shank are brought forward and landed on to the top of the needle +beard and off the needle altogether, being thus left hanging round, +or supported by the loops newly formed. The needle beards are now +released, and the loops drawn back along the shanks to be in position +for next new course of loops. The foregoing is only an outline of +how the loops are formed on the needles. It is not necessary here +to enter into a description of the complex mechanical movements +of Lee’s stocking-frame. The first fabric made by Lee was of a +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page789" id="page789"></a>789</span> +flat, even-selvedged nature, so that garments had to be cut to +shape from the fabric. He soon learned to fashion or shape the +garment at will, during the process of making, by transferring loops +at the edges, inwards to narrow, or outwards to widen. This process +at the present day is known as fashioning, and all garments of the +best make are shaped or fashioned in this manner. After Lee had +practised his new art for a few years at Calverton he removed to +London, but on his receiving no help or encouragement from Queen +Elizabeth or her successor, King James, he was induced to cross over +to France with his frames. There he built up a flourishing industry +at Rouen, under the patronage of the French king, Henry IV. +Through the murder of this monarch he lost his patronage and died +of want about the year 1610. He was buried in an unknown grave +in Paris.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:519px; height:498px" src="images/img789a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 5.—Formation of a Loop on a Hand Frame.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl f90"> +<p>1, Bearded needle cast in the lead. A, Lead; B, Shank; C, Eye; +D, Beard.</p> + +<p>2, The thread is laid over the needles and formed into loops between +the needles by means of the sinkers, those new-formed loops +being brought under the needle beards (as at 3).</p> + +<p>4, The beards pressed or closed to allow the old loops to be passed +on to the top.</p> + +<p>5, The old loops knocked off the needles and left hanging round the +newly formed loops.</p></td></tr></table> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:920px; height:646px" src="images/img789c.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 7.—Eight at once, 130 gauge, full-fashioned, seamless bosom, sloped shoulder underwear frame, +Cotton’s patents. (William Cotton, Ltd., Loughborough.)</td></tr></table> + +<table class="flt" style="float: right; width: 220px;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:163px; height:114px" src="images/img789b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 6.—A 1/1 Rib +Stitch.</td></tr></table> + +<p>A number of improvements had been made on Lee’s frame during +the 18th century. The one of greatest importance was the rib +machine invented by Jedediah Strutt of Belper in 1758. It was +not what could be actually termed an improvement on Lee’s frame, +but an addition to it. Lee’s frame was not altered in any way, +Strutt’s machine being added to it, and the two being worked in +conjunction produced a fabric of a more elastic nature and alike +on both sides (fig. 6). Strutt’s machine consisted of a set of needles +placed at right angles to and between Lee’s +plain needles, with the result that, when +knitting, the frame needles drew their loops +to one side and the machine needles their +loops to the opposite side of the fabric. The +first offshoot from frame-work knitting was +the invention of the hand warp loom in +1775. It was improved by the addition of +the Dawson wheel by William Dawson in +1791. This machine is the origin of the +various complex machines now working on +this principle. Some of these have Jacquard mechanism attached, +and nearly all of them are driven by motive power. About the +middle of the 19th century close on 50,000 of Lee’s hand frames +were in use, finding employment for nearly 100,000 persons. Many +attempts had been made previously to transform Lee’s frame into +a power or rotary frame. One of the first and most successful was +that invented by Luke Barton in 1857. This frame was fitted with +self-acting mechanism for fashioning, and was practically Lee’s +frame having rotary shafts with cams added to give the various +movements, this type of frame being known as straight bar rotary +frames. In 1864 William Cotton of Loughborough altered this +frame by reversing the positions of the needles and sinkers. Although +made by various builders it is still known as the “Cotton Patent +Rotary Frame” (fig. 7). Since 1864 a great number of important +improvements and additions have been made to this frame. Single +frames are built which will turn off one dozen pairs of hose at once, +with the attention of one person. One of the most important +inventions in connexion with the hosiery trade was the latch, tumbler, +or self-acting needle invented by Matthew Townsend and +David Moulding of Leicester in 1858. Previous to this +Lee’s type of needle was the only one in use. This latch-needle +(fig. 8) consists of a stem having a butt at lower +end by which it receives its knitting action from cams, +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page790" id="page790"></a>790</span> +the upper end being turned into a hook. Near the hook end +and attached to the stem by a pin is the spoon-shaped latch, +which closes over the hook as required. Machines fitted with +latch-needles +have grooves in which the stem of the needle works. Cams, +which act on the +needle butts, give +the needles their +individual knitting +action in rotation. +This needle +is self-acting, in +that it is made to +draw its own loop, +sinkers being dispensed +with.</p> + +<table class="flt" style="float: left; width: 410px;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figleft1"><img style="width:362px; height:242px" src="images/img790a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption1"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 8.—Various Shapes of the Latch Needle.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="figleft1"><img style="width:351px; height:264px" src="images/img790b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption1"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 9.—Individual Action of the Latch Needle.</td></tr></table> + +<p>Fig. 9 shows the +looping action of +this needle. The +needles when not +knitting have a +loop round their +shank, thus holding +the latch open. When about to knit, they are raised individually +and in rotation (by the cams acting on the needle butts) to receive +the new loop of yarn.</p> + +<p>Down till almost the middle of the 19th century only a flat web +could be knitted in the machines in use, and for the finishing of +stockings, &c., it was necessary to seam up the selvedges of web +shaped on the frame (fashioned work), or to cut and seam them +from even web (cut work). The introduction of any device by +which seamless garments could be fabricated was obviously a great +desideratum, and it is a singular fact that a machine capable of +doing this was patented in 1816 by Sir Marc I. Brunel. This frame +was the origin of the French-German loop-wheel circular frame of +the present day. Brunel’s frame was greatly improved by Peter +Claussen of Brussels and was shown at an exhibition in Nottingham +in 1845. This frame had horizontal placed needles fixed on a rotating +rim. A few years later Moses Mellor of Nottingham transformed this +type of frame by altering the position of the needles to perpendicular. +This is now known as the English loop-wheel circular frame. After +the invention of the latch-needle there was a revolution in the +hosiery machine-building industry, new types of machines being +invented, fitted to +work with latch-needles. +Among +others there was the +latch-needle circular +frame, invented by +Thomas Thompson, +which was the origin +of the English latch-needle +circular frame, +a frame largely used +for the production +of wide circular +fabric.</p> + +<p>A circular knitting +machine of American +origin is the type of +machine on which is +produced the seamless +hosiery of to-day. +Like the sewing machine it is largely used in the home as well as in +the factory. From this machine all the circular automatic power +machines for making plain and rib seamless hose and half hose +have been developed. The “flat” or “lamb” type of machine, +an American invention, was introduced by J. W. Lamb in 1863. +This machine has two needle beds or rows of needles sloping at an +angle of nearly 90°.</p> + +<p>A great many varieties of this type of machine have been invented +for the production of all kinds of plain and fancy hosiery. It is +built in small sizes to be wrought by hand or in large power machines. +A large variety of sewing, seaming and linking machines are employed +in the hosiery industry for the purpose of putting together +or joining all kinds of hosiery and knitted goods. These machines +have almost entirely superseded the sewing or joining of the garments +by hand.</p> + +<p>The principle centres in Great Britain of the hosiery industry are +Leicester and Nottingham and the surrounding districts. It is also +an industry of some extent in the south of Scotland.</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(T. B.*)</div> + + +<hr class="art" style="clear: both;" /> +<p><span class="bold">HOSIUS<a name="ar15" id="ar15"></a></span>, or <span class="sc">Osius</span> (<i>c.</i> 257-359), bishop of Cordova, was born +about <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 257, probably at Cordova, although from a passage +in Zosimus it has sometimes been conjectured that he was +believed by that writer to be a native of Egypt. Elected to +the see of Cordova before the end of the 3rd century, he narrowly +escaped martyrdom in the persecution of Maximian (303-305). +In 305 or 306 he attended the council of Illiberis or Elvira (his +name appearing second in the list of those present), and upheld +its severe canons concerning such points of discipline as the +treatment of the lapsed and clerical marriages. In 313 he appears +at the court of Constantine, being expressly mentioned by +name in a constitution directed by the emperor to Caecilianus +of Carthage in that year. In 323 he was the bearer and possibly +the writer of Constantine’s letter to Bishop Alexander of Alexandria +and Arius his deacon, bidding them cease disturbing +the peace of the church; and, on the failure of the negotiations +in Egypt, it was doubtless with the active concurrence of Hosius +that the council of Nicaea was convened in 325. He certainly +took part in its proceedings, and was one of the large number +of “confessors” present; that he presided is a very doubtful +assertion, as also that he was the principal author of the Nicene +Creed. Still he powerfully influenced the judgment of the +emperor in favour of the orthodox party. After a period of quiet +life in his own diocese, Hosius presided in 343 at the fruitless +synod of Sardica, which showed itself so hostile to Arianism; +and afterwards he spoke and wrote in favour of Athanasius in +such a way as to bring upon himself a sentence of banishment +to Sirmium (355). From his exile he wrote to Constantius II. +his only extant composition, a letter not unjustly characterized +by the great French historian Sebastian Tillemont as displaying +gravity, dignity, gentleness, wisdom, generosity and in fact +all the qualities of a great soul and a great bishop. Subjected +to continual pressure the old man, who was near his hundredth +year, was weak enough to sign the formula adopted by the +second synod of Sirmium in 357, which involved communion +with the Arians but not the condemnation of Athanasius. He +was then permitted to return to his diocese, where he died in 359.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See S. Tillemont, <i>Mémoires</i>, vii. 300-321 (1700); Hefele, <i>Conciliengeschichte</i>, +vol. i.; H. M. Gwatkin, <i>Studies of Arianism</i> +(Cambridge, 1882, 2nd ed., 1900); A. W. W. Dale, <i>The Synod of +Elvira</i> (London, 1882); and article <i>s.v.</i> in Herzog-Hauck, <i>Realencyklopädie</i> +(3rd ed., 1900), with bibliography.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HOSIUS, STANISLAUS<a name="ar16" id="ar16"></a></span> (1504-1579), Polish cardinal, was +born in Cracow on the 5th of May 1504. He studied law at +Padua and Bologna, and entering the church became in 1549 +bishop of Kulm, in 1551 bishop of Ermland, and in 1561 cardinal. +Hosius had Jesuit sympathies and actively opposed the Protestant +reformation, going so far as to desire a repetition of +the St Bartholomew massacre in Poland. Apart from its being +“the property of the Roman Church,” he regarded the Bible +as having no more worth than the fables of Aesop. Hosius +was not distinguished as a theologian, though he drew up the +<i>Confessio fidei christiana catholica</i> adopted by the synod of +Piotrkow in 1557. He was, however, supreme as a diplomatist +and administrator. Besides carrying through many difficult +negotiations, he founded the lyceum of Braunsberg, which +became the centre of the Roman Catholic mission among +Protestants. He died at Capranica near Rome on the 5th +of August 1579.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>A collected edition of his works was published at Cologne in 1584. +Life by A. Eichhorn (Mainz, 1854), 2 vols.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HOSKINS, JOHN<a name="ar17" id="ar17"></a></span> (d. 1664), English miniature painter, the +uncle of Samuel Cooper, who received his artistic education in +Hoskins’s house. His finest miniatures are at Ham House, +Montagu House, Windsor Castle, Amsterdam and in the Pierpont +Morgan collection. Vertue stated that Hoskins had a son, and +Redgrave added that the son painted a portrait of James II. +in 1686 and was paid £10, 5s, although it is not supported +by any reference in the State Papers. Some contemporary +inscriptions on the miniatures at Ham House record them as +the work of “Old Hoskins,” but the fact of the existence +of a younger artist of the same name is settled by a miniature +in the Pierpont Morgan collection, signed by Hoskins, and +bearing an authentic engraved inscription on its contemporary +frame to the effect that it represents the duke of Berwick at +the age of twenty-nine in 1700. The elder Hoskins was buried +on the 22nd of February 1664, in St Paul’s, Covent Garden, and +as there is no doubt of the authenticity of this miniature or of +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page791" id="page791"></a>791</span> +the signature upon it, it is evident that he had a son who survived +him thirty-six years and whose monogram we find upon this +portrait. The frame of it has also the royal coat of arms debruised, +the batons of a marshal of France, the collar of the +Golden Fleece and the ducal coronet.</p> +<div class="author">(G. C. W.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HOSMER, HARRIET GOODHUE<a name="ar18" id="ar18"></a></span> (1830-1908), American +sculptor, was born at Watertown, Massachussetts, on the 9th +of October 1830. She early showed marked aptitude for modelling, +and studied anatomy with her father, a physician, and +afterwards at the St Louis Medical College. She then studied +in Boston until 1852, when, with her friend Charlotte Cushman, +she went to Rome, where from 1853 to 1860 she was the pupil of +the English sculptor John Gibson. She lived in Rome until a few +years before her death. There she was associated with Nathaniel +Hawthorne, Thorwaldsen, Flaxman, Thackeray, George Eliot and +George Sand; and she was frequently the guest of the Brownings +at Casa Guidi, in Florence. Among her works are “Daphne” +and “Medusa,” ideal heads (1853); “Puck” (1855), a spirited +and graceful conception which she copied for the prince of +Wales, the duke of Hamilton and others; “Oenone” (1855), +her first life-sized figure, now in the St Louis Museum of Fine +Arts; “Beatrice Cenci” (1857), for the Mercantile Library +of St Louis; “Zenobia, Queen of Palmyra, in Chains” (1859), +now in the Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York City; “A +Sleeping Faun” (1867); “A Waking Faun”; a bronze statue +of Thomas H. Benton (1868) for Lafayette Park, St Louis; +bronze gates for the earl of Brownlow’s art gallery at Ashridge +Hall; a Siren fountain for Lady Marian Alford; a fountain for +Central Park, New York City; a monument to Abraham +Lincoln; and, for the Columbian Exposition, Chicago, 1893, +statues of the queen of Naples as the “heroine of Gaëta,” and +of Queen Isabella of Spain. Miss Hosmer died at Watertown, +Mass., on the 21st of February 1908.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HOSPICE<a name="ar19" id="ar19"></a></span> (Lat. <i>hospitium</i>, entertainment, hospitality, inn, +<i>hospes</i>, host), the name usually given to the homes of rest and +refuge kept by religious houses for pilgrims and guests. The +most famous hospices are those of the Great and Little St +Bernard Passes in the Alps.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HOSPITAL<a name="ar20" id="ar20"></a></span> (Lat. <i>hospitalis</i>, the adjective of <i>hospes</i>, host or +guest), a term now in general use for institutions in which +medical treatment is given to the sick or injured. The place +where a guest was received, was in Lat. <i>hospitium</i> (Fr. <i>hospice</i>), +but the terms <i>hospitalis</i> (sc. <i>domus</i>), <i>hospitale</i> (sc. <i>cubiculum</i>) and +<i>hospitalia</i> (sc. <i>cubicula</i>) came into use in the same sense. Hence +were derived on the one hand the Fr. <i>hospital</i>, <i>hôpital</i>, applied +to establishments for temporary occupation by the sick for the +purpose of medical treatment, and <i>hospice</i> to places for permanent +occupation by the poor, infirm, incurable or insane; on the +other, the form <i>hôtel</i>, which became restricted (except in the +ease of <i>hôtel-Dieu</i>) to private or public dwelling-houses for +ordinary occupation. In English, while “hostel” retained the +earlier sense and “hotel” has become confined to that of a +superior inn (<i>q.v.</i>), “hospital” was used both in the sense of a +permanent retreat for the poor infirm or for the insane, and also +for a regular institution for the temporary reception of sick +cases; but modern usage has gradually restricted it mainly to +the latter, other words, such as almshouse and asylum, being +preferred in the former cases.</p> + +<p><i>The Origin of Hospitals.</i>—In spite of contrary opinions the +germ of the hospital system may be seen in pre-Christian times +(see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Charity and Charities</a></span>). Pinel goes so far as to declare +that there were asylums distinctly set apart for the insane in +the temples of Saturn in ancient Egypt. But this is probably +an exaggeration, the real historical facts pointing to the existence +of medical schools in connexion with the temples generally, to +the knowledge that the priests possessed what medical science +existed, and finally to the rite of “Incubation,” which involved +the visit of sick persons to the temple, in the shade of which they +slept, that the god might inform them by dreams of the treatment +they ought to follow. The temples of Saturn are known +to have existed some 4000 years before Christ; and that those +temples were medical schools in their earliest form is beyond +question. The reason why no records of these temples have +survived is due to the fact that they were destroyed in a religious +revolution which swept away the very name of Saturn from the +monuments in the country. Professor Georg Ebers of Leipzig, +whose possession of that important handbook of Egyptian +medicine called the <i>Papyrus Ebers</i> constitutes him an authority, +says the Heliopolis certainly had a clinic united to the temple. +The temples of Dendera, Thebes and Memphis, are other examples. +Those early medical works, the Books of Hermes, were +preserved in the shrines. Patients coming to them paid contributions +to the priests. The most famous temples in Greece for +the cure of disease were those of Aesculapius at Cos and Trikka, +while others at Rhodes, Cnidus, Pergamum and Epidaurus were +less known but frequented. Thus it is clear that both in Egypt +and in Greece the custom of laying the sick in the precincts of +the temples was a national practice.</p> + +<p>Alexandria again was a famous medical centre. Before +describing the European growth of the hospital system in +modern times, to which its development in the Roman Empire +is the natural introduction, it will be well to dispose very briefly +of the facts relating to the hospital system in the East. Harun +al-Rashid (<span class="scs">A.D.</span> 763-809) attached a college to every mosque, +and to that again a hospital. He placed at Bagdad an asylum +for the insane open to all believers; and there was a large number +of public infirmaries for the sick without payment in that city. +Benjamin, the Jewish traveller, notes an efficient scheme for the +reception of the sick in <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 1173, which had long been in existence. +The Buddhists no less than the Mahommedans had their hospitals, +and as early as 260 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> the emperor Asoka founded the many +hospitals of which Hindustan could then boast. The one at +Surat, made famous by travellers, and considered to have been +built under the emperor’s second edict, is still in existence. +These hospitals contained provision so extensive as to be quite +comparable to modern institutions. In China the only records +that remain are those of books of very early date dealing with +the theory of medicine. To return to India, the hospitals of +Asoka were swept away by a revival of Brahmanism, and a +practical hiatus exists between the hospitals he introduced +and those that were refounded by the British ascendancy. +Hadrian’s reign contains the first notice of a military hospital in +Rome. At the beginning of the Christian era we hear of the +existence of open surgeries (of various price and reputation), +the specialization of the medical profession, and the presence +of women practitioners, often as obstetricians. Iatria, or +<i>tabernae-medicae</i>, are described by Galen and Placetus: many +towns built them at their own cost. These iatria attended +almost entirely to out-patients, and the system of medicine +fostered by them continued without much development down +to the middle of the 18th century. It is to be noted that these +out-patients paid reasonable fees. In Christian days no establishments +were founded for the relief of the sick till the time of +Constantine. A law of Justinian referring to various institutions +connected with the church mentions among them the Nosocomia, +which correspond to our idea of hospitals. In <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 370 Basil +had one built for lepers at Caesarea. St Chrysostom founded +a hospital at Constantinople. At Alexandria an order of 600 +Parabolani attended to the sick, being chosen for the purpose +for their experience by the prelate of the city (<span class="scs">A.D.</span> 416). Fabiola, +a rich Roman lady, founded the first hospital at Rome possessed +of a convalescent home in the country. She even became a nurse +herself. St Augustine founded one at his see of Hippo. These +Nosocomia fell indeed almost entirely into the hands of the +church, which supported them by its revenues when necessary +and controlled their administration. Salerno became famous as a +school of medicine; its rosiest days were between <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 1000 and +1050. Frederick II. prescribed the course for students there, +and founded a rival school at Naples. At this period the connexion +between monasteries and hospitals becomes a marked +one. The crusaders also created another bond between the +church and hospital development, as the route they traversed +was marked by such foundations. Lepers were some of the +earliest patients for whom a specialized treatment was recognized, +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page792" id="page792"></a>792</span> +and in 1118 a leprosarium was built in London for isolation +purposes. Russia seems the one country where the interconnexion +of hospital and monastery was not to be observed. +After the period already reached, the 13th century, hospitals +became common enough to demand individual or at any rate +national treatment.</p> + +<p><i>History of the Hospital Movement.</i>—We have now to consider +the principles upon which the provision of the best form of +medical care in hospitals can be secured for all classes of people. +Though hospitals cannot be claimed as a direct result of Christianity, +no doubt it softened the relations between men, and +gradually tended to instil humanitarian views and to make +them popular with the civilized peoples of the world. These +principles, as civilization grew, education improved, and the +tastes and requirements of the common people were developed, +made men and women of many races realize that the treatment +of disease in buildings set apart exclusively for the care of the +sick was, in fact, a necessity in urban districts. The establishment +of a hospital freed the streets of the abuses attendant upon +beggars and other poor creatures, who made their ailments the +chief ground of appeal for alms. As the knowledge of hygiene and +of the doctrine of cleanliness and purity in regard not only to +dwellings and towns, but also in relation to food of all descriptions, +including water, became known and appreciated, hospitals +were found to be of even greater importance, if that is possible, +to the healthy in crowded communities, than to the sick. +It took many centuries before sound hygiene really began to +occupy the position of importance which it is now known to +possess, not only in regard to the treatment and cure of disease, +but to its prevention and eradication. So the history of the +world shows, that, whereas a few of the larger towns in most +countries contained hospitals of sorts, up to and including the +middle ages, it was not until the commencement of the 18th +century that inhabitants of important but relatively small towns +of from 50,000 to 100,000 inhabitants began to provide themselves +with a hospital for the care of the sick. Thus, twenty-three +of the principal English counties appear to have had no general +hospital prior to 1710, while London itself at that date, so +far as the relief of the sick was concerned, was mainly, if not +entirely, dependent upon St Bartholomew’s and St Thomas’s +Hospitals. These facts are interesting to note, because we are +enabled from them to deduce from recent events that hospital +buildings in the past, though the planning of most of them +was faulty to begin with and became more and more faulty as +extensions were added to the original buildings, did in fact +suffice to satisfy the requirements of the medical profession for +nearly two centuries. In other words, under the old condition +of affairs the life of a building devoted to the care of the sick +might be considered as at least 150 years. To-day, under the +conditions which modern science impose upon the management, +probably few hospital buildings are likely to be regarded as +efficient for the purpose of treating the sick for more than from +30 to 50 years.</p> + +<p>The foregoing statement is based upon the history of British +hospitals of importance throughout the country, but the same +remark will apply in practice to hospital buildings almost +everywhere throughout the world. In truth, hospitals have +been more developed and improved in Great Britain than in +other countries, though, since the last quarter of the 19th century, +German scientists especially have added much to the efficiency +of the accommodation for the sick, not only at hospitals but +in private clinics, and many German ideas have been accepted +and copied by other countries. In Great Britain hospitals for +the treatment of general and special diseases are mainly maintained +upon what is known as the voluntary system. On the +European continent, hospitals as a rule are maintained by the +state or municipalities, and this system is so fully developed in +Sweden and elsewhere that a sound economical principle has +been embroidered upon the hospital system, to the great physical +and moral advantage of all classes of the community. The system +referred to confers great benefits upon inhabitants in large towns +by bringing the poor-law and voluntary institutions into more +intimate association, although they may be managed by separate +governing bodies. The plan pursued is to demand payment +from all patients who are admitted to the hospital under a scale +of charges divided into three or four grades. The first grade +pays a substantial sum and obtains anything or everything the +patient may care to have or to pay for, subject to the control +of the medical attendant. The second pays much less, but +a remunerative rate, for all they receive at the hospital; and +the third and fourth classes are very poor people or paupers, +who are paid for on a graduated scale by the poor-law authorities, +or the communal government, or the municipality. Under this +system well-to-do thrifty artisans and improvident paupers are +all treated by one staff, controlled by one administration, and +are located in immediate proximity to each other though in +separate pavilions. We have no doubt, as the result of many +years’ investigation and an accurate knowledge of the working of +the system, that this is the true principle to enforce in providing +adequate medical relief for large urban populations everywhere +throughout the world. It should be accompanied by a system +of government insurance, whereby all classes who desire to be +thrifty may pay a small annual premium in the days of health, +and secure adequate hospital treatment and care when ill. +Provided that pay wings were added to the existing voluntary +and municipal hospitals, it should be found that the relatively +small annual premium of £3 per annum should enable the +policyholders to defray the cost of medical treatment in a pay +ward or at a consultation department of a great hospital as a +matter of business. In the United States of America most large +towns have great hospitals, usually known as city hospitals, +administered and mainly supported by the municipality. Many +such institutions have pay wards, but nowhere, so far as we have +been able to discover, has the system of medical relief in its +entirety been organized as yet upon the business system we have +just referred to.</p> + +<p>As to the relative merits and demerits of the systems of +government of municipal hospitals and voluntary hospitals a +few words may be useful. There can be no doubt that the +voluntary hospital in Great Britain has had a remarkable effect +for good upon all classes in the making of modern England. +The management of these institutions is frequently representative +of all classes of the people, while the voluntary system, as the +Hospital Sunday collections all over the country, and all over the +English-speaking world, prove, has united all creeds in the good +work of caring and providing for the sick and injured members +of each community. Again the voluntary system makes for +efficiency in the administration of all hospitals. Each voluntary +hospital is dependent upon its popularity and efficiency, in +large measure, for the financial support it receives. In this way +an ill-managed voluntary hospital, or one which has ceased to +fulfil any useful public purpose, is sure to disappear in due course +under the voluntary system. Voluntary hospitals are always +open to, as well as supported by, the public, and, owing largely +to the example so prominently set by King Edward VII. and +members of the royal family, more people every year devote +some time in some way to the cause of the hospitals. Attached +to the voluntary hospitals are the principal medical and nursing +schools upon which the public depend for the supply of doctors +and nurses. The education of students and nurses in a clinical +hospital makes that hospital the most desirable place for everybody +when they are really ill. In such a hospital no patient +can be overlooked, no wrong or imperfect diagnosis can long +remain undiscovered and unrectified, and nowhere else have +the patients so continuous a guarantee that the treatment they +receive will be of the best, while the provision made for their +comfort and welfare, owing to the unceasing and ever varying +quality of the criticism to which the work of everybody, from +the senior physician to the humblest official, is subjected in a +clinical hospital, is unequalled anywhere else. At a great +voluntary hospital, not only do hundreds of medical students +and nurses work in the wards, but thousands of people, in the +persons of the patients’ friends, and those members of the public +who take an interest in hospitals, pass through the wards in the +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page793" id="page793"></a>793</span> +course of every year. Again, each voluntary hospital has to live +by competition, a fact which guarantees that everything in the +way of new treatment and scientific development shall in due +course find its proper place within the walls of such an establishment. +Open as they are to the full inspection of everybody +whose knowledge and presence can promote efficiency, the +voluntary hospitals have shown, especially since the last quarter +of the 19th century, a continuous development and improvement. +Here the patients are treated with invariable kindness +and consideration, as human beings rather than cases, to the +great benefit of the whole human family as represented by the +officials, the patients and the students, with their relations and +friends, the honorary medical officers, hundreds of medical +practitioners and nurses, who receive their medical training +in the hospitals, and the ever-increasing number of governors and +supporters by whose contributions voluntary hospitals live. +The great missionary and social value of the voluntary hospitals +to the whole community cannot be questioned, and they have +been of inestimable value to the churches by inculcating the +higher principles of humanity, while removing the many acerbities +which might otherwise prevail between rich and poor in large +cities.</p> + +<p>The voluntary hospitals are attended, however, by certain disadvantages +which do not attach to municipal institutions. A +municipality which undertakes the provision of hospitals for +the entire community is largely able to plan out the urban area, +and to provide that each hospital site selected shall not only be +suitable for the purpose, but that it shall be so chosen as to +contribute to make the whole system of hospital provision easily +accessible to all classes who may require its aid. The voluntary +hospitals, on the contrary, have grown up without any comprehensive +plan of the districts or any real regard to the convenience +or necessities of their poorer inhabitants. Voluntary +hospital sites were almost invariably selected to suit the convenience +of the honorary medical staff and the general convenience +of the hospital economy rather than to save the patients +and their friends long journeys in search of medical aid. The +best of the municipal systems too enables economy to be enforced +in the administration by a plan which provides a central +office in every town where the number of vacant beds in each +hospital is known, so that the average of occupied beds in all +the hospitals can be well maintained from an economical point +of view. This speedy and ready inter-communication between +all hospitals in a great city, which might perfectly well be secured +under the voluntary system if the managers could only be brought +into active co-operation, prevents delay in the admission of urgent +cases, promotes the absence of waste by keeping the average of +beds occupied in each establishment high and uniform, and has +often proved a real gain to the poor by the diminution in cost to +the patients and their friends, who under the best municipal +systems can find a hospital within reasonable distance of their +home in a large city wherever it may be placed. Another +advantage of the municipal system should be that central control +makes for economical administration. Unfortunately a close +study of this question tends to prove that municipal hospitals +for the most part have resulted in a dead monotony of relative +inefficiency, often entailing great extravagance in buildings, and +accompanied by much waste in many directions. Existing +municipal hospital systems are attended by several grave +disadvantages. The administration shows a tendency to lag +and grow sleepy and inert. The absence of competition, and the +freedom from continuous publicity and criticism such as the +voluntary hospitals enjoy, make for inefficiency and indifferent +work. Rate-supported hospitals, as a rule, are administered by +permanent officials who reside in houses usually situated on +the hospital sites, and who are paid salaries which attract the +younger men, who, once appointed, tend to continue in office +for a long period of years. This fixture of tenure is apt to cause +a decline in the general interest in the work of the municipal +hospital, due mainly to the absence of a continuous criticism +from outside, and so the average of efficiency, both in regard to +treatment and other important matters, may become lower +and lower. Those who have habitually inspected great rate-supported +hospitals must have met instances over and over +again where a gentleman who has held office for twenty or thirty +years has frankly stated that his income is fixed, that his habits +have become crystallized, that he finds the work terribly monotonous, +and yet, as he hopes ultimately to retire upon a pension, +he has felt there was no course open to him but to continue in +office, even though he may feel conscientiously that a change +would be good for the patients, for the hospital and for himself. +Under the voluntary system evils of this kind are seldom or +never met with, nor have these latter establishments, within +living memory, ever been so conducted as to exhibit the grave +scandals which have marred the administration of rate-supported +hospitals not only in Great Britain but in other parts of the +world. We believe that the more thoroughly the advantages +and disadvantages of rate-supported and voluntary hospitals for +the care of the sick are weighed and considered, and the more +accurate and full the knowledge which is added to the judgment +upon which a decision can be based, the more certain will it be +that every capable administrator will come to the conclusion +that on the whole it is good for the sick and for the whole community +that these establishments should, at any rate in Great +Britain, be maintained upon the voluntary system. Of course +it is essential to have rate-supported hospitals where cases of +infectious disease and the poorest of the people who are dependent +largely upon the poor-law for their maintenance can be cared for. +It is satisfactory to be able to state that of late years the administration +of both these types of rate-supported hospitals has +greatly improved. The added importance now given all over +the country to medical officers of health, and the disposition +exhibited, both by parliament and government departments, +to make the position of these officers more important and +valuable than ever before, have tended largely to improve the +administrative efficiency of hospitals for infectious diseases. No +doubt the whole community would benefit if residents in every +part of the country could be moved to take a personal interest +in the infectious hospital in their immediate neighbourhood. +Amongst the smaller of these establishments there has been so +marked an inefficiency at times as to cause much avoidable +suffering. The existence of such inefficiency casts a grave +reflection upon the local authorities and others who are responsible +for the evils which undoubtedly exist in various places +at the present time. Unfortunately knowledge has not yet +sufficiently spread to enable the public to overcome its fear and +dread of infectious maladies. It is therefore very difficult to +induce people to take an active interest in one of these hospitals, +but we look forward to the time when, owing to the activity of +the medical officers of health who have immediate charge of +buildings of this kind, this difficulty may be overcome, when the +avoidable dangers and risks and the appalling discomfort which +a poor sufferer from a severe infectious disease in a rural district +may suddenly have to encounter under existing circumstances, +would be rendered impossible.</p> + +<p>The poor-law infirmary in large cities, so far as the buildings +and equipment are concerned, very often leaves little to desire. +Poor-law infirmaries lack, however, the stimulus and the checks +and advantages which impartial criticism continuously applied +brings to a great voluntary hospital. Such disadvantages might +be entirely removed if parliament would decide to throw open +every poor-law infirmary for clinical purposes, and to have connected +with each such establishment a responsible visiting +medical staff, consisting of the best qualified men to be found in +the community which each hospital serves. The old prejudice +against hospital treatment has disappeared, for the least intelligent +members of the population now understand that, when +a citizen is sick, there is no place so good as the wards of a well-administered +hospital. Looking at the question of hospital +provision in Great Britain, and indeed in all countries at the +present time, it may be said, that there is everywhere evidence +of improvement and development upon the right lines, so that +never before in the history of the world has the lot of the sick +man or woman been so relatively fortunate and safe as it is in +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page794" id="page794"></a>794</span> +the present day. Probably it is not too much to say that to-day +hospitals occupy the most important position in the social +economy of nations.</p> + +<p><i>Classification of Hospitals.</i>—Having dealt with hospitals as a +whole it may be well very briefly to classify them in groups, and +explain as tersely as possible what they represent and how far it +may be desirable to eliminate by consolidation or to increase by +disintegration the number of special hospitals.</p> + +<p><i>General Hospitals.</i>—These establishments consist of two kinds, +(<i>a</i>) clinical and (<i>b</i>) non-clinical, each of which, under the +modern system, should include every department of medicine +and surgery, and every appliance and means for the alleviation +of suffering, the healing of wounds, the reduction of fractures, +the removal of mal-formations and foreign growths, the surgical +restoration of damaged and diseased organs and bones, and +everything of every kind which experience and knowledge prove +to be necessary to the rapid cure of disease. The clinical hospital +means an institution to which a medical school is attached, where +technical instruction is given by able and qualified teachers to +medical students and others. A non-clinical hospital is one +which is not attached to a medical school, and where no medical +instruction is organized.</p> + +<p><i>Special Hospitals.</i>—Up to about 1840 the general hospital +was, speaking generally, the only hospital in existence. Twenty +years later, as the population increased and medical science +became more and more active, some of the more ardent members +of the medical profession, especially amongst the younger men, +pressed continuously for opportunities to develop the methods of +treatment in regard to special diseases for which neither accommodation +nor appliances were at that time forthcoming in general +hospitals. In a few cases, where the managers of the great +general hospitals were men of action and initiative special +departments were introduced, and an attempt was made to +make them efficient. The conservative spirit which, on the +whole, represents the British character for the most part, resulted, +however, in a steady resistance being offered by the older +members of the medical staffs and existing committees to the +advocates of special departments. In the result, especially as +such special departments as there were in connexion with general +hospitals were too often starved for want of means and men for +their development and improvement, the younger spirits called +their friends together and began to start special hospitals. +To-day every really efficient clinical general hospital has within +its walls special departments of almost every description, which +have been made as efficient and up-to-date as money and +knowledge can make them. Unfortunately the causes already +referred to led to the establishment of hundreds of the smaller +special hospitals, many of which were started in unsuitable +buildings, and some of which have ever since maintained a +struggling existence. Others, on the contrary, through the +energy of their original promoters and the excellence of the work +they have done, have obtained a position of authority and +reputation which has had a very important bearing for good +upon the development of medical science in the treatment of +disease. If the world had to-day to organize the very best +system of hospital accommodation which could be evolved, +there is no doubt that few or none of the special hospitals would +find any place in that system. As matters stand, however, +the special hospital has had to be accepted, and nothing which +King Edward’s Hospital Fund has done in London has met with +greater popularity and professional approval than the labours +which its council have undertaken in promoting the amalgamation +of the smaller special hospitals of certain kinds, so as to secure +the provision of one really efficient special hospital for each +speciality. No doubt this policy of amalgamation will be steadily +pursued, and in the course of years every great city will gradually +reorganize its hospital methods so as to secure that, whether the +patients are treated in a general hospital or in a special hospital, +the average efficiency in every institution shall be as high and +as good as possible.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>We will take now the special hospitals in detail.</p> + +<p><i>Cancer Hospitals.</i>—The justification for efficient cancer hospitals +must be found in the circumstance that most scientific men of +experience believe that, if adequate resources were placed at the +disposal of the medical profession, the origin of cancer might be +discovered, and so the human race would be freed from one of the +most awful diseases which affect humanity. Pending such a discovery +the experience of the cancer department connected with the +Middlesex Hospital in London proves to demonstration that the +provision of adequate and special accommodation for the exclusive +treatment of cases of cancer is not only desirable but necessary on +humanitarian grounds alone.</p> + +<p><i>Hospitals for Consumption.</i>—For many years it was held that this +group of hospitals was not a necessity, and the patients were treated +in the ordinary medical wards of the general hospitals. Since the +contagious character of tuberculosis became known, and improved +methods of treatment have been developed, every one agrees that +this type of special hospital is desirable, though it is believed by the +more advanced school of scientists that before long it may be happily +rendered obsolete owing to the discovery of methods of treatment +which will stay the disease at its commencement and restore the +patient to health.</p> + +<p><i>Children’s Hospitals.</i>—These hospitals were very much opposed +at the outset. There can be no doubt that the children’s ward or +wards in a big voluntary hospital is a most valuable asset to the +managers, so long as the children are treated in separate wards. +There is no reason of course why a hospital should confine its work +to the treatment of children, exclusively. Still this special hospital +is popular with the public; it has led to many discoveries and +developments in the treatment of children’s diseases; on the whole +the administration of these establishments has been good; and we +believe they will continue to flourish, however many children’s +wards may be provided in general hospitals. Children’s hospitals +with country branches for the treatment of chronic ailments, such +as hip disease, are a valuable addition to the relief of suffering in +cities.</p> + +<p><i>Cottage Hospitals.</i>—These hospitals, established originally in +1859 by Mr Albert Napper at Cranleigh, Surrey, have fulfilled a +most useful function. Many of them are very efficient both in +regard to equipment and treatment. They have become essential +to the well-being and adequate medical care of rural populations, +as they attract to the country some of the best members of the profession, +who are able, with the aid of the cottage hospital, to keep +themselves efficient and up-to-date, so that all classes of the community +are benefited in this way by this type of hospital.</p> + +<p><i>Ear, Throat and Nose Hospitals.</i>—The history of this type of +hospital bears out in every particular the reason we have given +above for the establishment of special hospitals in the first instance. +There can be no doubt that the best conducted throat hospitals +have been beneficial to the poorer inhabitants of great cities.</p> + +<p><i>Fever Hospitals.</i>—Incidentally we have dealt with these institutions, +which are usually supported out of the rates and administered +by the medical officers of health, who are paid by the county or +municipal authorities.</p> + +<p><i>Maternity and Lying-in Hospitals.</i>—This is one of the oldest +types of special hospitals, and has done a great deal of good in its +time. Owing to modern methods of treatment and hygienic developments +the maternity hospital never occupied a stronger position +than it does to-day.</p> + +<p><i>Mental Hospitals.</i>—In Great Britain the insane are provided for +in asylums (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Insanity</a></span>, ad fin.), though such establishments, if +properly conducted, are essentially hospitals. Scientific and public +opinion tend towards the establishment of mental hospitals to +which all acute cases of mental disease should be first relegated for +treatment and diagnosis before they are consigned to a permanent +lunatic hospital. Too little attention on an organized plan has +been given to the continuous study of mental disease in its clinical +and pathological aspects. It is probable, therefore, that the advent +of the mental hospital may lead to important developments in +treatment in many ways.</p> + +<p><i>Ophthalmic Hospitals.</i>—Of all special hospitals this is one which +would probably be the least necessary, providing general hospitals +everywhere were properly equipped and organized. No special +hospital has probably been so abused in the material sense by the +free relief of patients who could well afford to pay for their treatment +at the ophthalmic hospital. Several of the existing ophthalmic +hospitals have entailed an enormous expenditure, and their modern +equipment is wonderfully efficient.</p> + +<p><i>Orthopaedic Hospitals.</i>—It is very doubtful whether this type o£ +hospital is really desirable or necessary. Its necessity may be +advocated on the ground that orthopaedic cases may require prolonged +treatment, and that the pressure upon the beds of general +hospitals by acute cases is nowadays so great as to render the +orthopaedic hospital more necessary than ever before.</p> + +<p><i>Paralysis and Epileptic Hospitals.</i>—Seeing that the percentage +of those who are at present attacked by paralysis and nervous disease +shows a continued tendency to increase under modern conditions of +life in large cities, hospitals of this type are necessary, and London +at any rate, like most foreign towns of importance, possesses, at +present, far too little accommodation for this class of case.</p> + +<p><i>Skin and Photo-Therapy.</i>—Up to the end of the 19th century +hospitals for diseases of the skin were a constant cause of scandal and +criticism. The introduction of modern methods of treatment by +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page795" id="page795"></a>795</span> +light and electricity, including photo-therapy, has given an importance +to this department and treatment which it did not previously +possess. We are of opinion that, on the whole, it is better and +more economical to treat these cases in properly equipped departments +of general hospitals than in separate institutions.</p> + +<p><i>Women’s Hospitals.</i>—These hospitals are not absolutely necessary, +but considering their popularity with the women themselves, and +that several of them have done excellent work, remembering too +that women constitute the majority of the population, there seems +to be some reason for their continuance.</p> +</div> + +<p><i>The Evolution of the Modern Hospital.</i>—The evolution of +the modern hospital affords one of the most marvellous evidences +of the advance of scientific and humanitarian principles which +the world has ever seen. At the outset hospitals were probably +founded by the healthy more for their own comfort than out of +any regard for the sick. Nowadays the healthy, whilst they +realize that the more efficient they can make the hospital, +the more certain, in the human sense, is their own chance of +prolonged life and health, are, as the progress of the League +of Mercy has shown in recent years, genuinely anxious for the +most part to do something as individuals in the days of health +in the cause of the sick. Formerly the hospital was merely +a building or buildings, very often unsuitable for the purposes +to which it was put, where sick and injured people were retained +and more frequently than not died. In other words the hygienic +condition, the methods of treatment and the hospital atmosphere +were all so relatively unsatisfactory as to yield a mortality +in serious cases of 40%. Nowadays, despite, or possibly +because of, the fact that operative interference is the rule rather +than the exception in the treatment of hospital patients, and in +consequence of the introduction of antiseptic and aseptic methods, +the mortality in hospitals is, in all the circumstances, relatively +less, and probably materially less, than it is even amongst +patients who are attended in their own homes. Originally +hospitals were unsystematic, crowded, ill-organized necessities +which wise people refused to enter, if they had any voice in the +matter. At the present time in all large cities, and in crowded +communities in civilized countries, great hospitals have been +erected upon extensive sites which are so planned as to constitute +in fact a village with many hundreds of inhabitants. +This type of modern hospital has common characteristics. +A multitude of separate buildings are dotted over the site, +which may cover 20 acres or upwards. In one such institution, +within an area of 20 acres, there are 6 m. of +drains, 29 m. of water and steam pipes, 3 m. of roof +gutters, 42 m. of electric wires, and 42 separate buildings, +which to all intents and purposes constitute a series of +distinct, isolated hospitals, in no case containing more than +forty-six patients. On the continent of Europe buildings of +this class are usually of one storey; in the United States, +owing to the difficulty of obtaining suitable sites and for +reasons of economy, some competent authorities strenuously +advocate high buildings with many storeys for town hospitals. +In England the majority have two to three storeys each, the +ward unit containing a ward for twenty beds and two +isolation wards for one and two beds respectively. The two +storeys in modern fever hospitals, however, are absolutely +distinct—that is, there is no internal staircase going from one +ward to the others, for each is entered separately from the +outside. This system carries to its extreme limits the principle +of separating the patients as much as possible into small groups; +the acute cases are usually treated in the upper ward, and +as they become convalescent are removed downstairs. In +this way the necessity for an entirely separate convalescent +block is done away with and the patients are kept under the +same charge nurse, an arrangement which promotes necessary +discipline. The unit of these hospitals is the pavilion, not the +ward, and consists of an acute ward, a convalescent ward, +separation wards, nurses’ duty rooms, store-rooms for linen, +an open-air balcony upstairs into which beds can be wheeled +in suitable weather, and a large airing-ground for convalescent +patients directly accessible from the downstairs ward. Each +of the pavilions is raised above the ground level, so that air +can circulate freely underneath. The wall, floor and air spaces +in the scarlet fever wards of one of these hospitals are respectively +12 ft., 156 ft. and 2028 ft. per bed; and in the enteric and +diphtheria wards they have been increased to 15 ft., 195 ft. +and 2535 ft. respectively. The provision of so large a floor +and linear space, especially in the diphtheria wards, is an experiment +the effect of which will be watched with considerable +interest. A building of this type is a splendid example of the +separate pavilion hospital, and is doing great service in the +treatment of fevers wherever it has been introduced. Some +idea of a hospital village, some of the wards of which we have +been describing, may be gathered from the circumstances +that it costs from £300,000 to £400,000, that it usually contains +from 500 to 700 beds, and that the staff numbers from 350 to +500 persons. The medical superintendent lives in a separate +house of his own. The nurses are provided with a home, consisting +of several blocks of buildings under the control of the +matron; the charge nurses usually occupy the main block; +where the dining and general sitting-rooms are placed; the +day assistant-nurses another block; and lastly, by a most +excellent arrangement, the night nurses, 80 to 120 in number, +have one whole block entirely given up to their use. The female +servants have a second home under the control of the housekeeper, +and the male servants occupy a third home under the +supervision of the steward. The two main ideas aimed at are +to disconnect the houses occupied by the staff from the infected +area, and to place the members of each division of the staff +together, but in separate buildings, under their respective heads. +These objects are highly to be commended, as they have important +bearings upon the well-being and discipline of the whole establishment +and constitute a lesson for all who have to do with buildings +where a great number of people are constantly employed.</p> + +<p><i>The Hospital City.</i>—We have shown that the modern hospital +where an adequate site is available under the most favourable +conditions has developed into a hospital village. No one who +is familiar with the existing disadvantages of many of the +sites and their surroundings of town hospitals in many a large +city can have any doubt that, if the well-being of the patients +and the good of the whole community, combined with economical +and administrative reasons, together with the provision of an +adequate system for the instruction and training of medical +students and nurses, are to be the first considerations with +those responsible for the hospitals of the future, the time will +come, and is probably not far distant, when each great urban +community will provide for the whole of its sick by removing +them to a hospital city, which will be situated upon a specially +selected and most salubrious site some distance from the town +itself. The atmosphere of a great city grows less and less suitable +to the rapid and complete recovery of patients who may undergo +the major operations or be suffering from the severe and acute +forms of disease. Asepsis, it is true, has reduced the average +residence in hospital from about 35 to less than 20 days. It +has thereby added quite one million working days each year +to the earning power of the artisan classes in London alone. +Medical opinion is more and more favouring the provision of +convalescent and suburban hospitals, to which patients suffering +from open wounds may be removed from the city hospitals. +This course, which entails much additional expenditure, is +advocated to overcome the difficulty arising from the fact +that, in operation and other cases, the patients cease to continue +to make rapid progress towards recovery after the seventh +or ninth day’s residence in a city hospital. A change of such +cases to the country restores the balance and completes the +recovery with a rapidity often remarkable.</p> + +<p>Thinking out the problem here presented in all its bearings, +realizing the great and ever-increasing cost of sites for hospitals +in great cities, the heavy consequential taxes and charges which +they have to meet there, and all the attendant disadvantages +and drawbacks, the present writer has ventured upon an anticipation +which he hopes may prove intelligent and well-founded. +Nearly every difficulty in regard to the cost of hospitals and +in respect to all the many problems presented by securing +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page796" id="page796"></a>796</span> +the material required, under present systems, for the efficient +training of students and nurses, would be removed by the +erection of the Hospital City, which, he foresees, must ultimately +be recognized by intelligent communities throughout the +civilized world. Why should we not have, on a carefully selected +site well away from the contaminations of the town, and +adequately provided with every requisite demanded from the +site of the most perfect modern hospital which the mind of +man can conceive, a “Hospital City”? Here would be concentrated +all the means for relieving and treating every form +of disease to the abiding comfort of all responsible for their +adequacy and success. At the present time all the traffic and all +the citizens give way to fire engines and the ambulance in the +public streets. Necessarily the means of transit to and from +the “Hospital City,” and its rapidity, would be the most perfect +in the world. So the members of the medical staff, the friends +of the patients, and all who had business in the “Hospital +City,” would find it easier and less exacting in time and energy +to be attached to one of the hospitals located therein than to +one situated in the centre of a big population in a crowded town. +To meet the urgent and accident cases a few receiving houses, +or outpost relief stations, with a couple of wards, would be +situated in various quarters of the working city, where patients +could be temporarily treated, and whence they could be removed +to the “Hospital City” by an efficient motor ambulance service. +The writer can see such a “Hospital City” established, can +realize the comfort it will prove in practice to the medical profession, +to the patients’ friends, to those who have to manage +the hospitals and train the medical and nursing students, and +indeed to all who may go there as well as to the whole community. +The initial cost of hospital buildings should be reduced at +once to a quarter or less of the present outlay. They could +then be built of the cheapest but most suitable material, which +would have many advantages, whilst the actual money forthcoming +from the realization and sale of the existing hospital sites +in many cities would, in all probability, produce a sum which in +the whole might prove adequate, or nearly adequate, or even in +some cases more than adequate, to defray the entire cost of +building the “Hospital City” and of equipping it too. The +cost of administration and working must be everywhere reduced +to a minimum. The hygienic completeness of the whole city, +its buildings and appliances, must expedite recovery to the +maximum extent. In all probability the removal of the sick +from contact with the healthy would tend in practice so to +increase the healthiness of the town population, <i>i.e.</i> of the +workers of the city proper, as to free them from some of the +most burdensome trials which now cripple their resources and +diminish materially the happiness of their lives. Probably +the United States (where a city has sometimes sprung up in +twelve months) may be the home where this idea may first +find its realization in accomplished fact. The writer may +never live to see such a city in actual working or in its entirety, +but he makes bold to believe its adoption will one day solve +the more difficult of the problems involved in providing adequately +for the sick in crowded communities. He has formulated +the idea because it seems desirable to encourage discussion as +to the best method of checking the growing tendency to make +hospital buildings everywhere too costly. If the idea of the +“Hospital City” commends itself to the profession and the +public, the practice of treating all the hospital accommodation +in each city as a whole will gradually increase and spread, +until most of the present pressing difficulties may disappear +altogether. That is a consummation devoutly to be wished.</p> + +<p><i>The Problem of Hospital Administration.</i>—A study of the +hospital problem in various countries, and especially in different +portions of the English-speaking world, convinces the writer +that, apart from local differences, the features presented are +everywhere practically identical. A number of hospitals under +independent administration, dependent in whole or in part +on voluntary contributions, administered under different regulations +originally representing the idiosyncracies of individual +managers for the time being, without any standard of efficiency +or any system of co-operation, which would bring the whole +of the medical establishments of each or all of the great cities +of the world under one administration which the combined +wisdom and experience of hospital managers as a whole might +agree to be the best, must mean in practice a material gain in +every way to each and all of the hospitals and their supporters +on economical, scientific and other grounds. Such an absence of +system throughout the world has everywhere led to overlapping, +to the perpetuation of many abuses, to the admission of an +increasing number of patients whose social position does not +entitle them to claim free medical relief at all, and, often too, +to the admission of patients belonging to a humbler grade of +society who are already provided for by the rates in institutions +which they do not care to enter and who find their way to the +wards of hospitals which were established to provide for patients +of an entirely different social grade. These evils have continued +to grow and increase almost everywhere, despite many and +varied attempts to grapple with and remove them. Amongst +these attempts we may mention the assembling of hospital +conferences, the establishment of special funds and committees, +and the holding of inquiries of various kinds in London and +other British cities and also in the United States. The most +remarkable proof of the impossibility of inducing those responsible +to act together and enforce the necessary reforms is +afforded by the historical fact that the famous Commission on +Hospital Abuse, known as Sir William Fergusson’s Commission, +in 1871, after an exhaustive inquiry, made the following recommendations: +(1) to improve the administration of poor-law +medical relief; (2) to place all free dispensaries under the control +of the poor-law authorities; (3) to establish an adequate system +of provident dispensaries; (4) to curtail the unrestricted system +of gratuitous relief, partly by the selection of cases possessing +special clinical interest and partly by the exclusion of those +who on social grounds are not entitled to gratuitous medical +advice; (5) the payment of the medical staff engaged in both +in- and out-patient work, and the payment of fees by patients +in the pay wards and in the consultation departments of +the voluntary hospitals. Other commissions have since been +appointed, have reported, and have disappeared, with the result +that nothing practical had been done up to 1910 in the way of +reform. Yet it is an undoubted fact that, if the foregoing recommendations +of Sir William Fergusson’s Commission had +been carried out in their entirety at the time they were made, +practically all the abuses from which British hospitals afterwards +suffered would have been removed, and the charitable public +might have been saved several millions of pounds sterling. +It may be well, therefore, briefly to indicate exactly what these +changes amount to, and how they can be made effective at +any time by those responsible for the working of a hospital.</p> + +<p>There is no doubt that all the facts available tend to prove that +the voluntary hospitals are used to an increasing extent by persons +able to make payment or partial payment for the treatment +which they receive. The evidence and statistics demonstrating +these facts may be readily gathered from a study of the Report +(1909) and Evidence of the Royal Commission on the Poor Laws +and Relief of Distress (Lord George Hamilton’s Commission) +and in the authorities mentioned at the end of this article. The +underlying cause of the abuse was that no means existed whereby +persons of moderate income could obtain efficient treatment +and hospital care when ill at a rate which they could afford to +pay. The system, or want of system, whereby medical relief is +granted to practically all applicants by the voluntary hospitals +grew up without any combined attempt to organize it efficiently +or to check abuses. Such a system rests upon a wrong basis, and +the best interests of every class of the population demand its +abolition in favour of one which shall afford the maximum of +justice (1) to the poor, (2) to those who can afford to pay in part +or in whole the cost of their medical treatment and care at a +hospital, (3) to the medical profession, (4) to the subscribers and +supporters of voluntary hospitals, whose gifts should be strictly +applied to the purposes they were intended to serve, and (5) +to the ratepayers, who are entitled to a guarantee that the +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page797" id="page797"></a>797</span> +maximum efficiency is secured by the poor-law system of +medical relief. The remedy is very simple and easy of application. +Every voluntary hospital, while admitting all accidents and +urgent cases needing immediate attention, should institute a +system whereby each applicant would be asked to prove that +he or she was a fit object of charity. The only real attempt +at reform, up to 1909, was the appointment by many of the larger +hospitals of almoners to ascertain whether certain selected +patients were in a position to pay or not. By putting the burden +of proof of eligibility to receive free medical relief upon the +patients and their friends, all abuse of every kind must speedily +cease. There would be no hardship entailed upon the patients by +such a system, as experience has proved, but, to make it effective, +the system of providing for in- and out-patients in Great Britain +requires radical change, for, in existing circumstance, if a +voluntary hospital attempted to enforce this simple method, it +would be met with the difficulty that, where it was found that +a patient or his friends could pay at any rate something, no +department connected with British hospitals existed—as is the +case in regard to hospitals in the United States—enabling such +in-patients to be transferred to accommodation provided in +paying wards. In the same way, directly the out-patients +were dealt with under such a system, it would be made apparent, +where a case could be properly treated, under the poor law, +that no plan of co-operation to secure this was organized under +existing conditions. If the patient, being of a better class, were +suffering from a minor ailment, and could be properly dealt with +at a provident dispensary, the fees of which he could easily +pay, the same absence of co-operation must make it practically +impossible readily to enforce the system. When, again, an out-patient +of the better class was entitled, from the severity of his +ailment, to receive the advantages of a consultation by the +medical staff, no method existed whereby this aid could be +rendered to him, and his transfer afterwards to the care of a +medical practitioner attached to some provident dispensary, +or resident near the patient’s home, could be properly carried +out. It follows that adequate reform required that methods +should be adopted with a view to some part or all the cost of +treatment being provided by the patient or his friends through +an entire reorganization of the system of medical relief not only +at the voluntary hospitals, but under the poor-law system. The +reforms required in regard to voluntary hospitals are that every +large hospital shall have connected with the in-patient department, +in separate buildings, but under the administration of +the managers, pay wards for the reception of those patients who +are able to pay some part or all of the cost of treatment; that, +as regards out-patients, the existing out-patient department +should be abolished; that in substitution for it each hospital +should have a casualty department and a department for +consultation. In the casualty department every applicant +should be seen once, and be there disposed of by being handed on +to the consultation department; if his case was sufficiently +important, he should then be transferred to some provident +or poor-law dispensary, or be referred to a private medical +attendant. It would no doubt take time to overcome the incidental +difficulties which would necessarily arise in effecting +so radical a reform as is here contemplated, but if all voluntary +hospitals adopted the same system, and were to be brought into +active co-operation with provident dispensaries and poor-law +dispensaries and private medical practitioners, the new system +might be successfully introduced and made effective within +twelve months, and probably within six months, from the date +of its commencement. This opinion is based upon the assumption +that the provident dispensaries would be standardized, +and that every one of them would be brought up to a state of the +highest efficiency. In the town of Northampton the Royal +Victoria Dispensary has been worked with the maximum of +success, so far as the patients and the medical practitioners are +concerned. In London and in other large towns like Manchester +and elsewhere the provident dispensary has not succeeded as +it has done in Northampton, because so many members of the +medical profession are not alive to the importance of making +it their first business to provide that every patient connected +with the provident dispensary who attends at the surgery of a +private medical practitioner shall receive at least equal attention +and accommodation to that afforded to every other private +patient, whatever the fee he may pay. In the same way, poor-law +dispensaries must be radically reformed. Everything which +tends to excite a feeling of shame on the part of the patient +attending the poor-law dispensary, such as the printing of the +word “pauper” at the beginning of the space on which the +patient’s name is entered, must be abolished, and the class of +medical service and all the arrangements for the treatment +of the patients, however poor, at the poor-law dispensary, +must be made at least as efficient as those provided by voluntary +hospitals. There undoubtedly is considerable overlapping +between the voluntary hospitals and the poor law in Great +Britain. The Royal Commission on the Poor Laws and Relief +of Distress (1909) deals with this point with a view to set up a +standard of medical relief to be granted by each class and type +of hospitals, provides for adequate co-operation between all +classes of institutions; and these reforms may be commended. +It is too often forgotten that the function of the poor law is the +relief of destitution, while it should be the object and duty of +each voluntary hospital and indeed of all hospitals other than +poor-law institutions to apply their resources entirely to the +prevention of destitution, by stepping in to grant free medical +relief to the provident and thrifty when, through no fault of +their own, they meet with an accident or are overtaken by +disease. An adequate system of co-operation would preserve +the privilege of the voluntary hospitals, which save such patients +from the necessity of requiring the relief which it is the object +of the poor law to supply.</p> + +<p>We have dealt with the relative advantages and disadvantages +of rate-supported hospitals and voluntary hospitals. We +should regard the establishment of a complete state-provided or +rate-provided system of gratuitous medical relief, either for indoor +patients or for out-door patients, or for both, as a grave evil. +Such a system must eventually lead to the extinction of voluntary +hospitals. If this disaster ever happens, it must result in the +gravest evils, for it could not fail to injure the morale of all +classes and tend to harden unnecessarily the relations between +the rich and poor, who, under the voluntary system, have come +to share each other’s sufferings and to be animated by respect and +confidence towards each other.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p><i>Hospital Construction. Locality and Site.</i>—Hospitals are required +for the use of the community in a certain locality, and to be of use +they must be within reach of the centre of population. Formerly +the greater difficulty of locomotion made it necessary that they +should be actually in the midst of towns and cities, and to some +extent this continues to prevail. It is now proved to demonstration +that this is not the best plan. Fresh and pure air being a prime +necessity, as well as a considerable amount of space of actual area in +proportion to population, it would certainly be better to place +hospitals as much in the outskirts as is consistent with considerations +of usefulness and convenience. In short, the best site would be open +fields; but if that be impracticable, a large space, “a sanitary +zone” as it is called by Tollet, should be kept permanently free +between them and surrounding buildings, certainly never less than +double the height of the highest building. In the selection of a site +various factors must be taken into consideration. If the hospital +is to be used as the clinical school of a university or medical college, +then the most suitable ground available within easy reach of the +university or college must be secured. If, on the other hand, the +hospital is not to be used as a teaching school, a site more in the +country should be favoured. In any case ample ground must be +purchased to permit of the wards receiving the maximum of sunlight, +an abundant supply of fresh air, and leave room for possible +future extensions. The site should be self-contained; it should be +in such a position as to prevent the hospital being shadowed by +other buildings in the neighbourhood, and, unless the site is alongside +a public park, it should be entirely surrounded by streets of +from 40 to 60 ft. in width. It is also necessary to secure that adequate +water mains serve the site, and that the system of sewers be +ample for all sewage purposes.</p> + +<p>The difference between the expense of purchase of land in a town +and in the environs is generally considerable, and this is therefore +an additional reason for choosing a suburban locality. Even with +existing hospitals it would be in most cases pecuniarily advantageous +to dispose of the present building and site and retain only a receiving +house in the town. St Thomas’s in London, the Hôtel-Dieu in Paris +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page798" id="page798"></a>798</span> +and the Royal Infirmary in Manchester, are all good examples +where this might have been carried out. In none, however, has this +been done; these hospitals have been rebuilt, at enormous outlay, +in the cities as before, although not exactly in the same locality.</p> + +<p>As regards the actual site itself, where circumstances admit of +choice, a dry gravelly or sandy soil should be selected, in a position +where the ground water is low and but little subject to fluctuations +of level, and where the means of drainage are capable of being +effectually carried out. There should also be a cheerful sunny +aspect and some protection from the coldest winds.</p> + +<p><i>Form of Building.</i>—A form of building must be selected which +answers the following conditions: (<i>a</i>) the freest possible circulation +of air round each ward, with no cul-de-sac or enclosed spaces where +air can stagnate; (<i>b</i>) free play of sunlight upon each ward during +some portion at least of the day; (<i>c</i>) the possibility of isolating any +ward, or group of wards, effectually, in case of infectious disease +breaking out; (<i>d</i>) the possibility of ventilating every ward independently +of any other part of the establishment. Those conditions +can only be fulfilled by one system, viz. a congeries of houses or +pavilions, more or less connected with each other by covered ways, +so as to facilitate convenient and economical administration. The +older plans of huge blocks of buildings, arranged in squares or +rectangles, enclosing spaces without free circulation of air, are +obviously objectionable. Even when arranged in single lines or +crosses they are not desirable, as the wards either communicate +with each other or with common passages or corridors, rendering +separation impossible. On this point it may be remarked that +some of the buildings of the 18th century were more wisely constructed +than many of those in the first half of the 19th century, +and that the older buildings have been from time to time spoilt by +ignorant additions made in later times.</p> + +<p>The question next arises, is it better to have pavilions of two or +more storeys high, or to have single-storeyed huts or cottages +scattered more widely? For the treatment of tuberculosis there +can be no doubt that, for hygienic reasons, the <i>châlet</i> or single-patient +hut is the best for the patients in the acute stages; for +economical reasons the <i>châlet</i> has not been heretofore as popular as +it deserves to be, but if the welfare of the patient is to be the first +consideration there is no doubt that the <i>châlet</i> will ultimately prevail. +It has the merit of being easily adapted to villages and houses +where there is a garden, and in this way poor families may readily +isolate and treat a member affected by tuberculosis at a cost within +their means. For hospital purposes, so long as the system of placing +hospital buildings in densely crowded areas prevails, many-storeyed +buildings for hospital purposes are likely to continue. Should the +proposal to institute a Hospital City ultimately prevail, then it is +probable that the majority of the pavilions will be single-storeyed. +Still some hospital authorities prefer the multiple-storeyed system +for administrative reasons, contending that single-storeyed pavilions +have no special advantages over two or three-storeyed buildings, +whereas the difficulties in administration and service of a hospital +building on the single-storey principle outweigh any argument +against the two- or three-storey building, if it is properly designed +and constructed. We hope that the time is approaching when +architects and those members of the public who have to provide +the money for hospital buildings will insist upon the erection of +simple structures, costing little, so that the whole cost of hospital +buildings may be, as it ought to be, reduced by at least half when +compared with the expenditure of the past.</p> + +<p>The pavilions may be arranged in various ways; they may be +joined at one end by a corridor, or may be divided by a central +corridor at right angles to them. In fact, the plan is very elastic, +and adapts itself to almost any circumstances. A certain distance, +not less than twice the height of the pavilions, ought to be preserved +between them. By this means free circulation of air and +plenty of light are secured, whilst separation or isolation may be at +once accomplished if required.</p> + +<p><i>Foundations, Building Materials, &c.</i>—It is of the first consequence +that a hospital should be dry; therefore the foundation and walls +ought to be constructed so as to prevent the inroads of damp. An +impervious foundation has the further advantage of preventing +emanations from the soil rising up in consequence of the suction +force produced by the higher temperature of the internal atmosphere +of the building itself. There should be free ventilation in the basement, +and the raising of the whole on arches is a good plan, now +generally carried out in hot climates. If the pavilions are two or +more storeys high, it is advisable to use fire-proof material as much +as possible, but single-storeyed huts may be of wood. In any case +effectual means of excluding damp must be employed. The interiors +of wards ought to be rendered as non-absorbent as possible, +by being covered with impervious coatings, such as glazed tiles +(Parian, though much used, is apt to crack), silicate paint, which is +preferable to tiles, or the like. The ceilings ought to be treated in +the same way as the walls. There must be a concrete floor between +each flat, experience showing that if a teak floor is laid hard on the +concrete a very noisy floor is the result, but if the teak is laid on +strips of wood, leaving a small space between the concrete and the +floor, a more silent floor is obtained. For the floors themselves +various materials have been suggested: in France there is a preference +for flags (<i>dalles</i>), but in England wood is more liked; and +indeed hard well-fitting wood, such as teak, oak or American willow, +leaves nothing to be desired. The surface should be waxed and +polished or varnished. Even deal floors can be rendered non-absorbent +by waxing, by impregnating them with solid paraffin +as recommended by Dr Langstaff.</p> + +<p><i>Shape and Arrangement of Wards.</i>—It is now generally agreed that +wards should have windows on at least two opposite sides. Three +main shapes have been proposed: (<i>a</i>) long wards with windows +down each side, and (generally) one at the farther end with balcony; +26 ft. is a good width for a ward of twelve or fourteen beds, but for +larger wards of more than fourteen beds the width should be not less +than 28 ft.; (<i>b</i>) wards nearly square, with windows on three sides; +and (<i>c</i>) circular wards with windows all round. The first (<i>a</i>) is the +form usually adopted in pavilions; (<i>b</i>) is recommended by Dr C. F. +Folsom (<i>Plans for the Johns Hopkins Hospital</i>); and (<i>c</i>) has been +suggested by Mr John Marshall, F.R.S. (<i>Nat. Assoc. for Promotion +of Social Science</i>, 1878). Of these (<i>b</i>) seems the least to be commended, +and (<i>c</i>), now comparatively common, has distinct advantages +in an administrative sense, when the wards are constructed +as to floor space so as to allow the same proportion of superficial +space per bed in a circular ward to that which is contained in a +rectangular ward, as is the case at the Great Northern Central +Hospital, London. Some authorities object to a chimney-stack up +the centre of the circular ward, urging that it prevents the nurses +from having complete supervision over all the beds. In practice +this objection seems to us to have little force, and it can be avoided +by placing the fireplaces at the side of the circular ward, if desirable, +though this adds somewhat to the cost of building.</p> + +<p>Each bed should be a little distance, say from 8 in. to 1 ft. from the +wall, and each bed may be reckoned as 6½ ft. long; this gives 7½ ft. on +each side. Between the ends of the beds about 10 ft. space is necessary, +so that 25 or 26 ft. of total breadth may be taken as a favourable +width. The wards of the Herbert Hospital are 26 ft.; but some +exceed this, as, for instance, St Thomas’s, London, and the New +Royal infirmary, Edinburgh, 28; new Hôtel Dieu, 29; and Lariboisière, +30. There seems no necessity for exceeding 26 for a ward of +twelve or fourteen beds, but if the breadth be greater there ought +to be more window space—the great difficulty being to get a wide +space thoroughly ventilated. There ought to be only two rows of +beds, one down each wall, with a window on each side of each bed.</p> + +<p>For ventilation two things are required—sufficient space and +sufficiently frequent change or renewal of air. As regards space, +this must be considered with reference both to total space and to +lateral or floor space. Unless a minimum of floor space be laid +down, we shall always be in danger of overcrowding, for cubic space +may be supplied vertically with little or no advantage to the occupier. +If we allow a minimum distance of 4 ft. between the beds and 10 ft. +between the ends of the beds, this gives 100 sq. ft. of space per +bed; less than this is undesirable. In severe surgical cases, fever +cases and the like, a much larger space is required; and in the +Edinburgh Infirmary 150 sq. ft. is allowed. Cubic space must be +regulated by the means of ventilation; we can rarely change the +air oftener than three times in an hour, and therefore the space +ought to be at least one-third of the hourly supply. This ought not +to be less than 4000 cubic ft. per bed, even in ordinary cases of sickness—and +the third of that is 1333 cubic ft. of space. With 100 sq. ft. +of floor space a ward of 13½ ft. high would supply this amount, and +there is but little to be gained by raising the ceiling higher,—indeed +12 ft. is practically enough. The experiments of Drs Cowles and +Wood of Boston (see <i>Report of State Board of Health of Massachusetts +for 1879</i>) show that above 12 ft. there is little or no movement in the +air except towards the outlet ventilator; the space above is therefore +of little value as ventilation space. Authorities nowadays, +however, fix 10 ft. 6 in. as the maximum, and any height above this +may be disregarded for purposes of ventilation. Additional height +adds also to the cost of construction, increases the expense of warming, +makes cleaning more difficult, and to some extent hampers +ventilation. Whatever be the height of wards, the windows must +reach to the ceiling, or there must be ventilators in the ceiling or +at the top of the side walls. If this be not arranged for, a mass of +foul air is apt to stagnate near the ceiling, and sooner or later to be +driven down upon the inmates. The reasons for a large and constant +renewal of air are, of course, the immediate removal and dilution of +the organic matter given off by the inmates; as this is greater in +quantity and more offensive and dangerous in sickness than in +health, the change of air in the former case must be greater than in +the latter. Hence in serious cases an amount of air practically +unlimited is desirable—the aim of true ventilation being to approach +as near as possible to the condition of pure external air. Without +going too much into details, a few general rules may be laid down. +(1) Fresh air ought, if possible, to be brought in at the lowest part +of the ward, warmed if necessary; (2) foul air ought to be taken +out at the highest part of the ward; (3) fresh air should reach each +patient without passing over the bed of any other; (4) the vitiated +air should be removed from each patient without passing over the +bed of any other; (5) 4000 cubic ft. of fresh air per head per hour +should be the minimum in ordinary cases of sickness, to be increased +without limit in severer cases; (6) the air should move in no part of +a ward at a greater rate than 1½ ft. per second, except at the point +of entry, where it should not exceed 5 ft. per second, and at the +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page799" id="page799"></a>799</span> +outlet, where the rate may be somewhat higher; about 64 sq. in. +of inlet and outlet sectional area ought to be supplied per head as a +minimum; (7) every opportunity ought to be taken of freely flushing +the wards with air, by means of open windows, when this can be +done with safety.</p> + +<p>Warming is a question of great importance in most climates, +especially in such a climate as that of Great Britain, where every +system of ventilation must involve either the warming of some +portion of the incoming air, or the contriving its delivery without +too great lowering of temperature; at the same time it cannot be +too strongly insisted upon that the tendency is too much in the +direction of allowing warmth to supersede freshness of air. There +are very few cases of disease (if any) that are not more injured by +foul air than by low temperature; and in the zymotic diseases, +such as typhus, enteric fever, smallpox, &c., satisfactory results +have been obtained even in winter weather by almost open-air +treatment. At the same time a reasonable warmth is desirable on +all grounds if it can be obtained without sacrificing purity of atmosphere. +For all practical purposes 60° to 63° F. is quite sufficient, +and surgical and lying-in cases do well in lower temperatures. +Various plans of warming have been recommended, but probably +a combination is the best. It is inadvisable to do away altogether +with radiant heat, although it is not always possible to supply +sufficient warmth with open-air fire-places alone. A portion of the +air may be warmed by being passed over a heating apparatus before +it enters the ward, by having an air-chamber round the fire-place +or stove, or by the use of radiators in the ward itself. In each case, +however, the air must be supplied independently to each ward, so +that no general system of air supply is applicable.</p> + +<p>The lighting of the ward at night will be most conveniently done by +means of electricity in the form of a lamp for each bed, where gas +is used each jet should have a special ventilator to carry off combustion +products, as in the Edinburgh Infirmary.</p> + +<p><i>The Furniture of Wards</i> should be simple, clean and non-absorbent; +the bedsteads of iron, mattresses hair, laid on spring +bottoms without sacking. No curtains should be permitted.</p> + +<p>The water-supply ought to be on the constant system, and plentiful; +50 gallons per head per diem may be taken as a fair minimum +estimate.</p> + +<p>The closets ought to be of the simplest construction, the pans of +earthenware all in one piece, the flushing arrangements simple but +perfect, and the supply of water ample. Each ward should have its +own closets, lavatories, &c., built in small annexes, with a cross-ventilated +vestibule separating them from the ward. All the pipes +should be disconnected from the drains, the closets by intercepting +traps, the sink and waste pipes by being made to pour their contents +over trapped gratings. The soil pipes should be ventilated, and +placed outside the walls, protected as may be necessary from frost. +Each ward should have a movable bath, which can be wheeled to +the patient’s bedside.</p> + +<p>Each ward should have attached to it a small kitchen for any +special cooking that may be required, a room for the physician or +surgeon, and generally a room with one or two separate beds. No +cooking should be done in the wards, nor ought washing, airing or +drying of linen to be allowed there.</p> + +<p><i>Hospital Economics.</i>—There is no doubt that the voluntary +system of hospital government is far more economical than any +system of state or rate-supported hospitals. That the present +condition of the voluntary hospitals in regard to economy is all +that can be wished is not, of course, true. Still, resting as this +system does upon the goodwill of the public for its continuance and +maintenance, it is satisfactory to note that there is a continuous +improvement in system and method, which makes for economy. +It has taken many years to perfect and enforce the uniform system +of hospital accounts, but this system with the co-operation of the +great funds has produced economical results of the first importance. +This system originated at the Queen’s Hospital, Birmingham, in +1869, and was devised by an eminent Birmingham accountant, +William Laundy, and Sir Henry Burdett. It proved so fruitful in +practice that six years later it was introduced at the “Dreadnought” +Seamen’s Hospital, the first London hospital to use it, and was then +adopted spontaneously by a few of the best-administered hospitals +where the managers were keen in enforcing economy. In 1891, +in order to secure for comparative purposes an identical classification +of the items and charges included in the system, a glossary or +index of classification was prepared and published in the <i>Hospital +Annual</i> of that year. This index enabled the same classification of +the many items included in the expenditure of a great institution to +be adopted generally. In the same year a committee of hospital +secretaries, at the instigation of the Metropolitan Hospital Sunday +Fund, revised and elaborated the index of classification, and the +new index was adopted by a general meeting of hospital secretaries +in January 1892. The Council of the Metropolitan Hospital Sunday +Fund approved it, and the Uniform System of Accounts was formulated +by that body for the use of the metropolitan hospitals. +In 1906 the whole of this system was inquired into on behalf of the +King’s Fund by Mr John G. Griffiths, F.C.A., when a committee of +hospital secretaries and representatives of the King’s Fund prepared +a further revision of the system. This was completed in the course +of the year and adopted by the King’s, the Hospital Sunday and the +Hospital Saturday Funds. The publication of a book by Sir Henry +Burdett led to the adoption of the system in several of the British +Colonies, and as a result of the action taken in the British Empire +the Uniform System of Accounts has recently been set up and +adopted by the principal hospitals of the United States of America. +The prince of Wales (George V.) testified to the value of this system in +enforcing control over expenditure, and Sir Henry Burdett adapted +it for the use of the authorities of all charities of every class. It is +probable that no single reform has had a greater influence for good +upon the administration of charitable institutions than the evolution +and enforcement of the uniform system of accounts.</p> + +<p><i>Nursing.</i>—The arrangements for nursing the sick have greatly +improved in recent times, although controversy still goes on as to +the best method of carrying it out. In arranging for the nursing in +a hospital both efficiency and economy have to be considered. No +ward in a general hospital for acute cases should contain more than +24 beds. In hospitals with clinical schools the proportion of nurses +to patients should be about one nurse to every three patients, and +if possible every ward should have a probationer on duty at night in +addition to the night nurse. In all well-conducted hospitals it is +now arranged that the nurses on night duty have a hot meal served +in the general dining-room during the night, and this is only possible +where a nurse and a probationer are allowed for each ward. The +nurses’ quarters should be separate from the hospital proper, and +connected by a conservatory or covered way. Each nurse should +have a separate bedroom, measuring not less than 12 ft. long, 9 ft. +broad and 10 ft. high. A bath should be allowed for every eight +rooms, and the water-closets and sinks should, if possible, be in +sanitary towers cut off from the main block of buildings.</p> + +<p>Circumstances must to a large extent determine the arrangement, +but it seems desirable on the whole that the work of a nurse should +be confined to a single ward at a time if possible. The duties of +nurses ought also to be distinctly confined to attendance on the sick, +and no menial work, such as scrubbing floors and the like, should +be demanded of them; a proper staff of servants ought to be employed +for such purposes. It is also desirable that a separate +pavilion for lodging the nurses should be set apart, and that fair and +reasonable time for rest and recreation should be allowed. Some +discussion has taken place as to the advisability of placing the +nursing of a hospital in the hands of a sisterhood or a separate +corporation. It will, however, be admitted that the best plan is +for the nursing staff of each hospital to be special and under one +head within the establishment itself, even though it may be connected +with some main institution outside. The nursing must, of +course, be carried on in accordance with the directions and treatment +of the physicians and surgeons.</p> + +<p><i>General.</i>—The kitchen, laundry, dispensary and other offices +must be in a separate pavilion or pavilions, away from the wards, +but within convenient access. A separate pavilion for isolation of +infectious cases is desirable. This may be a wooden hut, or in +some cases even a tent; either is probably preferable to a permanent +block of buildings. A disinfecting chamber ought to be +provided where heat can be applied to clothes and bedding, for the +destruction both of vermin and of the germs of disease. It is advisable +to expose all bedding and clothing to its influence after +each occasion of wear. Although this may entail additional expense +from the deterioration of fabric, it is worth the outlay to secure +immunity from disease. This plan is rigidly followed at the Royal +South Hants Infirmary at Southampton. It is of great importance +that the wards should be periodically emptied and kept unoccupied +for not less than one month in each year, and longer if possible. +During such period thorough cleansing and flushing with air could +be carried out, so as to prevent any continuous deposit of organic +matter.</p> + +<p><i>Gate House or Admission Block.</i>—If the efficiency of a hospital +and the regular and smooth working of its departments are to be +secured, the proper management and control of the admission +department is of the greatest importance. When one considers for +a moment the number of applicants of all ages in various stages of +disease, and the number of accident cases of every degree of severity +who present themselves every day seeking admission, it will be +evident that the most careful supervision must be exercised on the +very threshold. It is essential that every precaution be taken against +the admission of an unsuitable case, or the refusal, without careful +examination, of any patient seeking admission. It is only necessary +to instance the case of a patient with delirium tremens being admitted +to a general ward at a late hour, or a case of infectious disease +admitted through an overlook, or a case refused admission and +expiring on the way home, in order to illustrate the danger and +trouble which might arise should the supervision exercised over this +department not be systematic, stringent and thorough.</p> + +<p>To secure this proper control it is necessary that the admission +department should be designed on a definite plan suitable for the +purposes in view. It is not sufficient to utilize any available rooms, +say, in the basement of the building, where patients may be casually +interviewed by a house surgeon or physician. This department +should be as carefully designed and equipped as any other department +of the hospital.</p> + +<p>Within recent years much more attention has been devoted to +the details of construction than was formerly considered necessary, +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page800" id="page800"></a>800</span> +but even in the best type of hospital there is still much to be desired +in this respect. It is essential for an architect in designing any +building to have before him an accurate idea of all the requirements, +and the use to which each foot of space is to be put; for unless he +is furnished with this information it is not possible for him to design +his building so as to give effect to all the details which are so necessary. +The following is an endeavour in a general way to enumerate +the various points which an architect should have before him in +designing the admission department of a general hospital:—</p> + +<p>The admission department should be conveniently placed on the +ground floor of the hospital—or it may be a detached building—with +a large court where ambulance wagons or other vehicles may +easily pass each other on approaching or retiring from the institution. +The entrance to the admission department for patients should, +if possible, be entirely separate and distinct from that for the staff +and students. An additional entrance should be provided for +patients’ friends on visiting days, in order that they may be able +to enter the hospital without passing through the patients’ entrance, +or coming into contact with an accident case or other patient seeking +admission. The main entrance door should be protected by a +covered porch so that patients may be removed from the ambulance +or cab to the examination room without being exposed to the weather +or the gaze of inquisitive onlookers. This door should be sufficiently +wide to allow two hand ambulances or barrows to pass should they +require to be brought out to the ambulance or cab, and to facilitate +this the floor of the entrance hall should be as nearly as possible on +a level with that of the outside porch. Adjoining the entrance +vestibule, lavatory accommodation +should be provided for males and +females who may accompany the +patient. Lavatory accommodation +should also be provided for porters +on duty, and all lavatories should +have a cut-off ventilating passage.</p> + +<p>A recess to store ambulance barrows +should adjoin the entrance, and this +recess must be in proportion to the size +of the hospital, in order that a hand +ambulance may always be available +when an accident or urgent case +arrives. The vestibule should lead into +a large waiting-hall with an inquiry +office at its entrance, provided with a +telephone exchange, private exchange +box, also letter and parcel racks. If +possible a window of the inquiry office +should command a view of the main +entrance. A room should be provided +for the medical officer on duty, so that +a medical officer may be always at +hand and that no delay will occur in +attending to a patient on arrival.</p> + +<p>Leading off from this waiting-hall, well-lit examination rooms +should be available for the thorough examination of patients, both +male and female, the number of rooms, of course, varying with the +size of the hospital and the amount of work to be done. Each of +these rooms should be fitted with a wash-hand basin and sink, and +a plentiful supply of hot and cold water.</p> + +<p>Two rooms, with recovery rooms adjoining, should be fitted up +as small operating-rooms for the treatment of minor casualties. +A special room should also be furnished with an X-ray outfit, and +arrangements should be made whereby this room can be readily +darkened so that suspected fractures, &c. may be examined with +the fluorescent screen.</p> + +<p>Adjoining the admission department two small wards should be +provided for the accommodation of drunk or noisy cases unfit to +be placed in the general wards. To these “emergency wards” +must be attached the usual bathroom and lavatory accommodation, +nurses’ room, ward kitchen and urine-test room or small lavatory. +These wards should have double windows in order to prevent noise +being heard outside if the wards are near other buildings.</p> + +<p>The interior walls of the admission department should, as far as +possible, have a smooth and impervious surface, in order that they +may be easily cleaned. All angles should be avoided and all corners +rounded. Although glazed tiles are open to the criticism that they +have numerous joints, they probably make the most suitable wall +yet devised, as they can be easily washed down at very small cost. +The corridors and waiting-hall should be tiled to a height of 6 ft. +6 in., and the upper walls covered with Parian or Kean’s cement, +and be treated with three coats of flat paint and two coats of enamel, +or, what is equally suitable and less costly, enamellette. The floors +of the passages and corridors throughout the department should be +covered with terrazzo, which is a mixture of Portland cement and +marble chips. A margin of 1 ft. round the rooms should be treated +in this way, and the terrazzo carried up this same distance on the +wall to join the tiles. The remainder of the floors should be covered +with hard wood, such as American maple or teak. As these floors +require to be frequently washed, oak is not so suitable. Oak very +soon becomes destroyed with water; the same trouble is experienced +with pitch pine. The doors should also be made of a hard wood, +preferably teak, and have no mouldings or grooves where dust can +lodge. They should be wide enough to admit an ambulance barrow +or bed with ease. In no case should the doors of an examination +room be less than 3 ft. 6 in. in width.</p> + +<p>As an aid to a complete understanding of the varied work which +has to be provided for, and the most effective method of carrying it +out, the accompanying plans are given of an admission block designed +to embody the +main principles which +govern the construction +of such a department.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:320px; height:272px" src="images/img800a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:737px; height:357px" src="images/img800b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption">Plans of Ground Floor and Basement of a Hospital.</td></tr></table> + +<p>All accidents and +patients seeking admission +to this hospital enter +through the central gateway, +and on the left is +shown the porters’ room, +where a porter is always +in readiness to attend to +any applicant. This +room has suitable accommodation +for parcels, +letters, telephones, &c., +and adjoining it is a +small lavatory for the +use of porters. At the +side of the porters’ room +is the entrance to the central waiting-hall, which is lit from the +roof. On one side of this hall are examination and dressing-rooms +for males, with lavatory accommodation; and on the other side +similar provision for females, with the addition of a nurses’ duty +room. At the end of the central hall are two operating theatres, +with recovery room adjoining each; one theatre for males, and the +other for females. Between these theatres are rooms for sterilizers +and dressings. An X-ray examination room is provided beyond the +male examination room on the right of the hall. In the basement, +under the entrance-hall and operating theatres are two bathrooms +for males and two for females, with W.C.’s for each. The remainder +of the basement is used as a store for patients’ clothes, and a hot-air +chamber is provided for purposes of disinfection. The basement +can be reached by a lift or by a wide staircase which is situated at +the end of the waiting-hall.</p> + +<p>In the above plan provision is made for a sitting-room for the +medical officer on duty. This is a new and essential feature in the +admission block unit of all hospitals in large cities, for it should +secure that no patient is kept waiting for many minutes before being +seen. One of the blots on the management of many hospitals is +that regrettable delays often take place, and much dissatisfaction +and avoidable suffering may arise from this difficulty in the administration +of a general hospital. We have given this plan of a +model gatehouse or admission block for a modern general hospital, +because the block as it stands contains all the elements necessary +for a receiving-house block in cities in connexion with a great +Hospital city situated outside its area, in fulfilment of the suggestion +for a Hospital city made above. Apart from its interest as a new +feature which all new hospitals should adopt, the gatehouse or +admission block has an importance in the wider sense, that it may +come to form the key to the solution of the problem of how best to +provide hospital accommodation for the poor in great cities under +the best hygienic conditions, while protecting them from the misery +and danger of prolonged delay in first treatment, especially in connexion +with accidents and other cases of urgency.</p> + +<p><span class="sc">Bibliography.</span>—Sir H. Burdett, <i>Cottage Hospitals, General, Fever +and Convalescent, their Construction, Management and Work</i> (London, +1877, 1880 and 1896); Tollet, <i>Les Édifices hospitaliers depuis leur</i> +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page801" id="page801"></a>801</span> +<i>origine jusqu’à nos jours</i> (Paris, 1892); Sir H. Burdett, <i>Hospitals +and Asylums of the World</i>, with large portfolio of plans to a uniform +scale (London, 1893) (a supplement is published every year bringing +the information up to date, entitled <i>Burdett’s Hospitals and Charities</i>); +J. S. Billings, <i>The Principles of Ventilation, Heating and their Practical +Application</i> (New York, 1893); Galton, <i>Healthy Hospitals</i> (London, +1893); Tollet, <i>Les Hôpitaux au XIX<span class="sp">e</span> siècle</i> (Paris, 1894); Billings +and Hurd, <i>Suggestions to Hospital and Asylum Visitors</i> (Philadelphia, +1895); Oswald Kuhn, “Hospitals,” <i>Handbuch der Architektur</i>, +4th part, 5th half-volume, part i. (Stuttgart, 1897); <i>Plans for the +Johns Hopkins Hospital</i> (Baltimore, 1875); <i>Report of State Board +of Health for Massachusetts for 1879</i>.</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(H. Bt.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HOSPITIUM<a name="ar21" id="ar21"></a></span> (Gr. <span class="grk" title="xenia, proxenia">ξενία, προξενία</span>), “hospitality,” among the +Greeks and Romans, was of a twofold character: (1) private; +(2) public.</p> + +<p>(1) In Homeric times all strangers without exception were +regarded as being under the protection of Zeus Xenios, the god of +strangers and suppliants. It is doubtful whether, as is commonly +assumed, they were considered as <i>ipso facto</i> enemies; they +were rather guests. Immediately on his arrival, the stranger +was clothed and entertained, and no inquiry was made as to +his name or antecedents until the duties of hospitality had +been fulfilled. When the guest parted from his host he was +often presented with gifts (<span class="grk" title="xenia">ξένια</span>), and sometimes a die +(<span class="grk" title="astragalos">ἀστράγαλος</span>) was broken between them. Each then took a +part, a family connexion was established, and the broken die +served as a symbol of recognition; thus the members of each +family found in the other hosts and protectors in case of need. +Violation of the duties of hospitality was likely to provoke +the wrath of the gods; but it does not appear that anything +beyond this religious sanction existed to guard the +rights of a traveller. Similar customs seem to have existed +among the Italian races. Amongst the Romans, private hospitality, +which had existed from the earliest times, was more +accurately and legally defined than amongst the Greeks, the +tie between host and guest being almost as strong as that +between patron and client. It was of the nature of a contract, +entered into by mutual promise, the clasping of hands, and +exchange of an agreement in writing (<i>tabula hospitalis</i>) or of +a token (<i>tessera</i> or <i>symbolum</i>), and was rendered hereditary +by the division of the tessera. The advantages thus obtained +by the guest were, the right of hospitality when travelling and, +above all, the protection of his host (representing him as his +patron) in a court of law. The contract was sacred and inviolable, +undertaken in the name of Jupiter Hospitalis, and could only +be dissolved by a formal act.</p> + +<p>(2) This private connexion developed into a custom according +to which a state appointed one of the citizens of a foreign state +as its representative (<span class="grk" title="proxenos">πρόξενος</span>) to protect any of its citizens +travelling or resident in his country. Sometimes an individual +came forward voluntarily to perform these duties on behalf of +another state (<span class="grk" title="etheloproxenos">ἐθελοπρόξενος</span>). The proxenus is generally +compared to the modern consul or minister resident. His +duties were to afford hospitality to strangers from the state +whose proxenus he was, to introduce its ambassadors, to procure +them admission to the assembly and seats in the theatre, and +in general to look after the commercial and political interests +of the state by which he had been appointed to his office. Many +cases occur where such an office was hereditary; thus the +family of Callias at Athens were proxeni of the Spartans. We +find the office mentioned in a Corcyraean inscription dating +probably from the 7th century <span class="scs">B.C.</span>, and it continued to grow +more important and frequent throughout Greek history. There +is no proof that any direct emolument was ever attached to +the office, while the expense and trouble entailed by it must +often have been very great. Probably the honours which +it brought with it were sufficient recompense. These consisted +partly in the general respect and esteem paid to a proxenus, +and partly in many more substantial honours conferred by +special decree of the state whose representative he was, such +as freedom from taxation and public burdens, the right of +acquiring property in Attica, admission to the senate and popular +assemblies, and perhaps even full citizenship. Public hospitium +seems also to have existed among the Italian races; but the +circumstances of their history prevented it from becoming so +important as in Greece. Cases, however, occur of the establishment +of public hospitality between two cities (Rome and Caere, +Livy v. 50), and of towns entering into a position of clientship +to some distinguished Roman, who then became patronus of +such a town. Foreigners were frequently granted the right +of public hospitality by the senate down to the end of the republic. +The public hospes had a right to entertainment at the +public expense, admission to sacrifices and games, the right of +buying and selling on his own account, and of bringing an action +at law without the intervention of a Roman patron.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>A full bibliography of the subject will be found in the article in +Daremberg and Saglio, <i>Dictionnaire des antiquités</i>, to which may +be added R. von Jhering, <i>Die Gastfreundschaft im Altertum</i> (1887); +see also Smith’s <i>Dictionary of Greek and Roman Antiquities</i> (3rd ed., +1890).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HOSPODAR,<a name="ar22" id="ar22"></a></span> a term of Slavonic origin, meaning “lord” +(Russ. <i>gospodar</i>). It is a derivative of <i>gospod</i>, “lord,” and +is akin to <i>gosudar</i>, which primarily means “sovereign,” and is +now also used in Russia as a polite form of address, equivalent +to “sir.” The pronunciation as <i>hospodar</i> of a word written +<i>gospodar</i> in all but one of the Slavonic languages which retain +the Cyrillic alphabet is not, as is sometimes alleged, due to the +influence of Little Russian, but to that of Church Slavonic. +In both of these <i>g</i> is frequently pronounced <i>h</i>. In Little Russian +the title <i>hospodar</i> is specially applied to the master of a house +or the head of a family. The rulers of Walachia and Moldavia +were styled <i>hospodars</i> from the 15th century to 1866. At the +end of this period, as the title had been held by many vassals +of Turkey, its retention was considered inconsistent with the +growth of Rumanian independence. It was therefore discarded +in favour of <i>domn</i> (<i>dominus</i>, “lord”), which continued to be +the official princely title up to the proclamation of a Rumanian +kingdom in 1881.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HOST.<a name="ar23" id="ar23"></a></span> (1) (Through the O. Fr. <i>oste</i> or <i>hoste</i>, modern <i>hôte</i>, +from Lat. <i>hospes</i>, a guest or host; <i>hospes</i> being probably from +an original <i>hostipes</i>, one who feeds a stranger or enemy, from +<i>hostis</i> and the root of <i>pascere</i>), one who receives another into +his house and provides him with lodging and entertainment, +especially one who does this in return for payment. The word +is thus transferred, in biology, to an animal or plant upon which +a parasite lives. (2) (From Lat. <i>hostis</i>, a stranger or enemy; +in Med. Latin a military expedition), a very large gathering +of men, armed for war, an army, and so used generally of any +multitude. In biblical use the word is applied to the company +of angels in heaven; or to the sun, moon and stars, the “hosts +of heaven,” and also to translate “Jehovah Sabaoth,” the +Lord God of hosts, the lord of the armies of Israel or of the hosts +of heaven. (3) (From Lat. <i>hostia</i>, a victim or sacrifice), the +sacrifice of Christ’s body and blood in the Eucharist, more +particularly the consecrated wafer used in the service of the +mass in the Roman Church (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Eucharist</a></span>).</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HOSTAGE<a name="ar24" id="ar24"></a></span> (through Fr. <i>ostage</i>, modern <i>otage</i>, from Late +Lat. <i>obsidaticum</i>, the state of being an obses or hostage; Med. +Lat. <i>ostaticum</i>, <i>ostagium</i>), a person handed over by one of two +belligerent parties to the other or seized as security for the +carrying out of an agreement, or as a preventive measure against +certain acts of war. The practice of taking hostages is very +ancient, and has been used constantly in negotiations with +conquered nations, and in cases such as surrenders, armistices +and the like, where the two belligerents depended for its proper +carrying out on each other’s good faith. The Romans were +accustomed to take the sons of tributary princes and educate +them at Rome, thus holding a security for the continued loyalty +of the conquered nation and also instilling a possible future +ruler with ideas of Roman civilization. This practice was also +adopted in the early period of the British occupation of India, +and by France in her relations with the Arab tribes in North +Africa.<a name="fa1b" id="fa1b" href="#ft1b"><span class="sp">1</span></a> The position of a hostage was that of a prisoner of war, +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page802" id="page802"></a>802</span> +to be retained till the negotiations or treaty obligations were +carried out, and liable to punishment (in ancient times), and even +to death, in case of treachery or refusal to fulfil the promises +made. The practice of taking hostages as security for the carrying +out of a treaty between civilized states is now obsolete. The +last occasion was at the treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle in 1748, +when two British peers, Henry Bowes Howard, 11th earl of +Suffolk, and Charles, 9th Baron Cathcart, were sent to France +as hostages for the restitution of Cape Breton to France.</p> + +<p>In modern times the practice may be said to be confined +to two occasions: (1) to secure the payment of enforced contributions +or requisitions in an occupied territory and the +obedience to regulations the occupying army may think fit to +issue; (2) as a precautionary measure, to prevent illegitimate +acts of war or violence by persons not members of the recognized +military forces of the enemy. During the Franco-Prussian War +of 1870, the Germans took as hostages the prominent people +or officials from towns or districts when making requisitions and +also when foraging, and it was a general practice for the mayor +and <i>adjoint</i> of a town which failed to pay a fine imposed upon it +to be seized as “hostages” and retained till the money was paid. +The last case where “hostages” have been taken in modern +warfare has been the subject of much discussion. In 1870 +the Germans found it necessary to take special measures to put +a stop to train-wrecking by parties in occupied territory not +belonging to the recognized armed forces of the enemy, an +illegitimate act of war. Prominent citizens were placed on the +engine of the train “so that it might be understood that in every +accident caused by the hostility of the inhabitants their compatriots +will be the first to suffer.” The measure seems to have +been effective. In 1900 during the Boer War, by a proclamation +issued at Pretoria (June 19th), Lord Roberts adopted the plan +for a similar reason, but shortly afterwards (July 29) it was +abandoned (see <i>The Times’ History of the War in S. Africa</i>, +iv. 402). The Germans also, between the surrender of a town +and its final occupation, took “hostages” as security against +outbreaks of violence by the inhabitants. Most writers on +international law have regarded this method of preventing such +acts of hostility as unjustifiable, on the ground that the persons +taken as hostages are not the persons responsible for the act;<a name="fa2b" id="fa2b" href="#ft2b"><span class="sp">2</span></a> +that, as by the usage of war hostages are to be treated strictly +as prisoners of war, such an exposure to danger is transgressing +the rights of a belligerent; and as useless, for the mere temporary +removal of important citizens till the end of a war cannot be +a deterrent unless their mere removal deprives the combatants +of persons necessary to the continuance of the acts aimed at +(see W. E. Hall, <i>International Law</i>, 1904, pp. 418, 475). On the +other hand it has been urged (L. Oppenheim, <i>International Law</i>, +1905, vol. ii., “War and Neutrality,” pp. 271-273) that the acts, +the prevention of which is aimed at, are not legitimate acts on +the part of the armed forces of the enemy, but illegitimate acts +by private persons, who, if caught, could be quite lawfully +punished, and that a precautionary and preventive measure +is more reasonable than “reprisals.” It may be noticed, +however, that the hostages would suffer should the acts aimed at +be performed by the authorized belligerent forces of the enemy.</p> + +<p>In France, after the revolution of Prairial (June 18, 1799), +the so-called “law of hostages” was passed, to meet the insurrection +in La Vendée. Relatives of <i>émigrés</i> were taken from disturbed +districts and imprisoned, and were liable to execution +at any attempt to escape. Sequestration of their property and +deportation from France followed on the murder of a republican, +four to every such murder, with heavy fines on the whole +body of hostages. The law only resulted in an increase in the +insurrection. Napoleon in 1796 had used similar measures to +deal with the insurrection in Lombardy (<i>Correspondance de +Napoléon I.</i> i. 323, 327, quoted in Hall, <i>International Law</i>).</p> + +<p>In May 1871, at the close of the Paris Commune, took place +the massacre of the so-called hostages. Strictly they were not +“hostages,” for they had not been handed over or seized as +security for the performance of any undertaking or as a preventive +measure, but merely in retaliation for the death of their leaders +E. V. Duval and Gustave Flourens. It was an act of maniacal +despair, on the defeat at Mont Valérien on the 4th of April and +the entry of the army into Paris on the 21st of May. Among the +many victims who were shot in batches the most noticeable were +Monsignor Darboy, archbishop of Paris, the Abbé Deguery, curé +of the Madeleine, and the president of the Court of Cassation, +Louis Bernard Bonjean.</p> + +<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note"> + +<p><a name="ft1b" id="ft1b" href="#fa1b"><span class="fn">1</span></a> The sultan of Bagiemi, in Central Africa, in 1906 sent his nephew +to undergo military training with a squadron of Spahis, and at the +same time to serve as a guarantee of his fidelity to the French +(<i>Bulletin du Comité de l’Afrique française</i>, Oct. 1906).</p> + +<p><a name="ft2b" id="ft2b" href="#fa2b"><span class="fn">2</span></a> Article 50 of the Hague War Regulations lays it down that +“no general penalty, pecuniary or otherwise, can be inflicted on the +population on account of the acts of individuals for which it cannot +be regarded as collectively responsible.” The regulations, however, +do not allude to the practice of taking hostage.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HOSTE, SIR WILLIAM<a name="ar25" id="ar25"></a></span> (1780-1828), British naval captain, +was the son of Dixon Hoste, rector of Godwick and Tittleshill +in Norfolk. He was born on the 26th of August 1780 at Ingoldsthorpe, +and entered the navy in April 1793, under the special care +of Nelson, who had a lively affection for him. He became +lieutenant in 1798, and was appointed commander of the +“Mutine” brig after the battle of the Nile, at which he was present +as lieutenant of the “Theseus.” In 1802 he was promoted post +captain by Lord St Vincent. During all his active career, he +was employed in the Mediterranean and the Adriatic. From +1808 to 1814 he held the command of a detached force of frigates, +and was engaged in operations against the French who held +Dalmatia at the time, and in watching, or, when they came out, +fighting, the ships of the squadron formed at Venice by Napoleon’s +orders. The work was admirably done, and was also lucrative; +and Hoste, although he occasionally complained that his exertions +did not put much money in his pocket, made a fortune of at least +£60,000 by the capture of Italian and Dalmatian merchant +ships. He also made many successful attacks on the French +military posts on shore. His most brilliant feat was performed +on the 13th of March 1811. A Franco-Venetian squadron of six +frigates and five small vessels, under the command of a French +officer named Dubourdieu, assailed Hoste’s small force of four +frigates near the island of Lissa. The French officer imitated +Nelson’s attack at Trafalgar by sailing down on the English +line from windward with his ships in two lines. But the rapid +manœuvring and gunnery of Hoste’s squadron proved how little +virtue there is in any formation in itself. Dubourdieu was killed, +one of the French frigates was driven on shore, and two of the +Venetians were taken. After the action, which attracted a +great deal of attention, Hoste returned to England, but in 1812 +he was back on his station, where he remained till the end of the +war. During the peace he did not again go to sea, and he died +on the 6th of December 1828. He married Lady Harriet Walpole +in April 1817, and left three sons and three daughters.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>In 1833 his widow published his <i>Memoirs and Letters</i>. See also +Marshall, <i>Roy. Nav. Biog.</i> vol. iii., and James, <i>Naval History</i>.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HOSTEL,<a name="ar26" id="ar26"></a></span> the old name for an inn (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Hospital</a></span>, ad init.); +also employed at Oxford and Cambridge to designate the +lodgings which were in ancient times occupied by students +of the university and to a certain extent regulated by the +authorities. In some English public schools what is known +as the “hostel” system provides for an organization of the +lodging accommodation under separate masterships.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HOSTIUS,<a name="ar27" id="ar27"></a></span> Roman epic poet, probably flourished in the 2nd +century <span class="scs">B.C.</span> He was the author of a <i>Bellum Histricum</i> in at +least seven books, of which only a few fragments remain. The +poem is probably intended to celebrate the victory gained in +129 by Gaius Sempronius Tuditanus (consul and himself an +annalist) over the Illyrian Iapydes (Appian, <i>Illyrica</i>, 10; Livy, +<i>epit.</i> 59). Hostius is supposed by some to be the “doctus avus” +alluded to in Propertius (iv. 20. 8), the real name of Propertius’s +Cynthia, according to Apuleius (<i>Apologia</i> x.) and the scholiast +on Juvenal (vi. 7), being Hostia (perhaps Roscia).</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>Fragments in E. Bährens, <i>Fragmenta poetarum Romanorum</i> +(1884); A. Weichert, <i>Poetarum Latinorum reliquiae</i> (1830).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HOSUR,<a name="ar28" id="ar28"></a></span> a town of British India, in the Salem district of +Madras, 24 m. E. of Bangalore. Pop. (1901) 6695. It contains +an old fort, frequently mentioned in the history of the Mysore +wars, and a fine castellated mansion built by a former collector. +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page803" id="page803"></a>803</span> +Close by is the remount depôt, established in 1828, where +Australian horses are acclimatized and trained for artillery +and cavalry use in southern India.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HOTCH-POT,<a name="ar29" id="ar29"></a></span> or <span class="sc">Hotch-potch</span> (from Fr. <i>hocher</i>, to shake; +used as early as 1292 as a law term, and from the 15th century +in cookery for a sort of broth with many ingredients, and so +used figuratively for any heterogeneous mixture), in English law, +the name given to a rule of equity whereby a person, interested +along with others in a common fund, and having already received +something in the same interest, is required to surrender what +has been so acquired into the common fund, on pain of being +excluded from the distribution. “It seemeth,” says Littleton, +“that this word <i>hotch-pot</i> is in English a pudding; for in a +pudding is not commonly put one thing alone, but one thing +with other things together.” The following is an old example +given in Coke on Littleton: “If a man seized of 30 acres +of land in fee hath issue only two daughters, and he gives with +one of them 10 acres in marriage to the man that marries her, +and dies seized of the other 20; now she that is thus married, +to gain her share of the rest of the land, must put her part +given in marriage into hotch-pot; <i>i.e.</i> she must refuse to take +the profits thereof, and cause her land to be so mingled with the +other that an equal division of the whole may be made between +her and her sister, as if none had been given to her; and thus +for her 10 acres she shall have 15, or otherwise the sister will +have the 20.” In the common law this seems to have been +the only instance in which the rule was applied, and the reason +assigned for it is that, inasmuch as daughters succeeding to lands +take together as coparceners and not by primogeniture, the +policy of the law is that the land in such cases should be equally +divided. The law of hotch-pot applies only to lands descending +in fee-simple. The same principle is noticed by Blackstone +as applying in the customs of York and London to personal +property. It is also expressly enacted in the Statute of Distributions +(§ 5) that no child of the intestate, except his heir-at-law, +who shall have any estate in land by the settlement of the +intestate, or who shall be advanced by the intestate in his +lifetime by pecuniary portion equal to the distributive shares +of the other children, shall participate with them in the surplus; +but if the estate so given to such child by way of advancement +be not equivalent to their shares, then such part of the surplus as +will make it equal shall be allotted to him. It has been decided +that this provision applies only to advancements by <i>fathers</i>, on +the ground that the rule was founded on the custom of London, +which never affected a widow’s personal estate. The heir-at-law +is not required to bring any land which he has by descent or +otherwise from the deceased into hotch-pot, but advancements +made to him out of the personal property must be brought +in. The same principle is to be found in the <i>collatio bonorum</i> +of the Roman law: emancipated children, in order to share +the inheritance of their father with the children unemancipated, +were required to bring their property into the common fund. +It is also found in the law of Scotland.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HÔTEL-DE-VILLE,<a name="ar30" id="ar30"></a></span> the town hall of every French municipality. +The most ancient example still in perfect preservation +is that at St-Antonin (Tarn-et-Garonne) dating from the middle +of the 12th century. Other fine town halls are those of Compiègne, +Orléans, Saumur, Beaugency and St Quentin. The +Hôtel de Ville in Paris built in the 16th century was burnt by +the Commune in 1871 and has since been rebuilt on an extended +site, the central portion of the main front being a reproduction +of the old design. There is only one town hall in a French town, +those erected for the mayors of the different arrondissements +in Paris being called <i>mairies</i>.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HÔTEL-DIEU,<a name="ar31" id="ar31"></a></span> the name given to the principal hospital in +any French town. The Hôtel-Dieu in Paris was founded in the +year <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 660, has been extended at various times, and was +entirely rebuilt between 1868-1878. One of the most ancient +in France is at Angers, dating from 1153. The Hôtel-Dieu of +Beaune (Côte-d’Or), founded 1443, is one of the most interesting, +as it retains the picturesque disposition of its courtyard, with +covered galleries on two storeys and large dormer windows; +and the great hall of the Hôtel-Dieu at Tonnerre, Yonne (1338), +nearly 60 ft. wide and over 300 ft. long, is still preserved as part +of the chief hospital of the town.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HOTHAM, SIR JOHN<a name="ar32" id="ar32"></a></span> (d. 1645), English parliamentarian, +belonged to a Yorkshire family, and fought on the continent +of Europe during the early part of the Thirty Years’ War. In +1622 he was made a baronet, and he was member of parliament +for Beverley in the five parliaments between 1625 and 1640, +being sheriff of Yorkshire in 1635. In 1639 he was deprived +by the king of his office of governor of Hull, and joining the +parliamentary party refused to pay ship-money. In January +1642 Hotham was ordered by the parliament to seize Hull, +where there was a large store of munitions of war; this was +at once carried out by his son John. Hotham took command +of Hull and in April 1642 refused to admit Charles I. to the +town. Later he promised his prisoner, Lord Digby, that he +would surrender it to the king, but when Charles appeared +again he refused a second time and drove away the besiegers. +Meanwhile the younger Hotham was taking an active part in +the Civil War in Yorkshire and Lincolnshire, but was soon at +variance with other parliamentary leaders, especially with the +Fairfaxes, and complaints about his conduct and that of his +troops were made by Cromwell and by Colonel Hutchinson. +Soon both the Hothams were corresponding with the earl of +Newcastle, and the younger one was probably ready to betray +Hull; these proceedings became known to the parliament, +and in June 1643 father and son were captured and taken to +London. After a long delay they were tried by court-martial, +were found guilty and were sentenced to death. The younger +Hotham was beheaded on the 2nd of January 1645, and in +spite of efforts made by the House of Lords and the Presbyterians +to save him, the elder suffered the same fate on the following +day. Sir John Hotham had two other sons who were persons +of some note: Charles Hotham (1615-<i>c.</i> 1672), rector of Wigan, +a Cambridge scholar and author of <i>Ad philosophiam Teutonicam +Manuductio</i> (1648); and Durant Hotham (1617-1691), who +wrote a <i>Life of Jacob Boehme</i> (1654).</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HOTHAM, WILLIAM HOTHAM,<a name="ar33" id="ar33"></a></span> 1st Baron (1736-1813), +British Admiral, son of Sir Beaumont Hotham (d. 1771), a +lineal descendant of the above Sir John Hotham, was educated +at Westminster School and at the Royal Naval Academy, +Portsmouth. He entered the navy in 1751, and spent most of his +midshipman’s time in American waters. In 1755 he became +lieutenant in Sir Edward Hawke’s flagship the “St George,” and +he soon received a small command, which led gradually to higher +posts. In the “Syren” (20) he fought a sharp action with the +French “Télémaque” of superior force, and in the “Fortune” +sloop he carried, by boarding, a 26-gun privateer. For this +service he was rewarded with a more powerful ship, and from +1757 onwards commanded various frigates. In 1759 his ship +the “Melampe,” with H.M.S. “Southampton,” fought a spirited +action with two hostile frigates of similar force, one of which +became their prize. The “Melampe” was attached to Keppel’s +squadron in 1761, but was in the main employed in detached +duty and made many captures. In 1776, as a commodore, +Hotham served in North American waters, and he had a great +share in the brilliant action in the Cul de Sac of St Lucia (Dec. +15th, 1778). Here he continued till the spring of 1781, when he +was sent home in charge of a large convoy of merchantmen. +Off Scilly Hotham fell in with a powerful French squadron, +against which he could effect nothing, and many of the merchantmen +went to France as prizes. In 1782 Commodore Hotham +was with Howe at the relief of Gibraltar, and at the time of the +Spanish armament of 1790 he flew his flag as rear-admiral +of the red. Some time later he was made vice-admiral. As +Hood’s second-in-command in the Mediterranean he was engaged +against the French Revolutionary navy, and when his chief +retired to England the command devolved upon him. On March +12th, 1794 he fought an indecisive fleet action, in which the brunt +of the fighting was borne by Captain Horatio Nelson, and some +months later, now a full admiral, he again engaged, this time +under conditions which might have permitted a decisive victory; +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page804" id="page804"></a>804</span> +of this affair Nelson wrote home that it was a “miserable action.” +A little later he returned to England, and in 1797 he was made +a peer of Ireland under the title of Baron Hotham of South +Dalton, near Hull. He died in 1813. Hotham lacked the fiery +energy and genius of a Nelson or a Jervis, but in subordinate +positions he was a brave and capable officer.</p> + +<p>As Hotham died unmarried his barony passed to his brother, +Sir Beaumont Hotham (1737-1814), who became 2nd Baron +Hotham in May 1813. Beaumont, who was a baron of the +exchequer for thirty years, died on the 4th of March 1814, and +was succeeded as 3rd baron by his grandson Beaumont Hotham +(1794-1870), who was present at the battle of Waterloo, being +afterwards a member of parliament for forty-eight years. He died +unmarried in December 1870 and was succeeded by his nephew, +Charles (1836-1872), and then by another nephew, John (1838-1907). +In 1907 his cousin Frederick William (b. 1863) became +the 6th baron.</p> + +<p>Other distinguished members of this family were the 2nd +baron’s son, Sir Henry Hotham (1777-1833), a vice-admiral, who +saw a great deal of service during the Napoleonic wars; and Sir +William Hotham (1772-1848), a nephew of the 1st baron, who +served with Duncan in 1797 off Camperdown and elsewhere.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See Charnock, <i>Biographia navalis</i>, vi. 236.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HOTHO, HEINRICH GUSTAV<a name="ar34" id="ar34"></a></span> (1802-1873), German historian +of art, was born at Berlin in 1802, and died in his native city on +Christmas day 1873. During boyhood he was affected for two +years with blindness consequent on an attack of measles. But +recovering his sight he studied so hard as to take his degree at +Berlin in 1826. A year of travel spent in visiting Paris, London +and the Low Countries determined his vocation. He came home +delighted with the treasures which he had seen, worked laboriously +for a higher examination and passed as “docent” in +aesthetics and art history. In 1829 he was made professor at +the university of Berlin. In 1833 G. F. Waagen accepted him +as assistant in the museum of the Prussian capital; and in 1858 +he was promoted to the directorship of the print-room. During +a long and busy life, in which his time was divided between +literature and official duties, Hotho’s ambition had always been +to master the history of the schools of Germany and the Netherlands. +Accordingly what he published was generally confined +to those countries. In 1842-1843 he gave to the world his account +of German and Flemish painting. From 1853 to 1858 he revised +and published anew a part of this work, which he called “The +school of Hubert van Eyck, with his German precursors and +contemporaries.” His attempt later on to write a history of +Christian painting overtasked his strength, and remained +unfinished. Hotho is important in the history of aesthetics +as having developed Hegel’s theories; but he was deficient in +knowledge of Italian painting.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HOTI-MARDAN,<a name="ar35" id="ar35"></a></span> or <span class="sc">Mardan</span>, a frontier cantonment of British +India in the Peshawar district of the North-West Frontier +Province, situated 15 m. N. of Nowshera. Pop. (1901) 3572. +It is notable as the permanent headquarters of the famous +corps of Guides, and also contains a cavalry brigade belonging +to the 1st division of the northern army.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HOTMAN, FRANÇOIS<a name="ar36" id="ar36"></a></span> (1524-1590), French publicist, eldest +son of Pierre Hotman, was born on the 23rd of August 1524, +at Paris, his family being of Silesian origin. His name is latinized +by himself Hotomanus, by others Hotomannus and Hottomannus. +His father, a zealous Catholic, and a counsellor of +the parlement of Paris, destined him for the law, and sent him +at the age of fifteen to the university of Orleans. He obtained +his doctorate in three years, and became a pleader at Paris. The +arts of the barrister were not to his taste; he turned to the study +of jurisprudence and literature, and in 1546 was appointed +lecturer in Roman Law at the university of Paris. The fortitude +of Anne Dubourg under torture gained his adhesion to the +cause of Reform. Giving up a career on which he had entered +with high repute, he went in 1547 to Lyons, and thence to Geneva +and to Lausanne, where, on the recommendation of Calvin, he +was appointed professor of belles-lettres and history, and +married Claudine Aubelin, a refugee from Orleans. On the +invitation of the magistracy, he lectured at Strassburg on law +in 1555, and became professor in 1556, superseding François +Baudouin, who had been his colleague in Paris. His fame was +such that overtures were made to him by the courts of Prussia +and Hesse, and by Elizabeth of England. Twice he visited +Germany, in 1556 accompanying Calvin to the Diet at Frankfort. +He was entrusted with confidential missions from the Huguenot +leaders to German potentates, carrying at one time credentials +from Catherine de Medici. In 1560 he was one of the principal +instigators of the conspiracy of Amboise; in September of that +year he was with Antoine of Navarre at Nérac. In 1562 he +attached himself to Condé. In 1564 he became professor of civil +law at Valence, retrieving by his success the reputation of its +university. In 1567 he succeeded Cujas in the chair of jurisprudence +at Bourges. Five months later his house and library +were wrecked by a Catholic mob; he fled by Orleans to Paris, +where L’Hôpital made him historiographer to the king. As +agent for the Huguenots, he was sent to Blois to negotiate the +peace of 1568. He returned to Bourges, only to be again driven +away by the outbreak of hostilities. At Sancerre, during its siege, +he composed his <i>Consolatio</i> (published in 1593). The peace of 1570 +restored him to Bourges, whence a third time he fled, in consequence +of the St Bartholomew massacre (1572). In 1573, after +publishing his <i>Franco-Gallia</i>, he left France for ever with his +family, and became professor of Roman law at Geneva. On +the approach of the duke of Savoy he removed to Basel in 1579. +In 1580 he was appointed councillor of state to Henry of Navarre. +The plague sent him in 1582 to Montbéliard; here he lost his wife. +Returning to Geneva in 1584 he developed a kind of scientific +turn, dabbling in alchemy and the research for the philosopher’s +stone. In 1589 he made his final retirement to Basel, where he +died on the 12th of February 1590, leaving two sons and four +daughters; he was buried in the cathedral.</p> + +<p>Hotman was a man of pure life, real piety (as his <i>Consolatio</i> +shows) and warm domestic virtues. His constant removals were +inspired less by fear for himself than by care for his family, and +by a temperament averse to the conditions of warfare, and a +constitutional desire for peace. He did much for 16th-century +jurisprudence, having a critical knowledge of Roman sources, and +a fine Latin style. He broached the idea of a national code of +French law. His works were very numerous, beginning with +his <i>De gradibus cognationis</i> (1546), and including a treatise on +the Eucharist (1566); a treatise (<i>Anti-Tribonien</i>, 1567) to show +that French law could not be based on Justinian; a life of +Coligny (1575); a polemic (<i>Brutum fulmen</i>, 1585) directed +against a bull of Sixtus V., with many other works on law, +history, politics and classical learning. His most important +work, the <i>Franco-Gallia</i> (1573), was in advance of his age, and +found favour neither with Catholics nor with Huguenots in its +day; yet its vogue has been compared to that obtained later by +Rousseau’s <i>Contrat Social</i>. It presented an ideal of Protestant +statesmanship, pleading for a representative government and +an elective monarchy. It served the purpose of the Jesuits in +their pamphlet war against Henry IV.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See Bayle, Dictionnaire; R. Dareste, <i>Essai sur F. Hotman</i> (1850); +E. Grégoire, in <i>Nouvelle Biog. générale</i> (1858).</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(A. Go.*)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HOT SPRINGS,<a name="ar37" id="ar37"></a></span> a city of Arkansas, U.S.A., the county-seat of +Garland county, at the easterly base of the Ozark mountains, +55 m. by rail W.S.W. of Little Rock. Pop. (1880) 3554; (1890) +8086; (1900) 9973, of whom 3102 were of negro descent and +561 were foreign-born; (1910 census) 14,434. The transient +population numbers more than 100,000 annually. Hot Springs +is served by the Chicago, Rock Island & Pacific, the Little Rock +& Hot Springs Western, and the St Louis, Iron Mountain & +Southern railways. The city lies partly in several mountain +ravines and partly on a plateau. A creek, flowing through the +valley but walled over, empties into the Ouachita river several +miles from Hot Springs. The elevation of the surrounding hills +is about 1200 ft. above the sea and 600 above the surrounding +country. The scenery is beautiful, and there is a remarkable +view from a steel tower observatory, 150 ft. high, on the top +of Hot Springs mountain. The climate is delightful. The +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page805" id="page805"></a>805</span> +average rainfall for the year is about 55 in. The springs are +about forty-four in number, rising within an area of 3 acres +on the slope of Hot Springs mountain. They are all included +within a reservation held by the United States government, +which (since 1903) exercises complete jurisdiction. The daily +flow from the springs used is more than 800,000 gallons. Their +temperature varies from 95° to 147° F. The waters are tasteless +and inodorous, and contain calcium and magnesium bicarbonates, +combinations of hydrogen and silicon, and of iodides, bromides +and lithium. The national government maintains at Hot +Springs an army and navy hospital, and a bath-house open +gratuitously to indigent bathers. The business of Hot Springs +consists mainly in caring for its visitors. Fruit-raising and +small gardening characterize its environs. There are sulphur, +lithia and other springs near the city, and an ostrich farm and +an alligator farm in the suburbs. The finest of the novaculite +rocks of central Arkansas are quarried near the city. The total +value of its factory product in 1905 was $597,029, an increase +of 213.1% since 1900.</p> + +<p>The Springs were first used by the itinerant trappers. They +were visited about 1800 by French hunters; and by members +of the Lewis and Clark party in 1804 under instructions from +President Thomas Jefferson. The permanent occupation of the +town site dates only from 1828, though as early as 1807 a +temporary settlement was made. In 1876 Hot Springs was +incorporated as a town, and in 1879 it was chartered as a city. +In 1832 Congress created a reservation, but the right of the +government as against private claimants was definitely settled +only in 1876, by a decision of the United States Supreme Court. +The city was almost destroyed by fire in 1878, and was greatly +improved in the rebuilding.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HOT SPRINGS,<a name="ar38" id="ar38"></a></span> a hamlet and health-resort in Cedar Creek +District, Bath county, Virginia, U.S.A., 25 m. by rail (a branch +of the Chesapeake & Ohio railway) N. by E. of Covington and +near the N.W. border of the state. It lies in a narrow valley, +about 2200-2500 ft. above the sea, with rugged mountains on +either side. Pop. of the district (1900) 1761; (1910) 2472. The +mean summer temperature is only 69° F., and the summer nights +are always cool. There is a good golf-course. Mineral waters +(with magnesia, soda-lithia and alum) issue from several springs, +some at a temperature as high as 106° F., and are used both for +drinking and for bathing. The Warm Sulphur Springs (about +98° F.) are 5 m. N.; Healing Springs (85° F.) are 2½ m. S. of +Hot Springs; and a few miles to the S.E., in Rockbridge county, +are Rockbridge and Jordan Alum Springs.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HOTTENTOTS,<a name="ar39" id="ar39"></a></span> an African people of western Cape Colony and +the adjoining German territory, formerly widely spread throughout +South Africa. The name is that given them by the early +Dutch settlers at the Cape, being a Dutch word of an onomatopoeic +kind to express stammering, in reference to the staccato pronunciation +and clicks of the native language. Some early writers +termed them Hodmadods or Hodmandods, and others Hot-nots +and Ottentots—all corruptions of the same word. Their name +for themselves was Khoi-Khoin (men of men), or Quae Quae, +Kwekhena, t’Kuhkeub, the forms varying according to the +several dialects. Early authorities believed them to be totally +distinct from all other African races. The researches of Gustav +Fritsch, Dr E. T. Hamy, F. Shrubsall and others have demonstrated, +however, that they are not so much a distinct or independent +variety of mankind as the result of a very old cross +between two other varieties—the Bantu Negro (containing +a distinct Hamitic element) and the Bushman. Hamy calls them +simply “Bushman-Bantu half-breeds,” the Bushman element +being seen in the leathery colour, compared to that of the “sere +and yellow leaf”; in the remarkably prominent cheekbones +and pointed chin, giving the face a peculiarly triangular shape; +and lastly, in such highly specialized characters as the <i>tablier</i> +and the <i>steatopygia</i> of the women. The cranial capacity is also +nearly the same (1331 c.c. in the Bushman, 1365 c.c. in the +Hottentot), and on these anatomical grounds Shrubsall concludes +that the two are essentially one race, allowing for the undeniable +strain of Bantu blood in the Hottentot. This view is further +strengthened by the vast range in prehistoric times of the +Hottentot variety, which, since the time of Martin H. K. Lichtenstein +(1800-1804), was known to have comprised the whole of +Africa south of the Zambezi, and has since been extended as +far north as the equatorial lake region.</p> + +<p>Fritsch divides the Hottentots into three bodies; the Cape +Hottentots, from the Cape peninsula eastward to Kaffraria, +the Koranna, chiefly on the right bank of the Orange river, but +also found on the Harts and the Vaal, and the Namaqua in the +western portion of South Africa. Of these all save the last +mentioned have ceased to exist in any racial purity. The name +which the Namaqua give to themselves is <i>Khoi-Khoin</i>, and this +name must be distinguished from that of the Berg-Damara or +<i>Hau-Khoin</i>, since the latter are physically of Bantu origin +though they have borrowed their speech from the Hottentots. +While the Namaqua preserve the racial type and speech, the +other so-called Hottentots are more or less Hottentot-Dutch +or Hottentot-Bantu half-breeds, mainly of debased Dutch +speech, although the Koranna still here and there speak a +moribund Hottentot jargon flooded with Dutch and English +words and expressions. When the Cape Colony became a part +of the British empire the protection given to the natives +arrested the process of extermination with which the Hottentots +were then threatened, but it did not promote racial purity. +Sir John Barrow, describing the condition of the Hottentots in +1798, estimated their number at about 15,000 souls. In 1806 +the official return gave a Hottentot population of 9784 males +and 10,642 females. In 1824 they had increased to 31,000. +At the census of 1865 they numbered 81,589, but by this time +the official classification “Hottentot” signified little more +than a half-breed. The returns for 1904 showed a “Hottentot” +population of 85,892. Very few of these were pure-bred Hottentots, +while the official estimate of those in which Hottentot blood +was strongly marked was 56,000.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p><i>Customs and Culture.</i>—The primitive character of the race having +greatly changed, the best information as to their original manners +and customs is therefore to be found in the older writers. All these +agree in describing the Hottentots as a gentle and friendly people. +They held in contempt the man who could eat, drink or smoke alone. +They were hospitable to strangers, even to the point of impoverishing +themselves. Although mentally and physically indolent, they were +active in the care of their cattle and, within certain limits, clever +hunters. They were of a medium height, the females rather smaller +than the men, slender but well proportioned, with small hands and +feet. Their skin was of a leathery brown colour; their face oval, +with prominent cheekbones; eyes dark brown or black and wide +apart; nose broad and thick and flat at the root; chin pointed +and mouth large, with thick turned-out lips. Their woolly hair grew +in short thick curly tufts and the beard was very scanty. Amongst +the women abnormal developments of fat were somewhat common; +and cases occurred of extraordinary elongation of the <i>labia minora</i> +and of the <i>praeputium clitoridis</i>.<a name="fa1c" id="fa1c" href="#ft1c"><span class="sp">1</span></a></p> + +<p>Their dress was a skin cloak (kaross) worn across the shoulders +and a smaller one across the loins. They wore these cloaks all the +year round, turning the hairy side inward in winter and outward in +summer; they slept in them at night, and when they died they were +buried in them. They had suspended around their necks little bags +or pouches, containing their knives, their pipes and tobacco or +dakka (<i>Cannabis</i>, or hemp), and an amulet of burnt wood. On their +arms were rings of ivory. Sometimes they wore sandals and carried +a jackal’s tail fastened on a stick, which served as handkerchief +and fan. The women wore, besides the kaross, a little apron to +which were hung their ornaments; and underneath this one or +two fringed girdles; and a skin cap. Both sexes smeared themselves +and even their dress with an ointment made of soot, butter or fat, +and the powdered leaves of a shrub called by them <i>bucchu</i> (<i>Diosma +crenata</i>).</p> + +<p>Their villages were usually on meadow grounds. They never +entirely exhausted the grass but kept moving from one pasture to +another. The huts were in circles, the area of which varied with +the pastoral wealth of the community. In the centre of the huts +a hole served for a fire-place, and at each side of this small excavations +an inch or two deep were made in the ground in which both sexes, +rolled up in their karosses, slept. A few earthen vessels, well-made +bowls of wood, tortoise shells for spoons and dishes, calabashes, +bamboos and skins for holding milk and butter, and mats of rushes +interwoven with bast, were all their furniture. Their weapons +were primarily bows and arrows, but they also possessed assegais, +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page806" id="page806"></a>806</span> +and knob-kerries. To women much respect was shown; the most +sacred oath a Hottentot could take was to swear by his sister or +mother; yet the females ate apart from the men and did all the +work of the kraal with the exception of the tending of cattle and of +the curing of the hides; the men, however, assisted in the erection of +the framework of the huts. The usual food of the Hottentots was +milk, the flesh of the buffalo, hippopotamus, antelope or other +game, and edible roots and bulbs or wild fruits. On the coast fish +captured by hooks and lines or spears were also eaten. Cows’ milk +was commonly drunk by both sexes, but ewes’ milk only by the +women, and when cows’ milk was scarce the women were obliged to +keep to ewes’ milk or water. Milk was drunk fresh, and not allowed +to turn sour as among the Bantu. Meats were eaten either roasted +or boiled, but for the most part half raw, without salt, spices or +bread. From some meats they carefully abstained, such as swine’s +flesh. Hares and rabbits were forbidden to the men, but not to the +women; the pure blood of beasts and the flesh of the mole were +forbidden to the women, but not to the men.</p> + +<p>In occupation they were essentially cattle-breeders, and showed +great skill in this pursuit, especially the Namaqua, who were capable +of training the horns of their cattle so that they grew in spirals. +Their social pleasures consisted in feasting, smoking, dancing and +singing. Dances were held every first quarter of the moon and +lasted all night, often for eight days in succession. Every signal +event of life, and every change of abode and condition was celebrated +with a feast. On the formation of a new kraal an arbour was constructed +in the centre, and the women and children adorned and +perfumed it with flowers and branches of trees and odoriferous herbs. +The fattened ox was killed and cooked, and the men ate of it in the +arbour, while the women sitting apart regaled themselves with broth. +Upon such occasions the only intoxicant was tobacco or dakka.</p> + +<p>Circumcision, which is common to the Kaffir tribes, was unknown +to the Hottentots, but when a youth entered upon manhood a +ceremony was performed. One of the elders, using a knife of quartz, +made incisions in the young man’s body, afterwards besprinkling +them with urine. When a man killed his first elephant, hippopotamus +or rhinoceros, similar marks were made on his body, and +were regarded as insignia of honour. Finger mutilation was common, +especially among women; this consisted in the removal of one or +two joints of the little finger, and, sometimes, the first joint of the +next. The reason for this is doubtful; it may have been a sign of +mourning, or, especially in the case of children, it may have been +regarded as magically protective. Marriages were by arrangement +between the man and the girl’s parents, the consent of the girl +herself being a matter of little consideration. If accepted, the suitor, +accompanied by all his kindred, drove two or three fat oxen to the +house of his bride. There her relations welcomed the visitors; +the oxen were slain, and the bridal feast took place. The nuptial +ceremony was concluded by an elder besprinkling the happy pair. +Among the southern Hottentots these ancient usages have ceased; +but they are continued among some tribes north of the Orange +river. Polygamy was allowed: divorce was common. Family +names were perpetuated in a peculiar manner—the sons took the +family name of the mother, the daughters that of the father. The +children were very respectful to their parents, by whom they were +kindly and affectionately treated. Yet the aged father or mother +was sometimes put in the bush and left to die. Namaqua says this +was done by very poor people if they had no food for their parents. +But even when there was food enough, aged persons, especially +women, who were believed to be possessed of the evil spirit, were so +treated.</p> + +<p>The Hottentots had few musical instruments. One named the +“gorah” was formed by stretching a piece of the twisted entrails +of a sheep from end to end of a thin hollow stick about 3 ft. in length +in the manner of a bow and string. At one end there was a piece +of quill fixed into the stick, to which the mouth of the player was +applied. The “rommel-pot” was a kind of drum shaped like a +bowl and containing water to keep the membrane moist. Reeds +several feet long were used as flutes.</p> + +<p><i>Government and Laws.</i>—The system of government was patriarchal. +Each tribe had its hereditary “khu-khoi” or “gao-ao” or chief, +and each kraal its captain. These met in council whenever any great +matters had to be decided. The post was honorary, and the councillors +were held in great reverence, and were installed in office +with solemnities and feasting. In certain tribes the hind part of +every bullock slaughtered was sent to the chief, and this he distributed +among the males of the village. He also collected sufficient +milk at the door of his hut to deal out amongst the poor. A part of +every animal taken in hunting was exacted by the chief, even +though it was in a state of putrefaction when brought to him. +The captains, assisted by the men of each kraal, settled disputes +regarding property and tried criminals. A murderer was beaten or +stoned to death; but if one escaped and was at large for a whole +year, he was allowed to go unpunished. Adultery seldom occurred; +if any one found parties in the act and killed them he was no +murderer, but on the contrary received praise for his deed. Women +found offending were burnt. Theft, especially cattle-stealing, was +severely punished. The thief was bound hand and foot, and left +on the ground without food for a long time; then, if his offence +was slight, he received some blows with a stick, but if the case was +an aggravated one, he was severely beaten, and then unloosed and +banished from the kraal. The family of even the worst criminal +suffered nothing on his account in reputation, privilege or property. +The duel was an institution. If any one was insulted he challenged +his enemy by offering him a handful of earth. If the latter seized +the hand and the dust fell to the ground, the challenge was accepted. +If it was not accepted, the challenger threw the dust in his foe’s +face. The duel took place by kicking, with clubs, or with the spear +and shield.</p> + +<p><i>Religious Ideas.</i>—The religious ideas of the Hottentots were very +obscure. François le Vaillant says they had “neither priests nor +temples, nor idols, nor ceremonials, nor any traces of the notion of +a deity.” Other authorities state that they believed in a benevolent +deity or “Great Captain,” whom they named Tik-guoa (<i>Tsu-goab</i>). +There were other “captains” of less power, and a black captain +named Gauna, the spirit of evil. The moon was a secondary divinity, +supposed to govern the weather; and its appearance each month +was hailed with dancing and singing.<a name="fa2c" id="fa2c" href="#ft2c"><span class="sp">2</span></a> George Schmidt, the first +missionary to the Hottentots, says they also celebrated the annual +appearance of the Pleiades above the eastern horizon. As soon as +the constellation appeared, all the mothers ascended the nearest +hill, carrying their babies, whom they taught to stretch their arms +towards the friendly stars. Some of the tribes are said to worship +a being whom they name Tusib, the rain god. An old Namaqua was +once heard to say “The stars are the souls of the deceased,” and a +Hottentot form of imprecation is “Thou happy one, may misfortune +fall on thee from the star of my grandfather.”</p> + +<p>Such as it was, the Hottentot religion was largely ancestor-worship. +Their deified hero was named <i>Heitsi-Eibib</i>; and of him endless +stories are told. The one most generally accepted is that he was a +notable warrior of great physical strength, who once ruled the +Khoi-Khoin, and that in a desperate struggle with one of his enemies, +whom he finally overcame, he received a wound in the knee, from +which event he got the name of “Wounded knee.” He had extraordinary +powers during life, and after death he continued to be +invoked as one who could still relieve and protect. According to +the tradition preserved among the Namaqua, Heitsi-Eibib came +from the east. Therefore they make the doors of their huts towards +the east, and those who possess waggons and carts put their vehicles +alongside the mat-house with the front turned towards the east. +All the graves are in true west-easterly direction, so that the face of +the deceased looks towards the east. The spirit of Heitsi-Eibib is +supposed to exist in the old burial places, and, whenever a heathen +Hottentot passes them, he throws stones on the spot as an offering, +at the same time invoking the spirit’s blessing and protection. +Johann Georg von Hahn asserts that there are many proofs which +justify the conclusion that Heitsi-Eibib and Tsu-goab (the supreme +being) were identical. Both were benevolent. Both were believed +to have died and risen again. They killed the bad beings and +restored peace on earth; they promised men immortality, understood +the secrets of nature, and could foretell the future.<a name="fa3c" id="fa3c" href="#ft3c"><span class="sp">3</span></a></p> + +<p>Various ceremonies were practised to ward off the evil influence of +ghosts and spectres, and charms were freely employed. If a Khoi-Khoi +went out hunting his wife kindled a fire, and assiduously +watched by it to keep it alive; if the fire should be extinguished her +husband would not be lucky. If she did not make a fire, she went +to the water and kept on throwing it about on the ground, believing +that thereby her husband would be successful in getting game. +Charms, consisting of bones, burnt wood, and roots of particular +shrubs cut into small pieces, were generally worn round the neck. +There was also a belief that in every fountain there was a snake, +and that as long as the snake remained there water would continue +to flow, but that if the snake was killed or left the fountain it would +cease. Offerings were sometimes made to the spirit of the fountain. +In common with the Bushmen, the Hottentots venerated the +<i>mantis fausta</i>, a local variety of the insect known as “the praying +mantis” (<i>mantis religiosa</i>). P. Kolbe saw sacrifices made in its +honour when it appeared inside a kraal; to kill it was strictly +forbidden. The Hottentots had great faith in witch-doctors, or +sorcerers. When called to a sick-bed these ordered the patient to +lie on his back, and then pinched, cuffed, and beat him all over until +they expelled the illness. After that they produced a bone, small +snake, frog or other object which they pretended to have extracted +from the patient’s body. If the treatment did not succeed, the person +was declared incurably bewitched. If death occurred, the corpse +was interred on the day of decease. It was wrapt in skins, and +placed in the ground in the same position it once occupied in the +mother’s womb. Death was generally regarded in a very stoical +manner.</p> + +<p><i>Language.</i>—The existence of a fundamental connexion between +the language of the Hottentot and that of the Bushman was +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page807" id="page807"></a>807</span> +suggested by Dr Bleek and is supported by further evidence advanced +by Bertin.</p> + +<p>The Hottentot language was regarded by the early travellers and +colonists as an uncouth and barbarous tongue. The Portuguese +called the native manner of speaking stammering; and the Dutch +compared it to the “gobbling of a turkey-cock.” These phonetic +characteristics arose from the common use of “clicks,”—sounds +produced by applying the tongue to the teeth or to various parts of +the gums or roof of the mouth, and suddenly jerking it back. +Three-fourths of the syllabic elements of the language begin with +these clicks, and combined with them are several hard and deep +gutturals and nasal accompaniments. The difficulty a European +has in acquiring an accurate pronunciation is not so much in producing +the clicking sound singly as in following it immediately +with another letter or syllable. The four recognized clicks, with +the symbols generally adopted to denote them, are as follows: +dental = |; palatal = ♯; lateral = ||; cerebral = !. According to +Tindall, one of the best grammarians of the language, the dental +click (similar to a sound of surprise or indignation) is produced by +pressing the top of the tongue against the upper front teeth, and +then suddenly and forcibly withdrawing it. The palatal click +(like the crack of a whip) is produced by pressing the tongue with +as flat a surface as possible against the termination of the palate at +the gums, so that the top of the tongue touches the upper front +teeth and the back of the tongue lies towards the palate, and then +forcibly withdrawing the tongue. The cerebral click (compared to +the popping of the cork of a bottle of champagne) is produced by +curling up the tip of the tongue against the roof of the palate, and +withdrawing it suddenly and forcibly. The lateral click (similar +to the sound used in stimulating a horse to action) is articulated +by covering with the tongue the whole of the palate and producing +the sound as far back as possible; Europeans imitate it by placing +the tongue against the side teeth and then withdrawing it. The +easiest Hottentot clicks, the dental and cerebral, have been adopted +by the Kaffirs; and it is a striking circumstance, in evidence of +the past Hottentot influence upon the Kaffir languages, that the +clicking decreases amongst these tribes almost in proportion to +their distance from the former Hottentot domain.</p> + +<p>The language in its grammatical structure is beautiful and regular. +Dr Bleek describes it as having the distinctive features of the suffix-pronominal +order or higher form of languages, in which the pronouns +are identical with and borrowed from the derivative suffixes of the +nouns. The words are mostly monosyllables, always ending, with +two exceptions, in a vowel or nasal sound. Among the consonants +neither <i>l</i>, nor <i>f</i> nor <i>v</i> is found. There are two <i>g</i>’s, <i>g</i> hard and <i>g</i> guttural, +and a deeper guttural <i>kh</i>. Diphthongs abound. There is no article, +but the definite or indefinite sense of a noun is determined by the +gender. In the fullest known dialect (that spoken by the Namaqua) +nouns are formed with eight different suffixes, which in nouns designating +persons distinguish masc. sing. (-<i>b</i>), masc. plur. (-<i>ku</i>), masc. +dual (<i>kha</i>), fem. sing, (-<i>s</i>), fem. plur. (-<i>ti</i>), com. sing. (-<i>i</i>), com. plur. +(-<i>u</i>), com. dual (-<i>ra</i>). The adjective is either prefixed to a noun +or referred to it by a suffixed pronoun. This grammatical division +of the nouns according to gender led to the classification of the +language as “sex-denoting,” thus suggesting its relationship, in +original structure, with the Galla and others.</p> + +<p>There are four dialectical varieties of the language, each with +well-marked characteristics: the Nama dialect, spoken by the +Namaqua as well as by the Hau-Khoin or Hill Damara; the Kora +dialect, spoken by the Koranna, or Koraqua, dwelling about the +middle and upper part of the Orange, Vaal and Modder rivers; +the Eastern dialect, spoken by the Gona or Gonaqua on the borders +of Kaffirland; and the Cape dialect, now no longer spoken but +preserved in the records of early voyagers and settlers. Of the Nama +dialect there are three grammars: Wallmann’s (1857) and Hahn’s +in German, and Tindall’s (1871) in English, the last being the best; +and the four Gospels, with a large amount of missionary literature, +have been published in it.</p> + +<p>The vocabulary is not limited merely to the expression of the +rude conceptions that are characteristic of primitive races. It +possesses such words as <i>koi</i>, human being; <i>khoi-si</i>, kindly or friendly; +<i>koi-si-b</i>, philanthropist; <i>khoi-si-s</i>, humanity; ♯ <i>ei</i>, to think; +♯ <i>ei-s</i>, thought; <i>amo</i>, eternal; <i>amo-si-b</i>, eternity; <i>tsa</i>, to feel; +<i>tsa-b</i>, feeling, sentiment; <i>tsa-kha</i>, to condole; <i>ama</i>, true; <i>ama-b</i>, +the truth; <i>anu</i>, sacred; <i>anu-si-b</i>, holiness; <i>esa</i>, pretty; <i>anu-xa</i>, +full of beauty.</p> + +<p><i>Literature and History.</i>—Much traditionary literature—fables, +myths and legends—existed amongst the Hottentots,—a fact first +made known by Sir James Alexander, who in his journeyings through +Great Namaqualand in 1835 jotted down the stories told him +around the camp fire by his Hottentot followers. These Hottentot +tales generally have much of the character of fables; some are in +many points identical with northern nursery tales, and suggestive +of European origin or of contact with the white man; but the +majority bear evidence of being true native products. Bleek’s +<i>Reynard the Fox in South Africa</i> (1864) contains a translation of a +legend written down from the lips of the Namaqua by the Rev. +G. Krönlein, which is regarded as an excellent specimen of the +national style. Another legend relating to the moon and the hare +conveys the idea of an early conception of the hope of immortality. +It is found in various versions, and, like many other stories, occurs +in Bushman as well as in Hottentot mythology.</p> + +<p>The earliest accounts of the Hottentots occur in the narratives of +Vasco da Gama’s first voyage to India round the Cape in 1497-1498. +In 1510 the Portuguese viceroy, Francisco d’Almeida, count of +Abrantes, met his death in a dispute with the natives. Till the 17th +century they were believed to be cannibals, but with the occupation +of the Cape by the Dutch, in 1652, more accurate knowledge was +obtained. A century of Dutch rule resulted in the Hottentots +becoming a nation of slaves and in serious danger of extermination, +and thus the arrival of the English in 1795 was welcomed by them. +In 1828 an ordinance was passed declaring “all Hottentots and other +free persons of colour” entitled to all and every right to which any +other British subjects were entitled. (See <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Cape Colony</a></span>: <i>History</i>; +and <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">South Africa</a></span>.)</p> + +<p><span class="sc">Bibliography.</span>—A. de Quatrefages, <i>Les Pygmées</i> (1887); G. W. +Stow, <i>The Native Races of South Africa</i> (1905); E. T. Hamy, “Les +Races nègres,” in <i>L’Anthropologie</i> (1897), pp. 257 et sqq.; F. +Shrubsall, “Crania of African Bush Races,” in <i>Jour. Anthrop. Inst.</i> +(November 1897); W. H. J. Bleek, <i>A Comparative Grammar of +South African Languages</i> (1862); and “Die Hottentotten Stämme,” +in <i>Petermanns Mit.</i> (1858), pp. 49 et sqq.; G. Fritsch, <i>Die Eingebornen +Süd-Afrikas</i> (1872), and “Schilderungen der Hottentotten,” in +<i>Globus</i> (1875), pp. 374 et sqq.; G. Bertin, “The Bushmen and their +Language,” in <i>Jour. R. Asiat. Soc.</i> xviii., part i., and reprint; +P. Kolbe or Kolben, <i>Present State of the Cape of Good Hope</i>; Sir +John Barrow, <i>Travels in South Africa</i> (1801-1804).</p> +</div> + +<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note"> + +<p><a name="ft1c" id="ft1c" href="#fa1c"><span class="fn">1</span></a> See paper by Messrs Flower and Murie in <i>Journ. Comp. Anat. +and Physiology</i> (1867); and Fritsch, <i>Die Eingebornen Süd-Afrikas</i> +(Breslau, 1873).</p> + +<p><a name="ft2c" id="ft2c" href="#fa2c"><span class="fn">2</span></a> An interesting notice of this form of worship occurs in the +journal of an expedition which the Dutch governor, Ryk van Tulbagh, +sent to the Great Namaqua in 1752, which reached as far as the +Kamob or Lion river (about 27° S. lat.).</p> + +<p><a name="ft3c" id="ft3c" href="#fa3c"><span class="fn">3</span></a> On the religion and antiquities see Theophilus Hahn’s papers, +“Graves of the Heitsi-Eibib,” in <i>Cape Monthly Magazine</i> (1879). +and “Der hottentottische Zai-goab und der griechische Zeus,” in +<i>Zeitschr. für Geogr.</i> (Berlin, 1870).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HOTTINGER, JOHANN HEINRICH<a name="ar40" id="ar40"></a></span> (1620-1667), Swiss philologist +and theologian, was born at Zürich on the 10th of March +1620. He studied at Geneva, Groningen and Leiden, and after +visiting France and England was in 1642 appointed professor +of church history in his native town. The chair of Hebrew +at the Carolinum was added in 1643, and in 1653 he was appointed +professor ordinarius of logic, rhetoric and theology. +He gained such a reputation as an Oriental scholar that the +elector palatine in 1655 appointed him professor of Oriental +languages and biblical criticism at Heidelberg. In 1661, however, +he returned to Zürich, where in 1662 he was chosen principal of +the university. In 1667 he accepted an invitation to succeed +Johann Hoornbeck (1617-1666) as professor in the university +of Leiden, but he was drowned with three of his children by the +upsetting of a boat while crossing the river Limmat. His chief +works are <i>Historia ecclesiastica Nov. Test.</i> (1651-1667); <i>Thesaurus +philologicus seu clavis scripturae</i> (1649; 3rd ed. 1698); <i>Etymologicon +orientale, sive lexicon harmonicum heptaglotton</i> (1661). +He also wrote a Hebrew and an Aramaic grammar.</p> + +<p>His son, <span class="sc">Johann Jakob Hottinger</span> (1652-1735), who became +professor of theology at Zürich in 1698, was the author of a work +against Roman Catholicism, <i>Helvetische Kirchengeschichte</i> (4 vols., +1698-1729); and his grandson, <span class="sc">Johann Heinrich Hottinger</span> +(1681-1750), who in 1721 was appointed professor of theology +at Heidelberg, wrote a work on dogmatics, <i>Typus doctrinae +christianae</i> (1714).</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HOUBRAKEN, JACOBUS<a name="ar41" id="ar41"></a></span> (1698-1780), Dutch engraver, +was born at Dort, on the 25th of December 1698. All that his +father, Arnold Houbraken (1660-1719), bequeathed to him was +a fine constitution and a pure love for work. In 1707 he came +to reside at Amsterdam, where for years he had to struggle +incessantly against difficulties. He commenced the art of +engraving by studying the works of Cornelis Cort, Suyderhoef, +Edelinck and the Visschers. He devoted himself almost entirely +to portraiture. Among his best works are scenes from the +comedy of <i>De Ontdekte Schijndeugd</i>, executed in his eightieth +year, after Cornelis Troost, who was called by his countrymen +the Dutch Hogarth. He died on the 14th of November 1780.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See A. Ver Hull, <i>Jacobus Houbraken et son œuvre</i> (Arnhem, 1875), +where 120 engraved works are fully described.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HOUDENC<a name="ar42" id="ar42"></a></span> (or <span class="sc">Houdan</span>), <b>RAOUL DE,</b> 12th-century French +trouvère, takes his name from his native place, generally +identified with Houdain (Artois), though there are twelve places +bearing the name in one or other of its numerous variants. +It has been suggested that he was a monk, but from the scattered +hints in his writings it seems more probable that he followed the +trade of jongleur and recited his chansons, with small success +apparently, in the houses of the great. He was well acquainted +with Paris, and probably spent a great part of his life there. +His undoubted works are: <i>Le Songe d’enfer</i>, <i>La Voie de paradis</i>, +<i>Le Roman des eles</i> (pr. by A. Scheler in <i>Trouvères belges</i>, New +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page808" id="page808"></a>808</span> +Series, 1897) and the romance of <i>Méraugis de Portlesguez</i>, +edited by M. Michelant (1869) and by Dr M. Friedwagner +(Halle, 1897). Houdenc was an imitator of Chrétien de Troyes; +and Huon de Méri, in his <i>Tournoi de l’antéchrist</i> (1226) praises +him with Chrétien in words that seem to imply that both were +dead. <i>Méraugis de Portlesguez</i>, the hero of which perhaps +derives his name from Lesguez, the port of Saint Brieuc in +Brittany, is a <i>roman d’aventures</i> loosely attached to the Arthurian +cycle.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See Gaston Paris in <i>Hist. litt. de la France</i>, xxx. 220-237; +W. Zingerlé, <i>Über Raoul de Houdenc und seine Werke</i> (Erlangen, +1880); and O. Boerner, <i>Raoul de Houdenc. Eine stilistische Untersuchung</i> +(1885).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HOUDETOT,<a name="ar43" id="ar43"></a></span> a French noble family, taking its name from +the lordship of Houdetot, between Arques and St Valéry. +Louis de Houdetot went with Robert, duke of Normandy, to +Palestine in 1034, and the various branches of the family trace +descent from Richard I. de Houdetot (fl. 1229), who married +Marie de Montfort. Charles Louis de Houdetot received a +marquisate in 1722, and on his son Claude Constance César, +lieutenant-general in the French army, was conferred the +hereditary title of count in 1753. His wife (see below) was +the Madame de Houdetot of Rousseau’s <i>Confessions</i>. Their son +César Louis Marie François Ange, comte de Houdetot (1749-1825), +was governor of Martinique (1803-1809) and lieutenant-general +(1814) under the Empire. His son Frédéric Christophe, comte +de Houdetot (1778-1859), was director-general of indirect +imposts in Prussia after Jena, and prefect of Brussels in 1813. +He acquiesced in the Restoration, but had to resign from the +service after the Hundred Days. He became a peer of France +in 1819, and under the Second Empire he was returned by the +department of Calvados to the Corps Législatif. His half-brother, +Charles Île-de-France, comte de Houdetot (1789-1866), was +wounded at Trafalgar and transferred to the army, in which he +served through the Napoleonic wars. He retired at the Restoration, +but returned to the service in 1823, and in 1826 became +aide-de-camp to the duke of Orleans, becoming lieutenant-general +in 1842. He sat in the Chamber of Deputies from 1837 to 1848, +when he followed Louis Philippe into exile. A third brother, +César François Adolphe, comte de Houdetot (1799-1869), was +a well-known writer on military and other subjects.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HOUDETOT, ELISABETH FRANÇOISE SOPHIE DE LA LIVE DE BELLEGARDE,<a name="ar44" id="ar44"></a></span> +<span class="sc">Comtesse de</span> (1730-1813), was born in +1730. She married the comte de Houdetot (see above) in 1748. +In 1753 she formed with the marquis de Saint Lambert (<i>q.v.</i>) +a connexion which lasted till his death. Mme de Houdetot +has been made famous by the chapter in Rousseau’s <i>Confessions</i> +in which he describes his unreciprocated passion for her. When +questioned on the subject she replied that he had much exaggerated. +A view differing considerably from Rousseau’s +is to be found in the <i>Mémoires</i> of Mme d’Epinay, Mme de +Houdetot’s sister-in-law.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>For a discussion of her relations with Rousseau see Saint-Marc-Girardin +in the <i>Revue des deux mondes</i> (September 1853).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HOUDON, JEAN ANTOINE<a name="ar45" id="ar45"></a></span> (1740-1828), French sculptor, +was born at Versailles on the 18th of March 1740. At the age +of twelve he entered the École royale de Sculpture, and at +twenty, having learnt all that he could from Michel Ange Slodtz +and Pigalle, he carried off the prix de Rome and left France for +Italy, where he spent the next ten years of his life. His brilliant +talent, which seems to have been formed by the influence of that +world of statues with which Louis XIV. peopled the gardens of +Versailles rather than by the lessons of his masters, delighted +Pope Clement XIV., who, on seeing the St Bruno executed +by Houdon for the church of St Maria degli Angeli, said “he +would speak, were it not that the rules of his order impose silence.” +In Italy Houdon had lived in the presence of that second +Renaissance with which the name of Winckelmann is associated, +and the direct and simple treatment of the Morpheus which he +sent to the Salon of 1771 bore witness to its influence. This +work procured him his “agrégation” to the Academy of Painting +and Sculpture, of which he was made a full member in 1775. +Between these dates Houdon had not been idle; busts of +Catharine II., Diderot and Prince Galitzin were remarked at the +Salon of 1773, and at that of 1775 he produced, not only his +Morpheus in marble, but busts of Turgot, Gluck (in which the +marks of small-pox in the face were reproduced with striking +effect) and Sophie Arnould as Iphigeneia (now in the Wallace +Collection, London), together with his well-known marble relief, +“Grive suspendue par les pattes.” He took also an active part +in the teaching of the academy, and executed for the instruction +of his pupils the celebrated Écorché still in use. To every Salon +Houdon was a chief contributor; most of the leading men of +the day were his sitters; his busts of d’Alembert, Prince Henry +of Prussia, Gerbier, Buffon (for Catharine of Russia) and Mirabeau +are remarkable portraits; and in 1778, when the news of +Rousseau’s death reached him, Houdon started at once for +Ermenonville, and there took a cast of the dead man’s face, from +which he produced the grand and life-like head now in the Louvre. +In 1779 his bust of Molière, at the Théâtre Français, won universal +praise, and the celebrated draped statue of Voltaire, in the +vestibule of the same theatre, was exhibited at the Salon of 1781, +to which Houdon also sent a statue of Marshal de Tourville, commissioned +by the king, and the Diana executed for Catharine II. +This work was refused; the jury alleged that a statue of Diana +demanded drapery; without drapery, they said, the goddess +became a “suivante de Vénus,” and not even the proud and +frank chastity of the attitude and expression could save the +Diana of Houdon (a bronze reproduction of which is in the +Louvre) from insult. Three years later he went to America, there +to carry out a statue of Washington. With Franklin, whose bust he +had recently executed, Houdon left France in 1785, and, staying +some time with Washington at Mount Vernon, he modelled +the bust, with which he decided to go back to Paris, there +to complete the statue destined for the capitol of the State +of Virginia. After his return to his native country Houdon +executed for the king of Prussia, as a companion to a statue of +Summer, La Frileuse, a naif embodiment of shivering cold, +which is one of his best as well as one of his best-known works. +The Revolution interrupted the busy flow of commissions, and +Houdon took up a half-forgotten project for a statue of St +Scholastica. He was immediately denounced to the convention, +and his life was only saved by his instant and ingenious adaptation +of St Scholastica into an embodiment of Philosophy. Under +Napoleon, of whom in 1806 he made a nude statue now at Dijon, +Houdon received little employment; he was, however, commissioned +to execute the colossal reliefs intended for the decoration +of the column of the “Grand Army” at Boulogne (which +ultimately found a different destination); he also produced a +statue of Cicero for the senate, and various busts, amongst +which may be cited those of Marshal Ney, of Josephine and of +Napoleon himself, by whom Houdon was rewarded with the +legion of honour. He died at Paris on the 16th of July 1828.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See memoir by Émile Délerot and Arsène Legrelle in <i>Mémoires +de la société des sciences morales ... de Seine-et-Oise</i>, iv. 49 +et seq. (1857); Anatole de Montaiglon and Georges Duplessis in +<i>Revue universelle des arts</i>, i. and ii. (1855-1856); Hermann +Dierks, <i>Houdons Leben und Werke</i> (Gotha, 1887); Albert Terrade, +<i>Autour de la statue de Jean Houdon</i> (Versailles, 1892); P. E. Mangeant, +<i>Sur une statuette de Voltaire par J. Houdon</i> (Paris, 1896).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HOUFFALIZE,<a name="ar46" id="ar46"></a></span> a small town occupying an elevated position +(nearly 1100 ft.) in the extreme south-east of the province of +Luxemburg, Belgium, much visited during the summer on +account of its fine bracing air. There are the ruins of an old +castle, and some remains of the still older abbey of Val Ste +Catherine. The parish church dates from the 13th or 14th +century. It contains two old black marble tombs to Thierry of +Houffalize and Henri his son, the latter killed at Woeringen in +1288. Houffalize is on the eastern Ourthe, and is connected +by a steam tramway with Bourcy on the line from Libramont +to Bastogne, Spa and Liége. Pop. (1904) 1486.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HOUGHTON, RICHARD MONCKTON MILNES,<a name="ar47" id="ar47"></a></span> <span class="sc">1st Baron</span> +(1809-1885), English poet and man of letters, son of Robert +Pemberton Milnes, of Fryston Hall, Yorkshire, and the Hon. +Henrietta Monckton, daughter of the fourth Lord Galway, was +born in London on the 19th of June 1809. He was educated +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page809" id="page809"></a>809</span> +privately, and entered Trinity College, Cambridge, in 1827. +There he was at once drawn into a literary set, and became a +member of the famous “Apostles” Club, which then included +Tennyson, Hallam, Trench, J. W. Blakesley, afterwards dean of +Lincoln, and others. After taking his degree, Milnes travelled +abroad, spending some time at Bonn University. Thence +he went to Italy and Greece, and published in 1834 a volume +of <i>Memorials of a Tour in some Parts of Greece</i>, describing his +experiences. He returned to London in 1837, and was in that +year elected to Parliament as member for Pontefract. His +parliamentary career was marked by much strenuous activity. +He interested himself particularly in the question of copyright +and the conditions of reformatory schools. He left Peel’s party +over the Corn Law controversy, and was afterwards identified +in politics with Palmerston, at whose instance he was made a +peer in 1863. His literary career was industrious and cultured, +without being exceptionally distinguished. Church matters +had always a claim upon him: he wrote a striking tract in +1841, which was praised by Newman; and took part in the +discussion about “Essays and Reviews,” defending the tractarian +position in <i>One Tract More</i> (1841). He published two volumes +of verse in 1838, <i>Memorials of Residence upon the Continent and +Poems of Many Years</i>, <i>Poetry for the People in 1840</i> and <i>Palm +Leaves</i> in 1844. He also wrote a <i>Life and Letters of Keats</i> in 1848, +the material for which was largely provided by the poet’s friend, +Charles Armitage Brown. Milnes also contributed largely to +the reviews. His poetry is meditative and delicate; some of +his ballads were among the most popular of their day, and all +his work was marked by refinement. But his chief distinctions +were his keen sense of literary merit in others, and the judgment +and magnanimity with which he fostered it. He was surrounded +by the most brilliant men of his time, many of whom he had been +the first to acclaim. His chief title to remembrance rests on the +part he played, as a man of influence in society and in moulding +public opinion on literary matters, in connexion with his large +circle of talented friends. He secured a pension for Tennyson, +helped to make Emerson known in Great Britain, and was one +of the earliest champions of Swinburne. He helped David Gray +and wrote a preface for <i>The Luggie</i>. He was, in the old sense of +the word, a patron of letters, and one who never abused the +privileges of his position. Milnes married in 1851 the Hon. +Annabel Crewe (d. 1874). He died at Vichy on the 11th +of August 1885, and was buried at Fryston. His son, the +second Baron Houghton, was created Earl of Crewe (<i>q.v.</i>) in +1895.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See <i>The Life, Letters and Friendships of Richard Monckton Milnes, +first Lord Houghton</i> (1890), by Sir T. Wemyss Reid.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HOUGHTON-LE-SPRING,<a name="ar48" id="ar48"></a></span> an urban district in the Houghton-le-Spring +parliamentary division of Durham, England, 6 m. N.E. +of the city of Durham. Pop. (1901) 7858. It is well situated +at the head of a small valley branching from that of the Wear. +St Michael’s church is a cruciform Early English and Decorated +building, with a picturesque embattled rectory adjoining. +Bernard Gilpin, “the Apostle of the North,” was rector of this +parish from 1556 to 1583, and the founder of the grammar school. +The principal public buildings are a town hall, market house +and church institute. Houghton Hall is a fine mansion of the +late 16th century. In the orchard stands a tomb, that of the +puritan Sir Robert Hutton (d. 1680), of whom a curious tradition +states that he desired burial beside his war-horse, the body of +which was denied interment in consecrated ground. The main +road from Durham to Sunderland here passes through a remarkable +cutting in the limestone 80 ft. deep. The district affords +frequent evidence of ice activity in the glacial period. The +town is the centre of a large system of electric tramways. The +population is mainly dependent on the neighbouring collieries, +but limestone quarrying is carried on to some extent.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HOUND,<a name="ar49" id="ar49"></a></span> a dog, now used, except in poetry, only of dogs of +the chase, and particularly of the breed used in hunting the fox, +the “hound” <i>par excellence</i>. Other breeds have a defining +word prefixed, <i>e.g.</i> boar-hound, stag-hound, &c. (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Dog</a></span>). +The O. Eng. <i>hund</i> is the common Teutonic name for the animal, +cf. Du. <i>hond</i>, Ger. <i>Hund</i>, &c., and is cognate with Sansk. <i>çvan</i>, +Gr. <span class="grk" title="kyôn">κύων</span>, Lat. <i>canis</i>, Ir. and Gael. <i>cu</i>.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HOUNSLOW,<a name="ar50" id="ar50"></a></span> a town in the Brentford parliamentary division +of Middlesex, England, 12½ m. W. by S. of St Paul’s Cathedral, +London, on the District and London & South Western railways. +Pop. (1901) 11,377. It has grown into an extensive residential +suburb of London. Its situation at the junction of two great +roads from the west of England made it an important coaching +station, and some 500 coaches formerly passed through it daily. +A priory of friars of the Holy Trinity was founded at Hounslow +in 1296, and existed till the dissolution of the monasteries. +The priory chapel was used as a church till 1830, after which +its place was taken by the existing church of the Holy Trinity +(1835). Hounslow Heath, west of the town, had, according to +the survey of 1546, an area of 4293 acres. It was the site of +Roman and British camps, and in the wars of the 17th century +was the scene of several important military rendezvous. It +was a favourite resort of highwaymen, whose bodies were +exposed on gibbets along the road. In 1784 the base-line of the +first trigonometrical survey in England was laid down on the +heath. In 1793 large cavalry barracks were erected upon it, +and it is also the site of extensive powder mills. It began to be +enclosed towards the end of the reign of George III. In Osterley +Park, N.E. of Hounslow, Sir Thomas Gresham built a mansion +in 1577, and this was rebuilt with great magnificence by Francis +and Robert Child <i>c.</i> 1770. Hounslow is divided between the +parishes of Heston and Isleworth. Pop. of urban district of +Heston and Isleworth (1901) 30,863.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HOUR,<a name="ar51" id="ar51"></a></span> the twenty-fourth part of a civil day, the twelfth +part of a natural day or night, a space of time of sixty minutes’ +duration. The word is derived through the O. Fr. <i>ure</i>, <i>ore</i>, +<i>houre</i>, mod. <i>heure</i>, from Lat. <i>hora</i>, Gr. <span class="grk" title="hôra">ὥρα</span>, season, time of day, +hour (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Calendar</a></span>).</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HOUR ANGLE,<a name="ar52" id="ar52"></a></span> the angular distance of a heavenly body from +the meridian, as measured around the celestial pole. It is +equal to the angle at the pole between the hour circle through +the body and the meridian, but is usually expressed in time.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HOUR-GLASS,<a name="ar53" id="ar53"></a></span> a device for measuring intervals of time, also +known as sand-glass, and as log-glass when used in conjunction +with the common log for ascertaining the speed of a ship. It +consists of two pear-shaped bulbs of glass, united at their apices +and having a minute passage formed between them. A quantity +of sand (or occasionally of mercury) is enclosed in the bulbs, +and the size of the passage is so proportioned that this sand will +completely run through from one bulb to another in the time +it is desired to measure—<i>e.g.</i> an hour or a minute. Instruments +of this kind, which have no great pretensions to accuracy, were +formerly common in churches. In the English House of Commons, +as a preliminary to a division, a two-minute sand-glass is still +turned, and while the sand is running the “division bells” are +set in motion in every part of the building, to give members +notice that a division is at hand.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HOURI,<a name="ar54" id="ar54"></a></span> the term for a beautiful virgin who awaits the +devout Mahommedan in Paradise. The word is the French +representative of the Pers. <i>hūrī</i>, Arab, <i>hawrā‘</i>, a black-eyed +virgin, from <i>hawira</i>, to be black-eyed, like a gazelle.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HOURS, CANONICAL,<a name="ar55" id="ar55"></a></span> certain portions of the day set apart by +rule (canon) of the church for prayer and devotion. The Jewish +custom of praying three times a day, <i>i.e.</i> at the third, sixth and +ninth hours, was perpetuated in the early Christian Church +(Acts ii. 15, iii. 1, x. 9), and to these were added midnight (when +Paul and Silas sang in prison), and the beginning of day and of +night. Ambrose, Augustine and Hilary commended the example +of the psalmist who gave praise “seven times a day” (Ps. cxix. +164). The seventh (Compline, <i>Completorium</i>) was added by +Benedict. These hours were adopted especially in the monasteries +as a part of the canonical life, and spread thence to the cathedral +and collegiate chapters.</p> + +<p>Since the 6th century the number and order of the hours have +been fixed thus: matins, lauds, prime, terce, sext, none, +vespers, compline.</p> + +<p><i>Matins</i> theoretically belongs to midnight, but in Italy it is +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page810" id="page810"></a>810</span> +said about 7 or 8 <span class="scs">A.M.</span> and in France often on the preceding +evening in accordance with the statement “evening and morning +were one day.” At matins is said the <i>Venite</i> (Ps. xcv.) and a +hymn, followed by a <i>Nocturna</i> or night-watch (on Sundays three) +which consists of twelve psalms. After the <i>nocturna</i> comes a +lesson divided into three parts, one biblical and two patristic, and +finally the <i>Te Deum</i>.</p> + +<p><i>Lauds</i> is proper to sunrise, but is mostly grouped with matins. +It consists of four psalms, a canticle, psalms 148-150, a hymn, +the Benedictus (Luke i. 68-79) and prayers.</p> + +<p><i>Prime</i> (6 <span class="scs">A.M.</span>), <i>Terce</i> (9 <span class="scs">A.M.</span>), <i>Sext</i> (noon) and <i>None</i> (3 <span class="scs">P.M.</span>) +are called the Little Day Hours, are often said together, and +are alike in character, consisting of a hymn and some sections +of Ps. cxix., followed by a prayer. On Sundays the Athanasian +Creed is said at prime.</p> + +<p><i>Vespers</i> or <i>Evensong</i> consists of five varying psalms, a hymn, +the <i>Magnificat</i> (Luke i. 46-55) and prayers. It belongs theoretically +to sunset.</p> + +<p><i>Compline</i>, technically 9 <span class="scs">P.M.</span>, but usually combined with +vespers, is a prayer for protection during the darkness. It consists +of the general confession, four fixed psalms, a hymn, the +<i>Nunc dimittis</i> (Luke ii. 29-32), prayers and a Commemoration +of the Virgin.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>The term “canonical hours” is also used of the time during which +English marriages may be solemnized without special licence, <i>i.e.</i> +between 8 <span class="scs">A.M.</span> and 3 <span class="scs">P.M.</span></p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HOUSE<a name="ar56" id="ar56"></a></span> (O. Eng. <i>hús</i>, a word common to Teutonic languages, +cf. Dut. <i>huis</i>, Ger. <i>Haus</i>; in Gothic it is only found in <i>gudhûs</i>, +a temple; it may be ultimately connected with the root of +“hide,” conceal), the dwelling-place of a human being (treated, +from the architectural point of view, below), or, in a transferred +sense, of an animal, particularly of one whose abode, like that +of the beaver, is built by the animal itself, or, like that of the +snail, resembles in some fancied way a human dwelling. Apart +from the numerous compound uses of the word, denoting the +purpose for which a building is employed, such as custom-house, +lighthouse, bakehouse, greenhouse and the like, there may be +mentioned the particular applications to a chamber of a legislative +body, the Houses of Parliament, House of Representatives, &c.; +to the upper and lower assemblies of convocation; and to the +colleges at a university; the heads of these foundations, known +particularly as master, principal, president, provost, rector, &c., +are collectively called heads of houses. At English public +schools a “house” is the usual unit of the organization. In the +“houses” the boys sleep, have their “studies” and their meals, +if the school is arranged on the “boarding-house” system. +The houses have their representative teams in the school games, +but have no place in the educational class-system of the school. +It may be noticed that in Scotland the words “house” and +“tenement” are used in a way distinct from the English use, +“tenement” being applied to the large block containing +“houses,” portions, <i>i.e.</i>, occupied by separate families. “The +House” is the name colloquially given to such different institutions +as the London Stock Exchange, the House of Commons or +Lords and to a workhouse.</p> + +<p>In the transferred sense, “house” is used of a family, genealogically +considered, and of the audience at a public meeting or +entertainment, especially of a theatre. A “house-physician” +and “house-surgeon” is a member of the resident medical staff +of a hospital. In astrology the twelve divisions into which the +heavens are divided, and through which the planets pass, are +known as houses, the first being called the “house of life.” +The word “house,” “housing,” used of the trappings of a horse, +especially of a covering for the back and flanks, attached to the +saddle, is of quite distinct origin. In medieval Latin it appears +as <i>hucia</i>, <i>houssia</i> and <i>housia</i> (see Ducange, <i>Glossarium</i>, s.v. +<i>housia</i>), and comes into English from the O. Fr. <i>huche</i>, modern +<i>housse</i>. It has been supposed to have been adopted, at the time +of the crusades, from the Arabic <i>yushiah</i>, a covering.</p> + +<p>Architecturally considered, the term “house” is given to a +building erected for habitation, in contradistinction to one built +for secular or ecclesiastical purposes. The term extends, therefore, +to a dwelling of any size, from a single-room building to one +containing as many rooms as a palace; thus in London some +of the largest dwellings are those inhabited by royalty, such as +Marlborough House, or others by men of rank, such as Devonshire +House, Bridgewater House, Spencer House, &c.; and even +those which, formerly built as habitations, have subsequently +been devoted to other purposes, such as Somerset House and +Burlington House, retain the term. In Paris the larger houses +thus named would be called <i>hôtel</i>.</p> + +<p>So far as the history of domestic architecture is concerned, the +earliest houses of which remains have been found are those of the +village of Kahun in Egypt, which were built for the workmen +employed in the building of the pyramid at Illahun, and deserted +on its completion. They varied in size from the habitations of +the chief inspectors to the single room of the ordinary labourer, +and were built in unburnt brick with open courts in the larger +examples, to give light and air to the rooms round. The models +found in 1907 at Deir-Rifa opposite Assiut in Upper Egypt, +by Flinders Petrie, and assumed by him to be those of “soul-houses,” +suggest that the early type of building consisted of a +hut, to which later a porch or lean-to, with two poles in front, +has been added; subsequently, columns replaced the poles, and +a flat roof with parapet, suggesting the primitive forms of the +Egyptian temple.</p> + +<p>The only remains of early houses found in Mesopotamia are +those within the precincts of the Temple of Bel, at Nippur, +occupied by the king; but beyond the fact that the walls were +built in unburnt brick and were sometimes of great thickness, +nothing is known.</p> + +<p>The houses in Crete would seem to have been small in area, +but this was compensated for in height, as the small plaques +found in the palace at Cnossus show houses in two or three +storeys, with gable roofs and windows subdivided by mullions and +transomes, corresponding with those of the 15th to 17th centuries +in England. The stone staircase in the palace rising through +two storeys shows that even at this early period the houses in +towns had floors superposed one above the other; to a certain +extent the same extension existed in the later Greek houses found +in Delos, in two of which there was clear evidence of wooden +staircases leading within to the roof or to an upper storey. +The largest series hitherto discovered is that at Priene in Asia +Minor, where the remains of some thirty examples were found, +varying in dimensions, but all based on the same plan; this +consisted of an entrance passage leading to an open court, on +the north side of which, and therefore facing south, was an open +portico, corresponding to the <i>prostas</i> in Vitruvius (vi. 7), and in +the rear two large rooms, one of which might be the oecus or +sitting-room, and the other the thalamos or chief bedroom. +Other rooms round the court were the triclinium, or dining +room, and cubicula or bedchambers. The largest of these +houses occupied an area measuring 75 × 30 ft. Those found in +Delos, though fewer in number, are of much greater importance, +the house in the street of the theatre having twelve rooms +exclusive of the entrance passage and the great central court, +surrounded on all four sides by a peristyle; in this house the +oecus measured 26 × 18 ft. In a second example the prostas +consisted of a long gallery, the whole width of the site, which was +lighted by windows at each end, the sills of which were raised +8 ft. or 9 ft. from the floor.</p> + +<p class="pt2 noind f90 sc">Plate II.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:413px; height:404px" src="images/img810a.jpg" alt="" /></td> +<td class="figcenter"><img style="width:412px; height:407px" src="images/img810b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl f80"><i>Photo, Neurdein.</i></td> +<td class="tcl f80"><i>Photo, F. Frith & Co.</i></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 4.</span>—MUSICIAN’S HOUSE, REIMS.</td> +<td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 5.</span>—JEW’S HOUSE, LINCOLN.</td></tr></table> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:842px; height:653px" src="images/img810c.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl f80"><i>Photo, Neurdein.</i></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 6.</span>—HÔTEL DE CLUNY, PARIS.</td></tr></table> + +<p class="pt2 noind f90 sc">Plate II.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:844px; height:556px" src="images/img810d.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl f80"><i>Photo, Neurdein.</i></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 7.</span>—HÔTEL DE JACQUES CŒUR, BOURGES, FAÇADE.</td></tr></table> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:424px; height:561px" src="images/img810e.jpg" alt="" /></td> +<td class="figcenter"><img style="width:344px; height:557px" src="images/img810f.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl f80"> </td> +<td class="tcl f80"><i>Photo. F. Frith & Co.</i></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 8.</span>—HALF-TIMBERED HOUSE AT HILDESHEIM.</td> +<td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 9.</span>—HOUSE OF JOHN HARVARD’S MOTHER, STRATFORD-ON-AVON.</td></tr></table> + +<p>The remains of the houses found in the Peiraeus are of the +same simple plan as those at Priene, and suggest that the Greek +house was considered to be the private residence only for the +members of the family, and without any provision for entertaining +guests as in Rome and Pompeii. From the descriptions given +by Vitruvius (ii. 8) it may be gathered that in his time many +of the houses in Rome were built in unburnt brick, the walls of +which, if properly protected at the top with a course of burnt +brick projecting over the face of the brickwork, and coated +inside and outside with stucco, were considered to be more +lasting than those built in soft stone. Vitruvius refers also to +Greek houses thus built, and states that in the house of Mausolus, +at Halicarnassus, the walls were of unburnt brick, and the +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page811" id="page811"></a>811</span> +plastering with which they were covered was so polished that +they sparkled like glass. In Rome, however, he points out, such +walls ought to be forbidden, as they are not fit to carry an +upper storey, unless they are of great thickness, and as upper +storeys become necessary in a crowded city such walls would +occupy too much space. The houses in Pompeii (<i>q.v.</i>) were +built in rubble masonry with clay mortar, and their walls were +protected at the top by burnt brick courses and their faces with +stucco; they were, however, of a second- or third-rate class +compared with those in Rome, the magnificence of which is +attested in the descriptions given by various writers and substantiated +by the remains occasionally found in excavations. +Vitruvius refers to upper storeys, which were necessary in +consequence of the limited area in Rome, and representations +in mosaic floors and in bas-relief sculpture have been found on +which two or three storeys are indicated. The plans of many +Roman houses are shown on the <i>Marble Plan</i>, and they resemble +those of Pompeii, but it is probable that the principal reception +rooms were on an upper storey, long since destroyed. The house +of Livia on the Palatine Hill was in two storeys, and the decoration +was of a much finer character than those of Pompeii; this +house and the House of the Vestals might be taken as representative +of the Roman house in Rome itself. In those built in colder +climates, as in England and Germany, account has to be taken +of the special provision required for warming the rooms by +hypocausts, of which numerous examples have been found, +with rich mosaic floors over them.</p> + +<p>Of the houses in succeeding centuries, those found in the +cities of central Syria, described in the article <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Architecture</a></span>, +are wonderfully perfect, in consequence of their desertion at +the time of the Mahommedan invasion in the 7th century. +Very little is known of the houses in Europe during the dark +ages, owing to the fact that they were generally built in wood, +with thatched roofs. The only examples in stone which have +been preserved are those in the island of Skellig Michael, Kerry, +which were constructed like the beehive tombs at Mycenae +with stone courses overlapping inside until they closed in at the +top. These houses or cells were rectangular inside and round +or oval outside, with a small low door at one end, and an opening +above to let the smoke out.</p> + +<p>The houses, even in large towns like London, were built mainly +in wood, in some cases down to the 17th century; in the country, +the smaller houses were constructed with trunks of trees in +pairs, one end of the trunk being sunk in the ground, the other +bent over and secured by a ridge piece, thus forming a pointed +arch, the opening of which was about 11 ft. The pairs were +fixed 16 ft. apart, and the space included constituted a bay, any +requisite increase in the size of the house being made by doubling +or trebling the bays. The roofs were thatched with straw on +battens, and sometimes with a collar beam carrying a floor, +which constituted an upper storey. The end walls were closed +with wooden studs and wattle-and-<span class="correction" title="amended from dab">daub</span> filling. The pairs of +trees were known as forks or crucks. Vitruvius (ii. 1) suggests +a similar kind of building in ancient times, except that the +interlaced twigs were covered with clay, so as to carry off the +rain. In Yorkshire there was another type of house, known as +a coit, which was a dwelling-house and barn (shippon) united; +the latter contained the cow-stalls with loft above, and the +former was in two storeys, with a ladder inside the room leading +to the upper floor.<a name="fa1d" id="fa1d" href="#ft1d"><span class="sp">1</span></a></p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:505px; height:447px" src="images/img811.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 1.</span>—Houses at Cluny.</td></tr></table> + +<p>Passing now to structures of a less ephemeral character, the +earliest houses of which there still remain substantial relics are +those built in stone (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Manor House</a></span>). The Jew’s House at +Lincoln, 12th century, is one of the best-known examples, and +still preserves its street front in stone, with rich entrance doorway +and first-floor windows lighting the principal room, which +seems invariably in those early houses to have been on the first +floor, the ground floor being used for service and stores (see +Plate I. fig. 5). To the 13th century belongs the old Rectory +House at West Dean, Sussex, and to the 14th century the +Parsonage House at Market Deeping, Lincolnshire. The principal +examples of the domestic architecture of this early period in the +country are castles, manor houses and farm buildings, as town +houses occupied sites too valuable to be left untouched; this, +however, is not the case in France, and particularly in the +south, where streets of early houses are still to be found in good +preservation, such as those at Cluny (fig. 1) and Cordes (Tarn), +and others at Montferrand, Cahors, Figeac, Angers, Provins, +Sarlat (fig. 2), St Emilion, Périgueux, Soissons and Beauvais, +dating from the 12th to the 14th centuries. One of the most +remarkable examples is the Musician’s House at Reims (see +Plate I., fig. 4), with large windows on the first floor, between +which are niches with life-size figures of musicians seated in +them. Generally speaking, the ground storeys of these houses, +which in many cases were occupied by shops, have been transformed, +but occasionally the old shop fronts remain, as in +Dinan, Morlaix and other old towns in Brittany. Houses of +the first Renaissance of great beauty exist in Orleans, such as +the house of Agnes Sorel; and the example in the Market Place +illustrated in fig. 3; in Tours, Tristan’s house in brick with stone +quoins and dressings to windows; in Rouen, Caen, Bayeux, +Toulouse, Dijon and, in fact, in almost every town throughout +France. Of houses of large dimensions, which in France are +termed <i>hôtels</i>, there are also many other fine examples, the best +known of which are the hôtel de Jacques Cœur (see Plate II., +fig. 7), at Bourges, and the hôtel de Cluny at Paris (see +Plate I., fig. 6). In the 15th and 16th centuries in France, +owing to the value of the sites in towns, the houses rose to many +storeys, the upper of which were built in half-timber, sometimes +projecting on corbels and richly carved; of these numerous +examples exist at Rouen, Beauvais, Bayeux and other towns in +Normandy and Brittany. Of such structures in English towns +(see Plate II. fig. 9) there are still preserved some examples +in York, Southampton, Chester, Shrewsbury, Stratford-on-Avon, +and many smaller towns; the greatest development in +half-timber houses in England is that which is found more +particularly throughout Kent, Sussex and Surrey, in houses of +modest dimensions, generally consisting of ground and first floor +only, with sometimes additional rooms in the roof; in these the +upper storey invariably projects in front of the lower, giving +increased dimensions to the rooms in the former, but adopted in +order to protect the walls of the ground storey from rain, which +in the upper storey was effected by the projecting eaves of the +roof. In the north and west of England, where stone could +be obtained at less cost than brick, and in the east of England, +where brick, often imported from the Low Countries, was largely +employed, the ordinary houses were built in those materials, +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page812" id="page812"></a>812</span> +and in consequence of their excellent construction many houses +of the 16th and 17th centuries have remained in good preservation +down to the present day; they are found in the Cotswolds +generally, and (among small towns) at Broadway in Worcestershire +and (of brick) throughout Essex and Suffolk. Among the +larger half-timber houses built in the 15th and 16th centuries, +mention may be made of Bramhall Hall, near Manchester; +Speke Hall, near Liverpool (see Plate III., fig. 10); The Oaks; +West Bromwich; and Moreton Old Hall, Cheshire, one of the +most elaborate of the series (see Plate III., fig. 11).</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:385px; height:768px" src="images/img812a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 2.</span>—House at Sarlat.</td></tr></table> + +<p>On the borders of the Rhine, as at Bacharach and Rhense, +and throughout Germany, hall-timber houses of the most +picturesque character are found in every town, large and small, +those of Hildesheim (see Plate II., fig. 8) dating from the 15th +and 16th centuries, and in some cases rising to a great height +with four or five storeys, not including those in the lofty roofs. +Houses in stone from the 12th to the 16th century are found in +Cologne, Metz, Trier, Hanover and Münster in Westphalia, +where again there are whole streets remaining; and in brick +at Rostock, Stralsund, Lübeck, Greifswald and Dantzig, forming +a very remarkable series of 15th and 16th-century work.</p> + +<p>Of half-timber work in Italy there are no examples, but +sometimes (as at Bologna) the rooms of the upper floors are +carried on arcades, and sometimes on corbels, as the casa dei +Carracci in the same town. The principal feature of the Italian +house is the courtyard in the rear, with arcades on one or more +sides, the front in stone or brick, or both combined, being of the +greatest simplicity (examples in San Gimignano and Pisa). At +Viterbo are small houses in stone, two of which have external +stone staircases of fine design, and the few windows on the +ground floor suggest that the rooms there were used only for stores. +Houses with external staircases, but without any architectural +pretensions, are found throughout the Balkan provinces.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:384px; height:757px" src="images/img812b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 3.</span>—Detail of house at Orleans.</td></tr></table> + +<p>The introduction of the purer Italian style into England in the +17th century created a great change in domestic architecture. +Instead of the projecting wings and otherwise picturesque +contour of the earlier work the houses were made square or +rectangular on plan, in two or three storeys, crowned with a +modillion cornice carrying a roof of red tiles; the only embellishments +of the main front were the projecting courses of stone +on the quoins and architraves round the windows, and flat +pilasters carrying a hood or pediment flanking the entrance +doorway. In the larger mansions more thought was bestowed +on the introduction of porticoes (scarcely necessary in the +English climate), with sometimes great flights of steps up to the +principal floor, which was raised above a basement with cold +and dark passages; a great saloon in the centre of the block, +lighted from above, took the place of the great entrance hall of +the Tudor period, and the rooms frequently led one out of the +other, without an independent entrance door. On the other hand, +in the ordinary houses, the deficiency in external ornament +was amply made up for by the comfort in the interior and the +decoration of the staircase and other rooms. Towards the close +of the century the square mullioned and transomed windows, +with opening casements, gave way to sash windows, introduced +from Holland, and these with moulded and stout sash-bars gave +a certain character to the outside of the houses, which are valued +now for their quiet unpretentious character and excellent construction. +In the closes of many English cathedrals, on the +outskirts of London, and in some of the older squares, as Lincoln’s +Inn Fields and Queen Square, are examples of this style of +house. The substitution of thin sash-bars in the 19th century, +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page813" id="page813"></a>813</span> +and their omission occasionally, in favour of plate-glass, deprived +the house-front of one of its chief attractions; but the old +English casements and oriels or bow-windows have been again +introduced, and a return has been made to the style which +prevailed in the beginning of the 18th century, commonly known +as that of Queen Anne.</p> + +<p class="pt2 noind f90 sc">Plate III.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:841px; height:511px" src="images/img812c.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl f80"><i>Photo, Frith & Co.</i></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 10.</span>—SPEKE HALL, NEAR LIVERPOOL.</td></tr></table> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:842px; height:576px" src="images/img812d.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl f80"><i>Photo, F. Frith & Co.</i></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 11.</span>—MORETON OLD HALL, NEAR CONGLETON, CHESHIRE.</td></tr></table> + +<p class="pt2 noind f90 sc">Plate IV.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:854px; height:529px" src="images/img812e.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl f80">From Garner and Stratton, <i>Domestic Architecture of England during the Tudor Period</i>, 1910. By permission of B. T. Batsford.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 12.</span>—SOUTH COURT OF SUTTON PLACE, SURREY, 1525.</td></tr></table> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:856px; height:530px" src="images/img812f.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl f80">From <i>Gotch, Architecture of the Renaissance in England</i>, 1894. By permission of B. T. Batsford.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 13.</span>—MOYNS PARK, ESSEX, 1580.</td></tr></table> + +<p class="pt2 noind f90 sc">Plate V.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:848px; height:516px" src="images/img814a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl f80">From Belcher and Macartney, <i>Later Renaissance Architecture in England</i>, 1901. By permission of B. T. Batsford.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 14.</span>—HAM HOUSE, PETERSHAM, 1610.</td></tr></table> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:842px; height:518px" src="images/img814b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl f80">From Gotch, <i>Architecture of the Renaissance in England</i>, 1894. By permission of B. T. Batsford.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 15.</span>—BRAMSHILL, HAMPSHIRE, 1612.</td></tr></table> + +<p class="pt2 noind f90 sc">Plate VI.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:822px; height:546px" src="images/img814c.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl f80">From Belcher and MaCartney, <i>Later Renaissance Architecture in England</i>, By permission of B. T. Batsford.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 16.</span>—THE EARL OF BURLINGTON’S VILLA, CHISWICK. EIGHTEENTH CENTURY.</td></tr></table> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:820px; height:529px" src="images/img814d.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl f80">From the same source as above.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 17.</span>—HOUSES IN CAVENDISH SQUARE, LONDON. EIGHTEENTH CENTURY.</td></tr></table> + +<p>Perhaps in one respect the greatest change which has been +made in the English house is the adoption of “flats”; commenced +some time in the ’fifties in Ashley Gardens, Westminster, +they have spread throughout London. In consequence of the +great value of the sites on which they are sometimes built, to +which must be added the cost of the houses pulled down to +make way for them, the question of expense in material and +rich decoration has not always been worth considering, so that +frontages in stone, with the classic orders brought in with +many varieties of design, have given the character of a palace +to a structure in which none of the rooms exceeds the modest +height of 10 ft. The increasing demand for these, however, +shows that they meet, so far as their accommodation and comfort +are concerned, the wants and tastes of the upper and middle +classes. In some of the London streets, where shops occupy the +ground floor, a far finer type of house has been erected than that +which could have been afforded for the shopkeeper’s residence +above, as in old times, so that London promises in time to +become a city of palaces. The same change in the aspects of +its streets has long been evident in Paris, but there is one feature +in the latter city which has never yet found its way into London, +much to the surprise of French visitors, viz. the <i>porte-cochère</i>, +through which the occupants of the house can in wet weather +drive and be landed in a covered hall or vestibule. This requires, +of course, a small court at the back, so small that one wonders +sometimes how it is possible for the carriage to turn round in it. +The <i>porte-cochère</i> also, from its dimensions, is a feature of more +importance than the ordinary street doorway, even when a +portico of some kind is added; on the other hand, the strict +regulations in Paris as regards the projection of cornices and +other decorative accessories gives to the stranger the appearance +of monotony in their design, which certainly cannot be said of +the houses in flats lately built in London. Within recent years +an old English feature, known as the bow-window, has been +introduced into Paris, the primary object of which does not +seem yet to have been thoroughly understood by the French +architect. An English bow-window, by its slight projection in +front of the main wall, increases greatly the amount of light +entering the room, and it is generally placed between solid piers +of stone or brick. The French architects, however, project +their piers on immense corbels, and then sink their windows +with deep external reveals, so that no benefit accrues to the +room, so far as the increased light is concerned. In Paris, since +1900, there has been a tendency to introduce a style of design in +French houses which is known as “l’art nouveau,” a style +which commenced in furniture as a reaction against the revival +of the Empire and Louis XIV. and XVI. periods, and was then +extended to house fronts; this style has unfortunately spread +through the various towns in France and apparently to Germany, +again as a reaction against the formal classic style of the latter +half of the 19th century. It is probable that in Italy and Spain +“l’art nouveau” may meet with the same success, and for the +same reasons, so that in the latter country it will be a revival, +with modifications, of the well-known Churrigueresque style, +the most debased Rococo style which has ever existed. In +England it has never met with any response.</p> +<div class="author">(R. P. S.)</div> + +<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note"> + +<p><a name="ft1d" id="ft1d" href="#fa1d"><span class="fn">1</span></a> A complete description of these houses will be found in <i>The +Evolution of the English House</i>, by S. O. Addy.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HOUSEHOLD, ROYAL.<a name="ar57" id="ar57"></a></span> In all the medieval monarchies of +western Europe the general system of government sprang from, +and centred in, the royal household. The sovereign’s domestics +were his officers of state, and the leading dignitaries of the +palace were the principal administrators of the kingdom. The +royal household itself had, in its turn, grown out of an earlier and +more primitive institution. It took its rise in the <i>comitatus</i> +described by Tacitus, the chosen band of <i>comites</i> or companions +who, when the Roman historian wrote, constituted the personal +following, in peace as well as in war, of the Teutonic chieftain. In +England before the Conquest the <i>comitatus</i> had developed or +degenerated into the thegnhood, and among the most eminent and +powerful of the king’s thegns were his dishthegn, his bowerthegn, +and his horsethegn or staller. In Normandy at the time of the +Conquest a similar arrangement, imitated from the French +court, had long been established, and the Norman dukes, like +their overlords the kings of France, had their seneschal or +steward, their chamberlain and their constable. After the +Conquest the ducal household of Normandy was reproduced in +the royal household of England; and since, in obedience to +the spirit of feudalism, the great offices of the first had been +made hereditary, the great offices of the second were made +hereditary also, and were thenceforth held by the grantees and +their descendants as grand-serjeanties of the crown. The consequence +was that they passed out of immediate relation to the +practical conduct of affairs either in both state and court or in +the one or the other of them. The steward and chamberlain of +England were superseded in their political functions by the +justiciar and treasurer of England, and in their domestic functions +by the steward and chamberlain of the household. The marshal +of England took the place of the constable of England in the +royal palace, and was associated with him in the command of +the royal armies. In due course, however, the marshalship as +well as the constableship became hereditary, and, although the +constable and marshal of England retained their military +authority until a comparatively late period, the duties they had +successively performed about the palace had been long before +transferred to the master of the horse. In these circumstances +the holders of the original great offices of state and the household +ceased to attend the court except on occasions of extraordinary +ceremony, and their representatives either by inheritance or by +special appointment have ever since continued to appear at +coronations and some other public solemnities, such as the +opening of the parliament or trials by the House of Lords.<a name="fa1e" id="fa1e" href="#ft1e"><span class="sp">1</span></a></p> + +<p>The materials available for a history of the English royal +household are somewhat scanty and obscure. The earliest +record relating to it is of the reign of Henry II. and is contained +in the <i>Black Book of the Exchequer</i>. It enumerates the various +inmates of the king’s palace and the daily allowances made to +them at the period at which it was compiled. Hence it affords +valuable evidence of the antiquity and relative importance of the +court offices to which it refers, notwithstanding that it is silent +as to the functions and formal subordination of the persons who +filled them.<a name="fa2e" id="fa2e" href="#ft2e"><span class="sp">2</span></a> In addition to this record we have a series of far +later, but for the most part equally meagre, documents bearing +more or less directly on the constitution of the royal household, +and extending, with long intervals, from the reign of Edward III. +to the reign of William and Mary.<a name="fa3e" id="fa3e" href="#ft3e"><span class="sp">3</span></a> Among them, however, are +what are known as the <i>Black Book of the Household</i> and the +<i>Statutes of Eltham</i>, the first compiled in the reign of Edward IV. +and the second in the reign of Henry VIII., from which a good +deal of detailed information may be gathered concerning the +arrangements of the court in the 15th and 16th centuries. The +<i>Statutes of Eltham</i> were meant for the practical guidance merely +of those who were responsible for the good order and the sufficient +supply of the sovereign’s household at the time they were issued. +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page814" id="page814"></a>814</span> +But the <i>Black Book of the Household</i>, besides being a sort of +treatise on princely magnificence generally, professes to be based +on the regulations established for the governance of the court by +Edward III., who, it affirms, was “the first setter of certeynties +among his domesticall meyne, upon a grounded rule” and +whose palace it describes as “the house of very policie and +flowre of England”; and it may therefore possibly, and even +probably, take us back to a period much more remote than that +at which it was actually put together.<a name="fa4e" id="fa4e" href="#ft4e"><span class="sp">4</span></a> Various orders, returns +and accounts of the reigns of Elizabeth, James I., Charles I., +Charles II., and William and Mary throw considerable light on +the organization of particular sections of the royal household in +times nearer to our own.<a name="fa5e" id="fa5e" href="#ft5e"><span class="sp">5</span></a> Moreover, there were several parliamentary +inquiries into the expenses of the royal household in +connexion with the settlement or reform of the civil list during +the reigns of George III., George IV. and William IV.<a name="fa6e" id="fa6e" href="#ft6e"><span class="sp">6</span></a> But they +add little or nothing to our knowledge of the subject in what +was then its historical as distinguished from its contemporary +aspects. So much, indeed, is this the case that, on the accession +of Queen Victoria, Chamberlayne’s <i>Present State of England</i>, +which contains a catalogue of the officials at the court of Queen +Anne, was described by Lord Melbourne the prime minister as the +“only authority” which the advisers of the crown could find for +their assistance in determining the appropriate constitution and +dimensions of the domestic establishment of a queen regnant.<a name="fa7e" id="fa7e" href="#ft7e"><span class="sp">7</span></a></p> + +<p>In its main outlines the existing organization of the royal +household is essentially the same as it was under the Tudors or +the Plantagenets. It is now, as it was then, divided into three +principal departments, at the head of which are severally the +lord steward, the lord chamberlain and the master of the horse, +and the respective provinces of which may be generally described +as “below stairs,” “above stairs” and “out of doors.” The +duties of these officials, and the various officers under their +charge are dealt with in the articles under those headings. When +the reigning sovereign is a queen, the royal household is in some +other respects rather differently arranged from that of a king and +a queen consort. When there is a king and a queen consort there +is a separate establishment “above stairs” and “out of doors” +for the queen consort. She has a lord chamberlain’s department +of her own, and all the ladies of the court from the mistress of the +robes to the maids of honour are in her service. At the commencement +of the reign of Queen Victoria the two establishments +were combined, and on the whole considerably reduced. On the +accession of Edward VII. the civil list was again reconstituted; +and while the household of the king and his consort became larger +than during the previous reign, there was a tendency towards +increased efficiency by abolishing certain offices which were +either redundant or unnecessary.</p> + +<p>The royal households of such of the continental monarchies +of Europe as have had a continuous history from medieval times +resemble in general outlines that described above. There are, +common to many, certain great offices, which have become, +in course of time, merely titular and sometimes hereditary. +In most cases, as the name of the office would suggest, they were +held by those who discharged personal functions about the +sovereign. Gradually, in ways or for reasons which might vary +in each individual case, the office alone survived, the duties either +ceasing to be necessary, or being transferred to officers of less +exalted station and permanently attached to the sovereign’s +household. For example, in Prussia, there are certain great +titular officers, such as the Oberstmarschall (great chamberlain); +the Oberstjägermeister (grand master of the hunt); the Oberstschenk +(grand cup-bearer) and the Obersttruchsess (grand +carver), while, at the same time, there are also departments which +correspond, to a great extent—both as to offices and their +duties—to those of the household of the English sovereigns. +This is a feature which must necessarily be reproduced in any +monarchical country, whatever the date of its foundation, +to a more or less limited extent, and varying in its constitution +with the needs or customs of the particular countries.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See also <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Lord Steward</a></span>; <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Lord Chamberlain</a></span>; <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Master of the +Horse</a></span>; <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Privy Purse</a></span>; and <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Civil List</a></span>.</p> +</div> + +<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note"> + +<p><a name="ft1e" id="ft1e" href="#fa1e"><span class="fn">1</span></a> The great officers of state and the household whom we have +particularly mentioned do not of course exhaust the catalogue of +them. We have named those only whose representatives are still +dignitaries of the court and functionaries of the palace. If the +reader consults Hallam (<i>Middle Ages</i>, i. 181 seq.), Freeman (<i>Norman +Conquest</i>, i. 91 seq., and v. 426 seq.) and Stubbs (<i>Const. Hist.</i> i. 343, +seq.), he will be able himself to fill in the details of the outline we +have given above.</p> + +<p><a name="ft2e" id="ft2e" href="#fa2e"><span class="fn">2</span></a> The record in question is entitled <i>Constitutio Domus Regis de +Procurationibus</i>, and is printed by Hearne (<i>Liber Niger Scaccarii</i>, +i. 341 sq.). It is analysed by Stubbs (<i>Const. Hist.</i> vol. i. note 2, +p. 345).</p> + +<p><a name="ft3e" id="ft3e" href="#fa3e"><span class="fn">3</span></a> <i>A Collection of Ordinances and Regulations for the Government of +the Royal Household, made in Divers Reigns from King Edward III. to +King William and Queen Mary</i>, printed for the Society of Antiquaries, +(London, 1790). See also Pegge’s <i>Curialia</i>, published partly before +and partly after this volume; and Carlisle’s <i>Gentlemen of the Privy +Chamber</i>, published in 1829. Pegge and Carlisle, however, deal with +small and insignificant portions of the royal establishment.</p> + +<p><a name="ft4e" id="ft4e" href="#fa4e"><span class="fn">4</span></a> <i>Liber niger domus Regis Edward IV.</i> and <i>Ordinances for the +Household made at Eltham in the seventeenth year of King Henry +VIII., <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 1526</i>, are the titles of these two documents. The earlier +documents printed in the same collection are <i>Household of King +Edward III. in Peace and War from the eighteenth to the twenty-first +year of his reign</i>; <i>Ordinances of the Household of King Henry IV. +in the thirty-third year of his reign, <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 1455</i>, and <i>Articles ordained +by King Henry VII. for the Regulation of his Household, <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 1494</i>.</p> + +<p><a name="ft5e" id="ft5e" href="#fa5e"><span class="fn">5</span></a> <i>The Book of the Household of Queen Elizabeth as it was ordained +in the forty-third year of her Reign delivered to our Sovereign Lord +King James, &c.</i>, is simply a list of officers’ names and allowances. +It seems to have been drawn up under the curious circumstances +referred to in <i>Archaeologia</i> (xii. 80-85). For the rest of these +documents see <i>Ordinances and Regulations, &c.</i>, pp. 299, 340, 347, +352, 368 and 380.</p> + +<p><a name="ft6e" id="ft6e" href="#fa6e"><span class="fn">6</span></a> Burke’s celebrated Act “for enabling His Majesty to discharge +the debt contracted upon the civil list, and for preventing the same +from being in arrear for the future, &c.,” 22 Geo. III. c. 82, was +passed in 1782. But it was foreshadowed in his great speech on +“Economical Reform” delivered two years before. Since the +beginning of the 19th century select committees of the House of +Commons have reported on the civil list and royal household in +1803, 1804, 1815, 1831 and 1901.</p> + +<p><a name="ft7e" id="ft7e" href="#fa7e"><span class="fn">7</span></a> Torrens’s <i>Memoirs of William, second Viscount Melbourne</i>, +ii-303.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HOUSEL,<a name="ar58" id="ar58"></a></span> the English name, until the time of the Reformation, +for the Eucharist. The word in O. Eng. was <i>húsel</i>. Its proper +meaning is “sacrifice,” and thus the word <i>hunsl</i> appears in +Ulfilas’ Gothic version of Matt. ix. 13, “I will have mercy and +not sacrifice.” The ultimate origin is doubtful. The <i>New +English Dictionary</i> connects it with a Teutonic stem meaning +“holy”; from which is derived the Lithuanian <i>szweńtas</i>, and +Lettish <i>swéts</i>. Skeat refers it to a root meaning “to kill,” +which may connect it with Gr. <span class="grk" title="kainein">καίνειν</span>.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HOUSELEEK,<a name="ar59" id="ar59"></a></span> <i>Sempervivum</i>, a genus of ornamental evergreen +plants belonging to the natural order <i>Crassulaceae</i>. About +30 species are known in gardens, some of which are hardy +perennial herbs, and grow well in dry or rocky situations; the +others are evergreen shrubs or undershrubs, fit only for cultivation +in the greenhouse or conservatory. The genus <i>Sempervivum</i> +is distinguished from the nearly allied <i>Sedum</i> by having more +than five (about 12) petals, and by the glands at the base of the +ovary being laciniated if present. The common houseleek, +<i>S. tectorum</i> (Ger. <i>Hauswurzel</i>, Fr. <i>joubarbe</i>), is often met with in +Britain on roofs of outhouses and wall-tops, but is not a native. +Originally it was indigenous in the Alps, but it is now widely +dispersed in Europe, and has been introduced into America. +The leaves are thick, fleshy and succulent, and are arranged +in the form of a rosette lying close to the soil. The plant propagates +itself by offsets on all sides, so that it forms after a time +a dense cushion or aggregation of rosettes. The flowering stem, +which is of rather rare occurrence, is about 1 ft. high, reddish, +cylindrical and succulent, and ends in a level-topped cyme, reflexed +at the circumference, of reddish flowers, which bloom +from June to September. The houseleek has been known +variously as the houselick, homewort or great houseleek. <i>Sedum +acre</i> (stone-crop) is styled the little houseleek. In Germany it is +sometimes called <i>Donnerkraut</i>, from being supposed to protect +the house on which it grows from thunder. The leaves are said to +contain malic acid in considerable quantity, and have been eaten +as salad, like <i>Portulaca</i>. <i>S. glutinosum</i> and <i>S. balsamiferum</i>, +natives respectively of Madeira and the Canary Islands, contain +a very viscous substance in large quantity, and are used for the +preparation of bird-lime; fishermen in Madeira, after dipping +their nets in an alkaline solution, rub them with this substance, +rendering them as tough as leather. <i>S. montanum</i>, indigenous +in Central Europe, according to Gmelin, causes violent purging; +<i>S. arboreum</i>, <span class="grk" title="to mega aeizôon">τὸ μἐγα ἀείζωον</span> of Dioscorides, is employed in +Cyprus, the East, and northern Africa as an external remedy for +malignant ulcers, inflammations and burns, and internally for +mucous discharges.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HOUSING.<a name="ar60" id="ar60"></a></span> The housing of the poorer classes has become +a pressing problem in all populous Western countries, and has +engaged, in a varying but constantly increasing measure, the +attention of legislative and administrative bodies and of philanthropic +individuals and societies. The general interest was +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page815" id="page815"></a>815</span> +signalized by an International Congress held in London in 1907. +The recognition of the problem is due in the first instance to the +science of public health, the rise of which dates from the second +quarter of the 19th century; and in the second instance to the +growth of urban populations consequent on the development +of manufacturing industries and of trading and transporting +agencies, both of which tend to mass increasing numbers of people +in convenient centres. To have a clear view of the subject it +is necessary to distinguish these factors and their respective +influence upon the problem. Urban congestion is quite secondary, +and only important because and so far as it has a prejudicial +effect upon health and strength. Further, the requirements on +the scientific side, made on behalf of public health, are of very +much wider application and more expansive than those which +arise from the mere growth of urban population. That is obvious +at once from the fact that they extend to rural housing, which +has indeed become a prominent feature of the question in +recent years. To ascribe the housing problem to the “factory +system,” as some writers have done, is to put forward an inadequate +and misleading view of it. It is, in fact, particularly +acute in some places totally devoid of factories and least acute +in some purely factory towns. If the factory system were +abolished with all its effects the housing question would remain. +But there is a more important distinction than extent of application. +The requirements of public health are indeterminate and +interminable; knowledge increases, or rather changes, and the +standard constantly rises. It is the changing standard which +gives most trouble; housing at one period thought good enough +is presently condemned. Fifty years ago no house existed +which would satisfy modern sanitary standards, and the mansions +of the great were in some respects inferior to the worst quarters +to-day. And to this process there is no end. It is quite conceivable +that urban congestion might cease to be a difficulty at +all. That actually happens in particular towns where the +population is stationary or diminishing. One whole nation +(France) has already reached that point, and others are moving +towards it at varying rates. But even where the supply of +houses exceeds the demand and many stand empty, the housing +problem remains; condemnation of existing accommodation +continues and the effort to provide superior houses goes on. In +other words, there are two main aspects of the housing question, +quality and quantity; they touch at various points and interact, +but they are essentially distinct. The problem of quantity may +be “solved,” that of quality has no finality.</p> + +<p>The importance attached to housing is much enhanced by +the general tendency to lay stress on the material conditions +of life, which characterizes the present age. Among material +conditions environment takes a leading place, largely under the +influence of the theory of evolution in a popular and probably +erroneous form; and among the factors of environment the +home assumes a more and more prominent position. There is +reason in this, for whatever other provision be made for work +or recreation the home is after all the place where people spend +most of their time. Life begins there and generally ends there. +At the beginning of life the whole time is spent there and home +conditions are of paramount importance to the young, whose +physical welfare has become the object of increasing care. But +the usual tendency to run to extremes has asserted itself. It +may be admitted that it is extremely difficult to raise the +character and condition of those who live in thoroughly bad +home surroundings, and that an indispensable or preliminary +step is to improve the dwelling. But if in pursuit of this object +other considerations are lost sight of, the result is failure. Bad +housing is intimately connected with poverty; it is, indeed, +largely a question of poverty now that the difference between +good and bad housing is understood and the effects of the latter +are recognized. The poorest people live under the worst housing +conditions because they are the cheapest; the economic factor +governs the situation. Poverty again is associated with bad +habits, with dirt, waste, idleness and vice, both as cause and +as effect. These factors cannot be separated in real life; they +act and react upon each other in such a way that it is impossible +to disentangle their respective shares in producing physical +and moral evils. To lay all responsibility upon the structural +environment is an error constantly exposed by experience.</p> + +<p>Defective quality embraces some or all of the following +conditions—darkness, bad air, damp, dirt and dilapidation. +Particular insanitary conditions independent of the structure +are often associated; namely defects of water-supply, drainage, +excrement and house refuse removal, back-yards and surrounding +ground; they contribute to dirt, damp and bad air. Defective +quantity produces high rents and overcrowding, both of +which have a prejudicial effect upon health; the one by diminishing +expenditure on other necessaries, the other by fouling the +atmosphere and promoting the spread of infectious illness. +The physical effects of these conditions have been demonstrated +by comparative statistics of mortality general and +special; among the latter particular stress is laid on the mortality +of infants, that from consumption and from “zymotic” diseases. +The statistical evidence has been especially directed to the +effects of overcrowding, which can be stated with greater precision +than other insanitary conditions. It generally takes the +form of comparing the death-rates of different areas having widely +contrasted densities of population or proportions of persons +to a given space. It is not necessary to quote any of these +figures, which have been produced in great abundance. They +broadly establish a connexion between density and mortality; +but the inference that the connexion can be reduced to a precise +numerical statement and that the difference of mortality shown +is all due to overcrowding or other housing conditions is highly +fallacious. Many other factors ought to be taken into account, +such as the age-distribution of the population, the birth-rate, +the occupations, means, character and habits of the people, +the geographical situation, the number of public institutions, +hospitals, workhouses, asylums and so forth. The fallacious +use of vital statistics for the purpose of proving some particular +point has become so common that it is necessary to enter a +warning against them; the subject of housing is a popular +field for the exercise of that art, though there is no need of it.</p> + +<p>The actual state of housing in different countries and localities, +the efforts made to deal with it by various agencies, the subsidiary +points which arise in connexion with it and the results +attained—all these heads embrace such a vast mass of facts +that any attempt to treat them fully in detail would run to +inordinate length. It must suffice to review the more salient +points; and the most convenient way of doing so is to deal +first with Great Britain, which has led the way historically +in extent of need, in its recognition and in efforts to meet it, +adding some notes upon other countries, in which the question +is of more recent date and for which less information is available.</p> + +<p class="pt2 center sc">The United Kingdom</p> + +<p>The importance of housing and the need of improvement +had by 1909 received public recognition in England for nearly +70 years, a period coinciding almost exactly with the systematic +study of sanitation or public health. The active movement +definitely began about 1841 with voluntary effort in which +Lord Shaftesbury was the most prominent and active figure. +The motive was philanthropic and the object was to improve +the condition of the working classes. It took the form of +societies; one was the “Metropolitan Association for Improving +the Dwellings of the Industrial Classes,” incorporated in 1845 +but founded in 1841; another was the “Society for Improving +the Condition of the Labouring Classes,” originally the +“Labourers’ Friend Society,” of which the Prince Consort +became president. That fact and the statement of the Society +concerning improved housing that “the moral were almost +equal to the physical benefits,” sufficiently prove that public +interest in the subject and a grasp of its significance already +existed at that date. Legislation followed not long after and +has continued at intervals ever since.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p><i>Legislation.</i>—Twenty-eight Housing and Health Acts, passed +between 1851 and 1903, are enumerated by Mr Dewsnup, whose +monograph on <i>The Housing Problem in England</i> is the fullest account +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page816" id="page816"></a>816</span> +of the subject published. The first was the Shaftesbury Act of 1851 +for the establishment of lodging-houses for the working classes; +the last was the Housing of the Working Classes Act of 1903. The +Shaftesbury Act had in view the provision by local authorities of +good lodging-houses for the better class of artisans, and particularly +of single persons, male and female, though families were also contemplated. +It was accompanied in the same year by another act, +not included in the list of twenty-eight, for the regulation and control +of common lodging-houses, from which Mr Dewsnup reasonably +infers that the object of Lord Shaftesbury, who inspired both acts, +was the separation of the casual and disorderly class frequenting +common lodging-houses from the more regularly employed and +respectable workers who were sometimes driven to use them for +lack of other accommodation. At any rate this early legislation +embodied the principle of differential treatment and showed a grasp +of the problem not always visible in later procedure. The most +important of the subsequent acts were those of 1855 and 1866, both +intended to encourage private enterprise in the provision of working-class +dwellings; the Torrens Act of 1868 (Artisans’ and Labourers’ +Dwellings Act) for the improvement or demolition of existing +buildings; the Cross Act of 1875 (Artisans’ and Labourers’ Dwellings +Improvement Act), for extending that process to larger areas; the +Public Health Act of 1875; the Housing of the Working Classes Act +of 1885 following the report of the Royal Commission on the Housing +of the Working Classes, of which King Edward, then prince of +Wales, was a member; the Housing of the Working Classes Act of +1890; the Public Health (London) Act of 1891. The acts of 1875 +(Public Health), of 1890 and of 1891 are still in force. The story of +this half-century of legislation (which also includes a number of +Scotch and Irish acts, local private acts and others bearing on the +question) is one of tentative efforts first in one direction then in +another, of laws passed, amended, extended, consolidated, superseded. +Many of the enactments, originally of limited application, +were subsequently extended, and the principal laws now in force +apply to the whole of the United Kingdom. Two main objects can +be distinguished—(1) the treatment of existing dwellings by demolition +or improvement; (2) the construction of new ones. The +second head is further subdivided into (<i>a</i>) municipal action, (<i>b</i>) +private action. These objects have been alternately promoted by +legislative measures conceived and carried out on no systematic +plan, but gradually and continuously developed into an effective +body of law, particularly with regard to the means of dealing with +existing insanitary dwellings. The advancing requirements of +public health are clearly traceable in the series of enactments directed +to that end. The Nuisances Removal Act of 1855 took cognizance +of premises in such a state as to be “a nuisance or injurious to +health,” and made provision for obtaining an order to prohibit the +use of such premises for human habitation. In the same act overcrowding +obtained statutory recognition as a condition dangerous or +prejudicial to health, and provision was made for compelling its +abatement. The campaign against bad housing conditions thus +inaugurated by the legislature was extended by subsequent acts in +1860, 1866 and 1868, culminating in the Cross Act of 1875 for the +demolition (and reconstruction) of large insanitary areas and the +extremely important Public Health Act of the same year. The +constructive policy, begun still earlier in 1851 by Lord Shaftesbury’s +Act, was concurrently pursued, and for some years more actively +than the destructive; but after 1866 the latter became more prominent, +and though the other was not lost sight of it fell into the +background until revived by the Royal Commission of 1885 and the +housing legislation which followed, particularly the Housing of the +Working Classes Act of 1890, amending and consolidating previous +acts.</p> +</div> + +<p>The laws in operation at the beginning of 1909 were the +Public Health Acts of 1875 and 1891 (London), as amended by +subsequent minor measures, and the Housing of the Working +Classes Act of 1890, amended in 1894, 1900 and 1903. The +Public Health Acts place upon the local sanitary authority +the obligation of securing, under by-laws, the proper construction, +draining and cleaning of streets, removal of house refuse and +building of houses, including structural details for the prevention +of damp and decay, the provision of sanitary conveniences and +an adequate water-supply; also of inquiring into and removing +nuisances, which include any premises in such a condition as +to be a nuisance or injurious to health and any house so overcrowded +as to be dangerous or injurious to health. For the +purpose of carrying out these duties the local authority has the +power of inspection, of declaring a building unfit for human +habitation and of closing it by order. The Housing Acts give +more extended power to the local authority to demolish insanitary +dwellings and clear whole areas or “slums,” and also +to construct dwellings for the working classes with or without +such clearance; they also retain the older provisions for encouraging +private enterprise in the erection of superior dwellings for +the working classes. The procedure for dealing with insanitary +property under these Acts is too intricate to be stated in detail; +but, briefly, there are two ways of proceeding. In the first +the local authority, on receiving formal complaint of an unhealthy +area, cause an inspection to be made by their medical officer, +and if the report in their opinion justifies action, they may +prepare an “improvement scheme,” which is submitted to the +Local Government Board. The Board holds an inquiry, and, if +satisfied, issues a provisional order, which has to be confirmed +by a special act of parliament, under which the local authority +can proceed to demolish the houses concerned after paying +compensation to the owners. This procedure, which is authorized +by part i. of the act of 1890, is obviously both cumbrous and +costly. The second way, provided for by part ii. of the act, +is much simpler and less ambitious; it only applies to single +houses or groups of houses. The medical officer in the course +of his duty reports to the local authority any houses which are +in his opinion unfit for human habitation; the local authority +can then make an order to serve notices on the owners to repair +the houses at their own expense. Failing compliance on the +part of the owners, an order for closing the houses can be obtained; +and if nothing is done at the end of three months an order for +demolition can be made. Buildings injurious by reason of their +obstructive character (<i>e.g.</i> houses built back to back so as to +be without through ventilation and commonly called “back-to-back” +houses) can be dealt with in a similar manner. Small +areas containing groups of objectionable houses of either kind +may be made the subject of an improvement scheme, as above. +Where areas are dealt with under improvement schemes there +is a certain obligation to re-house the persons displaced. Building +schemes are provided for under part iii. of the act. Land may +be compulsorily purchased for the purpose and the money +required may be raised by loans under certain conditions. The +provisions thus summarized were considerably modified by the +“Housing, Town Planning, &c., Act,” passed at the end of 1909. +It rendered obligatory the adoption (previously permissive) +of the housing provisions (part iii.) of the act of 1890 by local +authorities, simplified the procedure for the compulsory purchase +of land required for the purpose and extended the facilities for +obtaining loans. It further gave power to the Local Government +Board to compel local authorities to put in force the act of 1890 +in regard both to existing insanitary housing and the provision +of new housing. Power was also given to county councils to +act in default of rural district councils in regard to new housing. +The procedure for dealing with insanitary houses by closing +and demolition under part ii. (see above) was rendered more +stringent. The general intention of the new act was partly +to facilitate the administration of the previous one by local +authorities and partly to provide means of compelling supine +authorities to take action. Its town-planning provisions are +noted below.</p> + +<p><i>Effects of Legislation.</i>—The efficacy of laws depends very largely +on their administration; and when they are permissive and +dependent on the energy and discretion of local bodies their +administration varies greatly in different localities. That has +been the case with the British housing and health laws, and is +one cause of dissatisfaction with them. But in the aggregate +they have effected very great improvement. Public action has +chiefly taken effect in sanitary reform, which includes the +removal of the worst housing, through demolition or alteration, +and general sanitary improvements of various kinds. In some +large towns the worst parts have been transformed, masses of +old, narrow, crowded, dilapidated and filthy streets and courts +have been swept away at one blow or by degrees; other parts +have been reconstructed or improved. The extent to which +this has been accomplished is not generally recognized. It +is not easily demonstrated, and to realize it local knowledge, +observation and memory are needed. The details of the story +are hidden away in local annals and official reports; and writers +on the subject are usually more concerned with what has not +than with what has been done. Both the Public Health and the +Housing Acts have had a share in the improvement effected. +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page817" id="page817"></a>817</span> +The operation of the former is slow and gradual, but it is continuous +and far more general than that of the latter. It embraces +many details which are not usually taken into account in discussing +housing, but which have as much bearing on the healthiness +of the home as the structure itself. The Public Health Acts +have further had a certain preventive influence in laying down +a standard for the erection of new houses by the ordinary +commercial agencies. Such houses are not ideal, because the +commercial builder studies economy and the question of rent; +but the standard has risen, and building plans involving insufficient +light and air, such as once were general, have now +for several years been forbidden almost everywhere. Supervision +of commercial building is, in fact, vastly more important +than the erection of dwellings by public or philanthropic agencies, +because it affects a vastly larger proportion of the population. +The influence of the Public Health Acts in improving the conditions +of home life cannot be estimated or summarized, but it +is reflected in the general death-rate, which fell steadily in the +United Kingdom from 21.1 per 1000 in 1878 to 15.4 per 1000 +in 1907.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p><i>Insanitary Areas.</i>—The operation of the Housing Acts is +more susceptible of being stated in figures, though no fully comprehensive +information is available. The original Shaftesbury Act +of 1851 for erecting municipal lodging-houses appears to have been +practically inoperative and little or nothing was done for a good +many years. In 1864, however, Liverpool obtained a private act +and entered on the policy of improvement by the demolition of +insanitary dwellings on a considerable scale, following it up in 1869 +by re-housing. In 1866 Glasgow, also under a private act, created +an Improvement Trust, administered by the city council, and embarked +on a large scheme of improvement. These seem to have +been the earliest examples. The Torrens Act of 1868, which embodied +the improvement policy, did not produce much effect. According +to a parliamentary return, during the years 1883-1888, proceedings +were only taken under this act in respect of about 2000 houses in +London and four provincial towns. More advantage was taken of +the Cross Act of 1875, which was intended to promote large improvement +schemes. Between 1875 and 1885 23 schemes involving +a total area of 51 acres and a population of about 30,000 were +undertaken, in London; and 11 schemes in provincial towns. By +far the most important of these, and the largest single scheme ever +undertaken, was one carried out in Birmingham. It affected an +area of 93 acres and involved a net cost of £550,000. Altogether +between £4,000,000 and £5,000,000 were raised for improvement +schemes under those acts. After the Housing Act of 1890 the +clearance policy was continued in London and extended in the +provinces. During the period 1891-1905 loans to the amount of +about £2,300,000 were raised for improvement schemes by 28 +provincial towns in England and Wales. The largest of these were +Leeds (£923,000), Manchester (£285,000), Liverpool (£178,000), +Sheffield (£131,000), Brighton (£112,000). The Leeds scheme +affected an area of 75 acres, which was cleared at a cost of £500,000. +In London the area cleared was raised to a total of 104 acres; the +gross cost, down to March 31, 1908, was £3,417,337, the net cost +£2,434,096, and the number of persons displaced 48,525. Glasgow +has under its Improvement Trust cleared an area of 88 acres with +a population of 51,000. At the same time the policy of dealing +with houses unfit for habitation singly or in small groups by compelling +owners to improve them has been pursued by a certain +number of local authorities. In the six years 1899-1904 action +was taken each year on the average in respect of about 5000 houses +by some 400 local authorities large and small outside London. +Representations were made against 33,746 houses, 17,210 were +rendered fit for habitation, closing orders were obtained against +4220 and demolition orders against 748. These figures do not include +cases in which action was taken under local acts and Public +Health Acts. In Manchester, between 1885 and 1905, nearly 10,000 +“back-to-back” houses were closed and about half of them reopened +after reconstruction. Hull, an old seaport town with a +great deal of extremely bad housing, has made very effective use of +the method of gradual improvement and has transformed its worst +areas without appearing in any list of improvement schemes. In +recent years this procedure has been systematically taken up in +Birmingham and other places, and has been strongly advocated by +Mr J. S. Nettlefold (<i>Practical Housing</i>) in preference to large improvement +schemes on account of the excessive expense involved +by the latter in buying up insanitary areas. In the six years 1902-1907 +Birmingham dealt with 4111 houses represented as unfit for +habitation; 1780 were thoroughly repaired, 1005 were demolished; +the rest were under notice or in course of repair at the end of the +period. Among other towns which have adopted this policy are +Liverpool, Cardiff, York, Warrington and two London boroughs.</p> + +<p><i>Building.</i>—On the constructive side the operation of the Housing +Acts has been less extensive and much less general. In London +alone has the erection of working-class dwellings by municipal +action and organized private enterprise assumed large proportions. +Philanthropic societies were first in the field and date from a period +anterior to legislation, which however, stimulated their activity for +many years by affording facilities. Fourteen organizations were in +operation in London prior to 1890 and some of them on a large scale; +others have since been formed. The earliest was the Metropolitan +Association for Improving the Dwellings of the Industrial Classes, +whose operations date from 1847; it has built 1441 tenements +containing 5105 rooms. The largest of these enterprises are the +Improved Industrial Dwellings Company (1864), which has built +5421 tenements containing 19,945 rooms; the Peabody Fund +(1864) with 5469 tenements containing 12,328 rooms; the Artisans’, +Labourers’ and General Dwellings Company (1867), with 1467 +tenements containing 3495 rooms, and 6195 cottage dwellings; +the East-End Dwellings Company (1885) with 2096 tenements +containing 4276 rooms; the Guinness Trust (1889) with 2574 +tenements containing 5338 rooms. The Artisans’ Dwellings Company +alone has housed upwards of 50,000 persons. In addition to +these there are the Rowton Houses (1892), which are hotels for +working men, six in number, accommodating 5162 persons. So +far as can be estimated, private enterprise has housed some 150,000 +persons in improved dwellings in London on a commercial basis. +The early activity of the building companies was largely due to the +policy of the Metropolitan Board of Works, which adopted extensive +improvement schemes and sold the cleared sites to the companies, +who carried out the re-housing obligations imposed by the law. +Since the London County Council, which replaced the Board of +Works in 1889, adopted the policy of undertaking its own re-housing, +their activity has greatly diminished. The buildings erected by them +are nearly all in the form of blocks of tenements; the Artisans’ +Dwellings Company, which has built small houses and shops in +outlying parts of London, is an exception. The tenement blocks are +scattered about London in many quarters. For instance the Peabody +Fund has 18 sets of dwellings in different situations, the +Metropolitan Association has 14; the Artisans’ Dwellings Company +has 10; the Guinness Trust has 8. In 1909 an important addition +to the list of philanthropic enterprises in London was put in hand +under the will of Mr W. R. Sutton, who left nearly £2,000,000 for +the purpose of providing improved working-class dwellings. The +erection of tenement blocks containing accommodation for 300 +families was begun on a site in the City Road. In only a few provincial +towns has private enterprise contributed to improved housing +in a similar manner and that not upon a large scale; among them are +Newcastle, Leeds, Hull, Salford and Dublin.</p> + +<p><i>Municipal Building</i> has been more generally adopted. The +following details are taken from Mr W. Thompson’s <i>Housing up to +Date</i>, which gives comprehensive information down to the end of +1906. The number of local authorities which had then availed +themselves of part iii. of the Housing Act of 1890, which provides +for the erection of working-class dwellings, was 142. They were +the London County Council, 12 Metropolitan Boroughs, 69 County +Boroughs and Town Councils, 49 Urban District Councils and 12 +Rural District Councils. The dwellings erected are classified as +lodging-houses, block dwellings, tenement houses, cottage flats and +cottages. Lodging-houses have been built by 12 towns, of which +8 are in England, 3 in Scotland (Glasgow, Aberdeen and Leith) and +1 in Ireland (Belfast). The total number of beds provided was +6218, of which Glasgow accounts for 2414, London for 1846, Manchester +and Salford together for 648. Four other towns have built +or are building municipal lodging-houses for which no details are +available. The other municipal dwellings erected are summarized +as follows:—</p> + +<table class="ws" summary="Contents"> +<tr><td class="tcc allb">Kind of Dwelling.</td> <td class="tcc allb">No. of Dwellings.</td> <td class="tcc allb">No. of Rooms.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Blocks</td> <td class="tcr rb">12,165</td> <td class="tcr rb">27,523</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Tenement Houses</td> <td class="tcr rb">2,507</td> <td class="tcr rb">6,068</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Cottage flats</td> <td class="tcr rb">2,004</td> <td class="tcr rb">5,747</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Cottages</td> <td class="tcr rb">3,830</td> <td class="tcr rb">17,611</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcl allb">  Total</td> <td class="tcr allb">20,506</td> <td class="tcr allb">56,949</td></tr> +</table> + +<p class="noind">It appears from these figures that municipal building has provided +for a smaller number of persons in the whole of the United Kingdom +than private enterprise in London alone. The principal towns +which have erected dwellings in blocks are London (7786), Glasgow +(2300), Edinburgh (596), Liverpool (501), Dublin (460) and Manchester +(420). The great majority of such dwellings contain either +two or three rooms. Tenement houses have been built in Liverpool +(1424), Manchester (308), Sheffield (192), Aberdeen (128), and in +seven other towns on a small scale. Such tenements are generally +somewhat larger than those built in blocks; the proportion of three- and +four-roomed dwellings is higher and only a small number consist +of a single room. Cottage flats have been built in Dublin (528), +West Ham (401), Battersea (320), Plymouth (238), East Ham (212), +and on a small scale in Liverpool, Birmingham, Newcastle and seven +other places. The majority of the cottage flats contain three or +more rooms, a considerable proportion have four rooms. Cottages +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page818" id="page818"></a>818</span> +have been built in 67 places, chiefly small towns and suburban +districts. Of the large towns which have adopted this class of +dwellings Salford stands first with 633 cottages; three London +boroughs, all on the south side of the Thames, have built 234; +Manchester has 228, Sheffield 173, Huddersfield 157, Birmingham +103. The number of rooms in municipal cottages ranges from +three to eight, but the great majority of these dwellings have four +or five rooms.</p> + +<p>Some further details of municipal housing in particular towns are +of interest. In London, the work of the London County Council +down to March 31, 1908, not including three lodging-homes containing +1845 cubicles, is given in the official volume of London Statistics, +published by the Council, as follows:—</p> + +<p class="pt2 center"><i>Buildings Erected and in Course of Erection.</i></p> + +<table class="ws" summary="Contents"> +<tr><td class="tccm allb">No. of<br />Dwellings.</td> <td class="tccm allb">No. of<br />Rooms.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Cost of Land<br />and Building.</td> <td class="tccm allb">No. of Persons<br />in Occupation.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcc allb">8,373</td> <td class="tcc allb">22,939</td> <td class="tcc allb">£2,438,263</td> <td class="tcc allb">26,687</td></tr> +</table> + +<p class="noind">With regard to the cost, it is to be noted that the actual cost of the +land purchased for improvement schemes was very much greater +than that stated, having been written down to an arbitrary figure +called “housing valuation.” The financial accounts of L.C.C. +dwellings for the year ending March 31, 1908, are thus summarized:—</p> + +<p class="pt2 center"><i>London County Council Dwellings, Accounts 1907-1908.</i></p> + +<table class="ws" summary="Contents"> +<tr><td class="tccm allb">Gross<br />Rental.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Deductions for<br />Empties, &c.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Net Receipts.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Expenditure<br />including<br />Interest.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Net<br />Returns.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcc allb">£180,169</td> <td class="tcc allb">£19,455</td> <td class="tcc allb">£160,714</td> <td class="tcc allb">£157,141</td> <td class="tcc allb">£3,573</td></tr> +</table> + +<p class="noind">It appears from this that if the actual commercial cost of the land +were taken the housing of the Council would be run at a considerable +annual loss. The occupations of the tenants are stated in the +following proportions: labourers 789, clerks 312, policemen 251, +shop assistants 202, warehousemen 183, printers 182, charwomen +182, tailors 155, cabinetmakers 146, canvassers 122, cigarette +makers 118, widows 116, tram drivers 110, postmen 107, packers 97, +engineers 87, dressmakers 41, coachmen 31, motormen 26, milliners +19. These proportional figures show that though a considerable +number of labourers have been housed, the great majority of the +occupants of London municipal dwellings are of a superior class. +The mean weekly rent in London County Council dwellings is +2s. 10½d. per room against 2s. 4d. in dwellings erected by other +agencies. The most important feature of the County Council’s +policy in recent years has been the acquisition of suburban sites for +the erection of cottages. There are four such sites, two on the +south, one on the north and one on the west side of London; the +total area is 349 acres, and the total accommodation contemplated +is for 66,000 persons at an estimated cost of £3,105,840; the present +accommodation is for about 8000. In addition to the housing +provided by the County Council, fourteen London Borough Councils +and the City Corporation had at the beginning of 1909 erected or +adapted 3136 dwellings containing 7999 rooms.</p> + +<p>In Liverpool, down to 1907, about £920,000 had been spent in +clearing insanitary areas and building new dwellings; the demolition +of about 8000 houses and purchase of land cost about +£500,000; and the erection of 2046 dwellings, containing 4961 +rooms, cost about £350,000. The size of the dwellings and the +number of each class are: 1 room, 193; 2 rooms, 965; 3 rooms, +719; 4 rooms, 167. The great majority are in tenement houses of +three storeys. The mean weekly rent is 1s. 6½d. per room, but a +large number are let at less. The net return on the total outlay is +just over 1%, on the building outlay it is 2<span class="spp">2</span>⁄<span class="suu">3</span>%. The principal +classes of persons occupying the dwellings are labourers 675, carters +120, charwomen 103, firemen 93, porters 80, hawkers 64, sailors 45, +scavengers 40. These all belong to the poorest classes, living by +casual or irregular work. Liverpool has, in fact, succeeded more +than any other town in providing municipal dwellings in which the +really poor can afford to live.</p> + +<p>In Manchester 956 dwellings have been built at a total cost for +building and improvement of £451,932; of the whole number 420 +are in blocks, 308 in tenement houses and 228 in cottages. The +rents are much higher than in Liverpool; in the tenement houses +the mean weekly rent is about 6d. per room more than in Liverpool. +The gross profit on the block dwellings is 1<span class="spp">1</span>⁄<span class="suu">3</span>% on the capital outlay, +on the tenement houses 3%, on the cottages 2<span class="spp">2</span>⁄<span class="suu">3</span>%. “The total +loss during the last seven to ten years, including loan charges, has +amounted to about £54,240” (Thompson).</p> + +<p>In Glasgow the corporation has built under improvement schemes +2280 new dwellings containing 4013 rooms and 241 shops. The +dwellings, which are all in blocks and centrally situated, are occupied +chiefly by artisans; only 28% have been reserved for the poorest +class of tenants. The total amount taken from the rates on this +account in 30 years is £600,000. Dwellings valued at £400,000 for +building and £300,000 for land give a net return of 3.06% on outlay; +dwellings valued at £280,000 for land and building return +3.03% on outlay; leaving the sinking fund charges to be defrayed +out of rates.</p> + +<p>In Edinburgh insanitary areas have been bought for £107,023 +and new dwellings containing 1032 rooms have been built for £87,970. +Nearly all the dwellings are of one or two rooms only. The rents +charged average about 2s. a week per room; actual rents received +average 1s. 4d. per room and they have to be subsidized out of the +rates to the extent of 2s. 3d. per room to meet the cost of site.</p> + +<p>In Dublin provision has been or was in 1909 shortly to be made +for housing 5394 families or 19,000 persons; of which 1041 families, +or about one-fifth, are housed by the Corporation, the rest by +companies and private persons. Altogether it was estimated that +£500,000 would be spent under the act of 1890. Fifteen streets, +containing 1665 houses, have been declared unhealthy areas by the +medical officer, and between 1879 and 1909 more than 3000 houses +were closed as unfit for habitation.</p> + +<p><i>Co-operative Building.</i>—Municipal and philanthropic housing by no +means exhaust the efforts that have been made to provide working-class +dwellings outside the ordinary building market. Their special +function has been to substitute better dwellings for pre-existing +bad ones, which is the most costly and difficult, as well as the most +urgent, part of the problem in old towns. But in the provision of +new dwellings alone they have been far surpassed by organized self-help +in different forms. Down to 1906 there had been built 46,707 +houses by 413 co-operative societies at a cost of nearly £10,000,000. +They are most numerous in the manufacturing towns and particularly +in the north-western district of England. Of the whole +number 8530 were owned by the societies which built them; 5577 +had been sold to members, and 32,600 had been built by members +on money lent by the societies. These figures do not include the +particular form of co-operative building known as co-partnership +housing, which will be mentioned later on, or the operations of the +so-called building societies, which are really companies lending +money to persons on mortgage for the purpose of building. The +difference between them and the co-operative societies which do +the same thing is that the latter retain the element of co-operation +by lending only to their own members, whereas the building societies +deal in the open market. Their operations are on an immense +scale; at the end of 1908 the invested funds of the registered building +societies exceeded £72,000,000. An agency working on this +scale, which far exceeds the operations of all the others put together, +is obviously an important factor in housing. The number of houses +built must help to relieve congestion, and since they are built to +suit the owners or tenants they cannot be of the worst class. They +also represent a form of thrift, and deserve notice on that account.</p> + +<p>The Small Dwellings Acquisition Act of 1899, which has not +previously been mentioned, was intended to facilitate the building +or purchase of small houses by their tenants by means of loans +advanced by local authorities. Down to 1906 about £82,000 had +been so advanced by 5 county boroughs, 17 urban councils and 1 +rural district council.</p> + +<p><i>Housing by Employers.</i>—No comprehensive information is available +on this head, but it has not been an important factor in towns, +being chiefly confined to agricultural, mining and suburban manufacturing +districts. The former two belong to the subject of Rural +Housing, which is separately discussed below; the third has an +interest of its own on account of its connexion with “model settlements.” +The building of houses for their workpeople by industrial +employers has never been widely adopted in this country, but it +has attracted considerable attention at two different periods. Sir +Titus Salt was a pioneer in this direction, when he built his woollen +mills at Saltaire, on the outskirts of Bradford, and housed his workpeople +on the spot. That plan was maintained by his successors, +who still own some 900 excellent and cheap cottages, and was +adopted by a few other manufacturers in the same neighbourhood. +Saltaire was a model settlement with many institutions for the +benefit of the mill-hands, and as such it attracted much attention; +but the example was not generally followed, and the interest lapsed. +Recently it has been revived by the model settlements at Port +Sunlight, near Liverpool, started about 1888, Bournville near +Birmingham (1895), and Earswick, near York (1904), which are of a +much more elaborate character. Elsewhere, employers setting down +works in some new locality where no provision existed, have had to +build houses for their workmen; but they have done so in a plain +way, and this sort of housing has not assumed large proportions.</p> +</div> + +<p><i>Conditions in 1909.</i>—It has been said above that great improvements +have been effected, and of that there is no doubt at all. +Both quantity and quality are more satisfactory than they were, +though both are still defective. The conditions vary greatly +in different places, and no general indictment can be sustained. +The common practice of citing some exceptionally bad cases, +and by tacit inference generalizing from them to the whole +country, is in nothing more misleading than in the matter of +housing. Local differences are due to several causes—age, +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page819" id="page819"></a>819</span> +population, occupations and means of the people, public opinion +and municipal energy. The first three chiefly determine the +difficulty and extent of the problem, the last two influence its +treatment. The difficulty is greatest in towns which are old, +have large populations and a high percentage of poor. Such +pre-eminently are the large seaports, where much casual labour +is employed. London, Liverpool, Glasgow, the Tyne, Hull, +Sunderland are examples. Old inland towns having a large +trading as well as an industrial element present the same features. +Such are Manchester, Birmingham, Leeds, Sheffield and Bradford. +In all these, and some others like them, the past has left a heavy +legacy of bad housing by malconstruction and dilapidation, +which has been increased by growth of population and overcrowding. +They have attacked it with varying degrees of +energy according to the prevalent local spirit and with varying +results.</p> + +<p><i>Overcrowding.</i>—The one condition which permits of precise +and comprehensive statement is overcrowding. A standard +has been officially adopted in England based on the number of +persons to a room in each dwelling; and the facts in relation +to this standard are embodied in the census returns. It is a +much better criterion than that of “density” or number of +persons per acre, which is very deceptive; for an apparently +low density may conceal much overcrowding within walls and +an apparently high one may be comparatively guiltless. The +room-density is the important thing in actual life. Some light +is also thrown on this question by the number of rooms contained +in each dwelling, and that is also given in the census. The +standard of overcrowding is more than two persons to a room. +In 1901 there were in England and Wales 2,667,506 persons +or 8.2% of the population living in a state of overcrowding +according to this definition. Their distribution is extremely +irregular and capricious. In rural districts the proportion was +only 5.8%, in urban districts 8.9%; but these summary +figures give no idea of the actual state of things in different +localities. In both rural districts and in towns the proportion +of overcrowding varies in different localities from less than 1% +to over 30% of the population. The towns are the most important +and we shall confine attention chiefly to them. A list +of 84 having a population of 50,000 and upwards, exclusive of +London, is given by Mr Dewsnup. The overcrowding ranges +from 34.54% in Gateshead and 32.42% in South Shields to +0.97% in Northampton and 0.62% in Bournemouth. Of the +whole number exactly one-half have less than 5%; 15 have less +than 2% and 22 have 10% or more. Neither size nor character +has much to do with the variation. Bournemouth, at the bottom +of the list with 0.62%, is a residential place and health resort +with a population of about 50,000; so is Tynemouth, which is +nearly at the top, with 30.71%. The two largest towns, Liverpool +and Manchester, are 26th and 32nd on the list, with only 7.94% +and 6.28% respectively, or considerably less than the average; +and on the other hand none of the first 17 towns with the highest +proportion of overcrowding are of the largest size. Again, with +regard to character, Leicester and Northampton, which are +almost at the bottom of the list, with 1.04% and 0.97% respectively, +are both purely industrial towns. The most striking facts +are that the six towns, which alone have more than 20% of +overcrowding, namely Gateshead (34.5), South Shields (32.4), +Tynemouth (30.7), Newcastle (30.4), Sunderland (30.10), +Plymouth (20.1) are all old seaports, that four of them at the +head of the list are on the Tyne and the fifth on the Wear. +This points strongly to special local conditions and it is borne out +by the facts with regard to rural districts. Northumberland and +Durham show a great excess of overcrowding over other counties; +and some of their rural districts even surpass any of the towns. +The highest of all is the district of Tynemouth, with 38.18% of +overcrowding. The explanation lies in a special combination +of large families and small houses prevalent in this area. All +the rural districts are seats of coal-mining, and miners are the +most prolific section of the population. They also live in small +houses of a traditional and antiquated character, often of one +storey only or built back to back. Many are built by colliery +proprietors. Large families and small houses also prevail in the +towns. Some of them contain coal-pits and the rest of their +industrial population is engaged chiefly in engineering and +shipbuilding works, occupations also usually associated with a +high birth-rate. The men live as near their work as possible +and the practice of living in flats or occupying part of a house +prevails extensively.</p> + +<p>In London the number of persons living in overcrowded +conditions in 1901 was 726,096 or 16.0% of the population. +The proportion varied from 2.6% in Lewisham to 35.2% in +Finsbury, but in 23 out of the 29 boroughs into which the county +is divided it exceeded the urban mean for the whole country, +and in 9 boroughs having an aggregate population of 1,430,000 +it was more than double the mean. Conditions in London are +evidently untypical of English towns.</p> + +<p>In the light of the census figures it is clear that no large +proportion of the English industrial population is living under +conditions of serious overcrowding, outside the special districts +mentioned and that the expression “house famine” cannot be +properly applied to England or English towns in general. In the +House of Commons, on the 16th of August 1909, the president of +the Local Government Board, Mr John Burns, gave a list of the +number of unoccupied houses and tenements in each of the +London boroughs and in the eight largest provincial towns, +including Glasgow; the total was 104,107. By a further +analysis of the census returns Mr Dewsnup shows that a great +deal of the overcrowding is of a comparatively mild character +and that it is due to a relatively small excess of population. +Bradford, for instance, is credited with 40,896 overcrowded +persons, representing the high percentage of 14.61 of the +population; but in the case of nearly 20,000 the excess over the +standard is very slight, and the proportion of gross overcrowding +comes down to 7.55%. Moreover, this serious overcrowding +is produced by no more than 2.79 of the population, so that +its cure presents no insuperable difficulty. The argument +is confirmed by the very substantial diminution which actually +took place <span class="correction" title="amended from betweeen">between</span> 1891 and 1901. The facts are so striking +that they deserve to be presented in tabular form:—</p> + +<p class="pt2 center"><i>Percentage of Population Overcrowded.</i></p> + +<table class="ws f90" summary="Contents"> +<tr><td class="tcc allb"> </td> <td class="tcc allb">1891</td> <td class="tcc allb">1901</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">England and Wales</td> <td class="tcr rb">11.23</td> <td class="tcr rb">8.20</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb pt1">Gateshead</td> <td class="tcr rb pt1">40.78</td> <td class="tcr rb pt1">34.54</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Newcastle</td> <td class="tcr rb">35.08</td> <td class="tcr rb">30.47</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Sunderland</td> <td class="tcr rb">32.85</td> <td class="tcr rb">30.10</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Plymouth</td> <td class="tcr rb">26.27</td> <td class="tcr rb">20.19</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Halifax</td> <td class="tcr rb">21.31</td> <td class="tcr rb">14.49</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Bradford</td> <td class="tcr rb">20.61</td> <td class="tcr rb">14.61</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Huddersfield</td> <td class="tcr rb">19.89</td> <td class="tcr rb">12.88</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">London</td> <td class="tcr rb">19.70</td> <td class="tcr rb">16.01</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Leeds</td> <td class="tcr rb">16.46</td> <td class="tcr rb">10.08</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">St Helens</td> <td class="tcr rb">15.72</td> <td class="tcr rb">10.86</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Birmingham</td> <td class="tcr rb">14.27</td> <td class="tcr rb">10.32</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Burnley</td> <td class="tcr rb">12.74</td> <td class="tcr rb">7.14</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Sheffield</td> <td class="tcr rb">11.58</td> <td class="tcr rb">9.50</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Bolton</td> <td class="tcr rb">11.22</td> <td class="tcr rb">6.50</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Liverpool</td> <td class="tcr rb">10.96</td> <td class="tcr rb">7.94</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Oldham</td> <td class="tcr rb">10.13</td> <td class="tcr rb">7.42</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Salford</td> <td class="tcr rb">9.39</td> <td class="tcr rb">7.54</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">West Ham</td> <td class="tcr rb">9.34</td> <td class="tcr rb">9.27</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Wolverhampton</td> <td class="tcr rb">9.31</td> <td class="tcr rb">4.67</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Swansea</td> <td class="tcr rb">9.25</td> <td class="tcr rb">5.57</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Stockport</td> <td class="tcr rb">8.50</td> <td class="tcr rb">4.98</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Manchester</td> <td class="tcr rb">8.25</td> <td class="tcr rb">6.28</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Bristol</td> <td class="tcr rb">8.03</td> <td class="tcr rb">3.55</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Hull</td> <td class="tcr rb">7.86</td> <td class="tcr rb">6.12</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Blackburn</td> <td class="tcr rb">7.05</td> <td class="tcr rb">3.92</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Birkenhead</td> <td class="tcr rb">6.80</td> <td class="tcr rb">5.02</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Norwich</td> <td class="tcr rb">4.91</td> <td class="tcr rb">3.34</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Brighton</td> <td class="tcr rb">4.56</td> <td class="tcr rb">3.07</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Cardiff</td> <td class="tcr rb">4.31</td> <td class="tcr rb">2.92</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Preston</td> <td class="tcr rb">4.13</td> <td class="tcr rb">2.64</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Nottingham</td> <td class="tcr rb">3.62</td> <td class="tcr rb">3.65</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Croydon</td> <td class="tcr rb">2.76</td> <td class="tcr rb">2.74</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Derby</td> <td class="tcr rb">2.69</td> <td class="tcr rb">1.18</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Leicester</td> <td class="tcr rb">2.22</td> <td class="tcr rb">1.04</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb bb">Portsmouth</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">1.74</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">1.19</td></tr> +</table> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page820" id="page820"></a>820</span></p> + +<p>To what is this remarkable movement due? It is far too +general to be attributed to the operation of the Housing Acts; +for, though they have helped in some cases, a great diminution +has occurred in many places in which no use has been made of +them. Towns of all kinds and in all parts of the country exhibit +the same movement in some degree; those which had little +and those which had much overcrowding, the worst and the +best. In London the <span class="correction" title="amended from precentage">percentage</span> fell by 3.7, and the number +of persons overcrowded was reduced by 103,669 in spite of an +increase of population of 324,798. In Gateshead a fall of 6.2%, +in Newcastle one of 4.6% took place; while at the other end +of the scale Leicester and Derby reduced their already very +low proportions by more than one-half. Nottingham is the +only exception in the whole list. And in 28 out of the 35 towns +the decrease of overcrowding was absolute as well as relative +in spite of a large increase of population. London has been +cited. The other large towns may be tabulated with it, thus:—</p> + +<table class="ws f90" summary="Contents"> +<tr><td class="tccm allb">Town.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Increase of<br />Population.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Decrease of<br />Overcrowded<br />Persons.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">London</td> <td class="tcr rb">324,898</td> <td class="tcr rb">103,669</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Liverpool</td> <td class="tcr rb">166,978</td> <td class="tcr rb">2,381</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Manchester</td> <td class="tcr rb">38,504</td> <td class="tcr rb">7,545</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Birmingham</td> <td class="tcr rb">44,091</td> <td class="tcr rb">14,290</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Leeds</td> <td class="tcr rb">61,463</td> <td class="tcr rb">17,252</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Sheffield</td> <td class="tcr rb">56,550</td> <td class="tcr rb">1,388</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Bristol</td> <td class="tcr rb">107,367</td> <td class="tcr rb">6,105</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb bb">Bradford</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">63,406</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">3,696</td></tr> +</table> + +<p>The very divergencies make the uniform diminution of overcrowding +the more remarkable. The large increase of population +in Liverpool and Bristol no doubt means extension of boundaries, +which might have the effect of reducing the proportions of overcrowding, +but it cannot account for the actual decrease of +overcrowded persons. The change seems to be due to three +factors all of which have been in general operation though in +varying degrees. They are (1) the centrifugal movement promoted +by improved locomotive facilities, (2) the declining +birth-rate, (3) public health administration. (1) The first is the +most important and the chief element has been tramways, of +which a great extension accompanied by electrification took +place in the decade. Thus the process of urbanization has been +modified by one of suburbanization. Bristol is a prominent +case; its overcrowding has been reduced by more than one-half +without any large and costly municipal interference, mainly +through the operation of ordinary economic forces. Tramways +have made the outskirts accessible and builders have +utilized the opportunity. They have built good +houses, too, under supervision, and Bristol, though +an old seaport and industrial town with much +poverty, has the lowest general death-rate and +the lowest infantile death-rate of all the great +towns. (2) The birth-rate and the size of families +are conditions which affect overcrowding in a +very marked degree, though no attention is paid +to them in that connexion. The case of the +mining districts and the towns on the Tyne has +been mentioned above; the same thing is seen +in London, where all the most overcrowded districts +(Finsbury, Stepney, Shoreditch and Bethnal +Green) have high birth-rates, ranging from 31.3 to 36.4 per +1000 in 1902-1906. The necessity imposed on poor parents +of putting several children into a cheap and therefore small +dwelling accounts for a large proportion of overcrowding, which +automatically diminishes with a falling birth-rate. The ultimate +advantage of this method of reducing overcrowding is a question +on which opinions may differ, but there is no doubt about the +fact. (3) Public health administration is the third general +cause; it attracts no notice and works very gradually, but it +does work. The last annual report (for 1907) of the medical +officer to the London County Council says of overcrowding: +“There is reason for thinking that in recent years greater +attention has been paid by sanitary authorities to the abatement +of the nuisance, and Dr Newman states that in Finsbury there +has been an enormous reduction in overcrowding, the reduction +having been effected mainly in the years 1901-1905.” The +medical officers of the metropolitan boroughs reported in 1907 +2613 dwellings overcrowded in 23 boroughs and 3216 such +dwellings remedied in 27 boroughs. It should not be forgotten +that a good deal of overcrowding is voluntary. Families which +have not enough room for their own members nevertheless take +in lodgers; and in some places, of which London is the most +conspicuous but not the only example, foreigners herd together +thickly in a very small space.</p> + +<p>The improvement shown by the statistics of overcrowding is +confirmed by those relating to the size of dwellings. Between +1891 and 1901 the percentage of the population living in very +small dwellings appreciably diminished thus—in 1-roomed +dwellings, from 2.2 to 1.6%; in 2-roomed dwellings, from 8.3 +to 6.6%; in 3-roomed dwellings, from 11.1 to 9.8%; while the +proportion living in dwellings of 5 rooms and upwards increased +from 54.9 to 60.1%. This again is referable to the suburban +movement and a higher standard of requirements. Six-roomed +houses with a bathroom tend to replace the old four-roomed type. +The general report accompanying the census says: “However +the tenement figures for England and Wales are compared it is +impossible to avoid the conclusion that the comparison affords +satisfactory evidence of distinct improvement in the housing of +the people during the ten years 1891-1901.” In short, the +problem of quantity is only acute in a few places and steadily +becoming less so.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>The foregoing facts apply only to England and Wales. In Scotland +the state of things is much less satisfactory. No statistics of overcrowding +are available, but the following comparative table shows +how different the housing conditions are in the two countries:—</p> + +<p class="pt2 center"><i>Size of Dwellings, England and Scotland, 1901.</i></p> + +<table class="ws" summary="Contents"> +<tr><td class="tccm allb" rowspan="2">Dwelling.</td> <td class="tcc allb" colspan="2">Percentage of Population.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc allb">England.</td> <td class="tcc allb">Scotland.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">1 room</td> <td class="tcr rb">1.6</td> <td class="tcr rb">11.1</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">2 rooms</td> <td class="tcr rb">6.6</td> <td class="tcr rb">39.5</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">3 rooms</td> <td class="tcr rb">9.8</td> <td class="tcr rb">19.9</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">4 rooms</td> <td class="tcr rb">21.9</td> <td class="tcr rb">9.1</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb bb">5 rooms and over</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">60.1</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">20.4</td></tr> +</table> + +<p class="noind">Over 50% of the population of Scotland live in tenements of one +or two rooms; only 8.2% in England. A comparison of the largest +towns in the two countries gives the following result:—</p> + +<p class="pt2 center"><i>Percentage of Population.</i></p> + +<table class="ws" summary="Contents"> +<tr><td class="tcc allb" colspan="3">Scotland.</td> <td class="tcc allb" colspan="3">England.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc allb">Town.</td> <td class="tcc allb">1 Room.</td> <td class="tcc allb">2 Rooms.</td> <td class="tcc allb">Town.</td> <td class="tcc allb">1 Room.</td> <td class="tcc allb">2 Rooms.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Glasgow</td> <td class="tcr rb">16.2</td> <td class="tcc rb">38.9</td> <td class="tcl rb">London</td> <td class="tcc rb">6.7</td> <td class="tcr rb">15.5</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Edinburgh</td> <td class="tcr rb">8.9</td> <td class="tcc rb">32.4</td> <td class="tcl rb">Liverpool</td> <td class="tcc rb">2.7</td> <td class="tcr rb">5.9</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Dundee</td> <td class="tcr rb">11.3</td> <td class="tcc rb">51.7</td> <td class="tcl rb">Manchester</td> <td class="tcc rb">0.8</td> <td class="tcr rb">4.01</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Aberdeen</td> <td class="tcr rb">6.1</td> <td class="tcc rb">33.2</td> <td class="tcl rb">Birmingham</td> <td class="tcc rb">0.3</td> <td class="tcr rb">2.4</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Greenock</td> <td class="tcr rb">11.3</td> <td class="tcc rb">47.6</td> <td class="tcl rb">Sheffield</td> <td class="tcc rb">0.4</td> <td class="tcr rb">4.0</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Kilmarnock</td> <td class="tcr rb">18.9</td> <td class="tcc rb">43.3</td> <td class="tcl rb">Bristol</td> <td class="tcc rb">1.6</td> <td class="tcr rb">5.7</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcc allb">Mean</td> <td class="tcr allb">12.7</td> <td class="tcc allb">42.4</td> <td class="tcc allb">Mean</td> <td class="tcc allb">1.8</td> <td class="tcr allb">6.7</td></tr> +</table> + +<p>The conditions in Scottish towns where very tall tenement houses +are common, resemble those in other countries, in which overcrowding +is far greater than in England. All these matters are comparative, +and the superiority of conditions in England ought to be recognized. +Yet, in Scotland, too, great improvements have been effected. In +1861 there were 25,959 houses without windows; in 1901 only 130. +These facts throw light on the long standing of the housing question, +the change of standard and the improvement effected.</p> + +<p>In Ireland there is more overcrowding than in England, though +probably less than in Scotland, with the possible exception of +Dublin, which has a larger proportion of one-roomed dwellings than +any Scottish town, namely, 24.7%. The percentage of population +living in overcrowded conditions in the principal towns is—Dublin +40.6, Limerick 31.7, Cork 23.4, Waterford 20.6, Londonderry 16.7, +Belfast 8.2.</p> +</div> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page821" id="page821"></a>821</span></p> + +<p><i>Sanitary Conditions.</i>—With regard to the quality of existing +housing reference has already been made to the effect of the +Public Health Acts and the general improvement in sanitation. +The only numerical measure is afforded by the death-rates, +which have fallen in England from 20.9 per 1000 in 1871-1875 to +15.4 per 1000 in 1903-1907 and in the United Kingdom from +21.3 to 15.7 per 1000 in the same period. The condition of the +dwelling must be credited with a considerable share in this fall. +There have, in fact, been great changes and all in the direction +of improvement. The rise and development of sanitation, of +house and main drainage and sewage disposal, the purification of +water and provision of a constant service in the house, the +removal of refuse, the segregation of infectious illness, sanitary +inspection—all these, apart from the demolition of the worst +housing and the provision of better, have raised the general +healthiness of the dwellings of the people. In face of these facts +and of the vital statistics, to say that the people are physically +deteriorating through the influence of bad housing is to talk +obvious nonsense, for all conditions have been improving for +more than a generation. If physical deterioration is going on, +of which there is no proof, either it is not caused by bad housing +or there is less than there was. Deterioration may be caused by +the continued process of urbanization and the congregating of an +ever larger proportion of the population in towns; but that is a +different question. If the town has any injurious influence it is +not due to the sanitary condition of the houses, which is in general +superior to that of houses in the country, but to the habits and +occupations of the people or to the atmosphere and the mere +aggregation. But much misapprehension prevails with regard to +towns. The most distinctive and the most valuable feature of +English housing is the general predominance of the small house or +cottage occupied by a single family. Only in London and a few +other towns do blocks of large tenement houses of the continental +type exist, and even there they are comparatively few. In +England and Wales 84% of the population live in dwellings of +4 rooms and upwards, which means broadly separate houses. +Now the prevalence of small houses involves spreading out and +the covering of much ground with many little streets, which +produce a monotonous effect; a smoky atmosphere makes them +grimy and dull skies contribute to the general dinginess. The +whole presents to the eye a vast area of dreary meanness and +monotony. Thus the best feature of English national housing +turns to its apparent disadvantage and the impression is gained +by superficial observers that the bulk of our working-class +populations lives in “slums.” The word “slum” has no precise +meaning, but if it implies serious sanitary defects it is not applicable +to most of our town housing. There are real slums still, but +the bulk of the working class population do not live in them; they +live in small houses, often of a mean and dingy exterior but in +essential respects more sanitary than the large and often handsome +blocks to be seen in foreign towns, which are not put down +as slums because they do not look dirty. A smoky atmosphere is +injurious to health, but it must be distinguished from defects of +housing. Ideal houses in a smoky place soon look bad; inferior +ones in a clean air look brighter and deceive the eye. The worst +of the old housing has disappeared; the filthy, dilapidated, airless +and sunless rookeries—the real slums—and the underground +dwellings have been swept away in most cases, and what remains +of them is not so bad as what has gone. But reform has been +very regularly applied. Some towns have done much, others +little. The large towns, in which the evil was most intense and +most conspicuous in bulk, have as a class done far more than +smaller ones in which the need perhaps was less great, but in +which also a less healthy public spirit prevailed. The worst +housing conditions to-day are probably to be found in old towns +of small and medium size, in which the ratepayers have a great +disinclination to spend money on anything, and the control of +local affairs is apt to be in the hands of the owners of the most +insanitary property. Nor is this state of things altogether confined +to old places. Some of recent growth have been allowed, +for the same reason, to spring up and develop without any regard +to sanitary principles or the requirements of public health. +There is therefore abundant scope for further reform and in not +a few cases urgent need of it. On the other hand, we have a +number of towns, particularly manufacturing towns, both large +and small in the midlands and the north of England, which have +already reached a good general standard of housing in all essential +requirements, and only need the regular and steady exercise of +vigilance by the public health service to remove such defects as +still remain or may reveal themselves with the lapse of time.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p><i>Rents.</i>—Rent is a matter of great importance from every point +of view, and that is now being realized. A quantity of official +information on the subject has been collected and made available +by an elaborate inquiry ordered by the Board of Trade in 1905 and +published in 1908 (Cd. 3864). It relates to working class dwellings +in the principal industrial towns in the United Kingdom, 94 in all: +namely, 77 in England and Wales, 11 in Scotland and 6 in Ireland. +The following tables give in a condensed form the chief statistical +results obtained in October 1905:—</p> + +<p class="pt2 center"><i>Predominant Range of Weekly Rents.</i></p> + +<table class="ws" summary="Contents"> +<tr><td class="tccm allb" rowspan="2"> </td> <td class="tccm allb" colspan="2">England and Wales.</td> <td class="tccm allb" rowspan="2">Scotland.</td> <td class="tccm allb" rowspan="2">Ireland.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tccm allb">London.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Provincial<br />towns.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">One room</td> <td class="tcc rb">..</td> <td class="tcc rb">..</td> <td class="tcc rb">2/- to 2/6</td> <td class="tcc rb">1/6 to 2/6</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Two rooms</td> <td class="tcc rb">4/6 to 7/6</td> <td class="tcc rb">3/- to 3/6</td> <td class="tcc rb">3/10 to 4/3</td> <td class="tcc rb">2/6 to 3/6</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Three rooms</td> <td class="tcc rb">6/- to 9/-</td> <td class="tcc rb">3/9 to 4/6</td> <td class="tcc rb">5/2 to 6/5</td> <td class="tcc rb">4/- to 5/-</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Four rooms</td> <td class="tcc rb">7/6 to 10/6</td> <td class="tcc rb">4/6 to 5/6</td> <td class="tcc rb">..</td> <td class="tcc rb">5/6 to 6/9</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Five rooms</td> <td class="tcc rb">9/- to 13/-</td> <td class="tcc rb">5/6 to 6/6</td> <td class="tcc rb">..</td> <td class="tcc rb">..</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb bb">Six rooms</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">10/6 to 15/6</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">6/6 to 7/9</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">..</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">..</td></tr> +</table> + +<p>Rents are lowest in Ireland and next lowest in English provincial +towns, considerably higher in Scotland and highest of all in London, +for which further special details are given. It is divided into three +zones (1) central, (2) middle, (3) outer, which have the following +mean weekly rents:—</p> + +<p class="pt2 center"><i>London Mean Weekly Rents.</i></p> + +<table class="ws" summary="Contents"> +<tr><td class="tccm allb" rowspan="2"> </td> <td class="tccm allb" colspan="3">Zone.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tccm allb">Central.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Middle.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Outer.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">One room</td> <td class="tcc rb">4/6</td> <td class="tcc rb">3/9</td> <td class="tcc rb">..</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Two rooms</td> <td class="tcc rb">7/-</td> <td class="tcc rb">6/-</td> <td class="tcc rb">..</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Three rooms</td> <td class="tcc rb">8/9</td> <td class="tcc rb">7/6</td> <td class="tcc rb">6/6</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Four rooms</td> <td class="tcc rb">..</td> <td class="tcc rb">9/-</td> <td class="tcc rb">7/9</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Five rooms</td> <td class="tcc rb">..</td> <td class="tcc rb">11/-</td> <td class="tcc rb">9/6</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb bb">Six rooms</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">..</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">13/-</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">11/-</td></tr> +</table> + +<p class="noind">In central London—which extends to Stepney in the East, Lambeth +m the South, Islington in the North, and includes Westminster, +Holborn, Finsbury, Marylebone, Shoreditch, most of Bethnal Green, +Southwark and Bermondsey—the rent of a single room may be +as high as 6s. or even 6s. 6d. (Holborn) a week. It is here that +overcrowding is greatest, and block-tenements, philanthropic and +municipal, most numerous. The rentals of the block dwellings have +not been taken into account in the foregoing official statistics; +they range as follows: 1 room, 2s. 6d. to 5s.; 2 rooms, 5s. to 8s.; +three rooms, 6s. 6d. to 11s. The lowest rent for which a single +room can be obtained in this area is 2s. 6d. a week. In no English +town are rents nearly so high as in London. If 100 is taken as the +index number for rent in London the nearest towns to it (Croydon +and Plymouth) only reach 81, and one town on the list (Macclesfield) +is as low as 32. The index number of twenty-one towns out of the +whole is 50 or under, and these include a number of important +industrial centres—Hull, Leicester, Blackburn, Northampton, +Warrington, Coventry, Crewe and others. The index numbers of +the great towns are: Liverpool 65, Manchester and Salford 62, +Birmingham 59, Leeds 56, Sheffield 55, Bristol 53, Bradford 59, +Hull 48; that is to say the level of rents in these towns is little +more than half that in London. This is one more proof of the untypical +character of London, and of the fallacy of generalizing from +it to the rest of the country. Even in the overcrowded towns on +Tyneside rents do not run to three-fourths of the London level. +When the towns are divided into geographical groups the index +numbers run thus: London 100, Northern Counties 62, Yorkshire +56, Lancashire and Cheshire 54, Midlands 51, Eastern Counties 50, +Southern Counties 61, Wales and Monmouth 60. Rents are always +highest in capitals, and Edinburgh complies with the rule; but it is +very slightly in advance of Glasgow, and in Scotland generally the +range is much smaller than in England. Dublin, on the other hand, +is differentiated from the other Irish towns as widely as London +from English ones.</p> + +<p>A general and progressive rise in rents has been taking place for +many years. The following index numbers for the great towns are +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page822" id="page822"></a>822</span> +given in the second series of memoranda published by the Board of +Trade in 1904 (Cd. 1761):—</p> + +<p class="pt2 center"><i>Relative Working-Class Rents.</i></p> + +<table class="ws" summary="Contents"> +<tr><td class="tcc">1880</td> <td class="tcc rb">86.6</td> <td class="tcc">1890</td> <td class="tcr">89.9</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc">1885</td> <td class="tcc rb">90.1</td> <td class="tcc">1900</td> <td class="tcr">100.0</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc">1895</td> <td class="tcc rb">96.3</td> <td class="tcc"> </td> <td class="tcr"> </td></tr> +</table> + +<p>The tendency to rise is attributable to increased cost of labour, +due to higher wages and less work, increased cost of materials and +higher rates. Weekly working-class rents generally include rates +which are paid by the landlord. Housing reform has contributed +to the rise, both directly and through the rates, on which it has +thrown a heavy burden in various ways. When slums are cleared +away and replaced by superior dwellings the new rents are generally +higher than the old and this fact has proved a great difficulty. Most +of the improved housing is beyond the means of those who need it +most, and they seek other quarters resembling the old ones as nearly +as possible. The example of Liverpool, which has the largest +proportion of casual and ill-paid labour of all the great towns, and +has been the most successful in providing new dwellings of a fair +quality, centrally situated and not in blocks, at really low rates, +shows that the problem is not insoluble; but as a rule too little +attention is paid to the question of rent in housing reform, especially +in building undertaken by municipalities. It is not ignored, but the +importance attached to it by the poor is not realized. To them it is +the first consideration after four walls, a roof and a fire-place; +and 6d. a week makes a vast difference in their calculations. Reform +which aims at raising the lowest classes of tenants by improving +their dwellings defeats itself when it drives them away.</p> +</div> + +<p><i>Rural Housing.</i>—Little has hitherto been said about rural +housing. It is of less importance than urban housing because +it concerns a much smaller proportion of the population, and +because in rural life the influence of inferior housing on health is +offset by other conditions; but it has recently attracted much +attention and was made the subject of inquiry by a Select Committee +of the House of Commons in 1906. The report laid stress +chiefly on the inaction of local rural authorities under the Public +Health and Housing Acts, and on various obstacles in the way +of improving existing houses and of providing more and better +ones at rents which agricultural labourers can afford to pay. +The available facts with regard to rural housing are scrappy and +unsatisfactory. The word “rural” has no precise meaning and +it includes several very different sections of the population; for +instance, the inhabitants of suburbs, mining villages and mill +villages as well as the real agricultural population. Complaint +is made of both the quantity and the quality of rural housing. +With regard to quantity it is said that in spite of migration to +the towns there is a dearth of cottages through dilapidation and +demolition without rebuilding. That may happen in particular +localities, but there is no evidence to support a general allegation. +Inquiries issued by the Board of Trade to agricultural correspondents +brought the following replies: insufficient 56, sufficient +111, more than sufficient 32. Similar inquiries of land agents and +owners resulted thus: insufficient 9, sufficient 11, more than +sufficient 4, variable 6. From which it appears that insufficiency +exists but is not general. The official evidence with regard to +overcrowding is that it is much less acute than in the towns. +The proportion of the rural population in England living in +overcrowded conditions in 1901 was 5.8%; if the rural mining +districts, the exceptional overcrowding of which has been noted +above, be eliminated, the rest cannot be very bad. Moreover, +the percentage has appreciably diminished; in 1891 it was +8.46. The complaint of bad quality is better founded. Some +landowners take great pride in the state of their property, and +excellent cottages may be found in model villages and elsewhere +in many parts of the country; but much rural housing is of an +extremely insanitary character. A good deal of evidence on this +head has of late years been published In the reports of medical +inspectors to the Local Government Board. And local authorities +are very reluctant to set the law in motion against insanitary +dwellings. On the other hand, they have in some cases hindered +and prevented building by too rigid insistence on by-laws, +framed with a view to urban housing and quite unsuited to rural +conditions. A few rural authorities have taken action with +regard to building schemes under Part III. of the Housing Act. +A list of 31 in 17 counties is given in “Housing up to Date”; 13 +applications were refused and 13 granted by the respective county +councils and others were dropped. Details are given by the +same authority of 54 houses built by 17 rural district councils. +Public action may thus be said to amount to nothing at all. +Landowners, however, have borrowed under the Improvements +of Lands Acts upwards of £1,250,000 for building labourers’ +cottages; and this is probably only a fraction of the amount +spent privately.</p> + +<p>In Ireland a special condition of affairs exists. A series +of about a dozen acts, dating from 1881 and culminating in the +Labourers (Ireland) Act of 1906, have been passed for promoting +the provision of labourers’ cottages; and under them 20,634 +cottages had been built and some thousands more authorized +previous to the act of 1906, which extended the pre-existing +facilities. The principle is that of the English Housing Acts +applied to rural districts, but the procedure is simpler and +quicker. The law provides that a representation may be made +to the local authority by three ratepayers or resident labourers +that “the existing house accommodation for agricultural +labourers and their families is deficient having regard to the +ordinary requirements of the district, or is unfit for human +habitation owing to dilapidation, want of air, light, ventilation +or other convenience or to any other sanitary defects,” whereupon +the local authority shall make an improvement scheme. It may +also initiate a scheme without representation, or the Local +Government Board may do so in default of the local authority. +The scheme is published, an inquiry held, notice given and an +order made with very much less delay and expense than under +the English law. Land is purchased by agreement, or compulsorily +and the money for land and building raised by loan. +Loans amounting to about 3½ millions sterling had been raised +down to 1906. The great majority of the cottages built are in +Münster and Leinster. They must have at least 2 bedrooms +and a kitchen, and the habitable rooms must be 8 ft. high. One +of the most remarkable features is the low cost—about £150—at +which these cottages have been built, including land and the +expenses of procedure.</p> + +<p><i>Recent Developments.</i>—It is clear from a general review of +the subject that the problem of housing the working classes in +a satisfactory manner has proved more complex than was at +one time realized. Experience has falsified hopes and led to a +change of attitude. It is seen that there are limits to drastic +interference with the normal play of economic forces and to +municipal action on a large and ambitious scale. A reaction +has set in against it. At the same time the problem is being +attacked on other sides and from new points of departure. +The tendency now is towards the more effectual application of +gradual methods of improvement, the utilization of other means +and the exercise of prevention in preference to cure. Under +each of these heads certain movements may be noted.</p> + +<p>The most troublesome problem is the treatment of existing +bad housing. In regard to this the policy of large improvement +schemes under which extensive areas are bought up and +demolished has had its day, and is not likely to be revived to any +considerable extent. That is not only because it is extremely +costly but also because it has in the main done its work. It +has done what could not have been done otherwise, and has swept +away the worst of the old housing <i>en masse</i>. To call it a failure +because it is costly and of limited application would be as great a +mistake as to regard it as a panacea. The procedure which seems +to be coming into favour in place of it is that adopted in Birmingham +and advocated by Mr J. S. Nettlefold (<i>Practical Housing</i>) +coupled with a more general and effective use of the Public +Health Acts. The principle is improvement in detail effected +by pressure brought to bear on owners by public authority. +The embodiment of this principle forms an important part of the +Housing and Town Planning Bill introduced by the Local +Government Board in 1908, which contained clauses empowering +the central authority to compel apathetic local authorities +to do their duty in regard to the closing of unfit houses, and +authorizing local authorities both to issue closing orders and +to serve notices on landlords requiring them “to execute such +works as the local authority may specify as being necessary to +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page823" id="page823"></a>823</span> +make the house in all respects reasonably fit for human habitation.”</p> + +<p>Among the other and less direct means to which attention +is being turned is the policy of getting people away from the +towns. The effect of improved travelling facilities in reducing +urban overcrowding has been noted above. That object was +not specifically contemplated in the building and electrification +of tramways, and in the development of other means of cheap +local travel, but the beneficial effect has caused them to be +recognized as an important factor in relation to housing and to +be more systematically applied in that connexion. A newer +departure, however, is to encourage migration not to the outskirts +of towns but altogether into the country by facilitating the +acquisition of small holdings of land. This has been done by +private landowners in an experimental way for some years, and +in 1907 the policy was embodied in the Small Holdings Act, +which gives county and borough councils power to purchase or +hire land compulsorily and let it in holdings of not more than +50 acres or £50 annual value. Failing action on their part the +Board of Agriculture may frame schemes. Power is also +conferred on the Board and on County Councils to establish +co-operative agricultural societies and credit banks. These +measures have been adopted from foreign countries, and particularly +from Denmark and Germany. A very large number of +applications for holdings have been made under this act, but it +is too early to state the effects. They will depend on the success +of tenants in earning a livelihood by agricultural produce.</p> + +<p>Another new and quite different departure is the attempt +to establish a novel kind of town, called a “Garden City,” +which shall combine the advantages of the town and the country. +The principal points are the choice of a site, which must be +sufficiently convenient to enable industries to be carried on, +yet with rural surroundings, the laying out of the ground in +such a way as to ensure plenty of open space and variety, the +insistence on building of a certain standard and the limitation +of size. One has been established at Letchworth in Hertfordshire, +34 m. from London, and so far seems to be prospering. It consists +of an area of 3800 acres, bought from the previous owners by a +company registered in 1903 and entitled First Garden City Ltd., +with a capital of £300,000 in £5 shares. The interest is limited +to a dividend of 5%, all further profits to be devoted to the +benefit of the town. The estate is divided into a central urban +area of 1200 and a surrounding agricultural belt of 2600 acres. +The town is planned for an eventual population of 30,000 and +at present (1909) has about 5000. Some London printing +works and other small industrial establishments have been +planted there, and a number of model cottages have been built. +In this connexion another recent novelty has appeared in the +shape of an exhibition of cottages. The idea, originated by +Mr St Loe Strachey, was to encourage the art of designing and +building cheap but good and convenient cottages, especially +for the country. Two exhibitions have been held at Letchworth +in 1905 and 1907, and others at Sheffield (1907) and Newcastle +(1908). The two latter were held on municipal land, and it is +proposed by the National Housing Reform Council to hold one +every year.</p> + +<p>The “Garden City” has led to the “Garden Suburb,” an +adaptation of the same idea to suburban areas. One was +opened near Hampstead Heath in 1907: it consists of 240 acres, +of which 72 have been reserved for working-class cottages with +gardens. These developments, with which may be associated +the model industrial villages, mentioned above, at Bournville, +Port Sunlight and Earswick, represent an aspiration towards +a higher standard of housing for families belonging to the upper +ranks of the working classes; and the same movement is +demonstrated in a still more interesting fashion by a particular +form of co-operative activity known as Co-partnership Housing. +The first complete example of this method of organization was +the Ealing Tenants Limited, a society registered under the +Industrial and Provident Societies Act in 1901, though the +Tenant Co-operators Limited, formed in 1888, was a precursor +on very nearly the same lines. The essential principle is self-help +applied by combination to the provision of superior homes, and +the chief material feature is the building of houses which are +not only of good design and workmanship, but disposed on a +systematic plan so as to utilize the ground to the best advantage. +Land is bought and houses are built with combined capital to +which each tenant contributes a substantial share; the houses +are let at rents which will return 5% on share capital and 4% +on loan capital after defraying all expenses, and the surplus +profits are divided among the tenant members in proportion +to the rents paid by them. Each tenant’s share of profits is +credited to him in shares until his share capital equals the value +of the house he occupies, after which it is paid in cash. There +is thus common ownership of the whole group, which forms a +little community. This system has caught on in a remarkable +way and has spread with great rapidity. In 1905 a central +organizing body was formed called the Co-partnership Housing +Council, for the purpose of promoting the formation of societies +and assisting them with advice; it is supported by voluntary +contributions. In 1909 twelve societies, including the original +Tenant Co-operators, had been formed with a total investment +of £536,300. They are situated at Ealing, Letchworth, Seven-oaks, +Leicester, Manchester, Hampstead (two), Harborne near +Birmingham, Fallings Park, Stoke-on-Trent, Wayford and +Derwentwater. The rapidity with which the movement has +developed and spread since the establishment of the Co-partnership +Housing Council indicates great vitality, and since it is +based on thoroughly sound lines it has probably a large future. +It is the most interesting and in many respects the best of all +recent developments. The Report of the Select Committee on +Rural Housing mentioned above suggested that a Co-partnership +Housing Society should be formed in every county in +England.</p> + +<p>All the enterprises just described have one feature in common, +namely, the laying out of sites on a plan which takes cognizance +of the future, secures a due proportion of open space, variety in +the arrangement of streets and the most advantageous disposition +of the houses and other buildings. They go beyond sanitary +requirements and take account of higher needs. They have +lent force to the advocacy of municipal “town-planning,” as +practised by several towns in Germany; and provision was made +for this procedure in the Housing and Town Planning Act of +1909. The act contains clauses giving local authorities power +to prepare plans with reference to any land which appears +likely to be used for building purposes within or near their own +boundaries; and also to purchase land comprised in a town-planning +scheme and either build on it themselves or let plots +for building in accordance with the plan. The chief object is to +safeguard the future, prevent the repetition of past defects +and encourage a higher standard of housing.</p> + +<p>These new developments represent an upward movement at +the higher end of the scale. They cater for the superior ranks +of working classes, those who attach some importance to +the aesthetic and moral influence of pleasant and wholesome +surroundings, and are willing to sacrifice immediate gratifications +to a higher end. They embody an aspiration, set an example and +exercise an educative influence. But they have nothing to do +with the housing of the really poor, which is the great difficulty; +and their very attractiveness seems in some danger of drawing +attention from it. Garden cities and suburbs will never house +the poor or even the bulk of our working class population, and +it would be a pity if the somewhat sentimental popularity of +romantic schemes led to a distaste for the plodding effort which +alone can effect a real cure of deep-seated social evils of long +standing. All the new schemes and legislative proposals leave +untouched the greatest difficulty of all, which lies not in the +dwelling but in the tenant. It is comparatively easy to afford +better opportunities to those who are willing to take advantage +of them, but how to raise those who are not? The lesson taught +by Miss Octavia Hill’s classical experiment is, if not forgotten, +certainly neglected in the presence of more showy efforts. Or +perhaps it would be more true to say that half of it is neglected. +Miss Hill was one of the pioneers in the comparatively modest +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page824" id="page824"></a>824</span> +method of improving and reconstructing bad houses, which, as +we have noted, is now being more generally recognized and +pursued; but that was only half her work. She improved bad +dwellings and made them decent, but she also managed them +on business lines, by a system of inspection and rent collection +which combined a judicious discipline with the stimulus of reward. +This was done by means of personal service, which is the secret +of all really effective work among the poor. Her words written +years ago remain true to-day: “The people’s homes are bad +partly because they are badly built and arranged; they are +tenfold worse because the tenants’ habits and lives are what +they are. Transplant them to-morrow to healthy and commodious +homes and they will pollute and destroy them.”</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>The following is a list of the principal associations formed for the +promotion of housing reform: Mansion House Council on the Dwellings +of the Poor, Rural Housing and Sanitation Association, Workmen’s +National Housing Council, National Housing Reform Council, +Co-partnership Tenants Housing Council. They are all of recent +date, except the first. There are also local associations at Liverpool, +Oldham, Rochdale, York, Plymouth, and elsewhere.</p> +</div> + +<p class="pt2 center sc">Other Countries</p> + +<p>At the International Housing Congress organized by the +National Housing Reform Council and held in London in 1907 +representatives were present from a number of foreign countries +and a good deal of information was collected and published in +the report of the Congress. Further detailed data have been +supplied by foreign correspondents to Mr W. Thompson and +published in <i>Housing up to Date</i>. The more important facts +relating to the principal industrial countries are here condensed +from this and other sources of information.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p><i>Austria.</i>—An act for encouraging the building of cheap working-class +dwellings was passed in 1902; it provides for exemption from +taxes for 24 years of working-class dwellings which fulfil certain +conditions including sanitary requirements, a minimum area per +room, minimum height, minimum door and window spaces, thickness +of walls, a maximum number of inhabitants (one to 4 sq. metres in +sleeping rooms), prohibition of lodgers, fixed rent and maximum +profit. The municipalities are the authority for administering sanitary +and housing laws; they have no power of compulsory purchase of +land without a special law. There is excessive overcrowding in the +large towns; in Vienna (1900) 43% of the population live in dwellings +of 1 room or 1 room and a kitchen; in 60 provincial towns the proportion +is 63%. Overcrowding is reckoned at more than 5 persons +to a room and more than 9 to two rooms; the proportion of overcrowded +on this basis is nearly one-fifth in Vienna and one-fourth in +the provincial towns (Thompson).</p> + +<p><i>Belgium.</i>—An act was passed in 1889 instituting <i>Comités de +Patronage</i>; since then other Acts relating to loan societies, and to +inheritance and succession in the case of small properties. Comités +de Patronage are semi-official bodies, but without legal power, whose +function it is to study the subject of housing, to report to local +authorities on existing conditions, to advise, to collect funds and +promote the provision of good houses by any means in their power. +They influence public opinion and stimulate the activity of local +authorities which have the power to compel improvements and close +dwellings unfit for habitation; they have led to the formation of +numerous societies for erecting working-class dwellings. The latter +are encouraged by the law in various ways; they are exempt from +the payment of some government duties and partly exempt from +others. Working men buying or building houses liable to registration +fees up to from 72 to 171 francs are exempted from personal, provincial +and communal taxes. The National Savings Bank of Belgium +is empowered to lend money to working men for buying or building +houses and to insure the lives of those doing so, to preserve the +home for the family. In 1904 the number of workmen’s homes +exempted from taxation was 164,387, and the amount of taxation +remitted considerably exceeded 3 million francs; workmen had +acquired lands and houses valued at nearly £4,000,000; there were +161 societies for building working-class dwellings; 30,000 workmen +representing a population of 150,000 had become owners of property; +and 70,000 representing a population of 350,000 had availed themselves +of the law in obtaining exemptions and loans (O. Velghe). +The foregoing results effected in 15 years are remarkable and indicate +a great capacity for self-help on the part of Belgian workmen with +suitable and well-considered assistance. But this movement, in +common with those of a similar character in other countries, does not +touch the problem of housing the very poor. No statistics of overcrowding +are available, but the average number of persons to a +dwelling is over 5 for the whole country and nearly 9 in Brussels. +The communal administrations are the authorities for health and +housing; they have power to abate nuisances but not to compel +landowners to sell land for building, though they have the right to +dispossession for “public purposes.” No town has constructed +quarters devoted entirely to working-class dwellings and only one +commune (St Giles) has built any. In towns the height of buildings +is regulated by the width of streets; generally it is the width plus +6 metres. The height of rooms and thickness of walls are prescribed +by local regulations but not the area of rooms. The housing difficulty +has been lessened in a notable degree by cheap transport facilities, +including railroads, light railroads and tramways; a large proportion +of the workpeople travel long distances to and from work. One-quarter +travel on the State railways alone; fares are 1s. 6d. a week +for a daily double journey of 20 m., 2s. for 44 m. and 2s. 6d. for +66 m. The area of the labour market of Liége extends nearly to +Ostend and out of 5830 workmen travelling over 1000 live more +than 50 kilometres from Liége. Some journeys last 3 hours.</p> + +<p><i>France.</i>—The question of housing was publicly raised in France +quite as early as in England on grounds of public health in connexion +with the first visitation of cholera, and building societies were +formed as early as 1851, but little was done until after 1889, when the +<i>Société Française des Habitations à Bon Marché</i> was founded under +the inspiration of M. Siegfried. This led to the formation of several +societies, which increased rapidly after the passage of <i>la loi Siegfried</i> +in 1894, for promoting the provision of working-class dwellings. In +1902 a Public Health Act and in 1906 a Housing of the Working +Classes Act were passed, and these three enactments with regulations +made in 1907 govern the procedure. The act of 1906 embodies the +Belgian system of Comités de Patronage, of which at least one was +to be established in each department with grants in aid, and exemptions +from certain taxes of working-class dwellings fulfilling +specified conditions as to sanitation and rent. The law promotes +the formation of Housing Societies by granting various facilities for +the investment of money in building by public bodies and benevolent +institutions by taking shares or by loans. Down to the end of 1906 +there had been lent for this purpose £233,000 by savings banks, +£258,000 by the Caisse des Dépôts, and £14,000 by charitable institutions. +The law does not authorize municipalities to build +houses and none of the communes have acquired land for this purpose. +Under the Public Health Act of 1902 towns can purchase land +compulsorily in connexion with unhealthy areas. The Public Health +and Housing Acts are administered by the local authority, which +makes regulations for building and for laying out building land. A +minimum height of 2.6 metres and a minimum cubical content of +25 cubic metres are prescribed for rooms; there are no regulations +for thickness of walls. Housing societies are under the Ministry of +Works and a Superior Housing Council, which is a central advisory +body. These societies are now numerous; there are 46 in Paris +alone, but their operations are not on a large scale. One of them +deserves special notice on account of its special object. It is called +the <i>Société de logements pour familles nombreuses</i> and it builds special +flats called <i>maisons des enfants</i> which are let at low rents only to +persons with large families. In 1907 it had housed 168 families, +averaging 6.8 persons, in two blocks at Belleville and Montmartre. +The great defect in France is the large quantity of old, bad, insanitary +housing. Real slums exist in all the old towns and in some of them, +such as Marseilles and Lyons, on an extensive scale. Very little +has hitherto been done to grapple with this difficulty. The standard +of sanitation is altogether lower in France than in England, as is +shown by the death-rates, and this holds good of the housing. But +conditions vary widely in different parts of the country. They are +better, generally speaking, in the industrial towns of the north, +which are largely Flemish and distinguished by the prevalence of +small houses after the English fashion, than in the central or southern +districts where tall old tenement houses of six and seven storeys +abound. There are no statistics and no standard of overcrowding; +but the careful inquiry carried out by the Board of Trade and published +in 1909 shows the extraordinary prevalence of tenements consisting +of 1, 2 or 3 rooms. In 16 towns for which information was obtained +the average proportion of dwellings containing less than 4 rooms +was 75% of the whole; in some it was as high as 89% and in none +lower than 61%. In 8 towns, including Paris, the number of one-roomed +dwellings was more than a quarter of the whole, and in two +towns (Brest and Fougères) it was more than half. Some corresponding +statistics for English and German towns are given below in the +section on Germany. According to the same report, the general +accuracy of which has been confirmed by personal inquiries, made +in 1909 by the writer in a number of towns, rents are decidedly +lower in France. If the London level be taken as 100 that of Paris +is only 78 and the other French towns are considerably lower, 21 out +of 29 being less than half the London standard. A general comparison +between a number of English and French towns shows the +average level of French rents to be less than three-fourths of English +ones. A noticeable feature of housing in France is the large number +of dwellings built by employers in recent years. The mining companies, +particularly in the Pas de Calais, have built whole groups of +villages; the railway companies and various manufacturers have +also done a great deal, chiefly in rural areas. Among the manufacturers +MM. Schneider at Le Creusot and the textile mill-owners +in the Vosges are noticeable. The houses provided are +of a charming type, white with red roofs; the rooms are of good +size, the rents low, and a large garden is usually attached to every +house.</p> + +<p><i>Germany.</i>—In no country is the problem of housing more acute +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page825" id="page825"></a>825</span> +than in Germany, where the increase of population, the growth of +manufacturing industry and the urbanization of the people have +proceeded at an exceptionally rapid pace in recent years and have +combined with increasing wealth and a rising standard of living to +force the question into prominence. Up to 1909 no uniform legislation +for the empire had been framed and no central authority +existed for dealing with housing; but the several states have their +own public health and housing laws, and great activity has been +developed in various directions. The most general difficulty is +deficiency of quantity consequent on the rapid change in the distribution +of the population. The proportion of the whole population +living in the great towns increased from 7.2% to 16.2%, or more +than doubled between 1890 and 1900; in England it only increased +by about one-tenth. Slums are a much less conspicuous feature +than in England because of the comparatively recent development +of German towns, but where old quarters exist on a large scale, as +in Hamburg, the conditions are quite as bad as anything in English +towns, and call for similar measures. Public sanitation in Germany +is still as a whole less advanced than in England; but in some +cases it is superior and in general it is coming up rapidly; the +administration of sanitary laws, as of others, is more effective and +uniform, and less subject to evasion. This also contributes to the +comparative absence of slums. And there is a third factor which +has perhaps the greatest influence of all, and that is the superior +manner in which German homes are kept. But the pressure of +inadequate quantity is urgent; it has caused high rents, overcrowding, +and the development of large barrack or block dwellings +which are becoming the prevailing type. At the same time it has +led to many and varied efforts to meet the difficulty. Isolated +attempts go back to an early date. For instance a building society +was formed in Berlin in 1849, Alfred Krupp began to build his +“colonies” at Essen in 1863, Barmen started a society in 1871 and +there were other cases; but general attention seems first to have +been drawn to the subject by the reforming efforts of Pastor Bodelschwingh +at Bielefeld about 1884 in connexion with his <i>Arbeiterheim</i>. +In short housing reform in Germany is really a matter of the last +20 years. The first efficient by-laws for regulating building in +Berlin were not adopted till 1887; the previous regulations dating +from 1853 permitted many abuses and under them a great deal of +bad housing was constructed, especially after the establishment +of the empire and the beginning of the great development of the +capital.</p> + +<p>The worst feature is the general prevalence of dwellings containing +a very small number of rooms—from 1 to 3—and consequent +overcrowding. The following figures are extracted from the Report +to the Board of Trade on Rents, Housing, &c., in Germany (1908, +Cd. 4032). They indicate the proportion of dwellings containing +1, 2 or 3 rooms, or (in a few cases) the proportion of the population +living in such dwellings. The towns are those for which the information +is given. They are not selected as particularly bad +specimens but as representative, and they include most of the +capitals and chief industrial centres. The figures relate to the year +1900, except in a few cases, in which they are taken from a municipal +house census in 1905.</p> + +<p class="pt2 center"><i>Percentage of Dwellings or Population living in Dwellings containing</i></p> + +<table class="ws" summary="Contents"> +<tr><td class="tccm allb">Town.</td> <td class="tccm allb">1 Room.</td> <td class="tccm allb">2 Rooms.</td> <td class="tccm allb">3 Rooms.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Total under<br />4 Rooms.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Berlin</td> <td class="tcl rb"> 8.0</td> <td class="tcc rb">37.2</td> <td class="tcc rb">30.6</td> <td class="tcl rb">75.8</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Aachen</td> <td class="tcl rb">13.7</td> <td class="tcc rb">32.0</td> <td class="tcc rb">21.9</td> <td class="tcl rb">67.6</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Barmen (pop.)</td> <td class="tcl rb"> 1.5</td> <td class="tcc rb">24.3</td> <td class="tcc rb">28.8</td> <td class="tcl rb">54.6</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Bremen</td> <td class="tcl rb"> 3.8(?)</td> <td class="tcc rb">26.8</td> <td class="tcc rb">26.1</td> <td class="tcl rb">56.7(?)</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Breslau (pop.)</td> <td class="tcl rb"> 3.9</td> <td class="tcc rb">46.0</td> <td class="tcc rb">24.4</td> <td class="tcl rb">74.3</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Chemnitz (pop.)</td> <td class="tcl rb"> 1.7</td> <td class="tcc rb">34.8</td> <td class="tcc rb">29.9</td> <td class="tcl rb">66.4</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Dantzig</td> <td class="tcl rb"> 3.3</td> <td class="tcc rb">45.0</td> <td class="tcc rb">29.9</td> <td class="tcl rb">78.2</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Dortmund</td> <td class="tcl rb"> 4.7</td> <td class="tcc rb">45.5</td> <td class="tcc rb">30.0</td> <td class="tcl rb">80.2</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Dresden</td> <td class="tcl rb"> 0.8</td> <td class="tcc rb"> 3.5</td> <td class="tcc rb">27.8</td> <td class="tcl rb">32.1</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Düsseldorf</td> <td class="tcl rb"> 5.0</td> <td class="tcc rb">26.4</td> <td class="tcc rb">22.7</td> <td class="tcl rb">54.1</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Elberfeld</td> <td class="tcl rb"> 8.4(?)</td> <td class="tcc rb">36.9</td> <td class="tcc rb">21.7</td> <td class="tcl rb">67.0(?)</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Essen</td> <td class="tcl rb"> 2.9</td> <td class="tcc rb">35.4</td> <td class="tcc rb">30.0</td> <td class="tcl rb">68.3</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Hamburg</td> <td class="tcl rb"> 1.0</td> <td class="tcc rb"> 3.9</td> <td class="tcc rb">24.7</td> <td class="tcl rb">29.6</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Königshütte (pop.)</td> <td class="tcl rb">10.0</td> <td class="tcc rb">60.4</td> <td class="tcc rb">16.8</td> <td class="tcl rb">87.2</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Leipzig (pop.)</td> <td class="tcl rb"> 0.4</td> <td class="tcc rb"> 1.7</td> <td class="tcc rb">14.5</td> <td class="tcl rb">16.6</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Mannheim</td> <td class="tcl rb"> 3.1</td> <td class="tcc rb">22.1</td> <td class="tcc rb">40.4</td> <td class="tcl rb">65.6</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Munich (pop.)</td> <td class="tcl rb"> 4.6</td> <td class="tcc rb">24.1</td> <td class="tcc rb">28.4</td> <td class="tcl rb">57.1</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb bb">Plauen (pop.)</td> <td class="tcl rb bb"> 1.3</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">14.2</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">21.8</td> <td class="tcl rb bb">36.3</td></tr> +</table> + +<p class="noind">The figures must be read with a certain amount of caution, as they +are not in every case compiled on a precisely uniform method with +regard to inclusion of kitchens and attics. For this reason the +position of Bremen and Elberfeld is probably more unfavourable +than it ought to be. But broadly the table shows that in most of +the large towns in Germany more than half, and in some cases more +than three-quarters of the dwellings have less than 4 rooms. Leipzig +is the most striking exception. If working-class quarters alone are +taken it is found that dwellings of more than 3 rooms are so few +as to be negligible. In Stuttgart, where housing is very dear, the +percentages for working-class quarters are—1 room 21.0, 2 rooms +51.8, 3 rooms 26.9; total under 4 rooms 98.7. Königshütte, the chief +coal and iron centre in Silesia and a purely working-class town, +shows the same state of things; 60% of the whole population live +in dwellings of 2 rooms and 87% in less than four. It is interesting +to compare English towns. The proportion of dwellings containing +less than 4 rooms in London was (1901) 52.2%, in Berlin 75.8%; +the proportion of the population living in such dwellings was—London +38.7%, Berlin 71.5%. Not only is the proportion of small +dwellings very much higher in Berlin but the proportion of the +population living in them shows a far greater discrepancy. This +indicates a much higher degree of overcrowding. The only point +in which Berlin has the advantage is the smaller number of single-room +dwellings. The proportions are London 14.7%, Berlin 8.0%. +But it is to be observed that overcrowding is not so common in +1-room dwellings, which are often occupied by a single person, as +in those with 2 or 3 rooms, which are occupied by families, though +probably the most extreme cases of overcrowding occur in particular +1-room dwellings. In the English county boroughs the proportion of +dwellings with less than 4 rooms was 24.0%, in other urban districts +17.4, and in all urban areas including London 26.4%. When all +allowance is made for minor errors and discrepancies it may be +broadly concluded that the proportion of small dwellings containing +less than 4 rooms is at least twice as great in German as in English +towns, and that the conditions as to accommodation which in +England prevail only in London are general in urban Germany. +As a set-off German rooms are generally larger than English ones +and in block dwellings there is often a little ante-room or landing +which does not count but really increases the space.</p> + +<p>The German census does not take cognisance of overcrowding and +there is no general official standard; but some towns have adopted +a standard of their own, namely, six or more persons to 1 room and +ten or more to 2 rooms. In Breslau, which is one of the worst +towns, 17.5% of the population (53,000) of the “city” or inner +ring were overcrowded on this basis in 1900. In Barmen, which is +not one of the worst, 20% of the 2-roomed and 17% of the 3-roomed +dwellings (together housing more than half the population) were +overcrowded according to the English standard. Overcrowding +and other bad conditions are worst in the basement or cellar dwellings, +of which some towns have a very large number. In Breslau +15,000 persons were living in 3853 such dwellings in 1900; in +Berlin 91,426 persons were living in 24,088 basements. Some of +these are free from objection, but 11,147, housing 38,663 persons, +were situated in back buildings and unfit for habitation on account +of darkness, damp, dilapidation and the like. “Back” houses +are a feature of old towns; they are houses which do not give on +the street but lie behind and are approached by a passage; they are +what we call courts and quite as insanitary as anything of the kind +in English towns.</p> + +<p>With regard to rents the Board of Trade (London) Report gives +the following figures for Berlin and a number of other towns:—</p> + +<table class="ws" summary="Contents"> +<tr><td class="tcc allb" rowspan="2">No. of Rooms<br />per Dwelling.</td> <td class="tcc allb" colspan="2">Predominant Range of Weekly Rents.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcc allb">Berlin.</td> <td class="tcc allb">Other Towns.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">2 rooms</td> <td class="tcc rb">5/- to 6/-</td> <td class="tcc rb">2/8 to 3/6</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">3 rooms</td> <td class="tcc rb">7/- to 9/3</td> <td class="tcc rb">3/6 to 4/9</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb bb">4 rooms</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">..</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">4/3 to 6/-</td></tr> +</table> + +<p>Rents are higher in Berlin than in any other town, though +Stuttgart comes very near it. The following table of index numbers +shows the relations of 32 towns to Berlin:—</p> + +<table class="ws" summary="Contents"> +<tr><td class="tccm allb">Town.</td> <td class="tccm bb tb rb2">Index<br />Number.</td> <td class="tccm bb tb">Town.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Index<br />Number.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Berlin</td> <td class="tcc rb2">100</td> <td class="tcl rb">Nuremberg</td> <td class="tcc rb">53</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Stuttgart</td> <td class="tcc rb2">97</td> <td class="tcl rb">Aachen</td> <td class="tcc rb">53</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Düsseldorf</td> <td class="tcc rb2">79</td> <td class="tcl rb">Crefeld</td> <td class="tcc rb">52</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Dortmund</td> <td class="tcc rb2">68</td> <td class="tcl rb">Bremen</td> <td class="tcc rb">52</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Anchaffenburg</td> <td class="tcc rb2">67</td> <td class="tcl rb">Plauen</td> <td class="tcc rb">52</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Hamburg</td> <td class="tcc rb2">66</td> <td class="tcl rb">Leipzig</td> <td class="tcc rb">51</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Mannheim</td> <td class="tcc rb2">64</td> <td class="tcl rb">Dantzig</td> <td class="tcc rb">49</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Königsberg</td> <td class="tcc rb2">62</td> <td class="tcl rb">Mülhausen</td> <td class="tcc rb">48</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Munich</td> <td class="tcc rb2">63</td> <td class="tcl rb">Königshütte</td> <td class="tcc rb">47</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Essen</td> <td class="tcc rb2">62</td> <td class="tcl rb">Stettin</td> <td class="tcc rb">46</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Solingen</td> <td class="tcc rb2">61</td> <td class="tcl rb">Magdeburg</td> <td class="tcc rb">43</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Bochum</td> <td class="tcc rb2">57</td> <td class="tcl rb">Chemnitz</td> <td class="tcc rb">40</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Elberfeld</td> <td class="tcc rb2">57</td> <td class="tcl rb">Zwickau</td> <td class="tcc rb">38</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Barmen</td> <td class="tcc rb2">57</td> <td class="tcl rb">Brunswick</td> <td class="tcc rb">37 </td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Remscheid</td> <td class="tcc rb2">56</td> <td class="tcl rb">Stassfurt</td> <td class="tcc rb">33</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Breslau</td> <td class="tcc rb2">56</td> <td class="tcl rb">Oschersleben</td> <td class="tcc rb">28</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb bb">Dresden</td> <td class="tcc rb2 bb">54</td> <td class="tcl rb bb"> </td> <td class="tcc rb bb"> </td></tr> +</table> + +<p>Comparing rents in Germany and England, the Board of Trade +Report gives the following table, to which the corresponding ratio +of French towns has been added.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page826" id="page826"></a>826</span></p> + +<table class="ws" summary="Contents"> +<tr><td class="tccm allb" rowspan="2">No. of rooms.</td> <td class="tccm allb" colspan="2">Predominant Weekly Rents.</td> <td class="tccm allb" rowspan="2">Ratio of<br />German to<br />English (100)</td> <td class="tccm allb" rowspan="2">Ratio of<br />French to<br />English (100)</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tccm allb">England.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Germany.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">2 rooms</td> <td class="tcc rb">3/- to 3/6</td> <td class="tcc rb">2/8 to 3/6</td> <td class="tcc rb"> 95</td> <td class="tcc rb">79</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">3 rooms</td> <td class="tcc rb">3/9 to 4/6</td> <td class="tcc rb">3/6 to 4/9</td> <td class="tcc rb">100</td> <td class="tcc rb">86</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb bb">4 rooms</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">4/6 to 5/6</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">4/3 to 6/-</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">102</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">78</td></tr> +</table> + +<p class="noind">If the mean of the English and German figures be taken it shows +a very slight difference in favour of Germany; the mean weekly rent +per room being 1s. 5d. in England and 1s. 4¾d. in Germany. But in +England rent usually includes local taxation (rates) whereas in +Germany it does not; if this be added German rents are to English +as 123 to 100, or nearly one-fourth more.</p> + +<p>The statistics given above indicate a wide range of variation in +the conditions prevailing in different towns in Germany; and that +holds good with regard to improvements. The administration of +the laws relating to public health and housing is in the hands of the +local authorities. The public health service is generally efficient +and sometimes very good. Increasing attention has been paid in +recent years to the sanitary inspection of houses and in some towns +it is now thorough and systematic, but active efforts to deal with +old and insanitary quarters <i>en masse</i> are isolated and exceptional. +Hamburg is an instance; scared by the visitation of cholera in 1892 +the authorities put in hand an extensive improvement scheme on +the English plan at a cost of half a million sterling. But demolition +is exceptional; slums are usually subjected to supervision and are +not allowed to be in a state of dilapidation, and sometimes, as at +Mannheim, notices are served to abate overcrowding. In Munich +a policy of gradually buying up insanitary houses has been adopted. +But improvement has principally been promoted by new building +and the reduction of the population in old insanitary quarters, to +which cheap locomotive facilities have greatly contributed. The +great bulk of urban Germany is new, and the most valuable contribution +made by it to the housing question is the more effective +control of new building and particularly the principle of town-planning, +coupled with the purchase of neighbouring ground with +a view to future extension. This policy is comparatively recent and +still very partially applied, but it is now rapidly extending. A +general act providing for the planning of streets was passed in +Prussia in 1875 and still forms the basis of building legislation; +but as noted above no effective by-laws were adopted even in Berlin +until after 1887, and consequently a very faulty style of building +was adopted, especially in large blocks which conceal grave defects +behind an imposing exterior. The Saxon towns have been conspicuously +successful in regard to housing. Leipzig stands alone +among German towns in having 83.4% of its population living in +dwellings of 4 rooms and upwards. Yet it is a great commercial +city, the fifth in the empire, with a population of upwards of half a +million. It also comes low on the rent table, having an index number +little more than half that of Berlin. All the Saxon towns are low, +Chemnitz and Zwickau particularly so, and the position of Dresden, +being a capital, is remarkable. More than two-thirds of the population +live in dwellings of 4 rooms or more, and the rent index number +is only 54. In Saxony a general Building Act, especially providing +for town planning, was passed in 1900; and the Grand Duchy of +Hesse, which alone among the German states has a government +Housing Department, adopted a Housing of the Working Classes +Act in 1902. Other states have followed or are following and the +air is full of movement. The distinctive features of urban housing +reform in Germany are (1) the systematic planning of extensions, +(2) purchase of ground by municipalities, (3) letting or sale of municipal +land for building under prescribed conditions. Many of the +great towns, including Berlin, Munich, Dresden, Leipzig, Cologne, +Frankfort and Düsseldorf, are owners of land to a variable but +sometimes large extent. This policy seems to have been originally +adopted on economic grounds and those municipalities which bought +or otherwise came into possession of town land at an early date +derive a substantial revenue from it now, besides being in a position +to promote housing improvement. There is comparatively little +municipal building, and that as a rule only or principally for municipal +servants, as at Düsseldorf, Mannheim and Nuremberg; but +there seems to be a tendency to venture further in this direction +and some towns have built houses for letting. The municipalities +generally sell or let their land, and the building agencies which enjoy +most official favour are the societies “of public utility”; they are +encouraged in every way and have greatly developed, particularly +in the Rhine province. Some are co-operative, others semi-philanthropic +in that they aim at building good houses and limit their +profits. In 1901 the Prussian Government issued an order urging +municipalities to support these societies by remitting the cost of +constructing streets and sewers, placing the assistance of building +officials at their disposal, taking their shares, lending them money +and becoming security for them. A great deal of public money +has been advanced to building societies, and one very important +source of supply has been developed, since the Old Age and Infirmity +Insurance Act of 1889, in the National Insurance Funds +which invest their surplus capital in this way. Down to 1906 the +Boards of insurance had lent £8,650,000 to societies for building; +the Imperial Government had lent £1,250,000, the +Prussian Government £1,825,000, and the other states +further large sums in addition to the municipalities. +Money lent by the state is usually limited to building +houses for state employees and Insurance Boards +lend on condition that the houses are let to persons +who come under the insurance laws. The development +of building societies has been promoted by the +formation of general building associations of which +the earliest was established in Düsseldorf in 1897 for the Rhine +provinces; under its influence one-fifth of the new housing provided +in 1901 was erected by the societies. The example was followed +at Frankfort, Münster and Wiesbaden. Housing by employers has +also been carried out on a large scale in Germany. States and +municipalities have to some extent built houses as employers, the +former chiefly for railwaymen, besides lending money to societies +for the purpose; but most housing of this kind has been done by +private employers. Krupps, who had built 4274 dwellings housing +nearly 27,000 persons down to 1901, are the most famous example; +but they are only one among many. In Rhineland and Westphalia +employers had in 1902 provided 22,269 houses containing 62,539 +dwellings at a cost of £10,500,000; more than half the families so +housed belonged to the mining industry, the rest to various manufactures. +These two provinces, in which industrial development +has been extremely rapid, are exceptional; but housing by employers +is not confined to them. At Mannheim for instance over +1000 working-class households have been so provided. At Nuremberg +the Siemens Schuckert Company have encouraged an interesting +system of collective building among their employees, by which 722 +dwellings have been provided.</p> + +<p><i>Holland.</i>—In 1901 a Public Health and a Housing Act were +passed, and these two embody most of the features of housing reform +adopted in other countries. The first provides for a general sanitary +service under the Ministry of the Interior. The second ordains that +local authorities shall frame by-laws for building and for the maintenance +and proper use of dwellings; that they shall inspect existing +dwellings, order improvements or repairs or demolition; empowers +them to take land compulsorily for the purposes of the act, to +prohibit building or rebuilding on sites reserved for public purposes +and to make grants or loans to societies or companies operating +exclusively for the improvement of working-class dwellings. If +they fail to make by-laws the provincial authorities may take +action. Land buying with a view to extensions has been adopted +by a number of municipalities including Amsterdam, Rotterdam, +Utrecht and other important towns, and the practice is increasing. +Amsterdam has also begun the systematic planning of extensions. +There has been a little municipal building in some small places, but +it is on an insignificant scale; the tendency is rather to favour societies +of public utility as in France, Germany and Belgium. The new laws +are too recent to have had much effect and housing reform is as yet +in an early stage. Rents are high in the large towns, namely, 1 +room 1s. 8d. to 3s.; 2 rooms 2s. 6d. to 5s.; 3 rooms 3s. 6d. to 6s; +4 rooms 4s. 2d. to 7s.</p> + +<p><i>Italy.</i>—A Housing of the Working Classes Act was passed in +1903, to promote the improvement and provision of workmen’s +dwellings. Municipalities have the power to purchase land compulsorily +for housing purposes and also to build workmen’s dwellings. +A few towns, of which Milan is one, have done so. There are building +regulations relating to the area and height of rooms and the thickness +of walls. The antiquity of the Italian towns and the great quantity +of old and insanitary building make housing improvement a very +difficult matter. <i>La Società Umanitaria</i>, a benevolent trust founded +by Prosper Loria of Milan in 1902, has taken up this subject among +others and has built two model tenements, housing 2000 persons.</p> + +<p><i>United States.</i>—Interest in the housing question in the United +States is confined to a few of the largest cities and can only be said +to be acute in New York, though there have been investigations by +commissions elsewhere and Miss Octavia Hill’s work in London +has found admirers and imitators in Philadelphia and Boston as well +as in New York. The evils of housing in New York have been the +subject of much sensational writing which has elevated them to the +position of a world-wide scandal. It is not necessary to accept all +the allegations made in order to see that several circumstances have +combined to produce an exceptional state of things in this great city. +The limited space—the island or peninsula of Manhattan—in which +central New York is built has compelled the erection of large tenement +blocks, otherwise rare in American towns; the incessant inrush +of immigrants from the poorest parts of Europe has filled these +tenements with immense numbers of persons of many nationalities +accustomed to a low standard of living; the generally backward +state of public sanitation in America, and the absence or evasion of +regulations and supervision, have permitted the erection of bad +dwellings, their deterioration into worse, and their misuse by excessive +overcrowding. Other large cities in which bad housing conditions +are known to exist are Chicago, Philadelphia, Boston, Baltimore, +Cincinnati, Pittsburg, Jersey City. There are doubtless many +others, but bad housing conditions are not so general in the United +States as in Europe. Outside the very large cities there is more +space, more light and air, less crowding together, less darkness, dirt +and dilapidation. Large houses, occupied by two or perhaps three +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page827" id="page827"></a>827</span> +families, are common, but they have more room space than is usual +in Europe. The 18th annual report (1903) of the Commissioner +of Labour gives the result of a special inquiry embracing 23,447 +families distributed in 33 states. The average number of rooms +was 4.95 per family and 1.04 per individual. It is a fair inference +that overcrowding is confined to a comparatively small number of +exceptional places. A large number of the schedules were furnished +by the eminently urbanized and manufacturing states of New +York, Pennsylvania, Massachusetts, Ohio and Illinois; and in all +these the average number of rooms to a family exceeded 4, ranging +from 4.2 in Ohio to 5.5 in Massachusetts. The condition of homes +as to sanitation and cleanliness was statistically stated thus: +Sanitary condition—good 61.46%, fair 32,59%, bad 5.95%; +Cleanliness—good 79.63%, fair 14.66 bad 5.71%. Other +special inquiries have been carried out in particular towns. In +1891-1892 the tenements in Boston were investigated for the +Massachusetts Labour Bureau, which found 3657 sleeping rooms +without outside windows and about 8% of the population living in +conditions objectionable from one cause or another. In 1892 +Congress authorized a special inquiry into the slum population of +New York, Chicago, Philadelphia and Baltimore, the results of which +were published in the seventh special report (1894) of the United +States Commissioner of Labour. It was estimated that the total +“slum population” (presumably those living in unhealthy conditions) +was—New York 360,000, Chicago 162,000, Philadelphia +35,000, Baltimore 25,000. In Baltimore 530 families, consisting of +1648 persons, were living in single rooms with an average of 3.15 +persons to a room; in Philadelphia 401 families were so living with +an average of 3.11 persons to a room. The proportion of 1-room +dwellings was less in New York and Chicago. In New York 44.55% +or nearly half the families investigated were found living in +2-roomed dwellings, in Baltimore 27.88%, in Philadelphia 19.41% +and in Chicago 19.14%. These figures conclusively prove that +European conditions reproduce themselves in American cities. +Poverty was not the cause, as the average earnings per family +ranged from £3, 4s. a week in Baltimore to £4, 6s. a week in Chicago. +Another official investigation in New York was carried out in 1895 +by the Tenement House Commission appointed by the State of New +York. It reported “many houses in the city in an insanitary condition +which absolutely unfits them for habitation.” Further details +have been compiled from the census by the New York Federation +of Churches, chiefly relating to density of population in the city. In +1900, out of a total of nearly 250,000 dwellings, 95,433 (38.2%) +contained from 2 to 6 persons, 60,672 (24.2%) from 7 to 10 persons +and 89,654 (35.9%) 11 persons or more. The density of population +for the whole city as now constituted was 19 persons to the acre, +in Manhattan 149; in the south-eastern district of Manhattan +382 and in one ward 735. Between 1900 and 1905 the density +increased in every district, and in the latter year there were 12 blocks +with from 1000 to 1400 persons to the acre. The number of persons +to the acre in London (1901) is 60.6; in the most densely populated +borough 182, and in the most densely populated district (a very +small one) 396. This will give a measure of comparison. The large +tenement blocks in New York have been constructed with far less +regard to health than those in Berlin, and reproduce in an aggravated +form the same evil of insufficient light and air. In place of the +inadequate courts round which many are built in Berlin, the New +York tenements have merely narrow air shafts. In 1904 there were +reported to be 362,000 dark interior rooms, that is with no outside +windows.</p> + +<p>If American cities have nothing to learn from other countries in +regard to bad housing, they have nothing to teach in the way of +reform. They are following Europe slowly and a long distance +behind. There is no serious attempt to deal with insanitary areas +as they have been dealt with in England, or to prevent the creation +of new ones by regulation and planning of extensions as in Germany, +or to promote the provision of superior houses by organized public +effort as in several countries. A little has been done in New York +to improve the worst housing. A Tenement House Act was passed +after the report of the Commission of 1895 and a Department formed +to give effect to it. Some cleansing and repairing and insertion of +windows is carried out every year, but more attention seems to be +paid to fire escapes. Societies for providing improved dwellings +exist in New York, Boston, Chicago and Philadelphia. The oldest +is one formed in Boston in 1871, called the Co-operative Building +Company; it was followed in 1876 by an Improved Dwellings +Company in Brooklyn, and in 1879 by a similar society in Manhattan, +and in 1885 by another in Boston. The largest concern of the kind +is the City and Suburban Houses Company in New York, formed in +1896 under the guidance of Dr E. R. L. Gould; it has built four +groups of tenements housing 1238 families in the city and 112 houses +on a suburban estate at Brooklyn; in all it has housed some 6000 +persons. More recently Mr Henry Phipps has given £200,000 for +the provision of model dwellings in New York, and a building has +been erected on the plan of the Maison des Enfants in Paris. In +Chicago the City Houses Association works at housing reforms in +various ways. There are some other institutions of a like kind, +but the aggregate results are inconsiderable. Two other building +agencies have done far more in the United States than philanthropic +societies; these are the building and loan associations and private +employers. The former are co-operative provident societies; they +are widely diffused throughout the United States and their operations +are on a very large scale. They date from 1831, when the Oxford +Provident Building Association was formed at Frankfort, near +Philadelphia. Pennsylvania has still the largest number of associations, +but from 1843 onwards the movement spread rapidly and +continuously in other states. The high-water mark appears to have +been reached in 1897, when the total assets of the associations +amounted to about £133,000,000. In 1905 there were 5326 associations +with an aggregate membership of 1,686,611 and assets of +about £130,000,000. The states of Pennsylvania and Ohio head +the list, but the movement is very strong in many others. It accounts +for the comparatively large number of houses owned by working-class +families in the United States. With regard to housing by +employers, no comprehensive information is available, but the total +amount is certainly considerable though probably not so large as +in Germany or in France. Some of the better-known instances are +the Pelzer Manufacturing Company at Pelzer in South Carolina, +which has built about 1000 dwellings; the Maryland Steel Company +at Sparrows Point, Maryland, 800 dwellings; Ludlow Manufacturing +Associates at Ludlow, Mass., 500 dwellings; Whitin Machine +Works at Whitinsville, Mass., 600 dwellings; Westinghouse Air +Brake Co. at Wilmerding, Penn., 360 dwellings; Draper Co., Hopedale, +Mass., 250 dwellings. These are all more or less “model” +settlements, not in cities, but in outlying or country places, where +works have been established, and that is generally true of housing +by employers in the United States, whereas in Germany much has +been provided by them in the large towns. Rents are very much +higher in American cities than in European towns of comparable +size and character.</p> + +<p><span class="sc">Authorities.</span>—Board of Trade <i>Reports</i>—“Cost of Living of the +Working Classes (England)” (1908); “Cost of Living in German +Towns” (1908); “Cost of Living in French Towns” (1909). <i>Proceedings +of International Housing Congress</i> (London, 1907); <i>The +New Encyclopaedia of Social Reform</i>; E. R. Dewsnup, <i>The Housing +Problem in England</i>; T. C. Horsfall, <i>The Example of Germany</i>; +J. S. Nettlefold, <i>Practical Housing Reform</i>; A. Shadwell, <i>Industrial +Efficiency</i>, ch. xi. on “Housing”; W. Thompson, <i>The Housing +Handbook, Housing up to Date</i>.</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(A. Sl.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HOUSMAN, LAURENCE<a name="ar61" id="ar61"></a></span> (1867-  ), English writer and +artist, was born on the 18th of June 1867. Having studied +at South Kensington, he first made a reputation as a book-illustrator. +Some of his best pictorial work may be seen in the +editions of Meredith’s <i>Jump to Glory Jane</i> (1892), the <i>Weird +Tales of Jonas Lie</i> (1892), Jane Barlow’s <i>Land of Elfintoun</i> +(1894), Christina Rossetti’s <i>Goblin Market</i> (1893), <i>Werewolf</i> +(1896), by his sister, Miss Clemence Housman, Shelley’s <i>Sensitive +Plant</i> (1898), and his own <i>Farm in Fairyland</i> (1894). His +designs were engraved on wood by Miss Housman. His volumes +of verse include <i>Green Arras</i> (1896), <i>Rue</i> (1899), <i>Spikenard</i> +(1898) and <i>Mendicant Rhymes</i> (1906); and the mysticism which +characterizes the devotional poems in <i>Spikenard</i> recurs in his +half-allegorical tales, <i>All Fellows</i> (1896), <i>The Blue Moon</i> (1904) +and <i>The Cloak of Friendship</i> (1906). His nativity play, <i>Bethlehem</i>, +was presented in the Great Hall of London University at South +Kensington for a week in December 1902. In 1900 he published +anonymously <i>An Englishwoman’s Love Letters</i>, which created +a temporary sensation; and he followed this essay in popular +fiction by the novels <i>A Modem Antaeus</i> (1901) and <i>Sabrina +Warham</i> (1904). On the 23rd of December 1904 his fantastic +play <i>Prunella</i>, written in collaboration with Mr Granville +Barker, was produced at the Court Theatre.</p> + +<p>His brother, Alfred Edward Housman (b. 1859), an accomplished +scholar, professor of Latin at University College, London, +is known as a poet by his striking lyrical series, <i>A Shropshire +Lad</i> (1896).</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HOUSSAYE, ARSÈNE<a name="ar62" id="ar62"></a></span> (1815-1896), French novelist, poet +and man of letters, was born at Bruyères (Aisne), near Laon, on +the 28th of March 1815. His real surname was Housset. In +1832 he found his way to Paris, and in 1836 he published two +novels, <i>La Couronne de bluets</i> and <i>La Pécheresse</i>. He had many +friends in Paris, among them Jules Janin and Théophile Gautier, +and he wrote in collaboration with Jules Sandeau. He produced +art criticism in <i>L’Histoire de la peinture flamande et hollandaise</i> +(1846); semi-historical sketches In <i>Mlle de la Vallière et Mme +de Montespan</i> (1860) and <i>Galerie de portraits du XVII<span class="sp">e</span> siècle</i> +(1844); literary criticism in <i>Le Roi Voltaire</i> (1858) and his +famous satirical <i>Histoire du quarante et unième fauteuil de +l’académie française</i> (1855); drama in his <i>Comédiennes</i> (1857); +poetry in his <i>Symphonie des vingt ans</i> (1867), <i>Cent et un sonnets</i> +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page828" id="page828"></a>828</span> +(1873), &c.; and novels, <i>Les Filles d’Ève</i> (1852) and many others. +In 1849, through the influence of Rachel, he was entrusted with +the administration of the Théâtre Français, a position he filled +with unfailing tact and success until 1859, when he was made +inspector-general of works of art. He died on the 26th of +February 1896.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>His <i>Confessions, souvenir; d’un démi-siècle</i> appeared in 1885-1891. +See also J. Lemaître, <i>Arsène Houssaye</i> (1897), with a bibliography.</p> +</div> + +<p>His son, <span class="sc">Henry Houssaye</span> (1848-  ), the historian, was +born in Paris. His early writings were devoted to classical +antiquity, studied not only in books but on the actual Greek +sites which he visited in 1868. He published successively +<i>Histoire d’Apelles</i> (1867), a study on Greek art; <i>L’Armée dans +la Grèce antique</i> (1867); <i>Histoire d’Alcibiade et de la république +athénienne depuis la mort de Périclès jusqu’à l’avènement des +trente tyrans</i> (1873); Papers on <i>Le Nombre des citoyens d’Athènes +au V<span class="sp">ème</span> siècle avant l’ère chrétienne</i> (1882); <i>La Loi agraire à +Sparte</i> (1884); <i>Le Premier Siège de Paris en 52 av. J.-C.</i> (1876); +and two volumes of miscellanies, <i>Athènes, Rome, Paris, l’histoire +et les mœurs</i> (1879), and <i>Aspasie, Cléopatre, Théodora</i> (6th ed. +1889). The military history of Napoleon I. then attracted him. +His first volume on this subject, called <i>1814</i> (1888), went through +no fewer than forty-six editions. It was followed by <i>1815</i>, the +first part of which comprises the first Restoration, the return +from Elba and the Hundred Days (1893); the second part, +Waterloo (1899); and the third part, the second abdication +and the White Terror (1905). He was elected a member of the +French Academy in 1895.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HOUSTON, SAM,<a name="ar63" id="ar63"></a></span> or <span class="sc">Samuel</span> (1793-1863), American general and +statesman, of Scotch-Irish descent, was born near Lexington, +Virginia, on the 2nd of March 1793. His father, who had +fought in the War of Independence, died in 1806, and soon +afterward Samuel removed with his mother to the frontier in +Blount county, Tennessee. When he was about fifteen his +elder brothers obtained for him a place as clerk in a trader’s +store, but he ran away and lived with the Cherokee Indians of +East Tennessee for nearly three years. On his return he opened +a country school, and later attended a session or two of the +Academy at Maryville. During the War of 1812 he served under +Andrew Jackson against the Creek Indians, and his bravery +at the battle of Tohopeka, in which he was disabled by several +wounds, won promotion to a lieutenancy. In 1817 he was +appointed sub-agent in managing the business relating to the +removal of the Cherokees from East Tennessee to a reservation +in what is now Arkansas, but he was offended at a rebuke from +John C. Calhoun, then secretary of war, for appearing before +him in Indian garments, as well as at an inquiry into charges +affecting his official integrity, and he resigned in 1818. He +entered a law office in Nashville, and was admitted to the bar, +and was soon elected a district attorney. From 1823 to 1827 +Houston represented the ninth district of Tennessee in Congress, +and in 1827 was elected governor of the state by the Jackson +Democrats. He married Eliza Allen in January 1829; his wife +left him three months later, and he resigned his office of governor, +again took up his residence among the Cherokees, who were at +this time about to remove to Indian Territory, and was formally +adopted a member of their nation.</p> + +<p>In 1830 and again in 1832 he visited Washington to expose +the frauds practised upon the Cherokees by government agents, +and attracted national attention by an encounter on the 13th +of April 1832 with William Stanberry, a Congressman from +Ohio, who intimated that Houston himself was seeking to defraud +them. Commissioned by President Jackson, Houston went to +Texas in December 1832 to negotiate treaties with the Indian +tribes there for the protection of American traders on the border. +He decided to remain in Texas, and was elected a delegate to +the constitutional convention which met at San Felipe on the +1st of April 1833 to draw up a memorial to the Mexican Congress +asking for the separation of Texas from Coahuila, in which the +anti-American party was in control, as well as to frame a constitution +for the commonwealth as a new member of the Mexican +Republic, and he served as chairman of the drafting committee, +and took a prominent part in the preparations for war when +next year the petition was refused. In October 1835, soon after +the outbreak of the War for Texan Independence, the committees +of the township of Nacogdoches chose Houston as commander-in-chief +of the forces in eastern Texas, and after the San Felipe +convention in November he was chosen commander-in-chief +of the Texan army. On the 21st of April 1836, while in command +of 743 raw troops, he met on the bank of the San +Jacinto about 1600 Mexican veterans led by Santa Anna and +completely routed them; on the next day Santa Anna was +taken prisoner.</p> + +<p>Texan independence was won by this victory (although the Mexican +government repudiated the treaty negotiated by Santa Anna), +and Houston was elected president of Texas (1st of September) +and was inaugurated on the 22nd of October. His term expired +in December 1838; he was elected again in 1841 and served until +1844. During his first term a newly founded city was named in +his honour and this was the seat of government in 1837-39 and in +1842-45. Texas having been admitted as a state of the American +Union in 1845, Houston was elected one of its first two United +States senators. He served as a stalwart Union Democrat from +March 1846 until 1859; he opposed the Kansas-Nebraska +bill in an able speech (3rd March 1854), and spoke frequently +in defence of the rights of the Indians. In 1859 he was elected +governor of Texas and tried to prevent the secession of his state; +upon his refusal, in March 1861, to swear allegiance to the +Confederacy he was declared deposed. He died at Huntsville, +Texas, on the 26th of July 1863. Houston was an able soldier, +wary, intrepid and resolute; and was a legislator of rare foresight, +cool discrimination and fearless candour.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See A. M. Williams, <i>Sam Houston and the War of Independence +in Texas</i> (Boston, 1893); Henry Bruce, <i>Life of General Houston</i> +(New York, 1891); and W. C. Crane, <i>Life and Select Literary Remains +of Sam Houston</i> (Philadelphia, 1884).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HOUSTON,<a name="ar64" id="ar64"></a></span> a city and the county-seat of Harris county, Texas, +U.S.A., at the head of deep-sea navigation on Buffalo Bayou, +a tributary of Galveston Bay, 50 m. N.W. of Galveston, and +about 325 m. W. of New Orleans. Pop. (1880) 16,513; (1890) +27,557; (1900) 44,633, of whom 4415 were foreign-born and +14,608 were negroes; (1910 census) 78,800. The land area +in 1906 was 16.02 sq. m.; in 1908, about 20 sq. m. It is served +by the Galveston, Harrisburg & San Antonio (Southern Pacific), +the Galveston, Houston & Henderson, the Gulf, Colorado +& Santa Fe, the Houston & Texas Central (Southern Pacific), +the Houston, East & West Texas, the International & Great +Northern, the Missouri, Kansas & Texas, the San Antonio & +Aransas Pass, the Trinity & Brazos Valley, the St Louis, Brownsville +& Mexico, the Texas & New Orleans, and the Houston Belt +& Terminal railways, several of which have their headquarters +at Houston. The Federal government has greatly improved +the natural channel from the city to the Gulf of Mexico, straightening, +widening and deepening it to a depth of 25 ft. for the entire +distance from the Galveston jetties to the Houston turning +basin—where the municipality has constructed free municipal +wharves. The city occupies an unusually fine site on both sides +of the Buffalo Bayou. Among the principal buildings are a +Carnegie library, the Houston Lyceum, the Federal building, +the Masonic temple, the city high school, the city hall and +market house, the Harris County Court House, the Cotton +Exchange, and the First and Commercial National banks. +Houston is the seat of the Texas Dental College, of St Thomas +College (1903), and of the Houston, Annunciation and St Agnes +academies; and the will (1901) of William Marsh Rice provided +an endowment (valued in 1908 at about $7,000,000) for the +William M. Rice Institute for the Advancement of Literature, +Science and Art, of which Dr Edgar Odell Lovett, formerly +professor of mathematics (1900-1905) and of astronomy (1905-1908) +in Princeton University, was made president in 1908. +The city is the most important railway and shipping centre of +South Texas, and has a large trade in cotton (the receipts for +the year ending Aug. 31, 1907 being 2,967,535 bales), cotton-seed +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page829" id="page829"></a>829</span> +oil, sugar, rice,<a name="fa1f" id="fa1f" href="#ft1f"><span class="sp">1</span></a> lumber and citrus fruits. Houston is important +also as a manufacturing centre, its factory product being valued +at $13,564,019 in 1905, an increase of 81% over the factory +product in 1900. There are extensive railway car-shops, cotton-seed +oil, petroleum and sugar refineries, cotton gins and compresses, +steel rolling mills, car-wheel factories, boiler, pump and +engine works, flour mills, rice mills and a rice elevator, breweries, +planing and saw-mills, pencil factories, and brick and tile factories. +Its proximity to the Texas oil fields gives the city a cheap factory +fuel. The assessed valuation of taxable property in the city +increased from $27,480,898 in 1900 to $51,513,615 in 1908. +The No-Tsu Oh Carnival week each November is a distinctive +feature of the city. Houston, like Galveston, adopted in 1905 +a very successful system of municipal government by commission, +a commission of five (one of whom acts as mayor) being elected +biennially and having both executive and legislative powers. +The waterworks are owned and operated by the municipality, +which greatly improved them from the city’s surplus under the +first two years of government by commission. In 1908 extensive +improvements in paving, drainage and sewerage were undertaken +by the city. The payment of an annual poll-tax of $2.50 is +a prerequisite to voting. Houston was settled and laid out in +1836, and was named in honour of General Sam Houston, whose +home in Caroline Street was standing in 1908. In 1837-1839 +and in 1842-1845 Houston was the capital of the Republic of +Texas. About 15 m. E.S.E. of the city is the battleground of +San Jacinto, which was bought by the state in 1906 for a public +memorial park.</p> + +<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note"> + +<p><a name="ft1f" id="ft1f" href="#fa1f"><span class="fn">1</span></a> Much rice is cultivated in the vicinity of Houston by Japanese +farmers.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HOUWALD, CHRISTOPH ERNST,<a name="ar65" id="ar65"></a></span> <span class="sc">Freiherr von</span> (1778-1845), +German dramatist and author, was born at Straupitz +in Lower Lusatia, a son of the president of the district court of +justice, on the 28th of November 1778. He studied law at the +university of Halle, and on completion of his academic studies +returned home, married, and managed the family estates. In +1816 he afforded a home to his friend K. W. S. Contessa (1777-1825), +himself a poet, who had met with serious reverses of +fortune; Contessa lived with Houwald, assisting and stimulating +him in his literary work, for eight years. In 1821 Houwald was +unanimously elected syndic for Lower Lusatia, an office which +placed him at the head of the administration of the province. +He died at Neuhaus, near Lübben, on the 28th of January 1845.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>Houwald is remembered as the author of several so-called “Fate +tragedies” (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">German Literature</a></span>), of which the best known are +<i>Das Bild</i>, <i>Der Leuchtturm</i>, <i>Die Heimkehr</i>, <i>Fluch und Segen</i> (all +published in 1821). They have, however, small literary value, and +Houwald is seen to better advantage in his narratives and books for +juvenile readers, such as <i>Romantische Akkorde</i> (publ. by W. Contessa, +Berlin, 1817); <i>Buch für Kinder gebildeter Stände</i> (1819-1824); and +<i>Jakob Thau, der Hofnarr</i> (1821). Houwald’s collected works, +<i>Sämtliche Werke</i>, were published in five volumes (Leipzig, 1851; +2nd ed., 1858-1859). See J. Minor, <i>Die Schicksalstragödie in ihren +Hauptvertretern</i> (Frankfurt, 1883), and <i>Das Schicksalsdrama</i> in +Kürschner’s <i>Deutsche Nationalliteratur</i>; vol. cli. (Stuttgart, 1884); +O. Schmidtborn, <i>C. E. von Houwald als Dramatiker</i> (1909).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HÒVA,<a name="ar66" id="ar66"></a></span> the name originally applied to the middle-class Malayo-Indonesian +natives of Madagascar (<i>q.v.</i>), as distinct from the +noble class <i>Andrìana</i> and the slave class <i>Andèvo</i>. Hòva has now +come to mean the most numerous and powerful of the tribes +which form the native population of Madagascar. The Hòva, +who occupy the province of Imérina, the central plateau of the +island, are of Malayo-Indonesian origin. The period at which +the Hòva arrived in Madagascar is still a subject of dispute. +Some think that the immigration took place in very early times, +before Hinduism reached the Malay Archipelago, since no trace +of Sanskrit is found in Malagasy. Others believe that the Hòva +did not reach the island until the 12th or 13th century. At the +French conquest of Madagascar (1895), the Hòva were the most +powerful and, politically, the dominant people; but were far +from having subjected the whole of the island to their rule. +The Hòva are short and slim, with a complexion of a yellowish +olive, many being fairer than the average of southern Europeans. +Their hair is long, black and smooth but coarse. Their heads +are round, with flat straight foreheads, flat faces, prominent +cheekbones, small straight noses, fairly wide nostrils, and small +black and slightly oblique eyes. The physical contrast to the +negro is usually very obvious, but, especially among the lower +classes, there is a tendency to thick lips, kinky hair and dark +skin. In many of their customs, such as taboo, infanticide, +marriage and funeral rites, they show their Indonesian origin. +Most of them now profess Christianity.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HOVE,<a name="ar67" id="ar67"></a></span> a municipal borough of Sussex, England, adjoining the +watering-place of Brighton on the west, on the London, Brighton, +& South Coast railway. Pop. (1901) 36,535. The great seawall +of Brighton continues along the front at Hove, forming a +pleasant promenade. Here is the Sussex county cricket ground. +The municipal borough, incorporated in 1898, includes the +parishes of Hove and Aldrington, of which the first is within the +parliamentary borough of Brighton, but the second is in the +Lewes division of the county. The corporation consists of a +mayor, 10 aldermen and 30 councillors. Area, 1521 acres.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HOVENDEN, THOMAS<a name="ar68" id="ar68"></a></span> (1840-1895), American artist, was +born in Dunmanway, Co. Cork, Ireland, on the 28th of +December 1840. He was a pupil of the South Kensington Art +Schools and those of the National Academy of Design, New +York, whither he had removed in 1863. Subsequently he went +to Paris and studied in the École des Beaux Arts under Cabanel, +but passed most of his time with the American colony in Brittany, +at Pont-Aven, where he painted many pictures of the peasantry. +Returning to America in 1880, he became an academician in +1882, and attracted attention by an important canvas of “The +Last Moments of John Brown” (now in the Metropolitan +Museum of Art). His “Breaking Home Ties,” a picture of +American farm life, was engraved with considerable popular +success. Hovenden was mortally injured in a heroic effort to +save a child from a railroad train in the station at Germantown, +near Philadelphia, and died at Norristown, Pennsylvania, on the +14th of August 1895. Among his principal works are:—“News +from the Conscript” (1877), “Loyalist Peasant Soldier of La +Vendée” (1879). “A Breton Interior,” “Image Seller” and +“Jerusalem the Golden” (in the Metropolitan Museum of Art).</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HOW, WILLIAM WALSHAM<a name="ar69" id="ar69"></a></span> (1823-1897), English divine, son +of a Shrewsbury solicitor, was born on the 13th of December +1823, and was educated at Shrewsbury school and Wadham +College, Oxford. He was ordained in 1846, and for upwards of +thirty years was actively engaged in parish work at Whittington +in Shropshire and Oswestry (rural dean, 1860). He refused +preferment on several occasions, but his energy and success made +him well known, and in 1879 he became a suffragan bishop in +London, under the title of bishop of Bedford, his province being +the East End. There he became the inspiring influence of a +revival of church work. He founded the East London Church +Fund, and enlisted a large band of enthusiastic helpers, his +popularity among all classes being immense. He was particularly +fond of children, and was commonly called “the children’s +bishop.” In 1888 he was made bishop of Wakefield, and in the +north of England he continued to do valuable work. His sermons +were straightforward, earnest and attractive; and besides +publishing several volumes of these, he wrote a good deal of +verse, including such well-known hymns as “Who is this so +weak and helpless,” “Lord, Thy children guide and keep.” In +1863-1868 he brought out a <i>Commentary on the Four Gospels</i>; +and he also wrote a <i>Manual for the Holy Communion</i>. In the +movement for infusing new spiritual life into the church services, +especially among the poor, How was a great force. He died on +the 10th of August 1897. He was much helped in his earlier +work by his wife. Frances A. Douglas (d. 1887).</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See his <i>Life</i> by his son, F. D. How (1898).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HOWARD<a name="ar70" id="ar70"></a></span> (<span class="sc">Family</span>). Among English families, the house of +Howard has long held the first place. Its head, the duke of +Norfolk, is the first of the dukes and the hereditary earl marshal +of England, while the earls of Suffolk, Carlisle and Effingham and +the Lord Howard of Glossop represent in the peerage its younger +lines.</p> + +<p>Its founder was a Norfolk lawyer, William Howard or Haward, +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page830" id="page830"></a>830</span> +who was summoned to parliament as a justice in 1295, being +appointed a justice of the common pleas in 1297. Over the +parentage of this man genealogists have disputed for centuries. +The pedigree-makers have hailed him in turn as the descendant +of a Norman “Auber, earl of Passy” and as the heir of Hereward, +“the last of the English.” But out of the copies of Norfolk +deeds and records collected for Thomas, earl of Arundel, in the +early part of the 17th century, it seems clear enough that he +sprang from a Norfolk family, several of whose members held +lands at Wiggenhall near Lynn. These notes from deeds, +evidently collected by an honest inquirer, make no extravagant +claims of ancient ancestry or illustrious origin for the Howards, +although the facts contained in them were recklessly manipulated +by subservient genealogists. Doubtless the judge was the son +of John Howard of Wiggenhall, living about 1260, whose widow +Lucy, called by the genealogists the daughter of John Germund, +was probably the wife of John Germund by her second marriage. +William Howard was employed as counsel by the corporation of +Lynn, and it is worthy of note that the “crosslets fitchy” in his +shield of arms suggest the cross with which the dragon was +discomfited by St Margaret, the patroness of Lynn. Prospering +by the law, William Howard of Wiggenhall rose to knight’s +rank and acquired by purchase Grancourt’s manor in East +Winch, near Lynn, where he had his seat in a moated house +whose ruins remain. He was probably dead and buried in his +chapel at East Winch before November 27, 1308, the date of the +patent by which Henry Scrope succeeded him as a commissioner +of trailbaston. His two wives, Alice Ufford and Alice Fitton—heir +of Fitton’s manor in Wiggenhall—were both daughters of +knightly houses. Before his death his eldest son, John Howard, +was a knight and already advanced by his marriage with Joan of +Cornwall, one of the bastard line founded by Richard of Cornwall, +king of the Romans.</p> + +<p>Sir John Howard served in Edward II.’s wars in Scotland and +Gascony, was sheriff of Norfolk and Suffolk and governor of +Norwich Castle. When he died in 1331 he was seised of many +Norfolk manors. His son and heir, another Sir John, admiral of +the king’s navy in the north, was a banneret who displayed his +banner in the army that laid siege to Calais. By the admiral’s wife +Alice, sister and heir of Sir Robert de Boys, the Howards had the +Boys manor of Fersfield, near Diss, which is still among the +possessions of the dukes of Norfolk. His son Sir Robert Howard, +who had married a daughter of Sir Robert Scales (Lord Scales), +died in 1388. From Sir John Howard, the only son of Sir Robert, +two branches of the house of Howard spring. The elder line was +soon extinct. By his first wife, Margaret, daughter and heir of +Sir John Plays, Sir John Howard had a son who died before him, +leaving a daughter through whom descended to her issue, the +Veres, earls of Oxford, the ancient Norfolk estates of the Howards +at East Winch and elsewhere, with the lands of the houses of +Scales, Plays and Walton, brought in by the brides of her forefathers. +After the death of Margaret Plays, her widower found, +with the peculiar instinct of his race, a second well-endowed +wife. By her, the heir of the Tendrings of Tendring, he had a +second son, Sir Robert Howard, a knight who fought under +Henry V. in France, and died, like his half-brother, before the old +knight’s career ended in 1436.</p> + +<p>It is to the marriage of this young knight that the house of +Howard owes the tragedy of its greatness. He was a younger +son, although he had some of his mother’s inheritance. Had he +married the landless daughter of a neighbour he might have been +the ancestor of a line of Essex squires, whose careers would have +had the parish topographer for chronicler. But his bride was +Margaret Mowbray, daughter of the banished duke of Norfolk. +Although this was a noble alliance, it is probable that the lady +had no great portion. The head of her elder brother, the boy +earl marshal, had been stricken off in the cornfield under the +walls of York, but her younger brother’s right to his father’s +dukedom was allowed by parliament in 1425.</p> + +<p>Sir John Howard, only son of the match between Howard +and Mowbray, took service with his cousin the third duke of +Norfolk, who had him returned as knight of the shire for Norfolk, +where, according to the <i>Paston Letters</i>, this Howard of the +Essex branch was regarded by the gentry as a strange man. +He followed the White Rose and was knighted at the crowning +of King Edward IV., who pricked him for sheriff of Norfolk and +Suffolk. In the duke’s quarrel he brawled with the Pastons, +his wife boasting that, should her husband’s men meet with +John Paston “there should go no penny for his life.” “And +Howard,” writes Clement Paston, “hath with the king a great +fellowship.” Offices and lands came to John Howard by reason +of that fellowship. Henry VI., when restored, summoned him +to parliament in 1470 as Lord Howard, a summons which may +have been meant to lure him to London into Warwick’s power, +but he proclaimed the Yorkist sovereign on his return and +fought at Barnet and Tewkesbury. When peace was made, +Edward summoned him again as a baron and gave him the +Garter and the treasurership of his household. After Edward’s +burial, at which he bore the king’s banner, Howard, an enemy +of the Wydviles, linked his fortunes with those of the duke of +Gloucester. At this time came his sudden lifting to the highest +rank in the peerage. The last of the dukes of Norfolk had left +a child heir, Anne Mowbray, married to the infant duke of York, +the younger of the princes doomed by Richard in the Tower. +By the death of this little girl, John Howard became one of the +coheirs of her illustrious house, which was now represented by +the issue of Margaret Mowbray, his mother, and of her sister +Isabel, who had married James, Lord Berkeley. A lion’s share +of the Mowbray estates, swollen by the great alliances of the +house, heir of Breouse and Segrave, and, through Segrave, of +Thomas of Brotherton, son of Edward I., fell to Howard, who, +by a patent of June 28, 1483, was created duke of Norfolk and +earl marshal of England with a remainder to the heirs male of +his body. On the same day the lord Berkeley, the other coheir, +was made earl of Nottingham. High steward at Richard’s +crowning, the duke bore the crown and rode as marshal into +Westminster Hall. For the rest of his life he was Richard’s +man, and though warned by the famous couplet that “Dykon +his master” was bought and sold, “Jack of Norfolk” led the +archer vanguard at Bosworth and died in the fight, from which +his son the earl of Surrey was carried away a wounded prisoner. +An attainder by the first parliament of Henry VII. extinguished +the honours of the father with those of the son, who had been +created an earl when the lord Howard was raised to the dukedom. +Their estates were forfeit.</p> + +<p>Thomas Howard, a politic mind, loyal to the powers that be, +was released from the Tower of London in 1489, his earldom +of Surrey and his Garter restored. Accepting the position +in which the Tudor king would have his great nobles, he became +the faithful soldier, diplomatist and official of the new power. +In his seventieth year, as lieutenant-general of the North, he +led the English host on the great day of Flodden, earning a +patent of the dukedom of Norfolk, dated 1 February 1513/4, +and that strange patent which granted to him and his heirs +that they should bear in the midst of the silver bend of their +Howard shield a demi-lion stricken in the mouth with an arrow, +in the right colours of the arms of the king of Scotland. This +augmentation has been interpreted as a golden scocheon with the +demi-lion within the Scottish tressure. Thus charged on the +silver bend, it makes bad armory and it is worthy of note that, +although the grant of it is clearly to the duke and his heirs in +fee simple, Howards of all branches descending from the duke +bear it in their shields, even though all right to it has long passed +from the house to the duke’s heirs general, the Stourtons and +Petres.</p> + +<p>The victor of Flodden is the common ancestor of all living +Howards that can show a descent from the main stock. The +second duke, twice married, was father of at least eleven sons +and six daughters, the sons including Edward the lord high +admiral, killed in boarding Prégent’s galleys at Brest, Edmund +the knight marshal of the army at Flodden, and William the +first Lord Howard of Effingham. The eldest son, Thomas, +succeeded as the third duke of his name, although the second +under the patent of 1514. He had fought as captain of the +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page831" id="page831"></a>831</span> +vanguard at Flodden and after the victory was created earl of +Surrey. When Richard III. was allying himself with the Howards, +Thomas Howard, a boy of eleven, had been betrothed to Anne, +daughter of the late King Edward IV., and Henry VII. allowed +the marriage with his queen’s sister to take place in 1495. This +royal bride died of consumption, leaving no living child, +and her husband took in 1513, as his second wife, Elizabeth +Stafford, daughter of that duke of Buckingham upon whom the +old duke of Norfolk, the tears upon his cheeks, was forced to +pass sentence of death. Succeeding his father in 1524, Norfolk +was created earl marshal in 1533. An unsuccessful diplomatist, +his chief services in arms were the butchery in the north after +the Pilgrimage of Grace and the raid into Scotland which ended +with the rout of Solway Moss. He left his wife for a mistress, +Elizabeth Holland, was in discord with his family, and lived to +see his two nieces, Anne Boleyn and Catherine Howard, and his +son Surrey, the fiery-tempered poet, go in turn to the block. +He himself was attainted and was lying a prisoner in the Tower, +doomed to die in the morning, on the night of the death of +Henry VIII. He was not released until the accession of Mary, +parliament restoring his dukedom on his petition for reversal +of the attainder. His grandson Thomas succeeded him in 1554, +and in 1556 made the second of those <span class="correction" title="amended from marraiges">marriages</span> which have +given the Howards their high place among the English nobility. +The bride was Mary, sole heir in her issue of her father Henry, +the last of the Fitzalan earls of Arundel. Her father’s line and +the royal Stewards of Scotland sprang from one forefather, +Alan, son of Flaald the Breton. The Mowbray match had already +brought to the Howards the representation of an elder line +of the Fitzalan earls, who sat in the seats of their ancestors, +the Aubignys and Warennes, great earls near akin to their +sovereigns. And now the younger line, earls of Arundel and +Lords Mautravers, were also to have a Howard to represent +them. From this time the spreading genealogy of the Howards +drew its origins from most of the illustrious names of the houses +founded after the Norman Conquest.</p> + +<p>The young duchess died in her seventeenth year after giving +birth to a son, and the duke took a second wife from a humble +stock, newly enriched and honoured, the daughter of Henry +VIII.’s subservient chancellor, the Lord Audley of Walden. +Within ten years he married a third time, the lady being Elizabeth +Leybourne, the widow of Lord Dacre of Gilsland. She survived +her marriage but a few months and her husband then obtained +the wardship of her Dacre offspring, a son who died young, and +three daughters whom the duke, with the true Howard eye for +a rich inheritance, gave as brides to three of his sons. After three +such good fortunes by marriage Norfolk in his folly looked for +a crown with a fourth match, listening to the laird of Lethington +when he set forth the scheme by which the duke was to marry +a restored queen of Scots and rule Scotland with her who should +be recognized as Elizabeth’s successor. Ten months in the Tower +under strong suspicion would have warned another man, but +Norfolk was unstable and false. After promising fidelity and +the abandonment of the Scots marriage scheme, Cecil took him +corresponding with Mary and tampering with the Ridolfi plot. +He died on Tower Hill in 1572 for an example to the disloyal +counties, protesting innocence and repentance, warning his +children in a last letter to discredit all “false bruits” that he +was a papist.</p> + +<p>By his attainder the Norfolk titles were once more forfeited. +But Philip Howard, the son and heir, succeeded to the ancient +earldom of Arundel in 1580, on the death of his maternal grandfather, +while the Lord Lumley, his uncle by marriage, surrendered +to him his life interest in the castle and honour of Arundel. +The next year an act of parliament restored the earl in blood. +After a profligate youth at court, he followed his wife in professing +the Roman faith, and in 1585 made an attempt to leave +England to seek safety from the penal laws. But his ship was +boarded in the Channel and the earl, condemned by the Star-Chamber +to a heavy fine and to imprisonment during the queen’s +pleasure, suffered a harsh captivity in the Tower. After the +defeat of the Armada he had been condemned to death on a +charge of high treason, founded on the tale drawn by torture from +a priest, that Arundel had urged him to say a mass for the success +of the Spaniards. But he was allowed to linger in his prison +until 1595 when he died, the sight of his wife and children being +cruelly refused to the dying man. Thus it befell that, of the chiefs +of the Howards born since the great Mowbray alliance, two had +died by the axe and one in the prison from which a fourth had +hardly escaped. A fifth had fallen in a lost battle, and only one +had died in peace in his own house.</p> + +<p>The ill fate of the Howards seemed to be appeased by the +death of Philip, earl of Arundel. Tudor policy did its work well, +and noblemen, however illustrious their pedigrees, could no +longer be counted as menaces by the Crown, which was, indeed, +finding another rival to its power. In the first year of James I., +Thomas, the young son of Earl Philip, was restored in blood and +given the titles of Arundel and Surrey. But the lands belonging +to these titles remained with the Crown and he had to repair his +fortunes by one of those marriages which never failed his house, +his wife being Alathea Talbot, who was at last the heir of Gilbert, +earl of Shrewsbury. To the grief of his mother he left the Roman +church. A knight of the Garter, he was in 1621 created earl +marshal for life, and revived the jurisdiction belonging to the +office. An act of 1627, one of several such aimed at aggrandizing +families by diverting the descent of dignities in fee from heirs +general, entailed the earldom and castle of Arundel upon Thomas, +earl of Arundel and Surrey and the heirs male of his body “and +for default of such issue, to the heirs of his body.” His pride +and austerity made him unpopular at court and he left the +country in 1642, settling at last in Padua, where he died in +1646, impoverished by the sequestrations of the parliament, +whose forces had taken and retaken his castle of Arundel. +In answer to his petition for the dukedom, the king had, on +the 6th of June 1644, given him a patent of the earldom of +Norfolk, in order, as it would seem, to flatter him by suggesting +that the title of Norfolk would at least be refused to any other +family. He is celebrated as a collector of paintings, books, gems +and sculptures, his “Arundel marbles” being given by his +grandson in 1667 to the University of Oxford. The dukedom +for which Arundel had petitioned Charles I. in vain was restored +by act of the first parliament of Charles II. to his grandson +Thomas, a lunatic living at Padua, on whose death in 1677 it +passed to this Thomas’s brother, Henry Frederick, who had been +created earl of Norwich and hereditary earl marshal of England +in 1672. In 1777 Edward, the ninth of the Howard dukes, died +childless in his ninety-second year. With him ended the earldom +of Norwich, while the representation of the Mowbrays and +Segraves passed to his nieces, the Ladies Stourton and Petre, +the abeyance of the two baronies being determined in 1878 in +favour of Lord Stourton. Under the act of 1627 the earldom +of Arundel and the castle passed with the dukedom to a second +cousin, Charles Howard of Greystock (d. 1786), an eccentric +recluse. At his death in 1786 he was succeeded by his son +Charles, the notorious “Jockey of Norfolk,” the big, coarse, +generous, slovenly, hard-drinking Whig of whom all the memoir-writers +of his age have their anecdotes. He conformed to the +Church of England and spent a vast sum in restoring Arundel +Castle. A third cousin succeeded him in 1815, Bernard Edward +Howard, who, although a Roman Catholic, was enabled, by the +act of 1824, to act as earl marshal. This was the grandfather +of the fifteenth duke, earl of Arundel, Surrey and Norfolk, and +hereditary earl marshal of England.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>The eldest of the cadet branches of the ducal house has its origin +in William (<i>c.</i> 1510-1573), eldest son of the victor of Flodden by his +second marriage. He survived the reign of Henry VIII., that +perilous age for the Howards, with no worse misadventure than the +conviction of himself and his wife of misprision of treason in concealing +the offences of his niece, Queen Catherine. But both were pardoned. +In 1553 he had the office of lord admiral of England, and in the next +year the Garter. For his services against Sir Thomas Wyat he +was created (March 11, 1553/4) Lord Howard of Effingham, the +title being taken from a Surrey manor granted him by Edward VI. +Queen Elizabeth continued his employment in diplomacy, and had +he been richer he might have had an earldom. His eldest son +Charles (1536-1624), lord admiral of England in 1585, sailed as +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page832" id="page832"></a>832</span> +commander in chief against the Spanish Armada, and, although +giving due weight to the counsel of Drake and his other officers, +showed himself a leader as prudent as courageous. He was created +earl of Nottingham in 1596 and died in 1624. The legend that the +admiral was a Roman Catholic has no authority. Two of his sons +succeeded in turn to the earldom of Nottingham, extinct on the +death of Charles, the third earl in 1681. Sir William Howard of +Lingfield, younger brother of the great admiral, carried on the +Effingham line, his great-grandson succeeding to the barony on the +extinction of the earldom. Francis, seventh Lord Howard of +Effingham, was created earl of Effingham in 1731, a title extinct in +1816 with the fourth earl, but revived again in 1837 for the eleventh +baron, who had served as a general officer in the Peninsular campaign, +the great-grandfather of the present peer.</p> + +<p>A patent of 1604 created Henry Howard (1540-1614), younger +son of Surrey the poet, earl of Northampton, a peerage which ended +with the death of this, the most unprincipled of his house.</p> + +<p>Thomas, son of the fourth duke of Norfolk’s marriage with the +daughter and heir of Thomas, Lord Audley of Walden, founded the +line of the present earls of Suffolk and Berkshire and of the extinct +Lords Howard of Escrick. His barony of Howard of Walden has +descended to his heirs general. Lord William Howard (1563-1640), +the “belted Will” of Scott’s Lay and the “bauld Willie” of more +authentic legend, was another of the sons of the fourth duke and +Margaret Audley. Married in 1577 to one of the three co-heirs of +the Lord Dacre of Gilsland he suffered under Elizabeth more than +one imprisonment with his brother the unfortunate earl of Arundel. +But in 1603 he was able, on the partition of the Dacre lands, to +make his home at Naworth Castle, where he lived, a border patriarch, +cultivating his estates and serving as a commissioner of the borders. +His great-grandson Charles Howard, although fledged in a nest of +cavaliers, changed sides and fought at Worcester for the parliament. +The Protector summoned him in 1657 to his House of Lords, but he +was imprisoned in 1659 on suspicion of a share in Booth’s insurrection +and, after the Restoration, was created, in 1661, earl of +Carlisle, Viscount Morpeth and Lord Dacre of Gilsland, titles which +are still held by his descendants. From Sir Francis Howard, a +cavalier colonel and a younger son of “bauld Willie,” come the +Howards of Corby Castle in Cumberland, a branch without a hereditary +title.</p> + +<p>William Howard, Viscount Stafford, was the fifth son of Thomas, +earl of Arundel, and grandson of Philip the prisoner. Marrying +the sister and heir of the fifth Lord Stafford, who died in 1637, he +and his wife were created Baron and Baroness Stafford by a patent +of 1640, with remainder, in default of heirs male, to heirs female. +A grant of the precedence enjoyed by the bride’s father being held +illegal, her husband was in the same year created Viscount Stafford. +Roger Stafford, the impoverished heir male of the ancient Staffords, +had been forced to surrender his barony to the king by a deed dated +in the preceding year, a piece of injustice which is in the teeth of all +modern conceptions of peerage law. The Viscount Stafford was one +of the “five Popish lords” committed to the Tower in 1678 as a +result of the slanders of Titus Oates and he died by the axe in 1680 +upon testimony which, as the diarist Evelyn protested, “should not +be taken against the life of a dog.” But three earls of his own +house—Carlisle, Suffolk and Berkshire—and the Lord Howard of +Escrick, an ex-trooper of Cromwell’s guard and an anabaptist +sectary, gave their votes against him, his nephew Mowbray being +the only peer of his name in the minority for acquittal. In 1688 his +widow was created countess of Stafford for life, and his eldest son, +Henry, had the earldom of Stafford, with special remainder to his +brothers. This earldom ended in 1762, but the attainder was +reversed by an act of 1824 and in the following year Sir George +Jerningham, the heir general, established his claim to the Stafford +barony of 1640.</p> + +<p><span class="sc">Authorities.</span>—State papers; patent, close and plea rolls. +Tierney, <i>History of Arundel</i>; G. E. C., <i>Complete Peerage</i>; J. H. +Round, <i>Peerage Studies</i>; Howard of Corby, <i>Memorials of the Family +of Howard</i>; Brenan and Statham, <i>House of Howard</i>; Howard, +<i>Historical Anecdotes of the Howard Family</i>; Morant, <i>Essex</i>; Blomefield, +<i>Norfolk</i>.</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(O. Ba.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HOWARD, CATHERINE<a name="ar71" id="ar71"></a></span> (d. 1542), the fifth queen of Henry +VIII., was a daughter of Lord Edmund Howard and a granddaughter +of Thomas Howard, 2nd duke of Norfolk (d. 1524). +Her father was very poor, and Catherine lived mainly with +Agnes, widow of the 2nd duke of Norfolk, meeting the king +at the house of Stephen Gardiner, bishop of Winchester. Henry +was evidently charmed by her; the Roman Catholic party, +who disliked the marriage with Anne of Cleves, encouraged +his attentions; and after Anne’s divorce he was privately +married to Catherine at Oatlands in July 1540. Soon afterwards +she was publicly acknowledged as queen. Before her marriage +Catherine had had several lovers, among them being a musician, +Henry Mannock, or Manox; her cousin, Thomas Culpepper; +and Francis Dereham, to whom she had certainly been betrothed. +After becoming queen she occasionally met Dereham and +Culpepper, and in November 1541 Archbishop Cranmer informed +Henry that his queen’s past life had not been stainless. Cranmer +had obtained his knowledge indirectly from an old servant of the +duchess of Norfolk. Dereham confessed to his relations with +Catherine, and after some denials the queen herself admitted +that this was true; but denied that she had ever been betrothed +to Dereham, or that she had misconducted herself since her +marriage. Dereham and Culpepper were executed in December +1541 and their accomplices were punished, but Catherine was +released from prison. Some fresh information, however, very +soon came to light showing that she had been unchaste since +her marriage; a bill of attainder was passed through parliament, +and on the 13th of February 1542 the queen was beheaded.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See A. Strickland, <i>Lives of the Queens of England</i> (vol. iii. 1877).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HOWARD, JOHN<a name="ar72" id="ar72"></a></span> (1726-1790), English philanthropist and +prison reformer, was born at Hackney, probably on the 2nd of +September 1726. His childhood was passed at Cardington, +near Bedford, where his father, a retired merchant of independent +means, had a small estate. He was apprenticed to a firm of +grocers in the city of London, but on the death of his father in +1742, by which he inherited considerable property, he bought +up his indenture, and devoted more than a year to foreign travel. +Never constitutionally strong, he became, on his return to +England, a confirmed invalid. Having been nursed through an +acute illness by an attentive landlady, a widow of some fifty-three +years of age, Howard, in return for her kindness, offered +her marriage and they were united in 1752. Becoming a widower +in less than three years, he determined to go abroad again, +Portugal being his destination. The ship, however, in which +he sailed was taken by a French privateer, the crew and passengers +being carried to Brest, where they were treated with great +severity. Howard was permitted to return to England on +parole to negotiate an exchange, which he accomplished, as +well as successfully representing the case of his fellow-captives. +He now settled down on his Cardington property, interesting +himself in meteorological observations. He was admitted a +member of the Royal Society in 1756. In 1758 he married +Henrietta, daughter of Edward Leeds, of Croxton, Cambridgeshire. +He continued to lead a secluded life at Cardington and +at Watcombe, Hampshire, busying himself in the construction +of model cottages and the erection of schools. In 1765 his +second wife died after giving birth to a son. In the following +year Howard went for a prolonged foreign tour, from which he +returned in 1770.</p> + +<p>In 1773 the characteristic work of his life may be said to +have begun by his acceptance of the office of high sheriff of +Bedford. When the assizes were held he did not content himself +with sitting out the trials in open court, his inquisitiveness and his +benevolence alike impelled him to visit the gaol. Howard found +it, like all the prisons of the time, wretchedly defective in its +arrangements; but what chiefly shocked him was the circumstance +that neither the gaoler nor his subordinates were salaried +officers, but were dependent for their livelihood on fees from +the prisoners. He found that some whom the juries had declared +not guilty, others in whom the grand jury had not found even +such appearance of guilt as would warrant a trial, others whose +prosecutors had failed to appear, were frequently detained in +prison for months after they had ceased to be in the position +of accused parties, until they should have paid the fees of gaol +delivery (see Introduction to <i>The State of the Prisons of England +and Wales</i>). His prompt application to the justices of the +county for a salary to the gaoler in lieu of his fees was met by a +demand for a precedent in charging the county with an expense. +This he undertook to find if such a thing existed. He went +accordingly from county to county, and though he could find +no precedent for charging the county with the wages of its +servants he did find so many abuses in prison management +that he determined to devote himself to their reform.</p> + +<p>In 1774 he gave evidence before a committee of the House +of Commons, and received the thanks of the house for “the +humanity and zeal which have led him to visit the several gaols +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page833" id="page833"></a>833</span> +of this kingdom, and to communicate to the House the interesting +observations which he has made on that subject.” Almost +immediately an act was passed which provided for the liberation, +free of all charges, of every prisoner against whom the grand +jury failed to find a true bill, giving the gaoler a sum from the +county rate in lieu of the abolished fees. This was followed in +June by another requiring justices of the peace to see that the +walls and ceilings of all prisons within their jurisdiction were +scraped and whitewashed once a year at least; that the rooms +were regularly cleaned and ventilated; that infirmaries were +provided for the sick, and proper care taken to get them medical +advice; that the naked should be clothed; that underground +dungeons should be used as little as could be; and generally +that such courses should be taken as would tend to restore and +preserve the health of the prisoners. It was highly characteristic +of the man that, having caused the provisions of the new legislation +to be printed at his own private cost in large type, he sent +a copy to every gaoler and warder in the kingdom, that no one +should be able to plead ignorance of the law if detected in the +violation of its provisions. He then set out upon a new tour of +inspection, from which, however, he was brought home by the +approach of a general election in September 1774. Standing +as one of the anti-ministerial candidates for Bedford, he was +returned by a narrow majority but was unseated after a +scrutiny.</p> + +<p>After a tour in Scotland and Ireland, he set out in April 1775 +upon an extended tour through France, the Low Countries +and Germany. At Paris he was at first denied access to the +prisons; but, by recourse to an old and almost obsolete law of +1717, according to which any person wishing to distribute alms +to the prisoners was to be admitted, he succeeded in inspecting +the Bicêtre, the Force l’Évêque and most of the other places +of confinement, the only important exception being the Bastille. +Even in that case he succeeded in obtaining possession of a +suppressed pamphlet, which he afterwards translated and +published in English, to the unconcealed chagrin of the French +authorities. At Ghent he examined with special interest the +great Maison de Force, then recently erected, with its distinctive +features—useful labour, in the profits of which the prisoners +had a share, and complete separation of the inmates by night. +At Amsterdam, as in Holland generally, he was much struck +with the comparative absence of crime, a phenomenon which +he attributed to the industrial and reformatory treatment there +adopted. In Germany he found little that was useful and much +that was repulsive; in Hanover and Osnabrück, under the rule +of a British sovereign, he even found traces of torture. After +a short tour in England (Nov. 1775 to May 1776), he again +went abroad, extending his tour to several of the Swiss cantons. +In 1777 appeared <i>The State of the Prisons in England and Wales, +with Preliminary Observations, and an Account of some Foreign +Prisons</i>. One of the immediate results was the drafting a bill +for the establishment of penitentiary houses, where by means +of solitary imprisonment, accompanied by well-regulated +labour and religious instruction, the object of reforming the +criminal and inuring him to habits of industry might be pursued. +New buildings were manifestly necessary; and Howard volunteered +to go abroad again and collect plans. He first went +to Amsterdam (April 1778), and carefully examined the “spin-houses” +and “rasp-houses”<a name="fa1g" id="fa1g" href="#ft1g"><span class="sp">1</span></a> for which that city was famous; +next he traversed Prussia, Saxony, Bohemia, Austria and Italy, +everywhere inspecting prisons, hospitals and workhouses, and +carefully recording the merits and defects of each. The information +he thus obtained having been placed at the service of +parliament, a bill was passed for building two penitentiary +houses, and Howard was appointed first supervisor, but he +resigned the post before anything practical had been achieved. +In 1780 he had published a quarto volume as an appendix (the +first) to his <i>State of Prisons</i>; about the same time also he +caused to be printed his translation of the suppressed French +pamphlet on the Bastille; but on obtaining release from his +employments at home his passion for accumulating statistics +urged him to new and more extended continental tours, as far +as to Denmark, Sweden and Russia in 1781, and to Spain and +Portugal in 1783. The results of these journeys were embodied +in 1784 in a second appendix, with the publication of which his +direct labours in connexion with the subject of prison reform +may be said to have ceased.</p> + +<p>The five remaining years of his life were chiefly devoted to +researches on the means for prevention of the plague, and for +guarding against the propagation of contagious distempers +in general. After an extended tour on the continent his researches +seemed to be complete; and with a great accumulation of papers +and memoranda, he was preparing to return homewards from +Constantinople by Vienna, when it occurred to his scrupulous +mind that he still lacked any personal experience of quarantine +discipline. He returned to Smyrna, and, deliberately choosing +a foul ship, took a passage to Venice. A protracted voyage +of sixty days, during which an attack by pirates gave Howard +an opportunity of manifesting his personal bravery, was followed +by a weary term of confinement which enabled him to gain the +experience he had desired. While imprisoned in the Venetian +lazaretto he received the information that his only son, a youth +of twenty-two years of age, had lost his reason and had been +put under restraint. Returning hastily by Trieste and Vienna +(where he had a long and singular interview with the emperor +Joseph II.), he reached England in February 1787. His first +care related to his domestic concerns; he then set out upon +another journey of inspection of the prisons of the United +Kingdom, at the same time busying himself in preparing for +the press the results of his recent tour. The somewhat rambling +work containing them was published in 1798 at Warrington, +under the title <i>An Account of the Principal Lazarettos in Europe: +with various Papers relative to the Plague, together with further +Observations on some Foreign Prisons and Hospitals, and additional +Remarks on the present State of those in Great Britain and +Ireland</i>.</p> + +<p>In July 1789 he embarked on what proved to be his last +journey. Travelling overland to St Petersburg and Moscow, +and so southwards, and visiting the principal military hospitals +that lay on his route, he reached Kherson in November. In the +hospitals of this place and of the immediate neighbourhood he +found more than enough to occupy his attention while he awaited +the means of transit to Constantinople. Towards the end of the +year his medical advice was asked in the case of a young lady who +was suffering under the camp fever then prevalent, and in +attending her he himself took the disease, which terminated +fatally on the 20th of January 1790. He was buried near the +village of Dauphigny on the road to St Nicholas. There is a +statue by Bacon to his memory in St Paul’s, London, and one at +Bedford by A. Gilbert. In personal appearance Howard is +described as having been short, thin and sallow—unprepossessing +apart from the attraction of a penetrating eye and a +benevolent smile.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p><span class="sc">Authorities.</span>—<i>Anecdotes of the Life and Character of John Howard, +written by a Gentleman</i> (1790); Aikin, <i>View of the Character and +Public Services of the late John Howard</i>. (1792); <i>Memoirs</i> by J. +Baldwin Brown (1818); T. Taylor (1836), Hepworth Dixon (1849), +J. Field (1850), and J. Stoughton, <i>Howard the Philanthropist</i> (1884).</p> +</div> + +<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note"> + +<p><a name="ft1g" id="ft1g" href="#fa1g"><span class="fn">1</span></a> The spinhouses were for women prisoners, who were set to +spinning or other useful work; in the rasp-houses, the prisoners +were employed in rasping wood.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HOWARD, OLIVER OTIS<a name="ar73" id="ar73"></a></span> (1830-1909), American soldier, was +born in Leeds, Maine, on the 8th of November 1830. He graduated +at Bowdoin College in 1850, and at the U.S. Military +Academy in 1854. In 1857 he served in Florida against the +Seminole Indians, and from 1857 to 1861 he was assistant +professor of mathematics at West Point. At the beginning of the +Civil War he resigned to become colonel of the 3rd Maine volunteer +regiment, and at the first battle of Bull Run was in command +of a brigade. In September he was promoted brigadier-general +of volunteers. He served in the Peninsular Campaign, and at +the battle of Seven Pines (Fair Oaks) he was twice wounded, +losing his right arm. On his return to active service in August +1862 he took part in the Virginian campaigns of 1862-63; at +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page834" id="page834"></a>834</span> +Antietam he succeeded Sedgwick in command of a division, and +he became major-general of volunteers in March 1863. In the +campaign of Chancellorsville (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Wilderness</a></span>) he commanded the +XI. corps, which was routed by “Stonewall” Jackson, and in the +first day’s battle at Gettysburg he was for some hours (succeeding +Doubleday after Reynolds’s death) in command of the Union +troops. The XI. corps was transferred to Tennessee after +Rosecrans’s defeat at Chickamauga, and formed part of Hooker’s +command in the great victory of Chattanooga. When Sherman +prepared to invade Georgia in the spring of 1864 the XI. corps was +merged with the XII. into the new XX., commanded by Hooker, +and Howard was then placed, in command of the new IV. corps, +which he led in all the actions of the Atlanta campaign, receiving +another wound at Pickett’s Mills. On the death in action of +General M’Pherson, Howard, in July 1864, was selected to command +the Army of the Tennessee. In this position he took part +in the “March to the Sea” and the Carolinas campaign. In +March 1865 he was breveted major-general U.S.A. “for gallant +and meritorious service in the battle of Ezra Church and during +the campaign against Atlanta,” and in 1893 received a Congressional +medal of honour for bravery at Fair Oaks. After the +peace he served as commissioner of the Bureau of Refugees, +Freedmen and Abandoned Lands from 1865 until 1874; in 1872 +he was special commissioner to the hostile Apaches of New +Mexico and Arizona; in 1874-1881 was in command of the +Department of the Columbia and conducted the campaign +against Chief Joseph in 1877 and that against the Bannocks and +Piutes in 1878. In 1881-1882 he was superintendent of West +Point; and in 1882-1886 he commanded the Department of +the Platte, in 1886-1888 the Department of the Pacific, and in +1888-1894 the Department of the East. In 1886 he was promoted +major-general and in 1894 he retired. He died at +Burlington, Vermont, on the 26th of October 1909.</p> + +<p>Howard was deeply interested, in the welfare of the negroes; +and the establishment by the U.S. Government in 1867 +of Howard University, at Washington, especially for their +education, was largely due to him; it was named in his +honour, and from 1869 to 1873 he presided over it. In 1895 +he founded for the education of the “mountain whites” the +Lincoln Memorial University at Cumberland Gap, Tenn. (see +<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Cumberland Mountains</a></span>), and became president of its board. +He held honorary degrees of various universities, and was a +chevalier of the Legion of Honour. He wrote, amongst other +works, <i>Donald’s Schooldays</i> (1877); <i>Chief Joseph</i> (1881); a life +of General Zachary Taylor (1892) in the “Great Commanders” +series; <i>Isabella of Castile</i> (1894); <i>Fighting for Humanity</i> +(1898); <i>Henry in the War</i> (1898); papers in the “Battles and +Leaders” collection on the Atlanta campaign; <i>My Life and +Experience among our Hostile Indians</i> (1907); and <i>Autobiography +of O. O. Howard</i> (2 vols., New York, 1907).</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HOWARD, SIR ROBERT<a name="ar74" id="ar74"></a></span> (1626-1698), English dramatist, +sixth son of Thomas Howard, 1st earl of Berkshire, was born in +1626. He was knighted at the second battle of Newbury (1644) +for his signal courage on the Royalist side. Imprisoned in +Windsor Castle under the Commonwealth, his loyalty was +rewarded at the Restoration, and he eventually became auditor +of the exchequer. His best play is a comedy, <i>The Committee, or +the Faithful Irishman</i> (1663; printed 1665), which kept the stage, +long after its interest as a political satire was exhausted, for the +character of Teague, said to have been drawn from one of his own +servants. He was an early patron of Dryden, who married his +sister, Lady Elizabeth Howard, and in the <i>Indian Queen</i>, a +tragedy in heroic verse (1664; pr. 1665) Howard had assistance +from Dryden, although the fact was not made public until the +production of Dryden’s <i>Indian Emperor</i>. The magnificence of +the spectacle, and the novelty of the costume of feathers, presented +by Mrs. Aphra Behn, that was worn by Zempoalla, the +Indian queen, made a great sensation. The scenery and accessories +were unusually brilliant, the richest ever seen in England, +according to Evelyn. In 1665 Howard published <i>Foure New +Plays</i>, in the preface to which he opposed the view maintained +by Dryden in the dedicatory epistle to <i>The Rival Ladies</i>, that +rhyme was better suited to the heroic tragedy than blank verse. +Howard made an exception in favour of the rhyme of Lord +Orrery, but by his silence concerning Dryden implicated him in +the general censure. Dryden answered by placing Howard’s +sentiments in the mouth of Crites in his own <i>Essay on Dramatic +Poesy</i> (1668). The controversy did not end here, but Dryden +completely worsted his adversary in the 1668 edition of <i>The +Indian Emperor</i>. Howard died on the 3rd of September 1698.</p> + +<p>His brother, James Howard, wrote two comedies, <i>All Mistaken, +or the Mad Couple</i>, a comedy (1667; pr. 1672), and <i>The English +Mounsieur</i> (1666; pr. 1674), the success of which seems to have +been partly due to the acting of Nell Gwynn.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HOWARD, LORD WILLIAM<a name="ar75" id="ar75"></a></span> (1563-1640), known as “Belted, +or Bauld (bold) Will,” 3rd son of Thomas Howard, 4th duke of +Norfolk (executed in 1572), and of his second wife Margaret, +daughter of Lord Audley, was born at Audley End in Essex +on the 19th of December 1563. He married on the 28th of +October 1577 Elizabeth, daughter of Thomas, Lord Dacre, and +proceeded subsequently to the University of Cambridge. Being +suspected of treasonable intentions together with his elder +brother, Philip, earl of Arundel, he was imprisoned in 1583, +1585 and 1589. He joined the church of Rome in 1584, both +brothers being dispossessed by the queen of a portion of their +Dacre estates, which were, however, restored in 1601 for a payment +of £10,000. Howard then took up his residence with his +children and grandchildren at Naworth Castle in Cumberland, +restored the castle, improved the estate and established order +in that part of the country. In 1603, on the accession of James, +he had been restored in blood. In 1618 he was made one of the +commissioners for the border, and performed great services +in upholding the law and suppressing marauders. Lord William +was a learned and accomplished scholar, praised by Camden, +to whom he sent inscriptions and drawings from relics collected +by him from the Roman wall, as “a singular lover of valuable +antiquity and learned withal.” He collected a valuable library, +of which most of the printed works remain still at Naworth, +though the MSS. have been dispersed, a portion being now in +the Arundel MSS. in the Royal College of Arms; he corresponded +with Ussher and was intimate with Camden, Spelman, and +Cotton, whose eldest son married his daughter. He published, +in 1592 an edition of Florence of Worcester’s <i>Chronicon ex +Chronicis</i>, dedicated to Lord Burghley, and drew up a genealogy +of his family, now among the duke of Norfolk’s MSS. at Norfolk +House. He died in October 1640 at Greystock, to which place +he had been removed when failing in health to escape the Scots +who were threatening an advance on Naworth. He had a large +family of children, of whom Philip, his heir, was the grandfather +of Charles, 1st earl of Carlisle, and Francis was the ancestor of +the Howards of Corby.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HOWARD OF EFFINGHAM, WILLIAM HOWARD,<a name="ar76" id="ar76"></a></span> 1st +<span class="sc">Baron</span> (<i>c.</i> 1510-1573), English lord high admiral, was the son +of the 2nd duke of Norfolk. He was popular with Henry VIII., +and at Anne Boleyn’s coronation was deputy earl marshal; +and he was sent on missions to Scotland and France; but in +1541 he was charged with abetting his relative Queen Catherine +Howard, and was convicted of misprision of treason, but pardoned. +In 1552 he was made governor of Calais, and in 1553 lord high +admiral, being created Baron Howard of Effingham in 1554 +for his defence of London in Sir Thomas Wyat’s rebellion against +Queen Mary. He befriended the princess Elizabeth, but his +popularity with the navy saved him from Mary’s resentment; +and when Elizabeth became queen he had great influence with +her and filled several important posts. His son, the second +baron, who is famous in English naval history, was created earl +of Nottingham (<i>q.v.</i>); and from a younger son the later earls +of Effingham were descended. William’s descendant, Francis +(d. 1695), inherited the barony of Howard of Effingham on the +death of his cousin, Charles, in 1681; and Francis’s son, Francis +(1683-1743), was created earl of Effingham in 1731. This earldom +became extinct on the death of Richard, the fourth holder, in +1816; but it was created again in 1837 in favour of Kenneth +Alexander (1767-1845), another of William Howard’s descendants, +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page835" id="page835"></a>835</span> +who had succeeded to the barony of Howard of Effingham in +1816.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HOWE, ELIAS<a name="ar77" id="ar77"></a></span> (1819-1867), American sewing-machine +inventor, was born in Spencer, Massachusetts, on the 9th of July +1819. His early years were spent on his father’s farm. In 1835 +he entered the factory of a manufacturer of cotton-machinery +at Lowell, Massachusetts, where he learned the machinist’s +trade. Subsequently, while employed in a machine shop at +Cambridge, Mass., he conceived the idea of a sewing machine, +and for five years spent all his spare time in its development. +In September 1846 a patent for a practical sewing machine was +granted to him; and Howe spent the following two years +(1847-1849) in London, employed by William Thomas, a corset +manufacturer, to whom he had sold the English rights for £250. +Years of disappointment and discouragement followed before +he was successful in introducing his invention, and several +imitations which infringed his patent, particularly that of Isaac +Merritt Singer (1811-1875), had already been successfully +introduced and were widely used. His rights were established +after much litigation in 1854, and by the date of expiration +of his patent (1867) he had realized something over $2,000,000 +out of his invention. He died in Brooklyn, New York, on the +3rd of October 1867.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See <i>History of the Sewing Machine and of Elias Howe, Jr., the +Inventor</i> (Detroit, 1867); P. G. Hubert, Jr., <i>Inventors</i>, in “Men of +Achievement” series (New York, 1893).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HOWE, JOHN<a name="ar78" id="ar78"></a></span> (1630-1706), English Puritan divine, was born +on the 17th of May 1630 at Loughborough, Leicestershire, +where his father was vicar. On the 19th of May 1647 he entered +Christ’s College, Cambridge, as a sizar, and in the following +year took his degree of B.A. During his residence at the university +he made the acquaintance of Ralph Cudworth, Henry +More and John Smith, from intercourse with whom, as well +as from direct acquaintance with the <i>Dialogues</i> themselves, +his mind received that “Platonic tinge” so perceptible in +his writings. Immediately after graduation at Cambridge, he +migrated to Oxford, where he became fellow and chaplain of +Magdalen College, proceeding M.A. in 1652. He was then +ordained by Charles Herle (1598-1659), the Puritan rector of +Winwick, and in 1654 went as perpetual curate to Great Torrington +in Devon, where he preached the discourses which later +took shape in his treatises on <i>The Blessedness of the Righteous</i> +and on <i>Delighting in God</i>. In the beginning of 1657 a journey +to London accidentally brought Howe under the notice of +Cromwell, who made him his domestic chaplain. In this position +his conduct was such as to win the praise of even the bitterest +enemies of his party. Without overlooking his fellow-Puritans, +he was always ready to help pious and learned men of other +schools. Seth Ward (afterwards bishop of Exeter) and Thomas +Fuller were among those who profited by Howe’s kindness, and +were not ashamed subsequently to express their gratitude for +it. On the resignation of Richard Cromwell, Howe returned to +Great Torrington, to leave it again in 1662 on the passing of +the Act of Uniformity. For several years he led a wandering +and uncertain life, preaching in secret as occasion offered to +handfuls of trusted hearers. Being in straits he published in +1668 <i>The Blessedness of the Righteous</i>; the reputation which +he thus acquired procured him an invitation from Lord +Massereene, of Antrim Castle, Ireland, with whom he lived for +five or six years as domestic chaplain, frequently preaching in +public, with the approval of the bishop of the diocese. Here +too he produced the most eloquent of his shorter treatises, +<i>The Vanity of Man as Mortal</i>, and <i>On Delighting in God</i>, and +planned his best work, <i>The Living Temple</i>. In the beginning of +1676 he accepted an invitation to become joint-pastor of a nonconformist +congregation at Haberdashers’ Hall, London; and +in the same year he published the first part of <i>The Living Temple</i> +entitled <i>Concerning God’s Existence and his Conversableness with +Man: Against Atheism or the Epicurean Deism</i>. In 1677 +appeared his tractate <i>On the Reconcileableness of God’s Prescience +of the Sins of Men with the Wisdom and Sincerity of His Counsels, +Exhortations and whatsoever means He uses to prevent them</i>, +which was attacked from various quarters, and had Andrew +Marvell for one of its defenders. <i>On Thoughtfulness for the Morrow</i> +followed in 1681; <i>Self-Dedication</i> and <i>Union among Protestants</i> +in 1682, and <i>The Redeemer’s Tears wept over Lost Souls</i> in 1684.</p> + +<p>For five years after his settlement in London Howe enjoyed +comparative freedom, and was on not unfriendly terms with +many eminent Anglicans, such as Stillingfleet, Tillotson, John +Sharp and Richard Kidder; but the greater severity which +began to be exercised towards nonconformists in 1681 so interfered +with his liberty that in 1685 he gladly accepted the invitation +of Philip, Lord Wharton, to travel abroad with him. In +1686 he determined to settle for a time at Utrecht, where he +officiated in the English chapel. Among his friends there was +Gilbert Burnet, by whose influence he obtained several confidential +interviews with William of Orange. In 1687 Howe +availed himself of the declaration for liberty of conscience to +return to England, and in the following year he headed the +deputation of nonconformist ministers who went to congratulate +William on his accession to the English throne. The remainder +of his life was uneventful. His influence was always on the side +of mutual forbearance, between conformists and dissenters +in 1689, and between Congregationalists and Presbyterians +in 1690. In 1693 he published three discourses <i>On the Carnality +of Religious Contention</i>, suggested by the disputes that became +rife among nonconformists as soon as liberty of doctrine and +worship had been granted. In 1694 and 1695 he published +various treatises on the subject of the Trinity, the principal +being <i>A Calm and Solemn Inquiry concerning the Possibility +of a Trinity in the Godhead</i>. The second part of <i>The Living +Temple</i>, entitled <i>Animadversions on Spinosa and a French +Writer pretending to confute him, with a recapitulation of the +former part and an account of the destitution and restitution of +God’s Temple among Men</i>, appeared in 1702. In 1701 he had +some controversy with Daniel Defoe on the question of occasional +conformity. In 1705 he published a discourse <i>On Patience +in the Expectation of Future Blessedness</i>, but his health had begun +to fail, and he died in London on the 2nd of April 1706. +Richard Cromwell visited him in his last illness.</p> + +<p>Though excelled by Baxter as a pulpit orator, and by Owen +in exegetical ingenuity and in almost every department of +theological learning, Howe compares favourably with either as +a sagacious and profound thinker, while he was much more +successful in combining religious earnestness and fervour of +conviction with large-hearted tolerance and cultured breadth +of view. He was a man of high principle and fine presence, +and it was said of him “that he never made an enemy and never +lost a friend.”</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>The works published in his lifetime, including a number of sermons, +were collected into 2 vols. fol. in 1724, and again reprinted in 3 +vols. 8vo. in 1848. A complete edition of the <i>Whole Works</i>, including +much posthumous and additional matter, appeared with a memoir +in 8 vols, in 1822; this was reprinted in 1 vol. in 1838 and in 6 vols. +in 1862-1863. E. Calamy’s <i>Life</i> (1724) forms the basis of <i>The +Life and Character of Howe, with an Analysis of his Writings</i>, by +Henry Rogers (1836, new ed. 1863). See also a sketch by R. F. +Horton (1896).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HOWE, JOSEPH<a name="ar79" id="ar79"></a></span> (1804-1873), Canadian statesman, was born +at Halifax, Nova Scotia, on the 13th of December 1804, the son +of John Howe (1752-1835), a United Empire Loyalist who was +for many years king’s printer and postmaster-general for the +Maritime Provinces and the Bermudas. He received little +regular education, and at the age of 13 entered his father’s office. +In 1827 he started the <i>Acadian</i>, a weekly non-political journal, +but soon sold it, and in 1828 purchased the <i>Nova Scotian</i>, which +later became amalgamated with the <i>Morning Chronicle</i>. From +this date he devoted increasing attention to political affairs, and +in 1835 was prosecuted for libelling the magistrates of Halifax. +Being unable to find a lawyer willing to undertake his case, he +pleaded it himself, and won his acquittal by a speech of over six +hours, which secured for Nova Scotia the freedom of the press +and for himself the reputation of an orator. In 1836 he was +elected member for Halifax in the provincial assembly, and +during the next twelve years devoted himself to attaining +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page836" id="page836"></a>836</span> +responsible government for Nova Scotia. This brought him into +fierce conflict with the reigning oligarchy and with the lieutenant-governor, +Lord Falkland (1803-1884), whom he forced to resign. +Largely owing to Howe’s statesmanship responsible government +was finally conceded in 1848 by the imperial authorities, and +was thus gained without the bloodshed and confusion which +marked its acquisition in Ontario and Quebec. In 1850 he was +appointed a delegate to England on behalf of the Intercolonial +railway, for which he obtained a large imperial guarantee. +In 1854 he resigned from the cabinet, and was appointed chief +commissioner of railways. In 1855 he was sent by the imperial +government to the United States in connexion with the Foreign +Enlistment Act, to raise soldiers for the war in the Crimea. +Through the rashness of others he got into difficulties, and was +attacked in the British House of Commons by Mr Gladstone, +whom he compelled to apologize.</p> + +<p>In 1855 he was defeated by Mr (afterwards Sir Charles) +Tupper, but was elected by acclamation in the next year in Hants +county, and was from 1860 to 1863 premier of Nova Scotia. In the +latter years he was appointed by the imperial government fishery +commissioner to the United States, and thus took no part in the +negotiations for confederation. Though his eloquence had done +more than anything else to make practicable a union of the +British North American provinces, he opposed confederation, +largely owing to wounded vanity; but on finding it impossible +to obtain from the imperial authorities the repeal of the British +North America Act, he refused to join his associates in the +extreme measures which were advocated, and on the promise +from the Canadian government of better financial terms to his +native province, entered (on the 30th of January 1869) the +cabinet of Sir John Macdonald as president of the council. +This brought upon him a storm of obloquy, under which his +health gradually gave way. In May 1873 he was appointed +lieutenant-governor of Nova Scotia, but died suddenly on the +1st of June of the same year.</p> + +<p>Howe’s eloquence, and still more his unfailing wit and high +spirits, made him for many years the idol of his province. He +is the finest orator whom Canada has produced, and also wrote +poetry, which shows in places high merit. Many of his sayings +are still current in Nova Scotia. In 1904 a statue in his honour +was erected in Halifax.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>His <i>Letters and Speeches</i> were published in 1858 in Boston, Mass., +in 2 vols., edited nominally by William Annand, really by himself. +See also <i>Public Letters and Speeches of Joseph Howe</i> (Halifax, +1909). The <i>Life and Times</i> by G. E. Fenety (1896) is poor. The +<i>Life</i> by the Hon. James W. Longley (Toronto, 1904) is dispassionate, +but otherwise mediocre. <i>Joseph Howe</i>, by George Monro Grant +(reprinted Halifax, 1904), is a brilliant sketch.</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(W. L. G.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HOWE, JULIA WARD<a name="ar80" id="ar80"></a></span> (1819-1910), American author and +reformer, was born in New York City on the 27th of May 1819. +Her father, Samuel Ward, was a banker; her mother, Julia +Rush [Cutler] (1796-1824), a poet of some ability. When only +sixteen years old she had begun to contribute poems to New +York periodicals. In 1843 she married Dr Samuel Gridley +Howe (<i>q.v.</i>), with whom she spent the next year in England, +France, Germany and Italy. She assisted Dr Howe in editing +the <i>Commonwealth</i> in 1851-1853. The results of her study of +German philosophy were seen in philosophical essays; in +lectures on “Doubt and Belief,” “The Duality of Character,” +&c., delivered in 1860-1861 in her home in Boston, and later in +Washington; and in addresses before the Boston Radical Club +and the Concord school of philosophy. Samuel Longfellow, +his brother Henry, Wendell Phillips, W. L. Garrison, Charles +Sumner, Theodore Parker and James Freeman Clarke were +among her friends; she advocated abolition, and preached +occasionally from Unitarian pulpits. She was one of the +organizers of the American Woman-Suffrage Association and of +the Association for the Advancement of Women (1869), and in +1870 became one of the editors of the <i>Woman’s Journal</i>, and +in 1872 president of the New England Women’s Club. In the +same year she was a delegate to the Prison Reform Congress in +London, and founded there the Woman’s Peace Association, +one of the many ways in which she expressed her opposition +to war. She wrote <i>The World’s Own</i> (unsuccessfully played at +Wallack’s, New York, in 1855, published 1857), and in 1858, for +Edwin Booth, <i>Hippolytus</i>, never acted or published. Her lyric +poetry, thanks to her temperament, and possibly to her musical +training, was her highest literary form: she published <i>Passion +Flowers</i> (anonymously, 1854), <i>Words for the Hour</i> (1856), <i>Later +Lyrics</i> (1866), and <i>From Sunset Ridge: Poems Old and New</i> +(1898); her most popular poem is <i>The Battle Hymn of the +Republic</i>, written to the old folk-tune associated with the song +of “John Brown’s Body,” when Mrs Howe was at the front +in 1861, and published (Feb. 1862) in the <i>Atlantic Monthly</i>, to +which she frequently contributed. She edited <i>Sex and Education</i> +(1874), an answer to <i>Sex in Education</i> (1873) by Edward Hammond +Clarke (1820-1877); and wrote several books of travel, +<i>Modern Society</i> (1880) and <i>Is Polite Society Polite?</i> (1895), +collections of addresses, each taking its title from a lecture criticizing +the shallowness and falseness of society, the power of +money, &c., <i>A Memoir of Dr Samuel G. Howe</i> (1876), <i>Life of +Margaret Fuller</i> (1883), in the “Famous Women” series. +<i>Sketches of Representative Women of New England</i> (1905) and +her own <i>Reminiscences</i> (Boston, 1899). Her children were: Julia +Romana Anagnos (1844-1886), who, like her mother, wrote +verse and studied philosophy, and who taught in the Perkins +Institution, in the charge of which her husband, Michael Anagnos +(1837-1906), whose family name had been Anagnostopoulos, +succeeded her father; Henry Marion Howe (b. 1848), the +eminent metallurgist, and professor in Columbia University; +Laura Elizabeth Richards (b. 1850), and Maud Howe Elliott +(b. 1855), wife of John Elliott, the painter of a fine ceiling in the +Boston library,—both these daughters being contributors to +literature. Mrs Howe died on the 17th of October 1910.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HOWE, RICHARD HOWE,<a name="ar81" id="ar81"></a></span> <span class="sc">Earl</span> (1726-1799), British admiral, +was born in London on the 8th of March 1726. He was the +second son of Emmanuel Scrope Howe, 2nd Viscount Howe, +who died governor of Barbadoes in March 1735, and of Mary +Sophia Charlotte, a daughter of the baroness Kilmansegge, +afterwards countess of Darlington, the mistress of George I.—a +relationship which does much to explain his early rise in the +navy. Richard Howe entered the navy in the “Severn,” one +of the squadron sent into the south seas with Anson in 1740. +The “Severn” failed to round the Horn and returned home. +Howe next served in the West Indies in the “Burford,” and +was present in her when she was very severely damaged, in the +unsuccessful attack on La Guayra on the 18th of February 1742. +He was made acting-lieutenant in the West Indies in the same +year, and the rank was confirmed in 1744. During the Jacobite +rising of 1745 he commanded the “Baltimore” sloop in the +North Sea, and was dangerously wounded in the head while +co-operating with a frigate in an engagement with two strong +French privateers. In 1746 he became post-captain, and commanded +the “Triton” (24) in the West Indies. As captain of +the “Cornwall” (80), the flagship of Sir Charles Knowles, he +was in the battle with the Spaniards off Havana on the 2nd of +October 1748. While the peace between the War of the Austrian +Succession and the Seven Years’ War lasted, Howe held commands +at home and on the west coast of Africa. In 1755 he +went with Boscawen to North America as captain of the “Dunkirk” +(60), and his seizure of the French “Alcide” (64) was the +first shot fired in the war. From this date till the peace of 1763 +he served in the Channel in various more or less futile expeditions +against the coast of France, with a steady increase of reputation +as a firm and skilful officer. On the 20th of November 1759 +he led Hawke’s fleet as captain of the “Magnanime” (64) in +the magnificent victory of Quiberon.</p> + +<p>By the death of his elder brother, killed near Ticonderoga on the +6th of July 1758, he became Viscount Howe—an Irish peerage. +In 1762 he was elected M.P. for Dartmouth, and held the seat +till he received a title of Great Britain. During 1763 and 1765 +he was a member of the Admiralty board, and from 1765 to +1770 was treasurer of the navy. In that year he was promoted +rear-admiral, and in 1775 vice-admiral. In 1776 he was appointed +to the command of the North American station. The rebellion +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page837" id="page837"></a>837</span> +of the colonies was making rapid progress, and Howe was known +to be in sympathy with the colonists. He had sought the +acquaintance of Benjamin Franklin, who was a friend of his +sister Miss Howe, a clever eccentric woman well known in +London society, and had already tried to act as a peacemaker. +It was doubtless because of his known sentiments that he was +selected to command in America, and was joined in commission +with his brother Sir William Howe, the general at the head of the +land forces, to make a conciliatory arrangement. A committee +appointed by the Continental Congress conferred with the Howes +in September 1776 but nothing was accomplished. The appointment +of a new peace commission in 1778 offended the admiral +deeply, and he sent in a resignation of his command. It was +reluctantly accepted by Lord Sandwich, then First Lord, but +before it could take effect France declared war, and a powerful +French squadron was sent to America under the count d’Estaing. +Being greatly outnumbered, Howe had to stand on the defensive, +but he baffled the French admiral at Sandy Hook, and defeated +his attempt to take Newport in Rhode Island by a fine combination +of caution and calculated daring. On the arrival of Admiral +John Byron from England with reinforcements, Howe left the +station in September. Until the fall of Lord North’s ministry +in 1782 he refused to serve, assigning as his reason that he could +not trust Lord Sandwich. He considered that he had not been +properly supported in America, and was embittered both by +the supersession of himself and his brother as peace commissioners, +and by attacks made on him by the ministerial writers +in the press.</p> + +<p>On the change of ministry in March 1782 he was selected to +command in the Channel, and in the autumn of that year, +September, October and November, he carried out the final +relief of Gibraltar. It was a difficult operation, for the French +and Spaniards had in all 46 line-of-battle ships to his 33, and in +the exhausted state of the country it was impossible to fit his +ships properly or to supply them with good crews. He was, +moreover, hampered by a great convoy carrying stores. But +Howe was eminent in the handling of a great multitude of ships, +the enemy was awkward and unenterprising, and the operation +was brilliantly carried out. From the 28th of January to the +16th of April 1783 he was First Lord of the Admiralty, and he +held that post from December 1783 till August 1788, in Pitt’s +first ministry. The task was no pleasant one, for he had to +agree to economies where he considered that more outlay was +needed, and he had to disappoint the hopes of the many officers +who were left unemployed by the peace. On the outbreak +of the Revolutionary war in 1793 he was again named to the +command of the Channel fleet. His services in 1794 form the +most glorious period of his life, for in it he won the epoch-making +victory of the 1st of June (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">First of June, Battle of</a></span>). +Though Howe was now nearly seventy, and had been trained +in the old school, he displayed an originality not usual with +veterans, and not excelled by any of his successors in the war, +not even by Nelson, since they had his example to follow and +were served by more highly trained squadrons than his. He +continued to hold the nominal command by the wish of the +king, but his active service was now over. In 1797 he was +called on to pacify the mutineers at Spithead, and his great +influence with the seamen who trusted him was conspicuously +shown. He died on the 5th of August 1799, and was buried in +his family vault at Langar. His monument by Flaxman is in +St Paul’s Cathedral. In 1782 he was created Viscount Howe +of Langar, and in 1788 Baron and Earl Howe. In June 1797 he +was made a knight of the Garter. With the sailors he was +always popular, though he was no popularity hunter, for they +knew him to be just. His nickname of Black Dick was given +on account of his swarthy complexion, and the well-known +portrait by Gainsborough shows that it was apt.</p> + +<p>Lord Howe married, on the 10th of March 1758, Mary Hartop, +the daughter of Colonel Chiverton Hartop of Welby in Leicestershire, +and had issue two daughters. His Irish title descended +to his brother William, the general, who died childless in 1814. +The earldom, and the viscounty of the United Kingdom, being +limited to heirs male, became extinct, but the barony, being +to heirs general, passed to his daughter, Sophia Charlotte +(1762-1835), who married the Hon. Penn Assheton Curzon. +Their son, Richard William Curzon (1796-1870), who succeeded +his paternal grandfather as Viscount Curzon in 1820, was +created Earl Howe in 1821; he was succeeded by his son, George +Augustus (1821-1876), and then by another son, Richard William +(1822-1900), whose son Richard George Penn Curzon-Howe +(b. 1861) became 4th Earl Howe in 1900.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>The standard <i>Life</i> is by Sir John Barrow (1838). Interesting +reminiscences will be found in the <i>Life of Codrington</i>, by Lady +Bourchier. Accounts of his professional services are in Charnock’s +<i>Biographia Navalis</i>, v. 457, and in Ralf’s <i>Naval Biographies</i>, i. 83. +See also Beatson’s <i>Naval and Military Annals</i>, James’s <i>Naval +History</i>, and Chevalier’s <i>Histoire de la Marine française</i>, vols. i. +and ii.</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(D. H.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HOWE, SAMUEL GRIDLEY<a name="ar82" id="ar82"></a></span> (1801-1876), American philanthropist, +was born at Boston, Massachusetts, on the 10th of +November 1801. His father, Joseph N. Howe, was a ship-owner +and cordage manufacturer; and his mother, Patty Gridley, was +one of the most beautiful women of her day. Young Howe was +educated at Boston and at Brown University, Providence, and in +1821 began to study medicine in Boston. But fired by enthusiasm +for the Greek revolution and by Byron’s example, he was no +sooner qualified and admitted to practice than he abandoned +these prospects and took ship for Greece, where he joined the +army and spent six years of hardship amid scenes of warfare. +Then, to raise funds for the cause, he returned to America; +his fervid appeals enabled him to collect about $60,000, which he +spent on provisions and clothing, and he established a relief depot +near Aegina, where he started works for the refugees, the existing +quay, or American Mole, being built in this way. He formed +another colony of exiles on the Isthmus of Corinth. He wrote +a <i>History of the Greek Revolution</i>, which was published in 1828, +and in 1831 he returned to America. Here a new object of +interest engaged him. Through his friend Dr John D. Fisher +(d. 1850), a Boston physician who had started a movement there +as early as 1826 for establishing a school for the blind, he had +learnt of the similar school founded in Paris by Valentin Haüy, +and it was proposed to Howe by a committee organized by +Fisher that he should direct the establishment of a “New +England Asylum for the Blind” at Boston. He took up the +project with characteristic ardour, and set out at once for Europe +to investigate the problem. There he was temporarily diverted +from his task by becoming mixed up with the Polish revolt, and, +in pursuit of a mission to carry American contributions across +the Prussian frontier, he was arrested and imprisoned at Berlin, +but was at last released through the intervention of the American +minister at Paris. Returning to Boston in July 1832, he began +receiving a few blind children at his father’s house in Pleasant +Street, and thus sowed the seed which grew into the famous +Perkins Institution. In January 1833 the funds available +were all spent, but so much progress had been shown that the +legislature voted $6000, later increased to $30,000 a year, to +the institution on condition that it should educate gratuitously +twenty poor blind from the state; money was also contributed +from Salem, and from Boston, and Colonel Thomas H. Perkins, +a prominent Bostonian, presented his mansion and grounds +in Pearl Street for the school to be held there in perpetuity. +This building being later found unsuitable, Colonel Perkins +consented to its sale, and in 1839 the institution was moved to +South Boston, to a large building which had previously been an +hotel. It was henceforth known as the “Perkins Institution +and Massachusetts Asylum (or, since 1877, School) for the Blind.” +Howe was director, and the life and soul of the school; he +opened a printing-office and organized a fund for printing for +the blind—the first done in America; and he was unwearied +in calling public attention to the work. The Institution, through +him, became one of the intellectual centres of American philanthropy, +and by degrees obtained more and more financial +support. In 1837 Dr Howe went still further and brought +the famous blind deaf-mute, Laura Bridgman (<i>q.v.</i>) to the +school.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page838" id="page838"></a>838</span></p> + +<p>It must suffice here to chronicle the remaining more important +facts in Dr Howe’s life, outside his regular work. In 1843 he +married Julia Ward (see above), daughter of a New York banker, +and they made a prolonged European trip, on which Dr Howe +spent much time in visiting those public institutions which +carried out the objects specially interesting to him. In Rome, +in 1844, his eldest daughter, Julia Romana (afterwards the wife +of Michael Anagnos, Dr Howe’s assistant and successor), was +born, and in September the travellers returned to America, and +Dr Howe resumed his activities. In 1846 he became interested +in the condition and treatment of idiots, and particularly in the +experiments of Dr Guggenbühl on the cretins of Switzerland. +He became chairman of a state commission of inquiry into the +number and condition of idiots in Massachusetts, and the report +of this commission, presented in 1848, caused a profound sensation. +An appropriation of $2500 per annum was made for +training ten idiot children under Dr Howe’s supervision, and by +degrees the value of his School for Idiotic and Feeble-minded +Youths, which, starting in South Boston, was in 1890 removed +to Waltham, was generally appreciated. It was the first of its +kind in the United States. An enthusiastic humanitarian on all +subjects, Dr Howe was an ardent abolitionist and a member of +the Free Soil party, and had played a leading part at Boston in +the movements which culminated in the Civil War. When it +broke out he was an active member of the sanitary commission. +In 1871 he was sent to Santo Domingo as a member of the +commission appointed by President Grant to examine the +condition of the island, the government of which desired annexation; +and when that scheme was defeated through Sumner’s +opposition he returned (1872) as the representative of the +Samana Bay Company, which proposed to take a lease of the +Samana peninsula; but though in 1874 he revisited the island, it +was only to see the flag of the company hauled down. His health +was then breaking and began soon after to fail rapidly, and on +the 9th of January 1876 he died at Boston. The governor of the +state sent a special message of grief to the legislature on his death, +eulogies were delivered in the two houses, and a public memorial +service was held, at which Dr O. W. Holmes read a poem. +Whittier had in his lifetime commemorated him in his poem +“The Hero,” in which he called him “the Cadmus of the blind”; +and in 1901 a centennial celebration of his birth was held at +Boston, at which, among other notable tributes, Senator Hoar +spoke of Howe as “one of the great figures of American history.”</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>A <i>Memoir</i> of Dr Howe by his wife appeared in 1876. See also +the <i>Letters and Journals of S. G. Howe</i>, edited by Laura E. Richards +(1910).</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(H. Ch.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HOWE, WILLIAM HOWE,<a name="ar83" id="ar83"></a></span> <span class="sc">5th Viscount</span> (1729-1814), +British general, was the younger brother of George Augustus, +3rd viscount, killed in the Ticonderoga expedition of 1758, and +of Richard, 4th viscount and afterwards Earl Howe, the admiral. +He entered the cavalry in 1746, becoming lieutenant a year later. +On the disbanding of his regiment in 1749 he was made captain-lieutenant +and shortly afterwards captain in Lord Bury’s (20th) +regiment, in which Wolfe was then a field officer. Howe became +major in 1756 and lieutenant-colonel in 1757 of the 58th (now +Northampton) regiment, which he commanded at the capture +of Louisburg. In Wolfe’s expedition to Quebec he distinguished +himself greatly at the head of a composite light battalion. He +led the advanced party in the landing at Wolfe’s Cove and took +part in the battle of the Plains of Abraham which followed. He +commanded his own regiment in the defence of Quebec in 1759-1760, +led a brigade in the advance on Montreal and took part on +his return to Europe in the siege of Belleisle (1761). He was +adjutant-general of the force which besieged and took Havana in +1762, and at the close of the war had acquired the reputation of +being one of the most brilliant of the junior officers of the army. +He was made colonel of the 46th foot in 1764 and lieutenant-governor +of the Isle of Wight four years later. From 1758 to 1780 +he was M.P. for Nottingham. In 1772 he became major-general, +and in 1774 he was entrusted with the training of light infantry +companies on a new system, the training-ground being Salisbury +Plain.</p> + +<p>Shortly after this he was sent out to North America. He did +not agree with the policy of the government towards the colonists, +and regretted in particular that he was sent to Boston, where the +memory of his eldest brother was still cherished by the inhabitants, +and General Gage, in whom he had no confidence, commanded in +chief. He was the senior officer after Gage, and led the troops +actively engaged in the storming of Bunker Hill, he himself being +in the thickest of the fighting. In the same year Howe was +made a K.B. and a lieutenant-general, and appointed, with the +local rank of general, to the chief command in the seat of war. +For the events of his command see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">American War of Independence</a></span>. +He retained it until May 1778—on the whole with +success. The cause of his resignation was his feeling that the +home government had not afforded the proper support, and +after his return to England, he and his brother engaged in a +heated but fruitless controversy with the ministers. Howe’s own +defence is embodied in <i>Narrative of Sir William Howe before a +Committee of the House of Commons</i> (London, 1780). In 1782 +Howe was made lieutenant-general of the ordnance; in 1790 he +was placed in command of the forces organized for action against +Spain, and in 1793 he was made a full general. He held various +home commands in the early part of the French revolutionary +war, in particular that of the eastern district at the critical +moment when the French established their forces on the Dutch +coast. When Earl Howe died in 1799, Sir William succeeded to +the Irish viscounty. He had been made governor of Berwick-on-Tweed +in 1795, and in 1805 he became governor of Plymouth, +where he died on the 12th of July 1814. With his death the +Irish peerage became extinct.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HOWEL DDA<a name="ar84" id="ar84"></a></span> (“the Good”) (d. 950), prince of Deheubarth +(South Central Wales) from before 915, and king of Wales from +943 to 950, was the grandson of Rhodri Mawr (the Great), who +had united practically the whole of Wales under his supremacy. +As Idwal Voel succeeded his father Anarawd, the elder son of +Rhodri, as lord of Gwynedd in 915, so Howel at some time before +that date succeeded Rhodri’s younger son Cadell as prince of +Deheubarth. Howel married Elen, daughter of the last king of +Dyfed, and also added Kidweli and Gwyr to his dominions, while +on the death of Idwal, who was slain by the English in 943, he +took possession of Gwynedd. Both these princes had done +homage to the English kings, Edward the Elder and Aethelstan, +in 922 and 926, and we find that Howel attended the witans +of the English kingdom and witnessed about ten charters between +the years 931 and 949. He was secure, therefore, from attack on +the eastern side of his kingdom, and it is not certain whether he +was engaged in any of the battles recorded during these years in +Wales, either in Môn 914, at Dinas Newydd 919 or at Brun 935. +To the peaceful character of his reign is probably due the high +place which he holds among the Welsh princes. From 943 to +950 Howel Dda was probably ruler of all Wales except Powys +(apparently dependent on Mercia), Brecheiniog, Buallt, Gwent +and Morgannwg. With Morgan Hen, king of Morgannwg, +Howel had a dispute which was eventually settled in favour of the +former at the court of the English king. Howel died in 950, and +such unity as he had preserved at once disappeared in a war +between his sons and those of Idwal Voel. The code of laws +attributed to this prince is perhaps his chief claim to fame. He +is said to have summoned four men from each cantref in his +dominions to the Ty Gwyn (perhaps Whitland in Caermarthenshire) +to codify existing custom. Three codes, accordingly called +Venedotian, Demetian and Gwentian, are said to have been written +down by Bleggwryd, archdeacon of Llandaff (see Welsh Laws).</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See Sir John Rhys and Brynmor-Jones, <i>The Welsh People</i> (London, +1900); and Aneurin Owen, <i>Ancient Laws and Institutions of Wales</i> +(London, 1841).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HOWELL, JAMES<a name="ar85" id="ar85"></a></span> (<i>c.</i> 1594-1666), British author, who came +of an old Welsh family, was born probably at Abernant, in +Carmarthenshire, where his father was rector. From the free +grammar school at Hereford he went to Jesus College, Oxford, +and took his degree of B.A. in 1613. About 1616 he was steward +in Sir Robert Mansell’s glass-works in Broad Street, and was +commissioned to go abroad to procure the services of expert +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page839" id="page839"></a>839</span> +workmen. It was not till 1622 that he returned, having visited +Holland, France, Spain and Italy. With the intention of utilizing +to better purpose his knowledge of continental languages +and methods, he left the glass business and applied for a diplomatic +post. Failing to obtain this, he was for a short time +tutor in a nobleman’s family. At the close of 1622 he was sent +on a special mission to Madrid to obtain redress for the seizure +of an English vessel, but, owing to the presence at the Spanish +court of Prince Charles and the duke of Buckingham to arrange +a marriage between the prince and the infanta of Spain, the +negotiations had to be broken off. He made many friends +among the prince’s retinue, and, after his return in 1624, applied +for employment to the duke of Buckingham, but without success. +In 1626 he became secretary to Lord Scrope, Lord President +of the North at York, and retained the office under Scrope’s +successor, Thomas Wentworth. In 1627 he was elected M.P. +for Richmond; in 1632 he was sent as secretary to the embassy +of the earl of Leicester to Denmark; and in 1642 the king +appointed him one of the clerks of the privy council. In 1643 +he was committed to the Fleet prison by the parliament, according +to his own account, on suspicion of royalist leanings, or, as +Anthony à Wood says, for debt. Whatever the reason, he +remained in prison until 1651. He had acquired considerable +fame by his allegorical <span class="grk" title="Dendrologia">Δενδρολογία</span>: <i>Dodona’s Grove, or the +Vocall Forest</i>, published in 1640, and his <i>Instructions for Forreine +Travell</i> (1642), which has been described as the first continental +handbook; and now he was driven to maintain himself by his +pen. He edited and supplemented (1650) Cotgrave’s French and +English dictionary, compiled <i>Lexicon Tetraglotton, or an English, +French, Italian and Spanish Dictionary</i> (London, 1660), translated +various works from Italian and Spanish, wrote a life of +Louis XIII. and issued a number of political pamphlets, varying +the point of view somewhat to suit the changes of the time. +Among these tracts may be mentioned a rather malicious +<i>Perfect Description of the People and Country of Scotland</i>, which +was revived by John Wilkes and printed in the <i>North Briton</i> +during the agitation directed against Lord Bute. In 1660 he +asked for the place of clerk of the privy council; and, though +this was not granted him, the post of historiographer royal was +created for him. In 1661 he applied for the office of tutor in +foreign languages to the infanta Catherine of Braganza, and in +1662 published an <i>English Grammar translated into Spanish</i>. +He was buried in the Temple Church on the 3rd of November +1666, having realized to the last his favourite motto, “Senesco +non segnesco.”</p> + +<p>All Howell’s writings are imbued with a certain simplicity +and quaintness. His elaborate allegories are forgotten; his +linguistic labours, of value in their time, are now superseded; +but his <i>Letters</i>, the <i>Epistolae Ho-elianae</i> (four volumes issued in +1645, 1647, 1650 and 1655), are still models of their kind. Their +dates are often fictitious, and they are, in nearly every case, +evidently written for publication. Thackeray said that the <i>Letters</i> +was one of his bedside books. He classes it with Montaigne +and says he scarcely ever tired of “the artless prattle” of the +“priggish little clerk of King Charles’s council.”</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>The <i>Epistolae</i> have been frequently edited, notably by J. Jacobs +in 1890, with a commentary (1891), and Agnes Repplier (1907).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HOWELLS, WILLIAM DEAN<a name="ar86" id="ar86"></a></span> (1837-  ), American novelist, +was born at Martin’s Ferry, Ohio, on the 1st of March 1837. His +father, William Cooper Howells, a printer-journalist, moved in +1840 to Hamilton, Ohio, and here the boy’s early life was spent +successively as type-setter, reporter and editor in the offices +of various newspapers. In the midst of routine work he contrived +to familiarize himself with a wide range of authors in several +modern tongues, and to drill himself thoroughly in the use of +good English. In 1860, as assistant editor of the leading Republican +newspaper in Ohio, he wrote—in connexion with the +Presidential contest—the campaign life of Lincoln; and in +the same year he was appointed consul at Venice, where he +remained till 1865. On his return to America he joined the staff +of the <i>Atlantic Monthly</i>, and from 1872 to 1881 he was its editor-in-chief. +Since 1885 he has lived in New York. For a time he +conducted for <i>Harper’s Magazine</i> the department called “The +Editor’s Study,” and in December 1900 he revived for the same +periodical the department of “The Easy Chair,” which had +lapsed with the death of George William Curtis. Of Mr Howells’s +many novels, the following may be mentioned as specially +noteworthy: <i>Their Wedding Journey</i> (1872); <i>The Lady of +the Aroostook</i> (1879); <i>A Modern Instance</i> (1882); <i>The Rise +of Silas Lapham</i> (1885); <i>The Minister’s Charge</i> (1886); <i>A +Hazard of New Fortunes</i> (1889); <i>The Quality of Mercy</i> (1892); +<i>The Landlord at Lion’s Head</i> (1897). He also published <i>Poems</i> +(1873 and 1886); <i>Stops of Various Quills</i> (1895), a book of verse; +books of travel; several amusing farces; and volumes of essays +and literary criticism, among others, <i>Literary Friends and +Acquaintance</i> (1901), which contains much autobiographical +matter, <i>Literature and Life</i> (1902), and <i>English Films</i> (1905).</p> + +<p>Howells is by general consent the foremost representative +of the realistic school of indigenous American fiction. From +the outset his aim was to portray life with entire fidelity in all +its commonplaceness, and yet to charm the reader into a liking +for this commonplaceness and into reverence for what it conceals. +Though in his earliest novels his method was not consistently +realistic—he is at times almost as personal and as whimsical as +Thackeray—yet his vivid impressionism and his choice of subjects, +as well as an occasional explicit protest that “dulness +is dear to him,” already revealed unmistakably his realistic +bias. In <i>A Modern Instance</i> (1882) he gained complete command +of his method, and began a series of studies of American life +that are remarkable for their loyalty to fact, their truth of tone, +and their power to reveal, despite their strictly objective method, +both the inner springs of American character and the sociological +forces that are shaping American civilization. He refuses to over-sophisticate +or to over-intellectualize his characters, and he +is very sparing in his use of psychological analysis. He insists +on seeing and portraying American life as it exists in and for +itself, under its own skies and with its own atmosphere; he +does not scrutinize it with foreign comparisons in mind, and thus +try to find and to throw into relief unsuspected configurations +of surface. He keeps his dialogue toned down to almost the +pitch of everyday conversation, although he has shown in his +comedy sketches how easy a master he is of adroit and witty +talk.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See also J. M. Robertson, <i>Essays towards a Critical Method</i> (London, +1889); H. C. Vedder, <i>American Writers</i> (Boston, 1894).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HOWITT WILLIAM,<a name="ar87" id="ar87"></a></span> (1792-1879), English author, was born +on the 18th of December 1792 at Heanor, Derbyshire. His +parents were Quakers, and he was educated at the Friends’ +public school at Ackworth, Yorkshire. In 1814 he published +a poem on the “Influence of Nature and Poetry on National +Spirit.” He married, in 1821, Mary Botham (1799-1888), like +himself a Quaker and a poet. William and Mary Howitt collaborated +throughout a long literary career, the first of their +joint productions being <i>The Forest Minstrels and other Poems</i> +(1821). In 1831 William Howitt produced a work for which +his habits of observation and his genuine love of nature peculiarly +fitted him. It was a history of the changes in the face of the outside +world in the different months of the year, and was entitled +<i>The Book of the Seasons, or the Calendar of Nature</i> (1831). His +<i>Popular History of Priestcraft</i> (1833) won for him the favour of +active Liberals and the office of alderman in Nottingham, where +the Howitts had made their home. They removed in 1837 to +Esher, and in 1840 they went to Heidelberg, primarily for the +education of their children, remaining in Germany for two years. +In 1841 William Howitt produced, under the pseudonym of +“Dr Cornelius,” <i>The Student Life of Germany</i>, the first of a +series of works on German social life and institutions. Mary +Howitt devoted herself to Scandinavian literature, and between +1842 and 1863 she translated the novels of Frederika Bremer +and many of the stories of Hans Andersen. With her husband +she wrote in 1852 <i>The Literature and Romance of Northern +Europe</i>. In June of that year William Howitt, with two of +his sons, set sail for Australia, where he spent two years in the +goldfields. The results of his travels appeared in <i>A Boy’s</i> +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page840" id="page840"></a>840</span> +<i>Adventures in the Wilds of Australia</i> (1854), <i>Land, Labour and +Gold; or, Two Years in Victoria</i> (1855) and <i>Tallangetta, the +Squatter’s Home</i> (1857). On his return to England Howitt had +settled at Highgate and resumed his indefatigable book-making. +From 1856 to 1862 he was engaged on Cassell’s <i>Illustrated +History of England</i>, and from 1861 to 1864 he and his wife worked +at the <i>Ruined Abbeys and Castles of Great Britain</i>. The Howitts +had left the Society of Friends in 1847, and became interested +in spiritualism. In 1863 appeared <i>The History of the Supernatural +in all Ages and Nations, and in all Churches, Christian +and Pagan, demonstrating a Universal Faith</i>, by William +Howitt. He added “his own conclusions from a practical +examination of the higher phenomena through a course of +seven years.” From 1870 onwards Howitt spent the summers +in Tirol and the winters in Rome, where he died on the 3rd +of March 1879. Mary Howitt was much affected by his death, +and in 1882 she joined the Roman Catholic Church, towards +which she had been gradually moving during her connexion with +spiritualism. She died at Rome on the 30th of January 1888. +The Howitts are remembered for their untiring efforts to provide +wholesome and instructive literature. Their son, Alfred William +Howitt, made himself a name by his explorations in Australia. +Anna Mary Howitt married Alaric Alfred Watts, and was the +author of <i>Pioneers of the Spiritual Reformation</i> (1883).</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>Mary Howitt’s autobiography was edited by her daughter, Margaret +Howitt, in 1889. William Howitt wrote some fifty books, and his +wife’s publications, inclusive of translations, number over a hundred.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HOWITZER<a name="ar88" id="ar88"></a></span> (derived, through an earlier form <i>howitz</i>, and the +Ger. <i>Haubitz</i>, from the Bohemian <i>houfnice</i> = catapult, from +which come also, through the Ital. <i>obiza</i> or <i>obice</i>, the French +forms <i>obus</i> = shell and <i>obusier</i> = howitzer), a form of mobile +ordnance in use from the 16th century up to the present day. It is +a short and therefore comparatively light gun, which fires a +heavy projectile at low velocity. A high angle of elevation is +always given and the angle of descent of the projectile is consequently +steep (up to 70°). On this fact is based the tactical +use of the modern howitzer. The field howitzer is of the greatest +value for “searching” trenches, folds of ground, localities, &c., +which are invulnerable to direct fire, while the more powerful +siege howitzer has, since the introduction of modern artillery and, +above all, of modern projectiles, taken the foremost place +amongst the weapons used in siege warfare.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Artillery</a></span>, <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Ordnance</a></span> and <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Fortification and Siegecraft</a></span>.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HOWLER,<a name="ar89" id="ar89"></a></span> a name applied to the members of a group of +tropical American monkeys, now known scientifically as <i>Alouata</i>, +although formerly designated <i>Mycetes</i>. These monkeys, which +are of large size, with thick fur, sometimes red and sometimes +black in colour, are characterized by the inflation of the hyoid-bone +(which supports the roof of the tongue) into a large shell-like +organ communicating with the wind-pipe, and giving the +peculiar resonance to the voice from which they take their title. +To allow space for the hyoid, the sides of the lower jaw are very +deep and expanded. The muzzle is projecting, and the profile of +the face slopes regularly backwards from the muzzle to the +crown. The long tail is highly prehensile, thickly furred, with the +under surface of the extremity naked. Howlers dwell in large +companies, and in the early morning, and again in the evening, +make the woods resound with their cries, which are often continued +throughout the night. They feed on leaves, and are in the +habit of sitting on the topmost branches of trees. When active, +they progress in regular order, led by an old male.</p> +<div class="author">(R. L.*)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HOWRAH,<a name="ar90" id="ar90"></a></span> a city and district of British India, in the Burdwan +division of Bengal. The city is situated opposite Calcutta, with +which it is connected by a floating bridge. The municipal area +is about 11 sq. m.; pop. (1901) 157,594, showing an increase of +35% in the decade. Since 1872 the population has almost +doubled, owing to the great industrial development that has +taken place. Howrah is the terminus of the East Indian railway, +and also of the Bengal-Nagpur and East Coast lines. It is +also the centre of two light railways which run to Amta and +Sheakhala. Further, it is the headquarters of the jute-manufacturing +industry, with many steam mills, steam presses, also +cotton mills, oil mills, rope-works, iron-works and engineering +works. Sibpur Engineering College lies on the outskirts of the +town. There is a hospital, with a department for Europeans, and +Howrah forms a suburban residence for many people who have +their place of business in Calcutta.</p> + +<p>The <span class="sc">District of Howrah</span> extends southwards down the right +bank of the Hugli to the confluence of the river Damodar. For +revenue purposes it is included within the district of Hugli +Its area is 510 sq. m.; pop. (1901) 850,514, showing an increase +of 11% in the decade. In addition to the two steam tramways +and the East Indian railway, the district is crossed by the high-level +canal to Midnapore, which communicates with the Hugli +at Ulubaria. The manufacturing industries of Howrah extend +beyond the city into the district. One or two systems of draining +low-lying lands are maintained by the government.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HOWSON, JOHN SAUL<a name="ar91" id="ar91"></a></span> (1816-1885), English divine, was born +at Giggleswick-in-Craven, Yorkshire, on the 5th of May 1816. +After receiving his early education at Giggleswick school, of +which his father was head-master, he went to Trinity College, +Cambridge, and there became tutor successively to the marquis of +Sligo and the marquis of Lorne. In 1845 Howson, having taken +orders, accepted the post of senior classical master at the Liverpool +College under his friend W. J. Conybeare, whom he succeeded +as principal in 1849. This post he held until 1865, and it was +largely due to his influence that a similar college for girls was +established at Liverpool. In 1866 he left Liverpool for the +vicarage of Wisbech, and in 1867 he was appointed dean of +Chester Cathedral, where he gave himself vigorously to the work +of restoring the crumbling fabric, collecting nearly £100,000 in +five years for this purpose. His sympathies were with the +evangelical party, and he stoutly opposed the “Eastward +position,” but he was by no means narrow. He did much to +reintroduce the ministry of women as deaconesses. The building +of the King’s School for boys, and the Queen’s School for girls +(both in Chester), was due in a great measure to the active +interest which he took in educational matters. He died at +Bournemouth on the 15th of December 1885, and was buried in +the cloister garth of Chester. Howson’s chief literary production +was <i>The Life and Epistles of St Paul</i> (1852) in which he collaborated +with Conybeare.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>The book is still of interest, especially for its descriptive passages, +which were mostly done by Howson; but later researches (such as +those of Sir W. M. Ramsay) have made the geographical and historical +sections obsolete, and the same may be said of the treatment +of the Pauline theology.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HOWTH<a name="ar92" id="ar92"></a></span> [pronounced <i>Hōth]</i>, a seaside town of Co. Dublin, +Ireland, on the rocky hill of Howth, which forms the northern +horn of Dublin Bay, 9 m. N.E. by N. of Dublin by the Great +Northern railway. Pop. (1901) 1166. It is frequented by the +residents of the capital as a watering-place. The artificial +harbour was formed (1807-1832) between the mainland and the +picturesque island of Ireland’s Eye, and preceded Kingstown as +the station for the mail-packets from Great Britain, but was +found after its construction to be liable to silt, and is now chiefly +used by fishing-boats and yachts. The collegiate church, +standing picturesquely on a cliff above the sea, was founded +about 1235, and has a monastic building attached to it. The +embattled castle contains the two-handed sword of Sir Almeric +Tristram, the Anglo-Norman conqueror of the hill of Howth, and +a portrait of Dean Swift holding one of the Drapier letters, with +Wood, the coiner against whom he directed these attacks, +prostrate before him. The view of Dublin Bay from the hill of +Howth is of great beauty. Howth is connected with the capital +by electric tramway, besides the railway, and another tramway +encircles the hill.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HÖXTER,<a name="ar93" id="ar93"></a></span> a town of Germany, in the Prussian province of +Westphalia, prettily situated on the left bank of the Weser, and +on the Prussian state railways Börssum-Soest and Scherfede-Holzminden, +32 m. N. of Cassel. Pop. (1905) 7699. It has a +medieval town hall, and interesting houses with high gables and +wood-carved façades of the 15th and 16th centuries. The most +interesting of the churches is the Protestant church of St Kilian, +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page841" id="page841"></a>841</span> +with a pulpit dating from 1595 and a font dating from 1631. +There are a gymnasium, a school of architecture and a monument +to Hoffmann von Fallersleben in the town. The Weser is +crossed here by a stone bridge about 500 ft. in length, erected +in 1833. On the Brunsberg adjoining the town there is an old +watch-tower, said to be the remains of a fortress built by Bruno, +brother of Widukind. Near Höxter is the castle, formerly the +Benedictine monastery, of Corvey. The principal manufactures of +the town are linen, cotton, cement and gutta-percha, and there +is also a considerable shipping trade. Höxter (Lat. <i>Huxaria</i>) +in the time of Charlemagne was a <i>villa regia</i>, and was the scene of +a battle between him and the Saxons. Under the protection of +the monastery of Corvey it gradually increased in prosperity, +and became the chief town of the principality of Corvey. Later +it asserted its independence and joined the Hanseatic League. +It suffered severely during the Thirty Years’ War. After the +peace of Westphalia in 1648 it was united to Brunswick; in 1802 +it was transferred to Nassau; and in 1807 to the kingdom of +Westphalia, after the dismemberment of which, in 1814, it came +into the possession of Prussia.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See Kampschulte, <i>Chronik der Stadt Höxter</i> (Höxter, 1872).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HOY<a name="ar94" id="ar94"></a></span> (Norse <i>Haey</i>, “high island”), the second largest island +of the Orkneys, county of Orkney, Scotland. Pop. (1901) 1216. +It has an extreme length from N.W. to S.E. of 13<span class="spp">1</span>⁄<span class="suu">3</span> m., its greatest +breadth from E. to W. is 8 m., and its area occupies 53 sq. m. +It is situated 2 m. S.W. of Pomona, from which it is separated +by Hoy Sound. As seen from the west it rises abruptly from the +sea, presenting in this respect a marked contrast to the rest of +the isles of the Orcadian group, which as a whole are low-lying. +Its eastern and southern shores are indented by numerous bays, +one of which, Long Hope, forms a natural harbour 4 m. long, +with a breadth varying from ¼ m. to more than 1 m., affording +to any number of vessels a haven of refuge from the roughest +weather of the Pentland Firth. Off the eastern coast lie the +islands of Graemsay, Cava, Risa, Fara, Flotta and Switha, +while the peninsula of South Walls, forming the southern side +of the harbour of Long Hope, is an island in all but name. Red +and yellow sandstone cliffs, sometimes over 1000 ft. in height, +stretch for 10 to 12 m. on the Atlantic front. The detached +pillar or stack called the Old Man of Hoy (450 ft.) is a well-known +landmark to sailors. The only break in this remarkable run +of rocky coast is at Rackwick in the bight below the head of +Rora. In the interior, Ward Hill (1564 ft.) is the loftiest summit +in either the Orkneys or Shetlands. In the valley between +Ward Hill and the ridge of the Hamars to the south-east is +situated the famous Dwarfie Stone, an enormous block of +sandstone measuring 28 ft. long, from 11 ft. to 14½ ft. broad, +and 6½ ft. high at one end and 2 ft. high at the other, in which +two rooms have been artificially hollowed out, traditionally +believed to be the bed-chambers of Trolld, the dwarf of the +sagas, and his wife. A boulder lying at the narrow end was +supposed to be used to close the entrance. The generally +accepted theory is that it was a pagan altar which some hermit +afterwards converted into a cell. Other hills in the island are +the Cuilags (1420 ft.) and the Knap of Trewieglen (1308 ft.), +besides several peaks exceeding 1000 ft. in height. Hoy is +commonly approached from Stromness, there being piers at +Linksness, the nearest point to Graemsay, and at Hackness, +South Ness and North Bay, the last three all on the harbour +of Long Hope.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HOYLAKE,<a name="ar95" id="ar95"></a></span> a watering-place in the Wirral parliamentary +division of Cheshire, England, 8 m. W. of Birkenhead, on the +Wirral railway. With West Kirby to the south, at the mouth +of the estuary of the Dee, it forms the urban district of Hoylake +and West Kirby. Pop. (1901) 10,911. The well-known links +of the Royal Liverpool Golf Club are at Hoylake. The town +has a considerable population of fishermen.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HOYLAND NETHER,<a name="ar96" id="ar96"></a></span> an urban district in the Hallamshire +parliamentary division of the West Riding of Yorkshire, England, +5½ m. S.S.E. of Barnsley, on the Midland railway. Collieries +and brickworks employ the large industrial population. Pop. +(1901) 12,464.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HOYLE, EDMUND,<a name="ar97" id="ar97"></a></span> or <span class="sc">Edmond</span> (1672-1769), the first systematizer +of the laws of whist, and author of a book on games, +was born in 1672. His parentage and place of birth are unknown, +and few details of his life are recorded. For some time he was +resident in London, and partially supported himself by giving +instruction in the game of whist. For the use of his pupils he +drew up a <i>Short Treatise</i> on the game, which after circulating +for some time in manuscript was printed by him and entered +at Stationers’ Hall in November 1742. The laws of Hoyle +continued to be regarded as authoritative until 1864, since which +time they have been gradually superseded by the new rules +adopted by the Arlington and Portland clubs in that year (see +Whist). He also published rules for various other games, and +his book on games, which includes the <i>Short Treatise</i>, has passed +into many editions. The weight of his authority is indicated +by the phrase “according to Hoyle,” which, doubtless first +applied with reference to whist, has gained currency as a general +proverb. Hoyle died in London on the 29th of August 1769.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HOZIER, PIERRE D’,<a name="ar98" id="ar98"></a></span> <span class="sc">Seigneur de la Garde</span> (1592-1660), +French genealogist, was born at Marseilles on the 10th of July +1592. In 1616 he entered upon some very extensive researches +into the genealogy of the noble families of the kingdom, in which +work he was aided by his prodigious memory for dates, names +and family relationships, as well as by his profound knowledge +of heraldry. In 1634 he was appointed historiographer and +genealogist of France, and in 1641 <i>juge d’armes</i> of France, an +officer corresponding nearly to the Garter king-of-arms in +England. In 1643 he was employed to verify the claims to +nobility of the pages and equerries of the king’s household. He +accumulated a large number of documents, but published +comparatively little, his principal works being <i>Recueil armorial +des anciennes maisons de Bretagne</i> (1638); <i>Les noms, surnoms, +qualitez, armes et blasons des chevaliers et officiers de l’ordre du +Saint-Esprit</i> (1634); and the genealogies of the houses of La +Rochefoucauld (1654), Bournonville (1657) and Amanzé (1659). +He was renowned as much for his uprightness as for his knowledge, +no slight praise in a profession exposed to so many temptations +to fraud. He died in Paris on the 1st of December 1660. At +his death his collections comprised more than 150 volumes or +portfolios of documents and papers relating to the genealogy of +the principal families in France. Of his six sons, only two +survived him. His eldest son, Louis Roger d’Hozier (1634-1708), +succeeded him as <i>juge d’armes</i>, but became blind in 1675, and +was obliged to surrender his office to his brother.</p> + +<p><span class="sc">Charles René d’Hozier</span> (1640-1732), younger son of Pierre, +was the true continuator of his father. In addition to his +commentary appended to Antoine Varillas’s history of King +Charles IX. (1686 ed.), he published <i>Recherches sur la noblesse +de Champagne</i> (1673). On the promulgation in 1696 of an +edict directing all who had armorial bearings to register them +on payment of 20 livres, he was employed to collect the declarations +returned in the various <i>généralités</i>, and established the +<i>Armorial général de France</i>. This work, which contained not +only the armorial bearings of noble families, but also of those +commoners who were entitled to bear arms, is not complete, +inasmuch as many refused to register their arms, either from +vanity or from a desire to evade the fee.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>The collection (now in the Bibliothèque Nationale) consists of +34 volumes of text and 35 of coloured armorial bearings, and in +spite of its deficiencies is a useful store of information for the history +of the old French families. It contains 60,000 names, grouped +according to provinces and provincial subdivisions. The sections +relating to Burgundy and Franche-Comté were published by Henri +Bouchot (1875-1876): those relating to the <i>généralité</i> of Limoges, +by Moreau de Pravieux (1895); and those for the <i>élection</i> of Reims, +by P. Gosset (1903).</p> +</div> + +<p>In 1717, in consequence of a quarrel with his nephew Louis +Pierre, son of Louis Roger, Charles sold his collection to the +king. It then comprised 160 portfolios of genealogical papers +arranged alphabetically, 175 volumes of documents, and numerous +printed books profusely annotated. In 1720 it was inventoried +by P. de Clairambault, who added a certain number of genealogies +taken from the papers of F. R. de Gaignières, increasing the +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page842" id="page842"></a>842</span> +total to 217 boxes and portfolios. Thus originated the <i>Cabinet +des titres</i> of the Bibliothèque Nationale. Charles subsequently +became reconciled to his nephew, to whom he left all the papers +he had accumulated from the date of the quarrel until his death, +which occurred in Paris on the 13th of February 1732.</p> + +<p><span class="sc">Louis Pierre d’Hozier</span> (1685-1767), son of Louis Roger, +succeeded his uncle Charles as <i>juge d’armes</i>. He published the +<i>Armorial général, ou registre de la noblesse de France</i> (10 vols., +1738-1768), which must not be confounded with the publication +mentioned above, inasmuch as it related solely to noble families +and was not an official collection. Complete copies of this work, +which should contain six <i>registres</i>, are comparatively rare. +A seventh <i>registre</i>, forming vol. xi., prepared by Ambroise +Louis Marie, nephew of Louis Pierre, was published in 1847 by +comte Charles d’Hozier. Louis Pierre died on the 25th of +September 1767. His eldest son, Antoine Marie d’Hozier de +Sérigny (1721-<i>c.</i> 1810), was his father’s collaborator and continuator; +and his fourth son, Jean François Louis, wrote an +account of the knights of St Michael in the province of Poitou, +which was published in 1896 by the vicomte P. de Chabot.</p> + +<p>His nephew, <span class="sc">Ambroise Louis Marie d’Hozier</span> (1764-1846), +was the last of the <i>juges d’armes</i> of France. He held the position +of president of the <i>cour des comptes, aides et finances</i> of Normandy, +and was therefore generally known as President d’Hozier, to +distinguish him from the other members of the family. After +the Restoration he was employed to verify French armorial +bearings for the <i>conseil du sceau des titres</i>. He died in obscurity. +His collection, which was purchased in 1851 by the Bibliothèque +Nationale, comprised 136 volumes, 165 portfolios of documents +and 200 packets of extracts from title-deeds, known as the +<i>Carrés d’Hozier</i>.</p> + +<p><span class="sc">Abraham Charles Auguste d’Hozier</span> (1775-1846), who +also belonged to his family, was implicated in the conspiracy +of Georges Cadoudal, and was condemned to death, but Bonaparte +spared his life. He did not, however, recover his liberty +until after the fall of the emperor, and died at Versailles on +the 24th of August 1846.</p> +<div class="author">(C. B.*)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HRABANUS MAURUS MAGNENTIUS<a name="ar99" id="ar99"></a></span> (<i>c.</i> 776-856), archbishop +of Mainz, and one of the most prominent teachers and +writers of the Carolingian age, was born of noble parents at Mainz. +Less correct forms of his name are Rabanus and Rhabanus. +The date of his birth is uncertain, but in 801 he received deacon’s +orders at Fulda, where he had been sent to school; in the following +year, at the instance of Ratgar, his abbot, he went together +with Haimon (afterwards of Halberstadt) to complete his studies +at Tours under Alcuin, who in recognition of his diligence and +purity gave him the surname of Maurus, after St Maur the +favourite disciple of Benedict. Returning after the lapse of +two years to Fulda, he was entrusted with the principal charge +of the school, which under his direction rose into a state of great +efficiency for that age, and sent forth such pupils <span class="correction" title="amended from at">as</span> Walafrid +Strabo, Servatus Lupus of Ferières and Otfrid of Weissenburg. +At this period it is most probable that his <i>Excerptio</i> from the +grammar of Priscian, long so popular as a text-book during the +middle ages, was compiled. In 814 he was ordained a priest; +but shortly afterwards, apparently on account of disagreement +with Ratgar, he was compelled to withdraw for a time from +Fulda. This “banishment” is understood to have occasioned +the pilgrimage to Palestine to which he alludes in his commentary +on Joshua. He returned to Fulda on the election of a new abbot +(Eigil) in 817, upon whose death in 822 he himself became abbot. +The duties of this office he discharged with efficiency and success +until 842, when, in order to secure greater leisure for literature +and for devotion, he resigned and retired to the neighbouring +cloister of St Peter’s. In 847 he was again constrained to enter +public life by his election to succeed Otgar in the archbishopric +of Mainz, which see he occupied for upwards of eight years. +The principal incidents of historical interest belonging to this +period of his life were those which arose out of his relations to +Gottschalk (<i>q.v.</i>): they may be regarded as thoroughly typical +of that cruel intolerance which he shared with all his contemporaries, +and also of that ardent zeal which was peculiar to himself; +but they hardly do justice to the spirit of kindly benevolence +which in less trying circumstances he was ever ready to display. +He died at Winkel on the Rhine, on the 4th of February 856. +He is frequently referred to as St Rabanus, but incorrectly.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>His voluminous works, many of which remain unpublished, comprise +commentaries on a considerable number of the books both of +canonical and of apocryphal Scripture (Genesis to Judges, Ruth, +Kings, Chronicles, Judith, Esther, Canticles, Proverbs, Wisdom, +Ecclesiasticus, Jeremiah, Lamentations, Ezekiel, Maccabees, +Matthew, the Epistles of St Paul, including Hebrews); and various +treatises relating to doctrinal and practical subjects, including more +than one series of Homilies. Perhaps the most important is that <i>De +institutione clericorum</i>, in three books, by which he did much to +bring into prominence the views of Augustine and Gregory the +Great as to the training which was requisite for a right discharge +of the clerical function; the most popular has been a comparatively +worthless tract <i>De laudibus sanctae crucis</i>. Among the others +may be mentioned the <i>De universo libri xxii., sive etymologiarum +opus</i>, a kind of dictionary or encyclopaedia, designed as a help +towards the historical and mystical interpretation of Scripture, the +<i>De sacris ordinibus</i>, the <i>De disciplina ecclesiastica</i> and the <i>Martyrologium</i>. +All of them are characterized by erudition (he knew even +some Greek and Hebrew) rather than by originality of thought. +The poems are of singularly little interest or value, except as including +one form of the “Veni Creator.” In the annals of German +philology a special interest attaches to the <i>Glossaria Latino-Theodisca</i>. +A commentary, <i>Super Porphyrium</i>, printed by Cousin in 1836 among +the <i>Ouvrages inédits d’Abélard</i>, and assigned both by that editor +and by Hauréau to Hrabanus Maurus, is now generally believed to +have been the work of a disciple.</p> + +<p>The first nominally complete edition of the works of Hrabanus +Maurus was that of Colvener (Cologne, 6 vols. fol., 1627). The +<i>Opera omnia</i> form vols. cvii.-cxii. of Migne’s <i>Patrologiae cursus +completus</i>. The <i>De universo</i> is the subject of <i>Compendium der +Naturwissenschaften an der Schule zu Fulda im IX. Jahrhundert</i> +(Berlin, 1880). Maurus is the subject of monographs by Schwarz +(<i>De Rhabano Mauro primo Germaniae praeceptore</i>, 1811), Kunstmann +(<i>Historische Monographie über Hrabanus Magnentius Maurus</i>, 1841), +Spengler (<i>Leben des heil. Rhabanus Maurus</i>, 1856) and Köhler +(<i>Rhabanus Maurus u. die Schule zu Fulda</i>, 1870). <i>Lives</i> by his +disciple Rudolphus and by Joannes Trithemius are printed in the +Cologne edition of the <i>Opera</i>. See also Pertz, <i>Monum. Germ. Hist.</i> +(i. and ii.); Bähr, <i>Gesch. d. römischen Literatur im Karoling. +Zeitalter</i> (1840), and Hauck’s article in the Herzog-Hauck <i>Realencyklopädie</i>, +ed. 3.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HRÓLFR KRAKI,<a name="ar100" id="ar100"></a></span> perhaps the most famous of the Danish +kings of the heroic age. In <i>Beowulf</i>, where he is called Hrothwulf, +he is represented as reigning over Denmark in conjunction +with his uncle Hrothgar, one of the three sons of an earlier +king called Healfdene. In the Old Norse sagas Hrólfe is the son +of Helgi (Halga), the son of Halfdan (Healfdene). He is represented +as a wealthy and peace-loving monarch similar to Hrothgar +in <i>Beowulf</i>, but the latter (Hróarr, or Roe) is quite overshadowed +by his nephew in the Northern authorities. The chief incidents +in Hrólfr’s career are the visit which he paid to the Swedish king +Aðils (Beowulf’s Eadgils), of which several different explanations +are given, and the war, in which he eventually lost his life, +against his brother-in-law Hiörvarðr. The name Kraki (pole-ladder) +is said to have been given to him on account of his great +height by a young knight named Vöggr, whom he handsomely +rewarded and who eventually avenged his death on Hiörvarðr. +There is no reason to doubt that Hrólfr was an historical person +and that he reigned in Denmark during the early years of the +6th century, but the statement found in all the sagas that he +was the stepson of Aðils seems hardly compatible with the +evidence of <i>Beowulf</i>, which is a much earlier authority.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See Saxo Grammaticus, <i>Gesta Danorum</i>, pp. 52-68, ed. A. Holder +(Strassburg, 1886); and A. Olrik, <i>Danmarks Hettedigtning</i> (Copenhagen, +1903).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HROSVITHA<a name="ar101" id="ar101"></a></span> (frequently <span class="sc">Roswitha</span>, and properly <span class="sc">Hrotsuit</span>), +early medieval dramatist and chronicler, occupies a very notable +position in the history of modern European literature. Her +endeavours formed part of the literary activity by which the age +of the emperor Otto the Great sought to emulate that of Charles +the Great. The famous nun of Gandersheim has occasionally +been confounded with her namesake, a learned abbess of the +same convent, who must have died at least half a century earlier. +The younger Hrosvitha was born in all probability about the year +935; and, if the statement be correct that she sang the praises +of the three Ottos, she must have lived to near the close of the +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page843" id="page843"></a>843</span> +century. Some time before the year 959 she entered the Benedictine +nunnery of Gandersheim, a foundation which was confined +to ladies of German birth, and was highly favoured by +the Saxon dynasty. In 959 Gerberga, daughter of Duke Henry +of Bavaria and niece of the emperor Otto I., was consecrated +abbess of Gandersheim; and the earlier literary efforts of the +youthful Hrosvitha (whose own connexion with the royal family +appears to be an unauthenticated tradition) were encouraged +by the still more youthful abbess, and by a nun of the name of +Richarda.</p> + +<p>The literary works of Hrosvitha, all of which were as a matter +of course in Latin, divide themselves into three groups. Of +these the first and least important comprises eight narrative +religious poems, in leonine hexameters or distichs. Their subjects +are the Nativity of the Virgin (from the apocryphal gospel of +St James, the brother of our Lord), the Ascension and a series +of legends of saints (Gandolph, Pelagius, Theophilus, Basil, +Denis, Agnes). Like these narrative poems, the dramas to which +above all Hrosvitha owes her fame seem to have been designed +for reading aloud or recitation by sisters of the convent. For +though there are indications that the idea of their representation +was at least present to the mind of the authoress, the fact of +such a representation appears to be an unwarrantable assumption. +The comedies of Hrosvitha are six in number, being doubtless +in this respect also intended to recall their nominal model, the +comedies of Terence. They were devised on the simple principle +that the world, the flesh and the devil should not have all the +good plays to themselves. The experiment upon which the young +Christian dramatist ventured was accordingly, although not +absolutely novel, audacious enough. In form the dramas of +“the strong voice of Gandersheim,” as Hrosvitha (possibly +alluding to a supposed etymology of her name) calls herself, are +by no means Terentian. They are written in prose, with an +element of something like rhythm, and an occasional admixture +of rhyme. In their themes, and in the treatment of these, they +are what they were intended to be, the direct opposites of the +lightsome adapter of Menander. They are founded upon +legends of the saints, selected with a view to a glorification of +religion in its supremest efforts and most transcendental aspects. +The emperor Constantine’s daughter, for example, Constantia, +gives her hand in marriage to <i>Gallicanus</i>, just before he starts +on a Scythian campaign, though she has already taken a vow +of perpetual maidenhood. In the hour of battle he is himself +converted, and, having on his return like his virgin bride chosen +the more blessed unmarried state, dies as a Christian martyr +in exile. The three holy maidens, Agape, Chionia and Irene, +are preserved by a humorous miracle from the evil designs of +<i>Dulcitius</i>, to offer up their pure lives as a sacrifice under +Diocletian’s persecutions. <i>Callimachus</i>, who has Romeo-like +carried his earthly passion for the saintly Drusiana into her +tomb, and among its horrors has met with his own death, is +by the mediation of St John raised with her from the dead to +a Christian life. All these themes are treated with both spirit +and skill, often with instinctive knowledge of dramatic effect—often +with genuine touches of pathos and undeniable felicities +of expression. In <i>Dulcitius</i> there is also an element of comedy, +or rather of farce. How far Hrosvitha’s comedies were an isolated +phenomenon of their age in Germany must remain undecided; +in the general history of the drama they form the visible bridge +between the few earlier attempts at utilizing the forms of the +classical drama for Christian purposes and the miracle plays. +They are in any case the productions of genius; nor has Hrosvitha +missed the usual tribute of the supposition that Shakespeare +has borrowed from her writings.</p> + +<p>The third and last group of the writings of Hrosvitha is that +of her versified historical chronicles. At the request of the +abbess Gerberga, she composed her <i>Carmen de gestis Oddonis</i>, +an epic attempting in some degree to follow the great Roman +model. It was completed by the year 968, and presented by +the authoress to both the old emperor and his son (then already +crowned as) Otto II. This poem so closely adheres to the materials +supplied to the authoress by members of the imperial family +that, notwithstanding its courtly omissions, it is regarded as +an historical authority. Unfortunately only half of it remains; +the part treating of the period from 953 to 962 is lost with the +exception of a few fragments, and the period from 962 to +967 is summarized only. Subsequently, in a poem (of 837 +hexameters) <i>De primordiis et fundatoribus coenobii Gandersheimensis</i>, +Hrosvitha narrated the beginnings of her own convent, +and its history up to the year 919.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>The Munich MS., which contains all the works enumerated above +except the <i>Chronicle of Gandersheim</i>, was edited by the great Vienna +humanist, Conrad Celtes, in 1501. The edition of Celtes was published +at Nuremberg, with eight wood-cuts by Albrecht Dürer. It was +re-edited by H. L. Schurzfleisch and published at Wittenberg in +1707. The comedies have been edited and translated into German +by J. Bendixen (Lübeck, 1857), and into French by C. Magnin +(Paris, 1845), whose introduction gives a full account of the authoress +and her works. See also her <i>Poésies latines</i>, with a translation into +French verse by V. Rétif de la Bretonne (Paris, 1854). A copious +analysis of her plays will be found in Klein, <i>Geschichte des Dramas</i>, +iii. 665-754. See also W. Creizenach, <i>Geschichte des neueren Dramas</i>, +i. 17 sqq. (Halle, 1893), and A. W. Ward, <i>History of English Dramatic +Literature</i>, i. 6 sqq. (Cambridge, 1899). Gustav Freytag wrote a +dissertation, <i>De Rosuitha poëtria</i> (Breslau, 1839), to qualify himself +as an academical teacher, which, as he records (<i>Erinnerungen aus +meinem Leben</i>, Leipzig, 1887, p. 1839), showed “how impossible it +was to the German, a thousand years since, to compose dramatically”; +and at the beginning of Albert Cohn’s <i>Shakespeare in Germany</i> +(Berlin, 1865) Shakespearean parallels are suggested to certain +passages in Hrosvitha’s dramas. Her two chronicles in verse were +edited by Z. H. Pertz in the <i>Monumenta Germaniae</i>, iv. 306-335 +(Hanover, 1841). See also J. P. Migne, <i>Patrologiae curs. compl.</i> +(Paris, 1853, vol. 137). The <i>Carmen</i> was included by Leibnitz +in his <i>Scriptores rer. Brunsvic.</i> (Hanover, 1707-1711). For other +early editions of these see A. Potthast, <i>Bibliotheca historica medii +aevi</i> (supplement, Berlin, 1862-1868); and for an appreciation of +them see Wattenbach, <i>Geschichtsquellen</i>, pp. 214-216, and Giesebrecht, +<i>Deutsche Kaiserzeit</i>, i. 780, who mentions a German translation by +Pfund (1860). There is a complete edition of the works of Hrosvitha +by K. A. Barack (Nürnberg, 1858). J. Aschbach (1867) attempted +to prove that Celtes had forged the productions which he published +under the name of Hrosvitha, but he was refuted by R. Köpke +(Berlin, 1869). Anatole France, <i>La Vie littéraire</i> (3<span class="sp">ème</span> série, Paris, +1891), cited by Creienach, mentions a curious recent experiment, +the performance of Hrosvitha’s comedies in the Théâtre des +Marionettes at Paris.</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(A. W. W.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HSÜAN TSANG<a name="ar102" id="ar102"></a></span> (<span class="sc">Hiouen Thsang</span>, <span class="sc">Hiwen T’sang</span>, <span class="sc">Yüan +Tsang</span>, <span class="sc">Yuan-Chwang</span>), the most eminent representative of a +remarkable and valuable branch of Chinese literature, consisting +of the narratives of Chinese Buddhists who travelled to India, +whilst their religion flourished there, with the view of visiting +the sites consecrated by the history of Sakya Muni, of studying +at the great convents which then existed in India, and of collecting +books, relics and other sacred objects.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>The importance of these writings as throwing light on the geography +and history of India and adjoining countries, during a very +dark period, is great, and they have been the subject of elaborate +commentaries by modern students. Several Chinese memoirs of +this kind appear to have perished; and especially to be regretted +is a great collection of the works of travellers to India, religious and +secular, in sixty books, with forty more of maps and illustrations, published +at the expense of the emperor Kao-Tsung of the T’ang dynasty, +<span class="scs">A.D.</span> 666, with a preface from the imperial hand. We will mention +the clerical travellers of this description who are known to us by name.</p> + +<p>1. <i>Shi-tao-’an</i> (d. 385) wrote a work on his travels to the +“western lands” (an expression applying often to India), which is +supposed to be lost. 2. <i>Fa-hien</i> travelled to India in 399, and +returned by sea in 414. His work, called <i>Fo-Kwo-Ki, or Memoirs +on the Buddha Realms</i>, has been translated by Abel-Rémusat and +Landresse, and again into English by the Rev. S. Beale; Mr Laidlay +of Calcutta also published a translation from the French, with interesting +notes. 3. <i>Hwai Seng</i> and <i>Sung-Yun</i>, monks, travelled +to India to collect books and reliques, 518-521. Their short narrative +has been translated by Karl Fried. Neumann, and also by Mr Beale +(along with Fa-hien). 4. <i>Hsüan Tsang</i>, the subject of this notice. +In relation to his travels there are two Chinese works, both of which +have been translated with an immense appliance of labour and +learning by M. Stanislas Julien, viz. (<i>a</i>) the <i>Ta-T’ang-Si-Yu-Ki, or +Memoirs on Western Countries issued by the T’ang Dynasty</i>, which +was compiled under the traveller’s own supervision, by order of the +great emperor Tai-Tsung; and (<i>b</i>) a <i>Biography of Hsüan Tsang</i> by +two of his contemporaries. 5. <i>The Itinerary of Fifty-six Religious +Travellers</i>, compiled and published under imperial authority, 730. +6. <i>The Itinerary of Khi-Nie</i>, who travelled (964-976) at the head +of a large body of monks to collect books, &c. Neither of the last +two has been translated.</p> +</div> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page844" id="page844"></a>844</span></p> + +<p>Hsüan Tsang was born in the district of Keu-Shi, near Honan-Fu, +about 605, a period at which Buddhism appears to have had +a powerful influence upon a large body of educated Chinese. +From childhood grave and studious, he was taken in charge by an +elder brother who had adopted the monastic life, in a convent at +the royal city of Loyang in Honan. Hsüan Tsang soon followed +his brother’s example. For some years he travelled over China, +teaching and learning, and eventually settled for a time at the +capital Chang-gan (now Si-gan-fu in Shensi), where his fame +for learning became great. The desire which he entertained +to visit India, in order to penetrate all the doctrines of the +Buddhist philosophy, and to perfect the collections of Indian +books which existed in China, grew irresistible, and in August +629 he started upon his solitary journey, eluding with difficulty +the strict prohibition which was in force against crossing the +frontier.</p> + +<p>The “master of the law,” as his biographers call him, plunged +alone into the terrible desert of the Gobi, then known as the +Sha-mo or “Sand River,” between Kwa-chow and Igu (now +Hami or Kamil). At long intervals he found help from the small +garrisons of the towers that dotted the desert track. Very +striking is the description, like that given six centuries later +by Marco Polo, of the quasi-supernatural horrors that beset the +lonely traveller in the wilderness—the visions of armies and +banners; and the manner in which they are dissipated singularly +recalls passages in Bunyan’s <i>Pilgrim’s Progress</i>. After great +suffering Hsüan Tsang reached Igu, the seat of a Turkish principality, +and pursued his way along the southern foot of the +T’ian-shan, which he crossed by a glacier pass (vividly described) +in the longitude of Lake Issyk-kul. In the valley of the Talas +river he encounters the great khan of the Turks on a hunting +party,—a rencontre which it is interesting to compare with the +visit of Zemarchus to the great khan Dizabul, sixty years before, +in the same region. Passing by the present Tashkend, and by +Samarkand, then inhabited by fire worshippers, he reached the +basin of the Upper Oxus, which had recently been the seat of +the powerful dominion of the Haiathelah, Ephthalites or +White Huns, known in earlier days to the Greeks as <i>Tochari</i>, and +to Hsüan Tsang (by the same name) as <i>Tuholo</i> or Tukhāra. His +account of the many small states into which the Tukhāra +empire had broken up is of great interest, as many of them are +identical in name and topography with the high valley states +and districts on the Upper Oxus, which are at this day the object +of so much geographical and political interest.</p> + +<p>Passing by Bamian, where he speaks of the great idols still +so famous, he crosses Hindu-Kush, and descends the valley of +the Kabul river to Nagarahara, the site of which, still known +as Nagara, adjoining Jalalabad, has been explored by Mr W. +Simpson. Travelling thence to Peshawar (<i>Purushapura</i>), the +capital of Gandhara, he made a digression, through the now +inaccessible valley of Swat and the Dard states, to the Upper +Indus, returning to Peshawar, and then crossing the Indus (<i>Sintu</i>) +into the decayed kingdom of <i>Taxila</i> (Ta-cha-si-lo, Takshasila), +then subject to Kashmir. In the latter valley he spent two +whole years (631-633) studying in the convents, and visiting +the many monuments of his faith. In his further travels he visited +Mathura (<i>Mot’ulo</i>, Muttra), whence he turned north to Thanesar +and the upper Jumna and Ganges, returning south down the +valley of the latter to Kanyakubja or Kanauj, then one of the +great capitals of India. The pilgrim next entered on a circuit +of the most famous sites of Buddhist and of ancient Indian +history, such as Ajodhya, Prayaga (Allahabad), Kausambhi, +Sravasti, Kapilavastu, the birth-place of Sakya, Kusinagara, his +death-place, Pataliputra (Patna, the <i>Palibothra</i> of the Greeks), +Gaya, Rajagriha and Nalanda, the most famous and learned +monastery and college in India, adorned by the gifts of successive +kings, of the splendour of which he gives a vivid description, and +of which traces have recently been recovered. There he again +spent nearly two years in mastering Sanskrit and the depths +of Buddhist philosophy. Again, proceeding down the banks of +the Ganges, he diverged eastward to Kamarupa (Assam), and +then passed by the great ports of Tamralipti (Tamluk, the misplaced +<i>Tamalitis</i> of Ptolemy), and through Orissa to Kanchipara +(Conjeeveram), about 640. Thence he went northward across +the Carnatic and Maharashtra to Barakacheva (Broach of our +day, <i>Barygaza</i> of the Greeks). After this he visited Malwa, Cutch, +Surashtra (peninsular Gujarat, <i>Syrastrene</i> of the Greeks), Sind, +Multan and Ghazni, whence he rejoined his former course in the +basin of the Kabul river.</p> + +<p>This time, however, he crosses Pamir, of which he gives a +remarkable account, and passes by Kashgar, Khotan (<i>Kustana</i>), +and the vicinity of Lop-nor across the desert to Kwa-chow, +whence he had made his venturous and lonely plunge into the +waste fifteen years before. He carried with him great collections +of books, precious images and reliques, and was received (April +645) with public and imperial enthusiasm. The emperor T’ai-Tsung +desired him to commit his journey to writing, and also +that he should abandon the eremitic rule and serve the state. +This last he declined, and devoted himself to the compilation +of his narrative and the translation of the books he had brought +with him from India. The former was completed <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 648. In +664 Hsüan Tsang died in a convent at Chang-gan. Some things +in the history of his last days, and in the indications of beatitude +recorded, strongly recall the parallel history of the saints of the +Roman calendar. But on the other hand we find the Chinese +saint, on the approach of death, causing one of his disciples to +frame a catalogue of his good works, of the books that he had +translated or caused to be transcribed, of the sacred pictures +executed at his cost, of the alms that he had given, of the living +creatures that he had ransomed from death. “When Kia-shang +had ended writing this list, the master ordered him to read it aloud. +After hearing it the devotees clasped their hands, and showered +their felicitations on him.” Thus the “well-done, good and +faithful” comes from the servant himself in self-applause.</p> + +<p>The book of the biography, by the disciples Hwai-li and +Yen-t’sung, as rendered with judicious omissions by Stan. +Julien, is exceedingly interesting; its Chinese style receives +high praise from the translator, who says he has often had to +regret his inability to reproduce its grace, elegance and vivacity.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p><span class="sc">Authorities.</span>—<i>Fo-Koue-Ki</i>, trad. du Chinois, par Abel-Rémusat, +revu et complété par Klaproth et Landresse (Paris, 1836); <i>H. de la +vie de Hiouen-Thsang, &c.</i>, trad. du Chinois par Stanislas Julien +(Paris, 1853); <i>Mémoires sur les contrées occidentales ...</i> trad. du +Chinois en Français (par le même) (2 vols., Paris, 1857-1858); +<i>Mémoire analytique</i>, &c., attached to the last work, by L. Vivien de +St Martin; “Attempt to identify some of the Places mentioned in +the Itinerary of Hiuan Thsang,” by Major Wm. Anderson, C.B., in +<i>Journ. As. Soc. Bengal</i>, vol. xvi. pt. 2, p. 1183 (the enunciation of a +singularly perverse theory); “Verification of the Itinerary of Hwan +Thsang, &c.,” by Captain Alex. Cunningham, Bengal Engineers, ibid. +vol. xvii. pt. 1, p. 476; <i>Travels of Fah-hian and Sung-Yan, Buddhist +Pilgrims, &c.</i>, by Sam. Beal (1869); <i>The Ancient Geography of +India</i>, by Major-General Alex. Cunningham, R.E. (1871); “Notes +on Hwen Thsang’s Account of the Principalities of Tokharistan,” +by Colonel H. Yule, C.B., in <i>Journ. Roy. As. Soc.</i>, new ser., vol. vi. +p. 82; “On Hiouen Thsang’s Journey from Patna to Ballabhi,” +by James Fergusson, D.C.L., ibid. p. 213.</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(H. Y.; R. K. D.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HUAMBISAS,<a name="ar103" id="ar103"></a></span> a tribe of South American Indians on the upper +Marañon and Santiago rivers, Peru. In 1841 they drove all the +civilized Indians from the neighbouring missions. In 1843 they +killed all the inhabitants of the village of Santa Teresa, between +the mouths of the Santiago and Morona. They are fair-skinned +and bearded, sharing with the Jeveros a descent from the Spanish +women captured by their Indian ancestors at the sack of Sevilla +del Oro in 1599.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HUANCAVELICA,<a name="ar104" id="ar104"></a></span> a city of central Peru and capital of a +department, 160 m. S.E. of Lima. The city stands in a deep +ravine of the Andes at an elevation of about 12,400 ft. above the +sea, the ravine having an average width of 1 m. Pop. (1906 +estimate) 6000. The city is solidly and regularly built, the +houses being of stone and the stream that flows through the +town being spanned by several stone bridges. Near Huancavelica +is the famous quicksilver mine of Santa Barbara, with +its subterranean church of San Rosario, hewn from the native +cinnabar-bearing rock. Huancavelica was founded by Viceroy +Francisco de Toledo in 1572 as a mining town, and mining +continues to be the principal occupation of its inhabitants. The +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page845" id="page845"></a>845</span> +department is traversed by the Cordillera Occidental, and is +bounded N., E. and S. by Junin and Ayacucho. Pop. (1906 +official estimate) 167,840; area, 9254 sq. m. The principal +industry is mining for silver and quicksilver. The best-known +silver mines are the Castrovirreyna.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HUÁNUCO,<a name="ar105" id="ar105"></a></span> a city of central Peru, capital of a department, +170 m. N.N.E. of Lima in a beautiful valley on the left bank of +the Huallaga river, nearly 6000 ft. above sea-level. Pop. (1906 +estimate) about 6000. The town was founded in 1539 by Gomez +Alvarado. Huánuco is celebrated for its fruits and sweetmeats, +the “chirimoya” (<i>Anona chirimolia</i>) of this region being the +largest and most delicious of its kind. Mining is one of the city’s +industries. Huánuco was the scene of one of the bloodthirsty +massacres of which the Chileans were guilty during their occupation +of Peruvian territory in 1881-1883. The department of +Huánuco lies immediately N. of Junin, with Ancachs on the W. +and San Martin and Loreto on the N. and E. Pop. (1906 +estimate) 108,980; area, 14,028 sq. m. It lies wholly in the +Cordillera region, and is traversed from S. to N. by the Marañon +and Huallaga rivers.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HUARAZ,<a name="ar106" id="ar106"></a></span> a city of northern Peru and capital o£ the department +of Ancachs, on the left bank of the Huaraz, or Santa river, about +190 m. N.N.W. of Lima and 58 m. from the coast. Pop. (1876) +4851, (1906 estimate) 6000. Huaraz is situated in a narrow +fertile valley of the Western Cordillera, at a considerable elevation +above sea-level, and has a mild climate. A railway projected +to connect Huaraz with the port of Chimbote, on the Bay of +Chimbote, a few miles S. of the mouth of the Santa river, was +completed from Chimbote to Suchimán (33 m.) in 1872, when +work was suspended for want of money. In the valley of the +Huaraz cattle are raised, and wheat, sugar and fruit, gold, silver, +copper and coal are produced. Alfalfa is grown by stock-raisers, +and the cattle raised here are among the best in the Peruvian +market. In the vicinity of Huaraz are megalithic ruins similar +to those of Tiahunaco and Cuzco, showing that the aboriginal +empire preceding the Incas extended into northern Peru.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HUARTE DE SAN JUAN,<a name="ar107" id="ar107"></a></span> or <span class="sc">Huarte Y Navarro, Juan</span> +(<i>c.</i> 1530-1592), Spanish physician and psychologist, was born at +Saint-Jean-Pied-de-Port (Lower Navarre) about 1530, was +educated at the university of Huesca, where he graduated in +medicine, and, though it appears doubtful whether he practised +as a physician at Huesca, distinguished himself by his professional +skill and heroic zeal during the plague which devastated Baeza +in 1566. He died in 1592. His <i>Examen de ingenios para las +ciencias</i> (1575) won him a European reputation, and was translated +by Lessing. Though now superseded, Huarte’s treatise is +historically interesting as the first attempt to show the connexion +between psychology and physiology, and its acute +ingenuity is as remarkable as the boldness of its views.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HUASTECS,<a name="ar108" id="ar108"></a></span> a tribe of North American Indians of Mayan +stock, living to the north of Vera Cruz. They are of interest to the +ethnologist as being so entirely detached from the other Mayan +tribes of Central America. The theory is that the Mayas came +from the north and that the Huastecs were left behind in the +migration southward.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HUBER, FRANÇOIS<a name="ar109" id="ar109"></a></span> (1750-1831), Swiss naturalist, was born +at Geneva on the 2nd of July 1750. He belonged to a family +which had already made its mark in the literary and scientific +world: his great-aunt, Marie Huber (1695-1753), was known as +a voluminous writer on religious and theological subjects, and +as the translator and epitomizer of the <i>Spectator</i> (Amsterdam, +3 vols., 1753); and his father Jean Huber (1721-1786), who had +served for many years as a soldier, was a prominent member of +the coterie at Ferney, distinguishing himself by his <i>Observations +sur le vol des oiseaux</i> (Geneva, 1784). François Huber was only +fifteen years old when he began to suffer from an affection of the +eyes which gradually resulted in total blindness; but, with the +aid of his wife, Marie Aimée Lullin, and of his servant, François +Burnens, he was able to carry out investigations that laid the +foundations of our scientific knowledge of the life history of the +honey-bee. His <i>Nouvelles Observations sur les abeilles</i> was published +at Geneva in 1792 (Eng. trans., 1806). He assisted Jean +Senebier in his <i>Mém. sur l’influence de l’air, &c., dans la germination</i> +(Geneva, 1800); and he also wrote “Mém. sur l’origine de la +cire” (<i>Bibliothèque britannique</i>, tome xxv.), a “Lettre à M. +Pictet sur certains dangers que courent les abeilles” (<i>Bib. +brit</i>. xxvii), and “Nouvelles Observ. rel. au sphinx Atropos” +(<i>Bib. brit</i>. xxvii). He died at Lausanne on the 22nd of December +1831. De Candolle gave his name to a genus of Brazilian trees—<i>Huberia +laurina</i>.</p> + +<p><span class="sc">Pierre Huber</span> (1777-1840) followed in his father’s footsteps. +His best-known work is <i>Recherches sur les mœurs des fourmis +indigènes</i> (Geneva and Paris, 1810; new ed., Geneva, 1861), and +he also wrote various papers on entomological subjects.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See the account of François Huber, by De Candolle, in <i>Bibl. +universelle</i> (1832); and the notice of Pierre in <i>Bibl. univ.</i> (1886); +also Haag, <i>La France protestante</i>.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HUBER, JOHANN NEPOMUK<a name="ar110" id="ar110"></a></span> (1830-1879), German philosophical +and theological writer, a leader of the Old Catholics, +was born at Munich on the 18th of August 1830. Originally +destined for the priesthood, he early began the study of theology. +By the writings of Spinoza and Oken, however, he was strongly +drawn to philosophical pursuits, and it was in philosophy that +he “habilitated” (1854) in the university of his native place, +where he ultimately became professor (extraordinarius, 1859; +ordinarius, 1864). With Döllinger and others he attracted a +large amount of public attention in 1869 by the challenge to the +Ultramontane promoters of the Vatican council in the treatise +<i>Der Papst und das Koncil</i>, which appeared under the pseudonym +of “Janus,” and also in 1870 by a series of letters (<i>Römische +Briefe</i>, a redaction of secret reports sent from Rome during the +sitting of the council), which were published over the pseudonym +Quirinus in the <i>Allgemeine Zeitung</i>. He died suddenly of heart +disease at Munich on the 20th of March 1879.</p> + +<p><span class="sc">Works</span>.—The treatise <i>Über die Willensfreiheit</i> (1858), followed in +1859 by <i>Die Philosophie der Kirchenväter</i>, which was promptly +placed upon the <i>Index</i>, and led to the prohibition of all Catholic +students from attending his lectures; <i>Johannes Scotus Erigena</i> +(1861); <i>Die Idee der Unsterblichkeit</i> (1864); <i>Studien</i> (1867); <i>Der +Proletarier; zur Orientirung in der sozialen Frage</i> (1865); <i>Der +Jesuitenorden nach seiner Verfassung und Doctrin, Wirksamkeit und +Geschichte</i> (1873), also placed upon the <i>Index</i>; <i>Der Pessimismus</i> +(1876); <i>Die Forschung nach der Materie</i> (1877); <i>Zur Philosophie +der Astronomie</i> (1878); <i>Das Gedächtnis</i> (1878). He also published +adverse criticisms of Darwin, Strauss, Hartmann and Häckel; +pamphlets on <i>Das Papsttum und der Staat</i> (1870), and on <i>Die Freiheiten +der französischen Kirche</i> (1871); and a volume of <i>Kleine +Schriften</i> (1871).</p> + +<p>See E. Zirngiebl, <i>Johannes Huber</i> (1881); and M. Carrière in +<i>Allgemeine deutsche Biographie</i>, xiii. (1881), and in <i>Nord und Süd</i> +(1879).</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HUBER, LUDWIG FERDINAND<a name="ar111" id="ar111"></a></span> (1764-1804), German author, +was born in Paris on the 14th of September 1764, the son of +Michael Huber (1727-1804), who did much to promote the +study of German literature in France. In his infancy young +Huber removed with his parents to Leipzig, where he was +carefully instructed in modern languages and literature, and +showed a particular inclination for those of France and England. +In Leipzig he became intimate with Christian Gottfried Körner, +father of the poet; in Dresden Huber became engaged to Dora +Stock, sister of Körner’s betrothed, and associated with Schiller, +who was one of Körner’s stanchest friends. In 1787 he was +appointed secretary to the Saxon legation in Mainz, where he +remained until the French occupation of 1792. While here he +interested himself for the welfare of the family of his friend +Georg Forster, who, favouring republican views, had gone to +Paris, leaving his wife Therese Forster (1764-1829) and family +in destitute circumstances. Huber, enamoured of the talented +young wife, gave up his diplomatic post, broke off his engagement +to Dora Stock, removed with the Forster family to Switzerland, +and on the death of her husband in 1794 married Therese Forster. +In 1798 Huber took over the editorship of the <i>Allgemeine Zeitung</i> +in Stuttgart. The newspaper having been prohibited in Württemberg, +Huber continued its editorship in Ulm in 1803. He was +created “counsellor of education” for the new Bavarian province +of Swabia in the following year, but had hardly entered upon +the functions of his new office when he died on the 24th of +December 1804.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page846" id="page846"></a>846</span></p> + +<p>Huber was well versed in English literature, and in 1785 he +published the drama <i>Ethelwolf</i>, with notes on Beaumont and +Fletcher and the old English stage. He also wrote many dramas, +comedies and tragedies, most of which are now forgotten, and +among them only <i>Das heimliche Gericht</i> (1790, new ed. 1795) +enjoyed any degree of popularity. As a critic he is seen to +advantage in the <i>Vermischte Schriften von dem Verfasser des +heimlichen Gerichts</i> (2 vols., 1793). As a publicist he made his +name in the historical-political periodicals <i>Friedenspräliminarien</i> +(1794-1796, 10 vols.) and <i>Klio</i> (1795-1798, 1819).</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>His collected works, <i>Sämtliche Werke seit dem Jahre 1802</i> (4 vols., +1807-1819), were published with a biography by his wife Therese +Huber. See L. Speidel and H. Wittmann, <i>Bilder aus der Schiller-Zeit</i> +(1884).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HUBERT<a name="ar112" id="ar112"></a></span> (<span class="sc">Hucbertus</span>, <span class="sc">Hugbertus</span>), <b>ST</b> (d. 727), bishop of +Liége, whose festival is celebrated on the 3rd of November. +The Bollandists have published seven different lives of the +saint. The first is the only one of any value, and is the work +of a contemporary. Unfortunately, it is very sparing of details. +In it we see that Hubert in 708 succeeded Lambert in the see +of Maestricht (Tongres), and that he erected a basilica to his +memory. In 825 Hubert’s remains were removed to a Benedictine +cloister in the Ardennes, which thenceforth bore his +name (St Hubert, province of Luxemburg, Belgium), and ultimately +became a considerable resort of pilgrims. The later +legends (<i>Bibliotheca hagiographica latina</i>, nos. 3994-4002) are +devoid of authority. One of them relates, probably following +the legend of St Eustace, the miracle of the conversion of St +Hubert. This conversion, represented as having been brought +about while he was hunting on Good Friday by a miraculous +appearance of a stag bearing between his horns a cross or crucifix +surrounded with rays of light, has frequently been made the +subject of artistic treatment. He is the patron of hunters, and +is also invoked in cases of hydrophobia. Several orders of +knighthood have been under his protection; among these may +be mentioned the Bavarian, the Bohemian and that of the +electorate of Cologne.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See <i>Acta Sanctorum</i>, Novembris, i. 759-930; G. Kurth, <i>Chartes +de l’abbaye de St Hubert en Ardenne</i> (Brussels, 1903); Anna Jameson, +<i>Sacred and Legendary Art</i>, i. 732-737 (London, 1896); Cahier, +<i>Caractéristiques des saints</i>, pp. 183, 775, &c. (Paris, 1867).</p> +</div><div class="author">(H. De.)</div> + + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HUBERTUSBURG,<a name="ar113" id="ar113"></a></span> a château in the kingdom of Saxony, +near the village of Wermsdorf and midway 6 m. between the +towns Oschatz and Grimma. It was built in 1721-1724 by +Frederick Augustus II., elector of Saxony, subsequently King +Augustus III. of Poland, as a hunting box, and was often the +scene of brilliant festivities. It is famous for the peace signed +here on the 15th of February 1763, which ended the Seven Years’ +War. After undergoing various vicissitudes, it now serves the +purpose of a lunatic asylum and a training school for nursing +sisters.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See Riemer, <i>Das Schloss Hubertusburg, sonst und jetzt</i> (Oschatz, +1881).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HUBLI,<a name="ar114" id="ar114"></a></span> a town of British India, in the Dharwar district of +Bombay, 15 m. S.E. of Dharwar town. Pop. (1901) 60,214. +It is a railway junction on the Southern Mahratta system, +where the lines to Bangalore and Bezwada branch off south and +west. It is an important centre of trade and of cotton and silk +weaving, and has two cotton mills and several factories for +ginning and pressing cotton. Hubli was in early times the seat +of an English factory, which, with the rest of the town, was +plundered in 1673 by Sivaji, the Mahratta leader.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HÜBNER, EMIL<a name="ar115" id="ar115"></a></span> (1834-1901), German classical scholar, son +of the historical painter Julius Hübner (1806-1882), was born at +Düsseldorf on the 7th of July 1834. After studying at Berlin +and Bonn, he travelled extensively with a view to antiquarian +and epigraphical researches. The results of these travels were +embodied in several important works: <i>Inscriptiones Hispaniae +Latinae</i> (1869, supplement 1892), <i>I. H. Christianae</i> (1871, supplement +1900); <i>Inscriptiones Britanniae Latinae</i> (1873), <i>I. B. +Christianae</i> (1876); <i>La Arqueologia de España</i> (1888); <i>Monumenta +linguae Hibericae</i> (1893). Hübner was also the author +of two books of the greatest utility to the classical student: +<i>Grundriss zu Vorlesungen über die römische Literaturgeschichte</i> +(4th ed. 1878, edited, with large additions, by J. E. B. Mayor as +<i>Bibliographical Clue to Latin Literature</i>, 1875), and <i>Bibliographie +der classischen Altertumswissenschaft</i> (2nd ed., 1889); mention +may also be made of <i>Römische Epigraphik</i> (2nd ed., 1892); +<i>Exempla Scripturae Epigraphicae Latinae</i> (1885); and <i>Römische +Herrschaft in Westeuropa</i> (1890). In 1870 Hübner was appointed +professor of Classical Philology in the university of Berlin, +where he died on the 21st of February 1901.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HÜBNER, JOSEPH ALEXANDER,<a name="ar116" id="ar116"></a></span> <span class="sc">Count</span> (1811-1892), +Austrian diplomatist, was born in Vienna on the 26th of +November 1811. His real name was Hafenbredl, which he afterwards +changed to Hübner. He began his public career in 1833 +under Metternich, whose confidence he soon gained, and who +sent him in 1837 as attaché to Paris. In 1841 he became secretary +of embassy at Lisbon, and in 1844 Austrian consul-general at +Leipzig. In 1848 he was sent to Milan to conduct the diplomatic +correspondence of Archduke Rainer, viceroy of Lombardy. +On the outbreak of the revolution he was seized as a hostage, +and remained a prisoner for some months. Returning to Austria, +he was entrusted with the compilation of the documents and proclamations +relating to the abdication of the Emperor Ferdinand +and the accession of Francis Joseph. His journal, an invaluable +clue to the complicated intrigues of this period, was published +in 1891 in French and German, under the title of <i>Une Année +de ma vie, 1848-1849</i>. In March 1849 he was sent on a special +mission to Paris, and later in the same year was appointed +ambassador to France. To his influence was in large measure +due the friendly attitude of Austria to the Allies in the Crimean +War, at the close of which he represented Austria at the congress +of Paris in 1856. He allowed himself, however, to be taken by +surprise by Napoleon’s intervention on behalf of Italian unity, +of which the first public intimation was given by the French +emperor’s cold reception of Hübner on New Year’s Day, 1859, +with the famous words: “I regret that our relations with your +Government are not so good as they have hitherto been.” He +did not return to Paris after the war, and after holding the +ministry of police in the Goluchowski cabinet from August to +October 1859, lived in retirement till 1865, when he became +ambassador at Rome. Quitting this post in 1867, he undertook +extensive travels, his descriptions of which appeared as <i>Promenade +autour du monde, 1871</i> (1873; English translation by Lady +Herbert, 1874) and <i>Through the British Empire</i> (1886). Written +in a bright and entertaining style, and characterized by shrewd +observation, they achieved considerable popularity in their +time. A more serious effort was his <i>Sixte-Quint</i> (1870, translated +into English by H. E. H. Jerningham under the title of +<i>The Life and Times of Sixtus the Fifth</i>, 1872), an original contribution +to the history of the period, based on unpublished documents +at the Vatican, Simancas and Venice. In 1879 he was made +a life-member of the Austrian Upper House, where he sat as a +Clerical and Conservative. He had received the rank of Baron +(Freiherr) in 1854, and in 1888 was raised to the higher rank of +Count (Graf). He died at Vienna on the 30th of July 1892. +Though himself of middle-class origin, he was a profound admirer +of the old aristocratic régime, and found his political ideals in +his former chiefs, Metternich and Schwarzenberg. As the last +survivor of the Metternich school, he became towards the close +of his life more and more out of touch with the trend of modern +politics, but remained a conspicuous figure in the Upper House +and at the annual delegations. That he possessed the breadth +of mind to appreciate the working of a system at total variance +with his own school of thought was shown by his grasp of British +colonial questions. It is interesting, in view of subsequent +events, to note his emphatic belief in the loyalty of the British +colonies—a belief not shared at that time by many statesmen +with far greater experience of democratic institutions.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See Sir Ernest Satow, <i>An Austrian Diplomatist in the Fifties</i> (1908).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HUC, ÉVARISTE RÉGIS<a name="ar117" id="ar117"></a></span> (1813-1860), French missionary-traveller, +was born at Toulouse, on the 1st of August 1813. In +his twenty-fourth year he entered the congregation of the +Lazarists at Paris, and shortly after receiving holy orders in +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page847" id="page847"></a>847</span> +1839 went out to China. At Macao he spent some eighteen +months in the Lazarist seminary, preparing himself for the +regular work of a missionary. Having acquired some command +of the Chinese tongue, and modified his personal appearance +and dress in accordance with Chinese taste, he started from +Canton. He at first superintended a Christian mission in the +southern provinces, and then passing to Peking, where he perfected +his knowledge of the language, eventually settled in the +Valley of Black Waters or He Shuy, a little to the north of the +capital, and just within the borders of Mongolia. There, beyond +the Great Wall, a large but scattered population of native +Christians had found a refuge from the persecutions of Kia-King, +to be united half a century later in a vast but vague +apostolic vicariate. The assiduity with which Huc devoted +himself to the study of the dialects and customs of the Tatars, +for whom at the cost of much labour he translated various +religious works, was an admirable preparation for undertaking +in 1844, at the instigation of the vicar apostolic of Mongolia, +an expedition whose object was to dissipate the obscurity which +hung over the country and habits of the Tibetans. September +of that year found the missionary at Dolon Nor occupied with +the final arrangements for his journey, and shortly afterwards, +accompanied by his fellow-Lazarist, Joseph Gabet, and a young +Tibetan priest who had embraced Christianity, he set out. To +escape attention the little party assumed the dress of lamas +or priests. Crossing the Hwang-ho, they advanced into the +terrible sandy tract known as the Ordos Desert. After suffering +dreadfully from want of water and fuel they entered Kansu, +having recrossed the flooded Hwang-ho, but it was not till +January 1845 that they reached Tang-Kiul on the boundary. +Rather than encounter alone the horrors of a four months’ +journey to Lhasa they resolved to wait for eight months till +the arrival of a Tibetan embassy on its return from Peking. +Under an intelligent teacher they meanwhile studied the Tibetan +language and Buddhist literature, and during three months +of their stay they resided in the famous Kunbum Lamasery, +which was reported to accommodate 4000 persons. Towards +the end of September they joined the returning embassy, which +comprised 2000 men and 3700 animals. Crossing the deserts +of Koko Nor, they passed the great lake of that name, with its +island of contemplative lamas, and, following a difficult and +tortuous track across snow-covered mountains, they at last +entered Lhasa on the 29th of January 1846. Favourably received +by the regent, they opened a little chapel, and were in a fair way +to establish an important mission, when the Chinese ambassador +interfered and had the two missionaries conveyed back to Canton, +where they arrived in October of the same year. For nearly +three years Huc remained at Canton, but Gabet, returning to +Europe, proceeded thence to Rio de Janeiro, and died there +shortly afterwards. Huc returned to Europe in shattered +health in 1852, visiting India, Egypt and Palestine on his way, +and, after a prolonged residence in Paris, died on the 31st of +March 1860.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>His writings comprise, besides numerous letters and memoirs +in the <i>Annales de la propagation de la foi</i>, the famous <i>Souvenirs d’un +voyage dans la Tartarie, le Thibet, et la Chine pendant les années +1844-1846</i> (2 vols., Paris, 1850; Eng. trans. by W. Hazlitt, 1851, +abbreviated by M. Jones, London, 1867); its supplement, crowned +by the Academy, entitled <i>L’Empire chinois</i> (2 vols., Paris, 1854; +Eng. trans., London, 1859); and an elaborate historical work, <i>Le +Christianisme en Chine, &c.</i> (4 vols., Paris, 1857-1858; Eng. trans., +London, 1857-1858). These works are written in a lucid, racy, +picturesque style, which secured for them an unusual degree of +popularity. The <i>Souvenirs</i> is a narrative of a remarkable feat of +travel, and contains passages of so singular a character as in the +absence of corroborative testimony to stir up a feeling of incredulity. +That Huc was suspected unjustly was amply proved by later research. +But he was by no means a practical geographer, and +the record of his travels loses greatly in value from the want of +precise scientific data.</p> + +<p>See, for information specially relating to the whole subject, the +Abbé Desgodin’s <i>Mission du Thibet de 1855 à 1870</i> (Verdun, 1872); +and “Account of the Pundit’s Journey in Great Tibet,” in the +<i>Royal Geographical Society’s Journal</i> for 1877.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HUCBALD<a name="ar118" id="ar118"></a></span> (<span class="sc">Hugbaldus, Hubaldus</span>), Benedictine monk, and +writer on music, was born at the monastery of Saint Amand +near Tournai, in or about 840, if we may believe the statement of +his biographers to the effect that he died in 930, aged 90. He +studied at the monastery, where his uncle Milo occupied an +important position. Hucbald made rapid progress in the +acquirement of various sciences and arts, including that of music, +and at an early age composed a hymn in honour of St Andrew, +which met with such success as to excite the jealousy of his uncle. +It is said that Hucbald in consequence was compelled to leave +St Amand, and started an independent school of music and other +arts at Nevers. In 860, however, he was at St Germain d’Auxerre, +bent upon completing his studies, and in 872 he was back again +at St Amand as the successor in the headmastership of the +convent school of his uncle, to whom he had been reconciled in +the meantime. Between 883 and 900 Hucbald went on several +missions of reforming and reconstructing various schools of +music, including that of Rheims, but in the latter year he returned +to St Amand, where he remained to the day of his death +on the 25th of June 930, or, according to other chroniclers, +on the 20th of June 932. The only work which can positively +be ascribed to him is his <i>Harmonica Institutio</i>. The <i>Musica +Enchiriadis</i>, published with other writings of minor importance +in Gerbert’s <i>Scriptores de Musica</i>, and containing a complete +system of musical science as well as instructions regarding +notation, has now been proved to have originated about half a +century later than the death of the monk Hucbald, and to have +been the work of an unknown writer belonging to the close of the +10th century and possibly also bearing the name of Hucbald. +This work is celebrated chiefly for an essay on a new form +of notation described in the present day as <i>Dasia Notation</i>. +The author of the <i>Harmonica Institutio</i> wrote numerous lives +of the saints and a curious poem on bald men, dedicated to +Charles the Bald.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p><span class="sc">Authorities.</span>—Sir John Hawkins, <i>General History of the Science +and Practice of Music</i> (i. 153); <i>Histoire littéraire de la France</i> (vi. 216 +et seq.); Coussemaker, <i>Mémoire sur Hucbald</i> (Paris, 1841); Hans +Müller, <i>Hucbald’s echte und unechte Schriften über Musik</i> (Leipzig, +1884); Spitta, <i>Die Musica Enchiriadis und seine Zeitalter</i> (<i>Vierteljahresschrift +für Musikwissenschaft</i>, 1889, 5th year).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HU-CHOW-FU,<a name="ar119" id="ar119"></a></span> a city of China, in the province of Cheh-Kiang +(30° 48′ N., 120° 3′ E.), a little S. of Tai-hu Lake, in the +midst of the central silk district. According to Chinese authorities +it is 6 m. in circumference, and contains about 100,000 families. +A broad stream or canal crosses the city from south to north, +and forms the principal highway for boat traffic. The main +trade of the place is in raw silk, but some silk fabrics, such as +flowered crape (<i>chousha</i>), are also manufactured. Silk is largely +worn even by the lowest classes of the inhabitants.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HUCHOWN,<a name="ar120" id="ar120"></a></span> “of the Awle Ryale” (fl. 14th century), Scottish +poet, is referred to by Wyntoun in his <i>Chronicle</i> in these words:—</p> + +<table class="reg f90" summary="poem"><tr><td> <div class="poemr"> + <p class="i8">“Hucheon,</p> +<p>þat cunnande was in littratur.</p> +<p>He made a gret Gest of Arthure,</p> +<p>And þe Awntyr of Gawane,</p> +<p>Þe Pistil als of Suet Susane.</p> +<p>He was curyousse in his stille,</p> +<p>Fayr of facunde and subtile,</p> +<p>And ay to pleyssance hade delyte,</p> +<p>Mad in metyr meit his dyte</p> +<p>Litil or noucht neuir þe lesse</p> +<p>Wauerande fra þe suythfastnes.”</p> + <p class="i3">(Cott. MS. bk. v. II, 4308-4318).</p> +</div> </td></tr></table> + +<p>Much critical ingenuity has been spent in endeavouring to +identify (<i>a</i>) the poet and (<i>b</i>) the works named in the foregoing +passage. It has been assumed that “Huchown,” or “Hucheon,” +represents the “gude Sir Hew of Eglyntoun” named by Dunbar +(<i>q.v.</i>) in his <i>Lament for the Makaris</i> (i. 53). The only known +Sir Hugh of Eglintoun of the century is frequently mentioned +in the public records from the middle of the century onwards, +as an auditor of accounts and as witness to several charters. +By 1360 he had married Dame Egidia, widow of Sir James +Lindsay and half-sister of Robert the Steward. His public +office and association with the Steward sorts well with the +designation “of the Awle Ryale,” if that be interpreted as +“Aula Regalis” or “Royal Palace.” He appears to have died +late in 1376 or early in 1377.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page848" id="page848"></a>848</span></p> + +<p>The first of the poems named above, the <i>Gest of Arthure</i> or +<i>Gest Historyalle</i> (<i>ib.</i> i. 4288), has been identified by Dr Trautmann, +“Anglia,” <i>Der Dichter Huchown</i> (1877), with the alliterative +<i>Morte Arthure</i> in the Thornton MS. at Lincoln, printed by the +E.E.T.S. (ed. Brock, 1865). The problem of the second (<i>The +Awntyr of Gawane</i>) is still in dispute. There are difficulties in +the way of accepting the conjecture that the poem is the “Awntyres +of Arthure at the Tern Wathelyne” (see S.T.S., <i>Scottish +Alliterative Poems</i>, 1897, and Introduction, pp. 11 et seq.), and +little direct evidence in favour of the view that the reference is +to the greatest of middle English romances, <i>Sir Gawain and +the Grene Knight</i>. The third may be safely accepted as the +well-known <i>Pistil</i> [Epistle] <i>of Swete Susan</i>, printed by Laing +(<i>Select Remains</i>, 1822) and by the S.T.S. (<i>Scottish Alliterative +Poems, u.s.</i>).</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See, in addition to the works named, above, G. Neilson’s <i>Sir Hew +of Eglintoun and Huchown of the Awle Ryale</i> (Glasgow, 1901), which +contains a full record of references to the historical Sir Hew of +Eglintoun; <i>Huchown of the Awle Ryale, the Alliterative Poet</i> +(Glasgow, 1902) by the same; J. T. T. Brown’s <i>Huchown of the +Awle Ryale and his Poems</i> (Glasgow, 1902), in answer to the foregoing. +See also the correspondence in the <i>Athenaeum</i>, 1900-1901, +and the review of Mr Neilson’s pamphlets, <i>ib.</i> (Nov. 22, 1902); and +J. H. Millar’s <i>Literary History of Scotland</i> (1903), pp. 8-14.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HUCHTENBURG,<a name="ar121" id="ar121"></a></span> the name of two brothers who were Dutch +painters in the second half of the 17th century. Both were natives +of Haarlem. Jacob, the elder, of whom very little is known, +studied under Berghem, and went early to Italy, where he +died young about 1667. His pictures are probably confounded +with those of his brother. In Copenhagen, where alone they are +catalogued, they illustrate the style of a Dutchman who transfers +Berghem’s cattle and flocks to Italian landscapes and marketplaces.</p> + +<p>John van Huchtenburg (1646-1733), born at Haarlem it is +said in 1646, was first taught by Thomas Wyk, and afterwards +induced to visit the chief cities of Italy, where, penetrating as +far as Rome, he met and dwelt with his brother Jacob. After +the death of the latter he wandered homewards, taking Paris on +his way, and served under Van der Meulen, then employed in +illustrating for Louis XIV. the campaign of 1667-1668 in the +Low Countries. In 1670 he settled at Haarlem, where he married, +practised and kept a dealer’s shop. His style had now merged +into an imitation of Philip Wouvermans and Van der Meulen, +which could not fail to produce pretty pictures of hunts and +robber camps, the faculty of painting horses and men in action +and varied dress being the chief point of attraction. Later +Huchtenburg ventured on cavalry skirmishes and engagements +of regular troops generally, and these were admired by Prince +Eugene and William III., who gave the painter sittings, and +commissioned him to throw upon canvas the chief incidents of +the battles they fought upon the continent of Europe. When +he died at Amsterdam in 1733, Huchtenburg had done much by +his pictures and prints to make Prince Eugene, King William +and Marlborough popular. Though clever in depicting a <i>mêlée</i> +or a skirmish of dragoons, he remained second to Philip Wouvermans +in accuracy of drawing, and inferior to Van der Meulen in +the production of landscapes. But, nevertheless, he was a clever +and spirited master, with great facility of hand and considerable +natural powers of observation.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>The earliest date on his pictures is 1674, when he executed the +“Stag-Hunt” in the Museum of Berlin, and the “Fight with Robbers” +in the Lichtenstein collection at Vienna. A “Skirmish at Fleurus” +(1690) in the Brussels gallery seems but the precursor of larger and +more powerful works, such as the “Siege of Namur” (1695) in the +Belvedere at Vienna, where William III. is seen in the foreground +accompanied by Max Emmanuel, the Bavarian elector. Three +years before, Huchtenburg had had sittings from Prince Eugene +(Hague museum) and William III. (Amsterdam Trippenhuis). +After 1696 he regularly served as court painter to Prince Eugene, +and we have at Turin (gallery) a series of eleven canvases all of the +same size depicting the various battles of the great hero, commencing +with the fight of Zentha against the Turks in 1697, and concluding +with the capture of Belgrade in 1717. Had the duke of +Marlborough been fond of art he would doubtless have possessed +many works of our artist. All that remains at Blenheim, however, +is a couple of sketches of battles, which were probably sent to +Churchill by his great contemporary. The pictures of Huchtenburg +are not very numerous now in public galleries. There is one in the +National Gallery, London, another at the Louvre. But Copenhagen +has four, Dresden six, Gotha two, and Munich has the well-known +composition of “Tallart taken Prisoner at Blenheim in 1704.”</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<table class="flt" style="float: right; width: 260px;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:210px; height:100px" src="images/img848.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption1"></td></tr></table> + +<p><span class="bold">HUCKABACK,<a name="ar122" id="ar122"></a></span><a name="fa1h" id="fa1h" href="#ft1h"><span class="sp">1</span></a> the name given to a type of cloth used for +towels. For this purpose it has perhaps been more extensively +used in the linen trade than any other weave. One of the chief +merits of a towel is its capacity for absorbing moisture; plain +and other flat-surfaced cloths do not perform this function +satisfactorily, but cloths made with huckaback, as well as +those made with the honeycomb and similar weaves, are particularly +well adapted for this purpose. +The body or foundation of the cloth +is plain and therefore sound in structure +(see designs A and B in figure), +but at fixed intervals some of the +warp threads float on the surface of +the cloth, while at the same time a number of weft threads +float on the back. Thus the cloth has a somewhat similar +appearance on both sides. Weave A is the ordinary and most +used huck or huckaback, while weave B, which is usually +woven with double weft, is termed the Devon or medical huck. +The cloths made by the use of these weaves were originally all +linen, but are too often adulterated with inferior fibres.</p> + +<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note"> + +<p><a name="ft1h" id="ft1h" href="#fa1h"><span class="fn">1</span></a> Skeat, <i>Etym. Dict.</i> (1898), says, “The word bears so remarkable +resemblance to Low Ger. <i>hukkebak</i>, Ger. <i>huckeback</i>, pick-a-back, that +it seems reasonable to suppose that it at first meant ‘peddler’s +ware.’” The <i>New English Dictionary</i> does not consider that the +connexion can at present be assumed.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" style="clear: both;" /> +<p><span class="bold">HUCKLEBERRY,<a name="ar123" id="ar123"></a></span> in botany, the popular name in the north-eastern +United States of the genus <i>Gaylussacia</i>, small branching +shrubs resembling in habit the English bilberry (<i>Vaccinium</i>), +to which it is closely allied, and bearing a similar fruit. The +common huckleberry of the northern states is <i>G. resinosa</i>; +while <i>G. brachycera</i> and <i>G. dumosa</i> are known respectively as +box and dwarf huckleberry. The name <i>Gaylussacia</i> commemorates +the famous French chemist Gay-Lussac.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HUCKNALL TORKARD,<a name="ar124" id="ar124"></a></span> a town in the Rushcliffe parliamentary +division of Nottinghamshire, England; 132 m. N.N.W. +from London by the Great Central railway, served also by the +Great Northern and Midland railways. Pop. (1901) 15,250. +The church of St Mary Magdalene contains the tomb of Lord +Byron. There are extensive collieries in the vicinity, and the +town has tobacco and hosiery works. Small traces are found +of Beauvale Abbey, a Carthusian foundation of the 14th century, +in the hilly, wooded district W. of Hucknall; and 3 m. N. is +Newstead Abbey, in a beautiful situation on the border of +Sherwood Forest. This Augustinian foundation owed its +origin to Henry II. It came into the hands of the Byron family +in 1540, and the poet Byron resided in it at various times until +1818. There remain the Early English west front of the church, +a Perpendicular cloister and the chapter-house; while in the +mansion, wholly restored since Byron’s time, and in the demesne, +many relics of the poet are preserved. To the S. of Hucknall are +traces of Gresley Castle, of the 14th century.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HUCKSTER,<a name="ar125" id="ar125"></a></span> a dealer or retailer of goods in a small way. +The word, in various forms, is common to many Teutonic +languages. In Early English it is found as <i>howkester</i>, <i>hokester</i>, +<i>huxter</i>; in early modern Dutch as <i>heuker</i>, and Medieval Low +German as <i>hoker</i>; but the ultimate origin is unknown. Huckster +apparently belongs to that series of words formed from a verb,—as +brew, brewer; but the noun “huckster” is found in use +before the verb to huck. Hawker and pedlar are nearly synonymous +in meaning, but “huckster” may include a person in a small +way of trade in a settled habitation, while a hawker or pedlar +invariably travels from place to place offering his wares. In +a contemptuous sense, huckster is used of any one who barters, +or makes gain or profit in underhand or mean ways, or who +over-reaches another, to get advantage for himself.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HUDDERSFIELD,<a name="ar126" id="ar126"></a></span> a municipal, county and parliamentary +borough in the West Riding of Yorkshire, England, 190 m. +N.N.W. from London. Pop. (1901) 95,047. It is served +by the Lancashire & Yorkshire and London & North Western +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page849" id="page849"></a>849</span> +railways, and has connexion with all the important railway +systems of the West Riding, and with the extensive canal +system of Lancashire and Yorkshire. It is well situated on a +slope above the river Colne, a tributary of the Calder. It is +built principally of stone, and contains several handsome streets +with numerous great warehouses and business premises, many +of which are of high architectural merit. Of the numerous +churches and chapels all are modern, and some of considerable +beauty. The parish church of St Peter, however, though rebuilt +in 1837, occupies a site which is believed to have carried a church +since the 11th century. The town hall (1880) and the corporation +offices (1877) are handsome classic buildings; the Ramsden +Estate buildings are a very fine block of the mixed Italian +order. The market hall (1880) surmounted by a clock-tower +is in geometrical Decorated style. The cloth-hall dates from +1784, when it was erected as a clothiers’ emporium. It is no +longer used for any such purpose, but serves as an exchange +news-room. The Armoury, erected as a riding-school, was the +headquarters of a volunteer corps, and is also used for concerts +and public meetings. The chief educational establishments +are the Huddersfield College (1838), a higher-grade school, +the technical school and several grammar-schools, of which +Longwood school was founded in 1731. The Literary and +Scientific Society possesses a museum. Of the numerous +charitable institutions, the Infirmary, erected in 1831, is housed +in a building of the Doric order. The chief open spaces are +Greenhead and Beaumont parks, the last named presented to +the town by Mr H. F. Beaumont in 1880. There is a sulphurous +spa in the district of Lockwood.</p> + +<p>Huddersfield is the principal seat of the fancy woollen trade +in England, and fancy goods in silk and cotton are also produced +in great variety. Plain cloth and worsteds are also manufactured. +There are silk and cotton spinning-mills, iron foundries and +engineering works. Coal is abundant in the vicinity. The +parliamentary borough returns one member. The county +borough was created in 1888. The municipal borough is under +a mayor, 15 aldermen and 45 councillors. Area, 11,859 acres.</p> + +<p>Huddersfield (<i>Oderesfelte</i>) only rose to importance after the +introduction of the woollen trade in the 17th century. After +the Conquest William I. granted the manor to Ilbert de Laci, +of whom the Saxon tenant Godwin was holding as underlord at +the time of the Domesday Survey. In Saxon times it had been +worth l00s., but after being laid waste by the Normans was +still of no value in 1086. From the Lacys the manor passed to +Thomas Plantagenet, duke of Lancaster, through his marriage +with Alice de Lacy, and so came to the crown on the accession +of Henry IV. In 1599 Queen Elizabeth sold it to William +Ramsden, whose descendants still own it. Charles II. in 1670 +granted to John Ramsden a market in Huddersfield every +Wednesday with the toll and other profits belonging. By the +beginning of the 18th century Huddersfield had become a +“considerable town,” chiefly owing to the manufacture of +woollen kersies, and towards the end of the same century the +trade was increased by two events—the opening of navigation +on the Calder in 1780, and in 1784 that of the cloth-hall or +piece-hall, built and given to the town by Sir John Ramsden, +baronet. Since 1832 the burgesses have returned members to +parliament. The town possesses no charter before 1868, when +it was created a municipal borough.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HUDSON, GEORGE<a name="ar127" id="ar127"></a></span> (1800-1871), English railway financier, +known as the “railway king,” was born in York in March 1800. +Apprenticed to a firm of linendrapers in that city, he soon +became a successful merchant, and in 1837 was elected lord +mayor of York. Having inherited, in 1827, a sum of £30,000, +he invested it in North Midland Railway shares, and was shortly +afterwards appointed a director. In 1833 he had founded and +for some time acted as manager of the York Banking Company. +He had for long been impressed with the necessity of getting +the railway to York, and he took an active part in securing the +passing of the York and North Midland Bill, and was elected +chairman of the new company—the line being opened in 1839. +From this time he turned his undivided attention to the projection +of railways. In 1841 he initiated the Newcastle and Darlington +line. With George Stephenson he planned and carried out +the extension of the Midland to Newcastle, and by 1844 had +over a thousand miles of railway under his control. In this year +the mania for railway speculation was at its height, and no +man was more courted than the “railway king.” All classes +delighted to honour him, and, as if a colossal fortune were an +insufficient reward for his public services, the richest men in +England presented him with a tribute of £20,000. Deputy-lieutenant +for Durham, and thrice lord mayor of York, he was +returned in the Conservative interest for Sunderland in 1845, +the event being judged of such public interest that the news +was conveyed to London by a special train, which travelled part +of the way at the rate of 75 m. an hour. Full of rewards and +honours, he was suddenly ruined by the disclosure of the Eastern +Railway frauds. Sunderland clung to her generous representative +till 1859, but on the bursting of the bubble he had lost +influence and fortune at a single stroke. His later life was +chiefly spent on the continent, where he benefited little by a +display of unabated energy and enterprise. Some friends gave +him a small annuity a short time before his death, which took +place in London, on the 14th of December 1871. His name +has long been used to point the moral of vaulting ambition and +unstable fortune. The “big swollen gambler,” as Carlyle calls +him in one of the <i>Latter-Day Pamphlets</i>, was savagely and +excessively reprobated by the world which had blindly believed +in his golden prophecies. He certainly ruined scrip-holders, +and disturbed the great centres of industry; but he had an +honest faith in his own schemes, and, while he beggared himself +in their promotion, he succeeded in overcoming the powerful +landed interest which delayed the adoption of railways in +England long after the date of their regular introduction into +America.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HUDSON, HENRY,<a name="ar128" id="ar128"></a></span> English navigator and explorer. Nothing +is known of his personal history excepting such as falls within +the period of the four voyages on which his fame rests. The +first of these voyages in quest of new trade and a short route +to China by way of the North Pole, in accordance with the suggestion +of Robert Thorne (d. 1527), was made for the Muscovy +Company with ten men and a boy in 1607. Hudson first coasted +the east side of Greenland, and being prevented from proceeding +northwards by the great ice barrier which stretches thence to +Spitzbergen sailed along it until he reached “Newland,” as Spitzbergen +was then called, and followed its northern coast to beyond +80° N. lat. On the homeward voyage he accidentally discovered +an island in lat. 71° which he named Hudson’s Touches, and +which has since been identified with Jan Mayen Island. +Molineux’s chart, published by Hakluyt about 1600, was Hudson’s +blind guide in this voyage, and the polar map of 1611 by +Pontanus illustrates well what he attempted, and the valuable +results both negative and positive which he reached. He investigated +the trade prospects at Bear Island, and recommended +his patrons to seek higher game in Newland; hence he may be +called the father of the English whale-fisheries at Spitzbergen.</p> + +<p>Next year Hudson was again sent by the Muscovy Company +to open a passage to China, this time by the north-east route +between Spitzbergen and Novaya Zemlya, which had been +attempted by his predecessors and especially by the Dutch +navigator William Barents. This voyage lasted from the 22nd +of April to the 26th of August 1608. He raked the Barents Sea +in vain between 75° 30′ N.W. and 71° 15′ S.E. for an opening +through the ice, and on the 6th of July, “voide of hope of a +north-east passage (except by the Waygats, for which I was not +fitted to trie or prove),” he resolved to sail to the north-west, and +if time and means permitted to run a hundred leagues up +Lumley’s Inlet (Frobisher Strait) or Davis’s “overfall” (Hudson +Strait). But his voyage being delayed by contrary winds he was +finally compelled to return without accomplishing his wish. The +failure of this second attempt satisfied the Muscovy Company, +which thenceforward directed all its energies to the profitable +Spitzbergen trade.</p> + +<p>Towards the end of 1608 Hudson “had a call” to Amsterdam, +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page850" id="page850"></a>850</span> +where he saw the celebrated cosmographer the Rev. Peter +Plancius and the cartographer Hondius, and after some delay, +due to the rivalry which was exhibited in the attempt to secure +his services, he undertook for the Dutch East India Company +his important third voyage to find a passage to China either by the +north-east or north-west route. With a mixed crew of eighteen +or twenty men he left the Texel in the “Half-Moon” on the 6th +of April, and by the 5th of May was in the Barents Sea, and soon +afterwards among the ice near Novaya Zemlya, where he had +been the year before. Some of his men becoming disheartened +and mutinous (it is now supposed that he had arrived two or +three months too early), he lost hope of effecting anything by +that route, and submitted to his men, as alternative proposals, +either to go to Lumley’s Inlet and follow up Waymouth’s light, or +to make for North Virginia and seek the passage in about 40° lat., +according to the letter and map sent him by his friend Captain +John Smith. The latter plan was adopted, and on the 14th of +May Hudson set his face towards the Chesapeake and China. +He touched at Stromo in the Faroe Islands for water, and on +the 15th of June off Newfoundland the “Half-Moon” “spent +overboard her foremast.” This accident compelled him to put +into the Kennebec river, where a mast was procured, and +some communication and an unnecessary encounter with the +Indians took place. Sailing again on the 26th of July, he began +on the 28th of August the survey where Smith left off, at 37° 36′ +according to his map, and coasted northwards. On the 3rd of +September, in 40° 30′, he entered the fine bay of New York, and +after having gone 150 m. up the river which now bears his name +to near the position of the present Albany, treating with the +Indians, surveying the country, and trying the stream above +tide-water, he became satisfied that this course did not lead to +the South Sea or China, a conclusion in harmony with that of +Champlain, who the same summer had been making his way +south through Lake Champlain and Lake St Sacrement (now +Lake George). The two explorers by opposite routes approached +within 20 leagues of each other. On the 4th of October the +“Half-Moon” weighed for the Texel, and on the 7th of November +arrived at Dartmouth, where she was seized and detained by the +English government, Hudson and the other Englishmen of the +ship being commanded not to leave England, but rather to serve +their own country. The voyage had fallen short of Hudson’s +expectations, but it served many purposes perhaps as important +to the world. Among other results it exploded Hakluyt’s myth, +which from the publication of Lok’s map in 1582 to the 2nd +charter of Virginia in May 1609 he had lost no opportunity of +promulgating, that near 40° lat. there was a narrow isthmus, +formed by the sea of Verrazano, like that of Tehuantepec or +Panama.</p> + +<p>Hudson’s confidence in the existence of a North-West Passage +had not been diminished by his three failures, and a new company +was formed to support him in a fourth attempt, the principal +promoters being Sir Thomas Smith (or Smythe), Sir Dudley +Digges and John (afterwards Sir John) Wolstenholme. He +determined this time to carry out his old plan of searching for a +passage up Davis’s “overfall”—so-called in allusion to the overfall +of the tide which Davis had observed rushing through the +strait. Hudson sailed from London in the little ship “Discovery” +of 55 tons, on the 17th of April 1610, and entered the strait +which now bears his name about the middle of June. Sailing +steadily westward he entered Hudson Bay on the 3rd of August, +and passing southward spent the next three months examining +the eastern shore of the bay. On the 1st of November +the “Discovery” went into winter quarters in the S.W. corner +of James Bay, being frozen in a few days later, and during the +long winter months which were passed there only a scanty +supply of game was secured to eke out the ship’s provisions. +Discontent became rife, and on the ship breaking out of the ice +in the spring Hudson had a violent quarrel with a dissolute +young fellow named Henry Greene, whom he had befriended by +taking him on board, and who now retaliated by inciting the +discontented part of the crew to put Hudson and eight others +(including the sick men) out of the ship. This happened on the +22nd of June 1611. Robert Bylot was elected master and +brought the ship back to England. During the voyage home +Greene and several others were killed in a fight with the Eskimo, +while others again died of starvation, and the feeble remnant +which reached England in September were thrown into prison. +No more tidings were ever received of the deserted men.</p> + +<p>Although it is certain that the four great geographical landmarks +which to-day serve to keep Hudson’s memory alive, +namely the Hudson Bay, Strait, Territory and River, had +repeatedly been visited and even drawn on maps and charts before +he set out on his voyages, yet he deserves to take a very high rank +among northern navigators for the mere extent of his discoveries +and the success with which he pushed them beyond the limits +of his predecessors. The rich fisheries of Spitzbergen and the +fur industry of the Hudson Bay Territory were the immediate +fruit of his labours.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See <i>Henry Hudson, the Navigator</i> (Hakluyt Society, 1860); and +T. A. Janvier, <i>Henry Hudson</i> (1909). In 1909 a great celebration of +the tercentenary was held in the United States.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HUDSON, JOHN<a name="ar129" id="ar129"></a></span> (1662-1719), English classical scholar, was +born at Wythop in Cumberland. He was educated at Oxford, +where the remainder of his life was spent. In 1701 he was +appointed Bodley’s librarian, and in 1711 principal of St Mary’s +Hall. His political views stood in the way of his preferment in +the church and university. He died on the 26th of November +1719. As an editor and commentator he enjoyed a high reputation +both at home and abroad. His works, chiefly editions of +classical authors, include the following: Velleius Paterculus +(1693); Thucydides (1696); <i>Geographiae Veteris Scriptores +Graeci minores</i> (1698-1712) containing the works and fragments +of 21 authors and the learned, though diffuse, dissertations of +H. Dodwell—a rare and valuable work, which in spite of its +faulty text was not superseded until the appearance of C. W. +Müller’s edition in the Didot series: the editio princeps of +Moeris, <i>De Vocibus Atticis et Hellenicis</i> (1712); Josephus (1720, +published posthumously by his friend Anthony Hall, the antiquary), +a correct and beautifully printed edition, with variorum +notes and translation.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See Wood, <i>Athenae Oxonienses</i>, iv.; introduction to the edition of +Josephus; W. Hutchinson, <i>History of Cumberland</i> (1794).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HUDSON,<a name="ar130" id="ar130"></a></span> a city and the county-seat of Columbia county, +New York, U.S.A., on the E. side of the Hudson river, about +114 m. N. of New York City and about 28 m. S. of Albany. +Pop. (1890) 9970; (1900) 9528, of whom 1155 were foreign-born; +(1910 census) 11,417. It is served by the Boston & Albany, +the New York Central & Hudson River and the (electric) +Albany & Hudson railways, by river steamboats, and by a steam +ferry to Athens and Catskill across the river. The city is picturesquely +situated on the slope of Prospect Hill; and Promenade +Park, on a bluff above the steamboat landing, commands a +fine view of the river and of the Catskill Mountains. Among +the public buildings and institutions are a fine city hall, the +Columbia County Court House, a public library, a Federal +building, a State Training School for Girls, a State Firemen’s +Home, an Orphan Asylum, a Home for the Aged and a hospital. +The city’s manufactures include hosiery and knit goods, Portland +cement (one of the largest manufactories of that product in the +United States being here), foundry and machine shop products, +car wheels, ice tools and machinery, ale, beer, bricks and tiles +and furniture. The value of the factory products in 1905 was +$4,115,525, an increase of 58.1% over that in 1900. The +municipality owns and operates the water-works. Hudson, +which was originally known as Claverack Landing, was for many +years merely a landing with two rude wharfs and two small +storehouses, to which farmers in the neighbourhood brought +their produce for shipment on the river. Late in 1783 the place +was settled by an association of merchants and fishermen from +Rhode Island, Nantucket and Martha’s Vineyard. The present +name was adopted in 1784, and the city was chartered in 1785. +For many years Hudson had a considerable foreign commerce +and whaling interests, but these were practically destroyed +by the war of 1812.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page851" id="page851"></a>851</span></p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HUDSON BAY<a name="ar131" id="ar131"></a></span> (less often, but more correctly, Hudson’s +Bay), an inland sea in the N.E. of Canada, extending from +78° to 95° W. and from 51° to 70° N. On the east it is connected +with the Atlantic Ocean by Hudson Strait, and on the north with +the Arctic Ocean by Fox Channel and Fury and Hecla Strait. +Its southern extremity between 55° and 51° N. is known as James +Bay. It is 590 m. in width, and 1300 from S. to N., including +James Bay (350 m.) and Fox Channel (350 m.). The customary +use of the term includes James Bay, but not Fox Channel. The +average depth of water is about 70 fathoms, deepening at the +entrance of Hudson Strait to 100 fathoms. James Bay is +much shallower, and unfit for shipping save for a central channel +leading to the mouth of the Moose river. The centre and west +of the main bay are absolutely free from shoals, rocks or islands, +but down its east coast extend two lines of small islands, one +close to shore, the other at 70 to 100 m. distance, and comprising +a number of scattered groups (the Ottawa Islands, the Sleepers, +the Belchers, &c.).</p> + +<p>Into Hudson and James Bays flow numerous important rivers, +so much so that the water of the latter is rather brackish than +salt. Beginning at the north-west, the chief of these are Churchill, +Nelson (draining Lake Winnipeg, and the numerous inland +rivers of which it is the basin), Hayes (the old boat route of the +<i>voyageurs</i> to Winnipeg), Severn, Albany, Moose, Rupert river +(draining Lake Mistassini), Nottaway, East Main, Great Whale +and Little Whale.</p> + +<p>Save for some high bluffs on the east and north-east, the shores +of the bay are low. Around much of James Bay extend marshes +and swampy ground. Geologically the greater part of the +Hudson Bay district belongs to the Laurentian system, though +there are numerous outcrops of later formation; Cambro-Silurian +on the south and west, and to the north of Cape Jones +(the north-eastern extremity of James Bay) a narrow belt of +Cambrian rocks, of which the islands are composed. Coal, +plumbago, iron and other minerals have been found in various +districts near the coast. The climate is harsh, though vegetables +and certain root crops ripen in the open air as far north as Fort +Churchill; cattle flourish, and are fed chiefly on the native +grasses; spruce, balsam and poplar grow to a fair size as far +as the northern limit of James Bay. Caribou, musk ox and other +animals are still found in large numbers, and there is an abundance +of feathered game—ducks, geese, loons and ptarmigan; +hunting and fishing form the chief occupations of the Indians +and Eskimo who live in scattered bands near the shore. The +bay abounds with fish, of which the chief are cod, salmon, +porpoise and whales. The last have long been pursued by +American whalers, whose destructive methods have so greatly +depleted the supply that the government of Canada is anxious +to declare the bay a <i>mare clausum</i>.</p> + +<p>Hudson Strait is about 450 m. long with an average breadth +of 100 m., narrowing at one point to 45. Its shores are high +and bold, rarely less in height than 1000 ft., save on the coast +of Ungava Bay, a deep indentation on the south-east. No +islands or rocks impede navigation. Its depth is from 100 to +200 fathoms. Owing to the violence of the tides, which rise to +a height of 35 ft., it never absolutely freezes over.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>After three centuries of exploration, the navigability of Hudson +Bay and Strait remains a vexed question. To Canada it is one of +great commercial interest, and numerous expeditions have been +made and reports issued by the Geological Survey. From Winnipeg +to Liverpool via Churchill is over 500 m. less than via Montreal, and +from Edmonton to Liverpool almost 1000 m. less. Were navigation +open for a sufficient time, such a route for the grain of the Canadian +and American west would be of enormous advantage. But the inlet +from the Arctic sends down masses of heavy ice, which drift about +in the bay and the strait. Past the mouth of the strait flows a +stream often over 100 m. wide, of berg and floe ice, carried by the +Arctic current. Owing to the proximity of the Magnetic Pole (in +Boothia) the compass often refuses to work. For sailing ships, such +as the Hudson’s Bay Company has long employed, the season for +safe navigation is from the 15th of July to the 1st of October. In +over 200 years very few serious accidents have occurred to the +company’s ships within these limits. It is claimed that specially +built and protected steamers would be safe from the 15th of June +till the 1st of November, and the problem may be solved by ice-breaking +vessels of great power. The only good harbour available +is Fort Churchill, at the mouth of the Churchill river, which is large +and easy of access. Moose Factory (at the foot of James Bay) and +York Factory (at the mouth of the Nelson) are mere roadsteads. +Marble Island, south of Chesterfield Inlet, where the whalers winter, +is too far north for regular shipping.</p> + +<p>The Cabots entered the strait in 1498, and during the next century +a series of Elizabethan mariners; but the bay was not explored +until 1610, when Henry Hudson pushed through the ice and +explored to the southern limit of James Bay.</p> + +<p>See Lieutenant Gordon, R.N., <i>Reports on the Hudson’s Bay +Expeditions</i> (1884, 5, 6); William Ogilvie, <i>Exploratory Survey to +Hudson’s Bay in 1890</i> (Ottawa, 1891); R. F. Stupart, <i>The Navigation +of Hudson’s Bay and Straits</i> (Toronto, 1904).</p> +</div> + +<hr class="art" /> + + + + + + + + +<pre> + + + + + +End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th +Edition, Volume 13, Slice 7, by Various + +*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA *** + +***** This file should be named 39029-h.htm or 39029-h.zip ***** +This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: + http://www.gutenberg.org/3/9/0/2/39029/ + +Produced by Marius Masi, Don Kretz and the Online +Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net + + +Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions +will be renamed. + +Creating the works from public domain print editions means that no +one owns a United States copyright in these works, so the Foundation +(and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United States without +permission and without paying copyright royalties. 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