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diff --git a/38843-tei/38843-tei.tei b/38843-tei/38843-tei.tei new file mode 100644 index 0000000..28e20a1 --- /dev/null +++ b/38843-tei/38843-tei.tei @@ -0,0 +1,13462 @@ +<?xml version="1.0" encoding="utf-8" ?> + +<!DOCTYPE TEI.2 SYSTEM "http://www.gutenberg.org/tei/marcello/0.4/dtd/pgtei.dtd" [ + +<!ENTITY u5 "http://www.tei-c.org/Lite/"> + +]> + +<TEI.2 lang="en"> +<teiHeader> + <fileDesc> + <titleStmt> + <title>The Egypt of the Hebrews and Herodotos</title> + <author><name reg="Sayce, A. H.">A. H. Sayce</name></author> + </titleStmt> + <editionStmt> + <edition n="1">Edition 1</edition> + </editionStmt> + <publicationStmt> + <publisher>Project Gutenberg</publisher> + <date>February 12, 2012</date> + <idno type="etext-no">38843</idno> + <availability> + <p>This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and + with almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it + away or re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg + License online at www.gutenberg.org/license</p> + </availability> + </publicationStmt> + <sourceDesc> + <bibl> + Created electronically. + </bibl> + </sourceDesc> + </fileDesc> + <encodingDesc> + </encodingDesc> + <profileDesc> + <langUsage> + <language id="en"></language> + <language id="he"></language> + <language id="ar"></language> + <language id="fr"></language> + </langUsage> + </profileDesc> + <revisionDesc> + <change> + <date value="2012-02-12">February 12, 2012</date> + <respStmt> + <name> + Produced by Delphine Lettau, David King, and the Online + Distributed Proofreading Team at <http://www.pgdp.net/>. + </name> + </respStmt> + <item>Project Gutenberg TEI edition 1</item> + </change> + </revisionDesc> +</teiHeader> + +<pgExtensions> + <pgStyleSheet> + .boxed { x-class: boxed } + .shaded { x-class: shaded } + .rules { x-class: rules; rules: all } + .indent { margin-left: 2 } + .bold { font-weight: bold } + .italic { font-style: italic } + .smallcaps { font-variant: small-caps } + </pgStyleSheet> + + <pgCharMap formats="txt.iso-8859-1"> + <char id="U0x2014"> + <charName>mdash</charName> + <desc>EM DASH</desc> + <mapping>--</mapping> + </char> + <char id="U0x2003"> + <charName>emsp</charName> + <desc>EM SPACE</desc> + <mapping> </mapping> + </char> + <char id="U0x2026"> + <charName>hellip</charName> + <desc>HORIZONTAL ELLIPSIS</desc> + <mapping>...</mapping> + </char> + </pgCharMap> +</pgExtensions> + +<text lang="en"> + <front> + <div> + <divGen type="pgheader" /> + </div> + <div> + <divGen type="encodingDesc" /> + </div> + + <div rend="page-break-before: always"> + <p rend="font-size: xx-large; text-align: center">The Egypt of the Hebrews and Herodotos</p> + <p rend="text-align: center">By</p> + <p rend="font-size: x-large; text-align: center">The Rev. A. H. Sayce</p> + <p rend="text-align: center">Professor of Assyriology at Oxford</p> + <p rend="text-align: center">London</p> + <p rend="text-align: center">Rivington, Percical & Co.</p> + <p rend="text-align: center">1895</p> + </div> + <div rend="page-break-before: always"> + <head>Contents</head> + <divGen type="toc" /> + </div> + + </front> +<body> + +<pb n='vii'/><anchor id='Pgvii'/> + +<div rend='page-break-before: always'> +<index index='toc'/> +<index index='pdf'/> +<head>Preface</head> + +<p> +A few words of preface are needful to justify +the addition of another contribution to the +over-abundant mass of literature of which +Egypt is the subject. It is intended to supplement +the books already in the hands of tourists +and students, and to put before them just +that information which either is not readily +accessible or else forms part of larger and +cumbrous works. The travels of Herodotos +in Egypt are followed for the first time in the +light of recent discoveries, and the history of +the intercourse between the Egyptians and the +Jews is brought down to the age of the Roman +Empire. As the ordinary histories of Egypt +used by travellers end with the extinction of +the native Pharaohs, I have further given a +sketch of the Ptolemaic period. I have moreover +specially noted the results of the recent +excavations and discoveries made by the Egypt +<pb n='viii'/><anchor id='Pgviii'/> +Exploration Fund and by Professor Flinders +Petrie, at all events where they bear upon the +subject-matter of the book. Those who have +not the publications of the Fund or of Professor +Petrie, or who do not care to carry them +into Egypt, will, I believe, be glad to have the +essence of them thus extracted in a convenient +shape. Lastly, in the Appendices I have put +together information which the visitor to the +Nile often wishes to obtain, but which he can +find in none of his guide-books. The Appendix +on the nomes embodies the results of +the latest researches, and the list will therefore +be found to differ here and there from the +lists which have been published elsewhere. +Those who desire the assistance of maps +should procure the very handy and complete +<hi rend='italic'>Atlas of Ancient Egypt</hi>, published by the +Egypt Exploration Fund (price 3s. 6d.). It +makes the addition of maps to this or any +future work on Ancient Egypt superfluous. +</p> + +<p> +Discoveries follow so thickly one upon the +other in these days of active exploration that +<pb n='ix'/><anchor id='Pgix'/> +it is impossible for an author to keep pace +with them. Since my manuscript was ready for +the press Dr. Naville, on behalf of the Egypt +Exploration Fund, has practically cleared the +magnificent temple of Queen Hatshepsu at Dêr +el-Bâhari, and has discovered beneath it the +unfinished sepulchre in which the queen fondly +hoped that her body would be laid; Professor +Petrie has excavated in the desert behind +Zawêdeh and opposite Qoft the tombs of +barbarous tribes, probably of Libyan origin, +who settled in the valley of the Nile between +the fall of the sixth and the rise of the +eleventh dynasty; Mr. de Morgan has disinterred +more jewellery of exquisite workmanship +from the tombs of the princesses of the +twelfth dynasty at Dahshûr; and Dr. Botti +has discovered the site of the Serapeum at +Alexandria, thus obtaining for the first time a +point of importance for determining the topography +of the ancient city. +</p> + +<p> +The people whose remains have been found +by Professor Petrie buried their dead in open +<pb n='x'/><anchor id='Pgx'/> +situated in the central court. But his most +interesting discovery is that of long subterranean +passages, once faced with masonry, and +furnished with niches for lamps, where the +mysteries of Serapis were celebrated. At +the entrance of one of them pious visitors to +the shrine have scratched their vows on the +wall of rock. Those who are interested in the +discovery should consult Dr. Botti's memoir on +<hi rend='italic'>L'Acropole d'Alexandrie et le Sérapeum</hi>, presented +to the Archæological Society of Alexandria, +17th August 1895. +</p> + +<p> +Two or three other recent discoveries may +also find mention here. A Babylonian seal-cylinder +now in the Metropolitan Museum of +Art at New York has at last given me a clue to +the native home of the Hyksos leaders. This +was in the mountains of Elam, on the eastern +frontier of Chaldæa. It was from these mountains +that the Kassi descended upon Babylonia +and founded a dynasty there which lasted for +nearly 600 years, and the same movement +which brought them into Babylonia may have +<pb n='xi'/><anchor id='Pgxi'/> +sent other bands of them across Western Asia +into Egypt. At all events, the inscription upon +the seal shows that it belonged to a certain +Uzi-Sutakh, <q>the son of the Kassite,</q> and <q>the +servant of Burna-buryas,</q> who was the Kassite +king of Babylonia in the age of the Tel el-Amarna +correspondence. As the name of +Sutakh is preceded by the determinative of +divinity, it is clear that we have in it the name +of the Hyksos deity Sutekh. +</p> + +<p> +In a hieroglyphic stela lately discovered at +Saqqârah, and now in the Gizeh Museum, we +read of an earlier parallel to the Tyrian Camp +at Memphis seen by Herodotos. We learn +from the stela that, in the time of King Ai, in +the closing days of the eighteenth dynasty, +there was already a similar <q>Camp</q> or quarter +at Memphis which was assigned to the Hittites. +The inscription is further interesting as showing +that the authority of Ai was acknowledged +at Memphis, the capital of Northern Egypt, as +well as in the Thebaid. +</p> + +<p> +Lastly, Professor Hommel seems to have +<pb n='xii'/><anchor id='Pgxii'/> +found the name of the Zakkur or Zakkal, the +kinsfolk and associates of the Philistines, in a +broken cuneiform text which relates to one of +the Kassite kings of Babylonia not long before +the epoch of Khu-n-Aten. Here mention is +made not only of the city of Arka in Phœnicia, +but also of the city of Zaqqalû. In Zaqqalû +we must recognise the Zakkur of Egyptian +history. I may add that Khar or Khal, the +name given by the Egyptians to the southern +portion of Palestine, is identified by Professor +Maspero with the Horites of the Old Testament. +</p> + +<p> +By way of conclusion, I have only to say +that those who wish to read a detailed account +of the manner in which the great colossus of +Ramses <hi rend='smallcaps'>ii.</hi> at Memphis was raised and its +companion statue disinterred must refer to the +Paper published by Major Arthur H. Bagnold +himself in the <hi rend='italic'>Proceedings</hi> of the Society of +Biblical Archæology for June 1888. +</p> + +<p> +A. H. Sayce. +</p> + +<p> +<hi rend='italic'>October 1895.</hi> +</p> + +</div> + +<pb n='001'/><anchor id='Pg001'/> + +<div rend='page-break-before: always'> +<index index='toc'/> +<index index='pdf'/> +<head>Chapter I. The Patriarchal Age.</head> + +<p> +<q>Abram went down into Egypt to sojourn there.</q> +When he entered the country the civilisation and +monarchy of Egypt were already very old. The +pyramids had been built hundreds of years before, +and the origin of the Sphinx was already a mystery. +Even the great obelisk of Heliopolis, which is still +the object of an afternoon drive to the tourist at +Cairo, had long been standing in front of the temple +of the Sun-god. +</p> + +<p> +The monuments of Babylonia enable us to fix +the age to which Abraham belongs. Arioch of +Ellasar has left memorials of himself on the bricks +of Chaldæa, and we now know when he and his +Elamite allies were driven out of Babylonia and the +<pb n='002'/><anchor id='Pg002'/> +Babylonian states were united into a single monarchy. +This was 2350 <hi rend='smallcaps'>b.c.</hi> +</p> + +<p> +The united monarchy of Egypt went back to a +far earlier date. Menes, its founder, had been king +of This (or Girgeh) in Upper Egypt, and starting +from his ancestral dominions had succeeded in bringing +all Egypt under his rule. But the memory of an +earlier time, when the valley of the Nile was divided +into two separate sovereignties, survived to the latest +age of the monarchy. Up to the last the Pharaohs +of Egypt called themselves <q>kings of the two lands,</q> +and wore on their heads the crowns of Upper and +Lower Egypt. The crown of Upper Egypt was a +tiara of white linen, that of Lower Egypt a throne-like +head-dress of red. The double crown was a +symbol of the imperial power. +</p> + +<p> +To Menes is ascribed the building of Memphis, +the capital of the united kingdom. He is said to +have raised the great dyke which Linant de Bellefonds +identifies with that of Kosheish near Kafr el-Ayyât, +and thereby to have diverted the Nile from its +ancient channel under the Libyan plain. On the +ground that he thus added to the western bank of +the river his new capital was erected. +</p> + +<p> +Memphis is the Greek form of the old Egyptian +Men-nefer or <q>Good Place.</q> The final <hi rend='italic'>r</hi> was dropped +in Egyptian pronunciation at an early date, and +<pb n='003'/><anchor id='Pg003'/> +thus arose the Hebrew forms of the name, Moph and +Noph, which we find in the Old Testament,<note place='foot'>Hosea ix. 6; Isaiah xix. 13; Jeremiah ii. 16.</note> while +<q>Memphis</q> itself—Mimpi in the cuneiform inscriptions +of Assyria—has the same origin. Another name by +which it went in old Egyptian times was Anbu-hez, +<q>the white wall,</q> from the great wall of brick, covered +with white stucco, which surrounded it, and of which +traces still remain on the northern side of the old +site. Here a fragment of the ancient fortification +still rises above the mounds of the city; the wall is +many feet thick, and the sun-dried bricks of which it +is formed are bonded together with the stems of +palms. +</p> + +<p> +In the midst of the mounds is a large and deep +depression, which is filled with water during the +greater part of the year. It marks the site of the +sacred lake, which was attached to every Egyptian +temple, and in which the priests bathed themselves +and washed the vessels of the sanctuary. Here, not +long ago, lay the huge colossus of limestone which +represented Ramses <hi rend='smallcaps'>ii.</hi> of the nineteenth dynasty, and +had been presented by the Egyptian Khedive to the +British Government. But it was too heavy and +unwieldy for modern engineers to carry across the +sea, and it was therefore left lying with its face prone +in the mud and water of the ancient lake, a prey to +<pb n='004'/><anchor id='Pg004'/> +the first comer who needed a quarry of stone. It +was not until after the English occupation of Egypt +that it was lifted out of its ignoble position by Major +Bagnold and placed securely in a wooden shed. +While it was being raised another colossus of the +same Pharaoh, of smaller size but of better workmanship, +was discovered, and lifted beyond the reach +of the inundation. +</p> + +<p> +The two statues once stood before the temple of +the god Ptah, whom the Greeks identified with their +own deity Hephæstos, for no better reason than the +similarity of name. The temple of Ptah was coeval +with the city of Memphis itself. When Menes +founded Memphis, he founded the temple at the same +time. It was the centre and glory of the city, which +was placed under the protection of its god. Pharaoh +after Pharaoh adorned and enlarged it, and its priests +formed one of the most powerful organisations in the +kingdom. +</p> + +<p> +The temple of Ptah, the Creator, gave to Memphis +its sacred name. This was Hâ-ka-Ptah, <q>the house +of the double (or spiritual appearance) of Ptah,</q> in +which Dr. Brugsch sees the original of the Greek +Aigyptos. +</p> + +<p> +But the glories of the temple of Ptah have long +since passed away. The worship of its god ceased +for ever when Theodosius, the Roman Emperor, +<pb n='005'/><anchor id='Pg005'/> +closed its gates, and forbade any other religion save +the Christian to be henceforth publicly professed in +the empire. Soon afterwards came the Mohammedan +conquest of Egypt. Memphis was deserted; and the +sculptured stones of the ancient shrine served to build +the palaces and mosques of the new lords of the +country. Fostât and Cairo were built out of the +spoils of the temple of Ptah. But the work of destruction +took long to accomplish. As late as the +twelfth century, the Arabic writer 'Abd el-Latîf +describes the marvellous relics of the past which still +existed on the site of Memphis. Colossal statues, +the bases of gigantic columns, a chapel formed of a +single block of stone and called <q>the green chamber</q>—such +were some of the wonders of ancient art which +the traveller was forced to admire. +</p> + +<p> +The history of Egypt, as we have seen, begins +with the record of an engineering feat of the highest +magnitude. It is a fitting commencement for the +history of a country which has been wrested by man +from the waters of the Nile, and whose existence even +now is dependent on the successful efforts of the +engineer. Beyond this single record, the history of +Menes and his immediate successors is virtually a +blank. No dated monuments of the first dynasty +have as yet been discovered. It may be, as many +Egyptologists think, that the Sphinx is older than +<pb n='006'/><anchor id='Pg006'/> +Menes himself; but if so, that strange image, carved +out of a rock which may once have jutted into the +stream of the Nile, still keeps the mystery of its origin +locked up in its breast. We know that it was already +there in the days of Khephrên of the fourth dynasty; +but beyond that we know nothing. +</p> + +<p> +Of the second dynasty a dated record still survives. +Almost the first gift received by the Ashmolean +Museum at Oxford was the lintel-stone of an +ancient Egyptian tomb, brought from Saqqârah, the +necropolis of Memphis, by Dr. Greaves at the end of +the seventeenth century. When, more than a century +later, the hieroglyphics upon it came to be read, it +was found that it had belonged to the sepulchre of a +certain Sheri who had been the <q>prophet</q> of the two +Pharaohs Send and Per-ab-sen. Of Per-ab-sen no +other record remains, but the name of Send had +long been known as that of a king of the second +dynasty. +</p> + +<p> +The rest of Sheri's tomb, so far as it has been +preserved, is now in the Gizeh Museum. Years after +the inscription on the fragment at Oxford had been +deciphered, the hinder portion of the tomb was discovered +by Mariette. Like the lintel-stone in the +Ashmolean Museum, it is adorned with sculptures +and hieroglyphics. Already, we learn from it, the +hieroglyphic system of writing was complete, the +<pb n='007'/><anchor id='Pg007'/> +characters being used not only to denote ideas and +express syllables, but alphabetically as well. The +name of Send himself is spelt in the letters of the +alphabet. The art of the monument, though not equal +to that which prevailed a few generations later, is +already advanced, while the texts show that the +religion and organisation of the empire were already +old. In the age of the second dynasty, at all events, +we are far removed from the beginnings of Egyptian +civilisation. +</p> + +<p> +With Snefru, the first king of the fourth dynasty, +or, according to another reckoning, the last king of +the third, we enter upon the monumental history of +Egypt. Snefru's monuments are to be found, not +only in Egypt, but also in the deserts of Sinai. +There the mines of copper and malachite were +worked for him, and an Egyptian garrison kept guard +upon the Bedouin tribes. In Egypt, as has now been +definitely proved by Professor Petrie's excavations, +he built the pyramid of Medûm, one of the largest +and most striking of the pyramids. Around it were +ranged the tombs of his nobles and priests, from +which have come some of the most beautiful works +of art in the Gizeh Museum. +</p> + +<p> +The painted limestone statues of Ra-nefer and his +wife Nefert, for instance, are among the finest +existing specimens of ancient Egyptian workmanship. +<pb n='008'/><anchor id='Pg008'/> +They are clearly life-like portraits, executed +with a delicacy and finish which might well excite +the envy of a modern artist. The character, and even +the antecedents of the husband and wife, breathe +through their features. While in the one we can see +the strong will and solid common-sense of the self-made +man, in the other can be traced the culture +and refinement of a royal princess. +</p> + +<p> +The pyramids of Gizeh are the imperishable +record of the fourth dynasty. Khufu, Khaf-Ra +and Men-ka-Ra, the Kheops, Khephrên and Mykerinos +of Herodotos, were the builders of the three +vast sepulchres which, by their size and nearness to +Cairo, have so long been an object of pilgrimage to +the traveller. The huge granite blocks of the Great +Pyramid of Khufu have been cut and fitted together +with a marvellous exactitude. Professor Petrie found +that the joints of the casing-stones, with an area of +some thirty-five square feet each, were not only +worked with an accuracy equal to that of the +modern optician, but were even cemented throughout. +<q>Though the stones were brought as close +as 1/500 inch, or, in fact, into contact, and the mean +opening of the joint was 1/50 inch, yet the builders +managed to fill the joint with cement, despite the +great area of it and the weight of the stone to be +moved—some sixteen tons. To merely place such +<pb n='009'/><anchor id='Pg009'/> +stones in exact contact at the sides would be careful +work; but to do so with cement in the joints seems +almost impossible.</q><note place='foot'><hi rend='italic'>Pyramids and Temples of Gizeh</hi> (first edition), p. 44.</note> +</p> + +<p> +Professor Petrie believes that the stones were cut +with tubular drills fitted with jewel points—a mode +of cutting stone which it was left to the nineteenth +century to re-discover. The lines marked upon the +stone by the drills can still be observed, and there is +evidence that not only the tool but the stone also +was rotated. The great pressure needed for driving +the drills and saws with the requisite rapidity through +the blocks of granite and diorite is indeed surprising. +It brings before us the high mechanical knowledge +attained by the Egyptians in the fourth millennium +before our era even more forcibly than the heights to +which the blocks were raised. The machinery, however, +with which this latter work was effected is still +unknown. +</p> + +<p> +The sculptured and painted walls of the tombs +which surround the pyramids of Gizeh tell us something +about the life and civilisation of the period. +The government was a highly organised bureaucracy, +under a king who was already regarded as the representative +of the Sun-god upon earth. The land +was inhabited by an industrious people, mainly +agricultural, who lived in peace and plenty. Arts +<pb n='010'/><anchor id='Pg010'/> +and crafts of all kinds were cultivated, including that +of making glass. The art of the sculptor had reached +a high perfection. One of the most striking statues +in the world is that of Khaf-Ra seated on his imperial +throne, which is now in the Museum of Gizeh. The +figure of the king is more than life-size; above his +head the imperial hawk stretches forth its wings, and +on the king's face, though the features bear the +unmistakable impress of a portrait, there rests an +aspect of divine calm. And yet this statue, with its +living portraiture and exquisite finish, is carved out +of a dioritic rock, the hardest of hard stone. +</p> + +<p> +The fourth dynasty was peaceably succeeded by +the fifth and the sixth. Culture and cultivation made +yet further progress, and the art of the painter and +sculptor reached its climax. Those whose knowledge +of Egyptian art is derived from the museums of +Europe have little idea of the perfection which it +attained at this remote period. The hard and crystallised +art of later ages differed essentially from that +of the early dynasties. The wooden figure of +the 'Sheikh el-Beled'—the sleek and well-to-do +farmer, who gazes complacently on his fertile fields +and well-stocked farm—is one of the noblest works +of human genius. And yet it belongs to the age of +the fifth or the sixth dynasty, like the pictures in +low relief, resembling exquisite embroidery on stone, +<pb n='011'/><anchor id='Pg011'/> +which cover the walls of the tombs of Ti and Ptah-hotep +at Saqqârah. +</p> + +<p> +The first six dynasties constitute what Egyptologists +call the Old Empire. They ended with a +queen, Nit-aqer (the Greek Nitôkris), and Egypt +passed under sudden eclipse. For several centuries it +lies concealed from the eye of history. A few royal +names alone are preserved; other records there are as +yet none. What befell the country and its rulers we +do not know. Whether it was foreign invasion or civil +war, or the internal decay of the government, certain +it is that disaster overshadowed for a while the valley +of the Nile. It may be that the barbarian tribes, +whose tombs Professor Petrie has lately discovered +in the desert opposite Qoft, and whom he believes to +have been of Libyan origin, were the cause. With +the tenth dynasty light begins again to dawn. Mr. +Griffith has shown that some at least of the tombs +cut out of the cliffs behind Siût belonged to that era, +and that Ka-meri-Ra, whose name appears in one of +them, was a king of the tenth dynasty. The fragmentary +inscription, which can still be traced on the +walls of the tomb, seems to allude to the successful +suppression of a civil war. +</p> + +<p> +The eleventh dynasty arose at Thebes, of which its +founders were the hereditary chiefs. It introduces +us to the so-called Middle Empire. But the Egypt +<pb n='012'/><anchor id='Pg012'/> +of the Middle Empire was no longer the Egypt of +the Old Empire. The age of the great pyramid-builders +was past, and the tomb carved in the rock +begins to take the place of the pyramid of the earlier +age. Memphis has ceased to be the capital of the +country; the centre of power has been transferred to +Thebes and the south. The art which flourished at +Memphis has been superseded by the art with which +our museums have made us familiar. With the +transfer of the government, moreover, from north to +south, Egyptian religion has undergone a change. +Ptah of Memphis and Ra of Heliopolis have had to +yield to Amon, the god of Thebes. The god of the +house of the new Pharaohs now takes his place at the +head of the pantheon, and the older gods of the north +fall more and more into the background. +</p> + +<p> +The Egypt of the Middle Empire was divided +among a number of great princes, who had received +their power and property by inheritance, and resembled +the great lords of the feudal age. The +Pharaoh at first was little more than the chief among +his peers. But when the sceptre passed into the +vigorous hands of the kings of the twelfth dynasty, +the influence and authority of the feudal princes was +more and more encroached upon. A firm government +at home and successful campaigns abroad restored +the supreme rule of the Pharaoh and made +<pb n='013'/><anchor id='Pg013'/> +him, perhaps more than had ever been the case before, +a divinely-instituted autocrat. +</p> + +<p> +The wars of the twelfth dynasty extended the +Egyptian domination far to the south. The military +organisation of the Middle Empire was indeed its +most striking point of contrast to the Old Empire. +The Egypt of the first six dynasties had been self-contained +and pacific. A few raids were made from +time to time against the negroes south of the First +Cataract, but only for the sake of obtaining slaves. +The idea of extending Egyptian power beyond the +natural boundaries of Egypt has as yet never presented +itself. The Pharaohs of the Old Empire did +not need an army, and accordingly did not possess +one. But with the Middle Empire all this was +changed. Egypt ceases to be isolated: its history +will be henceforth part of the history of the world. +Foreign wars, however, and the organisation of a +strong government at home, did not absorb the whole +energies of the court. Temples and obelisks were +erected, art was patronised, and the creation of the +Fayyûm, whereby a large tract of fertile land was +won for Egypt, not only proved the high engineering +skill of the age of the twelfth dynasty, but constituted +a solid claim for gratitude to its creator, Amon-em-hat +<hi rend='smallcaps'>iii.</hi>, on the part of all succeeding generations. +</p> + +<p> +The thirteenth dynasty followed in the footsteps of +<pb n='014'/><anchor id='Pg014'/> +its predecessor. We possess the names of more than +one hundred and fifty kings who belonged to it, and +their monuments were scattered from one end of +Egypt to the other. The fourteenth dynasty ended +in disaster. Egypt was invaded by Asiatic hordes, +and the line of native Pharaohs was for a time extinct. +</p> + +<p> +The invaders were called by Manetho, the +Egyptian historian, the Hyksos or Shepherd Princes: +on the monuments they are known as the Aamu or +<q>Asiatics.</q> At first, we are told, their progress was +marked by massacre and destruction. The temples +were profaned and overthrown, the cities burned with +fire. But after a while the higher culture of the conquered +people overcame the conquerors. A king +arose among the invaders who soon adopted the +prerogatives and state of the Pharaohs. The fifteenth, +sixteenth, and seventeenth dynasties were Hyksos. +</p> + +<p> +Recent discoveries have proved that at one time +the dominion of the Hyksos extended, if not to the +first cataract, at all events far to the south of Thebes. +Their monuments have been found at Gebelên and +El-Kab. Gradually, however, the native princes +recovered their power in Upper Egypt. While the +seventeenth Hyksos dynasty was reigning at Zoan, +or Tanis, in the north, a seventeenth Egyptian +dynasty was ruling at Thebes. But the princes of +Thebes did not as yet venture to claim the imperial +<pb n='015'/><anchor id='Pg015'/> +title. They still acknowledged the supremacy of the +foreign Pharaoh. +</p> + +<p> +The war of independence broke out in the reign +of the Hyksos king Apopi. According to the +Egyptian legend, Apopi had sent messengers to the +prince of Thebes, bidding him worship none other +god than Baal-Sutekh, the Hyksos divinity. But +Amon-Ra of Thebes avenged the dishonour that +had been done him, and stirred up his adorers to +successful revolt. For five generations the war went +on, and ended with the complete expulsion of the +stranger. Southern Egypt first recovered its independence, +then Memphis fell, and finally the +Hyksos conquerors were driven out of Zoan, their +capital, and confined to the fortress of Avaris, on +the confines of Asia. But even here they were not +safe from the avenging hand of the Egyptian. +Ahmes I., the founder of the eighteenth dynasty, +drove them from their last refuge and pursued them +into Palestine. +</p> + +<p> +The land which had sent forth its hordes to conquer +Egypt was now in turn to be conquered by +the Egyptians. The war was carried into Asia, and +the struggle for independence became a struggle for +empire. Under the Pharaohs of the eighteenth +dynasty, Egypt, for the first time in its history, +became a great military state. Army after army +<pb n='016'/><anchor id='Pg016'/> +poured out of the gates of Thebes, and brought +back to it the spoils of the known world. Ethiopia +and Syria alike felt the tread of the Egyptian armies, +and had alike to bow the neck to Egyptian rule. +Canaan became an Egyptian province, Egyptian +garrisons were established in the far north on the +frontiers of the Hittite tribes, and the boundaries +of the Pharaoh's empire were pushed to the banks +of the Euphrates. +</p> + +<p> +It is probable that Abraham did not enter Egypt +until after the Hyksos conquest. But before the +rise of the eighteenth dynasty Egyptian chronology +is uncertain. We have to reckon it by dynasties +rather than by years. According to Manetho, the +Old Empire lasted 1478 years, and a considerable +interval must be allowed for the troublous times +which intervened between its fall and the beginning +of the Middle Empire. We learn from the Turin +papyrus—a list of the Egyptian kings and dynasties +compiled in the time of Ramses <hi rend='smallcaps'>ii.</hi>, but now, alas! +in tattered fragments—that the tenth dynasty lasted +355 years and 10 days, the eleventh dynasty 243 +years. The duration of the twelfth dynasty is known +from the monuments (165 years 2 months), that of +the thirteenth, with its more than one hundred and +fifty kings, cannot have been short. How long the +Hyksos rule endured it is difficult to say. Africanus, +<pb n='017'/><anchor id='Pg017'/> +quoting from Manetho, as Professor Erman has +shown, makes it 953 years, with which the fragment +quoted by Josephus from the Egyptian historian also +agrees. In this case the Hyksos conquest of Egypt +would have taken place about 2550 <hi rend='smallcaps'>b.c.</hi> +</p> + +<p> +Unfortunately the original work of Manetho is +lost, and we are dependent for our knowledge of it +on later writers, most of whom sought to harmonise +its chronology with that of the Septuagint. When +we further remember the corruptions undergone by +numerical figures in passing through the hands of +the copyists, it is clear that we cannot place implicit +confidence in the Manethonian numbers as they have +come down to us. Indeed, the writers who have +recorded them do not always agree together, and +we find the names of kings arbitrarily omitted or +the length of their reigns shortened in order to force +the chronology into agreement with that of the +author. The twelfth dynasty reigned 134 years +according to Eusebius, 160 years according to +Africanus; its real duration was 165 years, 2 months, +and 12 days. +</p> + +<p> +With the help of certain astronomical data furnished +by the monuments, Dr. Mahler, the Viennese +astronomer, has succeeded in determining the exact +date of the reigns of the two most famous monarchs +of the eighteenth and nineteenth dynasties, +<pb n='018'/><anchor id='Pg018'/> +Thothmes <hi rend='smallcaps'>iii.</hi> and Ramses <hi rend='smallcaps'>ii.</hi> Thothmes <hi rend='smallcaps'>iii.</hi> reigned +from the 20th of March <hi rend='smallcaps'>b.c.</hi> 1503 to the 14th of +February <hi rend='smallcaps'>b.c.</hi> 1449, while the reign of Ramses <hi rend='smallcaps'>ii.</hi> +lasted from <hi rend='smallcaps'>b.c.</hi> 1348 to <hi rend='smallcaps'>b.c.</hi> 1281. The date of +Thothmes <hi rend='smallcaps'>iii.</hi> enables us to fix the beginning of +the eighteenth dynasty about <hi rend='smallcaps'>b.c.</hi> 1570. +</p> + +<p> +The dynasties of Manetho were successive and +not contemporaneous. This fact was one of the main +results of the excavations and discoveries of Mariette +Pasha. The old attempts to form artificial schemes +of chronology—which, however, satisfied no one but +their authors—upon the supposition that some of the +dynasties reigned together are now discredited for +ever. Every fresh discovery made in Egypt, which +adds to our knowledge of ancient Egyptian history, +makes the fact still more certain. There were epochs, +indeed, when more than one line of kings claimed +sway in the valley of the Nile, but when such was +the case, Manetho selected what he or his authorities +considered the sole legitimate dynasty, and disregarded +every other. Of the two rival twenty-first dynasties +which the monuments have brought to light, the lists +of Manetho recognise but one, and the Assyrian rule +in Egypt at a subsequent date is ignored in favour of +the princes of Sais who were reigning at the same +time. +</p> + +<p> +If, then, any reliance is to be placed on the length +<pb n='019'/><anchor id='Pg019'/> +of time ascribed to the Hyksos dominion in the +valley of the Nile, and if we are still to hold to the +old belief of Christendom and see in the Hebrew +wanderer into Egypt the Abram who contended +against Chedor-laomer and the subject kings of +Babylonia, it would have been about two centuries +after the settlement of the Asiatic conquerors in the +Delta that Abraham and Sarah arrived at their court. +The court was doubtless held at Zoan, the modern +Sân. Here was the Hyksos capital, and its proximity +to the Asiatic frontier of Egypt made it easy of +access to a traveller from Palestine. We are told +in the Book of Numbers (xiii. 22) that Hebron was +built seven years before Zoan in Egypt; and it may +be that the building here referred to was that which +caused Zoan to become the seat of the Hyksos power. +</p> + +<p> +Asiatic migration into Egypt was no new thing. +On the walls of one of the tombs of Beni-Hassan +there is pictured the arrival of thirty-seven Aamu or +Asiatics <q>of Shu,</q> in the sixth year of Usertesen <hi rend='smallcaps'>ii.</hi> +of the twelfth dynasty. Under the conduct of their +chief, Ab-sha, they came from the mountains of the +desert, bringing with them gazelles as well as kohl +for the ladies of the court. Four women in long +bright-coloured robes walk between groups of bearded +men, and two children are carried in a pannier on +a donkey's back. The men are armed with bows, +<pb n='020'/><anchor id='Pg020'/> +their feet are shod with sandals, and they wear the +vari-coloured garments for which the people of +Phœnicia were afterwards famed. +</p> + +<p> +After the Hyksos conquest Asiatic migration +must naturally have largely increased. Between +northern Egypt and Palestine there must have been +a constant passage to and fro. The rulers of the +land of the Nile were now themselves of Asiatic +extraction, and it may be that the language of +Palestine was spoken in the court of the Pharaoh. +At all events, the emigrant from Canaan no longer +found himself an alien and a stranger in <q>the land +of Ham.</q> His own kin were now supreme there, +and a welcome was assured to him whenever he +might choose to come. The subject population tilled +their fields for the benefit of their foreign lords, and +the benefit was shared by the inhabitants of Canaan. +In case of famine, Palestine could now look to the +never-failing soil of Egypt for its supply of corn. +</p> + +<p> +If, therefore, Abraham lived in the age when +northern Egypt was subject to the rule of the Hyksos +Pharaohs, nothing was more natural than for him, +an Asiatic emigrant into Canaan, to wander into +Egypt when the corn of Palestine had failed. He +would but be following in the wake of that larger +Asiatic migration which led to the rise of the Hyksos +dynasties themselves. +</p> + +<pb n='021'/><anchor id='Pg021'/> + +<p> +There is, however, a statement connected with +his residence at the court of the Pharaoh which +does not seem compatible with the evidence of the +monuments. We are told that among the gifts +showered upon him by the king were not only sheep +and oxen and asses, but camels as well. The camel +was the constant companion of the Asiatic nomad. +As far back as we can trace the history of the +Bedouin, he has been accompanied by the animal +which the old Sumerian population of Babylonia +called the beast which came from the Persian Gulf. +Indeed, it would appear that to the Bedouin belongs +the credit of taming the camel, in so far as it has +been tamed at all. But to the Egyptians it was +practically unknown. Neither in the hieroglyphics, +nor on the sculptured and painted walls of the +temples and tombs, do we anywhere find it represented. +The earliest mention of it yet met with +in an Egyptian document is in a papyrus of the age +of the Exodus, and there it bears the Semitic name of +<foreign rend='italic'>kamail</foreign>, the Hebrew <foreign lang='he' rend='italic'>gamal</foreign>.<note place='foot'><hi rend='italic'>Pap. Anastasi</hi>, i. p. 23, line 5.</note> Naturalists have shown +that it was not introduced into the northern coast of +Africa until after the beginning of the Christian era. +</p> + +<p> +Nevertheless it does not follow that because the +camel was never used in Egypt by the natives of +the country, it was not at times brought there by +<pb n='022'/><anchor id='Pg022'/> +nomad visitors from Arabia and Palestine. It is +difficult to conceive of an Arab family on the march +without a train of camels. And that camels actually +found their way into the valley of the Nile has been +proved by excavation. When Hekekyan Bey, in +1851-54, was sinking shafts in the Nile mud at +Memphis for the Geological Society of London, he +found, among other animal remains, the bones of +dromedaries.<note place='foot'>Horner, in the <hi rend='italic'>Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society</hi>, +1855-58.</note> +</p> + +<p> +The name of the Pharaoh visited by Abraham +is not told to us. As elsewhere in Genesis, the king +of Egypt is referred to only by his official title. +This title of <q>Pharaoh</q> was one which went back +to the early days of the monarchy. It represents +the Egyptian Per-âa, or <q>Great House,</q> and is of +repeated occurrence in the inscriptions. All power +and government emanated from the royal palace, +and accordingly, just as we speak of the <q>Sublime +Porte</q> or <q>Lofty Gate</q> when we mean the Sultan +of Turkey, so the Egyptians spoke of their own +sovereign as the Pharaoh or <q>Great House.</q> To +this day the king of Japan is called the Mi-kado, +or <q>Lofty Gate.</q> +</p> + +<p> +That the Hyksos princes should have assumed +the title of their predecessors on the throne of Egypt +<pb n='023'/><anchor id='Pg023'/> +is not surprising. The monuments have shown us +how thoroughly Egyptianised they soon became. +The court of the Hyksos Pharaoh differed but little, +if at all, from that of the native Pharaoh. The +invaders rapidly adopted the culture of the conquered +people, and with it their manners, customs, +and even language. The most famous mathematical +treatise which Egypt has bequeathed to us was +written for a Hyksos king. It may be that the +old language of Asia was retained, at all events for +a time, by the side of the language of the subject +population; but if so, its position must have been +like that of Turkish by the side of Arabic in Egypt +during the reign of Mohammed Ali. For several +centuries the Hyksos could be described as Egyptians, +and the dynasties of the Hyksos Pharaohs are counted +by the Egyptian historian among the legitimate +dynasties of his country. +</p> + +<p> +It was only in the matter of religion that the +Hyksos court kept itself distinct from its native +subjects. The supreme god of the Hyksos princes +was Sutekh, in whom we must see a form of the +Semitic Baal. As has already been stated, Egyptian +legend ascribed the origin of the war of independence +to a demand on the part of the Hyksos +Pharaoh Apopi that the prince and the god of +Thebes should acknowledge the supremacy of the +<pb n='024'/><anchor id='Pg024'/> +Hyksos deity. But even in the matter of religion +the Hyksos princes could not help submitting to +the influence of the old Egyptian civilisation. Ra, +the sun-god of Heliopolis, was identified with Sutekh, +and even Apopi added to his name the title of Ra, +and so claimed to be an incarnation of the Egyptian +sun-god, like the native Pharaohs who had gone +before him. +</p> + +<p> +When next we hear of Egypt in the Old Testament, +it is when Israel is about to become a nation. +Joseph was sold by his brethren to merchants from +Arabia, who carried him into Egypt. There he +became the slave of Potiphar, <q>the eunuch of Pharaoh +and chief of the executioners,</q> or royal body-guard. +The name of Potiphar, like that of Potipherah, the +priest of On, corresponds with the Egyptian Pa-tu-pa-Ra, +<q>the Gift of the Sun-god.</q> It has been asserted +by Egyptologists that names of this description are +not older than the age of the twenty-second dynasty, +to which Shishak, the contemporary of Rehoboam, +belonged; but because no similar name of an earlier +date has hitherto been found, it does not follow that +such do not exist. As long as our materials are +imperfect, we cannot draw positive conclusions merely +from an absence of evidence. +</p> + +<p> +That Potiphar should have been an eunuch and +yet been married seems a greater obstacle to our +<pb n='025'/><anchor id='Pg025'/> +acceptance of the story. This, however, it need not +be. Eunuchs in the modern East, who have risen +to positions of power and importance, have possessed +their harems like other men. In ancient Babylonia +it was only the service of religion which the eunuch +was forbidden to enter. Such was doubtless the case +in Egypt also. +</p> + +<p> +Egyptian research has brought to light a curious +parallel to the history of Joseph and Potiphar's wife. +It is found in one of the many tales, the equivalents +of the modern novel, in which the ancient Egyptians +delighted. The tale, which is usually known as that +of <q>The Two Brothers,</q> was written by the scribe +Enna for Seti <hi rend='smallcaps'>ii.</hi> of the nineteenth dynasty when he +was still crown-prince, and it embodies the folk-lore +of his native land. Enna lived under Meneptah, +the probable Pharaoh of the Exodus, and his work +was thus contemporaneous with the events which +brought about the release of the Israelites from their +<q>house of bondage.</q> How old the stories may be +upon which it is based it is impossible for us to tell. +</p> + +<p> +Here is Professor Erman's translation of the commencement +of the tale:— +</p> + +<p> +<q>Once upon a time there were two brothers, born +of one mother and of one father; the elder was +called Anup, the younger Bata. Now Anup possessed +a house and had a wife, whilst his younger +<pb n='026'/><anchor id='Pg026'/> +brother lived with him as a son. He it was who +wove (?) for him, and drove his cattle to the fields, +who ploughed and reaped; he it was who directed +all the business of the farm for him. The younger +brother was a good (farmer); the like of whom was +not to be found throughout the country.</q> One day +Anup sent Bata from the field to the house to fetch +seed-corn. <q rend='pre'>And he sent his younger brother,<note place='foot'>Brugsch's translation, <hi rend='italic'>Egypt under the Pharaohs</hi>, Eng. trans. +first edition, i. p. 266.</note> and +said to him: Hasten and bring me seed-corn from +the village. And his younger brother found the +wife of his elder brother occupied in combing her +hair. And he said to her: Rise up, give me seed-corn +that I may return to the field, for thus has my elder +brother enjoined me, to return without delaying. +The woman said to him: Go in, open the chest, that +thou mayst take what thine heart desires, for otherwise +my locks will fall to the ground. And the +youth went within into the stable, and took thereout +a large vessel, for it was his will to carry out much +seed-corn. And he loaded himself with wheat and +dhurra and went out with it. Then she said to him: +How great is the burden in thy arms? He said to +her: Two measures of dhurra and three measures of +wheat make together five measures which rest on my +arms. Thus he spake to her. But she spake to +<pb n='027'/><anchor id='Pg027'/> +the youth and said: How great is thy strength! +Well have I remarked thy power many a time. +And her heart knew him.... And she stood up +and laid hold of him and said unto him: Come let +us celebrate an hour's repose; the most beautiful +things shall be thy portion, for I will prepare for +thee festal garments. Then was the youth like unto +the panther of the south for rage on account of the +wicked word which she had spoken to him. But +she was afraid beyond all measure. And he spoke +to her and said: Thou, oh woman, hast been like +a mother to me and thy husband like a father, for +he is older than I, so that he might have been my +begetter. Wherefore this great sin that thou hast +spoken unto me? Say it not to me another time, +then will I this time not tell it, and no word of it +shall come out of my mouth to any man at all. +And he loaded himself with his burden and went +out into the field. And he went to his elder brother, +and they completed their day's work. And when +it was evening, the elder brother returned home to +his house. And his younger brother followed behind +his oxen, having laden himself with all the good +things of the field, and he drove his oxen before +him to bring them to the stable. And behold the +wife of his elder brother was afraid because of the +word which she had spoken, and she took a jar of fat +<pb n='028'/><anchor id='Pg028'/> +and was like to one to whom an evil-doer had offered +violence, since she wished to say to her husband: Thy +younger brother has offered me violence. And her +husband returned home at evening, according to his +daily custom, and found his wife lying stretched out +and suffering from injury. She poured no water over +his hands, as was her custom; she had not lighted +the lights for him, so that his house was in darkness, +and she lay there ill. And her husband said to +her: Who has had to do with thee? Lift thyself +up! She said to him: No one has had to do with +me except thy younger brother, since when he came +to take seed-corn for thee, he found me sitting alone +and said to me, <q>Come, let us make merry an hour +and repose: let down thy hair!</q> Thus he spake to +me; but I did not listen to him (but said), <q>See! +am I not thy mother, and is not thy elder brother +like a father to thee?</q> Thus I spoke to him, but +he did not hearken to my speech, but used force with +me that I might not tell thee. Now if thou allow +him to live I will kill myself.</q> +</p> + +<p> +<q>Then the elder brother began to rage like a +panther: he sharpened his knife and took it in his +hand. And the elder brother stood behind the door +of the stable in order to kill the youth when he came +back in the evening to bring the oxen into the stable. +Now when the sun was setting and he had laden +<pb n='029'/><anchor id='Pg029'/> +himself with all the good things of the field, according +to his custom, he returned (to the house). And +his cow that first entered the stable said to him: +Beware! there stands thy elder brother before thee +with his knife in order to kill thee; run away from +him! So he heard what the first cow said. Then +the second entered and spake likewise. He looked +under the door of the stable, and saw the feet of +his brother, who was standing behind the door with +his knife in his hand. He threw his burden on the +ground and began to run away quickly. His elder +brother ran after him with his knife in his hand.</q> +</p> + +<p> +Ra, the sun-god, however, came to the help of the +innocent youth, and interposed a river full of crocodiles +between him and his pursuer. All night long +the two brothers stood on either side of the water; +in the morning Bata convinced his brother that he +had done no wrong, and reproached him for having +believed that he could be guilty. Then he added: +<q>Go home now and see after thine oxen thyself, +for I will no longer stay with thee, but will go to +the acacia valley.</q> So Anup returned to his house, +put his wife to death, and sat there in solitude and +sadness. +</p> + +<p> +Joseph, more fortunate than Bata, rose from his +prison to the highest office of state. The dreams, +through which this was accomplished, were in full +<pb n='030'/><anchor id='Pg030'/> +keeping with the belief of the age. Dreams even +to-day play an important part in the popular faith of +Egypt. In the days of the Pharaohs it was the same. +Thothmes <hi rend='smallcaps'>iv.</hi> cleared away the sand that had overwhelmed +the Sphinx, and built a temple between its +paws, in consequence of a dream in which Ra-Harmakhis +had appeared to him when, wearied with +hunting, he had lain down to sleep under the shadow +of the ancient monument. A thousand years later +Nut-Amon of Ethiopia was summoned by a dream +to march into Egypt. In Greek days, when the +temple of Abydos had fallen into ruin, an oracle was +established in one of its deserted chambers, and +those who consulted it received their answers in the +<q>true dreams</q> that came to them during the night. +The dreams, however, needed at times an interpreter +to explain them, and of such an interpreter mention +is made in a Greek inscription from the Serapeum +at Memphis. At other times the dreamer himself +could interpret his vision by the help of the books in +which the signification of dreams had been reduced +to a science. +</p> + +<p> +The dreams of Pharaoh and <q>his two eunuchs,</q> +however, <q>the chief butler</q> and <q>the chief baker,</q> were +of a strange and novel kind, and there were no books +that could explain them. Even the <q>magicians</q> and +<q>wise men</q> of Egypt failed to understand the dream +<pb n='031'/><anchor id='Pg031'/> +of Pharaoh. And yet, when the Hebrew captive had +pointed out its meaning, no doubt remained in the +mind of Pharaoh and his servants that he was right. +From time immemorial the Nile had been likened to +a milch-cow, and the fertilising water which it spread +over the soil to the milk that sustains human life. +The cow-headed goddess Hathor or Isis watched +over the fertility of Egypt. It was said of her that +she <q>caused the Nile to overflow at his due time,</q> and +the <q>seven great Hathors</q> were the seven forms +under which she was worshipped. In the seven kine, +accordingly, which stood <q>upon the bank of the +river</q> the Egyptian readily saw the life-giving powers +of the Nile. +</p> + +<p> +It needed but the word of the Pharaoh to change +the Hebrew slave into an Egyptian ruler, second +only to the monarch itself. His very name ceased to +be Semitic, and henceforth became Zaphnath-paaneah. +He even allied himself with the exclusive +priesthood of Heliopolis or On, marrying Asenath, +the daughter of the priest of Ra. By name and +marriage, as well as by position, he was thus adopted +into the ranks of the native aristocracy. +</p> + +<p> +Such changes of name are not unknown to the +inscriptions. From time to time we meet with the +records of foreigners who had settled down in the +valley of the Nile and there received new names of +<pb n='032'/><anchor id='Pg032'/> +Egyptian origin. Thus a monument found at +Abydos tells us of a Canaanite from Bashan called +Ben-Azan, who received in Egypt the new name of +Yu-pa-â and was the father of a vizier of Meneptah, the +Pharaoh of the Exodus. The Hittite wife of Ramses +<hi rend='smallcaps'>ii.</hi> similarly adopted an Egyptian name, and the +tombstones of two Karians are preserved, in which the +Karian names of the dead are written in the letters +of the Karian alphabet, while a hieroglyphic text is +attached which gives the Egyptian names they had +borne in Egypt. +</p> + +<p> +The exact transcription in hieroglyphics of the +Egyptian name of Joseph is still doubtful. But it is +plain that it contains the Egyptian words <foreign rend='italic'>pa-ânkh</foreign>, +<q>the life,</q> or <q>the living one,</q> which seem to be preceded +by the particle <foreign rend='italic'>nti</foreign>, <q>of.</q> The term <foreign rend='italic'>pa-ânkh</foreign> is +sometimes applied to the Pharaoh, and since Kames, +the last king of the seventeenth dynasty, +assumed the title of Zaf-n-to, <q>nourisher of the land,</q> +it is possible that in Zaphnath-paaneah we may see +an Egyptian Zaf-nti-pa-ânkh, <q>nourisher of the +Pharaoh.</q> But the final solution of the question +must be left to future research. +</p> + +<p> +It is now more easy to explain the cry which was +raised before Joseph when he went forth from the +presence of the Pharaoh with the golden chain +around his neck and the royal signet upon his finger. +<pb n='033'/><anchor id='Pg033'/> +<q><foreign rend='italic'>Abrêk!</foreign></q> they shouted before him, and an explanation +of the word has been vainly sought in the +Egyptian language. It really is of Babylonian +origin. In the primitive non-Semitic language of +Chaldæa <foreign rend='italic'>abrik</foreign> signified <q>a seer</q> or <q>soothsayer,</q> and +the term was borrowed by the Semitic Babylonians +under the two forms of <foreign rend='italic'>abrikku</foreign> and <foreign rend='italic'>abarakku</foreign>. Joseph +was thus proclaimed a seer, and his exaltation was +due to his power of foreseeing the future. It was as +a divinely-inspired seer that the subjects of the +Pharaoh were to reverence him. +</p> + +<p> +How a Babylonian word like <foreign rend='italic'>abrek</foreign> came to be +used in Egypt it is idle for us to inquire. Those +who believe in the late origin and fictitious character +of the story of Joseph would find an easy explanation +of it. But easy explanations are not necessarily +true, either in archæology or in anything else. And +since we now know that Canaan, long before the +time of Joseph, had fallen under Babylonian +influence, that the Babylonian language and writing +were employed there, and that Babylonian words had +made their way into the native idiom, it does not +require much stretch of the imagination to suppose +that such words may have also penetrated to the +court of the Asiatic rulers of northern Egypt. Up +to the era of the Exodus, Egypt and Canaan were +for several centuries as closely connected with each +<pb n='034'/><anchor id='Pg034'/> +other as were England and the north of France in +the age of the Normans and Plantagenets. +</p> + +<p> +The prosperity of Egypt depends upon the Nile. +If the river rises to too great a height during the +period of inundation, the autumn crops are damaged or +destroyed. If, on the other hand, its rise is insufficient +to fill the canals and basins, or to reach the higher +ground, the land remains unwatered, and nothing will +grow. Egypt, in fact, is the gift of the Nile; let the +channel of the great river be diverted elsewhere, and +the whole country would at once become an uninhabited +desert. +</p> + +<p> +A low Nile consequently brings with it a scarcity +of food. When provisions cannot be imported from +abroad, famine is the necessary result, and the population +perishes in thousands. Such was the case in +the eleventh and twelfth centuries of our era, when +the inundation was deficient for several successive +years. The Arabic writers, El-Makrîzî and Abd-el-Latîf, +describe the famines that ensued in terrible +terms. Abd-el-Latîf was a witness of that which +lasted from <hi rend='smallcaps'>a.d.</hi> 1200 to 1202, and of the horrors which +it caused. After eating grass, corpses, and even excrement, +the wretched inhabitants of the country began +to devour one another. Mothers were arrested in the +act of cooking their own children, and it was unsafe to +walk in the streets for fear of being murdered for food. +</p> + +<pb n='035'/><anchor id='Pg035'/> + +<p> +The famine described by El-Makrîzî lasted, like +that of Joseph, for seven years, from <hi rend='smallcaps'>a.d.</hi> 1064 to +1071, and was similarly occasioned by a deficient +Nile. A hieroglyphic inscription, discovered in 1888 +by Mr. Wilbour in the island of Sehêl, contains a +notice of another famine of seven years, which +occurred at an earlier date. The island of Sehêl lies +in the Cataract, midway between Assouan and Philæ, +and the inscription is carved on a block of granite +and looks towards the south. It is dated in the +eighteenth year of a king, who was probably one of +the Ethiopian princes that reigned over southern +Egypt in the troublous age of the fourth and fifth +Ptolemies. According to Dr. Brugsch's translation, +it states that the king sent to the governor of Nubia +saying: <q>I am sorrowing upon my high throne over +those who belong to the palace. In sorrow is my +heart for the vast misfortune, because the Nile flood +in my time has not come for seven years. Light is +the grain; there is lack of crops and of all kinds of +food. Each man has become a thief to his neighbour. +They desire to hasten and cannot walk; the child +cries, the youth creeps along and the old man; their +souls are bowed down. Their legs are bent together +and drag along the ground, and their hands rest in +their bosoms. The counsel of the great ones of the +court is but emptiness. Torn open are the chests of +<pb n='036'/><anchor id='Pg036'/> +provisions, but instead of contents there is air. +Everything is exhausted.</q> The text then goes on to +declare how Khnum the Creator came to the help of +the Pharaoh, and caused the Nile once more to +inundate the lands. In return for this the king +gave the priests of Khnum at Elephantinê twenty +miles of river bank on either side of the island, +together with tithes of all the produce of the +country. +</p> + +<p> +Dr. Brugsch has brought to light yet another +record of a famine in Upper Egypt which belongs +to an older period. Among the rock-cut tombs of +El-Kab, where the princes of Thebes held their court +in the days of the Hyksos, is one which commemorates +the name of a certain Baba. The name occurs +elsewhere at El-Kab, and was that of the father of +<q>Captain Ahmes,</q> whose tomb is one of the most +interesting there, and who, in his youthful days, +assisted Ahmes of the eighteenth dynasty in driving +the Hyksos from their last fortress in Egypt. Baba +enumerates his wealth and many good deeds, and +adds: <q>When a famine arose, lasting many years, I +issued out corn to the city.</q> +</p> + +<p> +It may be that the famine here referred to is the +famine of Joseph. All we know about the date of +Baba is that he lived in the age of the Hyksos. If he +flourished before the war of independence and in +<pb n='037'/><anchor id='Pg037'/> +days when the authority of the Hyksos Pharaoh was +still paramount in Upper Egypt, we should have +good reason for believing that the famine of which he +speaks was the same as that described in Genesis. +One of the results of the latter was that the Egyptians +parted with their lands and stock to Joseph, so that +henceforth they became the tenants of the Pharaoh, +to whom they paid a fifth of all their produce. If +this statement is historical, the administration of +Joseph must have extended from one end of Egypt +to the other. His Hyksos master must have been +like Apopi, of whom the Sallier Papyrus tells us that +<q>the entire country paid him tribute, together with its +manufactured products, and so loaded him with all +the good things of Egypt.</q> +</p> + +<p> +The account of Joseph's famine, however, betrays +in one respect a sign of later date. The famine is +said to have extended to Canaan. But a famine in +Egypt and a famine in Canaan were not due to the +same cause, and the failure of the waters of the Nile +would have no effect upon the crops of Palestine. In +Canaan it was the want of rain, not of the inundation +of the Nile, which produced a failure of corn. We +hear from time to time, in the inscriptions, of corn +being sent from Egypt to Syria, but it was when +there was plenty on the banks of the Nile and a +scarcity of rain on the Syrian coast. The Hebrew +<pb n='038'/><anchor id='Pg038'/> +writer has regarded the history of the past from a +purely Asiatic rather than an Egyptian point of view. +</p> + +<p> +Joseph must have entered Egypt when it was +still under Hyksos domination. The promise made +to Abraham (Gen. xv. 13) is very explicit: <q>Know +of a surety that thy seed shall be a stranger in a +land that is not theirs, and shall serve them; and +they shall afflict them four hundred years.</q> Equally +explicit is the statement of the book of Exodus +(xii. 40, 41): <q>The sojourning of the children of +Israel who dwelt in Egypt was four hundred and +thirty years. And it came to pass at the end of the +four hundred and thirty years, even the self-same day +it came to pass, that all the hosts of the Lord went +out from the land of Egypt.</q> Here thirty years—the +length of a generation—are added to the four hundred +during which the Israelites were to be afflicted +in the land of the foreigner. If the Exodus took +place in the latter years of the nineteenth dynasty—-and, +as we shall see, the Egyptian monuments forbid +our placing it elsewhere—the four hundred and thirty +years of the Biblical narrative bring us to the beginning +of the last Hyksos dynasty. +</p> + +<p> +It is a curious fact that Egyptian history also +knows of an epoch of four hundred years which +covers almost the same period as the four hundred +years of Genesis. Mariette Pasha, when excavating +<pb n='039'/><anchor id='Pg039'/> +at Sân, the ancient Zoan, found a stela which had +been erected in the reign of Ramses <hi rend='smallcaps'>ii.</hi> by one of his +officers, the governor of the Asiatic frontier. The +stela commemorates a visit to Sân made by the +governor, on the fourth day of the month Mesori, +in the four hundredth year of <q>the king of Upper +and Lower Egypt, Set-âa-pehti, the son of the +Sun who loved him, also named Set-Nubti.</q> Since +Set or Sutekh was the god of the Hyksos, while Sân +was the Hyksos capital, it is clear that Set-âa-pehti +or Set-Nubti was a Hyksos prince who claimed rule +over the whole of Egypt, and with whom a Hyksos +era commenced. Professor Maspero and Dr. de +Cara consider the prince in question to have been +really the god Sutekh himself; this, however, is not +the natural interpretation of the titles assigned to +him, and it is not improbable that Professor Wiedemann +is right in identifying him with a certain +Hyksos Pharaoh, Set-[Nub?]ti, mentioned on a +monument discovered by Mariette at Tel-Mokdam. +This latter Pharaoh is entitled <q>the good god, the +star of Upper and Lower Egypt, the son of the Sun, +beloved by Sutekh, the lord of Avaris.</q> +</p> + +<p> +But whether or not the Hyksos Pharaoh of Tel-Mokdam +is the same as Set-Nubti of Sân, it would +seem probable that the era connected with his name +marked the rise of the last Hyksos dynasty. According +<pb n='040'/><anchor id='Pg040'/> +to Eusebius, the leader of this dynasty was Saitês, +a name which reminds us of Set-âa-[pehti]. Eusebius +makes the length of the dynasty 103 years, but +Africanus, a more trustworthy authority, gives it as +151 years. This would assign the rise of the seventeenth +dynasty, the last of Hyksos rule, to about +<hi rend='smallcaps'>b.c.</hi> 1720, a date which agrees very well with that +of the monument of Sân.<note place='foot'>Ramses <hi rend='smallcaps'>ii.</hi> reigned from <hi rend='smallcaps'>b.c.</hi> 1348 to 1281; if the stela of Sân +had been erected in the twenty-eighth year of his reign, four hundred +years would take us back to <hi rend='smallcaps'>b.c.</hi> 1720. The Syrian wars were concluded +by the treaty with the Hittites in the twenty-first year of his +reign.</note> The Exodus of the +Israelites, if it took place in the reign of Meneptah, +would have happened about <hi rend='smallcaps'>b.c.</hi> 1270 (or <hi rend='smallcaps'>b.c.</hi> 1250, +if it occurred in the reign of Seti <hi rend='smallcaps'>ii.</hi>, as Professor +Maspero maintains); in this case the 430 years of +sojourning in the land of Egypt brings us to <hi rend='smallcaps'>b.c.</hi> +1700 (or 1680). This would be about twenty years +after the establishment of the last Hyksos line of +Pharaohs, and one hundred and thirty years before +the foundation of the eighteenth dynasty. Joseph +would thus have been vizier of the country long +before the war of independence broke out, and there +would have been time in abundance for him to have +lived and died before his friends and protectors were +driven from the land they had so long occupied. +</p> + +<p> +Chronologically, therefore, the Biblical narrative +<pb n='041'/><anchor id='Pg041'/> +fits in with the requirements of Egyptian history, +and allows us to see in the Hebrew captive the +powerful minister of a race of kings who, like himself, +had come from the highlands of Asia. But it +must be remembered that it was only in the north +of Egypt that Hyksos rule made itself actually +visible to the eyes of the people. Southern Egypt +was nominally governed by its native princes, though +they did not assume the title of king or Pharaoh. +They were <foreign rend='italic'>hiqu</foreign>, <q>hereditary chieftains,</q> the last representatives +of the royal families of earlier days. +They acknowledged the supremacy of the Hyksos +Pharaoh, and tribute was sent to him from Thebes +and El-Kab. +</p> + +<p> +Though Memphis, the ancient capital of the +country, was in the hands of the strangers, Zoan, +the Tanis of classical geography, was rather the +seat of Hyksos power. Protected by the marshes +which surrounded it, Zoan, the modern Sân, lay on +the eastern side of the Delta at no great distance +from the frontier of Asia and the great Hyksos +fortress of Avaris. From Zoan, the <q>road of the +Philistines,</q> as it is called in the Pentateuch, ran +almost in a straight line to Pelusium and the south +of Palestine, skirting on one side the Mediterranean +Sea, and leaving to the right the lofty fortress-rock +of El-Arîsh on the waterless <q>river of Egypt.</q> +<pb n='042'/><anchor id='Pg042'/> +Tanis had existed in the days of the Old Empire, +but either the Hyksos conquest or earlier invasions +had caused it to decay, and when the Hyksos court +was established there its ancient temple was already +in ruins. The restoration of the city was due to +the Hyksos kings, who have left in it memorials of +themselves. The Hyksos sphinxes in the Museum +of Gizeh, on one of which the name of Apopi is +engraved, were found there by Mariette, as well as +a curious group of two persons with enormous wigs +holding fish and water-fowl in their laps. When +it is stated in the book of Numbers (xiii. 22) that +<q>Hebron was built seven years before Zoan,</q> it is +probable that the building of Zoan by the Shepherd +kings is meant. +</p> + +<p> +In journeying from southern Palestine to Zoan, +Jacob and his sons had no very long distance to +traverse. Nor had they to pass through a long +tract of Egyptian territory. From the desert, with +its roving bands of kindred Bedouin, to the Pharaoh's +court at Zoan, was hardly more than a day's journey. +There was little fear that the Semitic traveller would +meet with insult or opposition from the Egyptian +<foreign rend='italic'>fellahin</foreign> on the way. The <foreign rend='italic'>fellahin</foreign> themselves were +doubtless then, as now, mixed with Semitic elements; +it was needful to go westward of Zoan in order to +find Egyptians of pure blood. +</p> + +<pb n='043'/><anchor id='Pg043'/> + +<p> +Nor was the land of Goshen, the modern Wadi +Tumilât, far from the Hyksos capital. It lay to +the south of Zoan, on the banks of a canal whose +course is now marked by the Freshwater Canal of +Lesseps. The tourist who takes the train from +Ismailîyeh to Zagazig traverses the whole length of +the land of Goshen. The tradition that here was +the territory assigned by Joseph to his brethren +lingered long into the Christian centuries, and had +been revived by more than one Egyptologist in later +years. But the question was finally settled by Dr. +Naville, and the excavations he undertook for the +Egypt Exploration Fund. In 1883 he disinterred +the remains of Pa-Tum, or Pithom, one of the two +<q>store-cities</q> which the children of Israel were forced +to build. The ruins are now known as Tel el-Maskhuteh, +<q>the mound of the Statue,</q> about twelve miles +to the south-east of Ismailîyeh, and the monuments +discovered there show that the Pharaoh for whom +the city was built was Ramses <hi rend='smallcaps'>ii.</hi> There was more +than one Pa-Tum, or temple-city of the Sun-god of +the evening, and the Pa-Tum of the eastern Delta is +referred to in papyri of the nineteenth dynasty. +Thus, in the eighth year of Meneptah <hi rend='smallcaps'>ii.</hi>, an official +report speaks of the passage of certain Shasu or +Bedouin from Edom through the frontier-fortress +of Thukut or Succoth, to <q>the pools of the city of +<pb n='044'/><anchor id='Pg044'/> +Pa-Tum of Meneptah-hotep-hir-ma, in the district +of Thukut.</q> +</p> + +<p> +In 1884 Dr. Naville excavated, at Saft el-Henneh, +an ancient mound close to the railway between +Zagazig and Tel el-Kebîr. His excavations resulted +in the discovery that Saft el-Henneh marks the site +of the ancient Qesem or Qos (Pha-kussa in the +Greek geographers), the capital of the nome of the +Egyptian Arabia. Qesem corresponds exactly with +Geshem, which represents in the Septuagint the +Hebrew Goshen, and points to the fact that the +Egyptian Jews, to whom the Greek translation of +the Old Testament was due, recognised in the Biblical +Goshen the Qeshem of Egyptian geography. +</p> + +<p> +The district immediately around Saft el-Henneh +is fertile, but the name of the Egyptian Arabia which +it once bore shows unmistakably who its cultivators +must have been. They were the Semitic nomads +from the East who, like their descendants to-day, +occasionally settled on the frontier-lands of Egypt, +and became more or less unwilling agriculturists. +But the larger part of them remained shepherds, +leading a nomad life with their flocks and camels, +and pitching their tents wherever the monotony of +the desert was broken by water and vegetation. +The Wadi Tumilât, into which the district of Saft +el-Henneh opened, was thus eminently suited for +<pb n='045'/><anchor id='Pg045'/> +the residence of the Hebrew Bedouin. Here they +had food for their flocks, plenty of space for their +camping-grounds, and freedom from interference on +the part of the Egyptians, while in the background +was a fertile district, in close connection with the +capital, where those of them who cared to exchange +a pastoral for an agricultural life could find rich soil +to sow and cultivate. +</p> + +<p> +Hard by Zagazig are the mounds of the ancient +Bubastis, and here the excavations carried on by +the Egypt Exploration Fund have brought to light +remains of the Hyksos Pharaohs, including one of +Apopi. Bubastis, therefore, must have been a Hyksos +residence, and its temple was adorned by the Hyksos +kings. Between Bubastis and Heliopolis stood Pa-Bailos, +and of this town Meneptah <hi rend='smallcaps'>ii.</hi> says at Thebes +that <q>the country around was not cultivated, but left +as pasture for cattle because of the strangers, having +been abandoned since the times of old.</q> What better +proof can we have that the Arabian nome was in +truth what the land of Goshen is represented to be? +</p> + +<p> +By a curious coincidence, the Wadi Tumilât, the +old land of Goshen, has, in the present century, again +been handed over to Bedouin and Syrians, and again +been the scene of an Exodus. Mohammed Ali was +anxious to establish the culture of the silk-worm in +Egypt, and accordingly planted mulberry-trees in +<pb n='046'/><anchor id='Pg046'/> +the Wadi Tumilât, and settled there a large colony +of Syrians and Bedouin. The Bedouin were induced +to remain there, partly by the pasturage provided +for their flocks, partly by a promise of exemption +from taxes and military conscription. When +Abbas Pasha became Khedive, however, the promise +was forgotten; orders were issued that the free +Bedouin of the Wadi Tumilât should be treated +like the enslaved <foreign rend='italic'>fellahin</foreign>, compelled to pay the tax-gatherer, +and to see their children driven in handcuffs +and with the courbash to serve in the army. But +the orders were never carried out. Suddenly, in a +single night, without noise or warning, the whole +Bedouin population deserted their huts, and with +their flocks and other possessions disappeared into +the eastern desert. The Pasha lost his slaves, the +culture of the silk-worm ceased, and when the Freshwater +Canal was cut not a single mulberry-tree remained. +</p> + +<p> +In the land of Goshen, the Israelitish settlers +throve and multiplied. But a time came when a +new king arose <q>which knew not Joseph,</q> and when +the descendants of Jacob seemed to the Egyptians +a source of danger. Like Abbas Pasha in a later +century, the Pharaoh determined to reduce the +free-born Israelites into the condition of public +slaves, and by every means in his power to diminish +<pb n='047'/><anchor id='Pg047'/> +their number. The male children were destroyed, +the adults compelled to labour at the cities the +Egyptian monarch was building in their neighbourhood, +and the land in which they lived was surrounded +by Egyptian garrisons and controlled by +Egyptian officers. +</p> + +<p> +The slaves, however, succeeded in escaping from +their <q>house of bondage.</q> Under the leadership of +Moses they made their way into the eastern desert, +and received, at Sinai and Kadesh-Barnea, the laws +which were henceforth to govern them. The army +sent to pursue them was swallowed up in the waters +of the sea, and the district they had occupied was left +desolate. +</p> + +<p> +A variety of reasons had led Egyptologists to the +belief that in the Pharaoh of the Oppression we were +probably to see Ramses <hi rend='smallcaps'>ii.</hi> Ramses <hi rend='smallcaps'>ii.</hi>, the Sesostris +and Osymandyas of Greek story, was the third king +of the nineteenth dynasty, and one of the most striking +figures of Egyptian history. His long reign of +sixty-seven years was the evening of Egyptian greatness. +With his death the age of Egyptian conquests +passed away, and the period of decay set in. Like +Louis <hi rend='smallcaps'>xiv.</hi> of France, the <foreign lang='fr' rend='italic'>grand monarque</foreign> of +ancient Egypt exhausted in his wars the resources +and fighting population of his country. +</p> + +<p> +But it was as a builder rather than as a conqueror +<pb n='048'/><anchor id='Pg048'/> +that Ramses <hi rend='smallcaps'>ii.</hi> was famous. Go where we will in +Egypt or Nubia, we find traces of his architectural +activity. There is hardly a place where he has not +left his name. His whole reign must have been +occupied with the construction of cities and temples, +or the restoration and enlargement of previously existing +ones, and, in spite of its length, it is difficult to +understand how so vast an amount of work could +have been accomplished in the time. Much of the +work, however, is poor and scamped; it bears, in +fact, marks of the feverish haste with which it was +carried through. Much of it, on the other hand, is +grandiose and striking in its colossal proportions and +boldness of design. The shattered granite colossus +at the Ramesseum, once nearly sixty feet in height, +the fragment of a standing figure of granite found by +Professor Flinders Petrie at Sân, which must originally +have been over a hundred feet high, the great hall +of columns at Karnak, the temple of Abu-Simbel in +Nubia, are all so many witnesses of vast conceptions +successfully realised. Abu-Simbel, indeed, where a +mountain has been hollowed into a temple, and a cliff +carved into the likeness of four sitting figures, each +with an unrivalled expression of divine calm upon +its countenance, justly claims to be one of the wonders +of the world. +</p> + +<p> +Apart from the colossal proportions of so many of +<pb n='049'/><anchor id='Pg049'/> +them, the buildings of Ramses <hi rend='smallcaps'>ii.</hi> are distinguished by +another trait. They were erected to the glory of the +Pharaoh rather than of the gods. It is the name and +titles of Ramses that everywhere force themselves +upon our notice, and often constitute the chief decoration +of the monument. He must have been vainglorious +above all other kings of Egypt, filled with +the pride of his own power and the determination that +his name should never be forgotten upon the earth. +</p> + +<p> +It is not strange, therefore, that Ramses <hi rend='smallcaps'>ii.</hi> should +be the most prominent figure in ancient Egyptian +history. His name and the shattered relics of his +architectural triumphs force themselves upon the +attention of the traveller wherever he goes. His long +reign, moreover, was a period of great literary activity, +and a considerable portion of the literary papyri +which have survived to us was written during his +lifetime. He was, furthermore, the last of the conquering +Pharaohs; the last of the Theban monarchs +whose rule was obeyed from the mountains of +Lebanon and the plateau of the Haurân to the +southern frontiers of Ethiopia. With his death the +empire, which had been founded by the military skill +and energy of the kings of the eighteenth dynasty, +began to pass away. His son and successor, Meneptah, +had to struggle for bare existence against an invasion +of barbarian hordes, and the sceptre dropped from +<pb n='050'/><anchor id='Pg050'/> +the feeble hands of Seti <hi rend='smallcaps'>ii.</hi>, who next followed, into +those of rival kings. The nineteenth dynasty ended +in the midst of civil war and foreign attack: for +a while Egypt submitted to the rule of a Syrian +stranger, and when Setnekht, the founder of the +twentieth dynasty, restored once more the native line +of kings, he found a ruined and impoverished country, +scarcely able to protect itself from hostile assault. +</p> + +<p> +But the age of the twentieth dynasty was still +distant when Jacob and his sons journeyed into +Egypt, or even when his descendants, under the +leadership of Moses, succeeded in escaping from the +land of their slavery. Before that age arrived more +than one revolution was destined to pass over the +valley of the Nile, which had momentous consequences +for the foreign settlers in Goshen. The Hyksos were +driven back into Asia, and a united Egypt once +more obeyed the rule of a native Pharaoh. +</p> + +<p> +But the centre of power had been shifted from the +north to the south. Memphis and Zoan had to make +way for Thebes, and it is probable that the monarchs +of the eighteenth dynasty, under whom Egypt recovered +its independence, had Nubian blood in their +veins. A new life was breathed into the ancient +kingdom of Menes, and for the first time in its +history Egypt became a great military power. The +war was transferred from the Delta to Asia itself; +<pb n='051'/><anchor id='Pg051'/> +Canaan and Syria were conquered, and an Egyptian +empire established, which extended as far as the +Euphrates. With this empire in Asia, however, +came Asiatic influences, ideas, and beliefs. The +Pharaohs intermarried with the royal families of +Asia, and little by little their court became semi-Asiatic. +Then followed reaction and counter-revolution. +A new king arose—the founder of the +nineteenth dynasty—<q>who knew not Joseph,</q> representing +the national antagonism to the Asiatic +foreigner and his religious faith. For a while the +Asiatic was proscribed; and the expulsion of the +stranger and his religion, which Arabi endeavoured +to effect in our time, was successfully effected in the +troublous days which saw the fall of the eighteenth +dynasty. In this war against the hated Asiatic the +Israelites were involved; their children were destroyed +lest they should multiply, and they themselves +were degraded into public slaves. We have +now to trace the events which led to such a result, +and to show how the political history of Egypt was +the ultimate cause of the Israelitish Exodus. +</p> + +</div> + +<pb n='052'/><anchor id='Pg052'/> + +<div rend='page-break-before: always'> +<index index='toc'/> +<index index='pdf'/> +<head>Chapter II. The Age Of Moses.</head> + +<p> +On the eastern bank of the Nile, about midway +between Minieh and Assiout, the traveller from Cairo +to Assouan passes a line of mounds which are known +by the name of Tel el-Amarna. <foreign rend='italic'>Tel</foreign> is the name +given to the artificial mounds which cover the +remains of ancient cities, while <foreign rend='italic'>el-Amarna</foreign> denotes +the Bedouin tribe of Beni-Amran whose descendants +inhabit the district in which the line of mounds is +found. Between the mounds and the Nile is a fertile +strip of bank, green with corn in the winter and +spring, and shaded with groves of lofty palms. On +the other side of them is a tawny desert plain, shut in +by an amphitheatre of hills. The limestone cliffs of +the latter are broken in three places, where ravines +lead through them to the Arabian plateau beyond. +The central ravine is short and rugged; that to the +north, however, though its lofty walls of rock seem at +times almost to meet, eventually carries the explorer +by a slow ascent into the heart of the Arabian +<pb n='053'/><anchor id='Pg053'/> +desert. About three miles from its mouth, and in a +side-valley, the tomb has lately been discovered of +the founder of the city, of which the mounds of Tel +el-Amarna are now the sole representatives. The +tomb is worthy of the monarch for whom it was intended. +In the distant solitude of the desert gorge, it +is cut deep into the solid rock. Steps first convey the +visitor downwards to the huge door of the sepulchre. +Within is a broad sloping passage, to the right of +which are the sculptured chambers in which the body +of one of the Pharaoh's daughters once rested, while +at the end of it is a vast columned hall, within which +the sarcophagus of the Pharaoh himself was placed. +</p> + +<p> +The Pharaoh had been named by his father, +Amenôphis <hi rend='smallcaps'>iii.</hi>, after himself, but Amenôphis <hi rend='smallcaps'>iv.</hi> +had not long mounted the throne before he gave +himself a new name, and was henceforth known +as Khu-n-Aten, <q>the Glory of the Solar Disk.</q> +The change of name was the outward sign and +token of a religious revolution. The king publicly +renounced the ancient religion of Egypt, of which +he was the official representative, and declared +himself a convert to an Asiatic form of faith. The +very name of Amon, the supreme god of Thebes and +of the royal family to which Khu-n-Aten belonged, +was proscribed, and erased from the monuments +wherever it occurred. In the temples and tombs and +<pb n='054'/><anchor id='Pg054'/> +quarries alike it was defaced; even the name of +the king's own father, which contained it, was not +spared. When the arm of the persecutor was thus +extended to the written and sculptured monument, +we cannot suppose that the adherents of the ancient +cult would be treated with a gentle hand. +</p> + +<p> +It was not long before the Pharaoh and the powerful +hierarchy of Thebes were at open war. But the +priesthood proved too strong for the king. He +quitted the capital of his fathers and built himself a +new city farther north. It is the site of this city +which is now covered by the mounds of Tel el-Amarna. +</p> + +<p> +Towards the northern side of it rose the palace +of the Pharaoh, whose ruins have been explored by +Professor Flinders Petrie. It was one of the most +gorgeous edifices ever erected by man. The walls +and columns were inlaid with gold and bronze and +stones of various colours, and adorned with statuary +and painting. Even the floors were frescoed; and, if +we may judge from the one discovered by Professor +Petrie, the art was of the highest order. The plants +and animals and fish depicted on it are drawn with a +perfection and a truthfulness to nature which seem to +belong to the nineteenth century of our era rather +than to the fifteenth century before Christ. +</p> + +<p> +The public offices of the government adjoined the +palace, and around it were the houses of the nobles +<pb n='055'/><anchor id='Pg055'/> +and officers of the court. They too reflected the +gay and brilliant adornment of the royal palace, and +their walls were enlivened by frescoes, which represented +the scenes of every-day life. Among the +public offices was the archive-chamber, to which the +documents of state had been transferred from Thebes, +as well as the foreign office, where scribes were busily +engaged in correspondence with the governors of the +Asiatic provinces of the empire and the princes of +foreign states. +</p> + +<p> +In the centre of the city rose the great temple of +Aten, the solar disk, the new object of the Pharaoh's +adoration. Though the name was Egyptian, the +deity and his cult were alike of Asiatic origin. The +Aten, in fact, to whom the temple had been reared, +was the Asiatic Baal. He was the Sun-god, whose +visible manifestation was the solar disk. But it was +a Sun-god who was not only supreme over all other +gods; they were absorbed into him, and existed only +in so far as he endowed them with divine life. It +is thus that Aten-Ra, the solar disk of the Sun-god, +is addressed by the Pharaoh's queen: <q>Thou disk +of the Sun, thou living god, there is none other +beside thee! Thou givest health to the eyes through +thy beams, Creator of all things!</q> One of Khu-n-Aten's +officers, on the walls of his tomb, speaks in +similar terms: <q>Thou, O god, who in truth art the +<pb n='056'/><anchor id='Pg056'/> +living one, standest before the two eyes. Thou art +he which createst what never was, which formest +everything, which art in all things: we also have +come into being through the word of thy mouth.</q> +</p> + +<p> +The new faith of Egypt was a combination of +the worship of Baal with the philosophic conceptions +which had gathered round the worship of the +Egyptian Sun-god, Ra, at Heliopolis. The worship +of Baal had lost its grossness, and been refined into +a form of monotheism. But the monotheism was +essentially pantheistic; there was, indeed, but one +god to whom adoration was paid, but he was universally +diffused throughout nature. The personal +character of the Asiatic Baal seems to have disappeared +in the Aten worship of Egypt. +</p> + +<p> +Along with the new religion came a new style +of art. Asiatic artists and workmen manufactured +the variegated glass and bright-coloured porcelain +of Tel el-Amarna, or discarded the conventionalism +of Egyptian art in their delineation of animal and +vegetable life, while architecture branched out in +new directions, and the sculptor exaggerated the +peculiarities of the king's personal appearance. +Every effort, in fact, was made to break away from +the past, and from the mannerisms and traditions +of Egyptian art. That art had been closely associated +with the ancient religion of the country, and +<pb n='057'/><anchor id='Pg057'/> +with the change of religion came a change in all +things else. +</p> + +<p> +The causes of the change can now in great +measure be traced. To some extent it was due to +the character of the king himself. A plaster cast +of his face, taken immediately after death, has been +found by Professor Petrie, and is an eloquent witness +of what the man himself was like. It is the face +of a philosopher and a mystic, of one whose interest +lay rather in the problems of religious belief than +in the affairs of state. In studying it we feel that +the man to whom it belonged was destined to be +a religious reformer. +</p> + +<p> +But this destiny was assisted by the training and +education which Khu-n-Aten had received. His +mother, Teie, bore a foremost part in the introduction +of the cult of Aten. She must have been a +woman of strong character, and her influence over +her son must also have been great. If, as is probable, +Khu-n-Aten was very young when he ascended +the throne, the religious reform he endeavoured to +effect must have been in great measure his mother's +work. That she had aroused deep feelings of hatred +among the adherents of the older creed may be +gathered from the condition of Khu-n-Aten's tomb. +Though the body of the Pharaoh was despoiled, and +the sarcophagus in which it rested shattered into +<pb n='058'/><anchor id='Pg058'/> +fragments, they had nevertheless been deposited in +the sepulchre that had been constructed to receive +them. But no trace of the queen-mother's mummy +has been met with, and the corridor in the royal +tomb, which seems to have been excavated for her, +has never been finished, any more than the two or +three tombs which were cut in the immediate neighbourhood. +After the death of her son, Queen Teie +seems to have found no protector from the vengeance +of her enemies. +</p> + +<p> +It is probable that Teie was of Asiatic birth, +though no certain proof of it has yet been found. +Her husband, Amenôphis <hi rend='smallcaps'>iii.</hi>, was fond of connecting +himself by marriage with the royal houses of Asia, +and more than one of the wives who occupied a +secondary rank in the Pharaoh's household were of +Asiatic extraction. His own mother had been an +Asiatic princess, the daughter of the king of Mitanni, +the Aram-Naharaim of the Old Testament. From +Mitanni also had come two of his own wives, as well +as the wife of his son and successor, Amenôphis <hi rend='smallcaps'>iv.</hi> +(Khu-n-Aten). +</p> + +<p> +There is little room for wonder that, with their +Asiatic proclivities and half-Asiatic descent, the later +Pharaohs of the eighteenth dynasty should have surrounded +themselves with Asiatic officials and courtiers. +The conquest of Western Asia by Thothmes <hi rend='smallcaps'>iii.</hi> had +<pb n='059'/><anchor id='Pg059'/> +brought Asiatic fashions into Egypt. Thothmes himself, +on the walls of his temple at Karnak, shows the +spirit of an Asiatic rather than of an Egyptian conqueror. +The inscriptions engraved upon them differ +wholly from those which usually adorn the walls of +an Egyptian temple. There are no praises or lists +of the gods, no description of the offerings made to +them, no interminable catalogue of the empty titles +of the Pharaoh; we have, on the contrary, a business-like +account of his campaigns, much of it copied from +the memoranda of the scribes who accompanied the +army on its march. It reads like an inscription on +the walls of an Assyrian palace rather than one +belonging to an Egyptian temple. It is, in fact, +unique, the solitary example of a historical text +which the great monuments of Egypt have bequeathed +to us. It is, of itself, an eloquent testimony +to the influence which Asia had already +acquired in the valley of the Nile. +</p> + +<p> +The conquests of Thothmes <hi rend='smallcaps'>iii.</hi> placed the +northern boundary of the Egyptian empire at the +banks of the Euphrates. The kingdoms to the east, +including Assyria, offered tribute to the Egyptian +monarch, and those of northern Syria and eastern +Asia Minor paid him homage. Farther south, +Palestine, Phœnicia, and the land of the Amorites, +which lay to the north of Palestine, became Egyptian +<pb n='060'/><anchor id='Pg060'/> +provinces, garrisoned by Egyptian troops and administered +by Egyptian officers. Even the country +beyond the Jordan, Bashan and the Haurân, formed +part of the Egyptian empire. +</p> + +<p> +In many cases the native princes were left to +manage the affairs of their several states, like the +protected princes of modern India, but they were +controlled by <q>commissioners</q> sent from the valley +of the Nile. More frequently their place was taken +by Egyptian governors, a very considerable number +of whom, however, were of Canaanitish descent. +This, indeed, is one of the most remarkable facts +connected with the Egyptian empire in Asia; it +was governed for the Pharaoh by natives rather than +by Egyptians. But this was not all. Under Khu-n-Aten +Egypt itself was invaded by the Asiatic +stranger. The high places about the court were +filled with foreigners whose names proclaim their +Canaanitish origin; even the Vizier was called Dudu, +the Biblical Dodo, to which the name of David is +akin. The adherents of the cult of Aten who +gathered round the Pharaoh at Tel el-Amarna seem +largely to have belonged to Asia instead of Egypt. +</p> + +<p> +Even the official language and writing were of +Asiatic derivation. The language was that of Babylonia, +the script was the cuneiform syllabary of the +same country. The Babylonian script and language +<pb n='061'/><anchor id='Pg061'/> +were used from the banks of the Euphrates to those +of the Nile. They were the common medium of +intercourse throughout the civilised world. It is in +these that an Egyptian official writes to his master, +and it is again in these that the reply is sent from +the Egyptian foreign office. +</p> + +<p> +The fact is a very surprising one, but recent +discoveries have tended to explain it. At a very +remote epoch Babylonian armies had made their +way to the west, and Palestine was a province of +Babylonia long before it became a province of Egypt. +The long-continued and deep-seated influence of +Babylonia brought to it the culture and civilisation +of the Babylonian cities. The Babylonian system +of writing formed a very important element in this +ancient culture, and, along with the language of +which it was the expression, took deep root in +Western Asia. How long it continued to be employed +there may be gathered from the fact that +each district of Western Asia developed its own +peculiar form of cuneiform script. +</p> + +<p> +All this we have learned from a discovery made +in 1887 in the mounds of Tel el-Amarna. Among +the ruins of the foreign office of Khu-n-Aten, which +adjoined the royal palace, the <foreign rend='italic'>fellahin</foreign> found a collection +of clay tablets inscribed with cuneiform or +wedge-shaped characters. They turned out to be +<pb n='062'/><anchor id='Pg062'/> +the foreign correspondence of Khu-n-Aten and his +father. When Khu-n-Aten quitted Thebes he took +with him the archives of his father, and to these +were subsequently added the official letters which he +himself received. +</p> + +<p> +Altogether, about three hundred tablets were discovered. +But no one was on the spot who could +appreciate their value, and, owing to a series of +deplorable accidents, several of them were injured or +destroyed before they fell into European hands. +Eighty-two found their way to the British Museum, +more than 160 fragments are at Berlin, the Gizeh +Museum possesses 56, and a few are in the hands of +private individuals. +</p> + +<p> +The tablets have thrown a new and unexpected +light on the history of the past. To find that the +language and script of Babylonia were the common +medium of literary and official intercourse throughout +Western Asia in the century before the Exodus +was sufficiently startling; it was much more startling +to find that this early period was emphatically a +literary era. Letters passed to and fro along the +high-roads upon the most trifling subjects, and a +constant correspondence was maintained between the +court of the Pharaoh and the most distant parts of +Western Asia. The Bedouin chiefs beyond the +Jordan send letters protesting their loyalty to the +<pb n='063'/><anchor id='Pg063'/> +Egyptian monarch, and declaring that their forces +were at his disposal; the vassal-king of Jerusalem +begs for help from Egypt to protect him against his +personal enemies; the governors of Phœnicia and +the land of the Amorites describe the threatening +attitude of the Hittites in the north; the king of +Mitanni or Aram-Naharaim dwells with pride on his +relationship to the ruler of the Egyptian empire; +while the kings of Assyria and Babylonia ask that +gold may be sent them from Egypt, where it is as +plentiful as <q>the dust,</q> or discuss questions of international +policy or commercial interest. We are +suddenly transported to a world much like our own;—a +world in which education is widely spread, where +schools and scholars abound, and libraries and archive-chambers +exist. +</p> + +<p> +The nature of the cuneiform system of writing +would of itself indicate that schools were numerous. +It was a system which was extraordinarily difficult +to learn. Unlike the hieroglyphs of Egypt, no assistance +was afforded to the memory by any resemblance +between the characters and external objects; like +the Chinese characters of to-day, they consisted +merely of groups of conventionally arranged lines or +wedges. Like the Egyptian hieroglyphs, however, +the number of characters was extremely large, and +each character not only represented more than one +<pb n='064'/><anchor id='Pg064'/> +phonetic value, but it could also be used ideographically +to express ideas. Thus the same character may +not only represent the phonetic values <hi rend='italic'>kur</hi>, <hi rend='italic'>mat</hi>, <hi rend='italic'>nat</hi>, +<hi rend='italic'>lat</hi>, <hi rend='italic'>sat</hi>, and <hi rend='italic'>gin</hi>; it may also denote the ideas of +<q>country,</q> <q>mountain,</q> and <q>conquest.</q> But this was +not all. The original picture-writing out of which +the cuneiform syllabary developed, had been invented +by the primitive non-Semitic population of Chaldæa, +from whom it had been afterwards adopted and +adapted by their Semitic successors. Accordingly, +whole groups of characters which denoted a particular +word in Sumerian—the non-Semitic language of +ancient Chaldæa—were taken over by the Semites +and used by them to denote the same word, though, +of course, with a totally different pronunciation. In +Sumerian, for example, <foreign rend='italic'>mer-sig</foreign> signified <q>trousers,</q> +but though the two characters <hi rend='italic'>mer</hi> and <hi rend='italic'>sig</hi> continued +to be written in Semitic times in order to express +the word, the pronunciation attached to them was +<foreign rend='italic'>sarbillu</foreign>, the modern Arabic <foreign lang='ar' rend='italic'>shirwâl</foreign>. +</p> + +<p> +The pupil, therefore, who wished to learn the cuneiform +syllabary at all thoroughly was compelled to know +something of the old Sumerian language of Chaldæa. +It was far more necessary in his case than a knowledge +of Latin would be in our own. Moreover, it +was necessary for him to learn the various forms +which the same cuneiform character assumed in +<pb n='065'/><anchor id='Pg065'/> +different countries or at different periods in the same +country. These various forms were very numerous, +and they often differed more than black letter differs +from ordinary modern type. +</p> + +<p> +The fact, then, that the cuneiform syllabary was +studied and used from the banks of the Euphrates to +those of the Nile, brings with it the further fact +that throughout this area there must have been +numerous schools and teachers. Time and persevering +labour were needed for its acquisition, while a +knowledge of the Babylonian language which accompanied +its study could not have been obtained without +the help of teachers. It is accordingly a matter +of no small astonishment that the letters received at +the Egyptian foreign office were written, not only by +professional scribes, but also by officials and soldiers. +</p> + +<p> +Naturally the study of the foreign syllabary and +language was facilitated in every possible way. In +his excavations at Tel el-Amarna, Professor Flinders +Petrie has discovered fragments of lists of cuneiform +characters, as well as of comparative dictionaries of +Semitic Babylonian and Sumerian. Moreover, a +Babylonian mythological text has been found, in +which the words have been divided from one another +by dots of red paint, in order to assist the learner in +making his way through the legend. +</p> + +<p> +This mythological text is not the only one which +<pb n='066'/><anchor id='Pg066'/> +has been met with among the tablets of Tel el-Amarna. +The existence of such texts is a proof +that the literature of Babylonia, as well as its +language and script, was carried to the West. From +very remote times public libraries, consisting for the +most part of clay-books, were to be found in the +Babylonian and Assyrian cities, and when Babylonian +culture made its way to the West, similar libraries +must have sprung up there also. The revelations +made to us by the tablets of Tel el-Amarna show +that these libraries, like those of Babylonia, were +stocked with books written upon clay, many of which +contained copies of Babylonian legends and myths. +</p> + +<p> +One of the mythological tales discovered at Tel +el-Amarna is the latter portion of a story which described +the creation of the first man, Adapa or Adama, +and the introduction of death into the world. Adapa +had broken the wings of the south wind, and was +accordingly ordered to appear before Anu, the lord +of the sky. There he refused to touch the food and +water of <q>death</q> that were offered him, and when +subsequently the heart of Anu was <q>softened</q> towards +him, he refused also the food and water of +<q>life.</q> Whereupon <q>Anu looked upon him and raised +his voice in lamentation: <q>O Adapa, wherefore eatest +thou not? wherefore drinkest thou not? The gift of +life cannot now be thine.</q></q> +</p> + +<pb n='067'/><anchor id='Pg067'/> + +<p> +The beginning of the story has been in the British +Museum many years. It is a fragment of a copy of +the myth which was made for the library of Nineveh +some eight centuries after the rest of the story, which +has now been disinterred on the banks of the Nile, had +been buried under the ruins of Khu-n-Aten's city. +I copied it nearly twenty years ago, but had to wait +for the discovery of the tablets of Tel el-Amarna +before ascertaining its true meaning and significance. +Nineveh and Tel el-Amarna had to unite in the +restoration of the old Babylonian myth. +</p> + +<p> +Canaan was the country in which the two streams +of Babylonian and Egyptian culture met together, +and we now know that Canaan was the centre of +that literary activity which the Tel el-Amarna tablets +have revealed to us. Canaan, in the age of the +eighteenth dynasty, was emphatically the land of +scribes and letter-writers. If libraries existed anywhere +in Western Asia, they would surely have done +so in the cities of Canaan. +</p> + +<p> +One of these cities, Kirjath-Sepher, or <q>Book-town,</q> +is mentioned in the Old Testament. It was also +called Kirjath-Sannah, or <q>City of Instruction,</q> +doubtless from the school which was attached to its +library. The site of it is unfortunately lost; should +it ever be recovered, we may expect to find beneath +it literary treasures similar to those which the +<pb n='068'/><anchor id='Pg068'/> +mounds of Assyria and Babylonia have yielded. +Perhaps some day the papyri of Egypt will tell us +where exactly to look for it. +</p> + +<p> +A reference to it has already been met with. In +the time of Ramses <hi rend='smallcaps'>ii.</hi>, an Egyptian scribe composed +an ironical account of the adventures of a military +officer in Palestine. The officer in question was +called a Mohar, a word borrowed from the Babylonians, +in whose language it signified <q>an envoy.</q> +</p> + +<p> +The Egyptian work is consequently usually known +as <hi rend='italic'>The Travels of a Mohar</hi>, and it gives us an interesting +picture of Canaan shortly before the Israelitish +Exodus. The author was clearly very proud of his +geographical knowledge, and has therefore introduced +the names of a large number of places. In one +passage he asks: <q>Hast thou not seen Kirjath-Anab +together with Beth-Sopher? Dost thou not know +Adullam and Zidiputha?</q> Dr. W. Max Müller, to +whom the correct reading of the passage is due, +points out that the scribe has interchanged the words +Kirjath, <q>city,</q> and Beth, <q>house,</q> and that he ought +to have written Beth-Anab and Kirjath-Sopher. +That he was acquainted, however, with the meaning +of the Canaanitish word Sopher (in Egyptian Thupar) +is shown by his adding to it the determinative of +<q>writing.</q> <foreign rend='italic'>Sopher</foreign>, in fact, means <q>scribe,</q> just as +<foreign rend='italic'>sepher</foreign> means <q>book,</q> and indicates the fact that +<pb n='069'/><anchor id='Pg069'/> +Kirjath-Sepher was not only a town of books, but of +book-writers as well. It will be remembered that +Beth-Anab, <q>the house of grapes,</q> in the abbreviated +form of Anab, is associated with Kirjath-Sepher in +the Old Testament (Josh. xi. 21; xv. 49, 50), just as +it is in the Egyptian papyrus. +</p> + +<p> +In the Tel el-Amarna tablets we have a picture +of Canaan in the century which preceded the Exodus +of the Israelites out of Egypt. As we have seen, it +was at that time an Egyptian province. We can +thus understand why, in the tenth chapter of Genesis, +Canaan is made a brother of Mizraim, or Egypt. For +a while it obeyed the same sovereign and was administered +by the same laws; the natives of Canaan +held office in the court of the Pharaoh, and Egyptian +governors ruled in the Canaanitish cities. It was +not until after the death of Ramses <hi rend='smallcaps'>ii.</hi>, of the nineteenth +dynasty, and about the very time when the +Israelites were escaping from their house of bondage, +that Canaan ceased to be an Egyptian dependency. +From that time forward it was politically and +geographically severed from the valley of the Nile, +and the geographer could never again couple it with +the land of Egypt. +</p> + +<p> +When Khu-n-Aten was Pharaoh, the cities of +Canaan were numerous and wealthy. The people +were highly cultured, and excelled especially as +<pb n='070'/><anchor id='Pg070'/> +workers in gold and silver, as manufacturers of +porcelain and vari-coloured glass, and as weavers of +richly-dyed linen. Their merchants already traded +to distant parts of the known world. The governors +appointed by the Pharaoh were for the most part of +native origin, and at times a representative of the +old line of kings was left among them, though an +Egyptian prefect was often placed at his side. The +governors were controlled by the presence of +Egyptian garrisons, as well as by the visits of an +Egyptian <q>commissioner.</q> Their rivalries and +quarrels form the subject of many of the letters which +have been found at Tel el-Amarna, both sides appealing +to the Pharaoh for protection and help, and alike +protesting their loyalty to him. It seems to have +been the part of Egyptian policy to encourage these +quarrels, or at all events to hold an even balance +between the rival governors. +</p> + +<p> +As long as the power of Egypt remained intact, +<emph>these quarrels</emph>, which sometimes <emph>resulted in open war</emph>, +offered no cause for alarm. Egyptian troops could +always be sent to the scene of disturbance before it +could become dangerous. But in the troublous days +of Khu-n-Aten's reign, when Egypt itself was restless +and inclined for revolt, the position of affairs was +changed. The Egyptian forces were needed at home, +and the Pharaoh was compelled to turn a deaf ear +<pb n='071'/><anchor id='Pg071'/> +to the piteous appeals that were made to him for +assistance. The enemies of Egyptian rule began to +multiply and grow powerful. In the south the +Khabiri or <q>Confederates</q> threatened the Egyptian +domination; in the north, Amorite rebels intrigued +with the Hittites and with the kings of Naharaim and +Babylonia, while in all parts of Palestine the Sute +or Bedouin were perpetually on the watch to take +advantage of the weakness of the government. +</p> + +<p> +It was the vassal-king of Jerusalem, Ebed-tob by +name, who was especially menaced by the Khabiri. +In his letters he describes himself as unlike the other +governors, in that he had been appointed to his office +by the <q>arm</q> or <q>oracle</q> of <q>the Mighty King,</q> the +supreme deity of his city. It was not from his father +or his mother, consequently, that he had derived his +royal dignity. He was, in fact, a priest-king, like +his predecessor Melchizedek, to whom Abram had +paid tithes. Ebed-tob, however, was unable to make +head against his enemies the Khabiri. One by one +the towns which were included in the territory of +Jerusalem, from Keilah and Gath-Karmel to Rabbah, +fell into their hands; the Pharaoh was unable to send +him the help for which he so earnestly begged, and +we finally hear of his having fallen into the hands of +his Bedouin enemy, Labai, along with the cities of +which he was in charge. Labai was in alliance with +<pb n='072'/><anchor id='Pg072'/> +a certain Malchiel, who also writes letters to the +Egyptian monarch, as well as with Tagi of Gath and +the Khabiri. The latter seem to have given the +name of Hebron, <q>the Confederacy,</q> to the old city +of Kirjath-Arba. +</p> + +<p> +Megiddo was the seat of an Egyptian governor, +like Gaza, near Shechem. The name of Shechem has +not been found in the Tel el-Amarna tablets, but a +reference is made to its <q>mountain,</q> in the <hi rend='italic'>Travels of +a Mohar</hi>. Either Mount Ebal or Mount Gerizim +must consequently have been already well known in +Egypt. Another Egyptian governor was in command +of Phœnicia. Gebal, north of Beyrût, was his +chief residence, but he had palaces also at Tyre and +Zemar, in the mountains of the interior. In one of +his letters he alludes to the wealth of Tyre, which +must therefore have been already famous. +</p> + +<p> +Phœnicia and Palestine are alike included under +the name of <q>Canaan</q> in the cuneiform documents, +though in the hieroglyphic records they are called +Zahi and Khal (or Khar). North of Palestine came +<q>the land of the Amorites,</q> of which Ebed-Asherah +and his son, Aziru or Ezer, were governors, and to +the east of the Jordan was <q>the field of Bashan.</q> +The Egyptian supremacy was acknowledged as far +south as the frontier of Edom; the latter country +preserved its independence. +</p> + +<pb n='073'/><anchor id='Pg073'/> + +<p> +Such was the condition of Canaan when the cuneiform +correspondence of Tel el-Amarna comes suddenly +to an end. The death of Khu-n-Aten had +been the signal for a revolt against the faith which he +had endeavoured to impose upon Egypt, as well as +against the Asiatic influences by which he had been +surrounded. He left daughters only behind him. +One of them was married to a prince who, in order +to secure the throne, was forced to return to the old +religion of the country, and to call himself by the +name of Tutânkh-Amon. But his reign was short, +like those of one or two other relations and followers +of Khu-n-Aten who have left traces of themselves +upon the monuments. A rival king, Ai by name, +held possession of Egypt for a while, and after his +death Hor-m-hib, the Armais of Manetho, ruled once +more at Thebes over a united Egypt, and the worship +of the solar disk was at end. +</p> + +<p> +But the ruins of Tel el-Amarna show that the +restoration of the old creed and the overthrow of +Khu-n-Aten's adherents had not been without a +struggle. Most of the tombs in the cliffs and sandhills +which surround the old city have been unfinished: +the followers of the new cult for whom +they were intended have never been allowed to +occupy them. The royal sepulchre itself, as we +have seen, is in an equally unfinished condition, and +<pb n='074'/><anchor id='Pg074'/> +the sarcophagus in which the body of the king rested +was violated soon after his mummy had been placed +in it. Indeed, it had never been deposited in the +niche that had been cut to receive it; its shattered +fragments were discovered far away on the floor of +the great columned hall. The capital of the <q>heretic +king</q> was destroyed by its enemies soon after his +death, and never inhabited again. The ruins of its +palace and houses were full of broken statues and +other objects which their owners had no time to +carry away. The city lasted only for about thirty +years, and the sands of the desert then began to +close over its fallen greatness. How sudden and +complete must have been its overthrow is proved by +the cuneiform tablets; not only were these imperial +archives not carried elsewhere, the correspondence +contained in them breaks off suddenly with a half-told +tale of disaster and dismay. The Asiatic empire +of Egypt is falling to pieces, its enemies are enclosing +it on every side; the Hittites have robbed it of its +northern provinces, and revolt is shaking it from +within. The governors and vassals of the Pharaoh +send more and more urgent requests for instant aid: +<q>If troops come this year, then there will remain +both provinces and governors to the king, my lord; +but if no troops come, no provinces or governors +will remain.</q> But no answer was returned to these +<pb n='075'/><anchor id='Pg075'/> +pressing appeals, and the sudden cessation of the +correspondence under the ruins of the Egyptian +foreign office itself gives us the reason why. +</p> + +<p> +One of the first acts of Hor-m-hib after the settlement +of affairs at home was to chastise the Asiatics, +who had doubtless taken advantage of the momentary +weakness of Egypt. With the death of Hor-m-hib, +after a reign of five years,<note place='foot'>This is the length of the reign as given by Manetho, and with +this agree all the dated monuments of Hor-m-hib, with the exception +of a fragment in the British Museum (<hi rend='italic'>Egyptian Inscriptions</hi>, 5624), +which has been supposed to refer to his seventh and twenty-first years. +But the king to whom these dates refer is uncertain, and Dr. Birch +may be right in considering that Amenôphis is meant.</note> the eighteenth dynasty +came to an end. Ramses <hi rend='smallcaps'>i.</hi>, the founder of the nineteenth +dynasty, introduced a new type of royal name, +and also, as we learn from the monuments, a new type +of royal face. After a short reign of two years, he +was succeeded by his son, Seti <hi rend='smallcaps'>i.</hi>, in whose name we +have an evidence that the proscribed worship of the +god Set—the god of the Delta—was again taken +under royal patronage. It was an indication that the +new dynasty traced its descent from northern Egypt. +</p> + +<p> +Seti <hi rend='smallcaps'>i.</hi> once more led the Egyptian armies to +victory in Asia. With the spoils of conquest temples +were built and decorated, and the names of conquered +nations engraved upon their walls. One of +these temples was at Abydos, the most beautiful of +<pb n='076'/><anchor id='Pg076'/> +all those which have been left to us in Egypt. But +Seti's fame as a builder was far eclipsed by that of +his son and successor, Ramses <hi rend='smallcaps'>ii.</hi>, and even the +temples which he had raised at Abydos and Qurnah +were completed, and to a certain extent appropriated, +by his better-known son. +</p> + +<p> +We are told in the Book of Exodus that two of +the <q>treasure cities</q> which the Israelites built for the +Pharaoh of the Oppression were <q>Pithom and +Raamses.</q> The discovery of Pithom was, as we +have already seen, the inaugural work of the Egypt +Exploration Fund. The discovery, as has been +already stated, was made by Dr. Naville, who was +led to the site by certain monuments of Ramses <hi rend='smallcaps'>ii.</hi>, +which had been found there by the French engineers +of M. de Lesseps. These monuments consisted of a +great tablet and monolith of red granite, two +sphinxes of exquisitely polished black granite, and +a broken shrine of red sandstone which had been +transported to Ismailîyeh, where they formed the +chief ornament of the little public garden. As they +all showed that Tum, the setting sun, was the +supreme deity of the place from which they had +come, Dr. Naville concluded that it would prove to +be Pi-Tum, <q>the abode of Tum,</q> the Pithom of +Scripture, and not the companion city of Raamses, as +Lepsius had believed. +</p> + +<pb n='077'/><anchor id='Pg077'/> + +<p> +The mounds from which the monuments had +been disinterred are about twelve miles to the west +of Ismailîyeh, and are called Tel el-Maskhuteh, <q>the +Mound of the Image.</q> In the last century, however, +they were known as Abu Kêshêd, and were famous +for a half-buried monolith of granite representing +Ramses <hi rend='smallcaps'>ii.</hi> seated between Tum and Râ, the hieroglyphic +inscription on the back of which has been +published by Sir Gardner Wilkinson. The canal +made by the Pharaohs for uniting the Nile with the +Red Sea, and afterwards cleared of the sand that +choked it by Darius, by Trajan, and by the Arab +conqueror 'Amru, skirted the southern side of the +mounds. At present the modern Freshwater Canal +runs along their northern edge, to the north of which +again is the line of the railway from Cairo to Suez. +The fortifications erected by Arabi, however, hide the +site of the old city from the traveller in the train. +</p> + +<p> +Dr. Naville's excavations proved him to have +been right in identifying Tel el-Maskhuteh with +Pithom. The inscriptions he found there showed +that its ancient name was Pi-Tum, and that it stood +in the district of Thukut, the Succoth of the Old +Testament. The name of this district was already +known from papyri of the age of the nineteenth +dynasty, and Dr. Brugsch had pointed out its identity +with the Biblical Succoth. +</p> + +<pb n='078'/><anchor id='Pg078'/> + +<p> +But the discovery of the ancient name was not +the only result of the explorer's work. It turned out +that the city had been built by Ramses <hi rend='smallcaps'>ii.</hi>, and that +it contained a number of large brick buildings which +seem to have been intended for magazines. Here, +then, at last was a proof that the Egyptologists +were correct in making Ramses <hi rend='smallcaps'>ii.</hi> the Pharaoh of +the Oppression. +</p> + +<p> +The site of Raamses or Ramses, the companion +city of Pithom, has still to be discovered. But it +cannot be far distant from Tel el-Maskhuteh, and, +like the latter, must have been in that land of Goshen +in which the Israelites were settled. The discoveries +which enabled Dr. Naville to determine the boundaries +of the land of Goshen and to fix the site of its +ancient capital have already been described. The site +of Zoan, the modern Sân, had long been known, and +the excavations, first of Mariette Pasha and then of +Professor Flinders Petrie, have laid bare the foundations +of its temple and brought to light the monuments +of the kings who enriched and adorned it. +Built originally in the age of the Old Empire, it was +restored by the Hyksos conquerors of Egypt, and +became under them a centre of influence and power. +</p> + +<p> +Goshen, Zoan and Pithom, the sites around which +the early history of Israel gathered, have thus been +brought to light. The disputes which have raged +<pb n='079'/><anchor id='Pg079'/> +about them are at last ended. Here and there a +persistent sceptic, who has been reared in the traditions +of the past, may still express doubts concerning +the discoveries of recent years, but for the Egyptologist +and the archæologist the question has been +finally settled. We can visit <q>the field of Zoan</q> and +explore the mounds of Pithom with no misgivings as +to their identity. When the train carries us from +Ismailîyeh to Cairo, we may feel assured that we are +passing through the district in which Jacob and his +family were settled, and where the kinsfolk of Moses +had their homes. The Egypt of the patriarchs and +the Exodus was an Egypt narrow in compass and +easily traversed in these days of steam; it represented +the western part of the Delta, more especially +the strip of cultivable land which stretches along the +banks of the Freshwater Canal from Zagazig to +Ismailîyeh: that is all. The eastern and northern +Delta, Upper Egypt—even the district in which Cairo +now stands—lay outside it. The history which attaches +itself to them is not the history of the early +Israelites. +</p> + +</div> + +<pb n='080'/><anchor id='Pg080'/> + +<div rend='page-break-before: always'> +<index index='toc'/> +<index index='pdf'/> +<head>Chapter III. The Exodus And The Hebrew Settlement +In Canaan.</head> + +<p> +Ramses <hi rend='smallcaps'>ii.</hi> was the last of the conquering Pharaohs +of native Egyptian history. The Asiatic empire of +Thothmes <hi rend='smallcaps'>iii.</hi> was in some measure restored by the +victories of his father and himself. The cities of +Palestine yielded him an unwilling obedience. Gaza, +and the other towns in what was afterwards the +territory of the Philistines, were garrisoned by +Egyptian troops, and on the walls of the Ramesseum +were depicted his conquest of Shalem or Jerusalem, +Merom, Beth-Anath, and other Canaanite states, in +his eighth year. Egyptian armies again marched +northward into Syria along the highroad that led +past the Phœnician cities, and on the banks of the +Nahr el-Kelb, or Dog's River, near Beyrût, the +Pharaoh erected a tablet in commemoration of his +successes. On the eastern side of the Jordan also +Egyptian authority once more prevailed. In front +of the northern pylon of the temple of Luxor, Ramses +<pb n='081'/><anchor id='Pg081'/> +erected six colossal figures of himself, and on their +recently-uncovered bases are inscribed the names of +the various nations he claimed to have subdued. +Among them we find, for the first time in the +Egyptian records, the name of Moab, following +immediately upon that of Assar, the Asshurim of +Genesis xxv. 3. That the insertion of the name was +not an idle boast we learn from a discovery lately +made by Dr. Schumacher. On the eastern side of +the Jordan, but at no great distance from the Lake +of Tiberias, is a monolith called the <q>Stone of Job.</q> +On this the German explorer has found Egyptian +sculptures and hieroglyphs. Above the figure of the +Pharaoh are the cartouches of Ramses <hi rend='smallcaps'>ii.</hi>, and opposite +the king, on the left, a local deity is represented with +a full face and the crown of Osiris, over whom is +written the name of Akna-zapn, or <q>Yakin of the +North.</q> The monument is an evidence of a permanent +occupation of the country by the Egyptians, +as the name and figure of the god indicate that it +was erected, not by the Egyptians themselves, but +by the Egyptianised natives of the land. +</p> + +<p> +Along the Syrian coast Seti <hi rend='smallcaps'>i.</hi> had already carried +his arms. His campaigns were followed by those of +his son. Arvad, the shores of the Gulf of Antioch, +and even Cilicia, are enumerated among the conquests +of the Pharaoh. He even claims to have +<pb n='082'/><anchor id='Pg082'/> +defeated the armies of Assyria, of Matena or Mitanni, +the Aram-Naharaim of Scripture, and of Singar in +Mesopotamia. At Luxor, on the western walls of +the newly excavated court, we hear of his having +been at Tunip (now Tennib), <q>in the land of Naharaim,</q> +of his capture of a fortress of the Kati in the +same district, and of how <q>the Pharaoh</q> had taken +a city in <q>the land of Satuna.</q> Satuna was one of +those countries in the far north whose name is never +mentioned elsewhere in the Egyptian texts. +</p> + +<p> +The Syrian conquests, however, could never have +been long in the Pharaoh's possession. Between +them and Palestine lay the southern outposts of the +Hittite race. In the troublous times which followed +the death of Khu-n-Aten, the Hittites had overrun +<q>the land of the Amorites</q> to the north of Canaan, +and fixed their southern capital in the holy city of +Kadesh, on the Orontes. It was a stronghold against +which the forces of Ramses were hurled in vain. +For twenty years did the struggle continue between +the Pharaoh of Egypt and <q>the great king of the +Hittites,</q> and at last, exhausted by the long conflict, +in which neither party had gained the advantage, +the two enemies agreed upon peace. A treaty was +signed on the twenty-first of the month Tybi, in +the twenty-first year of the reign of Ramses (<hi rend='smallcaps'>b.c.</hi> +1327), <q>in the city of Ramses,</q> to which the Hittite +<pb n='083'/><anchor id='Pg083'/> +ambassadors had come. Ramses, on the one side, +and Khita-sir, the son of Mul-sir, the Hittite prince, +on the other, bound themselves in it to eternal friendship +and alliance. In case of war they were to send +troops to one another's help, and they agreed to put +to death any criminals who might fly from the one +country to the other. Political offenders, however, +who had taken refuge in the territory of one or +other of the two contracting parties, were not to be +injured. It was of course the Canaanitish subjects +of the Pharaoh, who adjoined the Hittite kingdom, +that were principally affected by these stipulations. +It was further determined that on no pretext whatever +should any change be made in the boundaries +of the two monarchies. The treaty was placed under +the protection of the deities of Egypt and the +Hittites, and a Hittite copy of it was engraved on +a silver plate. The agreement was cemented by the +marriage of Ramses to a daughter of the Hittite +king, who thereupon assumed an Egyptian name. +</p> + +<p> +Northern Syria was thus formally conceded to +the powerful conquerors who had descended from +the mountains of Kappadokia, while Palestine remained +under Egyptian dominion. But it was not +destined to do so long. Ramses was succeeded by +Meneptah, the fourteenth of his many sons, who had +reigned only four years when the very existence of +<pb n='084'/><anchor id='Pg084'/> +his kingdom was threatened by a formidable invasion +from the west and north. <q>The peoples of the north</q> +swarmed out of their coasts and islands, and a great +fleet descended upon Egypt, in conjunction with the +Libyans and Maxyes of northern Africa. Aqaiush +or Achæans, Shardana or Sardinians, Tursha or +Tyrsenians appear among them, as well as Leku +from Asia Minor, and Zakkur, who a little later +are the colleagues and brethren of the Philistines. +Part of the Delta was overrun and devastated before +the Pharaoh could make head against his foes. But a +decisive battle was at length fought at Pa-Alu-sheps, +not far from Heliopolis, which ended in the complete +overthrow of the invading hordes. Egypt was +saved from the danger which had threatened it, but +it seems never to have recovered from the shock. +The power of the government was weakened in +the valley of the Nile itself, and one by one the +foreign conquests passed out of its grasp. The +sceptre of Seti <hi rend='smallcaps'>ii.</hi>, who followed Meneptah, seems +to have dropped into the hands of a usurper, Amon-messu +by name: the history of the period is, however, +involved in obscurity, and all that is certain is +that the empire of Ramses <hi rend='smallcaps'>ii.</hi> was lost, and that +Egypt itself fell into a state of decadence. With +Si-Ptah the nineteenth dynasty came to an inglorious +end. +</p> + +<pb n='085'/><anchor id='Pg085'/> + +<p> +Its fall was the signal for internal confusion and +civil war. A Syrian foreigner, Arisu by name, +possessed himself of the throne of the Pharaohs, +and Egypt for a while was compelled to submit +to Canaanitish rule. Its leading nobles were in +banishment, its gods were deprived of their customary +offerings, and famine was added to the horrors of +war. A deliverer came in the person of Set-nekht, +the founder of the twentieth dynasty. He drove +the stranger out the country, and restored it again +to peace and prosperity. Hardly had his task been +completed when he died, and was succeeded by his +son, Ramses <hi rend='smallcaps'>iii.</hi> Under him a transient gleam of +victory and conquest visited once more the valley +of the Nile. +</p> + +<p> +It was well for Egypt that she possessed an +energetic general and king. The same hordes which +had threatened her in the reign of Meneptah now +again attacked her with increased numbers and +greater chances of success. In the fifth year of +Ramses <hi rend='smallcaps'>iii.</hi>, the fair-skinned tribes of the western +desert poured into the Delta. The Maxyes, under +their chieftains Mdidi, Mâshakanu, and Mâraiu, and +the Libyans, under Ur-mâr and Zut-mâr, met the +Pharaoh in battle at a place which ever afterwards +bore a name commemorative of their defeat. The +victory of the Egyptians was, in fact, decisive. As +<pb n='086'/><anchor id='Pg086'/> +many as 12,535 slain were counted on the field of +battle, and captives and spoil innumerable fell into +the hands of the victors. +</p> + +<p> +But Ramses was allowed only a short breathing-space. +Three years after the Libyan invasion, and +doubtless in connection with it, came a still more +formidable invasion on the part of the barbarians +of the north. This time they came partly by land, +partly by sea. Vast hordes of them had marched +out of Asia Minor, overrunning the kingdoms of +the Hittites, of Naharaim, of Carchemish, and of +Arvad, and carrying with them adventurers and recruits +from the countries through which they passed. +First they pitched their camp in <q>the land of the +Amorites,</q> and then marched southward towards the +frontiers of Egypt. The place of the Aqaiush was +taken by the Daanau or Danaans, but the Zakkur +again formed part of the invading host, this time +accompanied by Pulsata or Philistines, and Shakalsh +or Siculians. By the side of the land army moved +a fleet of ships, and fleet and army arrived together +at the mouths of the Nile. The cities in the extreme +south of Palestine, once occupied by Egyptian +garrisons, were captured by the Philistines, and +became henceforward their assured possession. +</p> + +<p> +But the main body of the invaders were not so +fortunate. The Egyptian forces were ready to +<pb n='087'/><anchor id='Pg087'/> +receive them, and their ships had scarcely entered +the mouth of the Nile before they were attacked +by the Egyptian fleet. The battle ended in the +complete annihilation of the attacking host. A +picture of it is sculptured on the walls of Medînet +Habu at Thebes, the temple-palace which Ramses +built to commemorate his victories, and we can +there study the ships of the European barbarians +and the features and dress of the barbarians themselves. +In the expressive words of the Egyptian +scribe, <q>they never reaped a harvest any more.</q> +</p> + +<p> +Ramses, however, was even now not left at rest. +Three years later the Maxyes again assailed Egypt +under Mashashal, the son of Kapur, but once more +unsuccessfully. Cattle, horses, asses, chariots and +weapons of war in large quantities fell into the hands +of the Egyptians, as well as 2052 captives, while +2175 men were slain. From this time forward Egypt +was secure from attack on its western border. +</p> + +<p> +Freed from the necessity of defending his own +territories, Ramses now carried the war into Asia. +What in later days was the land of Judah was +overrun by his forces; Gaza and the districts round +Hebron and Salem or Jerusalem were occupied, and +the name of the Dead Sea appears on the walls +of Medînet Habu for the first time in Egyptian +history. The Egyptian army even crossed to the +<pb n='088'/><anchor id='Pg088'/> +eastern side of the Jordan and captured the Moabite +capital. +</p> + +<p> +Another campaign led it along the Phœnician +coast into northern Syria. Hamath was taken, and +Ramses seems to have penetrated as far as the slopes +of the Taurus. He even claims to have defeated +the people of Mitanni or Aram-Naharaim on the +eastern bank of the Euphrates. The kings of the +Hittites and the Amorites, like the chiefs of the +Zakkur and the Philistines, were already prisoners +in his hands. +</p> + +<p> +But the northern campaigns of Ramses were intended +to strike terror rather than to re-establish +the Asiatic empire of Egypt. No attempt was made +to hold the cities and districts which had been overrun. +Though a temple was erected to Amon on +the frontiers of the later Judæa, even Gaza was +given up, and the fortress which had so long +defended the road from Canaan into Egypt was +allowed to pass into Philistine hands. It was the +same with the campaign which the Pharaoh conducted +at a later date against the <q>Shasu</q> or +Bedouin of Edom. For the first time an Egyptian +army succeeded in making its way into the fastnesses +of Mount Seir, slaying the warriors of Edom, +and plundering their <q>tents.</q> The Edomite chief +himself was made a prisoner. The expedition +<pb n='089'/><anchor id='Pg089'/> +had the effect of protecting the Egyptian mining +establishments in the Sinaitic peninsula as well as +the maritime trade with southern Arabia. Large +quantities of malachite were brought year by year +from the Egyptian province of Mafka or Sinai, and +the merchant-vessels of Ramses coasted along the +Red Sea, bringing back with them the precious spices +of Yemen and Hadhramaut. +</p> + +<p> +Ramses <hi rend='smallcaps'>iii.</hi> died after a reign of more than thirty-two +years, and the military renown of Egypt expired +with him. His exact date is still a matter of doubt, +but his accession must have fallen about <hi rend='smallcaps'>b.c.</hi> 1200. +The date is important, not only because it closes +the history of Egypt as a conquering power, but +also as it marks a great era of migration among +the northern populations of the Mediterranean, as +well as the permanent settlement of the Philistines +in Palestine. It was, moreover, the period to which +the Israelitish invasion of Canaan must belong. +</p> + +<p> +When Ramses <hi rend='smallcaps'>iii.</hi> overran the southern portion +of Palestine, and built the temple of the Theban +god at the spot now known as Khurbet Kan'an, +not far from Hebron, the Israelites could not as yet +have entered the Promised Land. There is no reference +to the Egyptians in the Pentateuch, and there +is no reference to the Israelites in the hieroglyphic +texts of Medînet Habu. Hebron, Migdal, Karmel +<pb n='090'/><anchor id='Pg090'/> +of Judah, Ir-Shemesh and Hadashah, all alike fell +into the hands of the Egyptian invaders, but neither +in the Egyptian nor in the Hebrew records is there +any allusion to a struggle between Egypt and Israel. +When Joshua entered Canaan all these cities belonged +to the Canaanites, and when Ramses <hi rend='smallcaps'>iii.</hi> +attacked them this was also the case. The Palestinian +campaign of Ramses must have prepared the +way for the Israelitish conquest; it could not have +followed after it. +</p> + +<p> +Moreover, <q>the five lords of the Philistines</q> seem +to have already been settled in the extreme south +when the Israelitish invasion took place (Josh. xiii. 3). +Yet it also seems clear from the Egyptian monuments +that the settlement was not fully completed +until after the Asiatic campaigns of the Pharaoh had +occurred. The Philistines indeed formed part of +the great invading host which poured through Syria +and assailed Egypt in the early part of his reign, +but Gaza was one of his conquests, and its possession +enabled him to march into Canaan. Before Gaza +could become a Philistine city it was needful that +its Egyptian garrison should be withdrawn. Professor +Prášek believes that the Philistine occupation +of southern Canaan took place in the year <hi rend='smallcaps'>b.c.</hi> 1209, +since the Roman historian Justin tells us that in +this year a king of Ashkelon stormed the city of +<pb n='091'/><anchor id='Pg091'/> +Sidon, and that the Sidonians fled to a neighbouring +part of the coast, and there founded Tyre. However +this may be, the Philistine settlement in Canaan +must be ascribed to the age of Ramses <hi rend='smallcaps'>iii.</hi>, and it +was already with the Philistines that the Israelites +came into conflict under almost the earliest of their +judges. +</p> + +<p> +But the date of the Israelitish conquest of Canaan +is closely bound up with that of the Exodus out of +Egypt. It is true that when we are told of the +forty years' wandering in the desert, the word <q>forty</q> +is used, as it is elsewhere in the Old Testament, as +well as upon the Moabite Stone, to denote an indeterminate +period of time. It was a period during +which the greater part of the generation that had +left Egypt had time to die. Joshua and Caleb +indeed remained, and Othniel, the brother of Caleb, +lived to deliver Israel from the king of Aram-Naharaim, +and to be the first of the judges. But otherwise +it was a new generation which was led to conquest +by Joshua. +</p> + +<p> +If Ramses <hi rend='smallcaps'>ii.</hi> was the Pharaoh of the Oppression, +the Pharaoh of the Exodus must have been one of his +immediate successors. Egyptologists have hesitated +between Meneptah, Seti <hi rend='smallcaps'>ii.</hi>, and Si-Ptah. There is +much to be said in favour of each. None of them +reigned long, and after the death of Meneptah the +<pb n='092'/><anchor id='Pg092'/> +sceptre fell into feeble hands, and the Egyptian +monarchy went rapidly to decay. +</p> + +<p> +Native tradition, as reported by the historian +Manetho, made Meneptah the Pharaoh under whom +the children of Israel escaped from their house of +bondage. Amenôphis or Meneptah, it was said, +desired to see the gods. He was accordingly instructed +by the seer Amenôphis, the son of Pa-apis, +to clear the land of the leprous and impure. This +he did, and 80,000 persons were collected from all +parts of Egypt, and were then separated from the +other inhabitants of the country and compelled to +work in the quarries of Tûra, on the eastern side +of the Nile. Among them there happened to be +some priests, one of whom was Osarsiph, a priest +of On, and the sacrilegious act of laying hands on +them was destined to be avenged by the gods. The +seer prophesied that the impure lepers would find +allies, and with their help would govern Egypt for +thirteen years, when a saviour should arise in the +person of Amenôphis himself. Not daring to tell +the king of this prediction, he put it in writing and +then took away his own life. After a time the +workers in the quarries were removed to Avaris, the +deserted fortress of the Hyksos, on the Asiatic +frontier of the Egyptian kingdom. Here they rose in +rebellion under Osarsiph, who organised them into a +<pb n='093'/><anchor id='Pg093'/> +community, and gave them new laws, forbidding them +to revere the sacred animals, and ordering them to +rebuild the walls of Avaris. He also sent to the +descendants of the Hyksos at Jerusalem, begging +for their assistance. A force of 200,000 men was +accordingly despatched to Avaris, and the invasion of +Egypt decided on. Amenôphis retired into Ethiopia +without striking a blow, carrying with him his son +Sethos, who was also called Ramesses after his +grandfather, as well as the sacred bull Apis, and +other holy animals. The images of the gods were +concealed, lest they should be profaned by the invaders. +Amenôphis remained in Ethiopia for thirteen +years, while Osarsiph, who had taken the name +of Moses, together with his allies from Jerusalem, +committed innumerable atrocities. At last, however, +Amenôphis and his son Sethos returned, each at the +head of an army; the enemy were defeated and overthrown, +and finally pursued to the borders of Syria. +</p> + +<p> +The tradition is a curious mixture of fact and +legend. Osarsiph is but an Egyptianised form of +Joseph, the first syllable of which has been explained +as representing the god of Israel (as in Ps. lxxxi. 5), +and has accordingly been identified with Osar or +Osiris. The ancient Egyptian habit of regarding the +foreigner as impure has been interpreted to mean +that the followers of Osarsiph were lepers. The +<pb n='094'/><anchor id='Pg094'/> +Exodus of the Israelites has been confounded with +the invasion of the northern barbarians in the reign +of Meneptah, as well as with the troublous period +that saw the fall of the nineteenth dynasty when the +throne of Egypt was seized by the Syrian Arisu. And, +lastly, the hated Hyksos have been introduced into +the story; their fortress Avaris is made the rallying-place +of the revolted lepers, and it is through the help +they send from Jerusalem that the rule of Osarsiph +or Moses is established in the valley of the Nile. +</p> + +<p> +An interesting commentary on the legend has +been furnished by a papyrus lately acquired by M. +Golénischeff, and dating from the age of Thothmes +<hi rend='smallcaps'>iii.</hi> On the last page is a sort of Messianic prophecy, +the hero of which has the name of Ameni, a shortened +form of Amenôphis. <q>A king,</q> it says, <q>will come +from the south, Ameni the truth-declaring by name. +He will be the son of a woman of Nubia, and will be +born in.... He will assume the crown of Upper +Egypt, and will lift up the red crown of Lower Egypt. +He will unite the double crown.... The people of +the age of the son of man (<hi rend='italic'>sic</hi>) will rejoice and +establish his name for all eternity. They will be far +from evil, and the wicked will humble their mouths +for fear of him. The Asiatics (Âmu) will fall before +his blows, and the Libyans before his flame. The +wicked will wait on his judgments, the rebels on his +<pb n='095'/><anchor id='Pg095'/> +power. The royal serpent on his brow will pacify +the revolted. A wall shall be built, even that of the +prince, so that the Asiatics may no more enter into +Egypt.</q> In this Ameni we should probably see the +Amenôphis of the Manethonian story. +</p> + +<p> +Against the identification of Meneptah with the +Pharaoh of the Exodus it has, however, been urged +that he seems on the whole to have been a successful +prince. His kingdom passed safely through the +shock of the Libyan and northern invasions, and +notices which have survived to us show that, at all +events in the earlier part of his reign, Gaza and the +neighbouring towns still acknowledged his authority. +At Zaru, on the Asiatic frontier of Egypt, a young +scribe, Pa-ebpasa by name, was stationed, whose duty +it was to keep a record of all those who entered or +left the country by <q>the way of the Philistines.</q> +Some of his notes, made in the third year of +Meneptah, are entered on the back of his school copybook, +which is now in the British Museum. One of +them tells us that on the fifteenth of Pakhons Baal— ... the +son of Zippor of Gaza, passed through with a +letter to Baal-marom(?)-ga[b]u, the prince of Tyre; +another that Thoth, the son of Zakarumu, and the +policeman Duthau, the son of Shem-baal, as well as +Sutekh-mes, the son of Epher-dagal, had come from +Gaza with a message to the king. +</p> + +<pb n='096'/><anchor id='Pg096'/> + +<p> +A curious despatch, dated in Meneptah's eighth +year, goes to show that at that time the kinsfolk of +the Israelites still had liberty to pass from the desert +into the land of Goshen and there find pasturage for +their flocks. One of his officials informs him that +certain Shasu or Bedouin from Edom had been +allowed to pass the Khetam or fortress of Meneptah +Hotep-hima in the district of Succoth, and make +their way to the lakes of the city of Pithom, in +the district of Succoth, <q>in order to feed themselves +and their herds on the possessions of Pharaoh, +who is there a beneficent sun for all peoples.</q> +The document may be interpreted in two ways. It +may be taken as a proof that the Israelites had not +yet fled from Egypt, and that there was consequently +as yet no restraint placed by the Egyptians upon +the entrance of the Asiatic nomads into their country, +or it may be regarded as implying that the land of +Goshen was already deserted, so that there was +abundance of room for both shepherds and flocks. +On behalf of this view a passage may be quoted from +the great inscription of Meneptah at Karnak, in +which we read that <q>the country around Pa-Bailos +(the modern Belbeis) was not cultivated, but left as +pasture for cattle because of the strangers. It was +abandoned since the time of the ancestors.</q> More +probably, however, this means that the land in +<pb n='097'/><anchor id='Pg097'/> +question was not inhabited by Egyptian <foreign rend='italic'>fellahin</foreign>, but +given over to the Hebrew shepherds and the <q>mixed +multitude</q> of their Bedouin kinsmen. +</p> + +<p> +A more serious objection to making Meneptah +the Pharaoh of the Exodus is the fact that his son +Seti <hi rend='smallcaps'>ii.</hi> was already acknowledged as heir to the +throne during his father's lifetime. The <q>tale of the +two brothers,</q> to which we have already had to refer, +was dedicated to him while he was still crown-prince. +Indeed, it would even appear that he was associated +with his father on the throne, since the cartouches of +Meneptah and Seti <hi rend='smallcaps'>ii.</hi> are found side by side in the +rock-temple of Surarîyeh. It would seem, therefore, +that the first-born of the Pharaoh, who was destroyed +on the night of the Passover, could not have been a +son of Meneptah—at all events, if his heir and future +successor were his first-born son. That Meneptah +should have been buried in one of the royal tombs +of Bibân el-Molûk at Thebes, and received divine +honours after his death, is of less consequence. As +has often been remarked, no mention is made in +the narrative of the Exodus that the Pharaoh +himself was drowned, and though Meneptah's +tomb (No. 8) is unfinished, the cult that was +paid to his memory indicates that his mummy +was deposited in it. It was plundered centuries +ago, and the numerous Greek inscriptions on its +<pb n='098'/><anchor id='Pg098'/> +walls make it clear that it was open to visitors in +the Roman age. +</p> + +<p> +Professor Maspero has suggested that the Pharaoh +of the Bible was Seti <hi rend='smallcaps'>ii.</hi> We know that Seti must +have been a weak prince, and that his rule was disputed. +A usurper, Amon-messu by name, seized the +crown either during his lifetime or at his death, and +governed at Thebes, while the authority of the lawful +line of princes was still acknowledged in the north. +We also know that he must have died suddenly, for +his tomb at Thebes (No. 15), though begun magnificently, +was never finished. Its galleries and halls +were hewn out of the rock, but never adorned with +sculptures and paintings, and, except at the entrance, +we have merely outline sketches, which were never +filled in. His cartouches, however, are found in +another tomb, not far off (No. 13), and after his death +worship was paid to him and his wife. +</p> + +<p> +A despatch, written during his reign, relates to +the escape of two fugitives who had travelled along +the very road which the Israelites attempted to take. +The scribe tells us that he set out in pursuit of them +from the royal city of Ramses on the evening of the +9th of Epiphi, and had arrived at the Khetam or +fortress of Succoth the following day. Two days later +he reached another Khetam, and there learned that the +slaves were already safe in the desert, having passed +<pb n='099'/><anchor id='Pg099'/> +the lines of fortification to the north of the Migdol of +King Seti. The account is an interesting illustration +of the flight, on a far larger scale, that must have +taken place about the same time. The geography of +the despatch is in close harmony with that of the +Book of Exodus, and bears witness to the contemporaneousness +of the latter with the events it professes +to record. It is a geography which ceased to +be exact after the age of the nineteenth dynasty. +</p> + +<p> +It is thus possible that Seti <hi rend='smallcaps'>ii.</hi>, instead of Meneptah, +is the Pharaoh whose host perished in the waves +of the Red Sea. But there is yet another claimant +in Si-Ptah, with whom the nineteenth dynasty came +to an end. Dr. Kellogg has argued ably on behalf +of him, and it is possible that the views of this +scholar are correct. Si-Ptah's right to the throne was +derived from his wife, Ta-user, and he reigned at least +six years. That he followed Seti <hi rend='smallcaps'>ii.</hi> has long been +admitted, on the authority of Manetho, though +doubts have been cast on it in consequence of a statement +of Champollion that he found the name of Seti +written over that of Si-Ptah in the tomb of the latter +at Bibân el-Molûk (No. 14). All doubts, however, +are now set at rest by an inscription I copied at +Wadi Halfa two years ago, in which the writer, Hora, +the son of Kam, declares that he had formerly +belonged to the palace of Seti <hi rend='smallcaps'>ii.</hi>, and had engraved +<pb n='100'/><anchor id='Pg100'/> +the inscription in the third year of Si-Ptah. In +another inscription in the same place, dated also in +Si-Ptah's reign, the author states that he had been +an ambassador to the land of Khal or Syria. Intercourse +with Asia was therefore still maintained. +</p> + +<p> +Si-Ptah's tomb at Thebes was usurped by Setnekht, +the founder of the twentieth dynasty. It is +even doubtful whether the king for whom it was +made was ever buried in it. In the second sepulchral +hall the lid of his sarcophagus was discovered, but of +the sarcophagus itself there was no trace. Perhaps +it had been appropriated by Set-nekht. At any rate, +those who believe that the Pharaoh of the Exodus +perished in the Red Sea will find in Si-Ptah a better +representative of him than in Meneptah or Seti. +And the period of anarchy which followed upon his +death may be regarded as the natural sequel of the +disasters that befel Egypt before the children of +Israel were permitted to go. +</p> + +<p> +However this may be, the question of the date of +the Exodus is reduced to narrow limits. The three +successors of Ramses <hi rend='smallcaps'>ii.</hi> reigned altogether but a +short time. Manetho gives seven years only to Si-Ptah, +five years to Amon-messu, and we know from +the monuments that Meneptah and Seti <hi rend='smallcaps'>ii.</hi> can have +reigned but a very few years. Thirty or forty years +at most will have covered the period that elapsed +<pb n='101'/><anchor id='Pg101'/> +between the death of the great Ramses and the +downfall of his dynasty. Then came a few years of +confusion and anarchy, followed by the reign of Setnekht. +If we place the accession of Ramses <hi rend='smallcaps'>iii.</hi> in +<hi rend='smallcaps'>b.c.</hi> 1230, we cannot be far wrong. +</p> + +<p> +When that happened, the Israelites were hidden +out of the sight of the great nations of the world +among the solitudes of the desert. They were pitching +their tents on the frontiers of Mount Seir, in the +near neighbourhood of their kinsmen in Edom and +Midian. There, at Sinai and Kadesh-barnea, they +were receiving a code of laws, and being fitted to +become a nation and the conquerors of Canaan. +Were they included among the Shasu of Mount Seir +whose overthrow is commemorated by Ramses <hi rend='smallcaps'>iii.</hi>? +</p> + +<p> +For an answer we must turn to the twenty-first +chapter of the Book of Numbers. There we read +how it is said in the book of the wars of the Lord: +<q>Waheb in Suphah and the brooks of Arnon, and the +stream of the brook that goeth down to the dwelling +of Ar, and lieth upon the border of Moab.</q> Of the +war against the Amorites on the banks of the Arnon +we know something, but the Old Testament has preserved +no record of the other war, which had its scene +in Suphah. Where Suphah was we know from the +opening of the Book of Deuteronomy, which tells us +that the words of Moses were addressed to the people +<pb n='102'/><anchor id='Pg102'/> +<q>in the plain over against Suph.</q> Suph, in fact, was +the district which gave its name to the <foreign rend='italic'>yâm Sûph</foreign> or +<q>Sea of Suph,</q> the Red Sea of the authorised version, +the modern Gulf of Akabah. Here were the Edomite +ports of Eloth and Ezion-geber, where Solomon built +his fleet of merchantmen (1 Kings ix. 26), and here +too was the region which faced <q>the plain</q> on the +southern side of Moab. +</p> + +<p> +The barren ranges of Mount Seir run down southward +to Ezion-geber and Eloth, at the head of the +Gulf of Akabah. And it was just in the ranges of +Mount Seir that Ramses <hi rend='smallcaps'>iii.</hi> tells us he smote the +Shasu and plundered their tents. When he made +this expedition, the Israelites were probably still encamped +on the borders of Edom. They had not +as yet entered Canaan when he marched through +the later Judæa, and crossed the Jordan into Moab, +and his campaign against the Shasu of the desert +did not take place many years later. At Medînet +Habu, the <q>chief of the Shasu</q> figures among his +prisoners by the side of the kings of the Hittites +and the Amorites. +</p> + +<p> +Was <q>the war of the Lord</q> in Suphah waged +against the Pharaoh of Egypt? Chronology is in +favour of it, and if the enemies of the Israelites +were not the Egyptian army, it is hard to say who +else they could have been. We know from the +<pb n='103'/><anchor id='Pg103'/> +Pentateuch that they were not the people of Edom; +<q>meddle not with them,</q> the Israelites were enjoined; +the children of Esau were their <q>brethren,</q> and God +had <q>given Mount Seir unto Esau for a possession.</q> +</p> + +<p> +But whether or not Ramses <hi rend='smallcaps'>iii.</hi> and the tribes of +Israel ever came into actual conflict, it must have +been during his reign that the first Israelitish conquests +in Canaan were made. The settlement of +the twelve tribes in Palestine was coeval with the +final decay of the Egyptian monarchy. +</p> + +</div> + +<pb n='104'/><anchor id='Pg104'/> + +<div rend='page-break-before: always'> +<index index='toc'/> +<index index='pdf'/> +<head>Chapter IV. The Age Of The Israelitish Monarchies.</head> + +<p> +Ramses <hi rend='smallcaps'>iii.</hi> was the last of the great Pharaohs in +whose veins ran native Egyptian blood. His successors +all bore the same name as himself, but they +possessed neither his energy nor his power to rule. He +had saved Egypt from further attack from without, and +it was well he had done so, for the feeble monarchs +of the twentieth dynasty would have been unable to +resist the foe. They ceased even to build or to erect +the monuments which testified to the prosperity of +the country and the progress of its art. The high-priests +of Amon gradually usurped their authority, +and a time came at length when the last of the Ramses +fled into exile in Ethiopia, and a new dynasty +governed in his stead. But the rule of the new monarchs +was hardly acknowledged beyond the Delta; +Thebes was practically independent under its priest-kings, +and though they acknowledged the authority +of the Tanite Pharaohs in name, they acted, in real +fact, as if they were independent sovereigns. One of +<pb n='105'/><anchor id='Pg105'/> +them, Ra-men-kheper, built fortresses not only at +Gebelên in the south, but also at El-Hîbeh in the north, +and thus blocked the river against the subjects of the +Tanite princes, as well as against invaders from the +south. At times, indeed, the Tanite Pharaohs of the +twenty-first dynasty exercised an actual sovereignty +over Upper Egypt, and Smendes, the first of them, +quarried stone at Dababîyeh, opposite Gebelên, with +which to repair the canal of Luxor; but, as a general +rule, so far as the south was concerned, they were +Pharaohs only in name. The rival dynasty of Theban +high-priests was at once more powerful and more king-like. +They it was who, in some moment of danger, +concealed the mummies of the great monarchs of the +eighteenth and nineteenth dynasties in the pit at Dêr +el-Bahâri, and whose own mummies were entombed +by the side of those of a Thothmes and a Ramses. +</p> + +<p> +The Egyptian wife of Solomon was the daughter +of one of the last Pharaohs of the twenty-first +dynasty. She brought with her as a dowry the +Canaanitish city of Gezer. Gezer had been one of +the leading cities of Palestine in the days of the Tel +el-Amarna correspondence, and through all the years +of Israelitish conquest it had remained in Canaanitish +hands. It was a Pharaoh of Tanis, and not an +Israelite, into whose possession it was destined finally +to fall. +</p> + +<pb n='106'/><anchor id='Pg106'/> + +<p> +The waning power of Solomon in Israel coincided +with the waning power of the twenty-first dynasty. +Long before the death of the Hebrew monarch, a new +dynasty was reigning over Egypt. Shishak, its +founder, was of Libyan origin. His immediate forefathers +had commanded the Libyan mercenaries in +the service of the Pharaoh, and inscriptions lately +discovered in the Oasis of El-Khargeh write the +name Shashaka. The Egyptians slightly changed +its pronunciation and made it Shashanq, but in the +Old Testament the true form is preserved. +</p> + +<p> +Shishak brought new vigour into the decaying +monarchy of the Nile. The priest-kings of Thebes +went down before him, along with the effete Pharaohs +of Tanis. It may be that Solomon attempted to +assist his father-in-law; if he did so, the only result +was to bring trouble upon himself. His rebel subject +Jeroboam fled to Egypt, and found shelter and protection +in Shishak's court. +</p> + +<p> +Shishak must have looked on with satisfaction +while the neighbouring empire of Israel fell to pieces, +until eventually the central power itself was shattered +in twain. The rebel he had so carefully nurtured at +his own court was the instrument which relieved him +of all further fear of danger on the side of Asia. So +far from being a menace to Egypt, Jerusalem now lay +at the mercy of the Egyptian armies, and in the fifth +<pb n='107'/><anchor id='Pg107'/> +year of Rehoboam, Shishak led his forces against it. +The strong walls Solomon had built were of no avail; +its temple and palace were plundered, and the golden +shields in its armoury were carried away. A record +of the campaign was engraved by the conqueror on +the southern wall of the temple of Amon at Karnak. +There we read how he had overthrown the Amu or +Asiatics, and the Fenkhu or people of Palestine, and +underneath are the cartouches, each with the head +of a captive above it, which contain the names of +the conquered places. At the outset come the names +of towns in the northern kingdom of Israel. But, as +Professor Maspero remarks, this does not prove that +they were actually among the conquests of Shishak. +If Jeroboam had begged his aid against Judah, and +thereby acknowledged himself the vassal of the +Pharaoh, it would have been a sufficient pretext for +inserting the names of his cities among the subject +states of Egypt. But it may be that the campaign +was directed quite as much against Israel as against +Judah, and that Judah suffered most, simply because +it had to bear the brunt of the attack. +</p> + +<p> +In any case, the list of vanquished towns begins +first with Gaza, the possession of which was necessary +before the Egyptian army could force its way into +Palestine; then come Rabbith of Issachar, Taanach, +near Megiddo, Hapharaim and Beth-Horon, while +<pb n='108'/><anchor id='Pg108'/> +Mahanaim, on the eastern side of the Jordan, is also +included among them. But after this the list deals +exclusively with the towns and villages of Judah, and +of the Bedouin tribes in the desert to the south of it. +Thus we have Ajalon and Makkedah, Socho and +Keilah, Migdol and Beth-anoth. Then we read the +names of Azem and Arad, farther to the south, as +well as of the Hagaraim or <q>Enclosures</q> of Arad, and +Rabbith 'Aradai, <q>Arad the capital.</q> Next to Arad +comes the name of Yurahma, the Jerahme-el of the Old +Testament, the brother of Caleb the Kenizzite (1 Chron. +ii. 42) whose land was ravaged by David (1 Sam. +xxx. 29). But the larger portion of the list is made +up of the names of small villages and even Bedouin +encampments, or of such general terms as Hagra, +<q>enclosure,</q> Negebu, <q>the south,</q> 'Emeq, <q>the valley,</q> +Shebbaleth, <q>a torrent,</q> Abilim, <q>fields,</q> Ganat, +<q>garden,</q> Haideba, <q>a quarry,</q> and the Egyptian +Shodinau, <q>canals.</q><note place='foot'>See Maspero's exhaustive paper <q>The List of Sheshonq at +Karnak,</q> in the <hi rend='italic'>Journal of the Transactions of the Victoria Institute</hi>, +xxvii. (1893-94).</note> Among them we look in vain +even for names like those of Gezer and Beer-sheba. +Jerusalem, too, is conspicuous by its absence, unless +we agree with Professor Maspero in seeing it in the +last name of the list (No. 133), of which only the first +syllable is preserved. Were it not for the record in +<pb n='109'/><anchor id='Pg109'/> +the First Book of Kings, we should never have known +that the campaign of Shishak had inflicted such +signal injury on the kingdom of Judah. +</p> + +<p> +Champollion, indeed, the first discoverer of the +list and of its importance, believed that he had found +in it the name of the Jewish capital. The twenty-ninth +cartouche reads Yaud-hamelek, which he explained +as signifying <q>the kingdom of Judah,</q> while +Rosellini made it <q>the king of Judah.</q> But both +interpretations are impossible. <foreign lang='he' rend='italic'>Melek</foreign>, it is true, +means <q>king</q> in Hebrew, but <q>king of Judah</q> would +have to be <foreign lang='he' rend='italic'>melek-Yaudah</foreign>; <q>kingdom of Judah,</q> <foreign lang='he' rend='italic'>malkûth-Yaudah</foreign>. +In the Semitic languages the genitive +must follow the noun that governs it. +</p> + +<p> +Yaud-hamelek is the Hebrew Ye(h)ud ham-melech +<q>Jehud of the king.</q> Jehud was a town of Dan (Josh. +xix. 45), which Blau has identified with the modern +El-Yehudîyeh, near Jaffa, and the title attached to it +in the Egyptian list implies that it was an appanage +of the crown. The faces of the prisoners who surmount +the cartouches are worthy of attention. The +Egyptian artists were skilled delineators of the +human features, and an examination of their sculptures +and paintings has shown that they represented +the characteristics of their models with wonderful +truth and accuracy. For ethnological purposes +their portraits of foreign races are of considerable +<pb n='110'/><anchor id='Pg110'/> +importance. Now the prisoners of Shishak have the +features, not of the Jew, but of the Amorite. The +prisoners who served as models to the Egyptian +sculptors at Karnak must therefore have been of +Amorite descent. It is a proof that the Amorite +population in southern Palestine was still strong in +the days of Rehoboam and Shishak. The Jews +would have been predominant only in Jerusalem and +the larger cities and fortresses of the kingdom. Elsewhere +the older race survived with all its characteristic +features; the Israelitish conquest had never +rooted it out. Hence it is that it still lives and +flourishes in its ancient home. The traveller in the +country districts of Judah looks in vain for traces of +the Jewish race, but he may still see there the +Amorite just as he is depicted on the monuments of +Egypt. The Jews, in fact, were but the conquering +and dominant caste, and with the extinction of their +nationality came also in Judah the extinction of their +racial type. The few who remained were one by one +absorbed into the older population of the country. +</p> + +<p> +Shishak died soon after his Jewish campaigns. +None of his successors seem to have possessed his +military capacity and energy. One of them, however, +Osorkon <hi rend='smallcaps'>ii.</hi>, appears to have made an expedition +against Palestine. Among the monuments disinterred +at Bubastis by Dr. Naville for the Egyptian +<pb n='111'/><anchor id='Pg111'/> +Exploration Fund are the inscribed blocks of stone +which formed the walls of the second hall of the +temple. This hall was restored by Osorkon, who +called it the <q>Festival Hall</q> of Amon, which was +dedicated on the day of Khoiak, in the twenty-second +year of the king's reign. On one of the +blocks the Pharaoh declares that <q>all countries, the +Upper and Lower Retennu, are hidden under his +feet.</q> The Upper Retennu denoted Palestine, the +Lower Retennu Northern Syria, and though the +boast was doubtless a vainglorious one, it must have +had some foundation in truth. +</p> + +<p> +In the Second Book of Chronicles (xiv. 9-15) we +are told that when Asa was on the Jewish throne, +<q>there came out against them Zerah the Ethiopian +with an host of a thousand thousand and three +hundred chariots.</q> The similarity between the names +Zerah and Osorkon has long been noticed, and the +reign of Osorkon <hi rend='smallcaps'>ii.</hi> would coincide with that of Asa. +Dr. Naville, therefore, is probably right in believing +that some connection exists between the campaign +of Zerah and the boast of Osorkon. It is true that +the Chronicler calls Zerah an Ethiopian, and describes +his army as an Ethiopian host; but this +seems due to the fact that the next kings of Egypt +who interfered in the affairs of Palestine, So and +Tirhakah, were of Ethiopian descent. In the time +<pb n='112'/><anchor id='Pg112'/> +of Asa, at any rate, when the twenty-second dynasty +was ruling over Egypt, no Ethiopian army could +have entered Judah without the permission of the +Egyptian monarch. However, Dr. Naville draws +attention to the fact that Osorkon seems to have +had some special tie with Ethiopia. His great +festival at Bubastis was attended by natives of +Ethiopia, the Anti came with their gifts from <q>the +land of the negroes,</q> and are depicted like the priests +on the walls of the hall. +</p> + +<p> +But troublous times were in store for Egypt. +The twenty-second dynasty came to an end, and +a period followed of confusion, civil war, and foreign +invasion. The kings of Ethiopia sailed down the +Nile and swept the country from Assuan to the sea. +Petty princes reigned as independent sovereigns in +the various cities of Egypt, and waged war one +against the other. Pi-ankhi the Ethiopian was +content with their momentary submission; he then +retired to his ancestral capital at Napata, midway +between Dongola and Khartûm, carrying with him +the spoils of the Nile. Another Ethiopian, Shabaka +or Sabako, the son of Kashet, made a more permanent +settlement in Egypt. He put to death the +nominal Pharaoh, Bak-n-ran-f or Bokkhoris, and +founded the twenty-fifth dynasty. Order was again +restored, the petty princes suppressed, and Egypt +<pb n='113'/><anchor id='Pg113'/> +as well as Ethiopia obeyed a single head. The roads +were cleared of brigands, the temples and walls of +the cities were rebuilt, and trade could again pass +freely up and down the Nile. +</p> + +<p> +An Egyptian civilisation and an Egyptian religion +had been established in Ethiopia since the days of +the eighteenth dynasty. For some centuries, even +after they had become independent of Egypt, the +ruling classes boasted of the purity of their Egyptian +descent. But before the age of Sabako the Egyptian +element had been absorbed by the native population. +We have learned from a monument of the Assyrian +king, Esar-haddon, lately found at Sinjerli, in northern +Syria, that Sabako and his successors had all the +physical characteristics of the negro. But no sign of +this is allowed to appear on the Egyptian monuments. +With the contempt for the black race which still +distinguishes them, the Egyptians refused to acknowledge +that their Pharaohs could be of negro blood. +In the sculptures and paintings of the Nile, accordingly, +the kings of the Ethiopian dynasty are represented +with all the features of the Egyptian +race. +</p> + +<p> +In spite, however, of all attempts to conceal the +fact, we now know that they were negroes in reality. +But they brought with them a vigour and a strength +of will that had long been wanting among the rulers +<pb n='114'/><anchor id='Pg114'/> +of Egypt. And it was not long before their Asiatic +neighbours found that a new and energetic power +had arisen on the banks of the Nile. Assyria was +now extending its empire throughout Western Asia, +and claiming to control the politics of Syria and +Palestine. The Syrian princes looked to Egypt for +help. In <hi rend='smallcaps'>b.c.</hi> 720, Assyria and Egypt met face to +face for the first time. Sib'e, the Tartan, or commander-in-chief, +of the Egyptian armies, with Hanno +of Gaza and other Syrian allies, blocked the way +of the Assyrian invaders at Raphia, on the border of +Palestine. The victory was won by the Assyrian +Sargon. Hanno was captured, and Sib'e fled to the +Delta. But Sargon turned northward again, and did +not follow up his success. He was content with +receiving the tribute of Pharaoh (Pir'u) <q>king of +Egypt,</q> of Samsi, the queen of Arabia, and of Ithamar +the Sabæan. +</p> + +<p> +In Sib'e we must see the So or Seve of the Old +Testament (2 Kings xvii. 4). He is there called +<q>king of Egypt,</q> but he was rather one of the subordinate +princes of the Delta, who acted as the +commander-in-chief of <q>Pharaoh.</q> Pharaoh, it would +seem, was still Bak-n-ran-f. +</p> + +<p> +A few years later Sabako was established on the +throne. He reigned at least twelve years, and was +succeeded by his brother-in-law, Tirhakah, the Tarqû +<pb n='115'/><anchor id='Pg115'/> +of the Assyrian texts. Under him, Egypt once more +played a part in Jewish history. +</p> + +<p> +It was trust in <q>Pharaoh, king of Egypt,</q> that made +Hezekiah revolt from Assyria after Sargon's death. +The result was the invasion of his kingdom by +Sennacherib in <hi rend='smallcaps'>b.c.</hi> 701. Tirhakah moved forward +to help his ally. But his march diverted the attention +of the Assyrian monarch only for a while. The +armies of Sennacherib and Tirhakah met at Eltekeh, +and Tirhakah the Pharaoh of Egypt was forced to +retire. Both claim a victory in their inscriptions. +Sennacherib tells us how <q>the kings of Egypt and +the bowmen, chariots, and horses of the king of +northern Arabia, had collected their innumerable +forces and gone to the aid</q> of Hezekiah and his +Philistine allies, and how in sight of Eltekeh, <q>in reliance +on Assur,</q> he had <q>fought with them and utterly +overthrown them.</q> <q>The charioteers and the sons of +the king of Egypt, together with the charioteers of +the king of northern Arabia,</q> he had <q>taken captive +in the battle.</q> Tirhakah, on the other hand, on a +statue now in the Gizeh Museum, declares that he +was the conqueror of the Bedouin, the Hittites, the +Arvadites, the Assyrians, and the people of Aram-Naharaim. +The battle, in fact, was a Kadmeian +victory. Tirhakah was so far defeated that he was +forced to retreat to his own dominions, while +<pb n='116'/><anchor id='Pg116'/> +Sennacherib's victory was not decisive enough to allow +him to pursue it. He contented himself with marching +back into Judah, burning and plundering its +towns and villages, and carrying their inhabitants +into captivity. Then came the catastrophe which +destroyed the larger part of his army and obliged +him to return ignominiously to his own capital. The +spoils and captives of Judah were the only fruits of +his campaign. His rebellious vassal went unpunished, +and the strong fortress of Jerusalem was saved from +the Assyrian. Though Sennacherib made many +military expeditions during the remaining twenty +years of his reign, he never came again to the south +of Palestine. +</p> + +<p> +Egypt lay sheltered from invasion behind Jerusalem. +But with the death of Sennacherib there +came a change. His son and successor, Esar-haddon, +was a good general and a man of great ability. +Manasseh of Judah became his vassal, and the way +lay open to the Nile. With a large body of trained +veterans he descended upon Egypt (<hi rend='smallcaps'>b.c.</hi> 674). The +sheikh of the Bedouin provided him with the camels +which conveyed the water for the army across the +desert. Three campaigns were needed before Egypt, +under its Ethiopian ruler, could be subdued. But at +last, in <hi rend='smallcaps'>b.c.</hi> 670, Esar-haddon drove the Egyptian +forces before him in fifteen days (from the 3rd to the +<pb n='117'/><anchor id='Pg117'/> +18th of Tammuz or June) all the way from the frontier +to Memphis, thrice defeating them with heavy loss, +and wounding Tirhakah himself. Three days later +Memphis fell, and Tirhakah fled to Ethiopia, leaving +Egypt to the conqueror. It was after this success +that the Assyrian monarch erected the stêlê at +Sinjerli, on which he is portrayed with Tirhakah of +Egypt and Baal of Tyre kneeling before him, each +with a ring through his lips, to which is attached a +bridle held by the Assyrian king. +</p> + +<p> +Egypt was reorganised under Assyrian rule, and +measures taken to prevent the return of the Ethiopians. +It was divided into twenty satrapies, the +native princes being appointed to govern them for +their Assyrian master. At their head was placed +Necho, the vassal king of Sais. Esar-haddon now +returned to Nineveh, and on the cliffs of the Nahr +el-Kelb, near Beyrout, he engraved a record of his +conquest of Egypt and Thebes by the side of the +monument whereon, seven centuries previously, +Ramses <hi rend='smallcaps'>ii.</hi> had boasted of his victories over the +nations of Asia. +</p> + +<p> +At first the Egyptian princes were well pleased +with their change of masters. But in Thebes there +was a strong party which sympathised with Ethiopia +rather than with Assyria. With their help, Tirhakah +returned in <hi rend='smallcaps'>b.c.</hi> 668, sailed down the Nile, and took +<pb n='118'/><anchor id='Pg118'/> +Memphis by storm. Esar-haddon started at once to +suppress the revolt. But on the way to Egypt he +died on the 10th of Marchesvan or October, and +his son, Assur-bani-pal, followed him on the throne. +</p> + +<p> +The Ethiopian army was encountered near Kar-banit, +in the Delta. A complete victory was gained +over it, and Tirhakah was compelled to fly, first from +Memphis, then from Thebes. The tributary kings +whom he had displaced were restored, and Assur-bani-pal +left Egypt in the full belief that it was +tranquil. But hardly had he returned to Nineveh +before a fresh revolt broke out there. Tirhakah +began to plot with the native satraps, and even +Necho of Sais was suspected of complicity. The +commanders of the Assyrian garrisons, accordingly, +sent him and two other princes (from Tanis and +Goshen) loaded with chains to Assyria. But Assur-bani-pal, +either really convinced of Necho's innocence +or pretending to be so, not only pardoned him but +bestowed upon him a robe of honour, as well as a +sword of gold and a chariot and horses, and sent +him back to Sais, giving at the same time the government +of Athribis, whose mounds lie close to Benha, +to his son, Psammetikhos. Meanwhile Tirhakah +had again penetrated to Thebes and Memphis, where +he celebrated the festival in honour of the appearance +of a new Apis. But his power was no longer what +<pb n='119'/><anchor id='Pg119'/> +it once had been, and even before the return of +Necho he found it prudent to retire to Ethiopia. +There he died a few months later. +</p> + +<p> +The Thebaid, however, continued in a state of +revolt against the Assyrian authority. Another +Ethiopian king, whom the Assyrians call Urd-Aman, +had succeeded Tirhakah, and was battling for the +sovereignty of Egypt. Urd-Aman is usually identified +with the Pharaoh Rud-Amon, whose name has +been met with on two Egyptian monuments, but +about whom nothing further is known. Some +scholars, however, read the name Tand-Aman, and +identify it with that of Tuatan-Amon or Tuant-Amon, +whose royal cartouches are engraved by the side of +those of Tirhakah in the temple of Ptah-Osiris at +Karnak. An inscription found built into a wall at +Luxor mentions his third year, and a large stêlê +erected by him at Napata was discovered among the +ruins of his capital in 1862, and is now in the +Museum of Gizeh. On this he states that in the +first year of his reign he was excited by a dream to +invade the north. Thebes opened its gates to him, +and after worshipping in the temple of Amon at +Karnak, he marched to Memphis, which he captured +after a slight resistance. Then he proceeded against +the princes of the Delta, who, however, shut themselves +up in their cities or else submitted to him. +</p> + +<pb n='120'/><anchor id='Pg120'/> + +<p> +One day Paqrur of Goshen appeared at Memphis to +do him homage, much to the surprise and delight of +the Ethiopian king. As Paqrur was the prince of +Pi-Sopd or Goshen, who had been sent to Nineveh +along with Necho, the date of Tuatan-Amon is pretty +clear. How he came to quit Egypt, however, he +does not vouchsafe to explain. +</p> + +<p> +Whether Urd-Aman were Rud-Amon or Tuatan-Amon, +he gave a good deal of trouble to the +Assyrians. Thebes was securely in his hands, and +from thence he marched upon Memphis. The +Assyrian garrison and its allies were defeated in front +of the city, which was then blockaded and taken after +a long siege. Necho was captured and put to death, +and Psammetikhos escaped the same fate only by +flight into Syria. But Assyrian revenge did not tarry +long. Assur-bani-pal determined to put an end to +Egyptian revolt and Ethiopian invasion once for all. +A large army was despatched to the Nile, which overthrew +the forces of Rud-Amon in the Delta and +pursued him as far as Thebes. Thence he fled to +Kipkip in Ethiopia, and a terrible punishment was +inflicted on the capital of southern Egypt. The +whole of its inhabitants were led away into slavery. +Its temples—at once the centres of disaffection and +fortresses against attack—were half-demolished, its +monuments and palaces were destroyed, and all its +<pb n='121'/><anchor id='Pg121'/> +treasures, sacred and profane, were carried away. +Among the spoil were two obelisks, more than +seventy tons in weight, which were removed to +Nineveh as trophies of victory. The injuries which +Kambyses has been accused of inflicting on the +ancient monuments of Thebes were really the work +of the Assyrians. +</p> + +<p> +How great was the impression made upon the +oriental world by the sack of Thebes may be gathered +from the reference to it by the prophet Nahum +(iii. 8-10). Nineveh itself is threatened with the +same overthrow. <q>Art thou better than No of +Amon, that was situate among the rivers, that had +the waters round about it, whose rampart was the sea, +(the Nile), and her wall was from the sea? Ethiopia +and Egypt were her strength, and it was infinite; Put +and Lubim were thy helpers. Yet was she carried +away, she went into captivity: her young children also +were dashed in pieces at the top of all the streets: +and they cast lots for her honourable men, and all +her great men were bound in chains.</q> As the +destruction of Thebes took place about <hi rend='smallcaps'>b.c.</hi> 665, +the date of Nahum's prophecy cannot have been +much later. +</p> + +<p> +In the Assyrian inscriptions Thebes is called Ni', +corresponding with the No of the Old Testament. +Both words represent the Egyptian Nu, <q>city,</q> +<pb n='122'/><anchor id='Pg122'/> +Thebes being pre-eminently <q>the city</q> of Upper +Egypt. Its patron-deity was Amon, to whom its +great temple was dedicated, and hence it is that +Nahum calls it <q>No of Amon.</q> Divided as it was +into two halves by the Nile, and encircled on either +side by canals, one of which—<q>the southern water</q>—still +runs past the southern front of the temple of +Luxor, it could truly be said that its <q>rampart +was the sea.</q> To this day the Nile is called <q>the +sea</q> by the natives of Egypt. +</p> + +<p> +The Ethiopians penetrated into Egypt no more. +The twenty satrapies were re-established; and +Psammetikhos received his father's principality, +though the precedence among the vassal-kings was +given to Paqrur of Goshen. For a time the country +was at peace. +</p> + +<p> +Fifteen years later, however, an event occurred +which shook the Assyrian empire to its foundations. +A revolt broke out which spread throughout the +whole of it. The revolt was headed by Assur-bani-pal's +brother, the Viceroy of Babylonia, and for some +time the result wavered in the balance. But the +good generalship and disciplined forces of Assyria +eventually prevailed, and she emerged from the +struggle, exhausted indeed, but triumphant. The +empire, however, was shrunken. Gyges of Lydia +had thrown off his allegiance, and had assisted +<pb n='123'/><anchor id='Pg123'/> +Psammetikhos of Sais to make Egypt independent. +While the Assyrian armies were battling for existence +in Asia, Psammetikhos, with the Ionian and +Karian mercenaries from Lydia, was driving out the +Assyrian garrisons and overcoming his brother +satraps. One by one they disappeared before him, +and at last he had the satisfaction of seeing Egypt a +united and independent monarchy, under a monarch +who claimed to be of native race. +</p> + +<p> +The blood of the founder of the twenty-sixth +dynasty was, however, mixed. He seems to have +been, partly at least, of Libyan descent, and it is +even doubtful whether his name is pure Egyptian. +Like his father, he surrounded himself with foreigners: +the Greeks and Karians, with whose help he had +gained his throne, were high in favour, and constituted +the royal body-guard. The native Egyptian army, +we are told, deserted the king in disgust and made +their way to Ethiopia. However that may be, Greek +troops were settled in <q>camps</q> in the Delta, +Greek merchants were allowed to trade and even +to build in Egypt, and the Karians became dragomen, +guides, and interpreters between the natives +and the European tourists who began to visit the +Nile. +</p> + +<p> +It was during the reign of Psammetikhos <hi rend='smallcaps'>i.</hi> (<hi rend='smallcaps'>b.c.</hi> +664-610) that the great invasion of nomad Scyths, +<pb n='124'/><anchor id='Pg124'/> +referred to in the earlier chapters of Jeremiah, swept +over Western Asia. They sacked the towns of the +Philistines and made their way to the Egyptian +frontier, but there they were bought off by Psammetikhos. +After their dispersion, the Egyptian +Pharaoh turned his eyes towards Palestine, with the +intention of restoring the Asiatic empire of Ramses <hi rend='smallcaps'>ii.</hi> +The twenty-sixth dynasty was an age of antiquarian +revival; not content with restoring Egypt to peace +and prosperity, its kings aimed also at restoring the +Egypt of the past. Egyptian art again puts on +an antique form, temples are repaired or erected in +accordance with ancient models, and literature reflects +the general tendency. The revival only wanted +originality to make it successful; as it is, the art +of the twenty-sixth dynasty is careful and good, and +under its rule Egypt enjoyed for the last time a +St. Luke's summer of culture and renown. +</p> + +<p> +The power of Assyria was passing away. The +great rebellion, and the wars in Elam which followed, +had drained it of its resources. The Scythic invasion +destroyed what little strength was left. +Before Psammetikhos died Nineveh was already +surrounded by its foes, and four years later it perished +utterly. +</p> + +<p> +The provinces of the west became virtually independent. +Josiah of Judah still called himself a vassal +<pb n='125'/><anchor id='Pg125'/> +of the Assyrian monarch, but he acted as if the +Assyrian monarchy did not exist. The Assyrian +governor of Samaria was deprived of his authority, +and Jewish rule was obeyed throughout what had +been the territory of the Ten Tribes. +</p> + +<p> +The weakness of Assyria was the opportunity of +Egypt. The earlier years of the reign of Psammetikhos +were spent in reorganising his kingdom and +army, in suppressing all opposition to his government, +and in rebuilding the ruined cities and temples. +Then he marched into Palestine and endeavoured to +secure once more for Egypt the cities of the Philistines. +Ashdod was taken after a prolonged siege, and +an Egyptian garrison placed in it. +</p> + +<p> +The successor of Psammetikhos was his son Necho, +who carried out the foreign policy of his father. The +old canal which ran from the Red Sea at Suez to the +Nile near Zagazig, and which centuries of neglect +had allowed to be choked, was again partially cleared +out, and <q>the tongue of the Egyptian sea was cut off</q> +(Isa. xi. 15). Ships were also sent from Suez under +Phœnician pilots to circumnavigate Africa. Three +years did they spend on the voyage, and after passing +the Straits of Gibraltar, finally arrived safely at the +mouths of the Nile. There an incredulous people +heard that as they were sailing westward the sun was +on their right hand. +</p> + +<pb n='126'/><anchor id='Pg126'/> + +<p> +But long before the return of his ships, Necho had +placed himself at the head of his army and entered +on the invasion of Asia. The Syrians were defeated +at Migdol, and Gaza was occupied. The Egyptian +army then proceeded to march along the sea-coast by +the ancient military road, which struck inland at the +Nahr el-Kelb. But the Jewish king, pleading his +duty to his Assyrian suzerain, attempted to block +the way; the result was a battle in the plain of +Megiddo, where the Jewish forces were totally routed, +and Josiah himself carried from the field mortally +wounded. Necho now overran northern Syria as far +as the Euphrates, and then returned southward to +punish the Jews. Jerusalem was captured by +treachery, and Jehoahaz, the new king, deposed +after a reign of only three months. The Pharaoh +then made his brother Eliakim king in his stead, +changing his name to Jehoiakim. The city was fined +a talent of gold and a hundred talents of silver, and +Necho sent his armour to the temple of Apollo near +Miletus as a thank-offering to the god of his Greek +mercenaries. +</p> + +<p> +The empire of Thothmes was restored, at all +events in Asia. But it lasted hardly more than +three years. In <hi rend='smallcaps'>b.c.</hi> 605 a decisive battle was +fought at Carchemish, on the Euphrates, now +Jerablûs, between Necho and the Babylonian prince +<pb n='127'/><anchor id='Pg127'/> +Nebuchadrezzar, who commanded the army of his +father Nabopolassar. The Egyptians fled in confusion, +and the Asiatic empire was utterly lost. The Jewish +king transferred his allegiance to the conqueror, and +for three years <q>became his servant.</q> Then he +rebelled, probably in consequence of a fresh attempt +made by the Egyptians to recover their power in +Palestine. The attempt, however, failed, and a +Babylonian army was sent against Jerusalem. +Jehoiakim was already dead, but his son Jehoiachin, +along with the leading citizens, the military class, +and the artisans—<q>ten thousand captives</q> in all—was +carried into exile in Babylonia (<hi rend='smallcaps'>b.c.</hi> 599). His +uncle Zedekiah was placed on the throne, and for +nearly nine years he remained faithful to his Babylonian +master. +</p> + +<p> +Then came temptation from the side of Egypt. +Psammetikhos <hi rend='smallcaps'>ii.</hi>, who had succeeded his father +Necho in <hi rend='smallcaps'>b.c.</hi> 594, prepared to march into Palestine, +and contest the supremacy over Western Asia with +the Babylonian monarch. A Babylonian army was +already besieging the revolted city of Jerusalem +when the forces of the Pharaoh appeared in sight. +The Babylonians broke up their camp and retired, +and it seemed as if the rebellion of the Jewish king +had been successful (Jer. xxxvii. 5, 11; Ezek. xvii. +15). +</p> + +<pb n='128'/><anchor id='Pg128'/> + +<p> +But it was not for long. The Egyptians returned +to <q>their own land,</q> and the siege of Jerusalem was +recommenced. At last, in <hi rend='smallcaps'>b.c.</hi> 588, the city was +taken, its king and most of its inhabitants led into +captivity, and its temple and palace burned with fire. +Judah was placed under a Babylonian governor, and +the authority of the Babylonians acknowledged as +far as Gaza. +</p> + +<p> +Psammetikhos <hi rend='smallcaps'>ii.</hi> had died in the preceding year, +and his son Uahabra, the Apries of the Greeks, the +Hophra of the Old Testament, occupied his place. +The army which had gone to the help of Zedekiah +had doubtless been sent by him. He had recaptured +Gaza, and marched along the coast to Sidon, which +he captured, and Tyre, which was in rebellion against +the Chaldæans, while his fleet defeated the combined +forces of the Cyprians and Phœnicians, and held the +sea. A hieroglyphic inscription, erected by a native +of Gebal and commemorative of the invasion, has +recently been found near Sidon. But the Egyptian +conquests were again lost almost as quickly as they +had been made. +</p> + +<p> +Palestine became a Babylonian province up to +the frontiers of Egypt. Many of the Jews who had +been left in it fled to Egypt. Their numbers were +reinforced by a band of outlaws, of whom Johanan +was the leader, who had murdered the Babylonian +<pb n='129'/><anchor id='Pg129'/> +governor and had dragged into Egypt with them the +prophet Jeremiah and his scribe Baruch. Jeremiah +in vain protested against their conduct, and predicted +that Hophra should be slain by his enemies, +and that Nebuchadrezzar should set up his throne +on that very pavement <q>at the entry of Pharaoh's +house in Tahpanhes</q> where the prophet was then +standing. Tahpanhes is almost certainly Tel ed-Defneh, +the Daphnæ of Greek geography, which +stands in the mid-desert about twelve miles to the +west of Kantara on the Suez Canal, and where +Professor Flinders Petrie made excavations for the +Egypt Exploration Fund in 1886. There he found the +remains of a great fortress and camp, which had been +built by Psammetikhos <hi rend='smallcaps'>i.</hi> for his Greek mercenaries. +The walls of the camp were forty feet in thickness, +and the ruins of the fortress still go by the name +of the <q>Castle of the Jew's Daughter.</q> In front of +it is a brick pavement, just like that described by +Jeremiah. +</p> + +<p> +Daphnæ, in fact, was one of the chief fortresses +of Egypt on the side of Asia, and it was accordingly +the chief station of the Greek mercenaries. It +commanded the entrance to the Delta, and was +almost the first place in Egypt that the traveller +from Palestine who came by the modern caravan +road would approach. It was, therefore, the first +<pb n='130'/><anchor id='Pg130'/> +settlement at which Jewish fugitives who wished to +avoid the Babylonian garrison at Gaza would be +likely to arrive. And it was also the first object +of attack on the part of an invader from the East. +Its possession opened to him the way to Memphis. +</p> + +<p> +That Nebuchadrezzar actually invaded Egypt, as +Jeremiah had predicted, we now know from a fragment +of his annals. In his thirty-seventh year (<hi rend='smallcaps'>b.c.</hi> +567) he marched into Egypt, defeating the Pharaoh +Amasis, and the soldiers of <q>Phut of the Ionians,</q> +<q>a distant land which is in the midst of the sea.</q> +The enemies, therefore, into whose hands Hophra +was to fall were not the Babylonians. They were, +in fact, his own subjects. +</p> + +<p> +He had pursued the Hellenising policy of his +predecessors with greater thoroughness than they +had done, and had thus aroused the jealousy and +alarm of the native population. The Greek mercenaries +alone had his confidence, and the Egyptians +accused him of betraying the native troops whom he +had sent to the help of the Libyans against the +Greek colony of Kyrênê. Amasis (or Ahmes), his +brother-in-law, put himself at the head of the rebels. +A battle was fought near Sais between the Greek +troops of Hophra on the one side and the revolted +Egyptians on the other, which ended in the defeat +of the Greeks and the capture of Hophra himself. +<pb n='131'/><anchor id='Pg131'/> +Amasis was proclaimed king (<hi rend='smallcaps'>b.c.</hi> 570), and though +the captive Pharaoh was at first treated with respect, +he was afterwards put to death. +</p> + +<p> +The change of monarch made little difference +to the Greeks in Egypt. They were too valuable, +both as soldiers and as traders, for the Pharaoh to +dispense with their services. The mercenaries were +removed from Daphnæ to Memphis, in the very +heart of the kingdom, and fresh privileges were +granted to the merchants of Naukratis. The Pharaoh +married a Greek wife, and a demotic papyrus, now +at Paris, even describes how he robbed the temples +of Memphis, On and Bubastis of their endowments +and handed them over to the Greek troops. <q>The +Council</q> which sat under him ordered that <q>the +vessels, the fuel, the linen, and the dues</q> hitherto +enjoyed by their gods and their priests should be +given instead to the foreigner. In this act of +sacrilege the Egyptians of a later day saw the cause +of the downfall of their country. The invasion of +Nebuchadrezzar had passed over it without producing +much injury; indeed, it does not seem to have +extended beyond the eastern half of the Delta. +But a new power, that of Cyrus, was rising in the +East. Amasis had foreseen the coming storm, and +had occupied Cyprus in advance. If Xenophon is +to be believed, he had also sent troops to the aid +<pb n='132'/><anchor id='Pg132'/> +of Krœsus of Lydia. But all was of no avail. The +power of Cyrus steadily increased. The empires of +Lydia and Babylonia went down before it, and when +his son Kambyses succeeded him in July, <hi rend='smallcaps'>b.c.</hi> 529, +the new empire extended from the Mediterranean +to India and from the Caspian to the borders of +Egypt. It was clear that the fertile banks of the +Nile would be the next object of attack. +</p> + +<p> +Greek vanity asserted that the actual cause of +the invasion was the Greek mercenary Phanês. He +had deserted to Kambyses, and explained to him +how Egypt could be entered. That Phanês was a +name used by the Egyptian Greeks we know from +its occurrence on the fragment of a large vase discovered +by Professor Petrie at Naukratis. Here we +read: <q>Phanês the son of Glaukos dedicated me to +Apollo of Naukratis.</q> But the invasion of Egypt +by Kambyses was the necessary consequence of the +policy which had laid the whole of the oriental world +at his father's feet. +</p> + +<p> +Amasis died while the army of Kambyses was on +its march (<hi rend='smallcaps'>b.c.</hi> 526), and his son Psammetikhos <hi rend='smallcaps'>iii.</hi> +had to bear the brunt of the attack. A battle was +fought near Pelusium, and though the Greek and +Karian auxiliaries did their best, the invading forces +gained the day. The Pharaoh fled to Memphis, +which was thereupon besieged by Kambyses. The +<pb n='133'/><anchor id='Pg133'/> +siege was a short one. The city of <q>the White +Wall</q> was taken, Psammetikhos made a prisoner, +and his son, together with two thousand youths of +the leading Egyptian families, was put to death. For +a while Psammetikhos himself was allowed to live, +but the fears of the conqueror soon caused him to +be executed, and with his death came the end of +the twenty-sixth dynasty and the independence of +Egypt. +</p> + +</div> + +<pb n='134'/><anchor id='Pg134'/> + +<div rend='page-break-before: always'> +<index index='toc'/> +<index index='pdf'/> +<head>Chapter V. The Age Of The Ptolemies.</head> + +<p> +Judah had profited by the revolution which had +been so disastrous to the monarchy of the Nile. +The overthrow of the Babylonian empire and the +rise of Cyrus had brought deliverance from exile +and the restoration of the temple and its services. +In the Jewish colony at Jerusalem, Cyrus and his +successors had, as it were, a bridle upon Egypt; +gratitude to their deliverer and freedom to enjoy +the theocracy which had taken the place of the +Davidic monarchy made the Jewish people an outpost +and garrison upon whose loyalty the Persian +king could rely. +</p> + +<p> +The yoke of the Zoroastrian Darius and his +descendants pressed heavily, on the other hand, upon +the priests and people of Egypt. Time after time +they attempted to revolt. Their first rebellion, under +Khabbash, saved Greece from the legions of Darius +and postponed the day of Persian invasion to a time +when the incapable Xerxes sat upon the throne of +<pb n='135'/><anchor id='Pg135'/> +his energetic father. A second time they rose in +insurrection in the reign of Artaxerxes <hi rend='smallcaps'>i.</hi>, the successor +of Xerxes. But under Artaxerxes <hi rend='smallcaps'>ii.</hi> came +a more formidable outbreak, which ended in the +recovery of Egyptian independence and the establishment +of the last three dynasties of native kings. +</p> + +<p> +For sixty-five years (from <hi rend='smallcaps'>b.c.</hi> 414 to 349) Egypt +preserved its independence. More than once the +Persians sought to recover it, but they were foiled +by the Spartan allies of the Pharaoh or by the +good fortune of the Egyptians. But civil feuds +and cowardice sapped the strength of the Egyptian +resistance. Greek mercenaries and sailors now fought +in the ranks of the Persians as well as in those of +the Egyptians, and the result of the struggle between +Persia and Egypt was in great measure dependent +on the amount of pay the two sides could afford +to give them. The army was insubordinate, and +between the Greek and Egyptian soldiers there +was jealousy and feud. Nektanebo <hi rend='smallcaps'>ii.</hi> (<hi rend='smallcaps'>b.c.</hi> 367-49), +the last of the Pharaohs, had dethroned his own +father, and though he had once driven the Persian +king Artaxerxes Ochus back from the coasts of +Egypt, he failed to do so a second time. The Greeks +were left to defend themselves as best they could +at Pelusium, while Nektanebo retired to Memphis +with 60,000 worthless native troops. From thence +<pb n='136'/><anchor id='Pg136'/> +he fled to Ethiopia with his treasures, leaving his +country in the hands of the Persian. Ochus wreaked +his vengeance on the Egyptian priests, destroying +the temples, demanding a heavy ransom for the +sacred records he had robbed, setting up an ass—a +symbol in Egyptian eyes of all that was evil and +unclean—as the patron-god of the conquered land, +and slaying the sacred bull Apis in sacrifice to the +new divinity. The murder of Ochus by his Egyptian +eunuch Bagoas was the penalty he paid for these +outrages on the national faith. +</p> + +<p> +Egypt never again was free. Its rulers have been +of manifold races and forms of faith, but they have +never again been Egyptians. Persians, Greeks and +Romans, Arabs, Kurds, Circassians, Mameluk slaves +and Turks, Frenchmen and Englishmen, have all +governed or misgoverned it, but throughout this long +page of its history there is no sign of native political +life. Religion or taxation has alone seemed able +to stir the people into movement or revolt. For +aspirations after national freedom we look in vain. +</p> + +<p> +The Persian was not left long in the possession of +his rebellious province. Egypt opened her gates to +Alexander of Macedon, as in later ages she opened +her gates to the Arab 'Amru. The Greeks had long +been associated in the Egyptian mind with opposition +to the hated Persian, and it was as a Greek that +<pb n='137'/><anchor id='Pg137'/> +Alexander entered the country. Memphis and +Thebes welcomed him, and he did his best to prove +to his subjects that he had indeed come among them +as one of their ancient kings. Hardly had he reached +Memphis before he went in state to the temple of +Apis and offered sacrifice to the sacred bull. Then, +after founding Alexandria at the spot where the +native village of Rakoti stood, he made his way to +the Oasis of Ammon, the modern Siwah, among the +sands of the distant desert, and there was greeted by +the high-priest of the temple as the son of the god. +Like the Pharaohs of old, the Macedonian conqueror +became the son of Amon-Ra, and in Egypt at least +claimed divine honours. +</p> + +<p> +Before leaving Egypt Alexander appointed the +nomarchs who were to govern it, and ordered that +justice should be administered according to the +ancient law of the land. He also sent 7000 Samaritans +into the Thebaid; some of them were settled +in the Fayyûm, and in the papyri discovered by +Professor Petrie at Hawâra mention is made of a +village which they had named Samaria. Appointing +Kleomenês prefect of Egypt and collector of +the taxes, Alexander now hurried away to the +Euphrates, there to overthrow the shattered relics of +the Persian Empire. +</p> + +<p> +It was while he was at Ekbatana that his friend +<pb n='138'/><anchor id='Pg138'/> +Hêphæstiôn died, and Alexander wrote to Egypt to +inquire of the oracle of Ammon what honours it was +lawful for him to pay to the dead man. In reply +Hêphæstiôn was pronounced to be a god, and a +temple was accordingly erected to him at Alexandria, +and the new lighthouse on the island of Pharos was +called after his name. +</p> + +<p> +When Alexander died suddenly and unexpectedly, +the council of his generals which assembled at +Babylon declared his half-brother, Philip Arridæus, +to be his successor. But they reserved to themselves +all the real power in Alexander's empire. Ptolemy, +the son of Lagos, chose Egypt as the seat of his +government, which was accordingly handed over to +him by Kleomenês on his arrival there, a year after +the accession of the new king. His first act was to +put Kleomenês to death. +</p> + +<p> +Then came the long funeral procession bearing +the corpse of Alexander from Babylon to the tomb +that was to be erected for him in his new city of +Alexandria. More than a year passed while it wound +its way slowly from city to city, till at last it arrived +at Memphis. Here the body of the great conqueror +rested awhile until the gorgeous sepulchre was made +ready in which it was finally to repose. +</p> + +<p> +It was plain that Ptolemy was aiming at independent +power. Perdikkas, the regent, accordingly +<pb n='139'/><anchor id='Pg139'/> +attacked him, carrying in his train the young princes, +Philip Arridæus, and Alexander Ægos, the infant +son of Alexander. But the invading army was +routed below Memphis, Perdikkas was slain, and +the young princes fell into the hands of the conqueror. +From this time forward, Ptolemy, though nominally +a subject, acted as if he were a king. +</p> + +<p> +Nikanôr was sent into Syria to annex it to Egypt. +Jerusalem alone resisted the invaders, but it was +assaulted on the Sabbath when the defenders withdrew +from the walls, and all further opposition was +at end. Palestine and Cœle-Syria were again united +with the kingdom on the Nile. +</p> + +<p> +The union, however, did not last long. In <hi rend='smallcaps'>b.c.</hi> 315 +Philip Arridæus was murdered, and Alexander was +proclaimed successor to his empty dignity. The +year following, Antigonus, the rival of Ptolemy in +Asia Minor, made ready to invade Egypt. But +Ptolemy had already conquered Kyrênê and Cyprus, +and was master of the sea. Syria and Palestine, +however, submitted to Antigonus, and though Ptolemy +gained a decisive victory over his enemies at Gaza, +he did not think it prudent to pursue it. He contented +himself, therefore, with razing the fortifications +of Acre and Jaffa, of Samaria and Gaza. +</p> + +<p> +In <hi rend='smallcaps'>b.c.</hi> 312 the generals of Alexander, who still +called themselves the lieutenants of his son, came to a +<pb n='140'/><anchor id='Pg140'/> +general agreement, each keeping that portion of the +empire which he had made his own. The agreement +was almost immediately followed by the murder of +Alexander Ægos. Cleopatra, the sister of the great +Alexander, and his niece Thessalonika alone remained +of the royal family, and Cleopatra, on her +way to Egypt to marry Ptolemy, was assassinated by +Antigonus (in <hi rend='smallcaps'>b.c.</hi> 308), and Alexander's niece soon +afterwards shared the same fate. The family of +<q>the son of Ammon,</q> the annihilator of the Persian +Empire, was extinct. +</p> + +<p> +Two years later, in <hi rend='smallcaps'>b.c.</hi> 306, an end was put to +the farce so long played by the generals of Alexander, +and each of them assumed the title of king. +Ptolemy took that of <q>king of Egypt.</q> To this the +Greeks afterwards added the name of Sôtêr, <q>Saviour,</q> +when his supplies of corn had saved the Rhodians +from destruction during their heroic defence of their +city against the multitudinous war-ships of Antigonus. +</p> + +<p> +Throughout his rule, Ptolemy never forgot the +needs and interests of the kingdom over which he +ruled. Alexandria was completed, with its unrivalled +harbours, its stately public buildings, its broad quays +and its spacious streets. From first to last it remained +the Greek capital of Egypt. It was Greek +in its origin, Greek in its architecture, Greek in its +population; Greek also in its character, its manners, +<pb n='141'/><anchor id='Pg141'/> +and its faith. Cut off from the rest of Egypt by the +Mareotic Lake, and enjoying a European climate, it +was from its foundation what it is to-day, a city of +Europe rather than of Egypt. From it, as from an +impregnable watch-tower, the Ptolemies directed the +fortunes of their kingdom: it was not only the key +to Egypt, it was also a bridle upon it. The wealth +of the world passed through its streets and harbours; +the religions and philosophies of East and West met +within its halls. Ptolemy had founded in it a +university, a prototype of Oxford and Cambridge in +modern England, of the Azhar in modern Cairo. In +the Museum, as it was called, a vast library was +gathered together, and its well-endowed chairs were +filled with learned professors from all parts of the +Greek world, who wrote books and delivered lectures +and dined together at the royal charge. +</p> + +<p> +But the Greeks were not the only inhabitants of +the new city. The Jews also settled there in large +numbers on the eastern side of the town, attracted by +the offers of Ptolemy and the belief that the rising +centre of trade would be better worth inhabiting +than the wasted fields of Palestine. All the rights of +Greek citizenship were granted to them, and they +were placed on a footing almost of equality with +Ptolemy's own countrymen. +</p> + +<p> +The native Egyptians were far worse treated. +<pb n='142'/><anchor id='Pg142'/> +They had become <q>the hewers of wood and carriers +of water</q> for their new Greek masters. It was they +who furnished the government with its revenue, but +in return they possessed no rights, no privileges. +When land was wanted for the veterans of the +Macedonian army, as, for example, in the Fayyûm, +it was taken from them without compensation. +Taxes, ever heavier and heavier, were laid upon +them; and every attempt at remonstrance or murmuring +was visited with immediate punishment. +The Egyptian had no rights unless he could be +registered a citizen of Alexandria, and this it was +next to impossible for him to be. +</p> + +<p> +It is true that the Egyptians were told all this +was done in order that their own laws and customs +might not be interfered with. While the Greeks and +Jews were governed by Greek law, the Egyptians +were governed by the old law of the land. But it +was forgotten that the laws were administered by +Greeks, and that the higher officials were also +Greeks, who, as against an Egyptian, possessed +arbitrary power. It was only amongst themselves, +as between Egyptian and Egyptian, that the natives +of the country enjoyed any benefit from the laws +under which they lived; wherever the government +and the Greeks were concerned, they were like outcasts, +who could be punished, but not tried. +</p> + +<pb n='143'/><anchor id='Pg143'/> + +<p> +Nevertheless the country for many years remained +tranquil. Unlike the Persians, the Greeks respected +the religion of the people. Ptolemy did his utmost +to conciliate the priesthood; their temples were restored +and decorated, their festivals were treated +with honour; above all, their endowments were untouched. +And with the priesthood disposed to be +friendly towards him, Ptolemy had no reason to be +afraid. The priests were the national leaders; they +it was who had stirred up the revolts against the +Persian, and the temples in which they served had +been the fortresses and rallying-points of the rebel +armies. The Egyptians have always been an intensely +religious people; whatever may have been +their form of creed, whether pagan, Christian, or +Moslem, they have clung to it with tenacity and +battled for it, sometimes with fanatical zeal. Religion +will arouse them when nothing else can do so; by +the side of it even the love of gain has but little +influence. +</p> + +<p> +Besides conciliating the priesthood, Ptolemy +planted garrisons of Greeks in several parts of the +country. Bodies of veterans colonised the Fayyûm, +and Ptolemais, now Menshîyeh, in Upper Egypt, was +a Greek city modelled in all respects upon Alexandria. +The public accounts were kept in Greek, +and though the clerks and tax-gatherers were usually +<pb n='144'/><anchor id='Pg144'/> +natives who had received a Greek education, many +of them were Greeks by birth and even Jews. +<q>Ostraka,</q> or inscribed potsherds, have been found at +Thebes, which show that in the days of Ptolemy +Physkôn, a Jew, Simon, the son of Eleazar, farmed +the taxes there for the temple of Amon. As he did +not himself know Greek, his receipts were written for +him by one of his sons. After his death he was succeeded +in his office by his son Philoklês. The name +is noticeable, as it shows how rapidly the Jews of +Egypt could become wholly Greek. The religion +of his forefathers was not likely to sit heavily on the +shoulders of the tax-gatherer of a heathen temple, +and we need not wonder at the Hellenisation of his +family. Simon was a sample of many of his brethren: +in adopting Greek culture the Jews of Egypt began +to forget that they were Jews. It required the shock +of persecution at Jerusalem, and the Maccabean war +of independence to recall them to a recollection of +their past history and a sense of the mission of their +race. +</p> + +<p> +With the rise of the Greek kingdom in Egypt, +the canonical books of the Old Testament come to +an end. Jaddua, the last high-priest recorded in the +Book of Nehemiah (xii. 7, 22), met Alexander the +Great at Mizpeh, and if Josephus is to be trusted, +obtained from him a recognition of the ancient +<pb n='145'/><anchor id='Pg145'/> +privileges of the Jews and their exemption from +taxation every Sabbatical year. The First Book of +Chronicles (iii. 23) seems to bring the genealogy of +the descendants of Zorobabel down to an even later +date. But where the canonical books break off, the +books of the Apocrypha begin. Jesus the son of +Sirach, in his prologue to the Book of Ecclesiasticus, +tells us that he had translated it in Egypt from +Hebrew into Greek, when Euergetês, the third +Ptolemy, was king, and thirty-eight years after its +compilation by his grandfather Jesus. Like most of +the apocryphal books, it thus had a Palestinian +origin, but its translation into Greek indicates the +intercourse that was going on between the Jews of +Palestine and those of Egypt, as well as the general +adoption of the Greek language by the Egyptian +Jews. +</p> + +<p> +The translation of the Hebrew Scriptures into +Greek about the same period is a yet more striking +illustration of the same fact. The name of <q>Septuagint,</q> +which the translation still retains, perpetuates +the legend, derived from the false Aristæas, of its +having been made all at one time by seventy (or +seventy-two) translators. But internal evidence shows +that such could not have been the case. The various +books of the Canon were translated at different times, +and the translators exhibit very different degrees of +<pb n='146'/><anchor id='Pg146'/> +ability and acquaintance with the Hebrew language. +The Pentateuch was the first to be rendered into +Greek; the other books followed afterwards, and it +would appear that the Book of Ecclesiastes never +found a place in the translation at all. The Greek +translation of the book which is now found in the +Septuagint was probably made by Aquila. +</p> + +<p> +It was under Ptolemy <hi rend='smallcaps'>ii.</hi>, who justified his title of +Philadelphus, or <q>Brother-loving,</q> by the murder of +his two brothers, that the work of translation was +begun. Ptolemy Sôtêr, his father, had resigned his +crown two years before his death, and the event +proved that his confidence in his son's filial piety was +not misplaced. The coronation of Philadelphus at +Alexandria was celebrated with one of the most +gorgeous pageants the world has ever seen, the +details of which are preserved by Athenæus. Under +the new king the internal development of the +monarchy went on apace. The canal was opened +which connected the Nile with the Red Sea, and at +its outlet near Suez a town was built called Arsinoê, +after the king's sister. The ports of Berenikê and +Philotera (now Qoseir) were constructed and fortified +on the coast of the Red Sea, and roads made to them +from Koptos and Syênê on the Nile. In this way +the ivory and gems of the Sudân could be brought to +Egypt without passing through the hostile territories +<pb n='147'/><anchor id='Pg147'/> +of the Ethiopians in Upper Nubia. In the eastern +desert itself the mines of emerald and gold were +worked until the royal revenue was increased to more +than three millions sterling a year. +</p> + +<p> +Though Ptolemy Philadelphus was fond of show, +he was not extravagant, and his income was sufficient +not only to maintain a large army and navy and +protect efficiently the frontier of his kingdom, but also +to leave a large reserve fund in the treasury. It was +said to amount to as much as a hundred millions +sterling. It was no wonder, therefore, that Alexandria +became filled with sumptuous buildings. The +Pharos or lighthouse was finished by Sôstratos, as +well as the tomb of Alexander, whose body was +moved from Memphis to the golden sarcophagus +which had been prepared for it. The library of the +Museum was stocked with books until 400,000 rolls +of papyrus were collected together, and men of +science and learning from all parts of the world were +attracted to it by the munificence of the king. The +principal librarianship, however, changed hands on +the accession of the new king. Demetrius Phalereus, +the ex-tyrant of Athens, who had been the first +librarian, had offended Philadelphus by advising that +the crown should descend to his elder brother instead +of to himself, and he had accordingly to make way for +Zênodotos of Ephesus, famous as a critic of Homer. +</p> + +<pb n='148'/><anchor id='Pg148'/> + +<p> +Among the books which found a place in the +great library of Alexandria was doubtless the Greek +translation of the Pentateuch. Philadelphus showed +remarkable favour to the Jews. The Jewish captives +of his soldiers were ransomed by him and given +homes in various parts of Egypt. One hundred and +twenty thousand slaves were thus freed, the king +paying for each 120 drachmas, or 30 shekels, the +price of a slave according to the Mosaic Law. It is +quite possible that there may be some truth in the +legend that the Greek translation of the Old Testament +was made at his desire. Whether or not we +believe that he sent two Greek Jews, Aristæus and +Andræus, with costly gifts to Eleazar the high-priest +at Jerusalem, asking him to select fit men for the +purpose, he was probably not unwilling that a copy +of the sacred books of his Jewish subjects, in a form +intelligible to the Greeks, should be added to the +library. We must not forget that it was he who +employed Manetho, the priest of Sebennytos, to write +in Greek the history of his country, which he compiled +from the hieroglyphic monuments and hieratic papyri +of the native temples. +</p> + +<p> +Ptolemy <hi rend='smallcaps'>iii.</hi>, Euergetês, the eldest son of Philadelphus, +succeeded his father in <hi rend='smallcaps'>b.c.</hi> 246. A war +with Syria broke out at the beginning of his reign, +and the march of the Egyptian army as far as +<pb n='149'/><anchor id='Pg149'/> +Seleucia, the capital of the Syrian kingdom on the +Euphrates, was one uninterrupted triumph. On his +return, Ptolemy laid his offerings on the altar at +Jerusalem, and thanked the God of the Jews for his +success. The Jewish community might well be +pardoned for believing that in the conqueror of Syria +they had a new proselyte to their faith. +</p> + +<p> +The Egyptians had equal reason to be satisfied +with their king. Among the spoils of his Syrian +campaign were 2500 vases and statues of the +Egyptian deities which Kambyses had carried to +Persia nearly three centuries before. They were restored +to the temples of Upper Egypt, from which +they had been taken, with stately ceremonies and +amid the rejoicing of the people, and Ptolemy was +henceforth known among his subjects as Euergetês, +their <q>Benefactor.</q> +</p> + +<p> +Euergetês, in fact, seems to have been the most +Egyptian and least Greek of all the Ptolemies. +Alone among them he visited Thebes and paid +homage to the gods of Egypt. Their temples were +rebuilt and crowded with offerings, and the priesthood +naturally regarded him as a king after their +own heart. He, too, like the Pharaohs of old, turned +his attention to the conquest of Ethiopia, which his +predecessors had been content to neglect.<note place='foot'>Sharpe, <hi rend='italic'>History of Egypt</hi>, i. p. 346.</note> It was +<pb n='150'/><anchor id='Pg150'/> +under Euergetês, moreover, that the so-called Decree +of Canôpus was drawn up in hieroglyphics and +demotic Egyptian as well as in Greek. Its occasion +was the death of Berenikê, the king's daughter, to +whom the Egyptian priests determined to grant +divine honours. It is the first time that we find +the old script and language of Egypt taking its +place by the side of that of the Macedonian conqueror, +and it is significant that the Greek transcript +occupies the third place. +</p> + +<p> +Judah had hitherto remained tranquil and at +peace under the government of the Ptolemies. The +high-priests had taken the place of the kings, and +their authority was undisputed. At times, indeed, +the coveted dignity was the cause of family feuds. +Jonathan, the father of Jaddua (Neh. xii. 11, 22), +had murdered his brother Joshua, whom he suspected +of trying to supplant him, and the example he set +was destined to have followers. But outside his own +family the high-priest ruled with almost despotic +power. Simon the Just (<hi rend='smallcaps'>b.c.</hi> 300), with whom ends +the list of <q>famous men</q> given by Jesus the son +of Sirach (iv. 1-21), repaired and fortified the temple +as well as the fortress which guarded it. Jewish +tradition ascribed to him the completion of the +Canon of the Old Testament which had been begun +by Ezra, and it was through him that the oral +<pb n='151'/><anchor id='Pg151'/> +Mosaic tradition of Pharisaism made its way to +Antigonus Socho, the first writer of the Mishna or +text of the Talmud, and the teacher of the founder +of Sadduceism. The grandson of Simon, Onias <hi rend='smallcaps'>ii.</hi>, +imperilled the authority his predecessors had enjoyed. +His covetousness led him to withhold the tribute of +£3000, due each year from the Temple to the Jewish +king, and in spite of an envoy from Ptolemy and the +remonstrances of his countrymen, he refused to give +it up. +</p> + +<p> +Jerusalem was saved by the address and readiness +of Joseph, the brother of Onias. He hastened +to Egypt, ingratiated himself with Ptolemy, and +succeeded in being appointed farmer of the taxes +for Syria and Palestine. The Jews were saved, but +a rival power to that of the high-priest was established, +which led eventually to civil war. The greed +of Onias was the first scene in the drama which is +unfolded in the Books of the Maccabees. +</p> + +<p> +Euergetês was the last of the <q>good</q> Ptolemies. +His son and successor, Ptolemy <hi rend='smallcaps'>iv.</hi>, was the incarnation +of weakness, cruelty and vice. He began his +reign with the murder of his mother and only +brother, taking the title of Philopator—<q>Lover of +his Father</q>—by way of compensation. Syria was +reconquered by Antiochus the Great, but his Greek +phalanxes were beaten at Raphia by the Egyptians, +<pb n='152'/><anchor id='Pg152'/> +now armed and trained in the Macedonian fashion, +and the gratitude of Philopator showed itself in a +visit to the temple at Jerusalem, where he sacrificed +to the God of the Jews and attempted to penetrate +into the Holy of Holies. A tumult was the consequence, +and the exasperated king on his return +to Egypt deprived the Jews of their Greek citizenship, +and ordered them to be tattooed with the +figure of an ivy-leaf in honour of Bacchus, and to +sacrifice on the altars of the Greek gods. +</p> + +<p> +The Jews had hitherto been the staunch supporters +of the royal house of Egypt, and had held +the fortress of Jerusalem for it against the power of +Syria. But Philopator had now alienated them for +ever. Nor was he more successful with the native +Egyptians. First the Egyptian troops mutinied; +then came revolt in Upper Egypt. The Ethiopian +princes, whose memorials are found in the Nubian +temples of Debod and Dakkeh, were invited to +Thebes, and an Ethiopian dynasty again ruled in +Upper Egypt. The names of the kings who composed +it have recently been found in deeds written +in demotic characters. +</p> + +<p> +Philopator died of his debaucheries after a reign +of seventeen years (<hi rend='smallcaps'>b.c.</hi> 204), leaving a child of five +years of age—the future Ptolemy Epiphanês—to +succeed him. The Alexandrine mob was in a state +<pb n='153'/><anchor id='Pg153'/> +of riot, the army was untrustworthy, and Antiochus +was again on the march against Syria. The Egyptian +forces were defeated at Banias (Cæsarea Philippi), +the Jews having gone over to the invader, in return +for which Antiochus remitted the taxes due from +Jerusalem, and not only released all the ministers +of the temple from future taxation, but sent a large +sum of money for its support. By a treaty with +Rome the possession of the country was assured to +him (<hi rend='smallcaps'>b.c.</hi> 188), and colonies of Mesopotamian Jews +were settled in Lydia and Phrygia. +</p> + +<p> +Meanwhile Ptolemy <hi rend='smallcaps'>v.</hi>, Epiphanês, was growing +up, and in <hi rend='smallcaps'>b.c.</hi> 196 accordingly it was determined +that he should be crowned. The coronation took +place at Memphis, and a decree was made lightening +the burdens of the country, relieving the <foreign rend='italic'>fellahin</foreign> +from being impressed for the navy, and granting +further endowments to the priests. It is this decree +which is engraved on the famous Rosetta Stone. +</p> + +<p> +But the revolt of the Egyptians still continued, +and had already spread northward. Reference is +made in the decree to rebellion in the Busirite nome +of the Delta, and to a siege of the city of Lykopolis, +in which the insurgents had fortified themselves. It +was at this time, too, that the city of Abydos was +taken by storm and its temples finally ruined, as +we gather from a Greek scrawl on the walls of the +<pb n='154'/><anchor id='Pg154'/> +temple of Seti. But in <hi rend='smallcaps'>b.c.</hi> 185 a decisive victory +was gained by the Greek mercenaries over the +revolted Egyptians. Their four leaders surrendered +on the king's promise of a free pardon, and were +brought before him at Sais. There, however, he tied +them to his chariot-wheels in imitation of Achilles, +and dragged them still living round the city walls, +after which he returned to Alexandria and entered +his capital in triumph. +</p> + +<p> +The crimes of Epiphanês led to his murder in +<hi rend='smallcaps'>b.c.</hi> 180, and his seven-year-old son, Ptolemy <hi rend='smallcaps'>vi.</hi>, +Philomêtor, was proclaimed king under the regency +of his mother. While she lived there was peace, +but after her death the Syrian king, Antiochus +Epiphanês, threw himself upon Egypt, captured his +nephew Philomêtor, and held his court in Memphis. +Thereupon Philomêtor's younger brother, whose +corpulency had given him the nickname of Physkôn, +<q>the Bloated,</q> proclaimed himself king at Alexandria, +and called upon Rome for help. Antiochus withdrew, +leaving Philomêtor king of the Egyptians, and +Physkôn, who had taken the title of Euergetês <hi rend='smallcaps'>ii.</hi>, +king of the Greeks at Alexandria. Thanks to the +brotherly forbearance of Philomêtor, the two reigned +together in harmony for several years. Antiochus +Epiphanês, however, had again invaded Egypt, +but had been warned off its soil by the Roman +<pb n='155'/><anchor id='Pg155'/> +ambassadors. Rome now affected to regard the +kingdom of the Ptolemies as a protected state, and +the successors of Alexander were in no condition to +resist the orders of the haughty republic. Things had +indeed changed since the days when Philadelphus +in the plenitude of his glory deigned to congratulate +the Italian state on its defeat of the Epirots, and +the Roman senate regarded his embassy as the +highest of possible honours. +</p> + +<p> +The command of the Romans to leave Egypt +alone was sullenly obeyed by Antiochus Epiphanês. +But he had no choice in the matter. He had more +than enough on his hands at home without risking +a quarrel with Rome. The Jews were in full rebellion. +The Hellenising party among them—<q>the +ungodly</q> of the Books of Maccabees—had grown +numerous and strong, and had united themselves +with the civil rivals of the high-priests. Between +the party of progress and the orthodox supporters +of the Law there was soon open war, and in <hi rend='smallcaps'>b.c.</hi> 175, +Antiochus Epiphanês, tempted by the higher bribe, +was induced to join in the fray, and throw the +whole weight of his power on the side of innovation. +Onias <hi rend='smallcaps'>iii.</hi> was deposed from the high-priesthood, +and his brother Joshua, the leader of <q>the ungodly,</q> +was appointed in his place, with leave to change +the name of the Jews to that of Antiochians. Joshua +<pb n='156'/><anchor id='Pg156'/> +forthwith took the Greek name of Jason, established +a gymnasium at Jerusalem, sent offerings to the +festival of Heraklês at Tyre, and discouraged the +rite of circumcision. But Jason's rule was short-lived. +A Benjamite, Menelaus, succeeded in driving +him out of the country and usurping the office of +high-priest, while Onias was put to death. +</p> + +<p> +The second Syrian invasion of Egypt took place +two years later. The story of the check received +by Antiochus Epiphanês came to Judæa with all +the exaggerations usual in the East; Antiochus was +reported to be dead, and Jason accordingly marched +upon Jerusalem, massacred his opponents, and blockaded +Menelaus in the citadel. But Antiochus had +been wounded only in his pride, and he turned +back from the Nile burning with mortification and +anxious to vent his anger upon the first who came +in his way. The outrage committed by Jason was +a welcome pretext. The defenceless population of +Jerusalem was partly massacred, partly sold into +slavery, and under the guidance of Menelaus he +entered the Temple and carried away the sacred +vessels, as well as its other treasure. Philip the +Phrygian was appointed governor of the city, while +Menelaus remained high-priest. +</p> + +<p> +Severer measures were to follow. In <hi rend='smallcaps'>b.c.</hi> 168 +there had been a rising in Jerusalem, which was +<pb n='157'/><anchor id='Pg157'/> +thereupon captured on a Sabbath-day by the Syrian +general, the greater part of it being sacked and +burned, and a portion of the city wall thrown down. +A garrison was established on Mount Zion, which +at that time overlooked the Temple-hill, and a fierce +persecution of the Jews commenced. Every effort +was made to compel them to forsake their religion, +to eat swine's flesh, and to worship the gods of the +Greeks. It was then that <q>the abomination of +desolation</q> was seen in the Holy of Holies, the +temples of Samaria and Jerusalem being re-dedicated +to Zeus Xenios and Zeus Olympios, and that at +Jerusalem befouled with the rites of the Syrian +Ashtoreth. +</p> + +<p> +Thousands of the orthodox Jews fled to Egypt, +where they found shelter and welcome. Among +them was Onias, the eldest son of Onias <hi rend='smallcaps'>iii</hi>. Philomêtor +granted him land in the nome of Heliopolis, +and allowed him to build there a temple in which +the worship of the Hebrew God should be carried +on as it had been at Jerusalem. Excavation goes +to show that the temple was erected at the spot +now called Tel el-Yehudîyeh, <q>the Mound of the +Jewess,</q> not far from Shibîn el-Kanâtir. Here was +an old deserted palace and temple of Ramses <hi rend='smallcaps'>iii.</hi>, +and here the Jews were permitted to establish themselves +and found a city, which they called Onion. +</p> + +<pb n='158'/><anchor id='Pg158'/> + +<p> +According to Josephus, its older name had been +Leontopolis. The temple, which was destroyed by +Vespasian after the Jewish war, was fortified like +that at Jerusalem, and the porcelain plaques enamelled +with rosettes and lotus-buds, which had been +made for Ramses <hi rend='smallcaps'>iii.</hi>, were employed once more to +ornament it. Long ago the <foreign rend='italic'>fellahin</foreign> discovered +among its ruins, and then broke up, a marble bath, +such as is used to-day by the Jewish women for +the purpose of purification, and in the adjoining +necropolis Dr. Naville found the tombs of persons +who bore Jewish names. Onias was not allowed +to build his new temple without a protest from the +stricter adherents of the Law that it was forbidden +to raise one elsewhere than in the sacred city of +David. But he was a man of ready resource, and +all opposition was overcome when he pointed to the +prophecy of Isaiah (xix. 19): <q>In that day there +shall be an altar to the Lord in the midst of the +land of Egypt.</q> The Egyptian Jews had already +secured their own version of the Scriptures; they +now had their own temple, their own priesthood, +and their own high-priest. True, their co-religionists +in Judæa never ceased to protest against this rival +centre of their religious faith, and to denounce Onias +as the first schismatic; but their brethren in Egypt +paid no attention to their words, and the temple +<pb n='159'/><anchor id='Pg159'/> +of Onion continued to exist as long as that of +Jerusalem. +</p> + +<p> +Onias exercised an influence not only over his +own countrymen, but over the mind of the king as +well. Philomêtor, like Euergetês, had Jewish leanings, +and the high-priest of Onion was admitted to +high offices of state. So also was Dositheus, <q>the +priest and Levite,</q> who, in <q>The Rest of the Chapters +of the Book of Esther</q> (x. 1), tells us that in the +fourth year of Philomêtor, he and his son Ptolemy +had brought to Egypt <q>this epistle of Phurim,</q> which +had been translated into Greek at Jerusalem by +Lysimachus, the son of Ptolemy. Philomêtor even +acted as a judge in the great religious controversy +which raged between the Jews and the Samaritans. +They called upon him to decide whether the temple +should have been built on Mount Moriah or Mount +Gerizim, and which of them had altered the text of +Deuteronomy xxvii. 12, 13. Philomêtor decided in +favour of the Jews, as his duty towards his numerous +Jewish subjects perhaps compelled him to do, and +his religious zeal even carried him so far as to order +the two unsuccessful advocates of the Samaritan +cause to be put to death. +</p> + +<p> +While the king of Egypt was thus acting like +a Jew, the king of Syria was engaged in a fierce +struggle with the Jewish people. The national party +<pb n='160'/><anchor id='Pg160'/> +had risen under Mattathias, the priest of Modin, +and his five sons, of whom the third, Judas Maccabæus, +was the ablest and best-known. One after +another the Syrian armies were overthrown, and in +<hi rend='smallcaps'>b.c.</hi> 165 the Temple was purified and repaired, and +a new altar dedicated in it to the Lord of Hosts. +Two years later Antiochus Epiphanês died while +on the march against Judæa, and with him died +also the power of Syria. Rival claimants for the +throne, internal and external discord, treachery and +murder, sapped the foundations of its strength, and +in spite of assassinations and religious quarrels, of +Edomite hostility and the efforts of the Hellenising +party among the Jews themselves, the power of the +Maccabees went on increasing. The high-priesthood +passed to them from the last of the sympathisers +with the Greeks, and Jonathan, the brother and +successor of Judas, was treated by the king of Syria +with royal honours. Treaties were made with Sparta +and Rome, and his successor, Simon, struck coins +of his own. After his murder his son John Hyrcanus +extended the Jewish dominion as far north +as Damascus, annihilating Samaria and its temples +and conquering the Edomites, whom he compelled +to accept the Jewish faith. Aristobulus, who followed +him, took the title of king, and added Ituræa to +his kingdom, while his brother Alexander Jannæus +<pb n='161'/><anchor id='Pg161'/> +attacked Egypt and annexed the cities of the +Phœnician coast. But with royal dignity had come +royal crimes. Both Aristobulus and Alexander had +murdered their brothers, and their Greek names show +how the champions of Jewish orthodoxy were passing +over into the camp of the foe. +</p> + +<p> +Long before all this happened, many changes +had fallen upon Egypt. Philomêtor died in <hi rend='smallcaps'>b.c.</hi> 145. +He had been weak enough to forgive his rebellious +and ungrateful brother twice when he had had him +in his power. Once he had been compelled to go +to Rome to plead his cause before the senate, and +there be indebted to an Alexandrine painter for food +and lodging; on the second occasion Physkôn had +endeavoured to rob him of Cyprus by a combination +of mean treachery and intrigue. +</p> + +<p> +The reward of his brotherly forbearance was the +murder by Physkôn of Philomêtor's young son +Ptolemy Philopator <hi rend='smallcaps'>ii.</hi> immediately after his death. +Onias, the Jewish high-priest, held Alexandria for +Philopator, but his uncle Physkôn was favoured by +the Romans, whose word was now law. Physkôn +accordingly began his long reign of vice and cruelty, +interrupted only by temporary banishment to Cyprus. +Then followed his widow, Cleopatra Kokkê, a woman +stained with every possible and impossible crime. +She held her own, however, against all opponents, +<pb n='162'/><anchor id='Pg162'/> +including her own son Ptolemy Lathyrus, thanks +to her two Jewish generals, Khelkias and Ananias, +the sons of the high-priest Onias. Palestine and +Syria again became a battle-field where the fate of +Egypt was decided, and while Cleopatra was aided +by the Jews, Lathyrus found his allies among the +Samaritans. +</p> + +<p> +It was in the midst of these wars and rumours of +wars, when men had lost faith in one another and +themselves, and when the Jews after struggling for +bare existence were beginning to treat on equal terms +with the great monarchies of the world, that that +curious Apocalypse, the Book of Enoch, seems to +have been composed, at all events in its original +form. It is a vision of the end of all things and the +judgment of mankind, and it embodies the fully developed +doctrine of the angelic hierarchy to which +reference is made in the Book of Daniel. +</p> + +<p> +Cleopatra was murdered by her younger and +favourite son, and Lathyrus succeeded after all in +obtaining the throne of Egypt, which he ascended +under the title of Sôtêr <hi rend='smallcaps'>ii.</hi> (<hi rend='smallcaps'>b.c.</hi> 87). His short reign +of six years was signalised by the destruction of +Thebes. Upper Egypt was still in a state of effervescing +discontent, and the crimes of the last reign +caused it to break into open rebellion. The government +was weak and wicked; the Greeks had lost +<pb n='163'/><anchor id='Pg163'/> +their vigour and power to rule, and their armies were +now mere bodies of unruly mercenaries. But the +Thebans were not wealthy or strong enough to withstand +Alexandria when helped by the resources of +the Mediterranean. The revolt was at last suppressed, +Thebes taken by storm, and its temples, +which had been used as fortresses, battered and destroyed. +The population was put to the sword or +carried into slavery, and the capital of the conquering +Pharaohs of the past ceased to exist. Its place was +taken by a few squalid villages which clustered round +the ruins of its ancient shrines. Karnak and Luxor, +Medinêt Habu and Qurnah, were all that remained of +the former city. Under the earlier Ptolemies it had +been known as Diospolis, <q>the city of Zeus</q> Amon, the +metropolis of Upper Egypt; from this time forward, +in the receipts of the tax-gatherers, it is nothing more +than a collection of <q>villages.</q> Its priests were +scattered, its ruined temples left to decay. What +the Assyrian had failed to destroy and the Persian +had spared was overthrown by a Ptolemy who called +himself a king of Egypt. +</p> + +<p> +After the death of Lathyrus the internal decay of +the monarchy went on rapidly. A prey to civil war +and usurpation, it was allowed to exist a little longer +by the contemptuous forbearance of the Romans, who +waited to put an end to it until they had drained it +<pb n='164'/><anchor id='Pg164'/> +of its treasures. The kingdom of the Asmonæans at +Jerusalem also had tottered to its fall. Family +murders and civil feuds had become almost as +common among them as among the Ptolemies, and +as in Egypt, so too in Palestine, Rome was called in +to mediate between the rival claimants for the crown. +In <hi rend='smallcaps'>b.c.</hi> 63 Jerusalem was captured by Pompey after +a three months' siege, its defenders massacred, its +fortifications destroyed, and its royal house abolished. +The Roman victor entered the Holy of Holies, and +Palestine was annexed to the Roman empire. +</p> + +<p> +Among the remnant which still retained the faith +of their forefathers the Roman conquest and the +profanation of the temple gave new strength to the +conviction that the Messiah and saviour of Israel +must surely soon appear. The conviction finds expression +in the so-called Psalms of Solomon, of which +only a Greek copy survives. The high hopes raised +by the successes of the Maccabean family were +dashed for ever, and the temporal power of Judah +had vanished away. Henceforth it existed as a +nation only on sufferance. +</p> + +<p> +In Egypt it was not long before the Jews discovered +how grievous had been the change in their +fortunes. They ceased to be feared, and therefore +respected: the mob and rulers of Alexandria had for +them now only hatred and contempt. Their citizenship +<pb n='165'/><anchor id='Pg165'/> +was taken away, with its right to the enjoyment +of their own magistrates and courts of justice, and +they were degraded to the rank of the native +Egyptians, whom the lowest Greek vagabond in the +streets of Alexandria could maltreat with impunity. +They did not recover their old privileges until +Augustus had reorganised his Egyptian province, +and though they were again deprived of them by +Caligula, when Philo went in vain to plead for his +countrymen before the emperor, they were restored +by Claudius, and even Vespasian after the Jewish +war did not interfere with them. +</p> + +<p> +The house of Ptolemy fell ignobly. But it fell +amid the convulsions of a civil war which rent the +empire of its conquerors to the foundation, and among +the ruins of the Roman republic. Cleopatra, its last +representative, bewitched not only the coarser Mark +Antony but even the master mind of Julius Cæsar. +Her charms were fatal to the life and reputation of +the one; they nearly proved equally fatal to the life of +the other. Besieged with her in the palace of the +Ptolemies by the Alexandrine mob, Cæsar's life +trembled for a while in the balance. But the Library +of Alexandria was given in its stead; he saved himself +by firing the docks and shipping, and the flames +spread from the harbour to the halls of the Museum. +The precious papyri perished in the flames, and the +<pb n='166'/><anchor id='Pg166'/> +rooms in which the learning and talent of the Greek +world had been gathered together were a heap of +blackened ruins. It is true that Cleopatra subsequently +obtained from Mark Antony the library of +Pergamos, with its 200,000 volumes, which she placed +in the temple of Serapis, but the new library never +equalled the old, either in its extent or in the value +of its books. +</p> + +<p> +Cleopatra and Mark Antony died by their own +hands, and Augustus was left master of Egypt and +the Roman world (<hi rend='smallcaps'>b.c.</hi> 30). Cæsarion, the son of +Cleopatra and Julius Cæsar, was put to death, and +Egypt was annexed to the emperor's privy purse. +It never, therefore, became a province of the Roman +empire: unhappily for its inhabitants, it remained the +emperor's private domain. Its prefect was never +allowed to be of higher rank than the equestrian +order, and a senator was forbidden to set foot in it. +Its cities could not govern themselves, and the old +Greek law, which restricted the rights of citizenship +to the Greeks and Jews and prevented any native +Egyptians from sharing them, was left in force. +Egypt was the granary of Rome, and the riches of +its soil and the industry of its inhabitants made it +needful that no rival to the reigning sovereign should +establish himself in it. History had shown with what +ease the country could be invaded and occupied and +<pb n='167'/><anchor id='Pg167'/> +with what difficulty the occupier could be driven out. +And the master of Egypt commanded the trade between +East and West; he commanded also the +Roman mob whose mouths were filled with Egyptian +corn. It was dangerous to allow a possible rival even +to visit the valley of the Nile. +</p> + +<p> +The history of Alexandria under the Romans +is the history of Alexandria rather than of the +Egyptians. The <foreign rend='italic'>fellahin</foreign> laboured for others, not for +themselves, and the burdens which weighed upon +them became ever greater and more intolerable. +Now and again there were outbreaks in Upper Egypt, +which were, however, quickly repressed, and in the +third century the barbarian Blemmyes made Coptos +and Ptolemais their capitals. The reconquest of the +Thebaid by Probus (<hi rend='smallcaps'>a.d.</hi> 280) was judged worthy of +a triumph. About eight years later the whole country +was once more in rebellion, and proclaimed their +leader Akhilleus emperor. The war lasted for nine +years, and the whole force of the empire was required +to finish it. The emperor Diocletian marched in +person into Upper Egypt and besieged Coptos, the +centre of the revolt. After a long siege the city was +taken and razed to the ground. But the war had +ruined the people. The embankments were broken, +the canals choked up, the fields untilled and overrun +by the barbarians from the Sûdan or the Bedouin of +<pb n='168'/><anchor id='Pg168'/> +the eastern desert. Diocletian, when the struggle +was over, found himself obliged to withdraw the +Roman garrisons south of the First Cataract, and to +fix the frontier of the empire at Assuan. +</p> + +<p> +The war was followed by the great persecution of +the Christians, the last expiring effort of Roman +paganism against the invasion of the new faith. +Christianity had become a mighty power in the +Roman world, which threatened soon to absorb all +that was left of the Rome of the past, with its +patriotism, its devotion to the emperor, its law and +its administration. The struggle between it and the +empire of Augustus could no longer be delayed. +The edict of Diocletian was signed, and the empire +put forth its whole strength to crush its rival and root +Christianity out of its midst. +</p> + +<p> +But the attempt came too late. The new power +was stronger than the old one, and the persecution +only proved how utterly the old Rome had passed +away. The empire bowed its head and became +Christian; the bishops took the place of the prefects +and senators of the past, and theological disputations +raged in the halls of philosophy. Nowhere had the +persecution been fiercer than in Egypt; nowhere had +the martyrs and confessors of the Church been more +heroic or more numerous. +</p> + +<p> +The result was one which we should hardly have +<pb n='169'/><anchor id='Pg169'/> +expected. Hitherto Christianity in Egypt had been +Greek. It was associated with Alexandria and the +Greek language, not with the villages and tongue of +the people. Its bishops and theologians were Greeks, +and the school of Christian Platonism which flourished +in Alexandria had little in common with Egyptian +ideas. With the Diocletian persecution, however, +came a change. Even while it was still at its height, +martyrs and confessors come forward who bear +Egyptian and not Greek names. Hardly is it over +before the native population joins in one great body +the new religion. Osiris and Isis make way for +Christ and the Blessed Virgin, the Coptic alphabet +replaces the demotic script of heathenism, and the +bodies of the dead cease to be embalmed. It is +difficult to account for the suddenness and completeness +of the change. The decay of the Roman power, +and therewith the barriers between Greek and +Egyptian, may have had something to do with it. +So too may the revolt in Upper Egypt, which +united in one common feeling of nationality all the +elements of the population. Perhaps a still more +potent cause was the spectacle of the heroism and +constancy of those who suffered for the Christian +faith. The Egyptian has always been deeply +religious, and his very enjoyment of life makes him +admire and revere the ascetic. But whatever may +<pb n='170'/><anchor id='Pg170'/> +have been the reason, the fact remains: before the +persecution of Diocletian Egyptian Christianity had +been Greek; when the persecution was over it had +become Copt. The pagans who still survived were +not Egyptians but the rich and highly-educated +Greeks, like the poet Nonnus, who was tortured to +death by St. Shnûdi, or the gifted Hypatia, whose +flesh was torn from her bones with oyster-shells by +the monks of St. Cyril. +</p> + +<p> +The literature of Coptic Christianity was almost +wholly religious. Little else had an interest for the +devoted adherents of the new faith. The romances +which had delighted their forefathers were replaced +by legends of the saints and martyrs, and Christian +hymns succeeded to the poems of the past. We owe +to this passion for theology the preservation of +productions of the Jewish and Christian Churches +which would otherwise have been lost. The Book of +Enoch, quoted though it is by St. Jude, would have +perished irrevocably had it not been for Coptic +Christianity. The Church of Abyssinia, a daughter +of that of Egypt, has preserved it in an Ethiopic +translation, and portions of the Greek original from +which the translation was made have been found in a +tomb at Ekhmîm, which was excavated in 1886. It +has long been known that the text used by the +Abyssinian translator must have differed considerably +<pb n='171'/><anchor id='Pg171'/> +from that of which extracts have been preserved +for us in the Epistle of St. Jude and the writings +of the Byzantine historians Kedrenos and George +the Syncellus; the newly-discovered fragments +now enable us to see what this text actually was +like. If the original book was written in Aramaic +it would seem that at least two authorised +Greek versions of it existed, one of which was +used in Europe and Syria, the other in Egypt. +Which was the older and more faithful we have yet +to learn. +</p> + +<p> +The excavations at Ekhmîm have brought to +light fragments of two other works, both belonging +to the early days of Christianity and long since +lost. One of these is supposed by its first editor, +M. Bouriant, to be the Apocalypse of St. Peter; it +opens with an account of the Transfiguration, which +is followed by a vision of heaven and hell. The +book appears to have been composed or interpolated +by a Gnostic, as there is a reference in it to <q>the Æon</q> +in which Moses and Elias dwelt in glory. The other +work is of more importance. It is the Gospel known +to the early Church as that of St. Peter, and the +portion which is preserved contains the narrative of the +Passion and Resurrection of Christ. Throughout the +narrative the responsibility for the death of our Lord +is transferred from Pilate to the Jews; when the +<pb n='172'/><anchor id='Pg172'/> +guard who watched the tomb under the centurion +Petronius ran to tell Pilate of the resurrection they +had witnessed, <q>grieving greatly and saying: Truly +he was the son of God</q>: he answered: <q>I am clean +of the blood of the son of God: I too thought he was +so.</q> Docetic tendencies, however, are observable in +the Gospel: at all events the cry of Christ on the +cross is rendered, <q>My power, (my) power, thou hast +forsaken me!</q> +</p> + +<p> +What further discoveries of the lost documents of +early Christianity still await us in Egypt it is impossible +to say. It is only during the last few years +that attention has been turned towards monuments +which, to the students of Egyptian antiquity, seemed +of too recent a date. Countless manuscripts of priceless +value have already perished through the +ignorance of the <foreign rend='italic'>fellahin</foreign> and the neglect of the +tourist and <foreign lang='fr' rend='italic'>savan</foreign>, to whom the term <q>Coptic</q> has +been synonymous with <q>worthless.</q> But the soil of +Egypt is archæologically almost inexhaustible, and +the land of the Septuagint, of the Christian school of +Alexandria, and of the passionate theology of a later +epoch, cannot fail to yield up other documents that +will throw a flood of light on the early history of our +faith. It is only the other day that, among the +Fayyûm papyri now in the British Museum, there +was found a fragment of the Septuagint version of +<pb n='173'/><anchor id='Pg173'/> +the Psalms older than the oldest <hi rend='smallcaps'>ms.</hi> of the Bible +hitherto known. And the traveller who still wishes +to see the Nile at leisure and in his own way will +find in the old Egyptian quarries behind Dêr Abu +Hannes, but a little to the south of the city which +Hadrian raised to the memory of Antinous, abundant +illustrations of the doctrine and worship of the +primitive Coptic Church. He can there study all the +details of its ancient ecclesiastical architecture cut out +of the living rock, and can trace how the home of a +hermit became first a place of pilgrimage and then a +chapel with its altar to the saints. The tombs themselves, +inscribed with the Greek epitaphs of the sainted +fugitives from persecution, still exist outside the caves +in which they had dwelt. We can even see the change +taking place which transformed the Greek Church of +Alexandria into the Coptic Church of Egypt. On +either side of a richly-carved cross is the record of +<q>Papias, son of Melito the Isaurian,</q> buried in the +spot made holy by the body of St. Macarius, which is +written on the one side in Greek, on the other side in +Coptic. Henceforward Greek is superseded by Coptic, +and the numerous pilgrims who ask St. Victor or +St. Phœbammon to pray for them write their names +and prayers in the native language and the native +alphabet. With the betrayal of Egypt to the +Mohammedans by George the Makaukas the doom +<pb n='174'/><anchor id='Pg174'/> +of the Greek language and Bible was sealed. Coptic +had already become the language of the Egyptian +Church, and though we still find quotations from the +Greek New Testament painted here and there on the +walls of rock-cut shrines they are little more than +ornamental designs. Christian Egypt is native, not +Greek. +</p> + +</div> + +<pb n='175'/><anchor id='Pg175'/> + +<div rend='page-break-before: always'> +<index index='toc'/> +<index index='pdf'/> +<head>Chapter VI. Herodotos In Egypt.</head> + +<p> +From Coptic Christianity, just preparing to confront +twelve centuries of Mohammedan persecution, +we must now turn back to Pagan Greece. The +Persian wars have breathed a new life into Greece +and its colonies, and given them a feeling of unity +such as they never possessed before. Athens has +taken its place as leader not only in art and literature, +but also in war, and under the shelter of her +name the Ionians of Asia Minor have ventured to +defy their Persian lord, and the Ionic dialect has +ceased to be an object of contempt. The Greek, +always restless and curious to see and hear <q>some +new thing,</q> is now beginning to indulge his tastes at +leisure, and to visit as a tourist the foreign shores of +the Mediterranean. Art has leaped at a single bound +to its perfection in the sculptures of Pheidias; poetry +has become divine in the tragedies of Æschylus and +Sophocles, and history is preparing to take part in +the general development. The modern world of +Europe is already born. +</p> + +<pb n='176'/><anchor id='Pg176'/> + +<p> +The founder of literary history—of history, that is +to say, which aims at literary form and interest—was +Herodotos of Halikarnassos. If Greek tradition may +be trusted, his uncle had been put to death by +Lygdamis, the despot of the city, and the subsequent +expulsion of the tyrant was in some measure due to +the political zeal of the future historian. Herodotos +was wealthy and well educated, as fond of travel as +the majority of his countrymen, and not behind them +in curiosity and vanity. He had cultivated the +literary dialect of Ionia, perhaps during his stay in +Samos, and had made good use there of the library +of Polykratês, the friend and correspondent of Amasis. +What other libraries he may have consulted we do +not know, but his history shows that he had a considerable +acquaintance with the works of his predecessors, +whom he desired to eclipse and supersede. +Hekatæus of Miletus, who had travelled in Egypt as +far south as Thebes, if not Assuan, and had written +a full account of the country, its people and its +history, Xanthus, the Lydian, who had compiled the +annals of his native land, beside numberless other +authors, historians and geographers, poets and +dramatists, philosophers and physicists, had been +made to contribute to his work. Now and again +he refers to the older historians when he wishes to +correct or contradict them; more frequently he +<pb n='177'/><anchor id='Pg177'/> +silently incorporates their statements and words without +mentioning them by name. It was thus, we are +told by Porphyry, that he <q>stole</q> the accounts given +by Hekatæus of the crocodile, the hippopotamus and +the phœnix, and the incorrectness of his description +of that marvellous bird, which, like Hekatæus, he +likens to an eagle, proves that the charge is correct. +Reviewers did not exist in his days, nor were marks +of quotation or even footnotes as yet invented, and +Herodotos might therefore plead that, although he +quoted freely without acknowledgment, he was not +in any real sense a plagiarist. He only acted like +other Greek writers of his time, and if his plagiarisms +exceeded theirs it was only because he had read +more and made a more diligent use of his note-book. +</p> + +<p> +It is we, and not the Greek world for which he +wrote, who are the sufferers. It is frequently difficult, +if not impossible, for us to tell whether Herodotos +is speaking from his own experience or quoting from +others, whose trustworthiness is doubtful or whose +statements may have been misunderstood. From +time to time internal evidence assures us that we are +dealing, not with Herodotos himself, but with some +other writer whose remarks he has embodied. His +commentators have continually argued on the supposition +that, wherever the first person is used, it is +<pb n='178'/><anchor id='Pg178'/> +Herodotos himself who is speaking. Statements of +his accordingly have been declared to be true, in +spite of the contrary evidence of oriental research, +because, it is urged, he is a trustworthy witness and +has reported honestly what he heard and saw. But +if he did not hear and see the supposed facts, the +case is altered and the argument falls to the ground. +</p> + +<p> +Herodotos took part in the foundation of the +colony of Thurii in southern Italy in <hi rend='smallcaps'>b.c.</hi> 445, and +there, rather than at the Olympic festival, as later +legend believed, he read to the assembled Greeks the +whole or a part of his history. His travels in Egypt, +therefore, must have already taken place. Their approximate +date, indeed, is fixed by what he tells us +about the battlefield of Paprêmis (iii. 12). +</p> + +<p> +At Paprêmis, for the first time, an Egyptian +army defeated the Persian forces. Its leader was +Inarôs the Libyan, and doubtless a large body of +Libyans was enrolled in it. Along with Amyrtæos he +had led the Egyptians to revolt in the fifth year of +the reign of Artaxerxes <hi rend='smallcaps'>i.</hi> (<hi rend='smallcaps'>b.c.</hi> 460). Akhæmenes, +the satrap of Egypt, was routed and slain, and for +six years Egypt maintained a precarious freedom. +The fortresses at Memphis and Pelusium, however, +remained in the hands of the Persians, and in spite of +all the efforts of the Egyptians, they could not be +dislodged. Greek aid accordingly was sought, and +<pb n='179'/><anchor id='Pg179'/> +the Athenians, still at war with Persia, sent two +hundred ships from Cyprus to the help of the insurgents. +The ships sailed up the Nile as far as +Memphis, where the Persian garrison still held out. +</p> + +<p> +All attempts to oust it proved unavailing, and the +approach of a great Persian army under Megabyzos +obliged the Greeks to retreat to the island of Prosopites. +Here they were blockaded for a year and a +half; then the besiegers turned the river aside and +marched over its dry bed against the camp of the +allies, which they took by storm. The Greek +expedition was annihilated, and Inarôs fell into the +hands of his enemies, who sent him to Persia and +there impaled him. Amyrtæos, however, still maintained +himself in the marshes of the Delta, and in +<hi rend='smallcaps'>b.c.</hi> 449 Kimon sent sixty ships of the Athenian +fleet to assist him in the struggle. But before they +could reach the coast of Egypt news arrived of the +death of Kimon, and the ships returned home. Four +years later, if we may trust Philokhorus, another +Egyptian prince, Psammetikhos, who seems to have +succeeded Amyrtæos, sent 72,000 bushels of wheat to +Athens in the hope of buying therewith Athenian +help. But it does not appear to have been given, +and Egypt once more sullenly obeyed the Persian +rule. We learn from Herodotos (iii. 15) that <q>the +great king</q> even allowed Thannyras and Pausiris, +<pb n='180'/><anchor id='Pg180'/> +the sons of his inveterate enemies Inarôs and +Amyrtæos, to succeed to the principalities of their +fathers. +</p> + +<p> +Paprêmis was visited by Herodotos, and he saw +there the sham fight between the priests at the door +of the temple on the occasion of their chief festival. +He also went to the site of the battle-field, and there +beheld <q>a great marvel.</q> The skeletons of the combatants +lay on separate sides of the field just as they +had fallen, and whereas the skulls of the Persians were +so thin that they could be shattered by a pebble, those +of the Egyptians were thick and strong enough to +resist being battered with a stone. The cause of this +difference was explained to him by the dragoman: +the Egyptians shaved their heads from childhood +and so hardened the bones of it against the sun, +while the Persians shaded their heads by constantly +wearing caps of thick felt. +</p> + +<p> +Not many years could have elapsed since the battle +had occurred. The visit of the Greek traveller to the +scene of it may therefore be laid between <hi rend='smallcaps'>b.c.</hi> 455 +and 450. The patriots of Egypt must have been +still struggling for their liberty among the marshes +of the northern Delta. +</p> + +<p> +But the rebellion must have been practically +crushed. No Greek could have ventured into Persian +territory while his countrymen were fighting against +<pb n='181'/><anchor id='Pg181'/> +its Persian masters. The army of Megabyzos must +have done its work, and the Athenian fleet been +utterly destroyed. Moreover, it is evident that when +Herodotos entered the valley of the Nile the country +was at peace. His references to the war are to a past +event, and when he speaks of Inarôs and Amyrtæos +it is of men who have ceased to be a danger to the +foreign government. The passage, indeed, in which +he notices the peaceable appointment of their sons to +the principalities of their fathers may have been +inserted after his return to Greek lands, but this +makes no difference as to the main fact. When he +came to Egypt it had again lapsed into tranquil +submission to the Persian power. +</p> + +<p> +In <hi rend='smallcaps'>b.c.</hi> 450, Kimon, the son of Miltiades, had destroyed +the naval power of Persia, and in the following +year Megabyzos was overthrown at Salamis. +It was then that the <q>peace of Kimon</q> is said to +have been concluded between Athens and the +Persian king, which put an end to the long Persian +war, freed the Greek cities of Asia, and made the +Mediterranean a Greek sea. The reality of the peace +has been doubted, because there is no allusion to it +in the pages of Thucydides, and it may be that it was +never formally drawn up. But the fact embodied by the +story remains: for many years to come there was truce +between Greece and Persia, and the independence +<pb n='182'/><anchor id='Pg182'/> +of the Greek colonies in Asia Minor was acknowledged +at the Persian court. The year 449 marks +the final triumph of Athens and the beginning of +Persian decline. +</p> + +<p> +Had Herodotos travelled in Egypt a year or two +later, the ease and security with which he did so +would be readily explained. But in this case we +should be brought too near the time when his history +was finished and he himself was a resident in Italy. +We must therefore believe that he was there before +the final blow had been struck at Persian supremacy +in the Mediterranean, but when the Athenian invasion +of Egypt was already a thing of the past, and the +unarmed trader and tourist were once more able to +move freely about. +</p> + +<p> +For more than half a century Egypt had been +closed to Greek curiosity. There had been an earlier +period, when the Delta at least had been well-known +to the Hellenic world. The Pharos of the future +Alexandria is already mentioned by Homer (<hi rend='italic'>Od.</hi> iv. +355); it was there, <q>in front of Egypt,</q> that Menelaos +moored his ships and forced <q>Egyptian Prôteus</q> to +declare to him his homeward road. Even <q>Egyptian +Thebes,</q> with its hundred temple-gates, is known both +to the <hi rend='italic'>Iliad</hi> (ix. 381) and to the <hi rend='italic'>Odyssey</hi> (iv. 126), and +the Pharaoh Polybos dwelt there when Alkandra, his +wife, loaded Menelaos with gifts. Greek mercenaries +<pb n='183'/><anchor id='Pg183'/> +enabled Psammetikhos to shake off the yoke of +Assyria, and Greek traders made Naukratis and +Daphnæ wealthy centres of commerce. Solon visited +Egypt while Athens was putting into practice the +laws he had promulgated, and there he heard from +the priest of Sais that, by the side of the unnumbered +centuries of Egyptian culture, the Greeks were but +children and their wisdom but the growth of to-day. +Before the Ionic revolt had broken out, while Ionia +and Egypt were still sister provinces of the same +Persian empire, Hekatæos of Miletus had travelled +through the valley of the Nile, enjoying advantages +for information which no Greek could possess again +till Egypt had become a Macedonian conquest, and +embodying his knowledge and experiences in a +lengthy book. +</p> + +<p> +But the Persian wars had put an end to all this +peaceful intercourse between Greece and the old land +of the Pharaohs, and the Karian dragomen who had +made their living by acting as interpreters between +the Greeks and the Egyptians were forced to turn to +other work. At length, however, Egypt was once +more open to visitors, and once more, therefore, +visitors came from Greece. Anaxagoras, the philosopher +and friend of Periklês, was among the first to +arrive and to investigate the causes of the rise and +fall of the Nile. Hellanikos the historian, too, the +<pb n='184'/><anchor id='Pg184'/> +older contemporary of Herodotos, seems to have +travelled in Egypt, though doubt has been cast on +the authenticity of the works in which he is supposed +to have recorded his experiences of Egyptian travel. +At any rate, Herodotos found a public fresh and eager +to hear what he had to tell them about the dwellers +on the Nile. +</p> + +<p> +Herodotos must have reached Egypt in the summer. +When he arrived, the whole of the Delta was +under water. He describes with the vividness of an +eye-witness how its towns appeared above the +surface of the water, like the islands in the Ægean, +and how the traveller could sail, not along the river, +but across the plain. At the time of the inundation, +he says, all Egypt <q>becomes a sea, above which the +villages alone show themselves.</q> The voyage from +Naukratis to Memphis was direct and rapid, and the +tourists in making it passed by the pyramids instead +of the apex of the Delta. +</p> + +<p> +In northern Egypt the rise of the Nile begins to +be perceptible during the first few days of July. +Criers go about the streets of Cairo announcing each +day how high it has risen, and in the first or second +week of August the ceremony of cutting the Khalîg +or Canal of Cairo, and therewith declaring that the +Nile was once more flooding its banks, used to be +observed with great rejoicings. It is, in fact, in +<pb n='185'/><anchor id='Pg185'/> +August that the land is first covered with the flood. +For another month the height of the water continues +to increase, and then for a short while to remain +stationary. But towards the end of October, when +the canals of Upper Egypt are emptied, there is +again another rise, soon followed by a rapid fall. If +the Delta was like a sea when Herodotos saw it, he +must have been there between the beginning of July +and the end of October. +</p> + +<p> +These are the limits of the time which he could +have spent in the country. That he did not remain +till after the fall of the river and the drying up of +the land is evident from incidental statements in his +work. Thus when he visited the Fayyûm it was +like the Delta, a sea of waters, and the pyramids +of Biahmu, which Professor Petrie's excavations +have shown to have always stood on dry land, +as they still do to-day, were seen by him in the +middle of a vast lake. Nowhere, indeed, is there any +hint of his having seen the country in its normal +condition. Even his reference to Kerkosôros, at the +apex of the Delta, which every traveller to Memphis +had to pass except at the period of high Nile, is derived +from <q>the Ionian</q> writers of a previous generation, +not from his own experience. Neither in going +nor in returning was his boat obliged to pass that +way. We need not be surprised, therefore, at finding +<pb n='186'/><anchor id='Pg186'/> +that the festivals he witnessed in the Egyptian towns +were those which took place in the summer. +</p> + +<p> +Herodotos had not the time to imitate the example +of his predecessor Hekatæos and visit Upper +Egypt, nor, indeed, was the summer a fitting season +for doing so. Consequently, while he lavishes his +admiration on the temples and pyramids of the Delta, +of Memphis and of the Fayyûm, he has nothing to +say about the still more striking temples of the south. +<q>Hundred-gated Thebes,</q> whose fame had already +penetrated to the Homeric Greeks, and whose tombs +and colossi led the Greek tourists of the Macedonian +age to scribble upon them their expressions of admiration +and awe, is known to him only by name. +The extravagance of his praise is reserved for the +Labyrinth; about the nobler and more majestic +buildings of the capital of Upper Egypt he is absolutely +silent. Against the statues of the Egyptian +kings which Hekatæos saw at Thebes, Herodotos +can bring only a smaller number which he saw at +Memphis. +</p> + +<p> +The monuments even now contain evidence that, +after the age of Hekatæos, Greek sightseers did not +make their way into southern Egypt until the +Macedonian conquest had made travel there easy and +safe. At Abu-Simbel in Nubia and Abydos in Upper +Egypt are the records of the Greek mercenaries +<pb n='187'/><anchor id='Pg187'/> +of Psammetikhos and their Greek and Karian +contemporaries who visited the oracle of Abydos. +But then comes a long blank in the history of +Greek writing in Egypt. With the foundation of +Alexander's empire a new epoch in it begins. From +that time forward the walls of the tombs and temples +were covered with the scrawls of innumerable Greek +visitors. At Thebes the royal tombs were especial +objects of attention, and ciceroni led the inquisitive +stranger round them just as they do to-day. +</p> + +<p> +But among all the mass of Greek names that +have been collected from the monuments of Upper +Egypt we find neither that of Herodotos nor of any +other of his countrymen of the same age. In fact, +it was not a time for sightseeing in the southern +valley of the Nile. The population were in only half-repressed +rebellion against their Persian rulers, and +the whole country swarmed with bandits. Persian +authority was necessarily weaker than in the north, +and the people were more combative and had near +allies in the desert, the Bedouin and the Ethiopians. +A voyage up the river was even more dangerous +than in the anarchical days of the last century: +pirates abounded, and out of reach of the Persian +garrison at Memphis the traveller carried his life in +his hand. As in the time of Norden no Egyptian +bey could or would allow the traveller in Nubia to +<pb n='188'/><anchor id='Pg188'/> +go south of Dirr, so in the time of Herodotos the +southern limit of the foreigner's travels was the +Fayyûm. The <q>Egypt into which Greeks sail</q> was, as +he himself declares, the Egypt which lay north of the +Theban nome and Lake Mœris. +</p> + +<p> +Even a visit to the Fayyûm was doubtless a bold +and unusual undertaking, and on this account +Herodotos describes what he saw there at more than +ordinary length, and extols the wonders of the +district at the expense of the better-known monuments +of Memphis and the Delta. But the Oasis +had suffered much from the civil troubles which had +afflicted Egypt. The dykes which kept out the +inundation had been neglected, and the fertile nome +was transformed into a stagnant lake. Herodotos +saw it as the French <foreign lang='fr' rend='italic'>savans</foreign> saw it at the beginning +of the present century; the embankments were +broken, and fields and roads were alike submerged. +</p> + +<p> +From the walls of the capital of the province, +whose mounds now lie outside Medînet el-Fayyûm, +Herodotos looked northward over a vast expanse of +water. <q>Nearly in the middle of it,</q> he tells us, <q>stand +two pyramids, each of them rising 304 feet above +the water ... and both surmounted by colossal +stone figures seated upon a throne.</q> The shattered +fragments of the colossi were found by Professor +Petrie in 1888, scattered round the pyramidal +<pb n='189'/><anchor id='Pg189'/> +pedestals, twenty-one feet high, on which they had +been placed. Cut out of hard quartzite sandstone, +they represented Amon-em-hat <hi rend='smallcaps'>iii.</hi>, the creator of the +Fayyûm, and their discoverer calculates that they +were each thirty-five feet in height. The fragments +are now at Oxford in the Ashmolean Museum. The +statues faced northward, and the court within which +they stood was surrounded by a wall with a gateway +of red granite. The pedestals still remain fairly +intact, and the road by the side of which they had +been erected is still used to-day. The monuments, +in fact, were erected high above the inundation, and +that Herodotos should have seen them in the midst of +the water is but a further proof of the condition of the +country at the time. The Lake Mœris he describes +was not the true Mœris of Egyptian geography; it +was the Fayyûm itself buried beneath the flood. +</p> + +<p> +The total height of the colossi from the ground, +according to Professor Petrie, was about sixty feet. +Between this and the 304 feet assigned to them by +the Greek traveller there is indeed a wide difference. +But Herodotos could not have seen them close at +hand, and the measurement he gives must have been +a mere guess. It warns us, however, not to put overmuch +faith in his statements, even when they are the +results of personal observation. He was but a tourist, +not a man of science, and he cared more for the tales +<pb n='190'/><anchor id='Pg190'/> +of his dragoman and novel sights than for scientific +surveying and exactitude. +</p> + +<p> +Hence comes the assertion that before the time +of Menes the whole country between the sea and +Lake Mœris was a marsh. Such a statement is +intelligible only if we remember that, when Herodotos +sailed up the Nile, its banks were inundated on +either side. Had he seen the country south of +Memphis as the modern traveller sees it when the +water is subsiding and green fields begin to line the +course of the river, he could never have entertained +the belief. But all distinction between the Delta and +the rest of Egypt was hidden from him by the waters +of the inundation. That he should have made the +Fayyûm the limit of the marsh is indeed natural; it +was the limit of his exploration of Upper Egypt, and +consequently he did not know that from Memphis +southward to Edfu the valley of the Nile presents +the same features. +</p> + +<p> +The strange error he twice commits in imagining +that there were vaults under the pyramid of Kheops +in an island formed by a canal which the builder had +introduced from the Nile is due to the same cause. +Doubtless his dragoman had told him something of +the kind. A subterraneous chamber in the rock +actually exists under the great pyramid, as was +discovered by Caviglia, and there are pyramids into +<pb n='191'/><anchor id='Pg191'/> +whose lower chambers the Nile has long since +infiltrated. Professor Maspero found his exploration +of the pyramids of Lisht, south of Dahshûr, stopped +by the water which had filled them, and Professor +Petrie had the same experience in the brick pyramid +of Howâra, though here the infiltration of the water +seems to have been caused by a canal dug in +Arab times. But the pyramids of Gizeh stand on a +plateau of limestone rock secure against the approach +of water, and the story reported by Herodotos is +more probably the result of misapprehension on his +own part than of intentional falsehood on the part of +his guides. His ready credence of it, however, can +be explained only by the condition of the country at +the time of his visit. The whole land was covered +with water, and in going to Memphis he had to sail +by the pyramids themselves. It was in a boat that +his visit to them must have been made; and it was +easy, therefore, to believe that a canal ran from the +water on which he sailed through the tunnelled rock +whereon they stood. He did not know that the +lowest chamber of the pyramid was high above the +utmost level of the flood. +</p> + +<p> +Surprise has often been expressed that Herodotos +should make no mention of the Sphinx, which to +Arabs and modern Europeans alike has appeared +one of most noteworthy monuments of Gizeh. But +<pb n='192'/><anchor id='Pg192'/> +in sailing along the canal which led from Memphis +to the pyramids he would have passed by it without +notice. As his boat made its way to the rocky edge +on which the huge sepulchres of Kheops and +Khephren are built, it would have been concealed +from his view; and buried as it was in sand his +guides did not think it an object of such surpassing +importance as to lead him to it over the burning +sand. In the immediate neighbourhood of the +great pyramid he was surrounded by monuments +more interesting and more striking, which were quite +enough to occupy his day and satisfy his curiosity. +</p> + +<p> +South of the Fayyûm and the adjoining city of +Herakleopolis, whose ruins are now known as Ahnas +el-Medîneh, all that Herodotos has to tell us is derived +from older authors. Now and then, it is true, the first +person is used, and we think for a moment that he is +describing his own adventures. But he is merely quoting +from others, and there are no marks of quotation +in the manuscript to show us that such is the case. +His book is thus like that of another and later Egyptian +traveller, Mr. J. A. St. John, whose <hi rend='italic'>Egypt and Nubia</hi> +was published in English only fifty years ago. He +too embodies the narratives of his predecessors in the +record of his own journey up the Nile without any +notice or signs that he is doing so, and it is not until +we suddenly light on the name of an earlier writer at +<pb n='193'/><anchor id='Pg193'/> +the bottom of the page that we become aware of the +fact. Herodotos has not given us even this help; and +we need not wonder, therefore, that commentators who +have never been in Egypt have been deceived by his +method of work. But he has preserved fragments of +older writers which would otherwise have been lost, +and if he has mingled them with the stories he heard +from the dragomen of Memphis and Sais, or the +answers he received to his questions about Greek +legends, we must not feel ungrateful. +</p> + +<p> +Upper Egypt is mentioned only incidentally in +his narrative, and, as might be expected in a writer +who had to depend upon others for his information, +what he tells us about it is very frequently incorrect. +Thus he asserts that the hippopotamus was <q>sacred +in the nome of Paprêmis, but nowhere else in Egypt,</q> +although it was also worshipped in Thebes, and he +fancies that all the cats in the country were embalmed +and buried at Bubastis, all the hawks and +mice at Buto, and all the ibises at Hermopolis or +Damanhur. But this was because he had visited +these places and had not travelled in the south. Had +he done so, he would never have imagined that the +body of every cat or hawk that died was carried to a +distant place in the Delta. Indeed, in the hot +weather of the summer months, anything of the kind +would have been impossible. Cemeteries, however, +<pb n='194'/><anchor id='Pg194'/> +of these sacred animals are found all up and down the +Nile. The mummies of the sacred cats are to be met +with in the cliffs of Gebel Abu Foda, at Thebes, and +above all at Beni Hassan, where a little to the south +of the Speos Artemidos such quantities of them were +recently discovered as to suggest that a commercial +profit might be made out of their bones. Tons of +them were accordingly shipped to Liverpool, there +to be converted into manure; but as it was found +that the mummified bones refused to yield to the +process, the exportation ceased. Mummies of the +sacred hawks were disinterred in equal numbers when +the ancient cemeteries of Ekhmîm were excavated a +few years ago, and the construction of the canal on +the eastern bank opposite Abutîg has lately brought +to light another of their burial-places, thus fixing the +site of Hierakon, <q>the city of the Hawk,</q> the capital +of the twelfth nome. +</p> + +<p> +In his geography of the river above the Fayyûm +Herodotos was similarly misinformed. Thus, he +avers that <q>the country above the Fayyûm for the +distance of a three days' voyage resembles the country +below it.</q> A three days' voyage would mean about +eighty miles, since he reckons it a voyage of seven +days from the sea to the Fayyûm, a distance of about +190 miles. Dahabîyeh travellers will willingly assent +to the calculation. With a fair wind, a day's voyage +<pb n='195'/><anchor id='Pg195'/> +is about thirty miles, more or less, so that 190 miles +could be easily traversed in seven days. Now eighty +miles would bring the visitor from the Fayyûm to +Qolosaneh and the Gebel et-Têr. For many miles +before reaching the Gebel the banks of the Nile wear +a very different aspect from that which they present +lower down. In place of a dull monotony of sand-banks +and level plains, there are picturesque lines of +cliff, amphitheatres of desert and rugged headlands. +It is only as far as Feshn, twenty miles to the south +of Herakleopolis, that the description of Herodotos +is correct. It is, in fact, merely based on what he +could see from the southernmost point to which +he attained. +</p> + +<p> +The view which he had from thence over the flat +desert reaches of Libya led him to make another +statement equally wide of the truth. It is that for +four days after leaving Heliopolis the valley of the +Nile is narrow, but that then it once more becomes +broad. But such was the case only where the +Fayyûm and the province of Beni-Suef spread +towards the west, and there too only when they are +covered with the waters of the inundation. Elsewhere +the cultivated valley is for the most part +narrower even than in the neighbourhood of Memphis, +where it seemed to the Greek traveller to be so confined; +here and there, indeed, as at Abydos and +<pb n='196'/><anchor id='Pg196'/> +Thebes, it broadens out for a space, but otherwise +the wilderness encroaches upon it ever more and +more until at Silsilis the barren rocks obliterate it +altogether. +</p> + +<p> +Herodotos knows nothing of the great monuments +of Thebes, and the Pharaohs accordingly whose +names he records have no connection with the ancient +capital of the empire. They belong to Memphis, to +the Fayyûm, and to the Delta—none of them to +Thebes. Even Sesostris, in whom some of the +features of Ramses <hi rend='smallcaps'>ii.</hi> may be detected, reigns in the +north rather than in the south. Of all the multitudinous +monuments that he has left, two only are +known to the Greek traveller, and these are the two +statues of himself which stood before the temple +of Ptah in Memphis. +</p> + +<p> +Of Thothmes and Amenôphis and the other great +monarchs of the eighteenth dynasty whose memorials +were to be found chiefly in the south, Herodotos had +never heard. All that he knew of the kings of +Egypt before the age of Psammetikhos was derived +from the stories which his guides attached to the +monuments which he actually saw. Had he visited +the temples and tombs of Thebes and Abydos and +Assuan we should have been told how Memnon led +his troops to Troy or how Osymandyas conquered +the world. But we have to turn to others for the +<pb n='197'/><anchor id='Pg197'/> +dragoman's tales of Upper Egypt; Herodotos could +not record them, for he was never there. The +Fayyûm is the southernmost limit of his historical +knowledge, because it is also the southernmost limit +of his geographical knowledge. +</p> + +<p> +And yet here and there we come across notices +of Upper Egypt, some of which have been written +by an eye-witness. But the eye-witness was not +Herodotos himself, and in giving them he generally +gives an indication of the fact. Thus he describes +Khemmis or Ekhmîm as <q>near Neapolis,</q> the modern +Qeneh, although the distance between the two towns +is really ninety-five miles, a voyage of at least three +days, and Neapolis was but an insignificant city by +the side of Khemmis itself, or of other towns like This +and Abydos that were nearer to it. Even Tentyris +or Denderah, with its ancient temple of Hathor +opposite Neapolis, was more important and better-known, +while Thebes itself was only forty-five miles +higher up the river. +</p> + +<p> +But the account given by Herodotos of Khemmis +and its temple is a mere product of the imagination. +Indeed, he implies that he received it from certain +<q>people of Khemmis</q> whom he had questioned, probably +through his interpreter. They told him that the +temple, of which a few remains are still visible, and +which was really dedicated to Min or Amon-Khem, +<pb n='198'/><anchor id='Pg198'/> +was that of the Greek hero Perseus—a name suggested, +it may be, by its likeness to that of the sacred +persea tree. Each year, it was further alleged, +gymnastic games in the Greek fashion were celebrated +in honour of the foreign deity, who at times appeared +to his worshippers, leaving behind him his sandal +famous in Greek mythology. But the inventive +powers of the informants of the Greek traveller did +not stop here. He further assures us that the pylon +of the temple bore on the summits of its two towers +two images of the deity. The statement is of itself +sufficient to discredit the whole story and to prove +that Herodotos could never have seen the temple +with his own eyes. The watch-towers that guarded +the entrance of an Egyptian temple never had, and +never could have, images on their roofs. They were +needed for other purposes, and the very idea of their +supporting statues was contrary to the first principles +of Egyptian architecture and religion. It was a conception +wholly Greek. +</p> + +<p> +Equally wide of the truth is what Herodotos has +to tell us about the First Cataract. Like other +travellers to Egypt before and since he was anxious +to learn something about the sources of the Nile. +But neither <q>the Egyptians nor the Libyans nor the +Greeks</q> whom he met could give him any information. +Perhaps had he sailed as far as Assuan some of the +<pb n='199'/><anchor id='Pg199'/> +Ethiopians who lived there might have been more +communicative. At last, however, he was introduced +to one of the sacred scribes in the temple of Neit at +Sais—the only Egyptian priest, in fact, of higher +rank, whom he seems to have conversed with—and +the scribe humoured the curiosity of the traveller to +the utmost of his desires, though even Herodotos +suspected that he was being made fun of. However, +as in duty bound, he gravely writes down what he was +told. <q>Two mountains are there with pointed tops, +between Syênê, a city of the Thebais, and Elephantinê, +which are called Krôphi and Môphi. Out of the +heart of these mountains flow the sources of the Nile, +which are bottomless, half the water running towards +Egypt and the north, while the other half goes to +Ethiopia and the south. That the sources are bottomless +was proved by Psammetikhos, the king of Egypt, +for after letting down into them a rope several +hundred thousand fathoms in length, he did not find +the bottom.</q> Herodotos adds that this was probably +because there were violent eddies in the water which +carried the rope away. +</p> + +<p> +Egyptian priests did not, as a rule, know Greek, +and they avoided any kind of intercourse with the +<q>unclean</q> foreigner. Even to have conversed with +him would have caused pollution. Consequently +<q>the priests</q> to whom Herodotos so frequently +<pb n='200'/><anchor id='Pg200'/> +alludes were merely the <q>beadles</q> of the day, who +took the tourist over the temples and showed him +the principal objects of interest. The sacred scribe +of Sais was an exception to the general rule. Since +the days of Psammetikhos, Sais had been accustomed +to Greek visitors, and the prejudices against them +were less strong there than in other Egyptian towns. +It is quite possible, therefore, that the scribe whom +Herodotos met was acquainted with the Greek +language, and that no dragoman was required to +interpret his words. +</p> + +<p> +There is a reason for thinking that such was the +case. The story of Krôphi and Môphi, in spite of +the suspicions of Herodotos, is remarkably correct; +even the name of Krôphi has not undergone a greater +amount of transformation than it might have done if +Herodotos had written it down himself from the +scribe's mouth. It is the Egyptian Qerti or Qoriti, +<q>the two holes</q> out of which Egyptian mythology +supposed Hâpi, the Nile-god, to emerge at the period +of the inundation. The Qerti were at the foot of the +granite peaks of Senem, the island of Bigeh, and of +the opposite cliff on the southern side of the First +Cataract. We can almost fix the exact spot where +one of these Qerti was believed to have been. On +the western bank of Philæ, immediately facing Bigeh, +is a portal built in the reign of Hadrian, on the inner +<pb n='201'/><anchor id='Pg201'/> +north wall of which is a picture of it. We see the +granite blocks of Bigeh piled one upon the other up +to the summit of the island where Mut the divine +mother, and Horus the saviour, sit and keep watch +over the waters of the southern Nile. Below is the +cavern, encircled by a guardian serpent, within which +the Nile-god is crouched, pouring from a vase in +either hand the waters of the river. Though in +certain points Herodotos has misunderstood his informant, +on the whole the story of Krôphi and Môphi +is a fairly accurate page from the volume of Egyptian +mythology. Even the jingling Môphi may be derived +from the Egyptian <foreign rend='italic'>moniti</foreign> or <q>mountains</q> +between which the river ran, though Lauth may +be right in holding that Krôphi is Qer-Hâpi, <q>the +hollow of the Nile,</q> and Môphi Mu-Hâpi, <q>the waters +of the Nile.</q> +</p> + +<p> +But in one point the Greek historian has made a +serious mistake. It was not between Assuan and +Elephantinê that the sources of the Nile were placed, +but between Bigeh and the mainland, on the other side +of the Cataract. Between Assuan and Elephantinê +there are no <q>mountains,</q> only the channel of the river. +In saying therefore that Krôphi and Môphi were +mountains and that they rose between Syênê and +Elephantinê, Herodotos proves beyond all possibility +of doubt that he had never been at the spot. Had +<pb n='202'/><anchor id='Pg202'/> +he actually visited Assuan the words of the sacred +scribe would have been reported more correctly. +</p> + +<p> +At Elephantinê honours were paid to <q>the great</q> +god of the Nile, who rose from his caverns in the +neighbourhood. Of this we have been assured by a +mutilated Greek inscription on a large slab of granite +which was discovered by English sappers at Assuan +in 1885. It records the endowments and privileges +which were granted to the priests of Elephantinê by +the earlier Ptolemies, and one line of it refers to the +places <q>wherein is the fountain of the Nile.</q> But long +before the days of the Ptolemies and of Greek visitors +to Egypt, when the First Cataract was the boundary +of Egyptian rule and knowledge, the fountain of +the Nile was already placed immediately beyond +it. This infantile belief of Egyptian mythology was +preserved, like so much else of prehistoric antiquity, +in the mythology of later days. In the temple of +Redesîyeh, on the road from Edfu to Berenikê, an +inscription relates how Seti <hi rend='smallcaps'>i.</hi> dug a well in the +desert and how the water gushed up, <q>as from the +depth of the two Qerti of Elephantinê.</q> Here the +bottomless springs are transferred from Bigeh to +Elephantinê, thus explaining how Herodotos could +have been led into his error of supposing them to +be two mountains between Elephantinê and Assuan. +Doubtless the sacred scribe had marked the position +<pb n='203'/><anchor id='Pg203'/> +of the island of Bigeh by its relation to the better +known island of Elephantinê. +</p> + +<p> +The very name of the city which stood on the +southern extremity of Elephantinê implied that here, +in the days of its foundation, was placed the source +of the Egyptian Nile. It was called Qebhu, the city +of <q>fresh water,</q> a word represented by the picture +of a vase from which water is flowing. At times the +city was also called Abu, but Abu was more +correctly the name of the island on which it stood. +Abu, in fact, signified the island <q>of elephants,</q> of +which the Greek Elephantinê was but a translation. +In that early age, when it first became known to the +Egyptians, the African elephant must still have +existed there. +</p> + +<p> +Herodotos does not seem to have been aware +that Elephantinê was an island as well as a city. +Except where he is reporting the words of the sacred +scribe, he always speaks of it as <q>a city,</q> sometimes +to the exclusion of the more important Syênê. It is +another sign that his voyage up the Nile did not +extend so far. +</p> + +<p> +We need not point out other instances of his +ignorance of the country above the Fayyûm. Those +which have been already quoted are enough. The +summer months which he spent in Egypt were more +than fully employed in visiting the wonders of +<pb n='204'/><anchor id='Pg204'/> +Memphis and the chief cities of the Delta, and in +exploring the Fayyûm. Upper Egypt was closed to +him, as it was to the rest of his countrymen for +many a long day. +</p> + +<p> +But we are now able to trace his journey with +some degree of exactness. He must have arrived +about the beginning of July at the mouth of the +Kanôpic arm of the Nile—the usual destination of +Greek ships—and thus have made his way by +Hermopolis or Damanhur to the Greek capital +Naukratis. There he doubtless hired his Karian +dragoman, with whom he sailed away over the inundated +land to Sais. But his expedition to Sais was +only an excursion, from which he returned to continue +his voyage in a direct line past Prosôpitis and the +pyramids of Gizeh to Memphis. There he inspected +the great temple of Ptah, whom his countrymen +identified with their Hephæstos, and from thence he +went by water to see the pyramids. It was while he +was at Memphis, moreover, that he paid a visit to +Heliopolis, with its university and its temple, of which +all that is left to-day is the obelisk of Usertesen. +Next he made his voyage up the Nile, past the brick +pyramids of Dahshûr, to Anysis or Herakleopolis, +and from thence to the Fayyûm. Then he returned +to Memphis, and then again passing Heliopolis sailed +northward to Bubastis and Buto. It was now +<pb n='205'/><anchor id='Pg205'/> +probably that he made excursions to Paprêmis +and Busiris, though our ignorance of the precise +situation of these places unfortunately prevents us +from being certain of the fact. Eventually he found +himself at Daphnæ, on the Pelusiac branch of the +Nile. This brought him to Pelusium, where he took +ship for Tyre. +</p> + +</div> + +<pb n='206'/><anchor id='Pg206'/> + +<div rend='page-break-before: always'> +<index index='toc'/> +<index index='pdf'/> +<head>Chapter VII. In The Steps Of Herodotos.</head> + +<p> +Let us follow Herodotos in his Egyptian journey +and meet him where he landed at the Kanôpic +mouth of the Nile. The place had been known to +Greek sailors in days of which tradition alone had +preserved a memory. It was here that pirates and +traders had raided the fields of the <foreign rend='italic'>fellahin</foreign> or +exchanged slaves and Ægean vases for the precious +wares of Egypt in the age when Achæan princes +ruled at Mykenæ and Tiryns. Guided by the island +of Pharos, they had made their way a few miles eastward +to the mouth of the great river which is called +Aigyptos in the <hi rend='italic'>Odyssey</hi>. +</p> + +<p> +When Egypt was at last opened to Greek trade +and enterprise in the time of the twenty-sixth +dynasty it was still the Kanôpic arm of the Nile +towards which their vessels had to steer. Nowhere +else were they allowed to land their goods or sail up +the sacred stream of the Nile. If stress of weather +drove them to some other part of the coast, they +<pb n='207'/><anchor id='Pg207'/> +were forced to remain there till the wind permitted +them to sail to Kanôpos or to send their goods in +native boats by the same route. From time immemorial +the coast of the Delta had been carefully +guarded against the piratical attacks of the barbarians +of the north. Watch-towers and garrisons were +established at fitting intervals along it, which were +under the charge of a special officer. The mouth of +the Kanôpic branch of the river was guarded with +more than usual care, and here was the custom-house +through which all foreign goods had to pass. +</p> + +<p> +Kanôpos, from which the arm of the river took its +name, was a small but wealthy city. It was called in +Egyptian Peguath, sometimes also Kah-n-Nub, <q>the +soil of gold</q> from the yellow sand on which it was +built, though Greek vanity believed that this name +had been given to it from Kanôbos, the pilot of +Menelaos, whose tomb was of course discovered +there. In later days, when Alexandria had absorbed +its commerce and industry, it became, along with the +outlying Zephyrion, a fashionable Alexandrine +suburb. It was filled with drinking-shops and +chapels, to which the pleasure-loving crowds of +Alexandria used to make their way by the canal that +united the two cities. The sick came also to seek +healing in the temple of Serapis, or to ask the god to +tell them the means of cure. The rich, too, had their +<pb n='208'/><anchor id='Pg208'/> +villas close to the shrine of Aphroditê Arsinoê, on the +breezy promontory of Zephyrion, while the rocks on +the shore were cut into luxuriously-fitted baths for +those who wished to bathe in the sea. +</p> + +<p> +The site of Zephyrion is now occupied by the +little village of Abukîr, memorable in the annals of +England and France. In 1891 Daninos Pasha made +some excavations there which brought to light a few +scanty remains of the temple of Aphroditê. The +foundations of its walls were found, as well as two +limestone sphinxes inscribed with the name of Amon-em-hat +<hi rend='smallcaps'>iv.</hi>, and three great statues of red granite, one +of them upright, the others seated. The upright +figure was that of Ramses <hi rend='smallcaps'>ii.</hi> with a roll of papyrus +in his hand; while the other two were female, one of +them being a representation of Hont-mâ-Ra, the +Pharaoh's wife. The sphinxes and statues must +have been brought from some older building to +decorate the shrine of the Alexandrine goddess, and +their discoverer believes that the figure of Ramses <hi rend='smallcaps'>ii.</hi> +is older even than the age of that monarch, who has +usurped it, and that it goes back to the epoch of the +twelfth dynasty. Other relics of the temple—fragments +of red granite from some gigantic naos, +portions of statues, broken sphinxes, and a colossal +human foot—strew the rocks at the foot of the +promontory whereon Zephyrion stood and bear +<pb n='209'/><anchor id='Pg209'/> +witness to the intensity of Christian zeal when +paganism was abolished in Egypt. +</p> + +<p> +The Kanôpic arm of the Nile has long since +been filled up, and the <foreign rend='italic'>fellah</foreign> ploughs his field or the +water-fowl congregate in the stagnant marsh where +Greek trading ships once sailed. But a large part of +the marsh is now in process of being reclaimed, and +the engineers who have been draining and washing it +have come across many traces of the ancient Kanôpos. +It lay to the east of Zephyrion, between the shore +and the marshy lake. +</p> + +<p> +Though the journey from Alexandria to Abukîr +must now be undertaken in a railway carriage and not +in a barge, it is still pleasant in the early autumn. We +pass through fertile gardens and forests of fig-trees, +past groves of palm with rich clusters of red dates +hanging from them, while the cool sea-breeze blows +in at the window, and the clear blue sky shines overhead. +But instead of temples and taverns we find +at the end of our journey nothing but sand and sea-shells, +broken monuments, and a deserted shore. +</p> + +<p> +The vessel in which Herodotos must have gone +from Kanôpos to Naukratis was probably native +rather than Greek. It would have differed in one +important respect from the Nile-boats of to-day. Its +sail was square, not triangular like the modern lateen +sails which have been introduced from the Levant. +<pb n='210'/><anchor id='Pg210'/> +But in other respects it resembled the vessels which +are still used on the Nile. Part of the deck was +covered with the house in which the traveller lived, +and which was divided into rooms, and fitted up in +accordance with the ideas of the day. Awnings protected +it from the sun, and the sides of the boat as +well as the rudder were brilliantly painted. +</p> + +<p> +On the way to Naukratis the voyager passed +Hermopolis, the modern Damanhur, a name which +is merely the old Egyptian <hi rend='italic'>Dema n Hor</hi>, or <q>City of +Horus.</q> It is not surprising, therefore, that Herodotos +refers to the city, though the statement he +makes in regard to it is not altogether correct. All +the dead ibises of Egypt, he says, were carried to +Hermopolis to be embalmed and buried. Such might +have been the case on the western side of the Delta, +but it was true only of that limited district. There +was another Hermopolis in the east of the Delta, +called Bah in ancient Egyptian, Tel el-Baqlîyeh +in modern times, where a large burial-place of the +sacred ibises was discovered by the <foreign rend='italic'>fellahin</foreign> six or +seven years ago. Tel el-Baqlîyeh is the second +station on the line of railway from Mansurah to Abu +Kebîr, and from it have come the bronze ibises and +ibis-heads which have filled the shops of the Cairene +dealers in antiquities. The bronzes were found +among the multitudinous mummies of the sacred +<pb n='211'/><anchor id='Pg211'/> +bird, like the bronze cats in the cemetery of the +sacred cat at Bubastis. Bah was, in fact, the holy +city of the <q>nome of the Ibis.</q> The mound of the +old city has now been almost demolished by the +hunter for <foreign rend='italic'>antikas</foreign>, but Dr. Naville noticed some +fragments of inscribed stone in the neighbouring +village which led him to believe that Nektanebo <hi rend='smallcaps'>ii.</hi> +once intended to erect a temple here to Thoth. +</p> + +<p> +From Hermopolis to Naukratis was a short +distance. Naukratis was the capital of the Egyptian +Greeks, and its site, which had been lost for centuries, +was discovered by Professor Flinders Petrie in 1884, +when he was working for the Egypt Exploration +Fund. The Fund had been formed with the primary +intention of finding the sites of Pithom and Naukratis, +and it had been hardly two years in existence +before that intention was fulfilled. +</p> + +<p> +If we leave the train at Teh el-Barûd, the junction +of the Upper Egyptian line of railway with that +from Alexandria to Cairo, and turn our faces westward, +we shall have a pleasant walk of about five +miles, part of it under an avenue of trees, to a mound +of potsherds which covers several acres in extent and +is known to the natives as Kôm Qa'if. This mound +represents all that is left of Naukratis. To the west +of it runs a canal, the modern successor of the ancient +Kanôpic branch of the Nile. +</p> + +<pb n='212'/><anchor id='Pg212'/> + +<p> +When Professor Petrie first visited the spot, the +diggers for <foreign rend='italic'>sebah</foreign> had already been busily at work. +<foreign rend='italic'>Sebah</foreign> is the nitrous earth from the sites of old cities, +which is used as manure, and to the search for it we +owe the discovery of many memorials of the past. +At Kôm Qa'if the larger part of the earth had been +removed, and all that remained were the fragments +of pottery which had been sifted from it. But the +fragments were sufficient to reveal the history of the +place. Most of them belonged to the archaic period +of the Greek vase-maker's art, and were such as +had never before been found in the land of Egypt. +It was evident that the great city whose site they +covered must have been the Naukratis of the Greeks. +</p> + +<p> +As soon as Professor Petrie had settled down to +the excavation of the mound, a few months after his +discovery, the evidence of inscriptions was added to +the evidence of potsherds. An inscribed stone from +the mound was standing at the entrance of the +country-house in which he lived, and on turning it +over he found it was engraved with Greek letters +which recorded the honours paid by <q>the city of the +Naukratians</q> to Heliodôros the priest of Athêna +and the keeper of its archives. For two winters +first Mr. Petrie and then Mr. Ernest Gardner worked +at the ruins, and though more excavations are +needed before they can be exhaustively explored, +<pb n='213'/><anchor id='Pg213'/> +the plan of the old city has been mapped out, the +history of its growth and decline has been traced, +and a vast number of archaic Greek inscriptions +from the dedicated vases of its temples have been +secured. +</p> + +<p> +To the south of the town were the fortress and +camp of the Greek mercenaries, who were probably +settled there by Psammetikhos. The camp was +surrounded by a wall, and within it stood the +Hellênion, the common altar of the Ionians from +Khios, Teos, Phokæa and Klazomenæ, of the +Dorians from Rhodes, Knidos, Halikarnassos and +Phasêlis, and of the Æolians of Mytilênê. The +great enclosure still remains, as well as the lower +chambers of the fort, and Mr. Petrie found that in +the time of Ptolemy Philadelphus, when it was no +longer needed for purposes of defence, it was provided +with a stately entrance, to which an avenue of +ruins led from the west. +</p> + +<p> +The traders and settlers built their houses north +of the camp. Here too the Greek sailors and +merchants, who had taken no part in the erection of +the great altar, and who perhaps had no relations +among the soldiers of the fort, built special temples +for themselves. If we walk across the level ground +which separates the fort from the old city, the first +heap of rubbish we come to marks the site of the +<pb n='214'/><anchor id='Pg214'/> +temple and sacred enclosure of Castor and Pollux. +A little to the north was the still larger temple and +<foreign rend='italic'>temenos</foreign> or sacred enclosure of Apollo, and adjoining +it, still on the north side, was the temple of Hêrê, +whose <foreign rend='italic'>temenos</foreign> was the largest of all. The temple of +Apollo had been erected by the Milesians, and that +it was the oldest in the city may be gathered from +the archaic character of the inscriptions on the potsherds +discovered in the trench into which the broken +vases of the temple were thrown. The Samians were +the builders of the temple of Hêrê, and Herodotos +tells us that there was another dedicated to Zeus by +the Æginetans. The ruins of this, however, have not +yet been found, but far away towards the northern +end of the ruin a small temple and <foreign rend='italic'>temenos</foreign> of +Aphroditê have been brought to light. Here +Rhodôpis worshipped, who had been freed from +slavery by the brother of Sappho, and whose charms +were still celebrated at Naukratis in the days of +Herodotos. +</p> + +<p> +Among the potsherds disinterred from the +rubbish-trench of the temple of Apollo were +portions of a large and beautiful bowl dedicated to +<q>Phanês, the son of Glaukos.</q> Mr. Gardner is +probably right in believing that this is the very +Phanês who deserted to Kambyses, and, according +to the Greek story, instructed him how to march +<pb n='215'/><anchor id='Pg215'/> +across the desert into Egypt. It may be that Herodotos +saw the bowl when it was still intact, and that +the story of the deserter was told him over it; in +any case, it was doubtless at Naukratis, and possibly +from the priests of Apollo, that he heard it. +</p> + +<p> +To the west of the temple of Apollo and divided +from it only by a street, Mr. Petrie found what had +been a manufactory of scarabs. They were of the +blue and white kind that was fashionable in the Greek +world in the sixth century before our era, and the +earliest of them bear the name of Amasis. From +Naukratis they were exported to the shores of Europe +and Asia along with the pottery for which the Greek +city was famous. +</p> + +<p> +On his way to Naukratis Herodotos had passed +two other Greek settlements, Anthylla and Arkhandropolis. +But we do not yet know where they +stood. Nor do we know the position of that <q>Fort +of the Milesians</q> which, according to Strabo, was +occupied by Milesian soldiers near Rosetta in the +time of Psammetikhos, before they sailed upon the +river into <q>the nome of Sais</q> and there founded +Naukratis. +</p> + +<p> +The city of Sais was one of the objects of Herodotos's +journey. In the period of the inundation it +was within an easy distance of Naukratis, so that an +excursion to it did not require much time. Sais was +<pb n='216'/><anchor id='Pg216'/> +the birthplace and capital of the Pharaohs of the +twenty-sixth dynasty; it was here that Psammetikhos +raised the standard of rebellion against his +Assyrian suzerain with the help of the Greek mercenaries, +and his successors adorned it with splendid +and costly buildings. When Herodotos visited it, it +had lost none of its architectural magnificence. He +saw there the palace from which Apries had gone forth +to attack Amasis, and to which he returned a prisoner; +the great temple of Neit, with its rows of sphinxes and +its sacred lake; and the huge naos of granite which +two thousand men spent three whole years in bringing +from Assuan. It had been left just outside the enclosure +within which the temple stood, as well as the +tombs of Apries and Amasis, and even of the god +Osiris himself. True, there was a rival sepulchre of +Osiris at Abydos, venerated by the inhabitants of +Upper Egypt since the days of the Old Empire, but +Abydos was far distant from Sais, and when the latter +city became the capital of the kingdom there was +none bold enough to deny its claim. Herodotos, at +all events, who never reached Abydos, was naturally +never informed of the rival tomb. +</p> + +<p> +He was told, however, of the mystery-play acted +at night on the sacred lake of Sais in memory of the +death and resurrection of Osiris, and he was told +also of the shameful insult inflicted by Kambyses on +<pb n='217'/><anchor id='Pg217'/> +the dead Amasis. It was said that the Pharaoh's +mummy had been dragged from its resting-place, +and after being scourged was burnt to ashes. The +Egyptian priests bore no good-will to Kambyses, +and it may be, therefore, that the story is not true. +</p> + +<p> +Sais was under the protection of the goddess +Neit, the unbegotten mother of the sun. When the +Greeks first came there, they identified the goddess +with their own Athêna, led thereto by the similarity +of the names. But this identification led to further +results. As Athêna was the patron goddess of +Athens, so it was supposed that there was a special +connection between Sais and Athens. While Athêna +was fabled to have come from Libya, Kekrops, the +mythic founder of Athens, was transformed into an +Egyptian of Sais. It was from a priest of Sais, +moreover, that Solon, the Athenian legislator, learned +the wisdom of the Egyptians. +</p> + +<p> +The squalid village of Sa el-Hagar, <q>Sais of the +stone,</q> is the modern representative of the capital of +Psammetikhos. In these days of railways it is +difficult of access, as there is no station in its neighbourhood. +In the earlier part of the century, however, +when the traveller had to go from Alexandria +to Cairo in a dahabîyeh, he was compelled to pass +it, and it was consequently well-known to the tourist. +But little is left of the populous city and its stately +<pb n='218'/><anchor id='Pg218'/> +monuments except mounds of disintegrated brick, +a large enclosure surrounded by a crude brick wall +seventy feet thick, and the sacred lake. The lake, +however, is sacred no longer; shrunken in size and +choked with rubbish, it is a stagnant pool in the +winter, and an expanse of half-dried mud in the late +spring. It is situated within the great wall, which is +that of the <foreign rend='italic'>temenos</foreign> of Neit. Stone is valuable in +the Delta, and hardly a fragment of granite or limestone +survives from all the buildings and colossal +monuments that Herodotos saw. But in 1891 a +great number of bronze figures of Neit, some of them +inlaid with silver, were found there by the <foreign rend='italic'>fellahin</foreign>. +They are of the careful and finished workmanship +that marks the age of the twenty-sixth dynasty, and +on one of the largest of them is a two-fold inscription +in Egyptian hieroglyphs and the letters and language +of the Karians. It was dedicated to the goddess of +Sais in the reign of Psammetikhos by a son of a +Karian mother and an Egyptian father who bore +both an Egyptian and a Karian name. It is an interesting +proof of the readiness of some at least +among the natives of Sais to mingle with the foreigner, +and it shows further that the Karian mercenaries, +like the Greeks, brought their wives and daughters +along with them. +</p> + +<p> +Herodotos seems to have been at Sais when the +<pb n='219'/><anchor id='Pg219'/> +festival of <q>burning lamps</q> was celebrated there. +On the night of the festival lamps were lighted round +about the houses in the open air, the lamps being +cups filled with salt and oil, on the surface of which +a wick floated. All who could thronged to Sais to +take part in the ceremonies; those who could not be +there lighted their lamps at home and so observed +the rites due to Neit. The festival took place in the +summer, probably at the time of the summer solstice, +and the illuminations characteristic of it are still perpetuated +in some of the numerous festivals of modern +Egypt. The annual festival in honour of Isis was +observed all over Egypt in the same way. +</p> + +<p> +As the Greek traveller approached Memphis the +pyramids of Gizeh were shown to him towering over +the water on his right. His visit to them was reserved +to another day, and he continued to sail on to +the ancient capital of the country. Memphis was +still in all its glory. Its lofty walls of crude brick, +painted white, shone in the sun, and its great temple +of Ptah still preserved the monuments and records +of the early dynasties of Egypt. Built on an embankment +rescued from the Nile, it was said, by Menes, +the first monarch of the united kingdom, Memphis, +though of no great width, extended along the banks +of the river for a distance of half-a-day's journey. +To the west, in the desert, lay its necropolis, +<pb n='220'/><anchor id='Pg220'/> +the city of the dead, reaching from Abu Roâsh +on the north to Dahshûr on the south. On the +opposite side of the Nile, a little to the north, was +the fortress of Khri-Ahu, which guarded the approach +to the river. Where Cairo now stands Herodotos +saw only sand and water. Even Khri-Ahu was +merely an insignificant village at the foot of a fortress +of mud brick; the strong walls and towers of hewn +stone in which the Roman legion afterwards kept +ward over Egypt were as yet unbuilt. All who +could afford it lived in Memphis and its suburbs, and +the rock-hewn tombs at the foot of the citadel of +modern Cairo are of the Roman age. +</p> + +<p> +From Memphis to Heliopolis was rather more +than twenty miles, or a morning's row on the river. +Herodotos, therefore, after having been told at +Memphis of the experiment made by Psammetikhos +to discover the origin of language, speaks of having +<q>turned into</q> Heliopolis in order to make further +inquiries about the matter, <q>for the Heliopolitans are +said to be the best informed of the Egyptians.</q> We +may gather from his words that he made an excursion +to Heliopolis while he was staying in Memphis. +But he would have passed it again on his homeward +voyage. +</p> + +<p> +The site of Heliopolis is well-known to every +tourist who has been to Cairo. The drive to the +<pb n='221'/><anchor id='Pg221'/> +garden and ostrich-farm of Matarîyeh and the obelisk +of Usertesen <hi rend='smallcaps'>i.</hi> is a pleasant way of filling up an afternoon. +But of the ancient city of Heliopolis or On, +with its famous temple of Ra, the Sun-god, its +university of learned priests, and its innumerable +monuments of the past, there is little now to be seen. +The obelisk reared in front of its temple a thousand +years before Joseph married the daughter of its high-priest +still stands where it stood in his day; but the +temple has vanished utterly. So, too, has the sister +obelisk which was erected by its side, and of which +Arabic historians still have something to say. +Nothing is left but the mud-brick wall of the sacred +enclosure, and a thick layer of lime-stone chippings +which tell how the last relics of the temple of the +Sun-god were burnt into lime for the Cairo of Ismail +Pasha. One or two fragments were rescued from +destruction by Dr. Grant Bey, the most noticeable of +which is a portion of a cornice, originally 30 feet +4 inches in length, which had been erected by +Nektanebo <hi rend='smallcaps'>ii.</hi>, the last of the native Pharaohs. +Blocks with the names of the second and third +Ramses are also lying near the western gate of the +enclosure, and in the eastern desert are the tombs of +the dead. Nothing more remains of the old capital +of Egyptian religion and learning. The destruction +is indeed complete; the spoiler whom Jeremiah saw +<pb n='222'/><anchor id='Pg222'/> +in prophetic vision has broken <q>the images of Beth-Shemesh,</q> +and burnt with fire <q>the houses of the gods +of the Egyptians.</q> If we would see the obelisks and +images of On we must now go to the cities and +museums of Europe or America. It was from +Heliopolis that the huge scarab of stone now in the +British Museum was originally brought to Alexandria, +and at Heliopolis Cleopatra's Needle was first set up +by Thothmes <hi rend='smallcaps'>iii.</hi> in front of the temple of Amon. +</p> + +<p> +Heliopolis was the centre and source of the +worship of the Sun-god in ancient Egypt, in so far, +at all events, as he was adored under the name of +Ra. The worship goes back to prehistoric days. +Menes was already a <q>son of Ra,</q> inheriting his right +to rule from the Sun-god of On. The theology of +Heliopolis is incorporated in the earliest chapters of +the Book of the Dead, that Ritual of the Departed, a +knowledge of which ensured the safe passage of the +dead man into the world to come. It was in the +great hall of its first temple that Egyptian mythology +believed Horus to have been cured of his wounds +after the battle with Set. The origin of the temple, +in fact, like the origin of the school of priests which +gathered round it, was too far lost in the mists of +antiquity for authentic history to remember. +</p> + +<p> +As befitted its theological character, Heliopolis was +rich in sacred animals. The bull Mnêvis, in which +<pb n='223'/><anchor id='Pg223'/> +the Sun-god was incarnated, was a rival of the bull +Apis of Memphis, the incarnation of Ptah. The two +bulls point to a community of worship between the +two localities in that primeval age when neither Ra +of Heliopolis nor Ptah of Memphis was known, and +when the primitive Egyptian population—whoever +they may have been—were plunged in the grossest +superstitions of African fetichism. Herodotos did not +hear of the bull Mnêvis. But he was acquainted with +the story of another sacred animal of Heliopolis, the +<foreign rend='italic'>bennu</foreign> or Phœnix, the sacred bird of Ra. Indeed, the +fame of the phœnix had long before penetrated to +Greece. Hesiod alludes to it, and the account of the +marvellous bird given by Herodotos was <q>stolen,</q> +we are told by Porphyry, from his predecessor +Hekatæos. Hekatæos says that it was like an eagle, +whereas the monuments show that it was a heron, +and Herodotos follows him in the blunder. We +may argue from this, as Professor Wiedemann does, +that Herodotos himself never saw its picture. But +otherwise his account is correct. Its wings were red +and gold, and it represented the solar cycle of five +hundred years. +</p> + +<p> +When Strabo visited Heliopolis in the age of +Augustus he found it already half deserted. Its +schools and library had been superseded by those of +Alexandria, and although the houses in which the +<pb n='224'/><anchor id='Pg224'/> +priestly philosophers had once lived were still standing, +they were now empty. Among them was the +house in which Plato and Eudoxos had studied not +long after the time when Herodotos was there. In +spite, therefore, of the Persian wars Herodotos must +have found the ancient university still famous and +flourishing. Just as in the Cairo of to-day the whole +circle of Mohammedan science is taught in the +University of El-Azhar on the basis of the Qorân, +so in the Heliopolis which Herodotos visited all +the circle of Egyptian knowledge was still taught +and learned on the basis of the doctrines of the +Heliopolitan school. The feelings with which the +Greek traveller viewed the professors and their pupils—if, +indeed, he was allowed to do so—must have been +similar to those with which an English tourist now +passes through the Azhar mosque. +</p> + +<p> +From Heliopolis Herodotos continued his voyage +down the Pelusiac arm of the Nile to Bubastis, thus +following nearly the same line of travel as the +modern tourist who goes by train from Cairo to +Zagazig. The rubbish heaps of Tel Basta, just beyond +the station of Zagazig, mark the site of Bubastis, +called Pi-beseth in the Old Testament (Ezek. xxx. 17), +Pi-Bast, <q>the Temple of Bast,</q> by the Egyptians. +The cat-headed goddess Bast presided over the fortunes +of the nome and city, where she was identified +<pb n='225'/><anchor id='Pg225'/> +with Sekhet, the lion-headed goddess of Memphis. +But the cat and the lion never lay down in peace +together. As a hieroglyphic text at Philæ puts it, +Sekhet was cruel and Bast was kindly. +</p> + +<p> +The exclusive worship of Bast at Bubastis, however, +dated from the time of Osorkon <hi rend='smallcaps'>ii.</hi> of the twenty-second +dynasty, as Dr. Naville's excavations have +made plain. Before that period other deities, more +especially Butô and Amon-Ra, reigned there. Bast, +in fact, was of foreign origin. She was the feminine +form of Bes, the warrior god who came from the +coasts of Arabia, and her association with the cat +perhaps originated far away in the south. +</p> + +<p> +The description given by Herodotos of Bubastis +and its festival is clearly that of an eye-witness. He +tells us how the temple stands in the middle of the +town surrounded by a canal which is shaded with +trees, and how the visitor looks down upon it from +the streets of the city, which had grown in height +while the level of the temple had remained unaltered. +He tells us further how a broad street runs from it +to the market-place, and thence to a chapel dedicated +to Hermês, and how at the great annual festival +crowds of men and women flocked to it in boats, +piping and singing, clapping the hands and dancing, +offering sacrifices when they arrived at the shrine, +and drinking wine to excess. A similar sight can be +<pb n='226'/><anchor id='Pg226'/> +seen even now in the month of August at Tantah, +where the religious fair is thronged by men and +women indulging in all the amusements recounted +by the old Greek traveller, sometimes beyond the +verge of decency. Wine alone is absent from the +modern feast, its place being taken by <foreign rend='italic'>hashish</foreign> and +<foreign rend='italic'>raki</foreign>. +</p> + +<p> +As the festival was held in honour of Bast, it was +probably an annual commemoration of the great +<q>Shed-festival</q> of thirty years celebrated by Osorkon +II. in his twenty-second year, and depicted on the +walls of the hall which Dr. Naville has discovered. +The <q>Shed-festival</q> took place during the month of +August—in the time of the sixth dynasty on the +27th of Epiphi. It was probably, therefore, at the +end of August or the beginning of September that +Herodotos found himself in the city of Bast. +</p> + +<p> +The description Herodotos gives of the position +of the temple is still true to-day. The temple, which +he pronounced to be the prettiest in Egypt, is now in +ruins, like the houses and streets that encircled it. +But the visitor to Tel-Bast still looks down upon its +site from the rubbish-mounds of the ruined habitations, +and can still trace the beds of the canals which +were carried round it. Even the street which led +to the market-place is still visible, and Dr. Naville +has found the remains of the little temple which +<pb n='227'/><anchor id='Pg227'/> +Herodotos supposed to be that of Hermês, the +Egyptian Thoth. In this, however, he was wrong. +Like the larger edifice, it was dedicated to Bast, and +seems to have been used as a treasury. It was, +therefore, under the protection of Thoth, whose +figure decorated its walls, and Dr. Naville is doubtless +right in believing that this has led to the mistake +of Herodotos or his guides. Osorkon <hi rend='smallcaps'>i.</hi> consecrated +in it large quantities of precious things, including +about £130,300 in gold and £13,000 in silver—an +evident proof that the internal condition of his kingdom +was flourishing. +</p> + +<p> +Dr. Naville's excavations were undertaken for the +Egypt Exploration Fund in 1887-89, and were chiefly +made among the broken columns and dislocated +stones of the larger temple. They have given us the +outlines of its history. Like most of the great +temples of Egypt, its foundation went back to the very +beginning of Egyptian civilisation. The Pharaohs of +the Old Empire repaired or enlarged it, and the +names of Kheops and Khephren, as well as of Pepi <hi rend='smallcaps'>i.</hi>, +have been found upon its blocks. The kings of the +twelfth and thirteenth dynasties embellished it, and +even the Hyksos princes did the same. In the days +when they had adopted the culture and customs of +Egypt and were holding royal state at Zoan, two of +them at least restored and beautified the temple of +<pb n='228'/><anchor id='Pg228'/> +Bubastis and called themselves the sons of Ra. One +of them, Apophis, may have been the Apophis +whose demand that the vassal-king of Thebes should +worship Sutekh instead of Amon brought about the +war of independence; the other, Khian User-n-Set-Ra, +the Iannas of Manetho, has engraved his name on +a colossal lion which was carried to Babylon by some +Chaldæan conqueror. +</p> + +<p> +The monarchs of the eighteenth dynasty continued +the pious work of the Hyksos whom they had +expelled. But the civil disturbances which attended +the fall of the dynasty caused injury to the temple, +and we find Seti <hi rend='smallcaps'>i.</hi> and Ramses <hi rend='smallcaps'>ii.</hi> once more restoring +it. The kings of the twentieth dynasty have +also left memorials in it, but it was under the +twenty-second dynasty—the successors of Shishak—that +Bubastis reached the highest point of its +prosperity. The princes who followed Shishak made +the city their capital and its temple their royal +chapel. The great festival hall was built by Osorkon +<hi rend='smallcaps'>ii.</hi> between the entrance hall and the main court, +and the worship of Bast was exclusively installed in +it. Temple and city alike underwent but little +change down to the days of Herodotos. It was after +his visit that the last addition was made to the +sacred buildings. With the recovery of Egyptian +independence after the successful revolt from Persia +<pb n='229'/><anchor id='Pg229'/> +came a new era of architectural activity, and Nektanebo +<hi rend='smallcaps'>i.</hi>, the first king of the thirtieth dynasty, +erected a great hall in the rear of the shrine. After +this the history of the temple fades out of view. +</p> + +<p> +Herodotos was told that the height of the +mound on which the city of Bubastis stood was an +indication of the evil deeds of its inhabitants. +Sabako, the Ethiopian conqueror, it was said, had +caused the sites of the Egyptian cities to be raised +by convict labour, just as they had been previously +raised by those who cut the canals under Sesostris. +But the whole story was an invention of the dragomen. +The disintegration of the crude brick of which +the houses of Egypt are built makes them quickly +decay and give place to other buildings, which are +erected on the mound they have formed. As the +city grows in age, so does the <foreign rend='italic'>tel</foreign> or mound whereon +it stands grow in height, and had Herodotos travelled +in Upper Egypt he would have seen the process +going on under his eyes. In the Delta, moreover, +there was a special cause for the great height of the +city-mounds. The water of the inundation percolated +through the ground, and in order that the lower +floor of a house should be dry, it was necessary to +build it on a series of vaults or cellars. A few years +ago these vaults were very visible in some of the old +houses of Tel-Bast. They had no outlet, either +<pb n='230'/><anchor id='Pg230'/> +by door or window, and were consequently never +employed as store-rooms. Their sole use was to +keep the rest of the house dry. +</p> + +<p> +The cemetery of the sacred cats was on the western +side of the town. But the cats do not appear to +have been embalmed, as elsewhere in Egypt; they +were either buried or burned. Among the bones +which have been sent to England naturalists have +found none of our modern domestic cat. Several, +however, of the bronze cats of the Ptolemaic age +which have been discovered with the bones unmistakably +represent the domestic animal. Generally +they have the small head of the modern Egyptian +puss. +</p> + +<p> +<q>A little below Bubastis</q> Herodotos passed the +deserted <q>camp</q> and fortress of the Ionian and +Karian mercenaries of Psammetikhos, and saw the +slips for their vessels and the ruins of their houses +still standing on the shore. Amasis had transferred +them to Memphis, in the belief that it was rather +from his Egyptian subjects that he needed protection +than from his neighbours in Asia. The site of the +camp was discovered and partially excavated by +Professor Petrie for the Egypt Exploration Fund +in 1886, and one of the results of his discoveries was +to show that it was also the site of the frontier +fortress called by the Greeks Daphnæ. What its +<pb n='231'/><anchor id='Pg231'/> +Egyptian name was we do not know with certainty, +though it is probable that Professor Petrie is right +in holding it to be the Tahpanhes of the prophet +Jeremiah. It is now known as Tel ed-Deffeneh. +</p> + +<p> +The drying up of the Pelusiac arm of the Nile +has brought the desolation of the desert to Tel +ed-Deffeneh. The canal which has replaced it is +brackish; Lake Menzaleh, which bounds the Tel to +the east, is more brackish still. The land is impregnated +with salt, and covered in places with drifts +of sand. There is no cultivated soil nearer than +Salahîyeh, twelve miles away; no water-way less +distant than Kantara on the Suez Canal. +</p> + +<p> +The greater part of the ancient site lies between +Lake Menzaleh on the east and a swamp out of +which the canal flows on the west, and it covers a +large acreage of ground. Northward are the canal, a +marsh, and mounds of sand, and beyond the canal +lies the cemetery of the ancient fortress, as well as a +suburb which was probably the Karian quarter. In +the centre of the site rises the Tel proper, a great +mound of disintegrated brickwork called <q>the palace +of the Jew's daughter.</q> Excavation soon made it +clear that it represented the fortress of Daphnæ, and +that it was built by Psammetikhos when he settled +his Greek garrison there. For a frontier fortress no +place could have been better chosen. It guarded +<pb n='232'/><anchor id='Pg232'/> +the eastern branch of the Nile, while from its summit +we look across the desert, on one side along the high-road +which once led to Syria, and on the other as far +as the mounds of Tanis. The fort itself has crumbled +into dust, but the vaulted chambers on which it was +erected still exist, as well as the <q>pavement</q> at its +entrance. +</p> + +<p> +The pottery found at Tel ed-Deffeneh is early +Greek, but of a different type from that of Naukratis. +Like the latter, it would seem to have been manufactured +on the spot and exported from thence to all +parts of the Greek world. Jewellery, too, appears to +have been made there by the Greek or Karian +artisans who lived under the protection of their +military kinsmen. But the manufacture of both +pottery and jewellery came to a sudden end. When +Amasis removed the mercenaries to Memphis in the +middle of the sixth century before Christ the civilian +population departed with them. Between that date +and a new and unimportant settlement in the Ptolemaic +period the site seems to have been deserted. +When Herodotos passed it by, it had no inhabitants. +</p> + +<p> +From Daphnæ to Pelusium the voyage was short. +Pelusium, once the key of Egypt, has shared the fate +of Daphnæ. The channel of the river that flowed by +it has become a dreary reach of black salt mud, and +the fields which once supplied the city with food are +<pb n='233'/><anchor id='Pg233'/> +wastes of sterile soil or mountains of yellow sand. +Not even a solitary Bedouin disturbs the solitude of +the spot at most seasons of the year. All that +reminds the traveller of human life as he encamps on +the edge of the sand-dunes is the electric light which +flashes through the night from Port Said far away on +the horizon. +</p> + +<p> +In the midst of the desolate waste of poisonous +mud rise the two large mounds which alone are left +of Pelusium. On the larger of these, to the westward, +lie the granite columns and other relics of the Roman +temple, beneath which, and below the present level +of the water, are the ruins of the temple of the +Pharaonic age. The ground is strewn with broken +glass and pottery, some Roman, some Saracenic. +</p> + +<p> +The Egyptian name of Pelusium is still unknown, +and before we can discover it excavations upon its +site will be necessary. Ezekiel calls it Sin (xxx. 15, +16)—at least, if the commentators are to be trusted—and +when the Greeks sought an etymology for the +name they gave it in their own word for <q>mud.</q> But +it was a famous spot in the records of Egyptian +history. Avaris, the Hyksos stronghold, must have +been in its neighbourhood, and it was outside its +walls that the Persian conquest of Egypt was decided. +The battle-field where the army of Kambyses, led by +the Greek deserter Phanês, overthrew the Greek +<pb n='234'/><anchor id='Pg234'/> +mercenaries of the Pharaoh, was near enough for +Herodotos to walk over it and compare the skulls of +the Egyptian and Persian combatants, as he had +already done at Paprêmis. Here, too, he was shown +the spot where the Greek and Karian soldiers of +Psammetikhos <hi rend='smallcaps'>iii.</hi> had slaughtered the sons of Phanês +over a huge bowl in the sight of their father, and +after mixing the blood of the boys with wine and +water, had savagely drunk it and then rushed to the +battle. +</p> + +<p> +Not far from Pelusium another tragedy took +place four centuries after Herodotos had been there. +The fugitive Pompey was welcomed to the shore by +Septimius, the general of the Roman forces in Egypt, +and Akhillas, the commander of the Egyptian army, +and murdered by them as he touched the land. +Akhillas then hastened to Alexandria, to besiege +Cæsar in the royal palace, and the burning of the +great library was the atonement for Pompey's death. +</p> + +<p> +Down even to the middle ages Pelusium was still +the seaport of the eastern Delta. It held the place +now occupied by Port Said. It was from its quays +that the vessels started for the Syrian coast. In one +that was bound for Tyre, Herodotos took his passage +and ended his Egyptian tour. +</p> + +<p> +But he had visited certain cities in the Delta into +which we have been unable to follow him, owing to +<pb n='235'/><anchor id='Pg235'/> +the uncertainty that still hangs over their exact +position. Besides the places already described, we +know that he saw Butô, which is coupled with +Khemmis, as well as Paprêmis and Prosôpitis, and +probably also Busiris. +</p> + +<p> +Khemmis—which must be carefully distinguished +from the other Khemmis, the modern Ekhmîm—was, +he tells us, a floating island <q>in a deep broad +lake by the side of the temple at Butô,</q> where Lêtô, +the Egyptian Uaz, was worshipped. Brugsch identifies +this island of Khemmis with the town and marshes +of Kheb, where the young Horus was hidden by his +mother Isis out of the reach of Set. Kheb was in +the nome called that of Menelaos by the Greeks, +the capital of which seems to have been Pa-Uaz, <q>the +temple of Uaz,</q> transformed by Greek tongues into +Butô, and of which another city was Kanôpos. Butô, +or at least the twin-city where the great temple of +the goddess stood, is probably now represented by +Tel Fera'în, not far to the west of Fuah, at the +extremity of the Mahmudîyeh canal. It was thus +within easy distance of Kanôpos on the one side and +of Sais on the other, and Herodotos might have +visited it from either one of them. +</p> + +<p> +But after all it is not certain that he did so. Butô +is mentioned again by him in a passage which +shows that it could not have been Pa-Uaz, but must +<pb n='236'/><anchor id='Pg236'/> +have rather lain on the eastern side of the Delta, +in the land of Goshen, where the desert adjoined +the <q>Arabian nome.</q> It is where he tells us about +<q>the winged serpents</q> which fly in the spring-time +from Arabia to Egypt, on the confines of which they +are met and slain by the sacred ibises. Anxious to +learn something about them, he visited the spot +where the yearly encounter took place, and there +saw the ground strewn with the bones and spines +of the slaughtered snakes. This spot, he further +informs us, is in the Arabian desert, where it borders +on <q>the Egyptian plain,</q> <q>hard by the city of Buto.</q> +</p> + +<p> +Thanks to the excavations made by Mr. Griffith +for the Egypt Exploration Fund at Tel en-Nebêsheh, +near Salahîyeh, we now know where this eastern +city of Buto stood. Its Egyptian name was Am, +and it was the capital of the nineteenth nome of +Am-pehu, but it was consecrated to the worship of +the goddess Uaz, who was symbolised by a winged +snake. The great temple of the goddess was built +on the western side of the town, and the Pharaohs +of the twelfth dynasty, as well as Ramses <hi rend='smallcaps'>ii.</hi> and +his successors, and the Saites of the twenty-sixth +dynasty, had all helped to endow and embellish it. +When the Greek garrison was established in the +neighbourhood at Daphnæ, a colony of Cyprian +potters settled at Am. But in the age of the +<pb n='237'/><anchor id='Pg237'/> +Ptolemies it fell into decay, and by the beginning +of the Roman era its magnificence belonged to the +past. +</p> + +<p> +Just beyond the precincts of the town was the +Arabian desert, the realm of Set. The legend of +Isis and Horus was accordingly transferred to it, +and its patron goddess became Uaz of Butô, who, +under the form of Isis, concealed Horus in its +marshes. Was it here, therefore, in the Pa-Uaz of +Am, that the Butô of Herodotos has to be looked +for, rather than in the Menelaite nome? +</p> + +<p> +We know that he must have passed the city of +Am on his way from Bubastis to Daphnæ, and his +expedition to the desert in search of the winged +serpents shows that he stopped there. On the +other hand, his account of the floating island of +Khemmis was derived from his predecessor Hekatæos, +and when he states that the Butô with which +it was connected was built on the Sebennytic branch +of the Nile, <q>as one sails up it from the sea,</q> it +would seem certain that his account of this Butô +was also quoted from the older writer. And yet it +is difficult to believe that his description of the +monolithic shrine which stood there is not given +at first-hand. Perhaps the best explanation would +be that Herodotos really made an excursion to the +city, but has so skilfully mingled what he himself +<pb n='238'/><anchor id='Pg238'/> +saw there with the description of Hekatæos as to +make it impossible to separate the two. +</p> + +<p> +The site of Paprêmis is absolutely unknown, and +we have no clue even to its relative position. But +Prosôpitis may be the fourth nome, Sapi-ris or <q>Sapi +of the south.</q> In Byzantine times its capital bore +the name of Nikiu, which Champollion long ago +identified with the Coptic Pshati and the modern +Abshadi, not far from Menûf. Menûf stands in a +straight line due westward of Benha, and would +have lain directly in the path of the traveller on his +way from Naukratis to Memphis. +</p> + +<p> +It was in the island of Prosôpitis that the +Athenian fleet was blockaded by the Persians under +Megabazus, and captured only when the river was +turned into another channel, after the blockade had +lasted for a year and a half. Immediately westward +of Menûf, in fact, an island is formed by the +Rosetta and Damietta branches of the Nile which +unite at the southern end of it, and are joined +together towards the north by the Bahr el-Fara'-unîyeh. +But the island is twenty-seven miles long +by fifteen wide, and it is difficult to understand +how this could have been blockaded by the Persian +army, much less defended by the crews of seventy +vessels, for the space of a year and a half. Herodotos +indeed asserts that the island of Prosôpitis +<pb n='239'/><anchor id='Pg239'/> +was nine skhœnœ, or about sixty miles in circumference, +and that it contained many cities; but this +only makes the difficulty the greater. +</p> + +<p> +Lastly, we come to Busiris, which is described +by the Greek traveller as <q>in the centre of the Delta.</q> +This description exactly suits the position of Pa-Usar +or Busiris, <q>the temple of Osiris, the lord of +Mendes,</q> and the capital of the Busirite nome. Its +modern representative is Abusir, a little to the south +of Semennûd or Sebennytos, on the railway line +from Tanta to Mansûrah. If Herodotos really +visited this place, he must have done so from Sais, +to the west of which it lies in a pretty direct line. +But the distance was considerable, and there is +nothing in the language he uses in regard to it which +obliges us to believe that he was really there. His +description of the festival held there in honour of +Isis is not that of an eye-witness; indeed, the +remark he adds to it that <q>all the Karians who live +in Egypt slash themselves on the forehead with +swords</q> in their religious exercises goes to show +that it could not have been so. All he knows about +the festival is that, after sacrificing, men and women +strike themselves in honour of Osiris. The Karians, +however, who cut their heads like the Persian +devotees of Huseyn in modern Cairo, were not +Egyptians, and therefore would not have been +<pb n='240'/><anchor id='Pg240'/> +allowed to join in the mysteries of the worship of +Osiris; moreover, they did not live in Busiris, but in +the Karian quarter of Memphis. What Herodotos +tells us about them plainly comes from his Karian +dragoman, and refers to some native Karian festival. +</p> + +<p> +There was more than one Pa-Usar or Temple +of Osiris in Lower Egypt. Next to that in the +Busirite nome, the most famous was that of the +Ur-Mer or the bull Mnêvis, in the environs of +Heliopolis. This latter Herodotos would have seen +when he paid his visit to the city of the Sun-god, +and this too was near Memphis, where the Karians +lived. +</p> + +<p> +There was yet another Busiris a little to the +north of Memphis itself. According to Pliny, its +inhabitants made their living by climbing the pyramids +for the amusement of strangers, like the +Bedouin of Gizeh to-day. Its name has been preserved +in the village and pyramids of Abusir. But +neither the Busiris of Memphis nor the Busiris of +Heliopolis was <q>in the centre of the Delta,</q> and +it would seem that in this instance also Herodotos +is either quoting from other travellers or is mixing +their experiences with his own. With the Busiris of +Memphis and the Busiris of Heliopolis he was +doubtless acquainted: with the Busiris of the middle +Delta we must conclude he was not. Hence his +<pb n='241'/><anchor id='Pg241'/> +scanty notice of the festival that was celebrated +there; hence also his reference to the Karian settlers +in Memphis and their religious ceremonies. We +must remember that Herodotos was not the first +Greek tourist in Egypt, and that he too had his +<hi rend='italic'>Murray</hi> and his <hi rend='italic'>Baedeker</hi> like the tourist of to-day. +</p> + +</div> + +<pb n='242'/><anchor id='Pg242'/> + +<div rend='page-break-before: always'> +<index index='toc'/> +<index index='pdf' level1='Chapter VIII. Memphis And The Fayyum.'/> +<head>Chapter VIII. Memphis And The Fayyûm.</head> + +<p> +We have followed Herodotos in his travels through +the Delta, have seen him make his way from +Kanôpos and Naukratis to Memphis and back again +to Pelusium, and it is now time to accompany him +through Memphis itself and the Fayyûm. There +are no longer any uncertain sites to identify; from +Memphis southward all is clear and determined. +</p> + +<p> +To the visitor the interest of Memphis centred +in its temple of Ptah. It was round the temple that +the city had grown up, and as the city had been the +capital of the older dynasties, so the temple had been +their royal chapel. When the supremacy passed +from Memphis to Thebes, it passed also from Ptah +the god of Memphis to Amon the god of Thebes. +</p> + +<p> +It is the great temple of Ptah, accordingly, about +which Herodotos has most to tell us. Other localities +in Memphis, such as the citadel and the palace, +the Karian quarter, or <q>the Tyrian Camp</q> with its +shrine of Ashtoreth, are noticed only incidentally. +<pb n='243'/><anchor id='Pg243'/> +But the great temple and its monuments are described +as fully as was possible for an <q>impure</q> foreigner, +who was not permitted to enter its inner courts and +who was unacquainted with the Egyptian language. +</p> + +<p> +The history of Egypt known to Herodotos before +the age when Greek mercenaries and traders were +settled in the country by Psammetikhos is almost +wholly connected with the monuments of the temple +which were shown to him. And a very curious +history it is—a collection of folk-tales, partly +Egyptian, but mainly Karian or Greek in origin, +and not always of a seemly character, which the +dragomen attached to the various objects the visitor +saw. Even the royal names round which they +revolved were sometimes indiscoverable in the +authentic annals of Egypt. But the stories were all +gravely noted down by the traveller, and though they +have lost nothing in the telling, it is probable that +they have not always been reported by him correctly. +</p> + +<p> +In one respect, at all events, this mythical history +of Egypt is the creation of Herodotos himself and +not of his guides. This is the order in which he has +arranged the kings. It is the order in which he +visited the monuments to which the dragomen +attached their names, and it thus throws a welcome +light on the course of his movements. With this +clue in our hands we can follow him from one part of +<pb n='244'/><anchor id='Pg244'/> +the temple of Ptah to another, and can trace his +footsteps as far as the Fayyûm. +</p> + +<p> +It is true he asserts that his list of kings was +given on the authority of <q>the Egyptians and the +priests,</q> and that it was they who reckoned three +hundred and forty-one generations from Menes, the +founder of the kingdom, to Sethos, the antagonist of +Sennacherib, the number of kings and high-priests +during the period being exactly equal to the number +of generations. But it can easily be shown that the +calculation was made by Herodotos himself, and that +neither the <q>Egyptians,</q> whose language he did not +understand, nor the sacristans, whom he dignifies with +the title of priests, are in any way responsible for the +absurd statement that a generation and a reign are +equivalent terms. The number of kings whose names +he heard from his dragoman is exactly eleven; in +addition to these, he tells us, the names of three +hundred and thirty kings were read to him from a +papyrus roll by one of the temple scribes; so that the +number three hundred and forty-one is obtained by +adding the three hundred and thirty names to the +eleven which were furnished him by his guides. +Among the three hundred and thirty must have +been included some of the latter, though the Greek +traveller did not know it. +</p> + +<p> +At Memphis Herodotos learned that Menes was +<pb n='245'/><anchor id='Pg245'/> +the first king of united Egypt, though the further +statements he records in regard to him are not easily +reconcilable one with the other. On the one hand +he was informed that in his time all Egypt was a +marsh except the Thebaic nome—a piece of information +which seemed to Herodotos consonant with fact—on +the other hand, that the land on which Memphis +was built was a sort of huge embankment reclaimed +from the Nile by Menes, who forced the river to leave +its old channel under the plateau of Gizeh and to run +in its present bed. Mariette believed that the dyke +by means of which the first of the Pharaohs effected +this change in the course of the river still exists near +Kafr el-Ayyât, and it is geologically clear that the +Nile once ran along the edge of the Libyan desert, +and that the rock out of which the Sphinx was +carved must have been one of those which jutted +out into the stream. +</p> + +<p> +But it was not on account of his engineering +works that the name of Menes has been preserved in +the histories of Herodotos. It was because he was +the founder of the temple of Ptah and the city of +Memphis. The temple which was the object of the +tourist's visit owed its origin to him, and the traveller's +sight-seeing naturally began with the mention of his +name. +</p> + +<p> +Before Herodotos could be shown round such +<pb n='246'/><anchor id='Pg246'/> +parts of the sanctuary as were accessible to strangers, +it was necessary that he should be introduced to the +authorities and receive their permission to visit it. +Accordingly he was ushered into what was perhaps +the library of the temple, and there a scribe read to +him out of a roll the names of the three hundred and +thirty kings, beginning with Menes and ending with +Mœris. To three only does a story seem to have +been attached, either by the scribe or by the interpreter, +and only three names therefore did Herodotos +enter in his note-book. The first of these was that +of Menes, the second that of Nitôkris, the third that +of Mœris. Nitôkris was celebrated not only because +she was the one native woman who had ruled the +country, but also because she had treacherously +avenged the death of her brother and then flung +herself into the flames. Neit-aker, as she was called +in Egyptian, was actually an historical personage; +she was the last sovereign of the sixth dynasty, but +was very far from being the only queen who had +reigned over Egypt. As regards Mœris the statements +of Herodotos are only partially correct. He is +said to have built the propylæa on the north side of +the temple of Ptah, to have dug the great lake of +the Fayyûm, and to have erected the pyramids which +Herodotos believed he had seen standing in the +middle of it. Mœris, however, was not the name of +<pb n='247'/><anchor id='Pg247'/> +a king, but the Egyptian words Mi ur or <q>great lake</q>; +the Fayyûm was not created by the excavation of +an artificial reservoir, but by banking out the water +which had filled the oasis from geological times; +and the monuments seen by Herodotos were not +pyramids, but statues on pyramidal bases erected +by Amon-em-hat <hi rend='smallcaps'>iii.</hi> of the twelfth dynasty in front +of an ancient temple. Nor could any educated +Egyptian have alleged that a king of the twelfth +dynasty, who was not even the last monarch of that +dynasty itself, closed the line of the Pharaohs. The +whole account must rest on a combination of the +Greek historian's own erroneous conclusions with the +misinterpreted statements of the Egyptian <q>priest.</q> +</p> + +<p> +Mœris, in the topographical chronology of +Herodotos, was followed by Sesostris, but this was +because the tourist, after leaving the scribe's chamber, +first visited the northern side of the temple. Here +stood the two colossal figures of Ramses <hi rend='smallcaps'>ii.</hi> in front +of the entrance, which, after centuries of neglect and +concealment, have again become objects of interest. +The larger one, forty-two feet in length, was discovered +in 1820 and presented by Mohammed Ali to +the British Government, but, as might have been +expected, was never claimed. For years it lay on +its face in the mud and water, but in 1883 Major +Bagnold turned it round and raised it, and finally +<pb n='248'/><anchor id='Pg248'/> +placed it in the shed, where it is now safe from +further injury. The son and daughter of the Pharaoh +were originally represented standing beside him. +Major Bagnold also brought to light the companion +statue, of lesser height and of a different stone. This +is in a better state of preservation, and has been set +up on a hillock by the side of a stêlê which was +discovered at the same time. Fragments of papyri +inscribed with Greek and demotic have been found +at the north-eastern foot of the hillock, and it may +be that they mark the site of the chamber where +Herodotos listened to the words of the roll. +</p> + +<p> +Northward of the colossi was the sacred lake, +said to have been formed by Menes, and now a +stagnant pond. At its south-eastern corner the foundations +have recently been laid bare of small square +rooms, the walls of which have been adorned with +sculptures. But the waters of the inundation have +followed the excavators, and the walls are fast +perishing under the influence of moisture and nitrous +salt. +</p> + +<p> +About Sesostris the guides of Herodotos had a +good deal to say. But nothing of it was history—not +even his conquests in Europe and Scythia, his excavation +of the canals which rendered Egypt unfit +for horses and chariots, his equal division of the land +among his subjects, or his having been the sole +<pb n='249'/><anchor id='Pg249'/> +Egyptian monarch who governed Ethiopia. How +even a dragoman of Memphis could have imagined +that it had ever been possible to cultivate the +Egyptian soil without canals it is difficult to understand, +and still more difficult to imagine how a +traveller who had seen the Delta could have believed +a statement of the kind. The only explanation can +be that Herodotos never saw the Delta in its normal +condition when the inundation had ceased to cover +the land. That Sesostris should have been supposed +to have been the only Pharaoh who established his +power in Ethiopia is but a proof how little was +known of the real history of Egypt by either +Herodotos or his informants. +</p> + +<p> +The origin of the name given to this Pharaoh of +the dragoman's imagination is still a puzzle. The +statues in front of the temple of Ptah, to which the +name was attached, were set up by Ramses <hi rend='smallcaps'>ii.</hi>, and +in a papyrus we find the name Sesetsu given as the +popular title of the same monarch. Perhaps it +means <q>the son of Set is he.</q> We know that Set, +the ancient god of the Delta, was a special object of +worship in the family of Ramses <hi rend='smallcaps'>ii.</hi>, and his father +Seti was named after the god. Sesetsu would correspond +with fair exactitude to the Sesoôsis of +Diodoros; for Sesostris we should have to presuppose +the form Sesetsu-Ra. +</p> + +<pb n='250'/><anchor id='Pg250'/> + +<p> +The son and successor of Sesostris, according to +Herodotos, was Pherôn. The name is merely a +mispronounced Pharaoh, the Egyptian Per-âa or +<q>Great House.</q> Pherôn undertook no military expedition, +being blind in consequence of his impiety +in hurling his spear at too high a Nile. After ten +years of blindness an oracle came to him from Butô +that he would be cured if he would wash his eyes +in the urine of a woman who had been true to her +husband. Trial after trial was made in vain, and +when at last the king recovered his sight he collected +all the women in whose case he had failed into <q>a city +now called the Red Mound,</q> and there burnt them, +city and all. He then erected the two obelisks which +stood in front of the temple of Ra at Heliopolis. +</p> + +<p> +There are many <q>Red Mounds</q> in Egypt, and +the name Kom el-Ahmar or <q>Red Mound</q> is accordingly +very plentiful in a modern map of the country. +Wherever kiln-baked bricks have been used in the +construction of a building, or where the wall or +houses of a city have been burnt, the mound of ruins +to which they give rise is of a reddish colour. Such +a mound must have existed in the neighbourhood of +Heliopolis in the days of Herodotos. There is still +a Kom el-Ahmar close to Tel el-Yehudîyeh, where +the Jewish temple of Onias was built. But <q>the Red +Mound</q> of the guides was probably one that was +<pb n='251'/><anchor id='Pg251'/> +visible from the pylon of the great temple of Heliopolis, +where the obelisks stood with which the story +of it was associated. The obelisks had indeed been +erected by a <q>Pharaoh,</q> but it was not a son of +Ramses <hi rend='smallcaps'>ii.</hi> They had been set up by Usertesen <hi rend='smallcaps'>i.</hi> of the +twelfth dynasty nearly fifteen centuries before +Ramses <hi rend='smallcaps'>ii.</hi> was born. +</p> + +<p> +As Pherôn was the son of Sesostris it was necessary +for Herodotos to introduce him into his list immediately +after his father, even though he had left +no monument behind him in the temple of Memphis. +But after Pherôn he returns to his series of <q>Memphite</q> +kings. This time it is <q>a Memphite whose +Greek name is Prôteus,</q> and whose shrine was situated +in the midst of <q>the Tyrian Camp</q> or settlement +on the <q>south side of the temple of Ptah.</q> The +tourist, therefore, walked round the eastern wall of +the great temple from north to south, and as the +pylon on this side of the sanctuary was connected +with the name of a king who was the builder of a +brick pyramid seen on the way to the Fayyûm, an +account of it is deferred till later. The next monument +Herodotos came to was accordingly of Phœnician +and not of Egyptian origin. +</p> + +<p> +Prôteus in fact was a Phœnician god, worshipped, +Herodotos tells us, along with the foreign Aphroditê, +whom he suspects to be the Greek Helen in disguise. +<pb n='252'/><anchor id='Pg252'/> +The Phœnician Aphroditê, however, was really Ashtoreth, +which the Greeks pronounced Astartê, the +Istar of the Babylonians and Assyrians. But the +<q>priests,</q> or rather the guides of the traveller, were +equal to the occasion, and on his asking them concerning +Helen they at once gave him a long story +about her arrival and adventures in Egypt. Prôteus +was at the time the king in Memphis, and not the +sea-god of ships and prophetic insight, as Homer had +imagined, and he very properly took Helen away +from Paris and kept her safely till Menelaos arrived +after the Trojan war to claim his wife. Accordingly +Prôteus, the Phœnician <q>old man of the sea,</q> has +gone down among the three hundred and forty-one +Pharaohs of Egypt whose names were recounted +to Herodotos by the <q>priests.</q> There could not be +a better illustration of the real character of his +<q>priestly</q> informants, or of the worthlessness of the +information which they gave him. +</p> + +<p> +When, however, Herodotos goes on to assert that +<q>they said</q> that Rhampsinitos succeeded Prôteus in +the kingdom, he is dealing with them unjustly. The +supposed fact must have come from his own note-book. +After visiting the Tyrian Camp, on the south +side of the great temple, the traveller was taken to its +western entrance, where he was told that the propylæa +had been erected by Rhampsinitos, as well as two +<pb n='253'/><anchor id='Pg253'/> +colossal statues in front of them. The order in which +he saw the monuments determined the order in +which the names of Prôteus and Rhampsinitos occurred +in his note-book, and the order in his note-book +determined the order of their succession. +</p> + +<p> +Rhampsinitos represents a real Egyptian king. +He is Ramses <hi rend='smallcaps'>iii.</hi> of the twentieth dynasty, the last +of the conquering Pharaohs, and the builder of +Medînet Habu at Thebes. But Herodotos was never +at Thebes, and had consequently never heard of the +superb temple and palace Ramses had built there. +All that he knows of the architectural works of the +Pharaoh are the insignificant additions he made to +the temple of Memphis. Of the real Pharaoh he is +equally ignorant. In place of the vanquisher of the +hordes of the north, the monarch who annihilated the +invaders from the Ægean and captured or sunk their +ships, the conqueror who carried his arms into +Palestine and Syria, we have the hero of a folk-tale. +Rhampsinitos and his treasury have become the +subject of the story of the master-thief, a story which +in various forms is found all over the world, and +perhaps goes back to the infancy of mankind. Why +this story should have been attached to Ramses <hi rend='smallcaps'>iii.</hi> +it is just as impossible for us to know as it is to +understand why the name of Neit, the goddess of +Sais and the twenty-sixth dynasty, should have been +<pb n='254'/><anchor id='Pg254'/> +combined with that of the Theban Pharaoh of the +twentieth. Rhampsinitos, Ramessu-n-Neit or <q>Ramses +of Neit,</q> indicates the period in which alone the name +could have been formed. It must have been the invention +of the Karian dragomen who came into +existence under the Saitic dynasty. +</p> + +<p> +Ramses <hi rend='smallcaps'>iii.</hi> was, however, as we learn from the +great Harris papyrus, one of the wealthiest of +Egyptian princes. The gifts he made to the +temples of the gods, more especially to that of Amon +of Thebes, are almost fabulous in amount. His +trading ships brought him the wares of the south and +north; and the gold-mines of the eastern desert, as +well as the copper and malachite mines of the province +of Mafkat, the Sinaitic Peninsula of our +modern maps, were actively worked in his reign. +The chambers of one of his treasuries still exist at +Medînet Habu, and we can still see depicted on their +walls the vases of precious metal which he deposited +in them. +</p> + +<p> +The Rhampsinitos of folk-lore was similarly rich. +He built a treasury for his wealth beside his palace, +which should secure it against all attempts at robbery. +But the architect left in it a stone which could +be easily removed by any one who knew its secret, +and before he died the secret was communicated +to his two sons. To the amazement of the king, +<pb n='255'/><anchor id='Pg255'/> +therefore, the gold began to disappear, though his seals +remained unbroken and the doors fast locked. He +set a trap, accordingly, by the side of the chests of +gold; and one of the thieves was caught in it. He +thereupon induced his brother to cut off his head, +so that his body might not be recognised, and to +decamp with it. Next morning Rhampsinitos found +the headless corpse, which was thereupon exposed +to public view under the protection of armed +guards, who were ordered to arrest whoever showed +any signs of recognising it. The mother of the +dead man, frantic at the treatment of his body, +which would deprive him of all hope in the next +world, threatened to disclose the whole story unless +her surviving son could secure his brother's corpse +and give it honourable burial. Loading several +asses with wine-skins, therefore, he drove them past +the place where the guards sat over the corpse. +There he allowed some of the wine to escape, +accidentally as it were, and when the guards began +eagerly to drink it he craftily encouraged them to do +so until they had all fallen into a drunken sleep. +He then seized the body and carried it to his mother. +The king was now more than ever desirous of discovering +such a master-thief, and ordered his daughter +to adopt the Babylonian custom of sitting in public +and admitting the attentions of any one who passed +<pb n='256'/><anchor id='Pg256'/> +on condition that he told her the cleverest trick he +had ever performed. The thief provided himself +with the arm of a mummy, which he concealed +under his cloak, and thus prepared presented himself +to the princess and disclosed to her all he had done. +As she tried to seize him, he left the dead man's arm +in her hand and escaped. The king, struck with admiration, +determined that so exceedingly clever a +youth should be his own son-in-law, and issued a +proclamation not only pardoning him but allowing +him to marry his daughter. Such was the way +in which Egyptian history was constructed by the +combined efforts of the popular imagination, the +foreign dragomen, and Herodotos! +</p> + +<p> +After all, however, the master-thief did not +succeed Rhampsinitos on the throne. After passing +the western entrance of the temple of Ptah, Herodotos +arrived again at the northern side, from which +he had started, and, as he was not allowed to enter +the sanctuary, there was nothing further for him to +see. His next visit, accordingly, was to the pyramids +of Gizeh, and the pyramidal builders—Kheops, +Khephren, and Mykerinos of the fourth dynasty—are +made to follow Ramses <hi rend='smallcaps'>iii.</hi> of the twentieth, +who lived more than two thousand years after them. +It does not say much for the judgment of our classical +scholars that before the decipherment of the +<pb n='257'/><anchor id='Pg257'/> +hieroglyphs they should have preferred the chronology +of Herodotos to that of Manetho. +</p> + +<p> +Herodotos, like a true sight-seer, found nothing +in Memphis to interest him except the temple. +About the city itself he has nothing to say, not even +about the stuccoed city-wall which gave to it its +name of <q>the White Wall.</q> Portions of this wall are +still standing at the northern end of the mounds +which cover the site of Memphis. Like all the other +city-walls of ancient Egypt, it is built of sun-dried +bricks, bound together with the stems of palm-trees, +and was once of great thickness. At the southern +end of the mounds are the remains of the kilns in +which the potters of the Roman and Byzantine +age baked their vases of blue porcelain. Some of +their failures still lie on the surface of the ground. +</p> + +<p> +Herodotos went to the pyramids of Gizeh by +water, across the lake on the western side of the city, +which he states had been made by Menes, and then +along a canal. At Gizeh his love of the marvellous +was fully satisfied. He inspected the pyramids and +the causeway along which the stones had been +brought from the quarries of Turah for building +them, and listened reverentially to all the stories +which his guides told him about them and their +builders. The measurements he gives were in most +cases probably made by himself. But in saying that +<pb n='258'/><anchor id='Pg258'/> +there were hieroglyphic inscriptions <q>in the pyramid</q> +he has made a mistake. There were no inscriptions +either in it or outside it, unless it were a few hieratic +records left by visitors on the lower casing-stones of +the monument. At the same time it is certain that +Herodotos saw the hieroglyphs, and that his guide pretended +to translate them, since they contained, according +to him, an account of the quantity of radishes, +onions, and leeks eaten by the workmen when +building the great pyramid, as well as the amount +of money which it cost. But the vegetables represented +Egyptian characters—the radish, for instance, +being probably <foreign rend='italic'>rod</foreign>, <q>fruit</q> or <q>seed,</q> and the mention +of them is a proof that it really was a hieroglyphic +text which the dragoman proposed to interpret. It +is even possible that the guide knew the hieroglyphic +symbols for the numerals; if so, it would explain +his finding in them the number of talents spent by +Kheops upon his sepulchre, and it would also show that +the inscriptions were engraved, not <q>in the pyramid,</q> +but in an adjoining tomb. In fact, this seems the +simplest explanation of what Herodotos says about +them; like many another traveller, he forgot to +note where exactly the inscriptions were inscribed, +and when he came to write his book assumed that +they were in the pyramid itself. +</p> + +<p> +According to the dragoman's legend, Kheops and +<pb n='259'/><anchor id='Pg259'/> +Khephren were cruel and impious tyrants, while +their successor Mykerinos (Men-ka-Ra) was a good +and merciful ruler. The key to this description of +them is probably to be found in the statement of +Diodorus Siculus that the people threatened to drag +their bodies from their tombs after death and tear +them in pieces, so that through fear of such a fate +the Pharaohs took care to have themselves buried in +a secret place. This secret place is the subterranean +island, with its chambers, which Herodotos says +was made under the great pyramid by means of a +canal in order that the king might be entombed +there. The myth must have originated in the fact +that in the days of Herodotos the mummies of +Kheops and Khephren were not to be found in their +pyramids, which had been rifled centuries before, +and the story of the cruelty and impiety of the +two kings accordingly grew up to account for the +fact. +</p> + +<p> +The righteousness of Mykerinos was visited with +the anger and punishment of the gods, since it had +been destined that the Egyptians should be evil-entreated +for one hundred and fifty years, and his +piety and justice had averted from them part of their +doom. This view of destiny and the action of the +gods was as essentially Greek as it was foreign to +the Egyptian mind, and it is not surprising therefore +<pb n='260'/><anchor id='Pg260'/> +that the decree of heaven was announced to the +unhappy Pharaoh through that thoroughly Greek +institution, an oracle. We are reading in the story +a Greek tragedy rather than a history of Egypt. +</p> + +<p> +It was part of the punishment of Mykerinos that +he should lose his daughter, and the dragomen thus +managed to connect the pyramid at Gizeh with a +gilded wooden image of a cow in the palace at Sais, +which, since the reign of Psammetikhos, must have +been well-known to them. The cow, which was +really a symbol of Neit in the form of Hathor, with +what Herodotos supposed to be the disk of the sun +between its horns, though it was really the moon, +was imagined to be hollow, and to be the coffin +of the daughter of the Pharaoh. The wooden +figures which stood beside it were further imagined +to represent the concubines of the king. There +were, however, other stories about both the figures +and the cow, less reputable to the royal character, +but equally showing how entirely ignorant Herodotos's +informants were of Egyptian religion and +custom. Though they knew that at the festival of +Osiris the cow was carried out into the open air, they +said this was because the daughter of Mykerinos +when dying had asked her father that she might +once a year see the sun. Can there be a stronger +proof of the gulf that existed between the native +<pb n='261'/><anchor id='Pg261'/> +Egyptian and the <q>impure</q> stranger, even when the +latter belonged to the caste of dragomen? To us +the representation of Hathor under the form of a +cow with the lunar orb between its horns seems an +elementary fact of ancient Egyptian religion; the +modern tourist sees it depicted time after time on +the walls of temples and tombs, and the modern +dragoman has begun to learn something about its +meaning. But in the fifth century before our era the +dragoman and the tourist were alike foreigners, who +were not permitted to penetrate within the temples, +and there were neither books nor teachers to instruct +them in the doctrines of the Egyptian faith. +</p> + +<p> +Herodotos must have returned to Memphis after +his visit to the pyramids, before setting forth on his +voyage to the south. Had he gone straight from +Gizeh to the Fayyûm along the edge of the desert, +he would have passed the step-pyramid and the +Serapeum at Saqqâra. It is difficult to believe that, +had he done so, he would have told us nothing about +the burial-place of the sacred bulls and the huge +sarcophagi of granite in which they were entombed. +The subterranean gallery begun by Psammetikhos +was still open, and each Apis as he died was buried +in it down to the end of the Ptolemaic period. At +a later date, when the Persian empire had been +overthrown, the Serapeum became a favourite place +<pb n='262'/><anchor id='Pg262'/> +of pilgrimage for Greek visitors to Memphis. A +Greek temple was built over the sepulchres of the +bulls, Greek recluses took up their abode in its +chambers, and Greek tourists inscribed their names +on the sphinxes which lined the approach to the +sanctuary. +</p> + +<p> +Herodotos knew all about the living Apis, and +the marks on the body of the bull which proved his +divinity, as well as about the court in the temple +of Ptah at Memphis, which Psammetikhos had built +for the accommodation of the incarnate god. He +was well acquainted also with the legend which +made Kambyses slay the sacred bull and scourge +its priests, and he tells us how the latter buried the +body of their slaughtered deity in secret. But +neither he nor his guides knew where the burial +took place, or where the mummies of the bulls had +been entombed from time immemorial. Had they +done so we should have heard something about it. +But, instead of this, we are told that the dead oxen +were buried in the suburbs of the town where they +had died, their horns being allowed to protrude +above the ground in order to mark the spot. When +the flesh was decayed the bones were conveyed in +boats to a city in the island of Prosôpitis, called +Atarbêkhis, and there deposited in their last resting-place. +</p> + +<pb n='263'/><anchor id='Pg263'/> + +<p> +It is evident, therefore, that the great cemetery +of Memphis was not visited by travellers, and that +the guides accordingly knew nothing about it. The +Egyptians probably had the same feeling in regard +to it as their Moslem descendants; the graves would +be profaned if the <q>impure</q> foreigner walked over +them. The <q>impure</q> foreigner, moreover, was +usually satisfied with the three pyramids of Gizeh; +he did not care to make another long expedition in +the sun to the western desert in order to see there +another pyramid. And, apart from the pyramid, +there was little for him to visit. It is doubtful +whether he would have been permitted to descend +into the burying-place of the bulls, and the buildings +above it were probably of no great size. +</p> + +<p> +But whatever might have been the reason, +Saqqâra and its Serapeum were unknown to the +dragomen, and consequently to Herodotos as well. +He must have started for the Fayyûm from Memphis +and have sailed up the channel of the Nile itself. +If he noticed the pyramids of Dahshûr and Mêdûm, +they would have been in the far distance, and have +appeared unworthy of attention after what he had +seen at Gizeh. Soon after passing Mêdûm, however, +it would have been necessary for him to leave the +river and make his way inland by the canal which +joined the Bahr Yûsuf at Illahûn. Here he would +<pb n='264'/><anchor id='Pg264'/> +have been close to the great brick pyramid whose +secret has been wrested from it by Professor Petrie, +and here too he would have seen, a little to the +south, the city of Herakleopolis, the Ahnas el-Medîneh +of to-day, standing on the rubbish-mounds +of the past on the eastern bank of the Bahr Yûsuf. +</p> + +<p> +Herakleopolis, called Hininsu in Egyptian and +the cuneiform inscriptions, was the capital of a nome +which the Greek writers describe as an island. It +was, in fact, enclosed on all sides by the water. On +the east is the Nile; on the west the Bahr Yûsuf, +itself probably an old channel of the river; northward +a canal unites the two great streams, while southward +another canal (or perhaps a branch of the river) +once did the same in the neighbourhood of Ahnas. +Strabo still speaks of it as a great <q>island</q> which he +passed through on his way to the Fayyûm from the +north. +</p> + +<p> +The route followed by Strabo must have been +that already traversed by Herodotos. He too must +have passed through the island of Hininsu on his +way to the Fayyûm, and his scheme of Egyptian +chronology ought to contain evidence of the fact. +</p> + +<p> +And this is actually the case. Mykerinos, he +teaches us, was succeeded by a king named Sasykhis +or Asykhis, who built not only the eastern propylon +of the temple of Ptah at Memphis, but also a brick +<pb n='265'/><anchor id='Pg265'/> +pyramid, about which, of course, his guides had a +characteristic story to tell him. That the story was +of Greek origin is shown by the inscription, which +they professed had been engraved by order of the +Pharaoh, but which only a Greek could have invented. +The brick pyramid must have been that +of Illahûn. The two brick pyramids of Dahshûr +would have been invisible from the river, and even +to a visitor on the spot the state of ruin in which +they are would have made them seem of little +consequence. His attention would have been wholly +absorbed by the massive pyramids of stone at the +foot of which they stand. +</p> + +<p> +The brick pyramid of Howâra, again, cannot be +the one meant by Herodotos. It formed part of the +buildings connected with the Labyrinth, the size +and splendour of which overshadowed in his eyes +all the rest. There remains, therefore, only the brick +pyramid of Illahûn, by the side of which, as we have +seen, the voyage of Herodotos would have led +him. +</p> + +<p> +The pyramid of Illahûn, when seen near at hand, +is indeed a very striking object. It is the only one +of the brick pyramids which challenges comparison +with the pyramids of stone, and may well have given +occasion for the story which was repeated to the +Greek tourist. Its striking character is due to the +<pb n='266'/><anchor id='Pg266'/> +fact that the brick superstructure is raised upon a +plateau of rock, which has been cut into shape to +receive it. The excavations of Professor Petrie in +1890 revealed the name of its builder. This was +Usertesen <hi rend='smallcaps'>ii.</hi> of the twelfth dynasty, the king in +the sixth year of whose reign the <q>Asiatics</q> arrived +with their tribute of antimony as depicted in the +tomb of Khnum-hotep at Beni-Hassan. How the +guides came to call him Sasykhis is difficult to +explain. Perhaps it is the Egyptian Sa-Sovk, <q>the +son of Sovk</q> or <q>Sebek</q> the crocodile-god of the +Fayyûm, whom the Greeks termed Sûkhos. The +Pharaohs of the twelfth dynasty, as creators and +benefactors of the Fayyûm, the nome of the crocodile, +were specially devoted to its worship, and in their +inscriptions they speak of the works they had undertaken +for their <q>father Sovk.</q> +</p> + +<p> +After Sasykhis, Herodotos continues, <q>there +reigned a blind man named Anysis, from the city +of Anysis: while he was reigning the Ethiopians +and Sabako, king of Ethiopia, invaded Egypt with a +large force, so the blind man fled into the marshes, +and the Ethiopian ruled Egypt for fifty years.</q> +After his departure in consequence of a dream the +blind man returned from the marshes, where he had +lived in an artificial island called Elbô, which no +one could rediscover until Amyrtæos found it again. +<pb n='267'/><anchor id='Pg267'/> +Anysis, of course, is the name of a city, not of +a man, and, in making it both, Herodotos has committed +a similar mistake to that which he has made +in transforming Pi-Bast, <q>the temple of Bast,</q> and +Pi-Uaz, <q>the temple of Uaz,</q> into the names of his +goddesses Bubastis and Butô. It is, in fact, merely +the Greek form of the Hebrew Hanes, and the +Hebrew Hanes is the Egyptian Hininsu, which, +according to a well-known rule of Semitic and +Egyptian phonetics, was pronounced Hinissu. We +learn from the Book of Isaiah (xxx. 4) that Hanes +was playing a prominent part in Egyptian politics +at the very time when Sabako and his Ethiopians +occupied the country. The ambassadors of Hezekiah +who were sent from Jerusalem to ask the help +of the Egyptian monarch against the common +Assyrian enemy came not only to Zoan in the +Delta, but to Hanes as well. Zoan and Hanes must +have been for the moment the two centres of +Egyptian government and the seats of the Pharaoh's +court. +</p> + +<p> +The intermittent glimpses that we get of Egyptian +history in the stormy period that preceded the +Ethiopian conquest show how this had come to be +the case. Shishak's dynasty, the twenty-second, had +been followed by the twenty-third, which Manetho +calls Tanite, and which, therefore, must have had its +<pb n='268'/><anchor id='Pg268'/> +origin in Zoan. While its second king, Osorkon <hi rend='smallcaps'>ii.</hi>, +was reigning at Tanis and Bubastis, the first sign of +the coming Ethiopian invasion fell upon Egypt. +Piankhi Mi-Amon, the king of Napata, descended +the Nile, and called upon the rival princes of Egypt +to acknowledge him as their head. Osorkon, who +alone possessed a legitimate title to the supreme +sovereignty, seems to have obeyed the summons, but +it was resisted by two of the petty kings of Upper +Egypt, those of Ashmunên and Annas, as well as by +Tef-nekht or Tnêphakhtos, the prince of Sais. +Ashmunên and Ahnas were accordingly besieged, +and Ashmunên soon fell into the invader's hands. +Ahnas and the rest of the south thereupon submitted, +and Piankhi marched against Memphis. In spite of +the troops and provisions thrown into it by Tef-nekht, +the old capital of the country was taken by +storm, and all show of resistance to the conqueror +was at an end. From one extremity of the country to +the other the native rulers hastened to pay homage +to the Ethiopian and to accept his suzerainty. +</p> + +<p> +Piankhi caused the account of his conquest to be +engraved on a great stêlê of granite which he set up +on Mount Barkal, the holy mountain of Napata. +Here he gives a list of the seventeen princes among +whom the cities of Egypt had been parcelled out, +and each of whom claimed independent or semi-independent +<pb n='269'/><anchor id='Pg269'/> +authority. Out of the seventeen, four +bear upon their foreheads the royal uræus, receive +the title of kings, and have their names enclosed in +a cartouche. Two of them are princes of the north, +Osorkon of Bubastis and Tanis, and Aupet of +Klysma, near Suez. The other two represent Upper +Egypt. One is the king of Sesennu or Ashmunên, +the other is Pef-dod-Bast of Hininsu or Ahnas. +Thebes is wholly ignored. +</p> + +<p> +The conquest of Piankhi proved to be but momentary. +The Ethiopians retired, and Egypt returned +to the condition in which they found it. It was a +nation divided against itself, rent with internal wars +and private feuds, and ready to fall into the hands of +the first invader with military ability and sufficient +troops. Two states towered in it above the rest; +Tanis in the north and Ahnas in the south. Tanis +had succeeded to the patrimony of Bubastis and +Memphis; Ahnas to that of Thebes. +</p> + +<p> +Sabako, therefore, fixed his court at Zoan and +Hanes, simply because they had already become the +leading cities, if not the capitals, of the north and the +south. And to Zoan and Hanes, accordingly, the +Jewish envoys had to make their way. The princes +of Judah assembled at Zoan; the ambassadors went +farther, even to Hanes. It is noteworthy that a +century later the Assyrian king Assur-bani-pal still +<pb n='270'/><anchor id='Pg270'/> +couples together the princes of Ahnas and Zoan in +his list of the satraps of Egypt. +</p> + +<p> +Anysis or Hanes was the extreme limit of +Herodotos's voyage. As afterwards in the days of +Strabo, it was the entrance to the Fayyûm, and the +traveller who wished to visit the Fayyûm had first +to pass through the city which the Greeks called +Herakleopolis. The patron-god of the city was Hershef, +whose name was the subject of various unsuccessful +attempts at an etymology on the part of the +Egyptians. But, like the names of several other deities, +its true origin was lost in the night of antiquity. In +Plutarch it appears in a Greek dress as Arsaphes. +The god was invested with warlike attributes, and +hence it was that he was identified by the Greeks +with their own Hêraklês. His temple stood in the +middle of the mounds of the old city, which the +<foreign rend='italic'>fellahin</foreign> call Umm el-Kimân, <q>the mother of mounds.</q> +In 1891 they were partially excavated by Dr. Naville +for the Egypt Exploration Fund, but little was found +to repay the expense and labour of the work. The +site of the temple was discovered somewhat to the +north-east of the four columns which are alone left +of an early Coptic church. But hardly more than +the site can be said still to exist. A few blocks of +stone inscribed with the names of Ramses <hi rend='smallcaps'>ii.</hi> and +Meneptah, and a fragment of a temple built by +<pb n='271'/><anchor id='Pg271'/> +Usertesen <hi rend='smallcaps'>ii.</hi>, are almost all that survive of its past. +Even the necropolis failed to produce monuments of +antiquity. Its tombs had been ransacked by treasure-hunters +and used again as places of burial in the +Roman era, and Dr. Naville found in it only a few +traces of the eighteenth dynasty. +</p> + +<p> +And yet there had been a time when Herakleopolis +was the capital of Egypt. The ninth and tenth +dynasties sprang from it, and the authority of the +tenth dynasty, at all events, was, as we now know, acknowledged +as far as the Cataract. Professor Maspero +and Mr. Griffith have shown that three of the tombs +in the hill behind Assiout (Nos. <hi rend='smallcaps'>iii.</hi>, <hi rend='smallcaps'>iv.</hi>, and <hi rend='smallcaps'>v.</hi>) belong +to that age. Hollowed out of the rock, high up in +the cliff above the tombs of the twelfth dynasty, +their mutilated inscriptions tell us of the ancient +feudal lords of the nome, Tef-aba and his son Khiti, +the latter of whom won battles for his master, the +Pharaoh Mer-ka-Ra. Thebes was in open rebellion; +so also was Herakleopolis itself, the home of the +Pharaoh's family, and Khiti provided ships and +soldiers in abundance for him. The fleet filled the +Nile from Gebel Abu Foda on the north to Shotb +on the south, and the forces of the rebels were +annihilated. For awhile the authority of the Pharaoh +was restored; but the power of the Theban princes +remained unshaken, and a time came when the +<pb n='272'/><anchor id='Pg272'/> +Thebans of the eleventh dynasty succeeded to the +heritage of the Herakleopolites of the tenth. +</p> + +<p> +Who the <q>blind</q> king of Anysis may have been +we do not know. But he was certainly not the +legitimate Pharaoh, although Herakleopolite vanity +may have wished him to be thought so. According +to Manetho, the Tanites of the twenty-third dynasty +were followed by the twenty-fourth dynasty, consisting +of a single Saite, Bokkhoris, whom the monuments +call Bak-n-ran-f. Bokkhoris is said to have +been burnt alive by his conqueror Sabako. In making +the latter reign for fifty years, Herodotos has +confused the founder of the dynasty with the dynasty +itself. The length of his reign is variously given by +the two copyists of Manetho—Africanus and Eusebius—as +eight and twelve years; the last cypher can +alone be the right one, as an inscription at the gold +mines of Hammamât mentions his twelfth year. +He was followed by two other Ethiopian kings, the +second of whom was Tirhakah, and the whole length +of the dynasty seems to have been fifty-two years. +The Christian copyists, indeed, with their customary +endeavour to reduce the chronology of the Egyptian +historian, make it only forty and forty-four years; +but the monuments show that Herodotos, with his +round half century, is nearer the truth. +</p> + +<p> +From a topographical point of view the +<pb n='273'/><anchor id='Pg273'/> +introduction of Sabako and the Ethiopian between +Ahnas and the Fayyûm is out of place. But the story +told to Herodotos prevented him from doing otherwise. +The blind king is said to have fled to the +marshes of the Delta, and there to have remained in +concealment until the end of the Ethiopian rule, +when he was once more acknowledged as Pharaoh. +The legend of Sabako is thus only an episode in +the history of the Herakleopolite prince. +</p> + +<p> +From the blind Anysis we ought to pass to the +kings of the twelfth dynasty who created the Fayyûm +and erected the monuments which the Greek traveller +saw there. We do not do so for two reasons. +Herodotos had already mentioned king Mœris and +the lake and pyramids he made when describing the +list of kings which the sacred scribe had read to him +in Memphis. He could not count the Egyptian +monarch twice, at the beginning as well as the end of +his eleven topographical Pharaohs. Then, again, the +story told him about the Labyrinth connected its +origin with Psammetikhos, with whom the Greek +history of Egypt began. From this point forward +Herodotos no longer derived his information from +<q>the Egyptians themselves,</q> that is to say, from his +guides and dragomen, but <q>from the rest of the +world.</q> By <q>the rest of the world</q> he means the +Greeks. The story of the Labyrinth is accordingly +<pb n='274'/><anchor id='Pg274'/> +relegated to what may be termed the second division +of his Egyptian history, and forms part of his account +of the rise of the twenty-sixth dynasty. +</p> + +<p> +Between the blind king of Ahnas, therefore, and +the supposed builder of the Labyrinth, a folk-tale is +interposed which once more takes us back to the +temple of Ptah at Memphis. It is attached to an +image in the temple, which represents a man with a +mouse in his hand, and it is evident that Herodotos +heard it after his return from the Fayyûm. Had he +heard of it when he was previously in Memphis, it +would have been recorded in an earlier part of his +book. Moreover, the statue stood within the temple, +which the tourist was not allowed to enter, so that he +would not have seen it at the time of his visit to the +great Egyptian sanctuary. Whether he ever saw it at +all is doubtful; perhaps he may have caught a glimpse +of it through the open gate of the temple like the +glimpses of sculptured columns in Mohammedan +mosques which the older travellers in the East have +boasted of securing. But more probably he heard +about it from others, more especially from the +dragoman he employed. +</p> + +<p> +The story is a curious mixture of Egyptian and +Semitic elements, while the inscription which the +dragomen pretended to read upon the statue is a +Greek invention. A priest of Ptah, so it ran, whose +<pb n='275'/><anchor id='Pg275'/> +name was Sethos, became king of Egypt. His +priestly instincts led him to neglect and ill-treat the +army, even to the extent of robbing them of the +twelve acres of land which each soldier possessed of +right. Then Sennacherib, <q>king of the Arabians +and Assyrians,</q> marched against him, and the army +refused to fight. In his extremity the priest-king +entered the shrine of his god and implored him with +tears to save his worshipper. Sleep fell upon the +suppliant, and he beheld the god standing over him +and bidding him be of good courage, for no harm +should happen to him. Thereupon Sethos proceeded +to Pelusium with such volunteers as he could find—pedlars, +artisans, and tradesmen—and there found +the enemy encamped. In the night, however, field-mice +entered the camp of the Assyrians and gnawed +their bowstrings and the thongs of their shields, so +that in the morning they found themselves defenceless, +and the Egyptians gained an easy victory. In +memory of the event the stone image of the king +was erected in the temple of Ptah with a field-mouse +in his hand. +</p> + +<p> +The statue must have been that of Horus, to +whom alone, along with Uaz, the field-mouse was +sacred. But it was apparently only in a few localities +that such was the case. The figure of the +animal is found on coins of Ekhmîm, and a bronze +<pb n='276'/><anchor id='Pg276'/> +image of it discovered at Thebes, and now in the +British Museum, is dedicated to <q>Horus, the lord of +Sekhem,</q> or Esneh. At <q>Buto,</q> where the two deities +were worshipped together, we may expect to find a +cemetery of field-mice like that of the cats at +Bubastis, and the Liverpool Museum possesses two +bronze mice, both on the same stand, which were +discovered in the mounds of Athribis near Benha. +Horus was the god of Athribis, where he was adored +under the name of Kheti-ti. +</p> + +<p> +The priest-king of the folk-tale has taken the +place of the historical Tirhakah. The name of his +enemy, Sennacherib, however, has been remembered, +though he is called king of <q>the Arabians</q> as well +as of the Assyrians. But the title must be of +Egyptian origin. The <q>Arabians</q> of the Greek +writer are the Shasu, the Bedouin <q>plunderers</q> of +the Egyptian monuments, and none but an Egyptian +would have described an Asiatic invader by such +a name. +</p> + +<p> +It was in <hi rend='smallcaps'>b.c.</hi> 701, during his campaign against +Hezekiah of Judah, that the Assyrian monarch met +the forces of Tirhakah. The Ethiopian lord of Egypt +had marched to the help of his Jewish ally, and at +the little village of Eltekeh the battle took place. +Tirhakah was defeated and driven back into Egypt, +while Sennacherib was left to continue his campaign +<pb n='277'/><anchor id='Pg277'/> +and reduce his rebellious vassal to obedience. In +the insolence of victory he sent Hezekiah a letter +declaring that, in spite of the promises of his God, +Jerusalem should be delivered into the hands of its +foes. Then it was that Hezekiah entered the +sanctuary of the temple, and, spreading out the letter +before the Lord, besought Him to save himself and +the city from the Assyrian invader. The prayer was +heard: Isaiah was commissioned to declare that the +Assyrian king should never come into Jerusalem; +and the Assyrian host perished mysteriously in a +single night. +</p> + +<p> +Half-a-century later a similar event happened in +Assyria itself. Its king, Assur-bani-pal, surrounded +by insurgent enemies, was suddenly attacked by +Te-umman of Elam. While he was keeping the +festival of the goddess Istar at Arbela, a message +was brought to him from the Elamite monarch that +he was on his march to destroy Assyria and its gods. +Thereupon Assur-bani-pal went into the temple of +the goddess, and, bowing to the ground before her, +with tears implored her help. Istar listened to the +prayer, and that night a seer dreamed a dream +wherein she appeared and bade him announce to the +king that Istar of Arbela, with quivers behind her +shoulders and the bow and mace in her hand, would +fight in front of him and overthrow his foes. The +<pb n='278'/><anchor id='Pg278'/> +prophecy was fulfilled, and before long the Elamite +army was crushed, and the head of Te-umman sent +in triumph to Nineveh. +</p> + +<p> +In Judah and Assyria we are dealing with +history, in the story of Sethos with a folk-tale, and it +is impossible therefore not to believe that the conduct +of the priest of Ptah has been modelled upon that of +Hezekiah and Assur-bani-pal. The basis of it is +Semitic rather than Egyptian; it would have been +told more appropriately of Sennacherib than of the +Egyptian Pharaoh. Perhaps it had its source +among the Phœnicians of the Tyrian camp at +Memphis, or even among the Egyptianised Jews +who carried Jeremiah into Egypt. Whatever may +have been its origin, it does not belong to the realm +of history. +</p> + +<p> +Even with the appearance of Psammetikhos upon +the stage, the Egyptian history of Herodotos does +not yet commence. Before it can do so, he has to +finish his wanderings and his sight-seeing, to be quit +of his dragomen and of the topographical chronology +that he built upon their stories. Through +Herakleopolis lay the entrance to the Fayyûm, +and the Fayyûm united the folk-lore of the guides +with the sober history of the Greek epoch in Egypt. +</p> + +<p> +Herodotos knows that Psammetikhos was king of +Sais and that his father's name had been Necho. +<pb n='279'/><anchor id='Pg279'/> +But when he goes on to say that Necho had been +slain by the Ethiopian Sabako, and that Psammetikhos +himself had been driven in consequence +into Syria, he takes us into the domain of fiction and +not of fact. Necho had been one of twenty Egyptian +satraps under Esar-haddon and Assur-bani-pal, and +though he had once been carried in chains to +Assyria on a charge of treason, he had returned to +his government loaded with honours. Sabako had +been dead long before, and Tirhakah was vainly +endeavouring to drive the Assyrians and their vassal-satraps +out of Egypt. +</p> + +<p> +Still further from the truth was the legend which +associated Psammetikhos with the Fayyûm. When +the Egyptians had been <q>freed,</q> we are told, after the +reign of the priest of Ptah, there arose twelve kings +who divided the country between them. They +married into each other's families and swore an oath +ever to remain friends. By way of leaving a monument +of themselves they built the Labyrinth, with its +twelve courts, each court for a king, six of them +being on the north side and six on the south. But an +oracle had announced that this friendly intercourse +would be broken if ever one of them at their annual +gathering in the temple of Ptah should pour a libation +to the god from a bronze helmet. The prince +who did so would become king of all Egypt. This +<pb n='280'/><anchor id='Pg280'/> +untoward accident eventually occurred. Psammetikhos +on one occasion accidentally used his helmet in +place of the proper libation-bowl, and he was thereupon +chased away by his colleagues, first into the +marshes and then into Syria. An oracle, however, +again came to his help. It declared that he would +be avenged when men of bronze came from the sea, +and, taking the hint, he hired some Ionian and +Karian pirates, armed with bronze, who had landed +for the sake of plunder, and with their assistance +became undisputed master of Egypt. With this story +of the foundation of the twenty-sixth dynasty, the +Egyptian folk-lore of Herodotos came fitly to an end. +</p> + +<p> +The twelve kings owe their origin to the twelve +courts of the Labyrinth. They are a reminiscence +of the twenty vassal-kings or satraps whom the +Assyrians appointed to govern the country, and +among whom Psammetikhos and his father had +been included. But even the twelve courts are not +altogether correct. We learn from Strabo that there +were many more than twelve—as many, in fact, as +were the nomes of Egypt. This makes us distrustful +of the further statement of Herodotos that +the halls contained one thousand five hundred +chambers above the ground, and one thousand five +hundred below. The information must have come +from the guides, and it is not likely that he verified +<pb n='281'/><anchor id='Pg281'/> +it. To count three thousand chambers would have +occupied at least a day. +</p> + +<p> +In the time of Strabo it was known that the real +builder of the Labyrinth was Maindês, that is to say, +Mâ(t)-n-Ra, or Amon-em-hat <hi rend='smallcaps'>iii.</hi> of the twelfth +dynasty. The excavations of Professor Petrie at +Howâra in 1888 have proved the fact. He succeeded +in penetrating into the central chamber of the brick +pyramid which formed part of the building, and +there, deep in water, he found the sarcophagus and +the shattered fragments of some of the funerary +vases of the dead Pharaoh. They were all that had +been left by the spoilers of a long-past age, but they +were sufficient to show who the Pharaoh was. He +had not been buried alone. In another chamber +of the pyramid was the sarcophagus of his daughter +Neferu-Ptah, who must have died before the pyramid +was finally closed. The labyrinth itself has been +used as a quarry or burnt into lime long ago. On +its floor of hard plaster lie the chippings of the +stones which composed it, six feet in thickness, and +covering a far larger area than that of any other +Egyptian temple of which we know. There was +none other which could vie with it in size. +</p> + +<p> +Amon-em-hat <hi rend='smallcaps'>iii.</hi> seems to have left another +memorial of himself further north—at least, such +is the natural interpretation of Mr. de Morgan's +<pb n='282'/><anchor id='Pg282'/> +recent discoveries at Dahshûr. Though the pyramid +did not repay his engineering skill with even a scrap +of inscription, he found tombs on its northern side +which prove that here also was a burial-place of the +twelfth dynasty. Two long corridors had been cut +out of the rock, one above the other, and at intervals +along their northern walls square chambers had been +excavated, in which were placed the sarcophagi of +the dead. Inscriptions show for whom they were +intended. Nofer-hont, Sont-Senebt, Sit-Hathor and +Menit, were the royal princesses who had been +entombed within them in the time of Amon-em-hat +<hi rend='smallcaps'>iii.</hi> Their jewels had been hidden in two natural +hollows in the stone floor of the corridors, and had +thus escaped the eye of the ancient treasure-hunter. +We can see them now in the Gizeh Museum, and +thus learn to what an exquisite state of perfection +the art of the goldsmith had already been brought. +</p> + +<p> +Among them we may notice large sea-shells of +solid gold, enamelled lotus-flowers and necklaces of +amethyst, carnelian and agate beads. Of beautifully-worked +gold ornaments there is a marvellous profusion. +But nothing surpasses the golden pectorals +inlaid with precious stones. The work is so perfect +as to make it difficult to believe that we have before +us a mosaic and not enamel. On one of the +pectorals the cartouche of Usertesen <hi rend='smallcaps'>iii.</hi> is supported +<pb n='283'/><anchor id='Pg283'/> +on the paws of two hawk-headed lions, crowned with +the royal feathers, and trampling under their feet the +bodies of the foe. On another Amon-em-hat <hi rend='smallcaps'>iii.</hi> is +represented smiting the wild tribes of the Sinaitic +Peninsula. By the side of this jewellery of the +twelfth dynasty, that of Queen Ah-hotep of the +seventeenth, found by Mariette at Thebes, looks +formal and degenerate. In jewellery, as in all things +else in ancient Egypt, the earlier art is the best. +</p> + +<p> +From Amon-em-hat <hi rend='smallcaps'>iii.</hi> of the twelfth dynasty +to the founder of the twenty-sixth, two thousand +years later, is a far cry, and how the Labyrinth came +to be connected with the latter by the guides of +Herodotos it is hard to say. The bronze helmet of +Psammetikhos indicates that the story is of Greek +origin. That was a Greek head-dress; no Egyptian, +much less an Egyptian Pharaoh, would ever have +worn it. The head-dress of the Egyptian monarch +was of linen, coloured red for Lower Egypt, white +for the south. +</p> + +<p> +Herodotos seems to have visited Howâra from +the capital of the Fayyûm, much as a traveller would +do to-day. At least, such is the inference which we +may draw from his words. Its position is defined +as being <q>a little above Lake Mœris, near the city +of the Crocodiles.</q> But we must remember that +the Lake Mœris of the Greek tourist included not +<pb n='284'/><anchor id='Pg284'/> +only the actual lake, but also the inundation, which +covered at the time the cultivated land of the +Fayyûm. Nor was it, as he supposed, an artificial +piece of water excavated in a district which was +<q>terribly waterless,</q> the excavators of which were +wasteful enough to fling all the earth they had +extracted into the Nile twenty miles away. It was, +on the contrary, an oasis reclaimed from marsh and +water by the wise engineering labours of the kings +of the twelfth dynasty and the embankments which +they caused to be erected. So far from destroying +the precious cultivable ground by turning it into a +lake, they drained the lake so far as was possible, +and thereby created a new Egypt for the cultivators +of the soil. +</p> + +<p> +From the walls of the city of the Crocodiles +Herodotos looked out over a vast expanse of water, +which he thought was the creation of the Pharaohs, +but which was really the result of man's neglect. +The dykes were broken which should have kept +back the flood and prevented it from swamping the +summer crops. It was with this view of almost +boundless waters that the journey of Herodotos up +the Nile came to an end. He returned to Memphis, +and from thence pursued the way along which we +have followed him to Pelusium and the sea. His +note-book was filled with memoranda of all the +<pb n='285'/><anchor id='Pg285'/> +wonders he had seen; of the strange customs he had +observed among the Egyptian people; above all, with +the folk-tales which his guides had poured into his +ear. At a later day, when his eastern travels were +over, and he had leisure for the work, he combined +all this with the accounts written by his predecessors, +and added a new book to the libraries of ancient +Greece. From the outset it was a success, and +though malicious critics endeavoured to condemn +and supersede it, though Thukydides contradicted +its statements in regard to Athens, though Ktêsias +declared that its oriental history was a romance and +Plutarch discoursed on the <q>malignity</q> of its author, +the book survived all attacks. We have lost the +work of Hekatæos of Miletos, we have lost also—what +is a more serious misfortune—that of the +careful and well-informed Hekatæos of Abdera, but +we still have Herodotos with us. And in spite of +our own knowledge and his ignorance, in spite even +of his innocent vanity and appropriation of the +words of others, it is a pleasure to travel with him +in our hand and visit with him the scenes he saw. +Nowhere else can we find the folk-lore which grew +and flourished in the meeting-place of East and +West more than two thousand years ago, and in +which lay the germs of much of the folk-lore of our +own childhood. It may even be that some of the +<pb n='286'/><anchor id='Pg286'/> +stories which the modern dragoman relates to the +modern traveller on the Nile have no better parentage +than the guides of Herodotos. Cairo is the +successor of Memphis, and 'the caste' of the +dragomen is not yet extinct. +</p> + +</div> + +<pb n='287'/><anchor id='Pg287'/> + +<div rend='page-break-before: always'> +<index index='toc'/> +<index index='pdf'/> +<head>Appendices.</head> + +<div> +<index index='toc'/> +<index index='pdf'/> +<head>Appendix I.</head> + +<div> +<head>The Egyptian Dynasties According To Manetho +(As Quoted By Julius Africanus, <hi rend='smallcaps'>a.d.</hi> 220), Etc.</head> + +<p> +[The excerpts of Africanus are known from George the +Synkellos (<hi rend='smallcaps'>a.d.</hi> 790) and Eusebius (<hi rend='smallcaps'>a.d.</hi> 326): where +Eusebius differs from Synkellos the fact is stated.] +</p> + +<p> +(Each king is followed by the number of years reigned.) +</p> + +<p> +<hi rend='smallcaps'>Dynasty i.</hi>—Thinites: 8 kings. +</p> + +<table rend="latexcolumns: 'p{5.8cm} p{1cm}'; tblcolumns: 'lw(60) lw(10)'"> +<row><cell>1. Menes</cell><cell>62</cell></row> +<row><cell>2. Athôthis his son</cell><cell>57</cell></row> +<row><cell>3. Kenkenes his son</cell><cell>31</cell></row> +<row><cell>4. Ouenephes his son</cell><cell>23</cell></row> +<row><cell>5. Ousaphaidos his son (Ousaphaes, <hi rend='italic'>Eus.</hi>)</cell><cell>20</cell></row> +<row><cell>6. Miebidos his son (Niebaes, <hi rend='italic'>Eus.</hi>)</cell><cell>26</cell></row> +<row><cell>7. Semempses his son</cell><cell>18</cell></row> +<row><cell>8. Biênakhes his son (Oubienthes or Vibethis, <hi rend='italic'>Eus.</hi>)</cell><cell>26</cell></row> +<row><cell></cell><cell>——</cell></row> +<row><cell>Sum</cell><cell>253</cell></row> +<row><cell>(<hi rend='italic'>Eus.</hi></cell><cell>252</cell></row> +<row><cell>Really</cell><cell>263)</cell></row> +</table> + +<pb n='288'/><anchor id='Pg288'/> + +<p> +<hi rend='smallcaps'>Dynasty ii.</hi>—Thinites: 9 kings. +</p> + +<table rend="latexcolumns: 'p{5.8cm} p{1cm}'; tblcolumns: 'lw(60) lw(10)'"> +<row><cell>1. Boêthos (Bôkhos, <hi rend='italic'>Eus.</hi>)</cell><cell>38</cell></row> +<row><cell>2. Kaiekhôs (Khoos or Kekhous, <hi rend='italic'>Eus.</hi>)</cell><cell>39</cell></row> +<row><cell>3. Binôthris (Biophis, <hi rend='italic'>Eus.</hi>)</cell><cell>47</cell></row> +<row><cell>4. Tlas (unnamed by <hi rend='italic'>Eus.</hi>)</cell><cell>17</cell></row> +<row><cell>5. Sethenês (unnamed by <hi rend='italic'>Eus.</hi>)</cell><cell>41</cell></row> +<row><cell>6. Khaires (unnamed by <hi rend='italic'>Eus.</hi>)</cell><cell>17</cell></row> +<row><cell>7. Nepherkheres</cell><cell>25</cell></row> +<row><cell>8. Sesôkhris</cell><cell>48</cell></row> +<row><cell>9. Kheneres (unnamed by <hi rend='italic'>Eus.</hi>)</cell><cell>30</cell></row> +<row><cell></cell><cell>——</cell></row> +<row><cell>Sum</cell><cell>302</cell></row> +<row><cell>(<hi rend='italic'>Eus.</hi></cell><cell>297)</cell></row> +</table> + +<p> +<hi rend='smallcaps'>Dynasty iii.</hi>—Memphites: 9 kings. +</p> + +<table rend="latexcolumns: 'p{5.8cm} p{1cm}'; tblcolumns: 'lw(60) lw(10)'"> +<row><cell>1. Nekherophes (Nekherôkhis, <hi rend='italic'>Eus.</hi>)</cell><cell>28</cell></row> +<row><cell>2. Tosorthros (Sesorthos, <hi rend='italic'>Eus.</hi>)</cell><cell>29</cell></row> +<row><cell>3. Tyreis (unnamed by <hi rend='italic'>Eus.</hi>)</cell><cell>7</cell></row> +<row><cell>4. Mesôkhris (unnamed by <hi rend='italic'>Eus.</hi>)</cell><cell>17</cell></row> +<row><cell>5. Sôyphis (unnamed by <hi rend='italic'>Eus.</hi>)</cell><cell>16</cell></row> +<row><cell>6. Tosertasis (unnamed by <hi rend='italic'>Eus.</hi>)</cell><cell>19</cell></row> +<row><cell>7. Akhes (unnamed by <hi rend='italic'>Eus.</hi>)</cell><cell>42</cell></row> +<row><cell>8. Sêphouris (unnamed by <hi rend='italic'>Eus.</hi>)</cell><cell>30</cell></row> +<row><cell>9. Kerpheres (unnamed by <hi rend='italic'>Eus.</hi>)</cell><cell>26</cell></row> +<row><cell></cell><cell>——</cell></row> +<row><cell>Sum</cell><cell>214</cell></row> +<row><cell>(<hi rend='italic'>Eus.</hi></cell><cell>197)</cell></row> +</table> + +<p> +<hi rend='smallcaps'>Dynasty iv.</hi>—Memphites: 8 kings. (<hi rend='italic'>Eus.</hi> 17.) +</p> + +<table rend="latexcolumns: 'p{5.8cm} p{1cm}'; tblcolumns: 'lw(60) lw(10)'"> +<row><cell>1. Sôris (unnamed by <hi rend='italic'>Eus.</hi>)</cell><cell>29</cell></row> +<row><cell>2. Souphis <hi rend='smallcaps'>i.</hi> (3rd king of the dynasty, <hi rend='italic'>Eus.</hi>)</cell><cell>63</cell></row> +<row><cell>3. Souphis <hi rend='smallcaps'>ii.</hi> (unnamed by <hi rend='italic'>Eus.</hi>)</cell><cell>66</cell></row> +<pb n='289'/><anchor id='Pg289'/> +<row><cell>4. Menkheres (unnamed by <hi rend='italic'>Eus.</hi>)</cell><cell>63</cell></row> +<row><cell>5. Ratoises (unnamed by <hi rend='italic'>Eus.</hi>)</cell><cell>25</cell></row> +<row><cell>6. Bikheris (unnamed by <hi rend='italic'>Eus.</hi>)</cell><cell>22</cell></row> +<row><cell>7. Seberkheres (unnamed by <hi rend='italic'>Eus.</hi>)</cell><cell>7</cell></row> +<row><cell>8. Thamphthis (unnamed by <hi rend='italic'>Eus.</hi>)</cell><cell>9</cell></row> +<row><cell></cell><cell>——</cell></row> +<row><cell>Sum</cell><cell>277</cell></row> +<row><cell>(<hi rend='italic'>Eus.</hi></cell><cell>448</cell></row> +<row><cell>Really</cell><cell>284)</cell></row> +</table> + +<p> +<hi rend='smallcaps'>Dynasty v.</hi>—Elephantines: 9 kings. +</p> + +<p> +(<hi rend='italic'>Eus.</hi> 31 kings, including Othoês or Othius the First +and Phiôps; the others are unnamed.) +</p> + +<table rend="latexcolumns: 'p{5.8cm} p{1cm}'; tblcolumns: 'lw(60) lw(10)'"> +<row><cell>1. Ouserkheres</cell><cell>28</cell></row> +<row><cell>2. Sephres</cell><cell>13</cell></row> +<row><cell>3. Nepherkheres</cell><cell>20</cell></row> +<row><cell>4. Sisires or Sisikhis</cell><cell>7</cell></row> +<row><cell>5. Kheres or Ekheres</cell><cell>20</cell></row> +<row><cell>6. Rathoures</cell><cell>44</cell></row> +<row><cell>7. Menkheres</cell><cell>9</cell></row> +<row><cell>8. Tankheres</cell><cell>44</cell></row> +<row><cell>9. Ounos or Obnos</cell><cell>33</cell></row> +<row><cell></cell><cell>——</cell></row> +<row><cell>Sum</cell><cell>248</cell></row> +<row><cell>(Really</cell><cell>218)</cell></row> +</table> + +<p> +<hi rend='smallcaps'>Dynasty vi.</hi>—Memphites: 6 kings. +(No number in <hi rend='italic'>Eus.</hi>) +</p> + +<table rend="latexcolumns: 'p{5.8cm} p{1cm}'; tblcolumns: 'lw(60) lw(10)'"> +<row><cell>1. Othoês</cell><cell>30</cell></row> +<row><cell>2. Phios</cell><cell>53 (or 3)</cell></row> +<row><cell>3. Menthu-Souphis</cell><cell>7</cell></row> +<row><cell>4. Phiôps (lived 100 years)</cell><cell>94</cell></row> +<pb n='290'/><anchor id='Pg290'/> +<row><cell>5. Menthe-Souphis</cell><cell>1</cell></row> +<row><cell>6. Nitôkris, a queen</cell><cell>12</cell></row> +<row><cell></cell><cell>——</cell></row> +<row><cell>Sum</cell><cell>160</cell></row> +<row><cell>(<hi rend='italic'>Eus.</hi></cell><cell>245)</cell></row> +</table> + +<p> +<hi rend='smallcaps'>Dynasty vii.</hi>—70 Memphites for 70 days. +(<hi rend='italic'>Eus.</hi> 5 kings for 75 days, or 75 years according to +the Armenian Version.) +</p> + +<p> +<hi rend='smallcaps'>Dynasty viii.</hi>—27 Memphites for 146 years. +(<hi rend='italic'>Eus.</hi> 5 kings for 100 years, or 9 kings according to +the Armenian Version.) +</p> + +<p> +<hi rend='smallcaps'>Dynasty ix.</hi>—19 Herakleopolites for 409 years. +(<hi rend='italic'>Eus.</hi> 4 kings for 100 years.) +</p> + +<table rend="latexcolumns: 'p{5.8cm} p{1cm}'; tblcolumns: 'lw(60) lw(10)'"> +<row><cell>1. Akhthoes</cell><cell>?</cell></row> +</table> + +<p> +<hi rend='smallcaps'>Dynasty x.</hi>—19 Herakleopolites for 185 years. +</p> + +<p> +<hi rend='smallcaps'>Dynasty xi.</hi>—16 Thebans for 43 years, after whom +Ammenemes reigned 16 years. +</p> + +<p> +End of Manetho's first book, the kings of the first eleven +dynasties reigning altogether 2300 years (<hi rend='italic'>Eus.</hi> 2200) and +70 days (really 2287 years and 70 days). +</p> + +<p> +<hi rend='smallcaps'>Dynasty xii.</hi>—Thebans: 7 kings. +</p> + +<table rend="latexcolumns: 'p{5.8cm} p{1cm}'; tblcolumns: 'lw(60) lw(10)'"> +<row><cell>1. Sesonkhôsis, son of Ammenemes</cell><cell>46</cell></row> +<row><cell>2. Ammanemes, slain by his eunuchs</cell><cell>38</cell></row> +<row><cell>3. Sesôstris</cell><cell>48</cell></row> +<row><cell>4. Lakhares (Lamaris or Lambares, <hi rend='italic'>Eus.</hi>), the builder of the Labyrinth</cell> +<cell>8</cell></row> +<pb n='291'/><anchor id='Pg291'/> +<row><cell>5. Ammeres (unnamed by <hi rend='italic'>Eus.</hi>)</cell><cell>8</cell></row> +<row><cell>6. Ammenemes (unnamed by <hi rend='italic'>Eus.</hi></cell><cell>8</cell></row> +<row><cell>7. Skemiophris his sister (unnamed by <hi rend='italic'>Eus.</hi>)</cell><cell>4</cell></row> +<row><cell></cell><cell>——</cell></row> +<row><cell>Sum</cell><cell>160</cell></row> +<row><cell>(<hi rend='italic'>Eus.</hi></cell><cell>245)</cell></row> +</table> + +<p> +<hi rend='smallcaps'>Dynasty xiii.</hi>—Thebans: 60 kings for 453 years. +</p> + +<p> +<hi rend='smallcaps'>Dynasty xiv.</hi>—Xoites: 76 kings for 134 years. +(<hi rend='italic'>Eus.</hi> 484 years). +</p> + +<p> +<hi rend='smallcaps'>Dynasty xv.</hi>—Shepherds: 6 Phœnician strangers +at Memphis for 284 years. (<hi rend='italic'>Eus.</hi> Thebans for 250 years). +</p> + +<table rend="latexcolumns: 'p{5.8cm} p{1cm}'; tblcolumns: 'lw(60) lw(10)'"> +<row><cell>1. Saites</cell><cell>19</cell></row> +<row><cell>2. Bnôn</cell><cell>44</cell></row> +<row><cell>3. Pakhnan</cell><cell>61</cell></row> +<row><cell>4. Staan</cell><cell>50</cell></row> +<row><cell>5. Arkles</cell><cell>49</cell></row> +<row><cell>6. Aphôbis</cell><cell>61</cell></row> +<row><cell>——</cell></row> +<row><cell>Sum</cell><cell>284</cell></row> +</table> + +<p> +<hi rend='smallcaps'>Dynasty xvi.</hi>—Shepherds: 32 kings for 582 years. +(<hi rend='italic'>Eus.</hi> 5 Thebans for 190 years). +</p> + +<p> +<hi rend='smallcaps'>Dynasty xvii.</hi>—Shepherds: 43 kings for 151 years and +43 Thebans for 151 years. +(<hi rend='italic'>Eus.</hi> Shepherds, Phœnician strangers for 103 years: +</p> + +<table rend="latexcolumns: 'p{5.8cm} p{1cm}'; tblcolumns: 'lw(60) lw(10)'"> +<row><cell>1. Saites</cell><cell>19</cell></row> +<row><cell>2. Bnôn</cell><cell>40</cell></row> +<row><cell>3. Arkles (Arm. Version)</cell><cell>30</cell></row> +<row><cell>4. Aphôphis (Arm. Version)</cell><cell>14</cell></row> +<row><cell></cell><cell>——</cell></row> +<row><cell>Sum</cell><cell>103</cell></row> +</table> + +<pb n='292'/><anchor id='Pg292'/> + +<p> +<hi rend='smallcaps'>Dynasty xviii.</hi>—Thebans: 16 kings. +(<hi rend='italic'>Eus.</hi> 14 kings.) +</p> + +<table rend="latexcolumns: 'p{5.8cm} p{1cm}'; tblcolumns: 'lw(60) lw(10)'"> +<row><cell>1. Amôs[is]</cell><cell>25</cell></row> +<row><cell>2. Khebrôs (Khebrôn, <hi rend='italic'>Eus.</hi>)</cell><cell>13</cell></row> +<row><cell>3. Amenôphthis (Amenôphis for 21 years, <hi rend='italic'>Eus.</hi>)</cell><cell>24</cell></row> +<row><cell>4. Amensis or Amersis (omitted by <hi rend='italic'>Eus.</hi>)</cell><cell>22</cell></row> +<row><cell>5. Misaphris (Miphris for 12 years, <hi rend='italic'>Eus.</hi>)</cell><cell>13</cell></row> +<row><cell>6. Misphragmouthôsis</cell><cell>26</cell></row> +<row><cell>7. Touthmôsis</cell><cell>9</cell></row> +<row><cell>8. Amenôphis Memnôn</cell><cell>31</cell></row> +<row><cell>9. Horos (Oros, <hi rend='italic'>Eus.</hi>)</cell><cell>37</cell></row> +<row><cell>10. Akherres (Akhenkheres or Akhenkherses for +16 or 12 years, <hi rend='italic'>Eus.</hi>)</cell><cell>32</cell></row> +<row><cell>11. Rathôs (omitted by <hi rend='italic'>Eus.</hi>)</cell><cell>6</cell></row> +<row><cell>12. Khebrés (Akherres for 8 years, <hi rend='italic'>Eus.</hi>)</cell><cell>12</cell></row> +<row><cell>13. Akherres (Kherres for 15 years, <hi rend='italic'>Eus.</hi>)</cell><cell>12</cell></row> +<row><cell>14. Armeses (Armais Danaos, <hi rend='italic'>Eus.</hi>)</cell><cell>5</cell></row> +<row><cell>15. Ramesses (Ramesses Ægyptos for 68 years, <hi rend='italic'>Eus.</hi>)</cell><cell>1</cell></row> +<row><cell>16. Amenôphath (Amenôphis for 40 years, <hi rend='italic'>Eus.</hi>)</cell><cell>19</cell></row> +<row><cell></cell><cell>——</cell></row> +<row><cell>Sum</cell><cell>263</cell></row> +<row><cell>(<hi rend='italic'>Eus.</hi></cell><cell>348</cell></row> +<row><cell>Really</cell><cell>287)</cell></row> +</table> + +<p> +<hi rend='smallcaps'>Dynasty xix.</hi>—Thebans: 7 kings. (<hi rend='italic'>Eus.</hi> 5 kings.) +</p> + +<table rend="latexcolumns: 'p{5.8cm} p{1cm}'; tblcolumns: 'lw(60) lw(10)'"> +<row><cell>1. Sethôs (for 55 years, <hi rend='italic'>Eus.</hi>)</cell><cell>51</cell></row> +<row><cell>2. Rapsakes (Rampses for 66 years, <hi rend='italic'>Eus.</hi>)</cell><cell>61</cell></row> +<row><cell>3. Ammenephthes (for 8 years, <hi rend='italic'>Eus.</hi>)</cell><cell>20</cell></row> +<row><cell>4. Ramesses (omitted by <hi rend='italic'>Eus.</hi>)</cell><cell>60</cell></row> +<row><cell>5. Ammenemmes (for 26 years, <hi rend='italic'>Eus.</hi>)</cell><cell>5</cell></row> +<row><cell>6. Thouôris or Polybos</cell><cell>7</cell></row> +<row><cell></cell><cell>——</cell></row> +<row><cell>Sum</cell><cell>209</cell></row> +<row><cell>(<hi rend='italic'>Eus.</hi></cell><cell>194</cell></row> +<row><cell>Really</cell><cell>204)</cell></row> +</table> + +<pb n='293'/><anchor id='Pg293'/> + +<p> +<hi rend='smallcaps'>Dynasty xx.</hi>—Thebans: 12 kings for 135 years. +(<hi rend='italic'>Eus.</hi> 172 or 178 years.) +</p> + +<p> +Among the 12 kings were:— +</p> + +<table rend="latexcolumns: 'p{5.8cm} p{1cm}'; tblcolumns: 'lw(60) lw(10)'"> +<row><cell>Nekhepsôs</cell><cell>19</cell></row> +<row><cell>Psammouthis</cell><cell>13</cell></row> +<row><cell>Kêrtos</cell><cell>16 (<hi rend='italic'>Eus.</hi> 12)</cell></row> +<row><cell>Rampsis</cell><cell>45</cell></row> +<row><cell>Amenses or Ammenemes</cell><cell>26</cell></row> +<row><cell>Okhyras</cell><cell>14</cell></row> +<row><cell></cell><cell>——</cell></row> +<row><cell>Sum</cell><cell>137</cell></row> +</table> + +<p> +<hi rend='smallcaps'>Dynasty xxi.</hi>—Tanites: 7 kings. +</p> + +<table rend="latexcolumns: 'p{5.8cm} p{1cm}'; tblcolumns: 'lw(60) lw(10)'"> +<row><cell>1. Smendes</cell><cell>26</cell></row> +<row><cell>2. Psousennes (for 41 years, <hi rend='italic'>Eus.</hi>)</cell><cell>46</cell></row> +<row><cell>3. Nephelkheres (Nepherkheres, <hi rend='italic'>Eus.</hi>)</cell><cell>4</cell></row> +<row><cell>4. Amenôphthis</cell><cell>9</cell></row> +<row><cell>5. Osokhôr</cell><cell>6</cell></row> +<row><cell>6. Psinakhes</cell><cell>9</cell></row> +<row><cell>7. Psousennes (for 35 years, <hi rend='italic'>Eus.</hi>)</cell><cell>14</cell></row> +<row><cell></cell><cell>——</cell></row> +<row><cell>Sum</cell><cell>130</cell></row> +<row><cell>(<hi rend='italic'>Eus.</hi></cell><cell>130</cell></row> +<row><cell>Really</cell><cell>114)</cell></row> +</table> + +<p> +<hi rend='smallcaps'>Dynasty xxii.</hi>—Bubastites: 9 kings. (<hi rend='italic'>Eus.</hi> 3 kings.) +</p> + +<table rend="latexcolumns: 'p{5.8cm} p{1cm}'; tblcolumns: 'lw(60) lw(10)'"> +<row><cell>1. Sesonkhis (Sesonkhôsis, <hi rend='italic'>Eus.</hi>)</cell><cell>21</cell></row> +<row><cell>2. Osorthôn</cell><cell>15</cell></row> +<row><cell>3, 4, 5. Unnamed (omitted by <hi rend='italic'>Eus.</hi>)</cell><cell>25</cell></row> +<row><cell>6. Takelôthis</cell><cell>13</cell></row> +<row><cell>7, 8, 9. Unnamed (omitted by <hi rend='italic'>Eus.</hi>)</cell><cell>42</cell></row> +<row><cell></cell><cell>——</cell></row> +<row><cell>Sum</cell><cell>120</cell></row> +<row><cell>(<hi rend='italic'>Eus.</hi></cell><cell>44</cell></row> +<row><cell>Really</cell><cell>116)</cell></row> +</table> + +<pb n='294'/><anchor id='Pg294'/> + +<p> +<hi rend='smallcaps'>Dynasty xxiii.</hi>—Tanites; 4 kings. +(<hi rend='italic'>Eus.</hi> 3 kings.) +</p> + +<table rend="latexcolumns: 'p{5.8cm} p{1cm}'; tblcolumns: 'lw(60) lw(10)'"> +<row><cell>1. Petoubates (Petoubastes for 25 years, <hi rend='italic'>Eus.</hi>)</cell><cell>40</cell></row> +<row><cell>2. Osorkhô Hêraklês (Osorthôn for 9 years, <hi rend='italic'>Eus.</hi>)</cell><cell>8</cell></row> +<row><cell>3. Psammous</cell><cell>10</cell></row> +<row><cell>4. Zêt (omitted by <hi rend='italic'>Eus.</hi>)</cell><cell>31</cell></row> +<row><cell></cell><cell>——</cell></row> +<row><cell>Sum</cell><cell>89</cell></row> +<row><cell>(<hi rend='italic'>Eus.</hi></cell><cell>44)</cell></row> +</table> + +<p> +<hi rend='smallcaps'>Dynasty xxiv.</hi>—One Saite. +</p> + +<table rend="latexcolumns: 'p{5.8cm} p{1cm}'; tblcolumns: 'lw(60) lw(10)'"> +<row><cell>1. Bokkhôris the legislator (for 44 years, <hi rend='italic'>Eus.</hi>)</cell><cell>6</cell></row> +</table> + +<p> +<hi rend='smallcaps'>Dynasty xxv.</hi>—Ethiopians: 3 kings. +</p> + +<table rend="latexcolumns: 'p{5.8cm} p{1cm}'; tblcolumns: 'lw(60) lw(10)'"> +<row><cell>1. Sabakôn (for 12 years, <hi rend='italic'>Eus.</hi>)</cell><cell>8</cell></row> +<row><cell>2. Sebikhôs his son (for 12 years, <hi rend='italic'>Eus.</hi>)</cell><cell>14</cell></row> +<row><cell>3. Tearkos (Tarakos for 20 years, <hi rend='italic'>Eus.</hi>)</cell><cell>18</cell></row> +<row><cell></cell><cell>——</cell></row> +<row><cell>Sum</cell><cell>40</cell></row> +<row><cell>(<hi rend='italic'>Eus.</hi></cell><cell>44)</cell></row> +</table> + +<p> +<hi rend='smallcaps'>Dynasty xxvi.</hi>—Saites: 9 kings. +(<hi rend='italic'>Eus.</hi> 1, Ammeris the Ethiopian for 18 or 12 years.) +</p> + +<table rend="latexcolumns: 'p{5.8cm} p{1cm}'; tblcolumns: 'lw(60) lw(10)'"> +<row><cell>1. Stephinates (Stephinathis, the 2nd king, <hi rend='italic'>Eus.</hi>)</cell><cell>7</cell></row> +<row><cell>2. Nekhepsôs (the 3rd king, <hi rend='italic'>Eus.</hi>)</cell><cell>6</cell></row> +<row><cell>3. Nekhaô (for 6 years, <hi rend='italic'>Eus.</hi>)</cell><cell>8</cell></row> +<row><cell>4. Psammêtikhos (for 44 or 45 years, <hi rend='italic'>Eus.</hi>)</cell><cell>54</cell></row> +<row><cell>5. Nekhaô II.</cell><cell>6</cell></row> +<row><cell>6. Psammouthis II. (or Psammitikhos, for 17 years, <hi rend='italic'>Eus.</hi>) 6</cell></row> +<row><cell>7. Ouaphris, (for 25 years, <hi rend='italic'>Eus.</hi>)</cell><cell>19</cell></row> +<row><cell>8. Amôsis (for 42 years, <hi rend='italic'>Eus.</hi>)</cell><cell>44</cell></row> +<row><cell>9. Psammekherites (omitted by <hi rend='italic'>Eus.</hi>)</cell><cell>1/2</cell></row> +<row><cell></cell><cell>———-</cell></row> +<row><cell>Sum</cell><cell>150-1/2</cell></row> +<row><cell>(<hi rend='italic'>Eus.</hi></cell><cell>167)</cell></row> +</table> + +<pb n='295'/><anchor id='Pg295'/> + +<p> +<hi rend='smallcaps'>Dynasty xxvii.</hi>—Persians: 8 kings. +</p> + +<p> +(Each king is followed by the number of years and months reigned.) +</p> + +<table rend="latexcolumns: 'p{5.8cm} p{1cm}'; tblcolumns: 'lw(60) lw(10)'"> +<row><cell>1. Kambyses, in the 5th year of his reign (for 3 years, <hi rend='italic'>Eus.</hi>)</cell><cell>6 0</cell></row> +<row><cell>2. Dareios, son of Hystaspes</cell><cell>36 0</cell></row> +<row><cell>3. Xerxes I.</cell><cell>21 0</cell></row> +<row><cell>4. Artabanos (omitted by <hi rend='italic'>Eus.</hi>)</cell><cell>0 7</cell></row> +<row><cell>5. Artaxerxes</cell><cell>41 0</cell></row> +<row><cell>6. Xerxes II.</cell><cell>0 2</cell></row> +<row><cell>7. Sogdianos</cell><cell>0 7</cell></row> +<row><cell>8. Dareios, son of Xerxes</cell><cell>19 0</cell></row> +<row><cell></cell><cell>——</cell></row> +<row><cell>Sum</cell><cell>124 4</cell></row> +<row><cell>(<hi rend='italic'>Eus.</hi></cell><cell>120 4)</cell></row> +</table> + +<p> +<hi rend='smallcaps'>Dynasty xxviii.</hi>—One Saite. +</p> + +<table rend="latexcolumns: 'p{5.8cm} p{1cm}'; tblcolumns: 'lw(60) lw(10)'"> +<row><cell>1. Amyrtaios</cell><cell>6 0</cell></row> +</table> + +<p> +<hi rend='smallcaps'>Dynasty xxix.</hi>—Mendesians: 4 kings. +(<hi rend='italic'>Eus.</hi> 5 kings.) +</p> + +<table rend="latexcolumns: 'p{5.8cm} p{1cm}'; tblcolumns: 'lw(60) lw(10)'"> +<row><cell>1. Nepherites I. or Nekherites</cell><cell>6 0</cell></row> +<row><cell>2. Akhôris</cell><cell>13 0</cell></row> +<row><cell>3. Psammouthes</cell><cell>1 0</cell></row> +<row><cell>(<hi rend='italic'>Eus.</hi> inserts Mouthis here, 1 year.)</cell><cell></cell></row> +<row><cell>4. Nepherites II.</cell><cell>0 4</cell></row> +<row><cell></cell><cell>——</cell></row> +<row><cell>Sum</cell><cell>20 4</cell></row> +<row><cell>(<hi rend='italic'>Eus.</hi></cell><cell>21 4)</cell></row> +</table> + +<p> +<hi rend='smallcaps'>Dynasty xxx.</hi>—Sebennytes: 3 kings. +</p> + +<p> +(Each king is followed by the number of years reigned.) +</p> + +<table rend="latexcolumns: 'p{5.8cm} p{1cm}'; tblcolumns: 'lw(60) lw(10)'"> +<row><cell>1. Nektanebes I. (for 10 years, <hi rend='italic'>Eus.</hi>)</cell><cell>18</cell></row> +<row><cell>2. Teôs</cell><cell>2</cell></row> +<row><cell>3. Nektanebes II. (for 8 years, <hi rend='italic'>Eus.</hi>)</cell><cell>18</cell></row> +<row><cell></cell><cell>——</cell></row> +<row><cell>Sum</cell><cell>38</cell></row> +<row><cell>(<hi rend='italic'>Eus.</hi></cell><cell>20)</cell></row> +</table> + +<pb n='296'/><anchor id='Pg296'/> + +<p> +<hi rend='smallcaps'>Dynasty xxxi.</hi>—Persians: 3 kings. +</p> + +<table rend="latexcolumns: 'p{5.8cm} p{1cm}'; tblcolumns: 'lw(60) lw(10)'"> +<row><cell>1. Okhos, in his 20th year (for 6 years, <hi rend='italic'>Eus.</hi>)</cell><cell>2</cell></row> +<row><cell>2. Arses (for 4 years, <hi rend='italic'>Eus.</hi>)</cell><cell>3</cell></row> +<row><cell>3. Dareios (for 6 years, <hi rend='italic'>Eus.</hi>)</cell><cell>4</cell></row> +<row><cell></cell><cell>——</cell></row> +<row><cell>Sum</cell><cell>9</cell></row> +<row><cell>(<hi rend='italic'>Eus.</hi></cell><cell>16)</cell></row> +</table> + +</div> + +<div> +<head>The Dynasties Of Manetho +According To Josephus.</head> + +<p> +<hi rend='smallcaps'>Dynasty xv.</hi>—Hyksôs or Shepherds. +</p> + +<p> +After the overthrow of Timaios, the last king of the fourteenth +dynasty, a period of anarchy. +</p> + +<p> +(Each king is followed by the number of years and months reigned.) +</p> + +<table rend="latexcolumns: 'p{5.8cm} p{1cm}'; tblcolumns: 'lw(60) lw(10)'"> +<row><cell>1. Salatis at Memphis</cell><cell>13 0</cell></row> +<row><cell>2. Beon</cell><cell>44 0</cell></row> +<row><cell>3. Apakhnas</cell><cell>36 7</cell></row> +<row><cell>4. Apôphis</cell><cell>61 0</cell></row> +<row><cell>5. Yanias or Annas</cell><cell>50 1</cell></row> +<row><cell>6. Assis</cell><cell>49 2</cell></row> +</table> + +<p> +<hi rend='smallcaps'>Dynasties xviii.</hi> and <hi rend='smallcaps'>xix.</hi>—Thebans. +</p> + +<table rend="latexcolumns: 'p{5.8cm} p{1cm}'; tblcolumns: 'lw(60) lw(10)'"> +<row><cell>1. Tethmôsis</cell><cell>25 4</cell></row> +<row><cell>2. Khebrôn his son</cell><cell>13 0</cell></row> +<row><cell>3. Amenôphis <hi rend='smallcaps'>i.</hi></cell><cell>20 7</cell></row> +<row><cell>4. Amesses his sister</cell><cell>21 9</cell></row> +<row><cell>5. Mephres</cell><cell>12 9</cell></row> +<row><cell>6. Mephramouthôsis</cell><cell>25 10</cell></row> +<row><cell>7. Thmôsis</cell><cell>9 8</cell></row> +<row><cell>8. Amenôphis <hi rend='smallcaps'>ii.</hi></cell><cell>30 10</cell></row> +<row><cell>9. Oros</cell><cell>36 5</cell></row> +<row><cell>10. Akenkhres his daughter</cell><cell>12 1</cell></row> +<row><cell>11. Rathôtis her brother</cell><cell>9 0</cell></row> +<pb n='297'/><anchor id='Pg297'/> +<row><cell>12. Akenkheres <hi rend='smallcaps'>i.</hi></cell><cell>12 5</cell></row> +<row><cell>13. Akenkheres <hi rend='smallcaps'>ii.</hi></cell><cell>12 3</cell></row> +<row><cell>14. Armais</cell><cell>4 1</cell></row> +<row><cell>15. Ramesses</cell><cell>1 4</cell></row> +<row><cell>16. Armesses Miamoun</cell><cell>60 2</cell></row> +<row><cell>17. Amenôphis <hi rend='smallcaps'>iii.</hi></cell><cell>19 6</cell></row> +<row><cell>18. Sethôsis Ægyptos and Ramesses (or Hermeus) +Danaos</cell><cell>59 0</cell></row> +<row><cell>19. Rhampses his son</cell><cell>66 0</cell></row> +<row><cell>20. Amenôphis his son</cell><cell>?</cell></row> +<row><cell>21. Sethôs Ramesses his son</cell><cell>?</cell></row> +</table> + +<p> +[The order ought to be: 15, 18, 19 (identical with 16), +20 (identical with 17).] +</p> + +</div> + +<div> +<head>The Theban Kings Of Egypt +According To Eratosthenes.</head> + +<p> +(Each king is followed by the number of years reigned.) +</p> + +<table rend="latexcolumns: 'p{5.8cm} p{1cm}'; tblcolumns: 'lw(60) lw(10)'"> +<row><cell>1. Mênes, a Thênite of Thebes, interpreted <q>of Amon</q></cell><cell>62</cell></row> +<row><cell>2. Athôthes, son of Mênes, interpreted <q>born of Thoth</q></cell><cell>59</cell></row> +<row><cell>3. Athôthes <hi rend='smallcaps'>ii.</hi></cell><cell>32</cell></row> +<row><cell>4. Diabiês his son, interpreted <q>loving his comrades</q></cell><cell>19</cell></row> +<row><cell>5. Pemphôs his brother, interpreted <q>son of Hêraklês</q> (Semempsis)</cell><cell>18</cell></row> +<row><cell>6. Toigar the invincible Momkheiri, a Memphite, +interpreted <q>with superfluous limbs</q> (Tosorthros)</cell><cell>79</cell></row> +<row><cell>7. Stoikhos his son, interpreted <q>insensate Arês</q> [? Set]</cell><cell>6</cell></row> +<row><cell>8. Gosormies (perhaps Tosertasis)</cell><cell>30</cell></row> +<row><cell>9. Mares his son, interpreted <q>Sun-given</q></cell><cell>26</cell></row> +<row><cell>10. Anôyphis his son, interpreted <q>promiscuous</q> or +<q>festive</q></cell><cell>20</cell></row> +<row><cell>11. Sirios, interpreted <q>son of side-locks</q> or <q>unenvied</q></cell><cell>18</cell></row> +<row><cell>12. Khnoubos Gneuros, interpreted <q>the golden son +of the golden</q></cell><cell>22</cell></row> +<pb n='298'/><anchor id='Pg298'/> +<row><cell>13. Rauôsis, interpreted <q>chief ruler</q> (Ratoises)</cell><cell>13</cell></row> +<row><cell>14. Biyres (Bikheres)</cell><cell>10</cell></row> +<row><cell>15. Saôphis, interpreted <q>long-haired</q> or <q>tradesman</q> +(Kheops)</cell><cell>29</cell></row> +<row><cell>16. Saôphis <hi rend='smallcaps'>ii.</hi> (Khephren)</cell><cell>27</cell></row> +<row><cell>17. Moskheres, interpreted <q>given to the Sun</q> +(Mykerinos)</cell><cell>31</cell></row> +<row><cell>18. Mousthis</cell><cell>33</cell></row> +<row><cell>19. Pammes Arkhondes (Pepi <hi rend='smallcaps'>i.</hi>)</cell><cell>35</cell></row> +<row><cell>20. Pappos the Great (Pepi <hi rend='smallcaps'>ii.</hi>)</cell><cell>100</cell></row> +<row><cell>21. Ekheso-Sokaras (Sokar-m-saf)</cell><cell>1</cell></row> +<row><cell>22. Nitôkris, a queen, interpreted <q>Nit the victorious</q></cell><cell>6</cell></row> +<row><cell>23. Myrtaios the given to Amon</cell><cell>22</cell></row> +<row><cell>24. Thyosi-mares, interpreted <q>the strong Sun</q></cell><cell>12</cell></row> +<row><cell>25. Thirillos or Thinillos, interpreted <q>who has increased +his father's strength</q> (Nefer-ka-Ra Terel)</cell><cell>8</cell></row> +<row><cell>26. Semphroukrates, interpreted <q>Hêraklês Harpokrates</q></cell><cell>18</cell></row> +<row><cell>27. Khouthêr Tauros the tyrant (perhaps Akhthoês)</cell><cell>7</cell></row> +<row><cell>28. Meures</cell><cell>12</cell></row> +<row><cell>29. Khômaephtha, interpreted <q>a world loving Ptah</q></cell><cell>11</cell></row> +<row><cell>30. Soikouniosokhos the tyrant</cell><cell>60</cell></row> +<row><cell>31. Pente-athyris</cell><cell>16</cell></row> +<row><cell>32. Stammenes <hi rend='smallcaps'>iii.</hi> (Amen-m-hat <hi rend='smallcaps'>ii.</hi>)</cell><cell>23</cell></row> +<row><cell>33. Sistosi-khermes, interpreted <q>Heraklês the strong</q> +(Usertesen <hi rend='smallcaps'>ii.</hi>)</cell><cell>55</cell></row> +<row><cell>34. Maris (Amen-m-hat <hi rend='smallcaps'>iii.</hi>)</cell><cell>43</cell></row> +<row><cell>35. Siphyas (Siphthas), interpreted <q>Thoth the son of +Ptah</q> (Si-Ptah)</cell><cell>5</cell></row> +<row><cell>36. Name lost</cell><cell>14</cell></row> +<row><cell>37. Phrourôn or Neilos (Sebek-neferu-Ra)</cell><cell>5</cell></row> +<row><cell>38. Amouthantaios</cell><cell>63</cell></row> +</table> + +</div> + +<pb n='299'/><anchor id='Pg299'/> + +<div> +<head>The Egyptian Kings +According To The Monuments.</head> + +<p> +<hi rend='smallcaps'>Dynasty i.</hi> +</p> + +<table rend="latexcolumns: 'p{0.5cm} p{1.6cm} p{1.6cm} p{1.6cm} p{1.6cm}'; tblcolumns: 'lw(5) lw(13) lw(13) lw(13) lw(13)'"> +<row><cell></cell><cell>Abydos.</cell><cell>Saqqârah.</cell><cell>Turin Papyrus.</cell><cell>Manetho.</cell></row> +<row><cell>1.</cell><cell>Meni</cell><cell></cell><cell>Meni</cell><cell>Menes</cell></row> +<row><cell>2.</cell><cell>Teta</cell><cell></cell><cell>Atut</cell><cell>Athothis</cell></row> +<row><cell>3.</cell><cell>Atota</cell><cell></cell><cell></cell><cell>Kenkenes</cell></row> +<row><cell>4.</cell><cell>Ata</cell><cell></cell><cell></cell><cell>Ouenephes <hi rend='smallcaps'>i.</hi></cell></row> +<row><cell>5.</cell><cell>Husapti</cell><cell></cell><cell>Husapti</cell><cell>Ousaphaidos</cell></row> +<row><cell>6.</cell><cell>Mer-ba-pa</cell><cell>Mer-ba-pen</cell><cell>Mer-ba-pen, 73 yrs. Miebidos</cell></row> +<row><cell>7.</cell><cell>Samsu</cell><cell></cell><cell>Samsu, 72 yrs.</cell><cell>Semempses</cell></row> +<row><cell>8.</cell><cell>Qabh(u)</cell><cell>Qabhu</cell><cell>Qabhu, 83 yrs.</cell><cell>Bienekhes.</cell></row> +</table> + +<p> +<hi rend='smallcaps'>Dynasty ii.</hi> +</p> + +<table rend="latexcolumns: 'p{0.5cm} p{1.6cm} p{1.6cm} p{1.6cm} p{1.6cm}'; tblcolumns: 'lw(5) lw(13) lw(13) lw(13) lw(13)'"> +<row><cell></cell><cell>Abydos.</cell><cell>Saqqârah.</cell><cell>Turin Papyrus.</cell><cell>Manetho.</cell></row> +<row><cell>1.</cell><cell>Buzau</cell><cell>Bai-nuter</cell><cell>(Buzau), 95 yrs.</cell><cell>Boêthos</cell></row> +<row><cell>2.</cell><cell>Kakau</cell><cell>Kakau</cell><cell>Kakau</cell><cell>Kaiekhos</cell></row> +<row><cell>3.</cell><cell>Ba-nuter-en</cell><cell>Ba-nuter-en</cell><cell>Ba-nuter-en, 95 yrs.</cell><cell>Binothris</cell></row> +<row><cell>4.</cell><cell>Uznas</cell><cell>Uznas</cell><cell>(Uznas), 70 yrs.</cell><cell>Tlas</cell></row> +<row><cell>5.</cell><cell>Senda<note place='foot'>The inscription of Sheri, the prophet of Send, part of which is in the +Ashmolean Museum at Oxford and part at Cairo, makes Per-ab-sen the +successor of Send. He will have corresponded to the Khaires of Manetho.</note></cell><cell>Send</cell><cell>Senda, 74 (?) yrs.</cell><cell>Sethenes</cell></row> +<row><cell>6.</cell><cell></cell><cell>Nefer-ka-Ra</cell><cell>(Nefer-ka-Ra), 70 yrs.</cell><cell>Nepherkheres.</cell></row> +</table> + +<p> +<hi rend='smallcaps'>Dynasty iii.</hi> +</p> + +<table rend="latexcolumns: 'p{0.5cm} p{1.6cm} p{1.6cm} p{1.6cm} p{1.6cm}'; tblcolumns: 'lw(5) lw(13) lw(13) lw(13) lw(13)'"> +<row><cell></cell><cell>Abydos.</cell><cell>Saqqârah.</cell><cell>Turin Papyrus.</cell><cell>Manetho.</cell></row> +<row><cell>1.</cell><cell></cell><cell>Nefer-ka-Sokar</cell><cell>Nefer-ka-Sokar (? 2) 8 yrs. 4 mths. 2 dys.</cell><cell>Nekherophes</cell></row> +<row><cell>2.</cell><cell></cell><cell>Zefa</cell><cell>Hu-Zefa, 25(?) yrs. 8 mths. 4 dys.</cell><cell>Tosorthros</cell></row> +<row><cell>3.</cell><cell></cell><cell>Babai</cell></row> +<row><cell>4.</cell><cell>Zazai</cell><cell></cell><cell>Zazai, 37 yrs. 2 mths. 1 day.</cell><cell>Tyreis</cell></row> +<pb n='300'/><anchor id='Pg300'/> +<row><cell>5.</cell><cell>Neb-ka</cell><cell></cell><cell>Neb-ka-(Ra), 19 yrs.</cell><cell>Mesokhris</cell></row> +<row><cell>6.</cell><cell>Zoser-Sa</cell><cell>Zoser</cell><cell>Zoser, 19 yrs. 2 mths.</cell><cell>Sôyphis</cell></row> +<row><cell>7.</cell><cell>Teta <hi rend='smallcaps'>ii.</hi></cell><cell>Zoser-teta</cell><cell>Zoser-teta, 6 yrs.</cell><cell>Tosertasis</cell></row> +<row><cell>8.</cell><cell>Sezes</cell><cell>Neb-ka-Ra</cell><cell></cell><cell>Akhes</cell></row> +<row><cell>9.</cell><cell>Nefer-ka-Ra <hi rend='smallcaps'>i.</hi></cell><cell></cell><cell>(Nefer-ka-Ra), 6 yrs.</cell><cell>Sephouris</cell></row> +<row><cell>10.</cell><cell></cell><cell>Huni</cell><cell>Huni, 24 yrs.</cell><cell>Kerpheres.</cell></row> +</table> + +<p> +<hi rend='smallcaps'>Dynasty iv.</hi> +</p> + +<table rend="latexcolumns: 'p{0.5cm} p{1.6cm} p{1.6cm} p{1.6cm} p{1.6cm}'; tblcolumns: 'lw(5) lw(13) lw(13) lw(13) lw(13)'"> +<row><cell></cell><cell>Abydos.</cell><cell>Saqqârah.</cell><cell>Turin Papyrus.</cell><cell>Manetho.</cell></row> +<row><cell>1.</cell><cell>Snefru</cell><cell>Snefru</cell><cell>Snefru, 24 yrs.</cell><cell>Soris</cell></row> +<row><cell>2.</cell><cell>Khufu</cell><cell>Khufuf</cell><cell>(Khufu), 23 yrs.</cell><cell>Souphis <hi rend='smallcaps'>i.</hi></cell></row> +<row><cell>3.</cell><cell>Ra-dad-f</cell><cell>Ra-dad-f</cell><cell>(Ra-dad-f), 8 yrs.</cell><cell>Ratoises</cell></row> +<row><cell>4.</cell><cell>Khâ-f-Ra</cell><cell>Khâ-f-Ra</cell><cell></cell><cell>Souphis <hi rend='smallcaps'>ii.</hi></cell></row> +<row><cell>5.</cell><cell>Men-kau-Ra</cell><cell></cell><cell>[Men]-kau-[Ra]</cell><cell>Menkheres</cell></row> +<row><cell>6.</cell><cell>Shepseskaf</cell><cell></cell><cell>Shepseskaf</cell><cell>Seberkheres (?)</cell></row> +</table> + +<p> +<hi rend='smallcaps'>Dynasty v.</hi> +</p> + +<table rend="latexcolumns: 'p{0.5cm} p{1.6cm} p{1.6cm} p{1.6cm} p{1.6cm}'; tblcolumns: 'lw(5) lw(13) lw(13) lw(13) lw(13)'"> +<row><cell></cell><cell>Abydos.</cell><cell>Saqqârah.</cell><cell>Turin Papyrus.</cell><cell>Manetho.</cell></row> +<row><cell>1.</cell><cell>User-ka-f</cell><cell>User-ka-f</cell><cell>(Userkaf), 28 yrs.</cell><cell>Ouserkheres</cell></row> +<row><cell>2.</cell><cell>Sahu-Ra</cell><cell>Sahu-Ra</cell><cell>(Sahu-Ra), 4 yrs.</cell><cell>Sephres</cell></row> +<row><cell>3.</cell><cell>Kaka</cell><cell></cell><cell>(Kaka), 2 yrs.</cell></row> +<row><cell>4.</cell><cell>Nefer-Ra</cell><cell>Nefer-ar-ka-Ra<note place='foot'>In an inscription now at Palermo a King Ahtes is mentioned by the +side of Nefer-ar-ka-Ra.</note></cell><cell>(Nefer-ar-ka-Ra), 7 yrs.</cell><cell>Nepherkheres</cell></row> +<row><cell>5.</cell><cell></cell><cell>Shepses-ka-Ra</cell><cell>(Shepses-ka-Ra), 12 yrs.</cell><cell>Sisires</cell></row> +<row><cell>6.</cell><cell></cell><cell>Khâ-nefer-Ra</cell><cell></cell><cell>Kheres</cell></row> +<row><cell>7.</cell><cell></cell><cell></cell><cell>Akau-Hor, 7 yrs.<note place='foot'>In the tomb of Mera, discovered by Mr. de Morgan at Saqqârah in 1894, +Akau-Hor stands between Unas and Teta.</note></cell><cell>Rathoures</cell></row> +<row><cell>8.</cell><cell>Ra-n-user (An)</cell><cell></cell><cell>(Ra-n-user-An), 25 yrs.</cell><cell></cell></row> +<pb n='301'/><anchor id='Pg301'/> +<row><cell>9.</cell><cell>Men-kau-Hor</cell><cell>Men-ka-Hor</cell><cell>Men-ka-Hor, 8 yrs.</cell><cell>Menkheres</cell></row> +<row><cell>10.</cell><cell>Dad-ka-Ra (Assa)</cell><cell>Mâ-ka-Ra</cell><cell>Dad(-ka Ra Assa), 28 yrs.</cell><cell>Tankheres</cell></row> +<row><cell>11.</cell><cell>Unas</cell><cell>Unas</cell><cell>Unas, 30 yrs.</cell><cell>Obnos.</cell></row> +</table> + +<p> +<hi rend='smallcaps'>Dynasty vi.</hi> +</p> + +<table rend="latexcolumns: 'p{0.5cm} p{1.6cm} p{1.6cm} p{1.6cm} p{1.6cm}'; tblcolumns: 'lw(5) lw(13) lw(13) lw(13) lw(13)'"> +<row><cell></cell><cell>Abydos.</cell><cell>Saqqârah.</cell><cell>Turin Papyrus.</cell><cell>Manetho.</cell></row> +<row><cell>1.</cell><cell>Teta <hi rend='smallcaps'>iii.</hi></cell><cell>Teta</cell><cell></cell><cell>Othoes</cell></row> +<row><cell>2.</cell><cell>User-ka-Ra</cell><cell></cell><cell>(Ati?)</cell></row> +<row><cell>3.</cell><cell>Meri-Ra (Pepi <hi rend='smallcaps'>i.</hi>)</cell><cell>Pepi <hi rend='smallcaps'>i.</hi></cell><cell>(Pepi <hi rend='smallcaps'>i.</hi>), 20 yrs.</cell><cell>Phios</cell></row> +<row><cell>4.</cell><cell>Mer-n-Ra Miht-m-saf <hi rend='smallcaps'>i.</hi></cell><cell>Mer-n-Ra <hi rend='smallcaps'>i.</hi></cell><cell>(Miht-m-saf <hi rend='smallcaps'>i.</hi>), 14 yrs.</cell><cell>Methousouphis</cell></row> +<row><cell>5.</cell><cell>Nefer-ka-Ra (Pepi <hi rend='smallcaps'>i.</hi>)</cell><cell>Nefer-ka-Ra</cell><cell>(Pepi <hi rend='smallcaps'>ii.</hi> ), 9 (4) yrs.</cell><cell>Phiops</cell></row> +<row><cell>6.</cell><cell>Mer-n-Ra Miht-m-saf <hi rend='smallcaps'>ii.</hi></cell><cell></cell><cell>(Miht-m-saf <hi rend='smallcaps'>ii.</hi>), 1 yr. 1 mth.</cell><cell>Menthesouphis</cell></row> +<row><cell>7.</cell><cell></cell><cell></cell><cell>Neit-aker, a queen</cell><cell>Nitokris.</cell></row> +</table> + +<p> +<hi rend='smallcaps'>Dynasties vii. and viii.</hi><note place='foot'>One of the kings of the seventh dynasty was Dad-nefer-Ra Dudu-mes, +whose name is conjoined with those of the sixth dynasty kings +at El-Kab, and who built at Gebelên.</note> +</p> + +<table rend="latexcolumns: 'p{3cm} p{3cm}'; tblcolumns: 'lw(26) lw(26)'"> +<row><cell>Turin Papyrus.</cell><cell>Abydos.</cell></row> +<row><cell>1. Nefer-ka, 2 yrs. 1 mth. 1 dy.</cell><cell>1. Nuter-ka-Ra</cell></row> +<row><cell>2. Neferus, 4 yrs. 2 mth. 1 dy.</cell><cell>2. Men-ka-Ra</cell></row> +<row><cell>3. Ab-n-Ra I., 2 yrs. 1 mth. 1 dy.</cell><cell>3. Nefer-ka-Ra <hi rend='smallcaps'>iii.</hi></cell></row> +<row><cell>4. ... 1 yr. 8 dys.</cell><cell>4. Nefer-ka-Ra <hi rend='smallcaps'>iv.</hi> Nebi</cell></row> +<row><cell>5. Ab-n-Ra <hi rend='smallcaps'>ii.</hi></cell><cell>5. Dad-ka-Ra Shema</cell></row> +<row><cell>6. Hanti</cell><cell>6. Nefer-ka-Ra <hi rend='smallcaps'>v.</hi> Khondu</cell></row> +<pb n='302'/><anchor id='Pg302'/> +<row><cell>7. Pest-sat-n-Sopd</cell><cell>7. Mer-n-Hor</cell></row> +<row><cell>8. Pait-kheps</cell><cell>8. Snefer-ka <hi rend='smallcaps'>i.</hi></cell></row> +<row><cell>9. Serhlinib.<note place='foot'>The last five names are thus given by Lauth.</note></cell><cell>9. Ka-n-Ra.</cell></row> +<row><cell></cell><cell>10. Nefer-ka-Ra <hi rend='smallcaps'>vi.</hi> Terel</cell></row> +<row><cell></cell><cell>11. Nefer-ka-Hor</cell></row> +<row><cell></cell><cell>12. Nefer-ka-Ra <hi rend='smallcaps'>vii.</hi> Pepi-Seneb</cell></row> +<row><cell></cell><cell>13. Snefer-ka <hi rend='smallcaps'>ii.</hi> Annu</cell></row> +<row><cell></cell><cell>14. [User-]kau-Ra</cell></row> +<row><cell></cell><cell>15. Nefer-kau-Ra</cell></row> +<row><cell></cell><cell>16. Nefer-kau-Hor</cell></row> +<row><cell></cell><cell>17. Nefer-ar-ka-Ra.</cell></row> +</table> + +<p> +<hi rend='smallcaps'>Dynasty ix.</hi> Monuments. +</p> + +<table rend="latexcolumns: 'p{3cm} p{3cm}'; tblcolumns: 'lw(26) lw(26)'"> +<row><cell>Khiti (or Khruti) <hi rend='smallcaps'>i.</hi> Mer-ab-Ra (the Akhthoes of Manetho)</cell><cell>Âa-hotep-Ra +Skhâ-n-Ra</cell></row> +<row><cell></cell><cell>Aah-mes(?)-Ra</cell></row> +<row><cell>Mâa-ab-Ra</cell><cell>Se-n(?)-mu-Ra<note place='foot'>The names of these six kings are found only on scarabs, and are +placed here by Professor Petrie.</note></cell></row> +<row><cell>Khâ-user-Ra</cell></row> +</table> + +<p> +<hi rend='smallcaps'>Dynasty x.</hi> +</p> + +<table rend="latexcolumns: 'p{3cm} p{3cm}'; tblcolumns: 'lw(26) lw(26)'"> +<row><cell>Monuments.</cell><cell>Turin Papyrus.</cell></row> +<row><cell>Mer-ka-Ra</cell></row> +<row><cell></cell></row> +<row><cell>Nefer-hepu-Ra</cell></row> +<row><cell></cell><cell>Nefer-ka-Ra</cell></row> +<pb n='303'/><anchor id='Pg303'/> +<row><cell>Ra-hotep-ab Amu-si-Hor-nez-hirtef</cell><cell>Khiti <hi rend='smallcaps'>ii.</hi></cell></row> +<row><cell></cell><cell>Se-heru-herri</cell></row> +<row><cell></cell><cell>[Ameni?]<note place='foot'>Ameni is mentioned in a papyrus along with Khiti.</note></cell></row> +<row><cell></cell><cell>Mer ...</cell></row> +<row><cell></cell><cell>Meh ...</cell></row> +<row><cell></cell><cell>Hu ...<note place='foot'>According to Lauth, the Turin papyrus gives nineteen kings to the +tenth dynasty, and 185 years.</note></cell></row> +</table> + +<p> +<hi rend='smallcaps'>Dynasty xi.</hi><note place='foot'>According to Petrie's arrangement. Lieblein further includes in the +dynasty, Ra-snefer-ka, Ra ..., User-n-Ra, Neb-nem-Ra, and An-âa.</note> +</p> + +<table rend="latexcolumns: 'p{3cm} p{3cm}'; tblcolumns: 'lw(26) lw(26)'"> +<row><cell>Karnak.</cell><cell>Other Monuments.</cell></row> +<row><cell>1. Antef <hi rend='smallcaps'>I.</hi>, Prince (of Thebes)</cell><cell>Seshes-Hor-ap-mâa-Ra Antuf-Aa</cell></row> +<row><cell>2. Men[tu-hotep <hi rend='smallcaps'>i.</hi>] the Pharaoh</cell><cell>Neb-hotep Mentu-hotep <hi rend='smallcaps'>i.</hi></cell></row> +<row><cell>3. Antef <hi rend='smallcaps'>ii.</hi></cell><cell>Uah-ânkh [Ter?]-seshes ap-mâa-Ra +Antef-Aa, his son</cell></row> +<row><cell>4. Antef <hi rend='smallcaps'>iii.</hi></cell><cell>Seshes-herher-mâa-Ra Antef, his +brother</cell></row> +<row><cell>5.</cell><cell>Nuter-nefer Neb-taui-Ra Mentu-hotep +<hi rend='smallcaps'>ii.</hi></cell></row> +<row><cell>6. Antef <hi rend='smallcaps'>iv.</hi></cell><cell>Nub-kheper-Ra Antauf (more than +50 yrs.)</cell></row> +<row><cell>7. Neb-[khru]-Ra</cell><cell>Neb-khru-Ra Mentu-hotep <hi rend='smallcaps'>iii.</hi> (more +than 46 yrs.)</cell></row> +<row><cell>8.</cell><cell>Queen Aah</cell></row> +<row><cell>9.</cell><cell>Antef <hi rend='smallcaps'>v.</hi> her son</cell></row> +<row><cell>10. S-ânkh-ka-Ra</cell><cell>S-ânkh-ka-Ra<note place='foot'>According to Lieblein the Turin papyrus makes the sum of the +eleventh dynasty 243 years, Neb-khru-Ra reigning 51 years.</note></cell></row> +</table> + +<pb n='304'/><anchor id='Pg304'/> + +<p> +<hi rend='smallcaps'>Dynasty xii.</hi> +</p> + +<table rend="latexcolumns: 'p{2cm} p{2cm} p{2cm}'; tblcolumns: 'lw(20) lw(20) lw(20)'"> +<row><cell>Monuments.</cell><cell>Turin Papyrus.</cell><cell>Manetho.</cell></row> +<row><cell>1. Amen-m-hat <hi rend='smallcaps'>i.</hi> S-hotep-ab-Ra alone, 20 yrs. With Usertesen <hi rend='smallcaps'>i.</hi>, 10 yrs.</cell><cell>S-hotep-ab-Ra, 19 yrs.</cell><cell>Ammenemes</cell></row> +<row><cell>2. Usertesen<hi rend='smallcaps'>i.</hi> Kheper-ka-Ra alone, 32 yrs. With Amen-m-hat <hi rend='smallcaps'>ii.</hi>, +3 yrs.</cell><cell>... 45 yrs. 7 mths.</cell><cell>Sesonkhosis</cell></row> +<row><cell>3. Amen-m-hat <hi rend='smallcaps'>ii.</hi> Nub-kau-Ra alone, 29 yrs. With Usertesen <hi rend='smallcaps'>ii.</hi>, 6 +yrs.</cell><cell>... 3[2] yrs.</cell><cell>Ammanemes</cell></row> +<row><cell>4. Usertesen <hi rend='smallcaps'>ii.</hi> Khâ-kheper-Ra</cell><cell>... 19 yrs.</cell><cell>Sesostris</cell></row> +<row><cell>5. Usertesen <hi rend='smallcaps'>iii.</hi> Khâ-kau-Ra (more than 26 yrs.)</cell><cell>... 3[8] yrs.</cell><cell>Lakhares</cell></row> +<row><cell>6. Amen-m-hat <hi rend='smallcaps'>iii.</hi> Mâat-n-Ra, 43 yrs.</cell><cell>... 4[3] yrs.</cell><cell>Ammeres</cell></row> +<row><cell>7. Amen-m-hat <hi rend='smallcaps'>iv.</hi> Mâ-khru-Ra</cell><cell>Mâ-khru-[Ra], 9 yrs. 3 mths. 27 dys.</cell><cell>Ammenemes</cell></row> +<row><cell>8. Sebek-nefru-Ra (a queen)</cell><cell>Sebek-nefru-Ra, 3 yrs. 10 mths. 24 dys.</cell><cell>Skemiophris</cell></row> +<row><cell></cell><cell>Sum of years of +twelfth dynasty: +213 years 1 mth. +17 days.</cell></row> +</table> + +<pb n='305'/><anchor id='Pg305'/> + +<p> +<hi rend='smallcaps'>Dynasties xiii.</hi> and <hi rend='smallcaps'>xiv.</hi> +Turin Papyrus.<note place='foot'>According to Brugsch.</note> +</p> + +<lg> +<l>1. Sebek-hotep <hi rend='smallcaps'>i.</hi> [Sekhem]-khu-taui-Ra (son of Sebek-nefru-Ra), +1 yr. 3 mths. 24 dys.</l> +<l>2. Sekhem-ka-Ra, 6 yrs.</l> +<l>3. Ra Amen-m-hat <hi rend='smallcaps'>v.</hi></l> +<l>4. S-hotep-ab-Ra <hi rend='smallcaps'>ii.</hi></l> +<l>5. Aufni, 2 yrs.</l> +<l>6. S-ânkh-ab-Ra [Ameni Antuf Amen-m-hat], 1 yr.</l> +<l>7. S-men-ka-Ra</l> +<l>8. S-hotep-ab-Ra <hi rend='smallcaps'>iii.</hi></l> +<l>9. S-ânkh-ka-Ra</l> +<l>10, 11. Destroyed</l> +<l>12. Nezem-ab-Ra</l> +<l>13. Ra-Sebek-hotep <hi rend='smallcaps'>ii.</hi></l> +<l>14. Ran-seneb</l> +<l>15. Autu-ab-Ra <hi rend='smallcaps'>i.</hi> (Hor)<note place='foot'>His name has been found by Mr. de Morgan at Dahshûr.</note></l> +<l>16. Sezef-[ka]-Ra</l> +<l>17. Sekhem-khu-taui-Ra <hi rend='smallcaps'>ii.</hi> Sebek-hotep <hi rend='smallcaps'>iii.</hi></l> +<l>18. User-n-Ra</l> +<l>19. S-menkh-ka-Ra Mer-menfiu</l> +<l>20. ... ka-Ra</l> +<l>21. S-user-set-Ra</l> +<l>22. Sekhem-uaz-taui-Ra Sebek-hotep <hi rend='smallcaps'>iv.</hi></l> +<l>23. Khâ-seshesh-Ra Nefer-hotep, son of Ha-ânkh-f</l> +<l>24. Si-Hathor-Ra</l> +<l>25. Khâ-nefer-Ra Sebek-hotep <hi rend='smallcaps'>v.</hi></l> +<l>26. [Khâ-ka-Ra]</l> +<l>27. [Khâ-ânkh-Ra Sebek-hotep <hi rend='smallcaps'>vi.</hi>]</l> +<l>28. Khâ-hotep-Ra Sebek-hotep <hi rend='smallcaps'>vii.</hi>, 4 yrs. 8 mths. 29 dys.</l> +<l>29. Uab-Ra Aa-ab, 10 yrs. 8 mths. 29 dys.</l> +<l>30. Mer-nefer-Ra Ai, 23 yrs.<note place='foot'>According to Maspero, thirteen years.</note> 8 mths. 18 dys.</l> +<l>31. Mer-hotep-Ra Ana, 2 yrs. 2 mths. 9 dys.</l> +<l>32. S-ânkh-n-s-uaztu-Ra, 3 yrs. 2 mths.</l> +<l>33. Mer-sekhem-Ra Anran,<note place='foot'>Maspero: Andû.</note> 3 yrs. 1 mth.</l> +<l>34. S-uaz-ka-Ra Ur, 5 yrs. ... mth. 8 dys.</l> +<l>35. Anemen ... Ra</l> +<pb n='306'/><anchor id='Pg306'/> +<l>36-46. Destroyed</l> +<l>47. Mer-kheper-Ra</l> +<l>48. Mer-kau-Ra Sebek-hotep <hi rend='smallcaps'>viii.</hi></l> +<l>49-53. Destroyed</l> +<l>54. ... mes-Ra</l> +<l>55. ... mât-Ra Aba</l> +<l>56. Nefer-uben-Ra <hi rend='smallcaps'>i.</hi></l> +<l>57. ... ka-Ra</l> +<l>58. S-uaz-n-Ra.</l> +<l>59-60. Destroyed</l> +<l>61. Nehasi-Ra<note place='foot'>Monuments of Nehasi, <q>the negro,</q> have been found at Tel +Mokdam and San.</note></l> +<l>62. Khâ-khru-Ra</l> +<l>63. Neb-f-autu-Ra, 2 yrs. 5 mths. 15 dys.</l> +<l>64. S-heb-Ra, 3 yrs.</l> +<l>65. Mer-zefa-Ra, 3 yrs.</l> +<l>66. S-uaz-ka-Ra, 1 yr.</l> +<l>67. Neb-zefa-Ra, 1 yr.</l> +<l>68. Uben-Ra <hi rend='smallcaps'>i.</hi></l> +<l>69-70. Destroyed</l> +<l>71. [Neb-]zefa-Ra <hi rend='smallcaps'>ii.</hi>, 4 yrs.</l> +<l>72. [Nefer-]Uben-Ra <hi rend='smallcaps'>ii.</hi></l> +<l>73. Autu-ab-Ra <hi rend='smallcaps'>ii.</hi></l> +<l>74. Her-ab-Ra</l> +<l>75. Neb-sen-Ra</l> +<l>76-79. Destroyed</l> +<l>80. S-kheper-n-Ra</l> +<l>81. Dad-khru-Ra</l> +<l>82. S-ânkh-ka-Ra</l> +<l>83. Nefer-tum-Ra</l> +<l>84. Sekhem ... Ra</l> +<l>85. Ka ... Ra</l> +<l>86. Nefer-ab-Ra</l> +<l>87. A ... ka-Ra</l> +<l>88. Khâ ... Ra, 2 yrs.</l> +<l>89. Nez-ka ... Ra</l> +<l>90. S-men ... Ra</l> +<l>91-111. Destroyed.</l> +<l>112. Sekhem ... Ra</l> +<l>113. Sekhem ... Ra</l> +<l>114. Sekhem-us ... Ra</l> +<l>115. Sesen ... Ra</l> +<l>116. Neb-ati-uzu-Ra</l> +<l>117. Neb-aten-uzu-Ra</l> +<l>118. S-men-ka-Ra</l> +<l>119. S-user-[aten]-Ra</l> +<l>120. Khâ-sekhem-[hent]-Ra</l> +<l>Some 37 more names are illegible.</l> +</lg> + +<p> +[<hi rend='smallcaps'>Dynasties xiii.</hi> and <hi rend='smallcaps'>xiv.</hi> +Karnak. +</p> + +<lg> +<l>1. ... ka.</l> +<l>2. S-uaz-n-Ra (Nefer-ka-Ra)</l> +<l>3. S-ankh-ab-Ra (T. P. 6)</l> +<l>4. Sekhem-khu-taui-Ra (T. P. 17)</l> +<pb n='307'/><anchor id='Pg307'/> +<l>5. Sekhem-s-uaz-taui-Ra. (T. P. 22)</l> +<l>6. Khâ-seshesh-Ra (T. P. 23)</l> +<l>7. Khâ-nefer-Ra (T. P. 25)</l> +<l>8. Khâ-ka-Ra (T. P. 26)</l> +<l>9. Khâ-ânkh-Ra (T. P. 27)</l> +<l>10. Kha-hotep-Ra</l> +<l>11. S-nefer-Ra</l> +<l>12. ... Ra</l> +<l>13. Ses-user-taui-Ra</l> +<l>14. Mer-sekhem-Ra</l> +<l>15. Sekhem-uaz-khâu-Ra (Sebek-m-saf <hi rend='smallcaps'>i.</hi>)</l> +<l>16. S-uah-n-Ra</l> +<l>17. [Sekhem]-uah-khâu-Ra (Sebek-m-saf <hi rend='smallcaps'>ii.</hi>)</l> +<l>18. Za ... Ra</l> +<l>19. S-uaz-n-Ra</l> +<l>20. S-nefer ... Ra</l> +<l>21. ... Ra.</l> +</lg> + +<p> +Other Monuments. +</p> + +<lg> +<l>Men-khâu-Ra An-ab</l> +<l>Sekhem-ap-taui-Ra</l> +<l>Nefer-kheper-ka-Ra</l> +<l>Mut-r-ka-n-Ra</l> +<l>Ta-neb-n-Ra</l> +<l>Sekhem-nefer-khâu-Ra Apheru-m-saf</l> +<l>Mâa-nt-n-Ra Ter-n-Ra</l> +<l>Senb-in-mâ</l> +<l>Uazd</l> +<l>Khâ-nefrui</l> +<l>Men-nefer-Ra (Menophres)</l> +<l>Sekhem-sheddi-taui-Ra Sebek-m-saf <hi rend='smallcaps'>ii.</hi></l> +<l>Ra-seshes-men-taui Tehuti].</l> +</lg> + +<p> +<hi rend='smallcaps'>Dynasties xv.</hi> and <hi rend='smallcaps'>xvi.</hi> +Turin Papyrus. +</p> + +<lg> +<l>1. Abehnas ... (?)</l> +<l>2. Apepi</l> +<l>3. A ...</l> +</lg> + +<p> +Other Monuments. +</p> + +<lg> +<l>Shalati (?)</l> +<l>Banân (?)</l> +<l>Ya'qob-hal (<q>Jacob-el</q>)</l> +<l>Khian S-user-(Set-)n-Ra</l> +<l>Apepi <hi rend='smallcaps'>i.</hi> Aa-user-Ra (reigned more than 33 years)</l> +<l>Apepi <hi rend='smallcaps'>ii.</hi> Aa-ab-taui-Ra.</l> +</lg> + +<pb n='308'/><anchor id='Pg308'/> + +<p> +<hi rend='smallcaps'>Dynasty xvii.</hi> +</p> + +<lg> +<l>Skenen-Ra Taa <hi rend='smallcaps'>i.</hi> (contemporary with Apepi <hi rend='smallcaps'>ii.</hi>)</l> +<l>Skenen-Ra Taa <hi rend='smallcaps'>ii.</hi> Aa</l> +<l>Skenen-Ra Taa <hi rend='smallcaps'>iii.</hi> Ken</l> +<l>Uaz-kheper-Ra Ka-mes, and wife Aah-hotep.</l> +</lg> + +<p> +Other kings of the seventeenth dynasty were:— +</p> + +<lg> +<l>Si-pa-ar-Ahmes</l> +<l>Aah-hotep</l> +<l>S-khent-neb-Ra</l> +<l>Amen-sa</l> +<l>Kheper-ka-n-Ra</l> +<l>S-nekht-n-Ra.</l> +</lg> + +<p> +<hi rend='smallcaps'>Dynasty xviii.</hi> +</p> + +<table rend="latexcolumns: 'p{5.3cm} p{1.5cm}'; tblcolumns: 'lw(48) lw(12)'"> +<row><cell></cell><cell>Manetho.</cell></row> +<row><cell>1. Neb-pehuti-Ra Aahmes (more than 20 yrs.), and wife Nefert-ari-Aahmes<note place='foot'>In the eighteenth year of Aahmes, Queen Amen-sit is associated +with him on a stêlê found at Thebes.</note></cell><cell>Amosis</cell></row> +<row><cell>2. Ser-ka-Ra Amen-hotep <hi rend='smallcaps'>i.</hi>, his son (20 yrs. 7 mths.); his mother at first regent</cell><cell>Amenôphis <hi rend='smallcaps'>i.</hi></cell></row> +<row><cell>3. Aa-kheper-ka-Ra Tehuti-mes <hi rend='smallcaps'>i.</hi>, his son, and wife Aahmes Meri-Amen, and Queen +Amen-sit.</cell><cell>Chebron (?)</cell></row> +<row><cell>4. Aa-kheper-n-Ra Tehuti-mes <hi rend='smallcaps'>ii.</hi>, his +son (more than 9 yrs.), and wife (sister) +Hashepsu <hi rend='smallcaps'>i.</hi> Mâ-ka-Ra</cell><cell>Amensis</cell></row> +<row><cell>5. Khnum Amen Hashepsu <hi rend='smallcaps'>ii.</hi> Mâ-ka-Ra, +his sister (more than 16 yrs.)</cell><cell>Amensis (?)</cell></row> +<row><cell>6. Ra-men-kheper Tehuti-mes <hi rend='smallcaps'>iii.</hi>, her +brother, (57 yrs. 11 mths. 1 dy., <hi rend='smallcaps'>b.c.</hi> 1503, +March 20-1449, Feb. 14<note place='foot'>According to Dr. Mahler's astronomical determination. Thothmes +counted sixteen years of his sister's reign as part of his own. Hashepsu +was only his half-sister, his mother being Ast, who was probably not +of royal blood. The mother of Hashepsu was Hashepsu <hi rend='smallcaps'>i.</hi></note>)</cell><cell>Misaphris</cell></row> +<pb n='309'/><anchor id='Pg309'/> +<row><cell>7. Aa-khepru-Ra Amen-hotep <hi rend='smallcaps'>ii.</hi>, his son +(more then 5 yrs.)</cell><cell>Misphragmu-thosis</cell></row> +<row><cell>8. Men-khepru-Ra Tehuti-mes <hi rend='smallcaps'>iv.</hi>, his +son (more than 7 yrs.)</cell><cell>Touthmosis</cell></row> +<row><cell>9. Neb-mâ-Ra Amen-hotep <hi rend='smallcaps'>iii.</hi>, his son, +(more then 35 yrs.), and wife Teie</cell><cell>Amenôphis II.</cell></row> +<row><cell>10. Nefer-khepru-Ra Amen-hotep <hi rend='smallcaps'>iv.</hi> +Khu-n-aten<note place='foot'>Called Khuri[ya] in one of the Tel el-Amarna tables. Hence the +Horos of Manetho.</note>, his son (more than +17 yrs), and wife Nefrui-Thi S-âa-ka-khepru-Ra</cell><cell>Horos</cell></row> +<row><cell>11. Ankh-khepru-Ra, and wife Meri-Aten</cell><cell>Akherres</cell></row> +<row><cell>12. Tut-ânkh-Amen Khepru-neb-Ra, and wife Ankh-nes-Amen</cell><cell>Rathotis</cell></row> +<row><cell>13. Aten-Ra-nefer-nefru-mer-Aten</cell></row> +<row><cell>14. Ai Kheper-khepru-ar-mâ-Ra and wife +Thi more than 4 yrs.</cell></row> +<row><cell>15. Hor-m-hib Mi-Amen Ser-khepru-Ka +(more than 3 yrs.)</cell><cell>Armais</cell></row> +</table> + +<p> +<hi rend='smallcaps'>Dynasty xix.</hi> +</p> + +<table rend="latexcolumns: 'p{5.3cm} p{1.5cm}'; tblcolumns: 'lw(48) lw(12)'"> +<row><cell></cell><cell>Manetho.</cell></row> +<row><cell>1. Men-pehuti-Ra Ramessu <hi rend='smallcaps'>i.</hi> (more than 2 yrs.)</cell><cell>Ramesses</cell></row> +<row><cell>2. Men-mâ-Ra Seti I. Mer-n-Ptah <hi rend='smallcaps'>i.</hi> (more than +27 yrs.), and wife Tua</cell><cell>Sethos</cell></row> +<row><cell>3. User-mâ-Ra (Osymandyas) Sotep-n-Ra Ramessu <hi rend='smallcaps'>ii.</hi> +Mi-Amen (<hi rend='smallcaps'>b.c.</hi> 1348-1281)</cell></row> +<row><cell>4. Mer-n-Ptah <hi rend='smallcaps'>ii.</hi> Hotep-hi-ma Ba-n-Ra Mi-Amen</cell><cell>Ammenephthes</cell></row> +<pb n='310'/><anchor id='Pg310'/> +<row><cell>5. User-khepru-Ra Seti II. Mer-n-Ptah <hi rend='smallcaps'>iii.</hi></cell><cell>Sethos Ramesses</cell></row> +<row><cell>6. Amen-mesu Hik-An Mer-kha-Ra Sotep-n-Ra</cell><cell>Amenemes</cell></row> +<row><cell>7. Khu-n-Ra Sotep-n-Ra Mer-n-Ptah <hi rend='smallcaps'>iv.</hi> +Si-Ptah (more than 6 yrs.), and wife Ta-user</cell><cell>Thouoris</cell></row> +</table> + +<p> +<hi rend='smallcaps'>Dynasty xx.</hi> +</p> + +<lg> +<l>1. Set-nekt Merer Mi Amon (recovered +the kingdom from the Phœnician Arisu)</l> +<l>2. Ramessu <hi rend='smallcaps'>iii.</hi> Hik-An (more than 32 yrs.)</l> +<l>3. Ramessu <hi rend='smallcaps'>iv.</hi> Hik-Mâ Mi-Amen +(more than 11 yrs.)</l> +<l>4. Ramessu <hi rend='smallcaps'>v.</hi> User-mâ-s-kheper-n-Ra +Mi-Amen (more than 4 yrs.)</l> +<l>5. Ramessu <hi rend='smallcaps'>vi.</hi> Neb-mâ-Ra Mi-Amen +Amen-hir-khopesh-f (Ramessu Meri-Tum +in northern Egypt)</l> +<l>6. Ramessu <hi rend='smallcaps'>vii.</hi> At-Amen User-mâ-Ra +Mi-Amen</l> +<l>7. Ramessu <hi rend='smallcaps'>viii.</hi> Set-hir-khopesh-f Mi-Amen +User-mâ-Ra Khu-n-Amen</l> +<l>8. Ramessu <hi rend='smallcaps'>ix.</hi> Si-Ptah S-khâ-n-Ra Mi-Amen +(19 yrs.)</l> +<l>9. Ramessu <hi rend='smallcaps'>x.</hi> Nefer-ka-Ra Mi-Amen +Sotep-n-Ra (more than 10 yrs.)</l> +<l>10. Ramessu <hi rend='smallcaps'>xi.</hi> Amen-hir-khopesh-f +Kheper-mâ Ra Sotep-n-Ra</l> +<l>11. Ramessu <hi rend='smallcaps'>xii.</hi> Men-mâ-Ra Mi-Amen +Sotep-n-Ptah Khâ-m-uas (more +than 27 yrs.)</l> +</lg> + +<pb n='311'/><anchor id='Pg311'/> + +<p> +<hi rend='smallcaps'>Dynasty xxi. Illegitimate.</hi> +</p> + +<lg> +<l>1. Hir-Hor Si-Amen, High-priest of Amon at Thebes, and +wife Nezem-mut</l> +<l>2. Piankhi, High-priest, and wife Tent-Amen</l> +<l>3. Pinezem <hi rend='smallcaps'>i.</hi>, High-priest, and wife Hont-taui</l> +<l>4. Pinezem <hi rend='smallcaps'>ii.</hi>, King, and wife Mâ-ka-Ra</l> +<l>5. Men-kheper-Ra, High-priest, and wife Isis-m-kheb</l> +<l>6. Pinezem <hi rend='smallcaps'>iii.</hi>, High-priest.</l> +</lg> + +<p> +<hi rend='smallcaps'>Dynasty xxi. Legitimate.</hi> +</p> + +<table rend="latexcolumns: 'p{5.3cm} p{1.5cm}'; tblcolumns: 'lw(48) lw(12)'"> +<row><cell></cell><cell>Manetho.</cell></row> +<row><cell>1. Nes-Bindidi Mi-Amen</cell><cell>Smendes</cell></row> +<row><cell>2. P-seb-khâ-n <hi rend='smallcaps'>i.</hi> Mi-Amen +Aa-kheper-Ra Sotep-n-Amen</cell><cell>Psousennes <hi rend='smallcaps'>i.</hi></cell></row> +<row><cell>3. [Nefer-ka-Ra]</cell><cell>Nephelkheres</cell></row> +<row><cell>4. Amen-m-apt</cell><cell>Amenophthis</cell></row> +<row><cell>5.</cell><cell>Osokhor</cell></row> +<row><cell>6. Pinezem (?)</cell><cell>Psinakhes</cell></row> +<row><cell>7. Hor P-seb-khâ-n <hi rend='smallcaps'>ii.</hi></cell><cell>Psousennes <hi rend='smallcaps'>ii.</hi></cell></row> +</table> + +<p> +<hi rend='smallcaps'>Dynasty xxii.</hi> +</p> + +<table rend="latexcolumns: 'p{5.3cm} p{1.5cm}'; tblcolumns: 'lw(48) lw(12)'"> +<row><cell></cell><cell>Manetho.</cell></row> +<row><cell>1. Shashanq <hi rend='smallcaps'>i.</hi> Mi-Amen Hez-kheper-Ra +Sotep-n-Ra, son of Nemart (more than +21 yrs.), and wife Ka-râ-mât</cell><cell>Sesonkhis</cell></row> +<row><cell>2. Usarkon <hi rend='smallcaps'>i.</hi> Mi-Amen Sekhem-kheper-Ra +(married Mâ-ka-Ra, daughter of +P-seb-khâ-n <hi rend='smallcaps'>ii.</hi>)</cell><cell>Osorkon</cell></row> +<row><cell>3. Takelet <hi rend='smallcaps'>i.</hi> Mi-Amen Si-Isis User-mâ-Ra +Sotep-n-Amen (more than 23 yrs.)</cell></row> +<row><cell>4. Usarkon <hi rend='smallcaps'>ii.</hi> Mi-Amen Si-Bast +User-mâ-Ra (more than 23 yrs.)</cell></row> +<pb n='312'/><anchor id='Pg312'/> +<row><cell>5. Shashanq <hi rend='smallcaps'>ii.</hi> Mi-Amen Sekhem-kheper-Ra</cell></row> +<row><cell>6. Takelet <hi rend='smallcaps'>ii.</hi> Mi-Amen Si-Isis Hez-kheper-Ra +(more then 15 yrs.)</cell><cell>Takelothis</cell></row> +<row><cell>7. Shashanq <hi rend='smallcaps'>iii.</hi> Mi-Amen Si-Bast +User-mâ-Ra (52 yrs.)</cell></row> +<row><cell>8. Pimai Mi-Amen User-mâ-Ra Sotep-n-Amen</cell></row> +<row><cell>9. Shashanq <hi rend='smallcaps'>iv.</hi> Aa-kheper-Ra (more +than 37 yrs.)</cell></row> +</table> + +<p> +<hi rend='smallcaps'>Dynasty xxiii.</hi> +</p> + +<table rend="latexcolumns: 'p{5.3cm} p{1.5cm}'; tblcolumns: 'lw(48) lw(12)'"> +<row><cell></cell><cell>Manetho.</cell></row> +<row><cell>1. S-her-ab-Ra Petu-si-Bast</cell><cell>Petoubastes</cell></row> +<row><cell>2. Usarkon <hi rend='smallcaps'>iii.</hi> Mi-Amen Aa-kheper-Ra +Sotep-n-Amen</cell><cell>Osorkho</cell></row> +<row><cell>3. P-si-Mut User-Ra Sotep-n-Ptah</cell><cell>Psammos</cell></row> +<row><cell>4.</cell><cell>Zet.</cell></row> +</table> + +<p> +<hi rend='smallcaps'>Interregnum.</hi> +</p> + +<p> +Egypt, divided between several princes, including Tef-nekht +(Tnephakhthos), father of Bak-n-ran-f. It is overrun +by Piankhi the Ethiopian, while Usarkon <hi rend='smallcaps'>iii.</hi> reigns at +Bubastis. The son and successor of Piankhi is Mi-Amen-Nut. +</p> + +<p> +<hi rend='smallcaps'>Dynasty xxiv.</hi> +</p> + +<table rend="latexcolumns: 'p{5.3cm} p{1.5cm}'; tblcolumns: 'lw(48) lw(12)'"> +<row><cell></cell><cell>Manetho.</cell></row> +<row><cell>1. Bak-n-ran-f Uah-ka-Ra (more than +16 yrs.)<note place='foot'>There is a contract in the Louvre drawn up at Thebes in the +sixteenth year of his reign.</note></cell><cell>Bokkhoris</cell></row> +</table> + +<pb n='313'/><anchor id='Pg313'/> + +<p> +<hi rend='smallcaps'>Dynasty xxv.</hi> +</p> + +<table rend="latexcolumns: 'p{5.3cm} p{1.5cm}'; tblcolumns: 'lw(48) lw(12)'"> +<row><cell></cell><cell>Manetho.</cell></row> +<row><cell>1. Shabaka Nefer-ka-Ra, son of Kashet (12 yrs.)</cell><cell>Sabako</cell></row> +<row><cell>2. Shabataka Dad-ka-Ra</cell><cell>Sebikhos</cell></row> +<row><cell>3. Taharka Nefer-tum-khu-Ra or Tirhakah (26 yrs.)</cell><cell>Tearkos</cell></row> +</table> + +<p> +<hi rend='smallcaps'>Interregnum.</hi> +</p> + +<p> +The Assyrian conquest and division of Egypt into +twenty satrapies, <hi rend='smallcaps'>b.c.</hi> 672-660. Taharka and his successor +Urdamanu (Rud-Amen), or, as the name may also be +read, Tandamane (Tanuath-Amen), make vain attempts to +recover it. In Manetho the period is represented by +Stephinates (Sotep-n-Nit), Nekhepsos and Nekhao, the last +of whom is called in the Assyrian inscriptions Niku, the +father of Psammetikhos, and vassal-king of Memphis and +Sais. +</p> + +<p> +<hi rend='smallcaps'>Dynasty xxvi.</hi> +</p> + +<table rend="latexcolumns: 'p{5.3cm} p{1.5cm}'; tblcolumns: 'lw(48) lw(12)'"> +<row><cell></cell><cell>Manetho.</cell></row> +<row><cell>1. Psamtik <hi rend='smallcaps'>i.</hi> Uah-ab-Ra and wife +Mehet-usekh (<hi rend='smallcaps'>b.c.</hi> 664-610)</cell><cell>Psammetikhos</cell></row> +<row><cell>2. Nekau Nem-ab-Ra and wife Mi-Mut +Nit-aker (<hi rend='smallcaps'>b.c.</hi> 610-594)</cell><cell>Nekhao</cell></row> +<row><cell>3. Psamtik <hi rend='smallcaps'>ii.</hi> Nefer-ab-Ra, and wife +Nit-aker (<hi rend='smallcaps'>b.c.</hi> 594-589)</cell><cell>Psammouthis</cell></row> +<row><cell>4. Uah-ab-Ra Haa-ab-Ra and wife +Aah-hotep (<hi rend='smallcaps'>b.c.</hi> 589-570)</cell><cell>Ouaphris</cell></row> +<row><cell>5. Aah-mes Si-Nit Khnum-ab-Ra and +wife Thent-kheta (<hi rend='smallcaps'>b.c.</hi> 570-526)</cell><cell>Amosis</cell></row> +<row><cell>6. Psamtik <hi rend='smallcaps'>iii.</hi> Ankh-ka-n-Ra (<hi rend='smallcaps'>b.c.</hi> 526-525)</cell><cell>Psammekherites</cell></row> +</table> + +<pb n='314'/><anchor id='Pg314'/> + +<p> +<hi rend='smallcaps'>Dynasty xxvii.</hi> +</p> + +<table rend="latexcolumns: 'p{5.3cm} p{1.5cm}'; tblcolumns: 'lw(48) lw(12)'"> +<row><cell></cell><cell>Manetho.</cell></row> +<row><cell>1. Kambathet Sam-taui Mestu-Ra (<hi rend='smallcaps'>b.c.</hi> 525-519)</cell><cell>Kambyses</cell></row> +<row><cell>2. Ntariush <hi rend='smallcaps'>i.</hi> Settu-Ra (<hi rend='smallcaps'>b.c.</hi> 521-485)</cell><cell>Dareios <hi rend='smallcaps'>i.</hi></cell></row> +<row><cell>3. Khabbash Senen Tanen Sotep-n-Ptah (<hi rend='smallcaps'>b.c.</hi> 485)</cell></row> +<row><cell>4. Khsherish (<hi rend='smallcaps'>b.c.</hi> 484)</cell><cell>Xerxes <hi rend='smallcaps'>i.</hi></cell></row> +<row><cell>Artakhsharsha (<hi rend='smallcaps'>b.c.</hi> 465-425)</cell><cell>Artaxerxes</cell></row> +<row><cell>Ntariush Mi-Amen-Ra (<hi rend='smallcaps'>b.c.</hi> 424-405)</cell><cell>Dareios <hi rend='smallcaps'>ii.</hi></cell></row> +</table> + + +<p> +<hi rend='smallcaps'>Dynasty xxviii.</hi> +</p> + +<table rend="latexcolumns: 'p{5.3cm} p{1.5cm}'; tblcolumns: 'lw(48) lw(12)'"> +<row><cell></cell><cell>Manetho.</cell></row> +<row><cell>Amen-ar-t-rut<note place='foot'>According to Wiedemann.</note> (more than 6 yrs.), <hi rend='smallcaps'>b.c.</hi> 415</cell><cell>Amyrtaios</cell></row> +</table> + +<p> +<hi rend='smallcaps'>Dynasty xxix.</hi> +</p> + +<table rend="latexcolumns: 'p{5.3cm} p{1.5cm}'; tblcolumns: 'lw(48) lw(12)'"> +<row><cell></cell><cell>Manetho.</cell></row> +<row><cell>1. Nef-âa-rut <hi rend='smallcaps'>i.</hi> Ba-n-Ra Mi-nuteru (more than 4 yrs.)</cell><cell>Nepherites <hi rend='smallcaps'>i.</hi></cell></row> +<row><cell>2. Hakori Khnum-mâ-Ra Sotep-n-Ptah (13 yrs.)</cell><cell>Akhoris</cell></row> +<row><cell>3. P-si-Mut User-Ptah-sotep-n-Ra (1 yr.)</cell><cell>Psammouthes</cell></row> +<row><cell>4. Hor-neb-kha (1 yr.)</cell><cell>Mouthes</cell></row> +<row><cell>5. Nef-âa-rut <hi rend='smallcaps'>ii.</hi> (1 yr.)</cell><cell>Nepherites <hi rend='smallcaps'>ii.</hi></cell></row> +</table> + +<p> +<hi rend='smallcaps'>Dynasty xxx.</hi> +</p> + +<table rend="latexcolumns: 'p{5.3cm} p{1.5cm}'; tblcolumns: 'lw(48) lw(12)'"> +<row><cell></cell><cell>Manetho.</cell></row> +<row><cell>1. Nekht-Hor-hib Ra-snezem-ab Sotep-n-Anhur, +son of Nef-âa-rut <hi rend='smallcaps'>i.</hi> (9 yrs.)</cell><cell>Nektanebes <hi rend='smallcaps'>i.</hi></cell></row> +<row><cell>2. Zihu (1 yr.)</cell><cell>Teôs</cell></row> +<row><cell>3. Nekht-neb-f Kheper-ka-Ra (18 yrs.)</cell><cell>Nektanebes <hi rend='smallcaps'>ii.</hi></cell></row> +</table> + +</div> + +</div> + +<pb n='316'/><anchor id='Pg316'/> + +<div rend='page-break-before: always'> +<index index='toc'/> +<index index='pdf'/> +<head>Appendix II. Biblical Dates.</head> + +<p> +<hi rend='smallcaps'>b.c.</hi> 1348-1281. Ramses <hi rend='smallcaps'>ii.</hi>, the Pharaoh of the Oppression, and +builder of Pithom. +</p> + +<p> +<hi rend='italic'>Cir.</hi> 1200. Campaign of Ramses <hi rend='smallcaps'>iii.</hi> in Judah and Moab. +</p> + +<p> +<hi rend='italic'>Cir.</hi> 960. Solomon marries the daughter of the Tanite +Pharaoh, and receives Gezer. +</p> + +<p> +<hi rend='italic'>Cir.</hi> 925. Shishak (Shashanq <hi rend='smallcaps'>i.</hi>) invades Palestine and +takes Jerusalem. +</p> + +<p> +<hi rend='italic'>Cir.</hi> 900. Invasion of Judah by Zerah (Osorkon <hi rend='smallcaps'>ii.</hi>) +</p> + +<p> +725. Hoshea of Israel makes alliance with So of Egypt. +</p> + +<p> +720. Sargon defeats the <q>Pharaoh</q> and Sibe his general +at Raphia. +</p> + +<p> +701. Defeat of Tirhakah by Sennacherib at Eltekeh. +</p> + +<p> +674. Invasion of Egypt by Esar-haddon. +</p> + +<p> +670. Tirhakah driven from the frontier to Memphis and thence +to Ethiopia. +</p> + +<p> +668. Revolt of Egypt suppressed by Assur-bani-pal. +</p> + +<p> +665. Destruction of Thebes (No-Amon) by the Assyrians. +</p> + +<p> +609. Necho invades Asia; defeat and death of Josiah. +</p> + +<p> +605. Necho defeated at Carchemish by Nebuchadrezzar; +loss of Asiatic possessions. +</p> + +<p> +<hi rend='italic'>Cir.</hi> 585. The Jews fly to Egypt, carrying Jeremiah with them. +</p> + +<p> +567. Egypt invaded by Nebuchadrezzar. +</p> + +<pb n='317'/><anchor id='Pg317'/> + +<p> +320. Palestine seized by Ptolemy <hi rend='smallcaps'>i.</hi>; many Jews +settled by him in Egypt. +</p> + +<p> +<hi rend='italic'>Cir.</hi> 280. The Greek translation of the Old Testament +commenced. +</p> + +<p> +167. Onias permitted by Ptolemy Philometor to build +the temple at Onion. +</p> + +<p> +4. Flight of the Holy Family into Egypt. +</p> + +<p> +<hi rend='smallcaps'>a.d.</hi> 70. Vespasian orders the prefect Lupus to close the +temple at Onion. +</p> + +</div> + +<pb n='326'/><anchor id='Pg326'/> + +<div rend='page-break-before: always'> +<index index='toc'/> +<index index='pdf'/> +<head>Appendix III. The Greek Writers Upon Egypt.</head> + +<p> +(1) Hekataios of Miletos, tyrant, statesman, and writer, +<hi rend='smallcaps'>b.c.</hi> 500-480. Sent as ambassador to the Persians after the +suppression of the Ionic revolt. Travelled in Egypt as far +as Thebes. His account of Egypt contained in his great +work on geography, now lost. +</p> + +<p> +(2) Thales of Miletos, philosopher, <hi rend='smallcaps'>b.c.</hi> 500. Wrote on +the causes of the inundation of the Nile. +</p> + +<p> +(3) Hellanikos of Mytilênê, historian, <hi rend='smallcaps'>b.c.</hi> 420. Wrote +an account of Egypt and a journey to the oasis of Ammon, +now lost. +</p> + +<p> +(4) Herodotos of Halikarnassos, historian, <hi rend='smallcaps'>b.c.</hi> 445-430. +Travelled in Egypt as far as the Fayyûm. His account +of Egypt chiefly contained in the second book of his +histories. +</p> + +<p> +(5) Demokritos of Abdera, philosopher, <hi rend='smallcaps'>b.c.</hi> 405. Spent +five years in Egypt, and wrote books on geography and on +the Ethiopic hieroglyphics, now lost. +</p> + +<p> +(6) Aristagoras of Miletos, <hi rend='smallcaps'>b.c.</hi> 350. Wrote a history of +Egypt in at least two books, now lost. +</p> + +<p> +(7) Eudoxos of Knidos, philosopher. Visited Egypt in +<hi rend='smallcaps'>b.c.</hi> 358, and wrote an account of it in his work on geography, +now lost. +</p> + +<p> +(8) Leo of Pella, <hi rend='smallcaps'>b.c.</hi> 330. Wrote a book on the +Egyptian gods, now lost. +</p> + +<p> +(9) Hekataios of Abdera, <hi rend='smallcaps'>b.c.</hi> 300. Lived at the court +<pb n='327'/><anchor id='Pg327'/> +of Ptolemy <hi rend='smallcaps'>i.</hi>, travelled up the Nile and examined the +Theban temples. Wrote a history of Egypt, the first book +of which was on Egyptian philosophy, now lost. The +account of the Ramesseum (the temple of Osymandyas +or Usir-mâ-Ra) given by Diodôros is derived from his +work. +</p> + +<p> +(10) Manetho, Egyptian priest of Sebennytos, <hi rend='smallcaps'>b.c.</hi> 270. +Compiled the history of Egypt in Greek from the records +contained in the temples. Corrected many of the errors of +Herodotos, according to Josephus. The work was divided +into three parts, and Josephus quotes from it the account of +the Hyksos conquest, the list of the kings of the eighteenth +dynasty, and the Egyptian legend of the Israelitish Exodus. +An epitome of the history was probably added at the end of +the work. We know it from the list of dynasties quoted +by the Christian writers Julius Africanus (<hi rend='smallcaps'>a.d.</hi> 220) and +Eusebius, both of whom endeavoured to harmonise its +chronology with that of the Old Testament. The work of +Africanus is lost, but the list of dynasties has been preserved +by Georgios the Synkellos or Coadjutor of the +Patriarch of Constantinople (<hi rend='smallcaps'>a.d.</hi> 792), who has added two +other lists professedly from Manetho, but really from post-Christian +forgeries (<q>The Old Chronicle</q> and <q>The Book of +Sôthis</q>). Eusebius quotes from a copyist of Africanus, or +some unknown copyist of Manetho himself, and his list has +been preserved (like that of Africanus) by George the +Synkellos, as well as in an Armenian translation. Manetho +also wrote (in Greek) on Egyptian festivals and religion, but +all his works are lost. +</p> + +<p> +(11) Eratosthenes of Kyrênê, geographer, chronologist, +astronomer and mathematician, <hi rend='smallcaps'>b.c.</hi> 275-194. Librarian of +the Alexandrine Museum under Ptolemy <hi rend='smallcaps'>iv.</hi> First fixed +the latitude of places by measuring the length of the sun's +shadow at noon on the longest day in Alexandria and then +<pb n='328'/><anchor id='Pg328'/> +calculating the distance to Assuan, where there was no +shadow at all. In his work on chronology (now lost) he +gave a list of Theban kings, selected from the various +dynasties, like the lists of Karnak or Abydos. This has +been preserved, along with an attempt to translate the +meaning of the names. The translations, however, are +erroneous, as they are made from the Greek forms of the +names compared with words then current in the decaying +Egyptian of the day. +</p> + +<p> +(12) Ptolemy of Megalopolis, <hi rend='smallcaps'>b.c.</hi> 200. Wrote a history +of Ptolemy Philopator, now lost. +</p> + +<p> +(13) Kallixenos of Rhodes, <hi rend='smallcaps'>b.c.</hi> 210. Wrote a description +of Alexandria in four or more books, now lost. +</p> + +<p> +(14) Philistos of Naukratis, <hi rend='smallcaps'>b.c.</hi> 225. Wrote a description +of Naukratis, a history of Egypt in twelve books, +and an account of Egyptian religion in three books: all +lost. +</p> + +<p> +(15) Kharôn of Naukratis, <hi rend='smallcaps'>b.c.</hi> 160. Wrote on Naukratis +and on the succession of the Ptolemaic priests; the works +are lost. +</p> + +<p> +(16) Lykeas of Naukratis, <hi rend='smallcaps'>b.c.</hi> 160. Wrote an account +of Egypt, now lost. +</p> + +<p> +(17) Agatharkhides of Knidos, geographer and historian, +<hi rend='smallcaps'>b.c.</hi> 120. Gave an account of the working of the Egyptian +gold-mines (in his geographical work on the Red Sea) which +has been preserved by Photios. +</p> + +<p> +(18) Lysimakhos of Alexandria, <hi rend='smallcaps'>b.c.</hi> 50. Wrote a +history of Egypt containing the Egyptian legend of the +Hebrew Exodus, which has been preserved by Josephus. +</p> + +<p> +(19) L. Cornelius Alexander Polyhistor, <hi rend='smallcaps'>b.c.</hi> 82-60. +Wrote an account of Egypt in three books; now lost. +</p> + +<p> +(20) Diodôros of Sicily (Diodorus Siculus), historian, +travelled in Egypt, <hi rend='smallcaps'>b.c.</hi> 57, published his great historical +work, called <hi rend='italic'>Bibliothêkê</hi>, <hi rend='smallcaps'>b.c.</hi> 28. The first book of it devoted +<pb n='329'/><anchor id='Pg329'/> +to Egypt and Ethiopia. Quoted largely from Herodotos, +Hekataios of Abdera, Ephoros and other authors now lost. +We are dependent on him for a connected history of Egypt +during the Persian period. +</p> + +<p> +(21) Ptolemy of Mendes, historian, <hi rend='smallcaps'>a.d.</hi> 1. Wrote a +history of Egypt in three (?) books, now lost. +</p> + +<p> +(22) Strabo of Amasia, geographer, <hi rend='smallcaps'>a.d.</hi> 20. Travelled +in Egypt. The last (17th) book of his great work on +geography is devoted to Egypt. +</p> + +<p> +(23) Apion of El-Khargeh, grammarian and historian, +<hi rend='smallcaps'>a.d.</hi> 40. Pleaded for the Alexandrines against Philo and +the Jews before Caligula. Wrote a history of Egypt in five +books, the third of which discussed the Hebrew Exodus; +now lost. +</p> + +<p> +(24) Khairêmôn of Naukratis, stoic philosopher, <hi rend='smallcaps'>a.d.</hi> 50. +Was Nero's teacher. Wrote an account of Egypt and an +explanation of the hieroglyphics; now lost. +</p> + +<p> +(25) Josephus, son of the Jewish priest Matthias, born +<hi rend='smallcaps'>a.d.</hi> 37, received his freedom and the name of Flavius, <hi rend='smallcaps'>a.d.</hi> +69. Quotes from Manetho, Lysimakhos, etc., in his +<hi rend='italic'>Antiquities of the Jews</hi> and <hi rend='italic'>Contra Apionem</hi>. +</p> + +<p> +(26) Plutarch of Khaironeia, moralist, <hi rend='smallcaps'>a.d.</hi> 125. Wrote +at Delphi his treatise on Isis and Osiris, which is of great +value for the history of the Osiris-myth. +</p> + +<p> +(27) Ptolemy of Alexandria, geographer, <hi rend='smallcaps'>a.d.</hi> 160. +Egypt is thoroughly and scientifically treated in his great +work on geography. +</p> + +<p> +(28) St. Clement of Alexandria, head of the Alexandrine +(Christian) School, <hi rend='smallcaps'>a.d.</hi> 191-220. Many references to +Egyptian history and religion in his <hi rend='italic'>Strômateis</hi>. He divides +Egyptian writing into hieroglyphic, hieratic and epistolographic +(or demotic), the first being further divided into +alphabetic and symbolic, and the symbolic characters into +imitative, figurative and rebus-like. +</p> + +<pb n='330'/><anchor id='Pg330'/> + +<p> +(29) Julius Africanus, Christian apologist, wrote in <hi rend='smallcaps'>a.d.</hi> +221 his <hi rend='italic'>Chronology</hi>, in five books; now lost. +</p> + +<p> +(30) Porphyry of Batanea, <hi rend='smallcaps'>a.d.</hi> 233-305, wrote a history +of the Ptolemies; now lost. +</p> + +<p> +(31) Eusebios, bishop of Cæsarea, published in <hi rend='smallcaps'>a.d.</hi> 326 +his <hi rend='italic'>Chronicle</hi>, containing a list of Manetho's dynasties. The +work has been preserved in an Armenian translation. +</p> + +<p> +(32) Horapollo of Nilopolis, grammarian, <hi rend='smallcaps'>a.d.</hi> 390, wrote +a work on the hieroglyphics in Coptic, which was translated +into Greek by Philippos. Only the ideographic values of +the characters are given, but they are mostly correct. +</p> + +</div> + +<pb n='331'/><anchor id='Pg331'/> + +<div rend='page-break-before: always'> +<index index='toc'/> +<index index='pdf'/> +<head>Appendix IV. Archæological Excursions In The Delta.</head> + +<p> +(1) Tel el-Yehudîyeh or Onion.—Take the train from +Cairo at 10 <hi rend='smallcaps'>a.m.</hi>, reaching Shibîn el-Qanâter at 12.25. +Leave Shibîn el-Qanâter at 5.57 <hi rend='smallcaps'>p.m.</hi>, reaching Cairo at +6.50. Donkeys can be procured at Shibîn, but it is a +pleasant walk of a mile and a half through the fields +(towards the south-east) to the Tel. There is a <foreign rend='italic'>café</foreign> at +Shibîn adjoining the station, but it is advisable to take lunch +from Cairo. +</p> + +<p> +(2) Kôm el-Atrib or Athribis.—The mounds lie close to +the station of Benha el-´Asal, north-east of the town, and +can easily be explored between two trains. All trains +between Cairo and Alexandria stop at Benha. +</p> + +<p> +(3) Naukratis.—The mounds of Naukratis (Kôm Qa´if) +lie nearly five miles due west of the station of Teh el-Barûd +on the line between Cairo and Alexandria, where all trains +stop except the express. The first half of the walk is along +a good road under an avenue of trees, but after a village is +reached it leads through fields. Donkeys are not always +to be had at Teh el-Barûd. The low mounds west of the +station are not earlier than the Roman period. +</p> + +<p> +(4) Kanôpos or Aboukir.—A train leaves the Ramleh +station at Alexandria at 7.40 <hi rend='smallcaps'>a.m.</hi>, and reaches Aboukir +at 10.42 <hi rend='smallcaps'>a.m.</hi>, returning from Aboukir at 4.42 <hi rend='smallcaps'>p.m.</hi> It is a +short walk northwards from the station to the temple of +Zephyrion discovered by Daninos Pasha in 1891. Then +<pb n='332'/><anchor id='Pg332'/> +walk eastward along the shore, where the rocks have been +cut into baths and numerous relics of antiquity lie half-covered +by the waves. +</p> + +<p> +(5) The Monument of Darius, near Suez.—A ride of +rather more than five miles through the desert north of +Suez along the line of the Freshwater Canal brings us to the +fragments of one of the granite stelæ erected by Darius to +commemorate his re-opening of the Canal between the Red +Sea and the Nile. Traces of the cuneiform and hieroglyphic +inscriptions can still be detected upon some of +them. The stelæ were erected at certain intervals along +the line of the Canal, and the remains of three others of +them have been found, on a mound one kilometre south of +Tel el-Maskhûtah or Pithom, a little to the east of the +station of the Serapeum on the Suez Canal, and on the side +of a mound between the 61st kilometre of the Canal and +the telegraphic station of Kabret. From Ismailîyeh to Tel +el-Maskhûtah is a ride across the desert of eleven miles. +</p> + +<p> +(6) Tanis or Zoan.—The easiest way of visiting Tanis +or Sân is to sleep at Mansûrah, where there is a very +tolerable hotel, and go by the morning train (at 9.15) to +the station of Abu ´l-Shekûk, arriving there at 10.55 <hi rend='smallcaps'>a.m.</hi> +One of the small dahabiyehs which ply on the Mo'izz +canal, which passes the station and runs to Sân, should +have been previously engaged, and a servant sent with +food the day before from Mansûrah to get it ready. It is +advisable also to send cantine and bedding. A few hours +(8 to 10) will take the traveller to Sân, where he can remain +as long as he wishes. There is sufficient water in the canal +all the year round to float the dahabiyeh. On the way to +Abu ´l-Shekûk the station of Baqlîyeh is passed (at 9.41 <hi rend='smallcaps'>a.m.</hi>), +close to which (to the east) is Tel el-Baqlîyeh or Hermopolis +Parva. The twin mounds of Tmei el-Amdîd (Mendes +and Thmuis) are not far to the east of the station of +<pb n='333'/><anchor id='Pg333'/> +Simbellauên, which is reached at 10.11 <hi rend='smallcaps'>a.m.</hi> (or by the 6.45 +<hi rend='smallcaps'>a.m.</hi> train from Mansûrah at 7.30 <hi rend='smallcaps'>a.m.</hi>). Donkeys should be +telegraphed for beforehand. The great monolithic granite +shrine of Amasis still stands on the mounds. Tel en-Nebêsheh +is only eight miles south-east of Sân. +</p> + +<p> +(7) Horbêt or Pharbaithos.—Leaving Mansûrah at 9.15 +<hi rend='smallcaps'>a.m.</hi>, the train reaches Abu-Kebir at 11.55, where donkeys +can be easily procured. It is a pleasant ride of three +miles through the fields to Horbeit and the gigantic monoliths +of Nektanebo. The train leaves Abu-Kebir for +Zagazig and Cairo at 4 <hi rend='smallcaps'>p.m.</hi>, reaching Zagazig at 4.32 and +Cairo at 6.50 <hi rend='smallcaps'>p.m.</hi> +</p> + +<p> +(8) Behbit (Egyptian Hebit, Roman Iseum).—The +granite ruins of the temple of Isis, built by Ptolemy <hi rend='smallcaps'>ii.</hi>, +lie eight miles by river north of Mansûrah, and are less +than half-an-hour's walk from the eastern bank of the river. +Delicate bas-reliefs have been carved on the granite blocks. +The ruins are a favourite object of picnic parties from +Mansûrah. +</p> + +<p> +(9) Bubastis or Tel Bast.—The ruins of the ancient city +are a few minutes' walk from the railway station and can +be visited between two trains. The site of the temple is +in the middle of the mounds, the ruins of the old houses +rising up on all sides of it. There is a poor hotel in +Zagazig, kept by a Greek. +</p> + +<p> +(10) Sais or Sâ el-Hagar.—This has become difficult +of access since the construction of the railway from +Alexandria to Cairo. The nearest railway station is Kafr +ez-Zaiyât, from which it is distant (by donkey) about +five hours. The voyage by river involves the passage of +several bridges. +</p> + +<p> +(11) Tel ed-Deffeneh.—Tents and camels are necessary, +as well as drinking water, for that of the canal and Lake +Menzaleh is brackish. Either go by train to Salahîyeh +<pb n='334'/><anchor id='Pg334'/> +(leaving Cairo at 5 <hi rend='smallcaps'>p.m.</hi>, arriving at 9.35 <hi rend='smallcaps'>p.m.</hi>), or, better, sleep +at Ismailîyeh, and go thence by tramway to Kantara. The +distance across the desert to Tel ed-Deffeneh from Salahîyeh +and Kantara is about the same (eleven miles), but donkeys +are more easily procurable at Kantara than camels. At +Kantara (on the east side of the canal) are monuments and +a <foreign rend='italic'>Tel</foreign> (perhaps that of Zaru). The excursion may be combined +with one to Pelusium, passing Tel el-Hir on the way. +From Kantara to Pelusium is rather more than half-a-day's +journey. Encamp at the edge of the sand-dunes, one-and-a-half +miles from the mounds of Pelusium, walking to them +over the mud, which sometimes will not bear the weight +of a camel. No fresh water is procurable there. +</p> + +</div> + +</div> + +<pb n='335'/><anchor id='Pg335'/> + +<div rend='page-break-before: always'> +<index index='toc'/> +<index index='pdf'/> +<head>Index.</head> + +<lg> +<l>A</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l><foreign rend='italic'>abrêk</foreign>, <ref target='Pg033'>33</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Ab-sha, <ref target='Pg019'>19</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Abshadi, <ref target='Pg238'>238</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Abu, <ref target='Pg203'>203</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Abukîr, <ref target='Pg208'>208</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Abu-Simbel, <ref target='Pg048'>48</ref>, <ref target='Pg186'>186</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Abusir, <ref target='Pg240'>240</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Abutig, <ref target='Pg194'>194</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Abydos, <ref target='Pg075'>75</ref>, <ref target='Pg153'>153</ref>, <ref target='Pg186'>186</ref>, <ref target='Pg196'>196</ref>, <ref target='Pg216'>216</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Achæans, <ref target='Pg084'>84</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Adapa or Adama, <ref target='Pg066'>66</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Æginetans, <ref target='Pg214'>214</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Africanus, <ref target='Pg016'>16</ref>, <ref target='Pg040'>40</ref>, <ref target='Pg286'>286</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Ah-hotep, Queen, <ref target='Pg283'>283</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Annas el-Medîneh, <ref target='Pg036'>36</ref>, <ref target='Pg192'>192</ref>, <ref target='Pg264'>264</ref>, <ref target='Pg269'>269</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Aigyptos, <ref target='Pg206'>206</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Akhæmenes, <ref target='Pg178'>178</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Akhillas, <ref target='Pg234'>234</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Akhilleus, <ref target='Pg167'>167</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Alexander Ægos, <ref target='Pg139'>139</ref>, <ref target='Pg140'>140</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Alexander's Tomb, <ref target='Pg138'>138</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Alexandria, <ref target='Pg140'>140</ref>, <ref target='Pg147'>147</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Am, Am-pehu, <ref target='Pg236'>236</ref>, <ref target='Pg237'>237</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Amasis (Ahmes <hi rend='smallcaps'>ii.</hi>), <ref target='Pg130'>130</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>, <ref target='Pg215'>215</ref>, <ref target='Pg216'>216</ref>, <ref target='Pg230'>230</ref>, <ref target='Pg232'>232</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Ameni, <ref target='Pg094'>94</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Amenôphis <hi rend='smallcaps'>iii.</hi>, <ref target='Pg053'>53</ref>, <ref target='Pg058'>58</ref>, <ref target='Pg196'>196</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— <hi rend='smallcaps'>iv.</hi> (Khu-n-Aten), <ref target='Pg053'>53</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Amon, <ref target='Pg012'>12</ref>, <ref target='Pg053'>53</ref>, <ref target='Pg088'>88</ref>, <ref target='Pg122'>122</ref>, <ref target='Pg228'>228</ref>, <ref target='Pg242'>242</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Amon-em-hat <hi rend='smallcaps'>iii.</hi>, <ref target='Pg013'>13</ref>, <ref target='Pg189'>189</ref>, <ref target='Pg247'>247</ref>, <ref target='Pg281'>281-3</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— <hi rend='smallcaps'>iv.</hi>, <ref target='Pg208'>208</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Amorites, <ref target='Pg082'>82</ref>, <ref target='Pg088'>88</ref>, <ref target='Pg101'>101</ref>, <ref target='Pg110'>110</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Amyrtæos, <ref target='Pg178'>178</ref>, <ref target='Pg179'>179</ref>, <ref target='Pg181'>181</ref>, <ref target='Pg266'>266</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Anaxagoras, <ref target='Pg183'>183</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Antiochus, <ref target='Pg153'>153</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Anthylla, <ref target='Pg215'>215</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Anysis, <ref target='Pg204'>204</ref>, <ref target='Pg266'>266</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Apis, <ref target='Pg118'>118</ref>, <ref target='Pg223'>223</ref>, <ref target='Pg261'>261</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Apopi, <ref target='Pg015'>15</ref>, <ref target='Pg023'>23</ref>, <ref target='Pg042'>42</ref>, <ref target='Pg045'>45</ref>, <ref target='Pg228'>228</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<anchor id='Index-Apries'/> +<l>Apries, <ref target='Pg128'>128</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>, <ref target='Pg216'>216</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Arabian nome, <ref target='Pg236'>236</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Arabians, <ref target='Pg276'>276</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Arad, <ref target='Pg108'>108</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Aram-Naharaim (Mitanni), <ref target='Pg058'>58</ref>, <ref target='Pg082'>82</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Arioch, <ref target='Pg001'>1</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Armais (Hor-m-hib), <ref target='Pg073'>73</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Arisu, <ref target='Pg084'>84</ref>, <ref target='Pg094'>94</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Arkhandropolis, <ref target='Pg215'>215</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Arsaphes (Her-shef), <ref target='Pg270'>270</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Arvad, <ref target='Pg081'>81</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Ashdod, <ref target='Pg125'>125</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Ashkelon, <ref target='Pg090'>90</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Ashmunên, <ref target='Pg268'>268</ref>, <ref target='Pg269'>269</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Ashtoreth, <ref target='Pg242'>242</ref>, <ref target='Pg252'>252</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Asshurim, <ref target='Pg081'>81</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Assur-bani-pal, <ref target='Pg118'>118</ref>, <ref target='Pg120'>120</ref>, <ref target='Pg269'>269</ref>, <ref target='Pg277'>277</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Assyria, <ref target='Pg059'>59</ref>, <ref target='Pg082'>82</ref>, <ref target='Pg275'>275</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Asykhis or Sasykhis, <ref target='Pg264'>264</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Atarbekhis, <ref target='Pg262'>262</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Aten (-Ra), <ref target='Pg055'>55</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Athêna, <ref target='Pg217'>217</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Athenians, <ref target='Pg179'>179</ref>, <ref target='Pg181'>181</ref>, <ref target='Pg238'>238</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Athribis, <ref target='Pg118'>118</ref>, <ref target='Pg276'>276</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Aupet, <ref target='Pg269'>269</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Avaris, <ref target='Pg015'>15</ref>, <ref target='Pg039'>39</ref>, <ref target='Pg041'>41</ref>, <ref target='Pg092'>92</ref>, <ref target='Pg233'>233</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<pb n='336'/><anchor id='Pg336'/> + +<lg> +<l>B</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Baba, <ref target='Pg036'>36</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Babylonians, <ref target='Pg033'>33</ref>, <ref target='Pg060'>60</ref>, <ref target='Pg061'>61</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Bagnold, Major, <ref target='Pg004'>4</ref>, <ref target='Pg247'>247</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Bah, <ref target='Pg210'>210</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Bahr Yûsuf, <ref target='Pg263'>263</ref>, <ref target='Pg264'>264</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Bashan, <ref target='Pg072'>72</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Bast, <ref target='Pg224'>224</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Bata, <ref target='Pg025'>25</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Benha, <ref target='Pg238'>238</ref>, <ref target='Pg276'>276</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Beni-Hassan, <ref target='Pg019'>19</ref>, <ref target='Pg194'>194</ref>, <ref target='Pg266'>266</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Berenikê, <ref target='Pg146'>146</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Bes, <ref target='Pg225'>225</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Biahmu, <ref target='Pg185'>185</ref>, <ref target='Pg188'>188</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Bigeh, <ref target='Pg200'>200</ref>, <ref target='Pg203'>203</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Blemmyes, <ref target='Pg167'>167</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Bokkhoris, <ref target='Pg272'>272</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Book of the Dead, <ref target='Pg222'>222</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Bouriant, M., <ref target='Pg171'>171</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Brugsch, <ref target='Pg026'>26</ref>, <ref target='Pg035'>35</ref>, <ref target='Pg077'>77</ref>, <ref target='Pg335'>335</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Bubastis, <ref target='Pg045'>45</ref>, <ref target='Pg110'>110</ref>, <ref target='Pg112'>112</ref>, <ref target='Pg193'>193</ref>, <ref target='Pg204'>204</ref>, <ref target='Pg224'>224</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>, <ref target='Pg267'>267</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Busiris, <ref target='Pg205'>205</ref>, <ref target='Pg239'>239</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Butô, <ref target='Pg193'>193</ref>, <ref target='Pg204'>204</ref>, <ref target='Pg225'>225</ref>, <ref target='Pg235'>235</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>, <ref target='Pg250'>250</ref>, <ref target='Pg267'>267</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>C</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Cæsar, <ref target='Pg165'>165</ref>, <ref target='Pg234'>234</ref>,</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Cæsarion, <ref target='Pg166'>166</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Cairo, <ref target='Pg220'>220</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Canaan, <ref target='Pg060'>60</ref>, <ref target='Pg067'>67</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— libraries in, <ref target='Pg067'>67</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>camel, <ref target='Pg021'>21</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>canal, <ref target='Pg077'>77</ref>, <ref target='Pg125'>125</ref>, <ref target='Pg146'>146</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Carchemish, <ref target='Pg126'>126</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Canopus, Decree of, <ref target='Pg150'>150</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>cats, <ref target='Pg193'>193</ref>, <ref target='Pg225'>225</ref>, <ref target='Pg230'>230</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Cilicia, <ref target='Pg081'>81</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Champollion, <ref target='Pg109'>109</ref>, <ref target='Pg238'>238</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Christianity, <ref target='Pg168'>168</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>circumnavigation of Africa, <ref target='Pg125'>125</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Cleopatra, <ref target='Pg140'>140</ref>, <ref target='Pg165'>165</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>colossus at Memphis, <ref target='Pg003'>3</ref>, <ref target='Pg247'>247</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>colossi of Fayyûm, <ref target='Pg188'>188</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Coptos, <ref target='Pg167'>167</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Coptic alphabet, <ref target='Pg169'>169</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>cuneiform, <ref target='Pg060'>60-65</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— tablets, <ref target='Pg061'>61</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Cyprian potters, <ref target='Pg236'>236</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>D</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Dahabiyeh voyage, <ref target='Pg194'>194</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Dakkeh, <ref target='Pg152'>152</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Dahshûr, <ref target='Pg204'>204</ref>, <ref target='Pg263'>263</ref>, <ref target='Pg265'>265</ref>, <ref target='Pg282'>282</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Damanhur, <ref target='Pg193'>193</ref>, <ref target='Pg204'>204</ref>, <ref target='Pg210'>210</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Danaans, <ref target='Pg086'>86</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Daninos Pasha, <ref target='Pg208'>208</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Daphnæ, <ref target='Pg129'>129</ref>, <ref target='Pg131'>131</ref>, <ref target='Pg205'>205</ref>, <ref target='Pg230'>230</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Dead Sea, <ref target='Pg087'>87</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Debod, <ref target='Pg152'>152</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>De Cara, Dr., <ref target='Pg039'>39</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>De Morgan, Mr., <ref target='Pg281'>281</ref>, <ref target='Pg300'>300</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Demetrius Phalereus, <ref target='Pg147'>147</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Denderah, <ref target='Pg197'>197</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Dêr Abu Hannes, <ref target='Pg173'>173</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Diocletian, <ref target='Pg167'>167</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Diodoros, <ref target='Pg247'>247</ref>, <ref target='Pg259'>259</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Diospolis (Thebes), <ref target='Pg163'>163</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>dreams, <ref target='Pg030'>30</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Dudu, <ref target='Pg060'>60</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>E</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Ebed-Asherah, <ref target='Pg072'>72</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Ebed-tob, <ref target='Pg071'>71</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Ecclesiasticus, <ref target='Pg145'>145</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Edom, <ref target='Pg043'>43</ref>, <ref target='Pg072'>72</ref>, <ref target='Pg088'>88</ref>, <ref target='Pg096'>96</ref>, <ref target='Pg101'>101-103</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Egypt, etymology of, <ref target='Pg004'>4</ref>, <ref target='Pg206'>206</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Ekhmîm, <ref target='Pg197'>197</ref>, <ref target='Pg235'>235</ref>, <ref target='Pg275'>275</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Elbo, <ref target='Pg266'>266</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Eleazar, <ref target='Pg148'>148</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Elephantinê, <ref target='Pg201'>201</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>El-Hibeh, <ref target='Pg105'>105</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>El-Kab, <ref target='Pg014'>14</ref>, <ref target='Pg036'>36</ref>, <ref target='Pg041'>41</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>El-Khargeh, <ref target='Pg106'>106</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<pb n='337'/><anchor id='Pg337'/> + +<lg> +<l>Eltekeh, <ref target='Pg276'>276</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Enna, <ref target='Pg025'>25</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Enoch, book of, <ref target='Pg162'>162</ref>, <ref target='Pg170'>170</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Erman, Professor, <ref target='Pg017'>17</ref>, <ref target='Pg025'>25</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Esar-haddon, <ref target='Pg113'>113</ref>, <ref target='Pg116'>116</ref>, <ref target='Pg118'>118</ref>, <ref target='Pg279'>279</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Esneh, <ref target='Pg276'>276</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Ethiopians, <ref target='Pg112'>112</ref>, <ref target='Pg122'>122</ref>, <ref target='Pg149'>149</ref>, <ref target='Pg152'>152</ref>, <ref target='Pg249'>249</ref>, <ref target='Pg266'>266</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Eusebius, <ref target='Pg017'>17</ref>, <ref target='Pg040'>40</ref>, <ref target='Pg286'>286</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Exodus, <ref target='Pg038'>38</ref>, <ref target='Pg040'>40</ref>, <ref target='Pg045'>45</ref>, <ref target='Pg051'>51</ref>, <ref target='Pg091'>91</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Ezer, <ref target='Pg072'>72</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>F</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Fayyûm, <ref target='Pg013'>13</ref>, <ref target='Pg137'>137</ref>, <ref target='Pg141'>141</ref>, <ref target='Pg142'>142</ref>, <ref target='Pg186'>186</ref>, <ref target='Pg188'>188</ref>, <ref target='Pg194'>194</ref>, <ref target='Pg196'>196</ref>, <ref target='Pg246'>246</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>famines, <ref target='Pg034'>34-38</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Fenkhu, <ref target='Pg107'>107</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>G</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Gardner, Mr. E., <ref target='Pg212'>212</ref>, <ref target='Pg214'>214</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Gaza, <ref target='Pg080'>80</ref>, <ref target='Pg087'>87</ref>, <ref target='Pg088'>88</ref>, <ref target='Pg090'>90</ref>, <ref target='Pg095'>95</ref>, <ref target='Pg107'>107</ref>, <ref target='Pg126'>126</ref>, <ref target='Pg128'>128</ref>, <ref target='Pg139'>139</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Gebal (Byblos), <ref target='Pg072'>72</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Gebel Abu Foda, <ref target='Pg194'>194</ref>, <ref target='Pg271'>271</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Gebelên, <ref target='Pg105'>105</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Gezer, <ref target='Pg105'>105</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Goshen, <ref target='Pg043'>43</ref>, <ref target='Pg044'>44</ref>, <ref target='Pg096'>96</ref>, <ref target='Pg120'>120</ref>, <ref target='Pg236'>236</ref>.</l> 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target='Pg087'>87</ref>, <ref target='Pg089'>89</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Hekatæos, <ref target='Pg176'>176</ref>, <ref target='Pg177'>177</ref>, <ref target='Pg183'>183</ref>, <ref target='Pg186'>186</ref>, <ref target='Pg223'>223</ref>, <ref target='Pg237'>237</ref>, <ref target='Pg285'>285</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Helen, <ref target='Pg251'>251</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Heliopolis, <ref target='Pg204'>204</ref>, <ref target='Pg220'>220</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>, <ref target='Pg240'>240</ref>, <ref target='Pg250'>250</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Hellanikos, <ref target='Pg183'>183</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Hellenion, <ref target='Pg213'>213</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>helmet, bronze, <ref target='Pg283'>283</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Hephæstion, <ref target='Pg138'>138</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Herakleopolis (Ahnas), <ref target='Pg192'>192</ref>, <ref target='Pg195'>195</ref>, <ref target='Pg204'>204</ref>, <ref target='Pg264'>264</ref>, <ref target='Pg270'>270-271</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Hermes, <ref target='Pg227'>227</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Hermopolis, <ref target='Pg193'>193</ref>, <ref target='Pg204'>204</ref>, <ref target='Pg210'>210</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Her-shef (Arsaphes), <ref target='Pg270'>270</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Hezekiah, <ref target='Pg115'>115</ref>, <ref target='Pg276'>276</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Hierakon, <ref target='Pg194'>194</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Hininsu (Ahnas), <ref target='Pg264'>264</ref>, <ref target='Pg267'>267</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>hippopotamus, <ref target='Pg177'>177</ref>, <ref target='Pg193'>193</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Hittites, <ref target='Pg063'>63</ref>, <ref target='Pg074'>74</ref>, <ref target='Pg082'>82</ref>, <ref target='Pg086'>86</ref>, <ref target='Pg088'>88</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Homer, <ref target='Pg182'>182</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Hont-mâ-Ra, <ref target='Pg208'>208</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Hophra, <hi rend='italic'>see</hi> <ref target='Index-Apries'>Apries</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Hor-m-hib, <ref target='Pg073'>73</ref>, <ref target='Pg075'>75</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Horus, <ref target='Pg201'>201</ref>, <ref target='Pg222'>222</ref>, <ref target='Pg235'>235</ref>, <ref target='Pg237'>237</ref>, <ref target='Pg275'>275</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Howâra, <ref target='Pg191'>191</ref>, <ref target='Pg265'>265</ref>, <ref target='Pg281'>281</ref>, <ref target='Pg283'>283</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Huseyn, feast of, <ref target='Pg239'>239</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Hyksos, <ref target='Pg014'>14</ref>, <ref target='Pg023'>23</ref>, <ref target='Pg038'>38</ref>, <ref target='Pg039'>39</ref>, <ref target='Pg040'>40</ref>, <ref target='Pg042'>42</ref>, <ref target='Pg227'>227</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Hypatia, <ref target='Pg170'>170</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>I</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Iannas, <ref target='Pg228'>228</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>ibises, <ref target='Pg193'>193</ref>, <ref target='Pg210'>210</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Illahun, <ref target='Pg263'>263</ref>, <ref target='Pg265'>265</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Inaros, <ref target='Pg178'>178</ref>, <ref target='Pg181'>181</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>inundation, <ref target='Pg184'>184</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Ionians, <ref target='Pg213'>213</ref>, <ref target='Pg230'>230</ref>, <ref target='Pg280'>280</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Isis, <ref target='Pg219'>219</ref>, <ref target='Pg235'>235</ref>, <ref target='Pg239'>239</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Istar, <ref target='Pg277'>277</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>J</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Jaddua, <ref target='Pg144'>144</ref>, <ref target='Pg150'>150</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<pb n='338'/><anchor id='Pg338'/> + +<lg> +<l>Jason, <ref target='Pg156'>156</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Jerahmeel, <ref target='Pg108'>108</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Jeroboam, <ref target='Pg106'>106</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Jerusalem, <ref target='Pg071'>71</ref>, <ref target='Pg080'>80</ref>, <ref target='Pg087'>87</ref>, <ref target='Pg106'>106</ref>, <ref target='Pg116'>116</ref>, <ref target='Pg126'>126</ref>, <ref target='Pg127'>127</ref>, <ref target='Pg134'>134</ref>, <ref target='Pg139'>139</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Jews, <ref target='Pg141'>141</ref>, <ref target='Pg144'>144</ref>, <ref target='Pg148'>148</ref>, <ref target='Pg152'>152</ref>, <ref target='Pg153'>153</ref>, <ref target='Pg155'>155</ref>, <ref target='Pg159'>159</ref>, <ref target='Pg162'>162</ref>, <ref target='Pg164'>164</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Joseph, <ref target='Pg024'>24</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>, <ref target='Pg093'>93</ref>, <ref target='Pg221'>221</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Josiah, <ref target='Pg126'>126</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Judah, <ref target='Pg087'>87</ref>, <ref target='Pg088'>88</ref>, <ref target='Pg107'>107</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>K</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Kadesh, <ref target='Pg082'>82</ref>,</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Kambyses, <ref target='Pg132'>132</ref>, <ref target='Pg149'>149</ref>, <ref target='Pg262'>262</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Ka-meri-Ra, <ref target='Pg011'>11</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Kanôpos, <ref target='Pg207'>207-209</ref>, <ref target='Pg235'>235</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Kanôpic arm of Nile, <ref target='Pg206'>206</ref>, <ref target='Pg209'>209</ref>, <ref target='Pg211'>211</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Karians, <ref target='Pg123'>123</ref>, <ref target='Pg183'>183</ref>, <ref target='Pg187'>187</ref>, <ref target='Pg218'>218</ref>, <ref target='Pg230'>230</ref>, <ref target='Pg239'>239</ref>, <ref target='Pg242'>242</ref>, <ref target='Pg254'>254</ref>, <ref target='Pg280'>280</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Kafr el-Ayyât, <ref target='Pg245'>245</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Kellogg, Dr., <ref target='Pg099'>99</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Kerkasoros, <ref target='Pg185'>185</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Khabiri, <ref target='Pg071'>71</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Khabbash, <ref target='Pg134'>134</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Khal, <ref target='Pg072'>72</ref>, <ref target='Pg100'>100</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Khaf-Ra (Khephren), <ref target='Pg256'>256</ref>, <ref target='Pg259'>259</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Kheb, <ref target='Pg235'>235</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Khemmis, <ref target='Pg197'>197</ref>, <ref target='Pg235'>235</ref>, <ref target='Pg237'>237</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Kheops (Khufu), <ref target='Pg008'>8</ref>, <ref target='Pg227'>227</ref>, <ref target='Pg256'>256</ref>, <ref target='Pg258'>258</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Khephren (Khaf-Ra), <ref target='Pg256'>256</ref>, <ref target='Pg259'>259</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Kheti-ti, <ref target='Pg276'>276</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Khian (Iannas), <ref target='Pg228'>228</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Khita-sir, <ref target='Pg082'>82</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Khiti, <ref target='Pg271'>271</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Khri-Ahu, <ref target='Pg220'>220</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Khu-n-Aten (Amenôphis <hi rend='smallcaps'>iv.</hi>), <ref target='Pg053'>53</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Kimon, <ref target='Pg179'>179</ref>, <ref target='Pg181'>181</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Kirjath-sepher, <ref target='Pg067'>67</ref>, <ref target='Pg068'>68</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Kleomenes, <ref target='Pg137'>137</ref>, <ref target='Pg138'>138</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Klysma, <ref target='Pg269'>269</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Kokkê (Cleopatra), <ref target='Pg161'>161</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Kom el-Ahmar, <ref target='Pg250'>250</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Kôm Qa'if, <ref target='Pg211'>211</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Krophi, <ref target='Pg199'>199-201</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Ktêsias, <ref target='Pg285'>285</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Kyrênê, <ref target='Pg130'>130</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>L</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Labai, <ref target='Pg071'>71</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Labyrinth, <ref target='Pg186'>186</ref>, <ref target='Pg273'>273</ref>, <ref target='Pg279'>279</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Leku, <ref target='Pg084'>84</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Leontopolis, <ref target='Pg158'>158</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Lepsius, <ref target='Pg076'>76</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Leto, <ref target='Pg235'>235</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Libyans, <ref target='Pg084'>84</ref>, <ref target='Pg106'>106</ref>, <ref target='Pg123'>123</ref>, <ref target='Pg130'>130</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Lisht, <ref target='Pg191'>191</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>M</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Maccabees, the, <ref target='Pg160'>160</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Mafkat (Sinai), <ref target='Pg254'>254</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Mahanaim, <ref target='Pg108'>108</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Mahler, Professor, <ref target='Pg017'>17</ref>, <ref target='Pg308'>308</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Maindes, <ref target='Pg281'>281</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Manasseh, <ref target='Pg116'>116</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Manetho, <ref target='Pg014'>14</ref>, <ref target='Pg016'>16</ref>, <ref target='Pg018'>18</ref>, <ref target='Pg073'>73</ref>, <ref target='Pg092'>92</ref>, <ref target='Pg100'>100</ref>, <ref target='Pg148'>148</ref>, <ref target='Pg228'>228</ref>, <ref target='Pg257'>257</ref>, <ref target='Pg272'>272</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Mariette, <ref target='Pg039'>39</ref>, <ref target='Pg078'>78</ref>, <ref target='Pg245'>245</ref>, <ref target='Pg283'>283</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Mark Antony, <ref target='Pg166'>166</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Maspero, Professor, <ref target='Pg039'>39</ref>, <ref target='Pg107'>107</ref>, <ref target='Pg191'>191</ref>, <ref target='Pg271'>271</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Master-thief, tale of, <ref target='Pg253'>253</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Maxyes, <ref target='Pg084'>84</ref>, <ref target='Pg085'>85</ref>, <ref target='Pg087'>87</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Medînet Habu, <ref target='Pg087'>87</ref>, <ref target='Pg089'>89</ref>, <ref target='Pg102'>102</ref>, <ref target='Pg253'>253</ref>, <ref target='Pg254'>254</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Mêdum, <ref target='Pg007'>7</ref>, <ref target='Pg263'>263</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Megabyzos, <ref target='Pg179'>179</ref>, <ref target='Pg181'>181</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Megabazus, <ref target='Pg238'>238</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Megiddo, <ref target='Pg072'>72</ref>, <ref target='Pg107'>107</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Melchizedek, <ref target='Pg071'>71</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Memnon, <ref target='Pg196'>196</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Memphis, <ref target='Pg002'>2</ref>, <ref target='Pg005'>5</ref>, <ref target='Pg041'>41</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>, <ref target='Pg219'>219</ref>, <ref target='Pg242'>242</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Mendes, <ref target='Pg239'>239</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Menelaus (the Jew), <ref target='Pg153'>153</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Menelaite nome, <ref target='Pg235'>235</ref>, <ref target='Pg237'>237</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Menes, <ref target='Pg002'>2</ref>, <ref target='Pg190'>190</ref>, <ref target='Pg244'>244</ref>, <ref target='Pg246'>246</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<pb n='339'/><anchor id='Pg339'/> + +<lg> +<l>Meneptah, <ref target='Pg040'>40</ref>, <ref target='Pg043'>43</ref>, <ref target='Pg045'>45</ref>, <ref target='Pg049'>49</ref>, <ref target='Pg083'>83</ref>, <ref target='Pg092'>92</ref>, <ref target='Pg096'>96</ref>, <ref target='Pg097'>97</ref>, <ref target='Pg270'>270</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Menshîyeh (Ptolemais), <ref target='Pg143'>143</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Menzaleh, Lake, <ref target='Pg231'>231</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Menûf, <ref target='Pg238'>238</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Mer-ka-Ra, <ref target='Pg271'>271</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Merom, <ref target='Pg080'>80</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Messianic prophecy, <ref target='Pg094'>94</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>mice, <ref target='Pg193'>193</ref>, <ref target='Pg275'>275</ref>, <ref target='Pg276'>276</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Miletus, <ref target='Pg126'>126</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Milesians, <ref target='Pg214'>214</ref>, <ref target='Pg215'>215</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Min, <ref target='Pg197'>197</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Mitanni (Aram Naharaim), <ref target='Pg058'>58</ref>, <ref target='Pg082'>82</ref>, <ref target='Pg088'>88</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Mnevis, <ref target='Pg222'>222</ref>, <ref target='Pg240'>240</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Moab, <ref target='Pg081'>81</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l><hi rend='italic'>Mohar, Travels of a</hi>, <ref target='Pg068'>68</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Moph (Memphis), <ref target='Pg003'>3</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Mophi, <ref target='Pg201'>201</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Mœris, <ref target='Pg188'>188</ref>, <ref target='Pg189'>189</ref>, <ref target='Pg246'>246</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>, <ref target='Pg273'>273</ref>, <ref target='Pg283'>283</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Museum, the, <ref target='Pg141'>141</ref>, <ref target='Pg147'>147</ref>, <ref target='Pg165'>165</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Mut, <ref target='Pg201'>201</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Mykerinos (Men-ka-Ra), <ref target='Pg256'>256</ref>, <ref target='Pg259'>259</ref>, <ref target='Pg264'>264</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>N</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Nahum, <ref target='Pg121'>121</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>name, change of, <ref target='Pg031'>31</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Napata, <ref target='Pg112'>112</ref>, <ref target='Pg119'>119</ref>, <ref target='Pg268'>268</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Naville, Dr., <ref target='Pg043'>43</ref>, <ref target='Pg044'>44</ref>, <ref target='Pg076'>76</ref>, <ref target='Pg078'>78</ref>, <ref target='Pg110'>110</ref>, <ref target='Pg158'>158</ref>, <ref target='Pg211'>211</ref>, <ref target='Pg225'>225</ref>, <ref target='Pg226'>226</ref>, <ref target='Pg270'>270</ref>, <ref target='Pg271'>271</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Naukratis, <ref target='Pg131'>131</ref>, <ref target='Pg132'>132</ref>, <ref target='Pg204'>204</ref>, <ref target='Pg209'>209</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>, <ref target='Pg232'>232</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Neapolis (Qeneh), <ref target='Pg197'>197</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Nebuchadrezzar, <ref target='Pg127'>127</ref>, <ref target='Pg129'>129</ref>, <ref target='Pg130'>130</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Necho of Sais, <ref target='Pg117'>117</ref>, <ref target='Pg118'>118</ref>, <ref target='Pg120'>120</ref>, <ref target='Pg278'>278</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— <hi rend='smallcaps'>ii.</hi>, <ref target='Pg125'>125</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Neferu-Ptah, <ref target='Pg281'>281</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Neit, <ref target='Pg199'>199</ref>, <ref target='Pg216'>216</ref>, <ref target='Pg218'>218</ref>, <ref target='Pg253'>253</ref>, <ref target='Pg260'>260</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Nektanebo <hi rend='smallcaps'>i.</hi>, <ref target='Pg229'>229</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— <hi rend='smallcaps'>ii.</hi>, <ref target='Pg135'>135</ref>, <ref target='Pg211'>211</ref>, <ref target='Pg221'>221</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Nikanor, <ref target='Pg139'>139</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Nikiu, <ref target='Pg238'>238</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Nile, <ref target='Pg031'>31</ref>, <ref target='Pg034'>34</ref>, <ref target='Pg183'>183</ref>, <ref target='Pg184'>184</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— sources of, <ref target='Pg198'>198</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Nineveh, <ref target='Pg124'>124</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Nitokris, <ref target='Pg011'>11</ref>, <ref target='Pg246'>246</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>No-Amon (Thebes), <ref target='Pg121'>121</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Noph (Memphis), <ref target='Pg003'>3</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Norden, <ref target='Pg187'>187</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Nut-Amon, <ref target='Pg030'>30</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>O</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>On (Heliopolis), <ref target='Pg031'>31</ref>, <ref target='Pg131'>131</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Onias, <ref target='Pg157'>157</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>, <ref target='Pg162'>162</ref>, <ref target='Pg250'>250</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— <hi rend='smallcaps'>ii.</hi>, <ref target='Pg151'>151</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Onion, <ref target='Pg157'>157</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Osarsiph, <ref target='Pg092'>92</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Osiris, <ref target='Pg216'>216</ref>, <ref target='Pg239'>239</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Osorkon <hi rend='smallcaps'>i.</hi>, <ref target='Pg227'>227</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— <hi rend='smallcaps'>ii.</hi>, <ref target='Pg110'>110</ref>, <ref target='Pg225'>225</ref>, <ref target='Pg226'>226</ref>, <ref target='Pg228'>228</ref>, <ref target='Pg268'>268</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>ostraka, <ref target='Pg144'>144</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Osymandyas, <ref target='Pg196'>196</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>P</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Pausírís, <ref target='Pg179'>179</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Papias, <ref target='Pg173'>173</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Paprêmis, <ref target='Pg178'>178</ref>, <ref target='Pg180'>180</ref>, <ref target='Pg193'>193</ref>, <ref target='Pg205'>205</ref>, <ref target='Pg238'>238</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Pa-Uaz (Butô), <ref target='Pg235'>235</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Peguath, <ref target='Pg207'>207</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Pelusiac arm of Nile, <ref target='Pg224'>224</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Pelusium, <ref target='Pg178'>178</ref>, <ref target='Pg232'>232</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Pepi <hi rend='smallcaps'>i.</hi>, <ref target='Pg227'>227</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Perdikkas, <ref target='Pg138'>138</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Pergamos, library of, <ref target='Pg166'>166</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Perseus, <ref target='Pg198'>198</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Peter, Apocalypse of St., <ref target='Pg171'>171</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— Gospel of St., <ref target='Pg171'>171</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Petrie, Professor W. F., <ref target='Pg007'>7</ref>, <ref target='Pg009'>9</ref>, <ref target='Pg011'>11</ref>, <ref target='Pg048'>48</ref>, <ref target='Pg054'>54</ref>, <ref target='Pg057'>57</ref>, <ref target='Pg065'>65</ref>, <ref target='Pg078'>78</ref>, <ref target='Pg129'>129</ref>, <ref target='Pg137'>137</ref>, <ref target='Pg185'>185</ref>, <ref target='Pg188'>188</ref>, <ref target='Pg191'>191</ref>, <ref target='Pg211'>211</ref>, <ref target='Pg230'>230</ref>, <ref target='Pg266'>266</ref>, <ref target='Pg281'>281</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Phanês, <ref target='Pg132'>132</ref>, <ref target='Pg214'>214</ref>, <ref target='Pg233'>233</ref>, <ref target='Pg234'>234</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Phakussa, <ref target='Pg043'>43</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<pb n='340'/><anchor id='Pg340'/> + +<lg> +<l>Pharaoh, meaning of, <ref target='Pg022'>22</ref>, <ref target='Pg250'>250</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Pharos, <ref target='Pg147'>147</ref>, <ref target='Pg182'>182</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Pherôn, <ref target='Pg250'>250</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Philæ, <ref target='Pg200'>200</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Philistines, <ref target='Pg080'>80</ref>, <ref target='Pg084'>84</ref>, <ref target='Pg086'>86</ref>, <ref target='Pg088'>88</ref>, <ref target='Pg090'>90</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Philotera (Qoseir), <ref target='Pg146'>146</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Phut, <ref target='Pg130'>130</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>phœnix, <ref target='Pg177'>177</ref>, <ref target='Pg223'>223</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Pi-ankhi, <ref target='Pg112'>112</ref>, <ref target='Pg268'>268</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Pi-Sopd, <ref target='Pg120'>120</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Pithom, <ref target='Pg043'>43</ref>, <ref target='Pg169'>169</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Plato, <ref target='Pg224'>224</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Plutarch, <ref target='Pg270'>270</ref>, <ref target='Pg285'>285</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Polybos, <ref target='Pg182'>182</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Polykratês, <ref target='Pg176'>176</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Pompey, <ref target='Pg164'>164</ref>, <ref target='Pg234'>234</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Potiphar, <ref target='Pg024'>24</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Probus, <ref target='Pg167'>167</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Prosôpitis, <ref target='Pg238'>238</ref>, <ref target='Pg262'>262</ref>, <ref target='Pg335'>335</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Proteus, <ref target='Pg182'>182</ref>, <ref target='Pg251'>251</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Psalms of Solomon, <ref target='Pg164'>164</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Psammetikhos <hi rend='smallcaps'>i.</hi>, <ref target='Pg118'>118</ref>, <ref target='Pg120'>120</ref>, <ref target='Pg122'>122</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>, <ref target='Pg231'>231</ref>, <ref target='Pg243'>243</ref>, <ref target='Pg278'>278</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— <hi rend='smallcaps'>ii.</hi>, <ref target='Pg127'>127</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— <hi rend='smallcaps'>iii.</hi>, <ref target='Pg132'>132</ref>, <ref target='Pg234'>234</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Ptah, <ref target='Pg004'>4</ref>, <ref target='Pg196'>196</ref>, <ref target='Pg204'>204</ref>, <ref target='Pg242'>242</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>, <ref target='Pg274'>274</ref>, <ref target='Pg279'>279</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Ptolemais, <ref target='Pg143'>143</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Ptolemy <hi rend='smallcaps'>i.</hi>, Lagos, <ref target='Pg138'>138</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— <hi rend='smallcaps'>ii.</hi>, Philadelphus, <ref target='Pg146'>146</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>, <ref target='Pg213'>213</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— <hi rend='smallcaps'>iii.</hi>, <ref target='Pg148'>148</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— <hi rend='smallcaps'>iv.</hi>, <ref target='Pg151'>151</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— <hi rend='smallcaps'>v.</hi>, <ref target='Pg152'>152</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— <hi rend='smallcaps'>vi.</hi>, <ref target='Pg154'>154</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— Physkôn, <ref target='Pg154'>154</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— Lathyrus, <ref target='Pg162'>162</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Pyramid, the great, <ref target='Pg008'>8</ref>, <ref target='Pg190'>190</ref>, <ref target='Pg256'>256</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Q</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Qebhu, <ref target='Pg203'>203</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Qerti, <ref target='Pg200'>200</ref>, <ref target='Pg202'>202</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Qoseir, <ref target='Pg146'>146</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>R</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Ra, <ref target='Pg012'>12</ref>, <ref target='Pg024'>24</ref>, <ref target='Pg029'>29</ref>, <ref target='Pg056'>56</ref>, <ref target='Pg222'>222</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Raamses (city), <ref target='Pg076'>76</ref>, <ref target='Pg098'>98</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Ra-men-kheper, <ref target='Pg105'>105</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Ramses <hi rend='smallcaps'>i.</hi>, <ref target='Pg075'>75</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— <hi rend='smallcaps'>ii.</hi>, <ref target='Pg003'>3</ref>, <ref target='Pg016'>16</ref>, <ref target='Pg018'>18</ref>, <ref target='Pg043'>43</ref>, <ref target='Pg047'>47</ref>, <ref target='Pg068'>68</ref>, <ref target='Pg076'>76</ref>, <ref target='Pg078'>78</ref>, <ref target='Pg080'>80</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>, <ref target='Pg117'>117</ref>, <ref target='Pg196'>196</ref>, <ref target='Pg206'>206</ref>, <ref target='Pg208'>208</ref>, <ref target='Pg228'>228</ref>, <ref target='Pg236'>236</ref>, <ref target='Pg247'>247</ref>, <ref target='Pg250'>250</ref>, <ref target='Pg270'>270</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— <hi rend='smallcaps'>iii.</hi>, <ref target='Pg085'>85-90</ref>, <ref target='Pg101'>101</ref>, <ref target='Pg102'>102</ref>, <ref target='Pg157'>157</ref>, <ref target='Pg253'>253</ref>, <ref target='Pg254'>254</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Ra-nefer, <ref target='Pg007'>7</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Raphia, <ref target='Pg114'>114</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Red Mound, <ref target='Pg250'>250</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Retennu, <ref target='Pg111'>111</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Rhampsinitos (Ramses <hi rend='smallcaps'>iii.</hi>), <ref target='Pg252'>252</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Rhodopis, <ref target='Pg214'>214</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Rome, <ref target='Pg153'>153</ref>, <ref target='Pg155'>155</ref>, <ref target='Pg164'>164</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Rosetta Stone, <ref target='Pg153'>153</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>S</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Sabako, <ref target='Pg110'>110</ref>, <ref target='Pg229'>229</ref>, <ref target='Pg266'>266</ref>, <ref target='Pg269'>269</ref>, <ref target='Pg273'>273</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Sadducees, <ref target='Pg151'>151</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Sa el-Hagar (Sais), <ref target='Pg217'>217</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Saft el-Henneh (Goshen), <ref target='Pg043'>43</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Sais, <ref target='Pg204'>204</ref>, <ref target='Pg215'>215</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Samaritans, <ref target='Pg137'>137</ref>, <ref target='Pg159'>159</ref>, <ref target='Pg162'>162</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Samians, <ref target='Pg214'>214</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Sapi-ris, <ref target='Pg238'>238</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Sappho, <ref target='Pg214'>214</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Sardinians, <ref target='Pg084'>84</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Sargon, <ref target='Pg114'>114</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Sasykhis or Asykhis, <ref target='Pg264'>264</ref>, <ref target='Pg266'>266</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Satrapies, Assyrian, in Egypt, <ref target='Pg117'>117</ref>, <ref target='Pg122'>122</ref>, <ref target='Pg279'>279</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Satuna, <ref target='Pg082'>82</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Schumacher, Dr., <ref target='Pg081'>81</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Scyths, <ref target='Pg123'>123</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l><hi rend='italic'>sebah</hi>, <ref target='Pg212'>212</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Sebek, <ref target='Pg266'>266</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Sebennytic arm of Nile, <ref target='Pg237'>237</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Sehêl, stela of, <ref target='Pg035'>35</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Sekhem (Esneh), <ref target='Pg276'>276</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<pb n='341'/><anchor id='Pg341'/> + +<lg> +<l>Sekhet, <ref target='Pg225'>225</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Semennûd (Sebennytos), <ref target='Pg239'>239</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Send, <ref target='Pg006'>6</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Senem (Bigeh), <ref target='Pg200'>200</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Sennacherib, <ref target='Pg114'>114</ref>, <ref target='Pg244'>244</ref>, <ref target='Pg275'>275</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Septimius, <ref target='Pg234'>234</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Septuagint, <ref target='Pg145'>145</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Serapeum, <ref target='Pg261'>261</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Serapis, <ref target='Pg207'>207</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>serpents, winged, <ref target='Pg236'>236</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Sesetsu (Sesostris), <ref target='Pg249'>249</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Sesostris (Ramses <hi rend='smallcaps'>ii.</hi>), <ref target='Pg047'>47</ref>, <ref target='Pg196'>196</ref>, <ref target='Pg229'>229</ref>, <ref target='Pg247'>247</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Set, <ref target='Pg075'>75</ref>, <ref target='Pg222'>222</ref>, <ref target='Pg235'>235</ref>, <ref target='Pg237'>237</ref>, <ref target='Pg249'>249</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Sethos, <ref target='Pg244'>244</ref>, <ref target='Pg275'>275</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Seti <hi rend='smallcaps'>i.</hi>, <ref target='Pg075'>75</ref>, <ref target='Pg228'>228</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— <hi rend='smallcaps'>ii.</hi>, <ref target='Pg084'>84</ref>, <ref target='Pg097'>97-100</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Set-nekht, <ref target='Pg100'>100</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Shasu (Bedouin), <ref target='Pg276'>276</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Shechem, <ref target='Pg072'>72</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Shed-festival, <ref target='Pg226'>226</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Shepherd kings, <ref target='Pg014'>14</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Sheri, <ref target='Pg006'>6</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Shishak, <ref target='Pg106'>106</ref>, <ref target='Pg228'>228</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Sib'e (So), <ref target='Pg114'>114</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Siculians, <ref target='Pg086'>86</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Sidon, <ref target='Pg091'>91</ref>, <ref target='Pg128'>128</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Simon the Just, <ref target='Pg150'>150</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Sin, <ref target='Pg233'>233</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Sinai, <ref target='Pg007'>7</ref>, <ref target='Pg089'>89</ref>, <ref target='Pg254'>254</ref>, <ref target='Pg283'>283</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Singar, <ref target='Pg082'>82</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Si-Ptah, <ref target='Pg084'>84</ref>, <ref target='Pg099'>99</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Smendes, <ref target='Pg105'>105</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Snefru, <ref target='Pg006'>6</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>So (Sib'e), <ref target='Pg114'>114</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Solomon, <ref target='Pg105'>105</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Solon, <ref target='Pg183'>183</ref>, <ref target='Pg217'>217</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Sostratos, <ref target='Pg147'>147</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Sphinx, <ref target='Pg005'>5</ref>, <ref target='Pg030'>30</ref>, <ref target='Pg191'>191</ref>, <ref target='Pg245'>245</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>St. John, J. A., <ref target='Pg192'>192</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Strabo, <ref target='Pg223'>223</ref>, <ref target='Pg264'>264</ref>, <ref target='Pg281'>281</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Succoth, <ref target='Pg043'>43</ref>, <ref target='Pg077'>77</ref>, <ref target='Pg096'>96</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Sumerian, <ref target='Pg064'>64</ref>, <ref target='Pg065'>65</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Suphah, <ref target='Pg101'>101</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Sutekh, <ref target='Pg023'>23</ref>, <ref target='Pg039'>39</ref>, <ref target='Pg228'>228</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>T</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Tahpanhes, <ref target='Pg129'>129</ref>, <ref target='Pg131'>131</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Tand-Amon, <ref target='Pg119'>119</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Tanis (<hi rend='italic'>see</hi> <ref target='Index-Zoan'>Zoan</ref>), <ref target='Pg104'>104</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>, <ref target='Pg232'>232</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Tantah, <ref target='Pg226'>226</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Ta-user, Queen, <ref target='Pg099'>99</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Teie, Queen, <ref target='Pg057'>57</ref>, <ref target='Pg058'>58</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Tel el-Amarna, <ref target='Pg052'>52</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Tel el-Baqlîyeh, <ref target='Pg210'>210</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Tel ed-Deffeneh, <ref target='Pg129'>129</ref>, <ref target='Pg231'>231</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Tel el-Yehudîyeh, <ref target='Pg157'>157</ref>, <ref target='Pg250'>250</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Tel en-Nebêsheh, <ref target='Pg236'>236</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Tel Fera'in, <ref target='Pg235'>235</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Tel Mokdam, <ref target='Pg039'>39</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Thannyras, <ref target='Pg179'>179</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Thebes, <ref target='Pg012'>12</ref>, <ref target='Pg050'>50</ref>, <ref target='Pg163'>163</ref>, <ref target='Pg182'>182</ref>, <ref target='Pg186'>186</ref>, <ref target='Pg194'>194</ref>, <ref target='Pg196'>196</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>This (Girgeh), <ref target='Pg002'>2</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Thothmes <hi rend='smallcaps'>iii.</hi>, <ref target='Pg018'>18</ref>, <ref target='Pg058'>58</ref>, <ref target='Pg080'>80</ref>, <ref target='Pg196'>196</ref>, <ref target='Pg222'>222</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Thukydides, <ref target='Pg285'>285</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Tirhakah, <ref target='Pg114'>114</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>, <ref target='Pg272'>272</ref>, <ref target='Pg276'>276</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Tnêphakhtos, <ref target='Pg268'>268</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Tunip, <ref target='Pg082'>82</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Turah, <ref target='Pg257'>257</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Turin Papyrus, <ref target='Pg016'>16</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Tut-ankh-Amon, <ref target='Pg073'>73</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Two brothers, Tale of, <ref target='Pg025'>25</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Tyre, <ref target='Pg072'>72</ref>, <ref target='Pg205'>205</ref>, <ref target='Pg234'>234</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Tyrian camp, <ref target='Pg242'>242</ref>, <ref target='Pg251'>251</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Tyrsenians, <ref target='Pg084'>84</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>U</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Uaz, <ref target='Pg235'>235</ref>, <ref target='Pg236'>236</ref>, <ref target='Pg237'>237</ref>, <ref target='Pg275'>275</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Urd-Amon, <ref target='Pg119'>119</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Ur-mer, <ref target='Pg240'>240</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Usertesen <hi rend='smallcaps'>i.</hi>, <ref target='Pg221'>221</ref>, <ref target='Pg251'>251</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— <hi rend='smallcaps'>ii.</hi>, <ref target='Pg019'>19</ref>, <ref target='Pg266'>266</ref>, <ref target='Pg270'>270</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— <hi rend='smallcaps'>iii.</hi>, <ref target='Pg282'>282</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<pb n='342'/><anchor id='Pg342'/> + +<lg> +<l>W</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Wadi Tumilât (Goshen), <ref target='Pg043'>43</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Wiedemann, Professor, <ref target='Pg039'>39</ref>, <ref target='Pg223'>223</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Wilbour, Mr., <ref target='Pg035'>35</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>X</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Xanthos, <ref target='Pg176'>176</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Y</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Yaud-hamelek, <ref target='Pg109'>109</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Z</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Zagazig, <ref target='Pg224'>224</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Zahi, <ref target='Pg072'>72</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Zakkur, <ref target='Pg084'>84</ref>, <ref target='Pg086'>86</ref>, <ref target='Pg088'>88</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Zaphnath-paaneah, <ref target='Pg032'>32</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Zemar, <ref target='Pg072'>72</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Zenodotos, <ref target='Pg147'>147</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Zephyrion, <ref target='Pg207'>207</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Zerah, <ref target='Pg111'>111</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<anchor id='Index-Zoan'/> +<l>Zoan (Sân, Tanis), <ref target='Pg015'>15</ref>, <ref target='Pg019'>19</ref>, <ref target='Pg039'>39</ref>, <ref target='Pg041'>41</ref>, <ref target='Pg042'>42</ref>, <ref target='Pg048'>48</ref>, <ref target='Pg078'>78</ref>, <ref target='Pg267'>267</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +</div> + +</body> +<back rend="page-break-before: right"> + <div id="footnotes"> + <index index="toc" /> + <index index="pdf" /> + <head>Footnotes</head> + <divGen type="footnotes"/> + </div> + <div rend="page-break-before: right"> + <divGen type="pgfooter" /> + </div> +</back> +</text> +</TEI.2> |