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+The Project Gutenberg EBook of Scientific American, Vol. XXXIX.--No. 24.
+[New Series.], December 14, 1878, by Various
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: Scientific American, Vol. XXXIX.--No. 24. [New Series.], December 14, 1878
+       A Weekly Journal Of Practical Information, Art, Science,
+       Mechanics, Chemistry, And Manufactures
+
+Author: Various
+
+Release Date: January 3, 2012 [EBook #38480]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Juliet Sutherland, Lesley Halamek, and the
+Online Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net
+
+
+
+
+
+
+[Illustration]
+
+
+SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN
+
+
+A WEEKLY JOURNAL OF PRACTICAL INFORMATION, ART, SCIENCE, MECHANICS,
+CHEMISTRY, AND MANUFACTURES.
+
+
+NEW YORK, DECEMBER 14, 1878.
+
+Vol. XXXIX.--No. 24. [NEW SERIES.]
+
+[$3.20 per Annum [POSTAGE PREPAID.]]
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+CONTENTS.
+
+(Illustrated articles are marked with an asterisk.)
+
+  Alum in baking powders
+  Alum in bread                    376
+  Argonaut, or Paper Nautilus*     375
+  Astronomical notes               377
+  Babbitt metal, to make [5]       378
+  Belts, rubber, slipping [6]      378
+  Bench, saw, Casson's*            374
+  Boot polish liquid [8]           378
+  Butter, to color [16]            378
+  Canal, ship, Belgian*            367
+  Economy, machine shop            371
+  Eggs, preservation of            375
+  Electric light, Werdermann*      373
+  Engineers, warning to            367
+  Engine, steam, valve yoke [48]   379
+  Exterminator, roach [57]         379
+  Filter for rain water [19]       378
+  Foot power, new*                 370
+  Glass, iridescent                368
+  Glass, to make a hole in         375
+  Hair, to prevent falling out [42]379
+  Inks, sympathetic                377
+  Invention, reward of             371
+  Inventions, new,                 370
+  Inventions, new agricultural     377
+  Inventions, new mechanical       374
+  Inventors, bait for              374
+  Iron and steel, preservation of  367
+  Iron, malleable, to make [43]    379
+  Leaves, culinary uses for        370
+  Line, straight, to draw* [36]    379
+  Mechanics, amateur*              371
+  Mexico, progress of science in   376
+  Microphone as a thief catcher    375
+  Naphtha and benzine              377
+  Nitrate of silver, reduction of  377
+  Notes and queries                378
+  Oil notes                        372
+  Petroleum and gold               377
+  Petroleum, progress of           368
+  Poultices                        374
+  Quinine, effects of on hearing   374
+  Railroad, first in U. S. [2]     378
+  Rails and railway accidents      368
+  Railway notes                    373
+  Sanitary Science in the U. S.    369
+  Screw heads, blue color for [4]  378
+  Sheep husbandry, American        375
+  Shutter fastener, new*           370
+  Silver mill in the clouds        374
+  Spider, trap-door*               375
+  Sprinkler, garden, improved*     370
+  Telescope, sunshade for [3]      378
+  Tools, steel, to temper [55]     379
+  Tree, tallest in the world       375
+  Tree trunks elongation of        376
+  Trees, felling by electricity    370
+  Tubing, to satin finish [51]     379
+  Vise, an improved*               370
+  White lead, to test [14]         378
+  Wire clothing for cylinders*     377
+  Work, the limit of               368
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+THE BELGIAN SHIP CANAL.
+
+
+The ship canal from Ghent to Terneuzen was originally laid out with
+many bends, rendering navigation difficult; it had a depth of 14 feet
+4 inches and a width of 98 feet 6 inches at the water level. The works
+which are at present in course of execution have especially for their
+object the deepening of the canal to 21 feet 3 inches, with a width
+of 55 feet 9 inches at the bottom and 103 feet 9 inches on the water
+line. The slopes have a uniform inclination of 1 to 3, and the towing
+paths on each side are placed 6 feet 6 inches above the water level,
+and are 32 feet 8 inches wide. In many instances also the course of
+the canal has been altered and straightened for the improvement of
+navigation; several important diversions have been made for this
+purpose. The excavation has been effected by hand, by dredging, and by
+the Couvreux excavator, figured as below in _Engineering_.
+
+The earth excavated was carried to spoil, and in many cases was
+employed to form dikes inclosing large areas, which served as
+receptacles for the semi-liquid material excavated by the dredging
+machines with the long conductors; the Couvreux excavator used will be
+readily understood from the engraving. It had already done service on
+the Danube regulation works. The material with which it had to deal,
+however, was of a more difficult nature, being a fine sand charged
+with water and very adherent. The length of track laid for the
+excavator was about 3 miles along the side of the old canal, which had
+been previously lowered to the level of the water.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+PRESERVATION OF IRON AND STEEL FROM OXIDATION.
+
+
+We are indebted to J. Pechar, Railway Director in Teplitz, Bohemia,
+for the first official report in English from the Paris International
+Exhibition which has come to hand. This volume contains the report
+on the coal and iron products in all countries of the world, and is
+valuable for its statistical and other information, giving, as it
+does, the places where the coal and minerals are found, and the
+quantities of each kind produced, for what it is used, and to what
+other countries it is exported. The able compiler of these statistics
+in the introduction of his report gives the following account of
+the means recommended by Professor Barff, of London, for preventing
+oxidation, which is being considerably used abroad. The writer says:
+
+It is well known that the efficient preservation of iron against
+rusting is at present only provided for in cases where human life
+would be endangered by failure, as in the case of railway bridges
+and steamers. Thus, for example, at Mr. Cramer-Klett's ironworks at
+Nuremberg every piece of iron used for his bowstring bridges is dipped
+in oil heated to eight hundred degrees. The very great care which
+is at present taken in this matter may be judged from the current
+practice of most bridge and roofing manufacturers. Every piece of
+iron before being riveted in its place is cleaned from rust by being
+immersed in a solution of hydrochloric acid. The last traces of free
+acid having been cleared away, at first by quicklime and afterward by
+a copious ablution with hot water, the piece is immediately immersed
+in hot linseed oil, which protects every part of the surface from the
+action of the atmosphere. Afterward it is riveted and painted.
+
+Notwithstanding all this, the painting requires continual and
+careful renewal. On the Britannia Bridge, near Bangor, the painter is
+permanently at work; yet, in spite of all this care and expense, rust
+cannot be entirely avoided. The age of iron railway bridges is still
+too short to enable us to draw conclusions as to the probabilities of
+accidents. Now, Professor Barff has discovered a process by which
+iron may be kept from rusting by being entirely coated with its own
+sesquioxide. A piece of iron exposed to the action of superheated
+steam, in a close chamber and under a certain pressure, becomes
+gradually covered by a skin of this black oxide, of a thickness
+depending upon the temperature of the steam and the duration of
+the experiment. For instance, exposure during five hours to steam
+superheated to five hundred degrees will produce a hermetical coating
+capable of resisting for a considerable time the application of emery
+paper and of preserving the iron from rust even in a humid atmosphere,
+if under shelter from the weather. If the temperature is raised to
+1,200 degrees, and the time of exposure to six or seven hours, the
+skin of sesquioxide will resist every mechanical action, and the
+influence of any kind of weather. The sesquioxide being harder than
+the iron itself, and adhering to its surface even more firmly than the
+atoms of iron do to each other, there is an increased resistance not
+only to chemical but also to mechanical action. The surface is not
+altered by the process in any other respect, a plain forging retaining
+its roughness, a polished piece its smooth surface. If the skin is
+broken away oxidation takes place, but only just on the spot from
+which the oxide has been removed. If Professor Barff's experiments
+are borne out by practice, this invention may become of very great
+importance. It is within the bounds of probability that it may enable
+iron, by increasing its facility in competing with wood, to recover,
+at least for a considerable time, even more than the ground it has
+lost by the extraordinary extension of the use of steel. Iron is
+already being used for building purposes to a large extent; but
+oxidation once thoroughly prevented it will be able to take the place
+of wood and stone to a still greater degree. Iron roofing may be
+made quite as light as that of wood, and of greater strength, by a
+judicious arrangement and use of T iron.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+WARNING TO LOCOMOTIVE ENGINEERS.
+
+
+Drs. Charles M. Cresson and Robert E. Rogers, of this city, says
+the Philadelphia _Ledger_, well known as experts in chemistry and
+dynamics, were appointed by the Reading Railroad Company to inquire
+into and report upon the causes of the recent explosion of the boiler
+of the express locomotive "Gem," at Mahanoy City, by which five lives
+were lost. Their report, which is designed to cover the whole scope
+of a most careful investigation, is not yet made public, but they have
+arrived at the following specific conclusion, which we give in their
+own language: "We are, therefore, of the opinion that the explosion of
+the boiler of the locomotive 'Gem,' was produced by the projection of
+foam upon the heated crown bars of the furnace, caused by suddenly
+and widely opening the safety valve, at a time when the water had been
+permitted to get so low as to overheat the crown of the furnace." This
+is an important matter that should be carefully noted by locomotive
+and other engineers.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN
+
+
+ESTABLISHED 1845
+
+MUNN & CO., Editors and Proprietors.
+
+PUBLISHED WEEKLY AT
+
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+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
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+SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN EXPORT EDITION.
+
+
+The SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN Export Edition is a large and splendid
+periodical, issued once a month. Each number contains about one
+hundred large quarto pages, profusely illustrated, embracing: (1.)
+Most of the plates and pages of the four preceding weekly issues of
+the SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN, with its splendid engravings and valuable
+information; (2.) Commercial, trade, and manufacturing announcements
+of leading houses. Terms for Export Edition, $5.00 a year,
+sent prepaid to any part of the world. Single copies 50 cents.
+-->Manufacturers and others who desire to secure foreign trade may
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+MUNN & CO., 37 Park Row, New York.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+VOL. XXXIX., No. 24. [NEW SERIES.] Thirty-third Year. NEW YORK,
+SATURDAY, DECEMBER 14, 1878.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+TABLE OF CONTENTS OF
+
+THE SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN SUPPLEMENT
+
+No. 154,
+
+For the Week ending December 14, 1878.
+
+Price 10 cents. For sale by all newsdealers.
+
+
+I. ENGINEERING AND MECHANICS.--Portable Steam Pumping Engine, 1
+  engraving.--New Bone Crushing Mill, 2 engravings.--Picard's Boiler.
+  Extraction of Salt from Salt Water.--Compressed Air Machines.
+  Hydraulic vs. air pressure. Causes of the losses of power.
+  Estimates of useful effects obtainable.--The St. Gothard Tunnel.
+  By GEO. J. SPECHT, C.E.--Apparatus for Lifting Sunken Vessels,
+  with 8 figures.--Russia Sheet Iron.--Manufacture of Artificial
+  Stone.--Compressed Fuel.--The New Magnesi Process for Boiler Feed
+  Water.
+
+II. FRENCH INTERNATIONAL EXHIBITION OF 1878.--Wine Presses.
+  Description of sixteen new and peculiar wine presses at the
+  Exhibition, with 31 figures and 9 engravings. The Press Primat;
+  Press Mabille; Press David; Samain Press; Marchand, Maupre,
+  Boyries, Chapellier, Marmonier, Nogues, Mailhe, Moreau, Piquet,
+  Delperoux, Terrel des Chenes, and Cassan fils Presses.
+
+  The Algerian Exhibit. The street of Algiers, with 1
+  illustration.--Woolen Fabrics.
+
+III. ELECTRICITY, LIGHT, HEAT, ETC.--Electric Lighting. Estimate
+  of the comparative heating effect in gas and electric lighting,
+  and the consequent loss of power.--The Electric Light. Remarks on
+  its economy.--The Present Bugbear of French Savants.
+
+  New Planets.
+
+  The Dutch Arctic Expedition. The Peak of Beerenburg, Spitzbergen,
+  with 1 illustration.
+
+IV. CHEMISTRY AND METALLURGY.--New Process for Separating Iodine
+  and Bromine from Kelp.--Inoffensive Colors for Toys.--New Coloring
+  Matters.--Tungsten.
+
+  Ozone and the Atmosphere. By ALBERT R. LEEDS, Ph.D. Table of
+  percentage of ozone contained in the atmosphere at various
+  localities in the United States. Register of ozone observations
+  for one month at Upper Saranac Lake, N. Y., giving thermometric
+  and barometric observations, and full record of weather.
+  Examination of methods in ozonometry. Preparation of ozone by
+  electrolysis of water containing sulphuric acid, with 1 engraving.
+  Preparation by electricity, with 1 engraving. Does the electric
+  spark decompose potassium iodide? Collection and preservation of
+  ozone. Preparation by chemical methods. Critical examination of
+  ozonoscopes. Potassium iodide; starch; paper classification of
+  ozonoscopes. Examination of ozonoscopes under certain conditions.
+
+  Limits of the Combustibility of Gases.--The Diffusion of
+  Salicylate of Soda.--Singular use of Fluorescein.--New Metal.
+  Philippium By M. MARC DELAFONTAINE.--Better Pharmaceutical
+  Education. By RICHARD V. MATTISON, Ph. G.--An El Dorado for
+  Apothecaries.
+
+V. MEDICINE AND HYGIENE.--The Science of Easy Chairs. The muscular
+  conditions of fatigue, and how to obtain the greatest rest. How
+  easy chairs should be made.
+
+  Prof. Huxley on the Hand. Abstract of his inaugural lecture before
+  the South London Workingmen's College.
+
+  Paint from a Sanitary Point of View. The required abolition of
+  absorbent surfaces in dwellings. Lead poisoning from paint not
+  thoroughly dry. Cases described in which white lead paint in
+  dwellings never dries, but gives off poisonous particles, which
+  are inhaled by the inmates, causing depression, weakness headache,
+  and loss of appetite. Zinc recommended in paint to avoid lead
+  poisoning, and the new oxy-sulphide of Zinc described, with
+  covering qualities equal to white lead.
+
+  The Purification of Sewage. By HENRY ROBINSON, F.R.S. Paper
+  read before the Sanitary Institute of Great Britain. Progress
+  in purifying sewage by precipitation. The use of chemicals for
+  precipitating, deodorizing, and disinfecting. Practical data on
+  a large scale, with cost. Average number of gallons per head of
+  population, etc., of the successful system now in operation at
+  Coventry and Hertford. How the water is removed from the sludge by
+  filter presses. Drying and removal of the sludge. Theoretical and
+  actual values of the sludge for fertilizing.
+
+VI. AGRICULTURE, HORTICULTURE, ETC.--The Broadside Steam Digger,
+  with 1 engraving.--Shall I Plow the Lawn?--Bee Culture.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+PROGRESS OF PETROLEUM.
+
+
+The efforts of the great majority of the Western Pennsylvania
+petroleum producers to obtain relief from what they deem the
+oppressive acts of the Standard Oil Company and the unjust
+discriminations of the United Pipe Lines, and the various railroads
+traversing the oil regions, have attracted more than usual attention
+to the present condition of this industry and its possible future.
+
+We would here explain that the Standard Oil Company originated in
+Cleveland, Ohio, about twelve years ago, and was incorporated under
+the laws of Ohio, with a nominal capital now, we are informed, of
+$3,000,000, which, however, very inadequately represents the financial
+strength of its members. It is now a combination of the most
+prominent refiners in the country, and has before been credited with
+manipulating the transportation lines to its own special advantage.
+
+We can recall no instance of such serious hostility between parties
+whose interests are at the same time of such magnitude and so nearly
+identical; nor can we see what substantial, enduring benefit would
+accrue to the producers in the event of their victory in the struggle.
+
+They charge that the Standard Oil Company has become the controlling
+power to fix prices and to determine the avenues by which the oil
+shall be transported eastward for home consumption and for foreign
+exportation; that the railway companies have given this company lower
+rates than other parties for transporting the oil; and that through
+the rates given to it by the railways the value of their property is
+destroyed.
+
+The reply, in effect, is, Granting all this to be true, what does
+it amount to? Neither more nor less than that the managers of the
+Standard Oil Company, by combination of capital, by intelligence and
+shrewdness in the management of their operations, have built up a
+successful business, and that they have so extended it by the use of
+all practicable appliances, and by the purchase of the property of
+competitors, that they do practically control the prices of oil, both
+crude and refined, and that the uncombined capital of the other oil
+producers, lacking the power, the intelligence, and the business skill
+which combined capital can secure, cannot compete with the Standard
+Oil Company. Now, is there any great wrong or injustice in this?
+
+When brains can command capital it is always more successful in
+business matters than any amount of brains without capital or capital
+without brains. This result is the natural working out of the same
+principle that is everywhere to be seen--some men are successful and
+others are not.
+
+It is the essence of communism to drag down those who succeed to the
+level of the unsuccessful.
+
+If men cannot compete with others in any business they must accept the
+fact, and try some other employment.
+
+If, through superior intelligence and capital, the Standard Oil
+Company can control the oil business of Pennsylvania, then, according
+to the principles of common sense, it must be permitted to do so.
+
+What right, then, has the oil producer to complain? Why, if all that
+is alleged is true, will they persist in sinking more wells, when,
+as they say, they are controlled by the Standard Oil Company? No one
+forces them to lose money by continuing in the business. Let them find
+other employment. They do not show that the Standard Oil Company
+does anything that combined capital on their part and equal business
+ability could not effect.
+
+The cry of monopoly in this case is altogether unfounded, those
+opposed to the Standard Oil Company having just as much right to do
+all that that company does, and, therefore, there can be no monopoly,
+because they have no exclusive powers.
+
+As to the railway companies, they can afford and have a right to
+transport the tonnage offered them by the Standard Oil Company at less
+cost, because it costs them less to do a regular and large business
+than an irregular and smaller one. They would simply be acting in
+accordance with business principles the world over.
+
+These are the arguments, the statement of the position of a successful
+combination confident in its resources and of victory in the coming
+struggle. The justness, the correctness of the doctrines enunciated,
+and the wisdom of so doing at this crisis, we do not propose to
+criticise; but it is very safe to say that if the prosperity of the
+complainants depends upon relief in this direction they may as well
+cease producing.
+
+There are too many of them for harmonious and concerted action against
+the powerful corporations they complain of; and if they should succeed
+in securing equal transportation facilities the prices would still be
+regulated by the monopolists, who carry more than four-fifths of the
+accumulated stock of the oil regions.
+
+The proposed appeal to Congress to pass some law whereby each producer
+can compel railroad companies to carry his produce at regular rates,
+amounts to a confession of the desperate straits of the producers
+and of their weakness as well; and even if successful, which is most
+improbable, would not remedy the deplorable existing state of things.
+
+Still lower rates would fail to give relief, with all the present
+avenues of trade filled to repletion and with an increasing output
+at the wells. Relief and permanent relief can be found only in the
+direction we have before indicated: in the general application of
+petroleum and its products to the manufacture of gas for illuminating
+and heating purposes, and its substitution for coal in the metallurgic
+and other prominent industries of the world.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+THE LIMIT OF WORK.
+
+
+In distributing the prizes to workmen at the Paris Exhibition, Louis
+Blanc, the leader of the French Republican Socialist party, quoted
+approvingly these words of Simonde de Sismondi:
+
+"If the workman were his own master, when he had done in two hours
+with the aid of machinery what would have taken him twelve hours to do
+without it, he would stop at the end of the two."
+
+M. Blanc had been discussing very eloquently, but also very
+fallaciously, the relations of machinery to labor. If men were
+properly united in the bonds of association, he said, if the
+solidarity of interests were realized, "the happy result of the
+application of mechanical power to industry would be equal production,
+with less of effort, for all. The discovery of an economic method
+would never have the lamentable consequence of robbing men of the work
+by which they live. Unfortunately, we are far from this ideal. Under
+the empire of that universal antagonism which is the very essence of
+the economic constitution of modern societies, and which too often
+only profits one man by ruining another, machinery has been employed
+to make the rule of the strong weigh more heavily on the weak. There
+is not a single mechanical invention which has not been a subject of
+anguish and a cause of distress to thousands of fathers of families
+from the moment it began to work."
+
+If all this, and much else that M. Blanc alleges, were true, then the
+condition of all workingmen to-day should be in every way worse than
+that of their fathers, in anti-machinery days. But such is not the
+case. There never was a time when the laborer toiled less or enjoyed
+more than in these days of machinery; and the laborer's condition is
+best where the machinery is best and most used.
+
+A hundred years ago the laborer toiled long, produced little, and
+enjoyed less. To-day, thanks to the victories of invention, machinery
+does the heaviest of the work; the workman's hours of labor are fewer
+than formerly; his wages are greater; and his earnings will buy vastly
+more, dollar for dollar, than in any previous age in the world's
+history.
+
+What laborer of to-day would be satisfied with the remuneration, the
+food, the shelter, the clothing of the laboring classes of one hundred
+years ago? The wants of men, as well as their thoughts, are widened by
+the process of the suns. And in no section of society have the daily
+wants been more markedly increased, or the facilities for gratifying
+them either, than among those that live by labor.
+
+"If the workman were his own master, when he had done in two hours
+with the aid of machinery what it would have taken him twelve hours to
+do without it, he would stop at the end of the two."
+
+So says the theoretical socialist. The practical workman never has,
+nor, we believe, ever will, act so foolishly; certainly not until the
+limit of man's capacity to enjoy has been reached. When the united
+products of manual and mechanical effort fully satisfy the desires of
+all men, and leave no margin of want unfilled, then and then only
+will men be satisfied with the reduction of effort demanded by the
+socialists. Until then the larger part of every increase in production
+by mechanical improvements will go to swell the volume of good things
+for human use and enjoyment. Our machinery enables our thousands of
+busy workers to accomplish what millions could not have done years
+ago, and a very large part of the aggregate increase of product
+comes back to them in conveniences and luxuries surpassing those
+the wealthiest could enjoy were machinery not employed, or were it
+employed, as the socialist advocates, without increasing the aggregate
+of production. The laziness of the savage and the advantages of
+civilization are incompatible. The chief merit of machinery lies in
+its enabling us to multiply constantly the scope and variety of our
+enjoyments without a corresponding increase of toil.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+IRIDESCENT GLASS.
+
+
+Ornamental glassware in many styles, tinted with the glowing colors
+of the rainbow, is now making its appearance in the shop windows
+of Broadway and Fifth Avenue. This is one of those brilliant little
+achievements of science that delights the eye and pleases the
+imagination. To produce the colors, the glass, while in a heated
+state, is subjected to the vapor of chloride of tin. Shades of more or
+less depth or intensity are imparted by adding to the tin chloride a
+little nitrate of strontium or barium.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+RAILS AND RAILWAY ACCIDENTS--NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES.
+
+
+A meeting of the Section of Physics, New York Academy of Sciences,
+was held November 25, 1878. President J. S. Newberry in the chair.
+Numerous publications of learned societies were received and
+acknowledged. Professor Newberry read a letter from Professor Agassiz
+stating that sea lilies, which had hitherto been very rare--a single
+specimen bringing as much as fifty dollars--have been found in some
+numbers by dredging in the Gulf of Mexico. Their colors are white,
+pink, and yellow. Professor Newberry also exhibited specimens of
+garnet from California, lamellar quartz from North Carolina, sharks'
+teeth belonging to the eocene and miocene tertiary ages from the
+phosphate beds of South Carolina, and a number of shells.
+
+Professor Thomas Egleston then addressed the Academy on the subject of
+"The Structure of Rails as Affecting Railway Accidents."
+
+The destruction of rails is due to three causes. 1. Defects in the
+manufacture; 2. Improper mechanical or chemical composition; and 3.
+Physical changes.
+
+A very large number of rails are annually made which should never be
+put in any track. Their defects are often imperceptible to the naked
+eye, but they very soon begin to break. Statistics show that the
+breakage from defects in making increase until they have been used
+18 months; then it decreases to zero, and after that rails break from
+different causes. In France, breakage usually begins in December,
+reaches its maximum in January, and becomes normal in April. As a more
+intense cold would be necessary to explain such breakage than that
+which is felt in that climate, the cause must be sought in the
+stiffness and inelasticity of the frozen road bed. The impact of
+the locomotive is then apt to break the rail, very much on the same
+principle that is taken advantage of in breaking them up for the
+manufacture of smaller objects. A nick is made somewhere, and the
+workman then strikes a blow with a hammer at a point between the nick
+and the place where the rail is supported. This will sever the rail at
+the nicked place. Sometimes more than a second intervenes between the
+blow and the fracture. Now, whenever holes are punched in rails for
+the fish plates, flaws are apt to radiate from them; and if these
+flaws are not planed or filed out, they may cause the rail to break,
+just as the nicks above mentioned. Such rails have been known to last
+no longer than 18 months, and some have actually broken on the way
+from the manufacturer to their destination. There are establishments
+in this country and in Europe where they "doctor" such rails by
+filling up the flaws with a mixture of iron filings, sal ammoniac, and
+some adhesive substance. Beware of them; a poor cheap rail is dear
+at any price. The French government stipulates in its contracts for
+rails, that flaws shall be planed, drilled, or filed out; that the
+rails shall not be allowed to drop on the ground, but shall be carried
+by men and slid down. The Lyons railroad does not pay for its rails
+until 15,000 trains have passed over them.
+
+By imperfect mechanical composition is meant imperfect union of the
+parts of rails. Steel heads are welded to the rest of the rail in a
+variety of ways, and this welding is necessarily imperfect. A number
+of sections of rails etched with acid plainly showed this want of
+homogeneity, as did likewise prints taken from the etched surfaces.
+Before such rails have lost weight appreciably, they are used up by
+the constant rolling they undergo. The advantage of a steel rail is
+its homogeneity, but a good iron rail, such as those made under the
+direction of the speaker, for the Reading Railroad Company, is likely
+to prove better than one of poor steel. The life of a steel rail
+is chiefly affected by the temperature at which it is rolled and
+annealed. It ought not to wear off more than 1 mm. for 20,000,000
+tons of traffic, and is usually calculated to wear 10 mm. before it is
+taken up. In other words, it would last about 20 years on roads doing
+as much business as the New York Central. It is, however, unlikely
+that our steel rails will stand more than half this amount of traffic.
+
+The effects of chemical composition are but little understood. Some
+of the purest irons have turned out utterly worthless. Apparently the
+absolute quantities of carbon, silicon, aluminum, phosphorus, etc.,
+present are not of so much importance as their relative proportion.
+One specimen containing carbon 0.16, silicon 0.08, and phosphorus
+0.012, could be bent double when cold, while another, containing
+carbon 0.58, silicon 0.56, and phosphorus 0.011 broke at once.
+
+The physical tests for tensile and torsional strength, usually made on
+a portion cut out of the head of the rail, are not sufficient, because
+the flaws before spoken of exist mostly in the flange of the rail, and
+fracture usually begins there.
+
+The effect of cold rolling and shocks that a rail is exposed to was
+shown by a piece of rail made by the Campbells, Sheffield, Eng., which
+had been worn 3 mm. by a traffic of 60,000,000 tons at Spuyten Duyvel.
+The head had been somewhat flattened, and the flange driven down into
+the foot to a certain extent. Under such usage an iron rail would have
+gone to pieces long ago.
+
+Sometimes steel rails crumble all at once and pieces fall out of
+the head. This is probably due to some physical defects or to
+crystallization from shocks. The cause has not yet been definitely
+ascertained.
+
+Mr. Collingwood stated that of a rail only a section of 3/8 square
+inch was pressed by the wheel of a locomotive, the effect being to
+cause this portion to act like a wedge, and thus to contribute to the
+disintegration of the rail. He also exhibited a hook which had been
+used to hoist stones of 10 to 12 tons, and then suddenly broke with a
+weight of only 6½ tons. It had been worn from a thickness of 2 inches
+to 1-7/8. The pressure at the upper surface crowded the particles and
+caused them to act as wedges. Their fracture was crystalline, while
+that of the lower surface, which parted more slowly, was fibrous.
+
+Professor Egleston asserted that there was no such thing as fibrous
+iron; what appeared so being simply crystalline with the ends
+drawn out. A sharp blow would cause this to fall off and show the
+crystalline structure beneath.
+
+The discussion was continued by Professors Trowbridge, Egleston, and
+Newberry.
+
+C. F. K.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+FORMATION OF IODIFORM.--All mixtures in which alcohol and iodine enter
+in combination with any alkali forming colorless solutions go in part
+to the formation of iodiform. Even chloroform and iodine, forming a
+colorless solution, give rise to the same product.--_L. Myers Connor._
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+SANITARY SCIENCE IN THE UNITED STATES.
+
+
+The following is an abstract of a paper on the Present and Future of
+Sanitary Science in the United States, read by Professor Albert R.
+Leeds, of the Stevens Institute of Technology, before the New York
+Academy of Sciences at their meeting, November 11th, 1878:
+
+Sciences, such as the one under consideration, that have in them a
+side largely practical, are sure of a welcome in our midst. The study
+of the laws of public health grew into prominence in this country
+during the war, when the Sanitary Commission undertook to supervise
+the camps and hospitals. Sanitary associations were then formed
+in many States and smaller communities, and these have led to the
+establishment of State and city boards of health, clothed to a greater
+or less degree with executive functions. Every epidemic has been the
+cause of wider dissemination of sanitary knowledge by the daily press.
+The yellow fever plague, by which more than twelve thousand people
+have perished, has thoroughly aroused public interest. During its
+continuance the papers were full of homilies on private and public
+hygiene, the people everywhere sent aid and sympathy to the afflicted,
+and a lady offered to defray the expenses of a scientific commission
+of sanitary experts to inquire into the cause and prevention of the
+scourge. The proper execution of sanitary laws depends on the free
+and intelligent co-operation of individuals much more than on the
+influence of a strong central authority. A general health department
+at Washington could not legislate pure air, pure water, and pure
+food into use throughout the nation. The people themselves, in each
+community, must be educated to demand these requisites of health and
+to secure them in their own way.
+
+I. _Vital Statistics._--The first "Bill of Mortality" in New York city
+extended from November 1st, 1801, to January 1st, 1803. In it people
+are said to have died of "flux," "hives," "putrid fever," "breaking
+out," "stoppage," "fits," of "rash," and, by way of contrast,
+of "lingering illness." This rude beginning gradually led to the
+organization of the Metropolitan Board of Health, whose first report
+was made in 1866. Their second report showed a decrease of 3,152
+deaths, mainly in districts where the greatest amount of sanitary work
+had been done. Valuable illustrations of the relation between damp
+houses and consumption were obtained by constructing maps of certain
+wards, on which every death from phthisis for several years was noted
+opposite each house. It was found that the disease was most fatal in
+the lowest levels, in rainy seasons, and in crowded localities.
+
+The registration of marriages continued so defective that a writer on
+the subject declares it would be impossible for a large portion of
+the adult native population of the United States to prove by any legal
+document that they have a right to the name they bear, or that their
+parents were ever married. The mortality returns of 1871 were probably
+nearly perfect, and their very accuracy told against New York city,
+whose death rate was 28.6 per thousand, while St. Louis reported 17,
+Rochester 16, Buffalo 14, and Jersey City 7 per thousand. To secure
+accuracy in the returns of marriages and births, etc., more stringent
+legislation will be necessary.
+
+In New Jersey the State Sanitary Association has conclusively
+shown the utter worthlessness of the State vital statistics. They
+memorialized the legislature, and caused the passage of a law which
+gives to New Jersey one of the best systems of registration yet
+devised. It owes its excellence to the following features, which
+should be universally copied:
+
+1. _Burial Permits_ are issued only after registry has been made by a
+properly qualified person; and
+
+2. The returns are made to an _expert_, who collates them and deduces
+practical lessons from them.
+
+II. _Registration of Disease_.--A large class of diseases may be
+prevented from becoming epidemic if their existence is known in time.
+For this purpose the boards of health should be invested with power
+and provided with means to investigate, reform, and, if necessary,
+to punish delinquency. Yet in the face of so practical a requirement
+little more is annually appropriated for the Board of Health of New
+Jersey than for the pay of two policemen.
+
+III. _State Sanitary Legislation_.--The agitation for sanitary reform
+caused by the yellow fever should not be allowed to die out with the
+pressure of the calamity that aroused it. It should continue until
+every State that has been the seat of yellow fever, year after year,
+has as efficient a health code as Massachusetts and Michigan. The
+necessity of educating the people before it is possible to secure
+the requisite legislation will cause a considerable period of time
+to elapse before all the States have laws in accordance with modern
+knowledge. Probably no community takes the trouble to protect itself
+until it has actually suffered. To the distress of London the world
+owes the report of the Royal Commissions on water supply and the
+pollution of rivers, still the best repertory of the best knowledge on
+the subject. The manufactories of England have made it necessary for
+the government to take cognizance of aerial impurities. Similarly in
+this country the pollution of the Passaic has caused inquiries to be
+set on foot in the same direction. [1]
+
+[Footnote 1: See Report to Board of Public Works of Jersey City,
+by Professors Wurtz and Leeds; also, Analyt. Beiträge aus dem
+Laboratorium des Stevens Institute of Technology, by Professor Leeds,
+in _Zeitschr. fur Anal. Chem. _1878.]
+
+An attempt was made to deprive the inhabitants of New York of their
+public parks, and to occupy them with buildings devoted to military
+and other purposes; but the people had already been sufficiently
+educated up to an appreciation of their sanitary value not to permit
+it. Dr. Seguin eloquently advocated the improvement of the parks,
+to make them not only pleasure grounds, but places of æsthetical and
+practical out-door education of the public school children.
+
+IV. _Ventilation_.--It would be a great step in the interests of
+sanitary science if builders, vestrymen, and school or hospital
+trustees could be persuaded that their offices did not make them
+temporary authorities on ventilation, and that they had best intrust
+this matter to specialists who have fought their way into successful
+practice.
+
+It appears that both the system of ventilation by aspiration and
+that by propulsion have had great successes and great failures. Many
+authorities have declared in favor of mechanical ventilation, yet in
+most institutions where fans had been introduced they are now standing
+still. In Roosevelt Hospital, New York, they ran their fan backwards
+for months and then stopped it.
+
+V. _Physical Education_.--Instruction in hygiene and physical
+exercise as a part of the college curriculum was first successfully
+accomplished at Amherst College, and has now had a trial of nearly
+twenty years. The importance attached to it is shown by the fact that
+only distinguished members of the medical profession are appointed
+as professors, and that they have the same rank as the rest of the
+faculty. Their first duty is to know the physical condition of every
+student and to see that the laws of health are not violated. In case
+of sickness, the students are given certificates to excuse them from
+attendance and are put in the way of obtaining suitable treatment. The
+records kept are of great interest. All the classes are required to
+attend the gymnastic exercises four times a week. For a full account
+see Professor Hitchcock's report on Hygiene at Amherst College to
+the American Public Health Association. The excellent results of this
+feature--it can no longer be regarded as an experiment--recommend its
+introduction in all our colleges and public schools.
+
+VI. _Health Resorts_.--The number of people who leave the cities in
+the summer to visit the seashore, the mountains, and the country is
+annually increasing. A healthful village is often changed to a center
+of pestilence merely by such an influx of strangers, the ordinary
+means of removing offal, etc., being no longer adequate. The town of
+Bethlehem, N. H., became so popular by reason of its pure air that
+several thousand hay fever patients sought relief there in 1877.
+The consequence was insufficient drainage; but as the inhabitants
+understood their interests, this defect was at once remedied.
+
+The sea shore of New Jersey from Sandy Hook to Cape May is becoming
+an almost continuous city, and harbors a multitude of visitors every
+summer. Those whose interest it is to retain this patronage
+cannot have it too strongly impressed upon them to preserve their
+healthfulness by introducing cemented cisterns, by causing garbage to
+be removed daily, and by encouraging local boards of health.
+
+VII. _Illuminating Gas_ not only withdraws from the air of our rooms a
+considerable amount of oxygen, but fills them with noxious products of
+combustion. All this may be avoided in the future by the introduction
+of the electric light.
+
+VIII. _Sanitary Surveys_.--Dr. Bowditch has shown that a thousand
+deaths from consumption in Massachusetts are due to a wet and
+retentive soil, and this fact alone will show the importance of
+sanitary surveys of the country, such as that made of Staten Island
+by Professors Newberry and Trowbridge, who determined the influence
+of the surface soil, of the underlying rock, its porosity, its bedding
+and its joints, upon the drainage and upon the local climate and
+health. A similar survey of Hudson county, New Jersey, has been
+recently made by L. B. Heard, C.E.
+
+IX. _Composition of the Atmosphere_.--The English government has
+been obliged to appoint the celebrated Dr. Angus Smith to examine
+the effects of atmospheric contamination. In Philadelphia there is
+scarcely a house front that is not disfigured by the stain of magnesia
+and lime salts, caused by acid vapors in the atmosphere.
+
+A discussion followed, which was introduced by Mr. Collingwood, who
+remarked that the problem of the sewage of cities was still far from
+being solved. Though the recent experiments in England on utilizing
+sewage for agricultural purposes by filtration and otherwise were
+reported to be successful, we had only dodged the question in this
+country. Our sewage is still emptied into rivers to poison the water
+of cities further down their course. When the country becomes more
+thickly settled, this will answer no longer.
+
+It was also stated that while gas in large chandeliers could be made
+an effective means of ventilation, there was another objection to its
+use in the fact that the soil of the city was everywhere impregnated
+with it from leaky mains, thus causing poisonous exhalations and an
+insufferable odor whenever the ground was opened. Attention was also
+called to the evil effects of the system of tenement houses, which led
+to an unfavorable comparison of the health and morality of New York
+with those of cities like Philadelphia and Cleveland, that abound in
+small homes.
+
+Dr. Minor attributed disease to what Richardson calls
+"ultra-microscopic molecular aggregates," which always exist in
+the air, but take hold of us only when our vitality is reduced to a
+certain point. It has been shown that decay is absolutely impossible
+in vessels from which they are excluded. But for them the earth would
+now be heaped with the undecomposed remains of animals and vegetables.
+According to this view, the future efforts of sanitary science must be
+simply in the direction of learning how to protect ourselves against
+the "ultra-microscopic molecular aggregates."
+
+C. F. K.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+FELLING TREES BY ELECTRICITY.
+
+
+Some years ago a Doctor Robinson of this city obtained a patent
+through the agency of the SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN for Felling Trees by
+Electricity. Subsequently a description of the invention was published
+in this paper, soon after which the newspapers in this country
+and Europe teemed with the account of a gentleman in India having
+contrived an apparatus for felling trees in the same manner. Since
+these several years have elapsed we have heard nothing of the
+gentleman from India till a few days ago our papers have taken up the
+subject anew, and annexed is the account they give of the inventor's
+progress in developing his discovery.
+
+The electric fluid in the form of lightning oftentimes proves itself
+a very efficient wood cutter, and it has occurred to some ingenious
+gentleman in India that artificial electricity may be so applied and
+controlled as to cut down trees a good deal faster than the clumsy
+ax or that American notion the chain saw. The two ends of the copper
+wires of a galvanic battery are connected with platinum wire, which of
+course instantly becomes red hot, and while in that state it is gently
+seesawed across the trunk of the trees to be felled. When arrangements
+were made for the experiment, it turned out that the thickness of
+the thickest platinum wire that could be got was only that of crochet
+cotton. It was at once seen that such a wire would be consumed before
+the tree was half severed from its trunk. However, the attempt was
+made. The burning wire performed its task very well as long as it
+lasted, but, as anticipated, the wire continually broke, and at
+length there was no wire left. There can be little doubt that, with
+a stronger battery and a thicker wire, the experiment would have been
+entirely successful. As it was, the tree was sawn one fifth through.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+AN IMPROVED VISE.
+
+
+The novel vise shown in the engraving was recently patented by Mr.
+William Starkey, of Pittsburg, Pa.
+
+[Illustration: STARKEY'S VISE.]
+
+The fixed jaw is supported by two standards from the base piece, and
+has a square boxing or tube for receiving the slide of the movable
+jaw. This slide is hollow, and contains a rack which is engaged by a
+pinion on the short vertical shaft, which is supported by the fixed
+jaw. At the lower end of the vertical shaft there is a worm wheel,
+that is engaged by a worm on the horizontal shaft on which is placed
+the hand wheel. By turning the hand wheel the vertical shaft is
+rotated and the movable jaw is drawn against the object to be clamped
+by the vise.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+CULINARY USES FOR LEAVES.
+
+
+A writer in the London _Iron Trade Exchange_, calling attention to a
+neglected source of culinary flavors, says:
+
+"With the exception of sweet and bitter herbs, grown chiefly for the
+purpose, and parsley, which is neither bitter nor sweet, but the most
+popular of all flavoring plants, comparatively few other leaves are
+used. Perhaps I ought also to except the sweet bay, which is popular
+in rice and other puddings, and certainly imparts one of the most
+pleasant and exquisite flavors; but, on the other hand, what a waste
+there is of the flavoring properties of peach, almond, and laurel
+leaves, so richly charged with the essence of bitter almonds, so
+much used in most kitchens! Of course such leaves must be used with
+caution, but so must the spirit as well. An infusion of these could
+readily be made, either green or dry, and a tea or table spoonful of
+the flavoring liquid used. One of the most useful and harmless of all
+leaves for flavoring is that of the common syringa. When cucumbers are
+scarce, these are a perfect substitute in salads or anything in which
+that flavor is desired. The taste is not only like that of cucumbers,
+but identical--a curious instance of the correlation of flavors in
+widely different families. Again, the young leaves of cucumbers have a
+striking likeness in the way of flavor to that of the fruit. The
+same may be affirmed of carrot tops, while in most gardens there is
+a prodigious waste of celery flavor in the sacrifice of the external
+leaves and their partially blanched footstalks. Scores of celery are
+cut up into soup, when the outsides would flavor it equally well or
+better. The young leaves of gooseberries added to bottled fruit give
+a fresher flavor and a greener color to pies and tarts. The leaves of
+the flowering currant give a sort of intermediate flavor between black
+currants and red. Orange, citron, and lemon leaves impart a flavoring
+equal to that of the fruit and rind combined, and somewhat different
+from both. A few leaves added to pies, or boiled in the milk used to
+bake with rice, or formed into crusts or paste impart an admirable and
+almost inimitable bouquet. In short, leaves are not half so much used
+for seasoning purposes as they might be."
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+NEW SHUTTER FASTENER.
+
+
+We give herewith an engraving of a new shutter fastener, recently
+patented by Mr. P. F. Fernandez, of San Juan, Porto Rico, West Indies.
+This fastener is designed for holding doors or window shutters in
+position when open, to prevent them from closing or swinging in the
+wind.
+
+[Illustration: IMPROVED SHUTTER FASTENER.]
+
+To the wall is secured a plate to which is pivoted the spring-acted
+hook, A, and upon the shutter in the proper position for engaging the
+hook, A, there is a rigid hook, B. A coil spring is attached to the
+plate that supports the hook, A, and when the shutter is open is
+engaged by a boss formed on the end of the hook, B. By this means the
+hook, B, is pressed forward into close contact with hook, A, thereby
+preventing all jarring and rattling.
+
+The hook, A, is provided with an eye for receiving the cord, C, which
+extends to the window casing and is within easy reach, so that when
+it is desired to close the shutter the hook, A, may be readily
+disengaged from the hook, B, by simply pulling the cord.
+
+Further information may be obtained by addressing the inventor as
+above.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+AN IMPROVED GARDEN SPRINKLER.
+
+
+A novel garden sprinkler, which may be carried on the back, is shown
+in the accompanying engraving. The cylindrical vessel has a removable
+cover, and contains a perforated plunger which is operated by a hand
+lever from without. The cylindrical vessel is provided with shoulder
+straps, and it has two sprinkling nozzles connected with it by
+flexible tubes.
+
+[Illustration: HODEL & STAUBER'S GARDEN SPRINKLER.]
+
+This sprinkler is especially designed for applying insect-destroying
+poison to plants. The operator, as he goes through the field or
+garden, takes one nozzle in each hand and distributes the liquid upon
+the plants. From time to time the liquid will be agitated by moving
+the perforated plunger.
+
+This invention was recently patented by Adolf Hodel, of Jefferson, and
+F. A. Stauber, of Chicago, Ill.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+A NEW FOOT POWER.
+
+
+In our issue of November 9 we illustrated and described a sewing
+machine having W. F. Lane's improved foot power applied. We give
+herewith views of the foot power in detail, Fig. 1 being a side
+elevation, and Figs. 2 and 3 sectional views. The device is designed
+for application to any light machinery that can be propelled by
+foot power. A is the shaft to which motion is to be imparted by the
+treadles, B, the latter being pivoted to oscillate on the shaft,
+H. Two ratchet wheels, C, are secured to the shaft, A, and are each
+worked by pawls, D, which are pivoted to a carrier, E, which turns
+loosely on the shaft. The pawls are in the form of an elbow lever, and
+the movement of their tooth ends is limited by lugs or shoulders on
+the carrier, E. The outer ends of the pawls are received between lugs
+that project from the plate, F, which turns loosely on the shaft,
+A, and has attached to it the rope pulley, G. When the plate, F, is
+turned in one direction the pawls are raised and ride loosely over
+the teeth, but when the plate turns in the other direction the pawls
+engage the ratchet teeth and carry them and also the shaft, A. A
+guide pulley, I, is pivoted below the shaft, A, with its axis at right
+angles to the shaft.
+
+The motion from the alternately-oscillated treadles, B, is transmitted
+to the pulleys, G, by means of a rope (shown in dotted lines), both
+ends of which are fastened by hooks to some fixed point. This rope
+runs from one of the hooks down under a pulley pivoted in the toe
+of one of the treadles, thence around one of the pulleys, G, thence
+around the pulley, I, over the other pulley, G, and downward around
+the pulley in the other treadle, and upward to the second fixed hook.
+The depression of one of the treadles causes the shaft to rotate, and
+also lifts the other treadle into position to be operated.
+
+[Illustration: LANE'S FOOT POWER.]
+
+For further information address Wm. F. Lane, Elgin, Ill.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+NEW INVENTIONS.
+
+
+Mr. Samuel Heaton, of Cedar Rapids, Iowa, has patented an improved
+Iron Fence Post, which is particularly adapted for wire fences. It
+is formed of a slotted iron bar, constituting the post proper, and a
+triangular brace, which is so connected with said bar that it may be
+easily adjusted at different angles, corresponding to the undulation
+or unevenness of the ground surface where the post is used.
+
+Mr. Thomas S. Alexander, of Meriden, Conn., has patented an improved
+Drawer Pull, which is neat, strong, and durable, and is less expensive
+than when made in the usual way.
+
+An improved Earth Scraper has been patented by Mr. Benjamin Slusser,
+of Sidney, Ohio. This is an improvement in that class of earth
+scrapers which are arranged to revolve for the purpose of dumping the
+load, and during the intervals, or while being filled, are locked in
+rigid position.
+
+An improvement in Wagon Bodies has been patented by Mr. James H.
+Paschal, of Camden, Ark. This invention consists, essentially, in a
+frame provided with spurs projecting therefrom for engagement with the
+bales to prevent them from slipping, and the combination therewith of
+removable extension side and end pieces, for enabling the wagon to be
+used for other purposes when not employed for hauling cotton bales;
+there is an extension of the frame forming a feed trough for the
+horses employed to draw the vehicle.
+
+An improved Scraper has been patented by Mr. George Eiteman, of Round
+Grove, Ill. This is a double-ended scraper hung at its center on a rod
+connected to the handle arms, whereby either end of the scraper may be
+used. It has catches to prevent the scraper from revolving backward,
+and spring actuated dogs on the handle frame to retain the scraper in
+position and prevent it from turning over until released.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+AMATEUR MECHANICS.
+
+
+For amusement, exercise, and profit we commend, to those who are
+mechanically inclined, the practice of working with tools of the
+smaller sort, either in wood or other of the softer materials, or in
+metals, glass, or stone. This practice renders the hands dexterous,
+the muscles strong, and the head clear, with the further advantage of
+producing something for either ornament or use. Of course a bench with
+a vise and a few wood working and iron working tools will be required;
+but the most expensive as well as the most essential tool is a lathe.
+With this tool, not only turning in wood, metal, ivory, rubber, etc.,
+can be accomplished, but it may also be used for screw-thread cutting,
+gear cutting, drilling metals, boring wood, spinning metals, milling,
+sawing metal and wood, grinding, polishing, moulding, shaping, and
+other purposes. A first class plain lathe of small size cannot be
+purchased for less than $50 or $60, and one of inferior quality will
+cost $20 to $30.
+
+While the purchase of a lathe is recommended there may be many who
+would prefer to make one. A lathe that will do admirably and which
+may be easily made is shown in the accompanying engravings, Fig.
+1 representing in perspective the lathe complete; Fig. 2 is a
+perspective view of the lathe without the table; Fig. 3 is a vertical
+longitudinal section of the lathe, showing the manner of securing the
+head and tail stocks to the bars which form the bed or shears.
+
+In making this lathe one pattern only will be required for the two
+standards of the head stock, and the support of the ends of the bars.
+The lower part of the tail stock is made in two parts, so that they
+may be clamped tightly together on the shears by means of the bolt
+that passes through both parts, and is provided with a nut having
+a lever handle. The rest support is also made in two parts, clamped
+together on the ways in a similar way.
+
+The patterns may be easily sawed from 1¼ inch pine. The holes that
+receive the round bars should be chambered to receive Babbitt metal,
+used in making the fit around the bars forming the shears, around the
+head and tail spindles, and around the shank of the tool rest. The
+smallest diameter of the holes that receive the round bars should be a
+little less than that of the bars, so that the several pieces that
+are placed on the bars may be fitted to hold them in place while the
+Babbitt metal is poured in.
+
+The dimensions of the lathe are as follows:
+
+Length of round bars forming shears, 24 inches; diameter of bars, 1
+inch; distance from the upper side of upper bar to center of spindle,
+3 inches; between bars, ¾ inch; between standards that support the
+live spindle, 3½ inches; size of standard above shears, ¾ x 1¼
+inch; diameter of head and tail spindles, ¾ inch; diameter of
+pulleys, 5 inches, 3½ inches, and 2 inches; width of base of
+standards, 5 inches; height of standards, 7 inches.
+
+The live spindle should be enlarged at the face plate end, and tapered
+at both ends, as indicated in the engraving.
+
+The pulleys, which are of hard wood, are made of three pieces glued
+together, bored, and driven on the spindle, secured by a pin passing
+through both it and the spindle, and turned off. The bars forming the
+shears may be either cold rolled iron or round machinery steel; they
+will require no labor except perhaps squaring up at the ends. The
+castings having been fitted to the bars, and provided with set screws
+for clamping them, the two standards that support the live spindle and
+the support for the opposite end of the bars are put in position, when
+the bars are made truly parallel, and a little clay or putty is placed
+around each bar and over the annular cavity that surrounds it, and is
+formed into a spout or lip at the upper side to facilitate the pouring
+of Babbitt metal. The metal must be quite hot when poured, so that
+it will run sharp and fill the cavity. To guard against a possible
+difficulty in removing the castings from the bars it might be well to
+cover the side of the bar next the screw with a thin piece of paper.
+The pieces of the tail stock and tool rest support are fitted to the
+bars by means of Babbitt metal, the metal being poured first in one
+half and then in the other. The bolts which clamp the two parts of the
+rest support and tail stock together are provided with lever handles.
+After fitting the parts to the two bars by means of Babbitt metal, the
+tail spindle, which is threaded for half its length, is placed in the
+tail stock parallel with the bars and Babbitted. A binding screw is
+provided for clamping the tail spindle, and the spindle is drilled at
+one end to receive the center, and has at the other end a crank for
+operating it. A steel or bronze button is placed in the hole in the
+standard that supports the smaller end of the live spindle, and the
+spindle is supported in its working position and Babbitted.
+
+The thread on the spindle should be rather coarse, so that wooden or
+type metal face plates and chucks may be used.
+
+The table shown in Fig. 1 is simple and inexpensive. It consists of
+two pairs of crossed legs halved together and secured to a plank top.
+A small rod passes through the rear legs near their lower ends, and
+also through a piece of gas pipe placed between the legs. A diagonal
+brace is secured to the top near one end, and is fastened to the lower
+end of the rear leg at the other end of the table.
+
+A block is secured to each pair of legs for supporting a pair of
+ordinary grindstone rollers, which form a bearing for the balance
+wheel shaft. This shaft has formed in it two cranks, and it carries
+an ordinary balance wheel, to the side of which is secured by means
+of hook bolts a grooved wooden rim for receiving the driving belt. The
+cranks are connected, by means of hooks of ordinary round iron, with a
+treadle that is pivoted on the gas pipe at the rear of the table. The
+shaft will work tolerably well, even if it is not turned. The cranks
+must have half round grooves filed in them to receive the treadle
+hooks. The size of the different diameters of the drive wheel may be
+found by turning the larger one first and the smaller ones afterward,
+using the belt to determine when the proper size is reached. The
+wooden rim may be turned off in position by using a pointed tool.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 1]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 2]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 3]
+
+[LATHES FOR AMATEUR MECHANICS.]
+
+
+The lathe above described, although very easily made and inexpensive,
+will be found to serve an excellent purpose for hand work, and if the
+holes, instead of being Babbitted, are bored, and if the bars forming
+the shears are turned, the lathe may be converted into a kind of
+engine lathe by placing a feeding screw between the bars, and putting
+a small tool post in the rest support.
+
+M.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+MACHINE SHOP ECONOMY.
+
+
+In times like the present, when even with good management our best
+machine shops are enabled to exhibit but small margins of profit, and
+shops with indifferent management exhibit margins on the wrong side,
+it is a question of paramount importance what kind of economy should
+be pursued in order to maintain a successful business. The directors
+of long established machinery enterprises differ widely upon some
+methods of conducting business, and while one gains success by
+pursuing a certain plan, another, with perhaps as much ability, cannot
+pursue the same with satisfactory results.
+
+While in the main there are many different plans upon which successful
+machinery establishments are conducted, there are some underlying
+principles that must be observed to avoid meeting with difficulties.
+The rate of wages paid is certainly a large element of shop economy,
+but there are so many other elements that should be considered before
+wages are reached, that we often find proprietors, who pay their
+workmen at a comparatively high rate, doing a more prosperous business
+than their competitors who have reduced wages to the lowest possible
+scale. Many machine shop owners, not having mastered the various
+economies of management, as soon as profits begin to shorten, pounce
+directly upon the wages paid to their workmen, and pare them down so
+as to make up for the deficiency elsewhere. They don't seem to realize
+that there are important elements of economical management other than
+closely watching the wages of labor and the cost of material. It is
+sometimes necessary to reduce the rate of wages, but what a different
+effect it has upon the men in different shops! In one shop you
+scarcely hear a murmur--no angry meetings--no threats of a strike--no
+growling at the head of the establishment. The intelligent workmen
+understand the reasons for the reduction without a wordy explanation,
+and accept it, feeling confident that it has not been unjustly made.
+In another shop it causes ill feeling, angry protests, and perhaps
+a disastrous strike. The owner often charges his trouble to the
+character of his workmen. Let him review his course, and see if the
+great cause is not in his own management. Mechanics are keen and
+observing. If the business is poorly managed they are not slow to
+mark it, and when a cut is made in wages can generally cipher out the
+cause. It is good economy to keep a systematic record of the cost
+of everything. This record will be found very valuable in making
+estimates, much more so than guess work. It is not good economy
+to keep using worn-out tools when any work of consequence is to be
+performed. The extra cost of labor and spoiled pieces would soon pay
+for new tools. It is not good economy to keep discharging capable
+workmen for petty causes, and employing new hands to take their
+places. It is poor economy to use slow-cutting grindstones to
+accomplish work that fast cutting emery wheels are suited for. It is
+questionable economy to employ lathes, planers, and drills to perform
+work of any extent that a milling machine will do better in less time
+and at much less expense.
+
+It is decidedly bad economy to employ engines and boilers that waste
+fuel and are troublesome to keep in good running condition. It is
+mistaken economy to buy inferior tools, machines, and shop supplies,
+because they are low priced.
+
+It is very defective economy to fit the parts of machines together by
+trial instead of making them by aid of correct drawings and standard
+tools for accurate measurement. It is faulty economy to practice
+borrowing and lending working tools.
+
+The idea that economy consists in withholding every expense not
+absolutely demanded is erroneous. An extra outlay in one or another
+direction often assures the saving as well as the making of money.
+Wise economy looks to the future as well as the present, and requires
+that all work sent out from a shop should be of the best and most
+reliable character.--_American Machinist._
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+THE REWARD OF INVENTION.
+
+
+_Capital and Labor_ publishes the substance of a letter from Mr. Henry
+Bessemer with reference to the refusal of the English Government, or
+of its ambassador in Paris, to allow the Grand Cross of the Legion of
+Honor to be accepted by its countrymen, and in his letter Mr. Bessemer
+furnishes some autobiographic particulars which cannot fail to be of
+interest. He tells us that at the age of eighteen he came to London
+from a small country village, knowing no one, and himself unknown; but
+his studious habits and his love of invention soon gained for him
+a footing, and in two years he was pursuing a method of his own
+invention for taking copies from antique and modern bassi-rilievi in
+a manner that enabled him to stamp them on a cardboard, thus producing
+thousands of embossed copies of the highest works of art, at a small
+cost. The facility for making a permanent die, even from a thin paper
+original, capable of producing a thousand copies, would have opened
+a wide door to successful fraud if the process had been known to
+unscrupulous persons; for by its means, Mr. Bessemer states, there is
+not a government stamp, or the paper seal of a corporate body, that
+every common office clerk could not forge in a few minutes at the
+office of his employer or at his own home. The production of a
+die from a common paper stamp is the work of only ten minutes; the
+materials cost less than one penny. No sort of technical skill is
+necessary, and a common copying press or letter stamp yields most
+successful copies. There is no need for the would-be forger to
+associate himself with a skillful die sinker, capable of making a good
+imitation in steel of the original, for the merest tyro could make
+an absolute copy on the first attempt. The public knowledge of such a
+means of forging would, at that time, have shattered the whole system
+of the British Stamp Office, had a knowledge of the method been
+allowed to escape. The secret has, however, been carefully guarded to
+this day.
+
+During the time that Mr. Bessemer was engaged in studying this
+question he was informed that the government were themselves cognizant
+of the fact that they were losers to a great amount annually by
+the transfer of stamps from old and useless deeds to new skins of
+parchment, thus making the stamps do duty a second or third time, to
+the serious loss of the revenue. One official in high position said
+that he believed they were defrauded in this way to the extent of
+probably £100,000 per annum. To fully appreciate the importance of
+this fact, and realize the facility afforded for this species of fraud
+by the system then in use, it must be understood that the ordinary
+impressed or embossed stamp, such as is employed on all bills of
+exchange, if impressed directly on a skin of parchment, would be
+entirely obliterated by exposing the deed for a few months to a damp
+atmosphere. The deed would thus appear as if unstamped, and therefore
+invalid. To prevent this it has been the practice as far back as
+the reign of Queen Anne to gum a small piece of blue paper on to the
+parchment; and for still greater security a strip of metal foil is
+passed through it, and another small piece of paper with the printed
+initials of the Sovereign is gummed over the loose ends of the foil at
+the back. The stamp is then impressed on the blue paper, which, unlike
+parchment, is incapable of losing the impression by exposure to a damp
+atmosphere. But, practically, it has been found that a little piece of
+moistened blotting paper applied for a whole night so softens the gum
+that the two pieces of paper and the slip of foil can be removed from
+the old deed most easily, and be applied to a new skin of parchment,
+and thus be made to do duty a second or third time. Thus the expensive
+stamps on thousands of old deeds of partnership, leases, and other old
+documents, when no longer of value, offer a rich harvest to those who
+are dishonest enough to use them. A knowledge of these facts led Mr.
+Bessemer to fully appreciate the importance of any system of stamps
+that would effectually prevent so great a loss; nor did he for one
+moment doubt but that government would amply reward success. After
+some months of study and experiment, which he cheerfully undertook
+(although it interfered considerably with the pursuit of regular
+business, inasmuch as it was necessary to carry on the experiments
+with the strictest secrecy, and to do all the work himself during the
+night after his people had left work), he succeeded in making a stamp
+that satisfied all the necessary conditions. It was impossible to
+remove it from one deed and transfer it to another. No amount of
+damp, or even saturation with water, could obliterate it, and it
+was impossible to take any impression from it capable of producing a
+duplicate.
+
+Mr. Bessemer says that he knew nothing of patents or patent law in
+those days; and adds that if he had for a moment thought it necessary
+to make any preliminary conditions with government he would have at
+once scouted the idea as utterly unworthy, thinking his interests
+absolutely secure. In this full confidence he sought an interview with
+the then chief of the Stamp Office, Sir Charles Presley, and showed
+him by numerous proofs how easily all his stamps could be forged, and
+also the mode of prevention. He was greatly astonished, and at a later
+interview he suggested that the principle of the invention should be
+worked out fully. This Mr. Bessemer was only too anxious to do; and
+some five or six weeks later called again with a newly designed stamp,
+which greatly pleased him. The design was circular, about 2½ inches
+in diameter, and consisted of the Garter with the motto in capital
+letters surmounted by a crown. Within the Garter was a shield with the
+words "five pounds." The space between the shield and the Garter was
+filled with network in imitation of lace. The die had been executed in
+steel, which pierced the parchment with more than 400 holes, each one
+of the necessary form to produce its special portion of the design.
+Since that period perforated paper of this kind has been largely
+employed for valentines and other ornamental purposes, but was
+previously unknown. It was at once obvious that the transfer of such
+a stamp was impossible. It was equally clear that dampness could not
+obliterate it; nor was it possible to take any impression from it
+capable of perforating another skin of parchment.
+
+This design gave great satisfaction, and everything went on smoothly;
+Sir Charles consulted Lord Althorp, and the Stamp Office authorities
+determined to adopt it. Mr. Bessemer was then asked if, instead of
+receiving a sum of money from the Treasury, he would be satisfied with
+the position of Superintendent of Stamps, at some £600 or £800 per
+annum. This was all that he then desired, rejoicing over the prospect,
+for he was at that time engaged to be married, and his future position
+in life seemed assured. An incident now occurred that reads almost
+like romance. A few days after affairs had assumed this satisfactory
+position, he called on the young lady to whom he was then engaged
+(now Mrs. Bessemer), and showed her the pretty piece of network which
+constituted the new parchment stamp, explaining how it could never
+be removed from the parchment and used again, and mentioning the fact
+that old deeds with stamps on them dated as far back as the reign
+of Queen Anne could be fraudulently used. She at once said, "Yes, I
+understand this; but surely, if all stamps had a date put upon them,
+they could not at a future time be used again without detection?" This
+was indeed a new light, and greatly startled the inventor, who at once
+said that steel dies used for this purpose could have but one date
+engraved upon them. But after a little consideration he saw that
+movable dates were by no means impossible, and that this could easily
+be effected by drilling three holes of about a quarter of an inch in
+diameter in the steel die, and fitting into each of these openings a
+steel plug or type with sunk figures engraved on their ends, giving on
+one the date of the month, on the next the month of the year, and on
+the third circular steel type the last two figures of the year. This
+plan would be most simple and efficient, would take less time and
+money to inaugurate than the more elaborate plan that had been
+devised; but while pleased and proud at the clever and simple
+suggestion of the young lady, her future husband saw also that all his
+more elaborate system of piercing dies, the result of months of study,
+and the toil of many a weary and lonely night, was shattered to pieces
+by it. He feared to disturb the decision that Sir Charles Presley
+had come to, as to the adoption of the perforated stamp, but, with
+a strong conviction of the advantages of the new plan, felt in honor
+bound not to suppress it, whatever might be the result. Thus it was
+that he soon found himself again closeted with Sir Charles at Somerset
+House, discussing the new scheme, which he much preferred, because,
+as he said, all the old dies, old presses, and old workmen could
+be employed, and there would be but little change in the office--so
+little, in fact, that no new superintendent of stamps was required,
+which the then unknown art of making and using piercing dies would
+have rendered absolutely necessary. After due consideration the first
+plan was definitely abandoned by the office in favor of the dated
+stamps, with which every one is now familiar. In six or eight weeks
+from this time an Act of Parliament was passed calling in the private
+stock of stamps dispersed throughout the country, and authorizing the
+issue of the new dated ones.
+
+Thus was inaugurated a system that has been in operation some
+forty-five years, successfully preventing that source of fraud from
+which the revenue had so severely suffered. If anything like Sir
+Charles Presley's estimate of £100,000 per annum was correct, this
+saving must now amount to some millions sterling; but whatever the
+varying amount might have been, it is certain that so important and
+long established a system as that in use at the Stamp Office would
+never have been voluntarily broken up by its own officials, except
+under the strongest conviction that the losses were very great, and
+that the new order of things would prove an effectual barrier to
+future fraud. During all the bustle of this great change no steps had
+been taken to install the inventor in the office. Lord Althorp had
+resigned, and no one seemed to have authority to do anything. All
+sorts of half promises and excuses followed each other, with long
+delays between, and Mr. Bessemer gradually saw the whole thing sliding
+out of his grasp. Instead of holding fast to the first plan, which
+they could not have executed without his aid and special knowledge,
+he had, in all the trustfulness of youthful inexperience, shown them
+another plan, so simple that they could put it in operation without
+any assistance. He had no patent to fall back upon, and could not go
+to law, even if he wished to do so, for he was reminded, when
+pressing for mere money out of pocket, that he had done all the work
+voluntarily. Wearied and disgusted, he at last ceased to waste time
+in calling at the Stamp Office, and he felt that nothing but increased
+exertions could make up for the loss of some nine months of toil and
+expenditure. Thus, sad and dispirited, and with a burning sense of
+injustice overpowering all other feelings, he went from the Stamp
+Office, too proud to ask as a favor that which was indubitably his
+just right, and he adds, "Up to this hour I have never received one
+shilling or any kind of acknowledgment whatever from the British
+Government." It is notorious, adds the editor, that some of the most
+renowned and invaluable inventions of recent years, especially those
+connected with the navy, have narrowly escaped rejection by permanent
+but ignorant officials; and that the authors of the inventions have
+had to submit to delay, loss, annoyance, and contumely before their
+processes could be tried, even after their success had been officially
+demonstrated. Perhaps it is not now so much a question of money,
+for it is to be hoped that Mr. Bessemer is reaping the due reward
+of ingenuity and skill in other fields of invention. But even his
+discoveries in steel making, if they have very properly enriched
+himself, have, in an infinitely larger degree, added to the wealth of
+the country, and have given employment to many thousands. Such a man
+is a public benefactor, and eminently deserves recognition by
+the state, especially by way of atonement for former neglect and
+injustice. Military men receive titular honors and a pecuniary reward
+for slaying a crowd of savages and burning their huts, while the
+men who have helped to make England what she is, commercially and
+industrially, are in most cases left to their fate, which may chance
+to be pecuniary ruin.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+OIL NOTES.
+
+PENNSYLVANIA.
+
+
+The total production of crude petroleum for the first three quarters
+of 1878 was 11,126,037 barrels, against 8,436,867 barrels for the same
+time in 1877; increase in 1878, 1,689,170 barrels.
+
+The total number of drilling wells completed for the first three
+quarters of 1878 were 2,333, against 2,699 for the same time in 1877;
+decrease in 1878, 366.
+
+The daily average production of the new wells completed for the first
+three quarters of 1878 was 13 2-10 barrels, against 14 2-10 for the
+same time in 1877; decrease in 1878, 1 barrel.
+
+The total number of dry holes developed in the first three quarters
+of 1878 were 280, against 476 for the same time in 1877; decrease in
+1878, 196.
+
+The total amount of crude petroleum held in the producing regions of
+Pennsvlvania, at the close of the third quarter of 1878, was 4,599,362
+barrels, against 2,503,657 at the same time in 1877; increase in 1878,
+2,095,705 barrels.
+
+The amount of crude petroleum represented by outstanding certificates
+on the last day of September was 1,705,853 barrels, against 1,317,484
+barrels on the last day of October, a reduction during October of
+158,127 barrels.
+
+Mr. J. M. Guffey has purchased of Marcus Hulings an undivided half
+interest in the celebrated Kinzua Creek property (Bradford district).
+The purchased portion contains 6,400 acres, on which there is a well
+that was struck in June last, and since that time has been doing from
+16 to 18 barrels, and has never been torpedoed. Mr. Guffey looks upon
+this as one of the best prospective oil territories in the country.
+
+D. W. C. Carroll & Co., of Pittsburg, have kept from 45 to 75 men
+employed, since June, in the oil regions, building iron tanks, nearly
+all of which are located in the Bradford district.
+
+
+WEST VIRGINIA.
+
+The Wheeling _Intelligencer_ says: As noticed in our Moundsville
+letter this morning, extensive preparations have been made to bore for
+oil on the opposite side of the river at the Union Coal Works shaft.
+The machinery was brought down from Pittsburg on Tuesday, and is now
+being put in position by contractors, who have engaged to go down
+1,200 feet. It will be recollected that for a long time past oil has
+been found in the coal shaft, and the company who are putting down the
+well feel confident that plenty of it exists deeper down. Some parties
+look forward to the development of the fact that Moundsville is
+situated in an important oil break, and that oil in abundance will
+be found on both sides of the river. The progress of the well will be
+looked forward to with much interest by the people of that vicinity.
+
+
+MASSACHUSETTS.
+
+The Maverick Oil Works at East Boston have recently made some very
+extensive additions and improvements, lengthening their wharf and
+making a variety of alterations in their buildings. They will shortly
+complete a new cooper shop, wherein, it is probable, they will
+construct all the tin cans required by the demands of their business.
+
+
+OHIO.
+
+The oil excitement has broken out afresh in West Mecca, Warren county,
+Ohio. Oil men, heavily backed with capital, have recently come in from
+Pennsylvania, and are making things lively in that locality. Eight new
+wells have been put in operation during the past week. This district
+is the same where the principal excitement prevailed 18 years ago.
+
+
+JAPAN.
+
+The Tokio _Times_ states that the principal feature of American trade
+with Japan is the petroleum exports from New York. The enterprise was
+inaugurated only eight years ago; but the business has so increased
+that while only 200 cases of kerosene, valued at $600, were exported
+in 1870, in 1877 366,639 cases were sent to Yokohama, and 128,158
+cases to Hiogo, whither none had before been carried direct. The value
+of these consignments was over $1,000,000.
+
+Several refineries are in operation in Japan, making kerosene from
+native petroleum.
+
+
+RUSSIA.
+
+The recent reports concerning the discovery of oil near the shores of
+the Caspian Sea seem to be fully confirmed. From one of the wells a
+stream, free from gas and froth, is forced to a height of 75 feet,
+yielding at the rate of 10,000 barrels a day. It is reported that
+companies are forming at Odessa, Kovo-Tcherkask, Astrakhan, and other
+cities, for the purpose of obtaining oil. Two large manufacturing
+concerns, who have their headquarters in New York city, recently
+received orders for considerable quantities of oil-line pipes,
+steam pumps, engines, boilers, and other apparatus, to be shipped
+immediately for St. Petersburg, Russia.
+
+
+ITALY.
+
+The oil wells of Italy comprise about 5, with a capacity of about 30
+barrels per day, of a thick substance of 14 gravity. They are pumped
+by hand, which, though primitive, is cheaper than steam, for both men
+and women are employed, the former receiving as compensation for a
+day's work 1 lira, equal to 20 cents; and the women 60 centessimi,
+equal to 12 cents of our money. The wells are located in a deep
+valley, and the oil carried up on the backs of donkeys to a refinery,
+where it is treated, and yields from 2 to 5 per cent. of burning oil.
+
+
+PERU.
+
+It is proposed to build a pipe line from the refinery on the estates
+of Henry Meiggs to the shipping port, a distance of about 7 miles. It
+is stated that oil can be produced at this point for less than 1 cent
+a gallon, and as the fields have produced from time immemorial, there
+is no prospect of their early exhaustion.
+
+
+ONTARIO.
+
+The oil refinery at St. Thomas, Ont., is running day and night; 494
+barrels of crude petroleum were brought from Petrolia for it in one
+week recently.--_Stowell's Petroleum Reporter_.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+RAILWAY NOTES.
+
+
+The new track laid in this country during the year ending September
+10, 1878, was 1,160 miles. During the six preceding years the number
+of miles of track laid was: In 1872, 4,498; 1873, 2,455; 1874, 1,066;
+1875, 702; 1876, 1,467; 1877, 1,176.
+
+The statement made in the recent Narrow Gauge Convention, that
+standard gauge freight cars weigh ten tons and carry ten tons, is
+indignantly disputed by users of the latter. One gentleman, having
+much to do with freight cars, says that the modern freight cars weigh
+from 17,000 to 18,000 lbs., commonly carry (and that on long hauls)
+28,000 lbs., are guaranteed to carry 30,000 lbs., while he has seen
+them show on the scales 30,000 and 32,000 lbs. of load, and in one
+case 35,000 lbs. The general tendency for some years has been to
+increase loads without increasing, but in many cases decreasing,
+weights of cars; and it seems quite likely that 30,000 lbs. will soon
+be the standard load. The tank cars used for carrying petroleum have
+an average capacity--and they are almost always run full--of 30,000
+lbs. The Standard Oil Company, which has some 3,000 of such cars,
+carried on four-wheeled trucks with the Master Car Builders' standard
+axle, has run them with such loads for years, and only recently had
+its first case of a broken axle, manifestly due to a defect in the
+iron.
+
+INTERESTING observations have been made recently on the Cologne-Minden
+Road, Prussia, on the rusting of iron rails. A pile of rails of odd
+lengths were laid on sleepers over a bed of gravel early in 1870, and
+remained undisturbed until the fall of 1877, there being no use for
+them. It was then found that they were covered with a layer of rust
+0.12 inch thick, which had to be removed by striking the rail with a
+hammer. The cleaned rail weighed only 398.2 lbs., while its original
+weight was 419.1 lbs., showing that 5 per cent. of the rail had been
+destroyed by rust, which covered the rail quite uniformly. This
+confirms the observation often made, that rails stacked away are much
+more liable to rust than those laid down in a track.
+
+According to _Le Fer_, at a meeting of directors of the German
+railroads held at Constance, the following information was furnished
+in regard to the relative value of the different methods of injecting
+ties:
+
+1. Railroad from Hanover and Cologne to Minden. Pine ties injected
+with chloride of zinc; after 21 years the proportion of ties renewed
+was 21 per cent. Beech ties injected with creasote; after 22 years,
+46 per cent. Oak ties injected with chloride of zinc; after 17 years,
+20.7 per cent. Oak ties not injected; after 17 years, 49 per cent. The
+conditions were very favorable for experiment; the road bed was good,
+and permitted of easy desiccation. The unrenewed ties showed, on
+cutting, that they were in a condition of perfect health.
+
+2. Railroad "Kaiser-Ferdinands-Nord." Oak ties not injected; after
+12 years the proportion renewed was 74.48 per cent. Oak ties injected
+with chloride of zinc; after 7 years, 3.29 per cent. Oak ties injected
+with creasote; after 6 years, 0.09 per cent. Pine ties injected with
+chloride of zinc; after 17 years, 4.46 per cent.
+
+The annual official reports of the railroads of India place the length
+of railways there at 7,551½ miles, of which 492½ miles were
+completed during the year 1877, and 223 miles since the close of the
+year. There are 806½ miles of double track; 5,912¾ miles are
+constructed on the 5 foot 6 inch gauge, and 1,638¾ on narrower
+gauges. The capital outlay on the State lines amounted to £3,122,051,
+and on the guaranteed lines to £1,374,882, bringing the total capital
+expenditure, up to the end of October, as regards the State, and to the
+end of March last, as regards the guaranteed lines, to £113,144,541.
+The expenditure up to the end of the year may be taken in round numbers
+at £13,344,500. The revenue from all the open lines was £6,232,888, of
+which £6,091,532 were earned by the guaranteed lines, with a capital of
+£95,482,941, and £141,356 were earned by the State lines, on a capital
+expenditure of £17,661,600. The net receipts from the guaranteed lines
+exceeded the amount advanced for guaranteed interest by £1,454,591; the
+year previous there was a deficit of £216,517.
+
+A French engineer named Duponchel has made a report on the project of
+a railroad across the Desert of Sahara. The projected railway would
+run from Algiers to Timbuctoo, a distance of 2,500 kilometers. M.
+Duponchel stated that the principal portion of the line would rest
+during nearly its whole extent on layers of sand, and toward the end
+on primitive volcanic rocks, granite, gneiss, etc. No mountainous
+obstructions would have to be encountered. The average heat does not
+appear to exceed 23° or 24° C. (73 2-5° or 75 1-5° Fah.), but account
+must be taken of the great variations which occur in the 24 hours. For
+instance, occasionally, a very cold night succeeds a temperature
+of 40° C. (104° Fah.) in the day time. The great difficulty to be
+overcome would be the want of water, which is not to be procured in
+that region. M. Duponchel calculates that for three trains daily the
+amount of water required would be 4,000 cubic meters, and that the
+engineering science of the day is quite sufficient to supply even a
+much greater quantity at the requisite points.
+
+The government of Costa Rica has advertised for tenders for building
+bridges on the second Atlantic Division of its railroad. There will
+be needed 194 bridges. The bridges will vary in length from 3 feet
+to 1,044 feet, and will be built for a track of 3 foot 3½ inch gauge.
+They will be of sufficient strength to stand a strain of 2,240 lbs.
+to the lineal foot, in addition to the weight of the usual freight
+carried.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+THE WERDERMANN ELECTRIC LIGHT.
+
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 1 THE WERDERMANN LAMP.]
+
+It has been looked upon as essential that a certain distance should
+separate the ends of the carbon electrodes used in electric lamps.
+Every one has accepted this as an axiom. Mr. Werdermann's skepticism
+has, however, caused him to doubt the axiom, and the result is that he
+has discarded the electric arc space, and by placing his electrodes
+in actual contact, has produced a lamp which provides the means of
+dividing the electric current, and promises to give almost any number
+of lights from a single machine. Mr. Werdermann's inventions, says the
+_Engineering_, are secured by patents considerably in advance of those
+of Mr. Edison, and may in their chief points be explained as follows:
+
+In place of two electrodes of similar form and dimensions, one
+electrode consists of a large bun-shaped disk of carbon placed with
+the rounded face downward. The other carbon is a fine rod of carbon of
+about 1/8 or 5-32 inch in diameter. The upper end of this is pointed
+and maintained in contact with the center of the lower surface of the
+disk. This rod is supported by means of a spring collar, which also
+forms the circuit connection. This is within about ¾ in. of the
+top of the carbon, so that the ¾ in. becomes incandescent, and the
+contact between the two carbons being only a point, a small electric
+arc is produced between the two carbons, while the electricity is at
+the same time passed on through the carbon disk, and the connections
+there attached to the next lamp.
+
+[Illustration: DIAGRAM OF CURRENT.]
+
+Referring to our diagrams, in Fig. 1 the upper carbon is shown at
+C, and the rod carbon at c. The former is supported by means of an
+adjustable jointed bracket, B, attached to the wood stand. The rod
+carbon is guided by the spring collar on the top of the stand, and
+to which the connection is made, and is supported by the fine cord
+running over the pulley, P. This cord is attached to the clasp, D, at
+the bottom of the rod, and to the balance weight, W, by which the rod
+is maintained in constant, practical, though not absolute contact
+with the disk. Round the upper part of the disk is a metal band, A, to
+which the circuit wire is attached, and the current thus passed on to
+the next lamps.
+
+At a recent trial of this lamp, the current was derived from a small
+Gramme electro-plating machine, requiring only 2 horse power to put
+it in full work. It may therefore be assumed that this was about the
+limit of the power at work to produce the light. At the commencement
+of the proceedings two lights were maintained, each stated to be equal
+to 320 sperm candles. At this rate the two lights would be equal to
+640 candles, or 40 full power gas lights, each consuming 5 cubic feet
+of 16 candle gas per hour. Such gas lights, it may be observed, are
+not often seen, except in the argand form. The two lights burned with
+extreme steadiness, there being no undulation, or flickering whatever,
+although there was no glass globe to tone down any variations of
+luster. The lights were perfectly bare and unprotected, and the place
+where the trial was made was a workshop of moderate size.
+
+Later in the evening one light was exhibited outside the building, in
+an open thoroughfare, and the same perfect steadiness was observable.
+After the two lights had been burning for a time they were
+extinguished, and the current was sent through a row of ten lamps.
+The light per lamp was of course reduced, but there was the remarkable
+fact that ten lights were maintained by a comparatively weak machine,
+driven by an engine exerting the power of only two horses.
+
+The light of each of these ten lamps was stated to be that of 40
+candles, making, therefore, a total of 400. A reduction of light,
+consequent on the further division of the current, is thus apparent;
+but for this loss there may be ample compensation in the superior
+economy of a distributed light as compared with one that is
+concentrated. In the case of the ten lamps, the light is equal to that
+of 25 full power gas lights, consuming altogether 125 cubic feet of
+gas per hour. The extremely small arc due to the peculiar arrangement
+of the carbons in the Werdermann light has the advantage of offering
+the least possible resistance to the passage of the current.
+
+This resistance increases much more rapidly than is represented by
+increase of distance between the carbon points. Hence the electric
+power with Werdermann's lamp is economized to the utmost in this
+respect, and it becomes possible--as in the recent experiment--to make
+use of an electric current large in quantity but of low intensity.
+The tension being small, there is the less difficulty with regard to
+insulation. If one lamp or more should be accidentally extinguished,
+the rest will continue to burn. The whole of the lamps can also be
+extinguished and relit by merely stopping the current and then sending
+it on again. No nice and troublesome adjustment with reference to the
+length of the electric arc is requisite, and simple contact between
+the point of the rod and the surface of the disk is sufficient for the
+manifestation of the light.
+
+In respect to duration, a carbon rod 5-32 in. in diameter, and a yard
+long, obtained from Paris, costs a franc. This, placed in a large
+lamp, having an estimated lighting power of 320 candles, will last
+from 12 to 15 hours. The smaller lamps take a carbon of 1/8 in.
+diameter.
+
+Mr. Werdermann endeavors to make the resistance of the external
+portion of the circuit equal to the internal resistance, in order to
+obtain the greatest effect. It is well known that the best results
+are obtained when the internal and external resistances are equal. The
+method adopted is that known to electricians as the divided arc, and
+will easily be understood from Fig. 2. Let B represent the source of
+the electric current, and A a copper wire connected to the positive
+and negative poles of the source as in the diagram. The wire, A, has
+a certain resistance. Suppose, now, we arrange for the current to pass
+as in the diagram, Fig. 3. By the insertion of the new wire, C, we
+have lessened the total external resistance and increased the current,
+as will be seen by reference to Ohm's law. C = E/(R+r) where C
+= current; E = electromotive force; R = resistance external; r =
+resistance internal. The fraction E/(R+r) increases as its denominator
+is lessened.
+
+The current passes along the two branches in equal quantities if the
+resistances of the wires are equal, but inversely as the resistances
+if they are unequal. Thus, if the branch, A, has a resistance, 9, and
+C has a resistance, 1, 9-10 of the current will pass through C, and
+1-10 through A. Similarly, for any number of branches the current will
+divide itself according to the resistances. If, then, we have a number
+of branches, as indicated in Fig. 4, the current will divide itself
+equally among the branches when the resistances of the branches are
+equal. This is the arrangement adopted by Mr. Werdermann, as will be
+seen from the annexed diagram, Fig. 5, in which N and P represent
+the negative and positive poles of the machine, and L L the electric
+lamps.
+
+When any one lamp is put out the inventor arranges that an equivalent
+resistance shall be put into the circuit, so that as a whole the
+circuit is unaltered, and the other lamps unaffected.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+CASSON'S SAW BENCH.
+
+
+We give herewith a perspective view of a circular saw bench made by
+Messrs. Oliver & Co. (Limited), of Chesterfield, England, which we
+take from _Engineering_. The chief features in this machine are that
+it is fitted with Mr. John Casson's patent feed gear and apparatus for
+steadying the saws. This feeding arrangement has now been in use some
+years, and has been fitted to a very large number of circular saw
+benches. This being the case, and the arrangement being very clearly
+shown by our engraving, it will be unnecessary for us to describe it
+in detail here.
+
+The saw-steadying apparatus, with which the saw bench we illustrate
+is fitted, is a novel arrangement, recently patented by Mr. Casson; in
+the present case it is applied to two saws.
+
+The steadying arrangement consists of accurately fitted sliding jaws
+mounted on the arms of a forked support, so that they can be moved and
+adjusted only by fine threaded screws, the jaws having their surfaces
+next the saws, accurately parallel with the plane of the collar of the
+saw spindle; these jaws, A, are fixed when the adjusting screws are at
+rest, and they are faced with strips of greenheart or other suitable
+timber, secured by countersunk screw bolts, these faces forming a
+perfectly true guide for the saw blades.
+
+For a single saw the guides just described would suffice; but for two
+or more saws the outside guides must be supplemented by others between
+the saw blades.
+
+It will be noticed that the support, F, carrying the guiding jaws, has
+a square stem sliding through the head of a suitable standard, and it
+can be readily fixed at any desired height by means of the set screw.
+
+[Illustration: BENCH WITH SAW-STEADYING APPARATUS.]
+
+The arrangement we have been describing is well carried out, and there
+can be no doubt that it will do good service, and enable thin saws
+to be efficiently used with a heavy feed. We have received very
+satisfactory reports of its performance.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+A BAIT FOR INVENTORS.
+
+
+I will give $200 for a machine that will bale hay in the field. Rake
+and press combined would be preferable, but would not object to
+its taking the hay in the windrow. The machine must be expeditious,
+executing as fast as a mower is able to cut. Must have sufficient
+power to make a bale suitable for commercial uses; shape of the bale
+immaterial; a round one preferred. Must be of light draught; one team
+is generally all that is available for any machine on the farm. These,
+with the other qualifications demanded of every machine, simplicity,
+durability, easy to manage, etc. If such an invention could be
+produced it would make a revolution in the hay field almost equal to
+that which the mower has made.
+
+What an awkward, ungainly spectacle a man presents, struggling at one
+end of a six foot pole, with a ten pound lock of hay at the other end,
+endeavoring with all his might and main to elevate it 12 or 15 feet on
+top of a load! It is an insult to human intelligence. A load of loose
+hay is an uncertain quantity. You are never sure of getting it into
+the barn. Top heavy, one sided, too wide or too high for the doors;
+and even with the best of luck, a good percentage has drizzled in the
+wake of the wagon over the lot to the barn. A 100 or 200 lb. bale,
+with an inclined plane, or a pulley on side or aft of a good strong
+rack, and all this barbarism has succumbed to civilization.
+
+At the barn comes a worse servitude. (I don't mean the horse fork;
+that is a grand lift to civilization. I hope to modify it shortly to
+throw bales.) There a man struggles with sheer desperation to press
+by his own avoirdupois 20 tons of hay into a place that won't hold 10.
+Tramp, tramp, tramp, leg-weary, panting like an overheated dog, every
+fiber of his clothing saturated with perspiration, a subject worthy
+of a better immortality than the Greek slave. O Edison! don't fritter
+away your genius on sounding brass and tinkling cymbal. Elevate the
+laborer. Liberate our overworked people. Make us a chariot to press
+our hay.--_Edmund Adams, North Manlius, N. Y., to the New York
+Tribune._
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+A SILVER MILL IN THE CLOUDS.
+
+
+The largest and most complete silver mill ever constructed, says the
+San Francisco Stock Report, has recently been built by Messrs. Rankin,
+Brayton & Co., of the Pacific Iron Works of that city, for the Cerro
+de Pasco Mining Company, of Peru, and shipped for Callao, the port of
+destination. This enormous mill consists of 80 stamps, 900 lbs, each,
+44 live foot amalgamating pans, 22 nine foot settlers, and all the
+accessories of a first-class modern mill. It is to be erected upon the
+above named mines, which are situated in the heart of the Andes,
+some 150 miles east of the city of Lima, at an elevation of more than
+14,000 feet. To admit of mule transportation a portion of the way up
+this tremendous ascent, the mill had to be made in sections, no piece
+weighing more than 500 lbs. Some idea of the magnitude of this work
+may be inferred from the fact that the mill, as thus constructed,
+consisted of more than 17,000 pieces, and weighed upward of 600 tons.
+This enormous amount of machinery was constructed by the above firm
+and put on board a ship 50 days from date of contract.
+
+The Cerro de Pasco mines have been the richest and most famous in the
+world's history. They have been worked by the old arastra process for
+the past 200 years, and have produced, according to the most authentic
+records, more than $500,000,000. With such improved machinery the
+product of these mines will undoubtedly attract the attention of the
+world, and so reflect great credit upon the capacity, ingenuity, and
+skill of our mechanical establishments.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+POULTICES.
+
+
+The common practice in making poultices of mixing the linseed meal
+with hot water, and applying them directly to the skin, is quite
+wrong, because, if we do not wish to burn the patient, we must wait
+until a great portion of the heat has been lost. The proper method
+is to take a flannel bag (the size of the poultice required), to fill
+this with the linseed poultice as hot as it can possibly be made, and
+to put between this and the skin a second piece of flannel, so that
+there shall be at least two thicknesses of flannel between the skin
+and the poultice itself. Above the poultice should be placed more
+flannel, or a piece of cotton wool, to prevent it from getting cold.
+By this method we are able to apply the linseed meal boiling hot,
+without burning the patient, and the heat, gradually diffusing through
+the flannel, affords a grateful sense of relief which cannot be
+obtained by other means. There are few ways in which such marked
+relief is given to abdominal pain as by the application of a poultice
+in this manner.--_Dr. T. Lauder Brunton, in Brain._
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+NEW MECHANICAL INVENTIONS.
+
+
+Mr. Joseph Adams, of Washington, D. C., has patented an improved Gas
+Regulator, designed either to cut off the gas entirely or to let on
+a larger amount of gas than its automatic action would ordinarily
+permit, or to allow the regulator to operate with an automatic action,
+as usual.
+
+Mr. Jean A. Hitter, Jr., of St. Martinsville, La., has patented an
+improved Type Writer, of simple and compact construction, that may be
+readily used for printing on paper and for other purposes, being
+small enough to be carried conveniently in the pocket, if desired, and
+readily operated with little practice.
+
+Messrs. Edwin N. Boynton, Geo. M. Coburn, and Thos. F. Carver, of
+Worcester, Mass., have patented an improved Hand Drilling Machine, by
+which a fast or slow motion can be readily obtained, at the will
+of the operator, the slower motion being especially advantageous in
+drilling large holes, as more power is obtained, and the holes are
+drilled with greater ease.
+
+Mr. Reuben R. James, of Rising Sun, Ind., has devised an improved
+Adding Machine of simple and comparatively inexpensive construction.
+The chief feature of the machine is a series of toothed revolving
+counting wheels, which are inscribed on their peripheries with the
+nine digits and cipher, and mounted loosely on a common axis, and each
+having four lateral inclines or cams, which cause, at the proper time,
+a weighted pawl lever to engage the next counting wheel on the left,
+so as to carry ten when the numbers added on the wheel on the right
+exceed ten. The adding is effected by successively drawing down to a
+stop on the finger board the teeth of the counting wheels which are
+opposite the numbers to be added, and the numerical result will be
+seen on the wheels in a series of slots or apertures in the case of
+the machine.
+
+Mr. Jacob Croft, of Scipio, Utah Ter., has devised an improved Turbine
+Water Wheel, which is constructed to prevent back pressure by the
+water against the casing as it escapes from the buckets. Sand and
+other substances in the water are prevented from entering around the
+shaft and cutting or wearing it.
+
+An improvement in Sweeping Machines has been patented by Mr. Isaac
+A. Chomel, of Brooklyn, N. Y. This invention relates to apparatus for
+sweeping up and collecting dirt, dust, and other refuse from floors,
+carpets, streets, and other places. The dust box is to be rolled over
+the floor and the brush revolved by a winch. The speed of the brush is
+independent of the motion of the machine along the floor.
+
+Mr. D. A. Ferris, of Tioga Center, N. Y., has patented an improved
+Implement for Forcing Flooring Planks together when laying floors. It
+is simple, convenient, and powerful.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+EFFECT OF QUININE ON THE HEARING.
+
+
+It is a well known fact to medical men that there exists a great
+prejudice among a large number of people against taking quinine, the
+idea being very prevalent that a prolonged use of it not only affects
+the hearing, but (to use the common expression) that it "gets into
+the bones." As regards the former belief, Dr. Roosa, of New York,
+has recently been collecting and examining the evidence as far as
+possible, and has come to the conclusion that in some cases there
+really is a permanent nervous affection of the ear produced which
+justifies the opinion held by the laity. Hitherto physicians have
+generally disbelieved this, and ascribed the notion to prejudice.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+THE MICROPHONE AS A THIEF CATCHER.
+
+
+The microphone as a thief catcher has proved very useful to an English
+resident in India, who found his store of oil rapidly and mysteriously
+diminishing. He fixed a microphone to the oil cans, carried the wire
+up to his bedroom, and, after the house had been closed for the night,
+sat up to await the result. Very shortly he heard the clinking of
+bottles, followed by the gurgling sound of liquid being poured out,
+and running downstairs he caught his bearer in the act of filling
+small bottles with oil for easy conveyance from the premises.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+THE TALLEST TREE IN THE WORLD.
+
+
+The tallest accurately measured _Sequoia_ standing in the Calaveras
+Grove, near Stockton, California, measures 325 feet, and there is
+no positive evidence that any trees of this genus ever exceeded that
+height. Of late years, explorations in Gippsland, Victoria, have
+brought to light some marvelous specimens of _Eucalyptus_, and the
+State Surveyor of Forests measured a fallen tree on the banks of the
+Watts River, and found it to be 435 feet from the roots to the top of
+the trunk. The crest of this tree was broken off, but the trunk at the
+fracture was 9 feet in circumference, and the height of the tree when
+growing was estimated to have been more than 500 feet. This tree,
+however, was dead, though there is no doubt that it was far loftier
+than the tallest Sequoia. Near Fernshaw, in the Dandenong district,
+Victoria, there has recently been discovered a specimen of the "Almond
+Leaf Gum" (_Eucalyptus amygdalesia_), measuring 380 feet from the
+ground to the first branch, and 450 feet to the topmost wing. This
+tree would overtop the tallest living _Sequoia_ by 125 feet. Its girth
+is 80 feet, which is less than that of many Sequoias, but as far as
+height is concerned it must be considered the tallest living tree in
+the world.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+THE ARGONAUT, OR PAPER NAUTILUS.
+
+
+[Illustration: ARGONAUT, OR PAPER NAUTILUS.]
+
+This mollusk received the first title in allusion to the pretty fable
+which was formerly narrated of its sailing powers, and the latter
+title is given on account of the extreme thinness and fragility of the
+shell. It is remarkable that the shell of the argonaut is, during the
+life of its owner, elastic and yielding, almost as if it were made of
+thin horn.
+
+The two arms of the argonaut are greatly dilated at their extremities;
+and it was formerly asserted, and generally believed, that the
+creature was accustomed to employ these arms as sails, raising them
+high above the shell, and allowing itself to be driven over the
+surface by the breeze, while it directed its course by the remaining
+arms, which were suffered to hang over the edge of the shell into the
+water and acted like so many oars. In consequence of this belief the
+creature was named the argonaut, in allusion to the old classical
+fable of the ship Argo and her golden freight.
+
+The animal, or "poulp," as it is technically called, is a lovely
+creature despite its unattractive form. It is a mass of silver with a
+cloud of spots of the most beautiful rose color, and a fine dotting
+of the same, which heighten its beauty. A large membrane, which is
+the expanded velation of the arms, covers all. It has been definitely
+proved that the use of the expanded arms which cover the exterior of
+the shell is to build up its delicate texture, and to repair damages,
+the substance being secreted by these arms, and by their broad
+expansions moulded into shape. The larger figure in the engraving
+represents the argonaut while thus within its shell. While crawling
+the creature turns itself so as to rest on its head, withdraws its
+body as far as possible into its shell, and, using its arms like legs,
+creeps slowly but securely along the ground, sometimes affixing its
+disks to stones or projecting points of rocks for the purpose of
+hauling itself along. When, however, it wishes to attain greater
+speed, and to pass through the waters, it makes use of a totally
+different principle. Respiration is achieved by the passage of water
+over double gills or branchiæ; the water, after it has completed its
+purpose, being ejected through a moderately long tube, technically
+called a siphon. The orifice of the siphon is directed toward the
+head of the animal, and it is by means of this simple apparatus that
+progression is effected. When the creature desires to dart rapidly
+through the water, it gathers its six arms into a straight line, so
+as to afford little resistance to the water, keeps its velated arms
+stretched tightly over the shell, and then, by violently ejecting
+the water from the siphon, drives itself by reaction in the opposite
+direction. The uppermost figure shows the argonaut in the act of
+swimming.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+THE TRAP DOOR SPIDER OF JAMAICA.
+
+
+This spider digs a burrow in the earth and lines it with a silken web.
+The burrow is closed by a trap door, having a hinge that permits it
+to be opened and closed with admirable accuracy. The door is circular,
+and is made of alternate layers of earth and web, and is hinged to
+the lining of the tube that leads to the burrow by a band of the same
+silken secretion. The door exactly fits the entrance to the burrow,
+and when closed, so precisely corresponds with the surrounding earth
+that it can hardly be distinguished, even when its position is known.
+It is a strange sight to see the earth open, a little lid raised, some
+hairy legs protrude, and gradually the whole form of the spider show
+itself.
+
+[Illustration: TRAP DOOR SPIDER.]
+
+The mode in which these spiders procure food seems to be by hunting at
+night, and in some cases by catching insects that are entangled in the
+threads that the creature spins by the side of its house.
+
+In the day time they are very chary of opening the door of their
+domicile, and if the trap be raised from the outside, they run to the
+spot, hitch the claws of their fore feet in the silken webbing of the
+door, and those of the hind feet in the lining of the burrow, and so
+resist with all their might. The strength of the spider is wonderfully
+great in proportion to its size.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+TO MAKE A HOLE IN GLASS.
+
+
+_New Remedies_ describes the following easy method of making a hole
+in plate glass: Make a circle of clay or cement rather larger than the
+intended hole; pour some kerosene into the cell thus made, ignite
+it, place the plate upon a moderately hard support, and with a stick
+rather smaller than the hole required, and a hammer, strike a rather
+smart blow. This will leave a rough-edged hole, which may be smoothed
+with a file. Cold water is said to answer even better than a blow.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+THE PRESERVATION OF EGGS.
+
+
+As science advances, the processes proposed for the preservation
+of organic substances are being brought to greater and greater
+perfection. No subject perhaps in this connection has received
+greater attention, and been the subject of more processes, patent and
+otherwise, than that of the preservation of eggs. In fact this is a
+question of considerable importance, not only from a culinary, but
+also from an industrial standpoint--that of the manufacture of albumen
+for photographic purposes. In the _Moniteur de la Photographie_ Dr.
+Phipson calls attention to a new process, which may be briefly stated
+as follows:
+
+On taking the eggs from the nest they are covered over, by means of a
+bit of wool, with butter in which has been dissolved 2 or 3 per cent
+of salicylic acid. Each egg, after receiving this coat, is placed in
+a box filled with very fine and absolutely dry saw dust. If care
+be taken that the eggs do not touch each other, and that they be
+perfectly covered with the saw dust, they will keep fresh for several
+months--perhaps for more than a year. Dr. Phipson states that he has
+experimented with this process for two years, with most excellent
+results. So much for the preservation of the entire egg; but there
+is also a process for the preservation of the albumen of the egg
+for photographic uses, due to M. Berg. In this process, the white,
+separated from the yolk, is evaporated in zinc pans or porcelain cups,
+at a temperature of 45° C. The solidified albumen thus obtained is
+pulverized by means of a mill. The yolk, by means of machinery, is
+whipped up into a light mass, and then spread out on zinc plates and
+evaporated to dryness at a temperature of 80°, and finally powdered.
+The powders thus obtained keep for a long time. The white of eggs, so
+prepared, is used for the purposes to which albumen is applied in
+the industrial arts, while the powdered yolks are used for domestic
+purposes.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+CHARACTERISTICS OF AMERICAN SHEEP HUSBANDRY.
+
+
+Dr. Hayes, in his recent address before the National Agricultural
+Congress, remarking that a very inadequate idea is given of a nation's
+resources by the number of sheep raised--the character of the animals
+being of the first consideration--proceeds to show some of the
+characteristics of American sheep husbandry. He states that the sheep
+of the United States consist, first, of what are called native sheep;
+second, descendants from improved English races; third, the Mexican
+sheep found in Texas, New Mexico, Colorado, and California; fourth,
+the merino sheep, and crosses of that breed with the three preceding
+races. The merinos constitute the principal and characteristic race
+of the United States; and this is the most important fact in the
+enumeration of our resources for sheep husbandry and the wool
+manufacture. England has no merinos, except in her colonies; Russia
+has but 12,000,000 merinos; France, but 9,000,000. The merinos and
+grades in the United States exceed 25,000,000. Merino wool is for
+clothing what wheat is for food; it is the chief material for cloth
+at the present day, the coarsest as well as the finest. While the
+softest, it is the strongest of all fibers. From its fulling
+and spinning qualities, it is the best adhesive for the cheap
+fabrics--coarser wool, cotton, or shoddy; the mixture of merino wool
+increasing indefinitely the material for cheap clothing. An abundance
+of merino wool is the greatest boon the world has received from the
+animal kingdom in the last century. It is, in fact, in its extended
+culture the product of the last century. A century ago all the merinos
+in the world, confined exclusively to Spain, did not number 1,000,000.
+1765 marks the epoch of the first exportation of the merinos to
+Saxony; 1786, to France; 1833, to Australia; 1802, the introduction
+of the first merino sheep to this country; and to Gen. Humphreys, of
+Connecticut, and to the introduction to his farm of twenty-one rams
+and seventy ewes, may be directly traced the most celebrated breeds
+of the American merino; producing individuals actually sold for $5,000
+each, others for $2,000 to $3,000, and one for which $10,000 was
+refused. The fiber of the merino sheep is not the only excellence of
+the animal; when properly bred, this race has a hardiness surpassing
+all other high-bred races. The "yolk," provided by nature to assist in
+the growth of the wool, abounding in this race more than in any
+other, causes the tips of the fleece to be cemented, and to become
+impenetrable to rains and snows. A lighter pasture suffices for their
+maintenance than would support the mutton races. This race is fitted,
+above all others, for the remote pastoral lands and for culture on a
+large scale.
+
+Our breeders, in aiming to increase the weight of their fleece, have
+developed the length of the staple, and have unconsciously created
+a merino combing wool--a wool in special demand through modern
+improvements in machinery and changes in the fashion of goods. Mr.
+Ferneau, an eminent Belgian wool manufacturer, who has thoroughly
+studied our wool resources and manufactures, says that three quarters
+of the American wool is "combing wool," and will be ultimately
+employed for this purpose. The bulk of American merino wools is of
+strong, sound, and healthy staple, having few weak spots in them.
+Those from the other States of the West are free from burrs. Those
+from California have this defect in a high degree. They are admirably
+fitted for blankets, flannels, and fancy cassimeres, and the great
+bulk of our card wool manufactures. They are so excellent, as a whole,
+that M. Ferneau says they are too valuable to be used for clothing
+purposes. They supply nine tenths of all the card or clothing wool
+consumed in American mills.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+THE PROGRESS OF SCIENCE IN MEXICO.
+
+
+Mexico, the land of so many and such frequent revolutions, and the
+scene of such intestinal commotions and bitter strife through the
+whole period of her existence, from the Spanish conquest up to within
+a few years, is at present happily in a state of comparative peace
+and quiet; the laws are less disregarded, brigandage is gradually
+disappearing, more attention is being paid to the protection of life
+and property, and public education is in a prosperous condition. No
+greater evidence of this felicitous state of affairs could be afforded
+than that shown in the display of energy and zeal with which the
+present administration, aided by the foremost Mexican scientists,
+is carrying out an extended system of scientific explorations,
+investigations, and internal improvements; and the progress of which
+is being recorded in a valuable series of government publications;
+one of these--the _Annals of the Minister of Public Works_--being
+now before us. This volume, the third of the series, begins with
+an article by the able director of the National Meteorological
+Observatory, Sr. Mariano Barcena, calling attention, in the first
+place, to the great national importance, as well as necessity, of a
+well organized system of meteorological observations; (2) giving a
+description of the Mexican Observatory, its equipment, the questions
+it proposes to investigate, and the hours of observation; (3)
+an explanation, accompanied by charts, of the daily system of
+registration pursued at the observatory; and, finally, observations on
+the periodic phenomena of vegetation, and notes on the orography
+and geology of the valley of Mexico. Sr. A. Anquiano follows with a
+communication on the "Geographical Position of Chalco," prefacing
+the results of his labors by an able essay on the "Mexican Method"
+of determining the latitude of places, a "method" founded on an
+observation of the stars. It would be interesting to quote from this,
+but our limited space will not permit. The "Citlaltepetl Commission,"
+consisting of the engineers, Srs. Plowes, Rodriguez, and Vigil, whose
+patriotic ardor induced the minister to commission them to explore
+"and be the first to plant the flag of Mexican science on the snow
+clad peak of Citlaltepetl," render their report of operations during
+the year 1877 in the form of an exceedingly interesting memoir. They
+ascertained the peak of the volcano Citlaltepetl (or Orizaba) to be
+17,651 feet above the level of the sea, which is 292 feet more
+than Humboldt made it. After a somewhat exhaustive treatise on the
+"Telescope and its Amplifying Power," by Sr. Jimenez, we have a long
+and extremely interesting account of the Ancient Aqueduct of Zempoala,
+one of the most notable of existing monuments of the old Spanish rule.
+These aqueducts (for there were three) were projected and carried to a
+successful termination by an humble and ignorant Franciscan monk--the
+Friar Tembleque. The construction of these remarkable works, begun
+in 1554 and occupying a period of 17 years, was undertaken for the
+purpose of carrying water from Zempoala to Otumba (a distance of
+27 miles), and was the occasion of a curious contract between the
+inhabitants of these two cities. It seems that Otumba, situated at a
+high elevation, needed water; Zempoala was blessed with water, but was
+sadly in need of spiritual advisers; the people of the former city,
+therefore, agreed to furnish a certain proportion of friars to
+minister to the religious wants of the parties of the second part, and
+the latter in return bound themselves to furnish water, and the labor
+and materials for the building of an aqueduct to lead it, to the
+parties of the first part. No tradition remains to state when these
+structures ceased to be used. The longest of the three extends across
+the valley of the Papelote, a distance of 2,960 feet, and consists
+of 68 arches, the highest of which has an altitude of 106 feet. Señor
+Salazar urges on the Minister of Public Works the importance of having
+these monuments of a past age repaired and restored, not alone for
+archaeological reasons, but because Otumba to-day is as greatly in
+need of running water as it was in that remote period when these
+viaducts were constructed. Señor Barcena follows with a description
+and colored plate of a plant (_Gaudichaudia Enrico-Martinezii_) new
+to the Mexican flora, and Sr. Federico Weidner with some "General
+Reflections on the Iron Industry of the Country." Succeeding the
+latter paper, an exhaustive article by the same writer gives us,
+from a geological point of view, the structure, as far as can be
+ascertained, of the "Cerro de Mercado" of Durango, which is said to be
+one vast mass of iron. The author after a thorough examination of this
+hill, last year, concludes that it is of eruptive or volcanic origin.
+This is contrary to the statements made in most published works,
+the authors of which probably derived their notions from the views
+expressed by Humboldt, who was of the opinion that this mass of iron
+was an immense aerolite. Sr. Weidner, however, concludes that the
+great traveler never visited the locality in person, but obtained his
+information from heresay. He shows that the hill is deficient in the
+chemical constituents of aerolites, namely, iron, nickel, and cobalt,
+in a native or malleable state; but, on the contrary, is made up in a
+great measure of crystalline magnetic iron, and various useful oxides
+of the same metal. By a careful estimate of the quantity of iron
+contained in that portion only of the Cerro which appears above the
+surface of the soil, the author obtains as a result the enormous sum
+of 507,000,000 pounds, and this reduced to a metallic state would
+yield 250,000,000 pounds of pure iron. The structure of this
+remarkable hill is made apparent to the reader by means of an
+excellent geological section, in colors, accompanying the text.
+
+The volume closes with some notes by Sr. Barcena on the "Hydrographic
+System of the Hacienda of Cienega de Mata, and its application to one
+of the theories that explain Natural Fountains."
+
+In taking leave of this subject we have to congratulate the Mexican
+Government not only for the valuable matter contained in its
+scientific publications, but also for the very excellent style in
+which the latter are being issued. The general make up of the volume
+before us leaves little to be desired; the arrangement of the types
+is extremely tasty, the imprint is clean, sharp, and clear, the
+paper good, the margins of the pages broad, and the illustrations
+exceedingly well executed. It is to be sincerely hoped that the
+present state of peace, which our sister republic is enjoying, will
+endure for numerous years to come; and that the scientific work begun
+under such happy auspices may go on uninterruptedly until the whole
+country shall have been thoroughly explored. For as yet, we know but
+comparatively little about the geology of Mexico, and a great deal is
+yet to be learned, too, about her natural productions.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+CORRESPONDENCE.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+ALUM IN BREAD.--A REPLY TO DR. MOTT'S ARTICLE IN SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN
+OF NOVEMBER 16, ENTITLED "DELETERIOUS USE OF ALUM IN BAKING POWDER."
+
+By W. P. CLOTWORTHY, BALTIMORE, MD.
+
+
+On August 13, 1878, I obtained letters patent for the exclusive right
+to use exsiccated ammonia alum in baking powders. This fact I state
+that the public may know the reason that elicits this reply to
+the remarkable article on adulterations in baking powders, in the
+SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN of Nov. 16th, emanating from the pen of Henry A.
+Mott, Jr. I wish the Professor had been equally candid in stating his
+reasons for contributing the article. It is rare for a chemist to turn
+philanthropist without some consideration. The analysis of forty-two
+baking powders requires no little labor; twenty-one were examined
+at the expense of the government for the benefit of the Indian
+Department, the others, no doubt, at the expense and for the benefit
+of the Royal Baking Powder Company. I hope his services have been
+liberally requited. The public certainly owe him nothing for his labor
+or opinions. An excuse can be made for the prejudice existing against
+the use of alum in any form for baking purposes; it is an inheritance
+from a preceding age; but no apology can be offered for a practical
+chemist in this day, who labors to keep alive and foster a prejudice
+by the suppression of truths and facts. Professor Mott, in attempting
+to prove a fraud in food, has perpetrated a fraud in facts. That this
+opinion may not be unwarranted, I will state the facts about alum,
+which may be new to the public, but familiar to every chemist. Alum
+was formerly a compound of sulph. alumina and sulph. potash. In the
+past ten years nearly all manufacturers of alum have substituted
+sulph. ammonia for the sulph. potash; this change removes from alum
+a dangerous and objectionable ingredient, and adds a healthful
+one. Professor Mott recommends the use of ammonia in the form of a
+carbonate--carbonate of ammonia is one of the results in baking powder
+of the decomposition which takes place between alum and bicarbonate of
+soda; in the complete decomposition which takes place pure alumina is
+eliminated, highly recommended as an antacid. During the process
+of baking, alum is completely decomposed through the liberation of
+carbonic acid. Professor Mott must have known this, yet with this
+knowledge warns the public on the deleterious effect of alum in bread.
+
+About the first of last October I determined to vindicate the use
+of exsiccated ammonia alum as a substitute for cream of tartar, and
+accordingly issued a circular to the trade; from this circular I now
+give the following extract, which enters minutely into the subject:
+
+"To claim that an experience of 35 years in compounding medicines
+should entitle my opinion on chemicals and chemical compounds to a
+respectful consideration, is neither presumptuous nor unreasonable.
+With this simple introduction I now avow myself the originator
+and patentee of exsiccated ammonia alum baking powder. The use of
+exsiccated ammonia alum has been declared unhealthful by the advocates
+of other baking powders, and every manufacturer using it has been held
+up for public reprobation. This has been done by rival manufacturers,
+either through ignorance or malice; if from the former they are to be
+pitied, if from the latter they are contemptible. These opinions have
+been promulgated by kitchen chemists, whose circle of knowledge begins
+and ends with cream tartar and soda; and even of these articles they
+only know that cream tartar is in some way derived from grapes. In
+this circular I propose to state a few facts in relation to cream
+tartar and exsiccated alum, and the combinations they form with
+bicarbonate of soda, and allow you to form your own opinion of their
+respective merits. Crude tartar is the incrustation found in wine
+casks. It contains coloring matter and about 15 per cent of lime.
+This article is purified and called the cream of tartar, but it is
+impossible to extract all the lime. Commercially pure cream tartar
+contains at least 5 per cent of lime. When cream tartar is used in
+proportion of two parts to one of bicarbonate of soda, you will have
+an average of 3 to 4 per cent of lime. In using cream tartar and soda
+in baking, a chemical change commences as soon as water is added; the
+cream tartar unites with the soda, setting free the carbonic acid gas,
+which lightens the bread, and the residue is Rochelle salts. This
+is what you eat in your bread, the cream tartar and soda entirely
+disappearing in the process of baking, by forming this salt. Any
+doctor or chemist will confirm the above statement. When I undertook
+to manufacture baking powder, I labored to improve the quality and
+cheapen the cost. The first I accomplished by retaining the carbonic
+acid until heat was applied, the latter, by manufacturing a more
+economical acid than foreign cream tartar. After more than a
+thousand experiments covering a period of six months, I discovered by
+exsiccating ammonia alum I provided an article that would possess the
+necessary qualities. This article no more resembles the ordinary
+alum than charcoal resembles wood--it is light, porous, friable, and
+without taste. This article, under the influence of heat, combines
+with the soda and forms Glauber salts. In baking, the alum unites
+with the soda, just as cream tartar unites. In using the baking powder
+prepared according to my formula, you have in your bread Glauber
+instead of Rochelle salts. To your physician apply for his opinion
+of these salts; I will bow to his decision. Another false impression
+these zealous guardians of the public health have made is, that I
+used the exsiccated alum because it was cheap. The fact is that when I
+commenced its use it cost by the thousand pounds 12 per cent. more
+than the best cream tartar is worth to-day, and 33 per cent. more than
+average price of that article for the past year. I have since reduced
+the cost of manufacturing, and as I did so, correspondingly reduced
+the price of powder to the public. I regard the quantity of soda in
+cream tartar baking powders as very objectionable; they generally
+contain about 33 per cent. In my powder only 20 per cent. The
+prejudice in the public mind against alum, originated in the habit of
+the English bakers buying damaged flour, and by the addition of crude
+alum, made their bread in appearance equal to that made from best
+flour. Against this practice laws were enacted, not so much against
+the qualities of alum, as against its use in covering up a fraud
+in flour. This was the common potash alum and uncombined with any
+carbonated alkali, and it passed into the stomach unchanged. It is
+a trick--for it deserves no better name--of our rivals to show by
+chemical analysis that my powder contains alum, but are careful
+neither to state the kind nor the change it undergoes in baking. The
+manufacturer who knowingly misrepresents the goods of a rival, may
+well be doubted when he speaks of the quality of his own.
+
+"Great stress is laid on the fact that cream tartar is a vegetable
+acid, the product of the grape, hence it must be healthy. They forget
+that cream tartar is not entirely vegetable, but principally second
+handed minerals. It is a compound of tartaric acid, potash, and lime;
+the last two are minerals, which the grape takes up from the earth,
+but redeposits them as crude tartar when fermentation converts the
+grape into wine. In 1807 Sir Humphry Davy from this crude tartar first
+made the metal potassium. Of lime it is unnecessary to speak. The
+potash and lime form the bulk of cream tartar. In ammonia alum there
+is no more mineral substance than in cream tartar. The chemistry
+of nature is wonderful. Vegetation lives on minerals--wheat, corn,
+potatoes, are all mineral compounds. Lime, soda, potash, magnesia,
+sulphur, iron, etc., are all found abundantly in water and grain, and
+all these minerals are essential in food."
+
+Professor Mott has given the Royal Baking Powder the benefit of his
+indorsement; it may be all that he claims for it. But baking powders
+are now judged by constituent ingredients and chemical analysis; to
+this test I propose to bring the Royal. It is now in the hands of a
+competent chemist, and when the analysis is complete I will give
+the public the benefit of a comparison between that powder and the
+Patapsco. I will take Professor Mott's analysis of Patapsco, which,
+though not correct, I accept as such. The comparison will be made on
+the healthfulness of constituents in combination, and the chemical
+changes they undergo in baking. This is a progressive age. The people
+want facts, and they will form their own theories. Will the reader
+believe that in the reign of Henry VIII. of England, a citizen
+of London was executed for burning coal, which was then a capital
+offense? A pope about the same time issued a Bull excommunicating all
+Catholics who used tobacco, calling it the devil's weed. To-day coals
+still burn, and tobacco solaces millions of the civilized world. If
+the Royal Baking Powder Company (what a misnomer) possessed royal
+prerogatives, the advocates of exsiccated alum would fare no better
+than they did under the sumptuary laws of England. Professor Mott has
+fulminated _ex cathedra_ his blast, but we survive. "Truth is a torch,
+the more 'tis shook it shines." Our strength is in the intelligence of
+the age. SMITH, HANWAY & Co., Baltimore.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+THE ELONGATION OF TREE TRUNKS.
+
+
+The _College Quarterly_ says that experiments made at the Iowa
+Agricultural College show that the popular notion that the trunks
+of trees elongate is entirely erroneous. Tacks were driven into the
+trunks of various trees, and the distance between them accurately
+measured. At the end of the season they were found to have neither
+increased nor decreased their distances. In the experiment, tree
+trunks were selected of all ages, from one year up to five or six, and
+in no case was there any change whatever noticeable.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+ASTRONOMICAL NOTES.
+
+BY BERLIN H. WRIGHT.
+
+
+PENN YAN, N. Y., Saturday, December 14, 1878. The following
+calculations are adapted to the latitude of New York city, and are
+expressed in true or clock time, being for the date given in the
+caption when not otherwise stated:
+
+
+PLANETS.
+                              H.M.
+Mars rises                    4 57 mo.
+Jupiter sets                  7 54 eve.
+Saturn in meridian            6 16 eve.
+Uranus rises                 10 11 eve.
+Neptune in meridian           8 48 eve.
+
+
+FIRST MAGNITUDE STARS, ETC.
+                              H.M.
+Alpheratz in meridian         6 28 mo.
+Mira (var.) in meridian       8 39 eve.
+Algol (var.) in meridian      9 26 eve.
+7 stars (Pleiades) in merid. 10 06 eve.
+Aldebaran in meridian        10 54 eve.
+Capella in meridian          11 33 eve.
+Rigel in meridian            11 34 eve.
+Betelgeuse in meridian        0 18 mo.
+Sirius rises                  8 05 eve.
+Procyon rises                 7 40 eve.
+Regulus rises                 9 43 eve.
+Spica rises                   2 24 mo.
+Arcturus rises                1 27 mo.
+Antares rises                 6 30 mo.
+Vega sets                     9 52 eve.
+Altair sets                   8 40 eve.
+Deneb sets                    1 02 mo.
+Fomalhaut sets                9 16 eve.
+
+
+MOON'S PLACE IN THE CONSTELLATIONS AT 7 P.M.
+
+Saturday, Cancer              26°
+Sunday, Leo                    9°
+Monday, Leo                   23°
+Tuesday, Virgo                 7°
+Wednesday, Virgo              22°
+Thursday, Libra                6°
+Friday, Libra                 21°
+
+
+REMARKS.
+
+The sun will attain his greatest southern declination and enter the
+constellation _Sagittarius_ December 21, 5h. 45m. evening, at which
+time winter begins. Mars will be 5° north of the moon December 21, in
+the morning. Saturn will be 90° east of the sun December 18, passing
+the meridian at 6 o'clock in the evening. He is now advancing among
+the stars, and will soon be again upon the equinoctial colure. Uranus
+will be nearly 4° north of the moon December 15.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+SYMPATHETIC INKS.
+
+
+Under the name of sympathetic inks are designated certain liquids
+which, being used for writing, leave no visible traces on the paper,
+but which, through the agency of heat, or by the action of chemicals,
+are made to appear in various colors. The use of such means for secret
+correspondence is very ancient. Ovid, Pliny, and other Roman writers
+speak of an ink of this kind, which, however, was nothing more than
+fresh milk. It merely sufficed to dust powdered charcoal over the
+surface of the paper upon which characters had been traced with the
+colorless fluid, when the black powder adhered only to those places
+where the fatty matter of the milk had spread. Such a process,
+however, was merely mechanical, and the results very crude.
+
+A great number of sympathetic inks may be obtained by means of
+reactions known to chemistry. For instance, write on paper with a
+colorless solution of sugar of lead; if the water that is used for the
+solution be pure, no trace of the writing will remain when it becomes
+dry. Now hold the paper over a jet of sulphureted hydrogen, and the
+characters will immediately appear on the paper, of an intense black
+color. The following recipes for inks of this kind are more simple:
+If writing be executed with a dilute solution of sulphate of iron, the
+invisible characters will appear of a beautiful blue, if the dry paper
+be brushed over with a pencil full of a solution of yellow prussiate
+of potash; or they will be black, if a solution of tannin be
+substituted for the prussiate. If the characters be written with
+a solution of sulphate of copper, they will at once turn blue on
+exposing to the vapors of ammonia. Another sympathetic ink is afforded
+by chloride of gold, which becomes of a reddish purple when acted upon
+by a salt of tin. A red sympathetic ink may be made in the following
+manner: Write with a very dilute solution of perchloride of iron--so
+dilute, indeed, that the writing will be invisible when dry. By
+holding the paper in the vapor arising from a long-necked glass
+flask containing sulphuric acid and a few drops of a solution of
+sulpho-cyanide of potassium, the characters will appear of a blood-red
+color, which will again disappear on submitting them to the vapors of
+caustic ammonia. This experiment can be repeated _ad infinitum_.
+
+During the war in India, some years ago, important correspondence
+was carried on by the English by means of the use of rice water as a
+writing fluid. On the application of iodine the dispatches immediately
+appeared in blue characters.
+
+Sympathetic inks which are developed under the influence of heat only
+are much easier to use than the foregoing. The liquids which possess
+such a property are very numerous. Almost every one perhaps knows that
+if writing be executed on paper with a clean quill pen dipped in onion
+or turnip juice, it becomes absolutely invisible when dry; and that
+when the paper is heated the writing at once makes its appearance
+in characters of a brown color. All albuminoid, mucilaginous, and
+saccharine vegetable juices make excellent sympathetic inks; we may
+cite, as among the best, the juices of lemon, orange, apple, and pear.
+A dilute solution of chloride of copper used for writing is invisible
+until the paper is heated, when the letters are seen of a beautiful
+yellow, disappearing again when the heat that developed them is
+removed. The salts of cobalt, as the acetate, nitrate, sulphate, and
+chloride, possess a like property. When a dilute solution of these
+salts is used as an ink, the writing, although invisible when dry,
+becomes blue when exposed to heat. The addition of chloride of iron,
+or of a salt of nickel, renders them green, and this opens the way for
+a very pretty experiment: If a winter landscape be drawn in India ink,
+and the sky be painted with a wash of cobalt alone, and the branches
+of the trees be clothed with leaves executed with a mixture of cobalt
+and nickel, and the snow-clad earth be washed over with the same
+mixture, a magic transformation at once takes place on the application
+of heat, the winter landscape changing to a summer scene.
+
+There is a well known proprietary article sold in Paris under the
+name of _"Encre pour les Dames"_ (ink for ladies). Hager, in a recent
+scientific journal, states that this consists of an aqueous solution
+of iodide of starch, and is "specially intended for love letters." In
+four weeks characters written with it disappear, preventing all abuse
+of letters, and doing away with all documentary evidence of any kind
+in the hands of the recipient. The signers of bills of exchange who
+use this ink are of course freed from all obligations in the same
+length of time.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+NEW WIRE CLOTHING FOR BURRING CYLINDERS.
+
+
+Heretofore two kinds of clothing for cylinders for treating fibrous
+material have been employed, one consisting of a set of serrated rings
+cut from sheet steel and secured to the periphery of the cylinder, and
+the other consisting of flat serrated iron wire. The serrated rings,
+of necessity, entail a great loss of material in their manufacture,
+and the iron wire clothing is so soft that it soon wears out or
+becomes dull, necessitating the reclothing or sharpening of the
+cylinder.
+
+[Illustration: NEW WIRE CLOTHING FOR BURRING CYLINDERS.]
+
+Our engraving represents a new form of steel wire clothing for such
+cylinders, which was recently patented by Mr. Frank P. Pendleton, of
+Philadelphia, Pa.
+
+The improvement consists in notching or nicking the base of the teeth
+or back of the wire, so as to admit of bending the wire around the
+cylinders without breaking.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+PETROLEUM AND GOLD.
+
+
+As one of the leading staples of American export, our petroleum wells
+have been more valuable than gold mines. A recent discovery by Mr.
+John Turnbridge, of Newark, N. J., indicates that in some cases
+petroleum wells may be in fact, as well as in effect, real gold
+mines. He says that while investigating the peculiar behavior of the
+hydrocarbons and their singular quality of separating the precious
+metals from aqueous solutions, assisted by constant application that
+furnished evidence of the force of chemical action which could be
+satisfactorily measured, there occurred to him the probability that
+analogous effects might be traced in the operations of nature; more
+particularly in certain geological formations peculiar to auriferous
+soils. These ideas, he asserts, have been singularly verified in
+subsequent research by the discovery of gold in many samples of crude
+petroleum, also in the sediment or refuse of the distillation of that
+substance. The attraction existing between the hydrocarbons and many
+elementary bodies ought to create no surprise, especially if reference
+is had to the reducing action of the hydrocarbons in contact with
+metallic solutions. The procedure in the examples above referred to
+consist in pouring crude petroleum on vegetable fiber or wood shavings
+and firing it, collecting the ashes and making the usual fire assay.
+The cupel disclosed a small pellet. After due examination with the
+appropriate test it was found to be pure gold. The distillery refuse
+when assayed gave $34.85 value per ton. It may be mentioned in the
+last case considerable molybdenum was present, a substance resembling
+plumbago. Mr. Turnbridge has no knowledge of the locality whence
+these samples of crude petroleum were originally obtained. He infers,
+however, that oil wells in the vicinity of auriferous deposits may
+yield a larger quantity of gold than from oil wells situated
+in carboniferous strata. There has been, he states, a practical
+application of this discovery for the recovery of gold, applied in
+cases where quicksilver has failed to be of service.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+REDUCTION OF NITRATE OF SILVER BY MEANS OF CHARCOAL.
+
+
+A very simple method of reducing nitrate of silver, analagous to
+that some years ago mentioned by the late Mr. Hadow, is given in the
+_Archiv der Pharmacie_, by Mr. C. F. Chandler. If crystallized or
+fused nitrate of silver be placed upon glowing charcoal, combustion
+forthwith takes place, the silver remaining behind in a metallic
+form, while nitrous oxide and carbonic acid are freely given off. The
+nitrate of silver is fused by the heat developed by the reaction,
+and is imbibed through the pores of the charcoal; as every atom of
+consumed carbon is replaced by an atom of metallic silver, the original
+form and structure of the charcoal are preserved intact in pure
+silver. By proceeding in this manner it is possible to produce silver
+structures of any desired size, possessing in every way the original
+form of the wood. A crystal of nitrate of silver is in the first place
+put upon a piece of charcoal, and a blowpipe flame is then applied in
+the vicinity, in order to start the reaction in the first instance,
+and as soon as combustion commences crystal after crystal may be
+added as these, one after another, become consumed. The silver salt is
+liquefied, and penetrates into the charcoal, where it becomes reduced.
+Pieces of silver may in this way be prepared, of one or two ounces in
+weight, which exhibit all the markings and rings of the original wood
+to a most perfect and beautiful degree.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+NEW AGRICULTURAL INVENTIONS.
+
+
+Mr. Charles E. Macarthy, of Forsyth, Ga., has patented an improved
+Horse Power, designed more particularly to be located beneath a gin
+house for ginning cotton, but applicable for all purposes for which a
+horse power is ordinarily employed.
+
+An improved Corn Planter has been patented by Mr. Thomas A. Sammons,
+of Lewisburg, West Va. This corn planter is designed to plant the
+corn in straight rows both ways and at varying distances apart. It
+is constructed upon the general principle of a reciprocating slide,
+passing alternately beneath a hopper, and carrying a number of grains
+from beneath the same to a discharge outlet.
+
+An improved machine for Cutting the Bands of Gavels or bundles of
+grain, and feeding the same to the cylinder of a thrasher, has been
+patented by Mr. James M. O'Neall, of Fort Worth, Texas.
+
+An improved Sulky Breaking Plow has been patented by Mr. Edward T.
+Hunter, of Hallsville, Ill. This is an improved sulky attachment for
+breaking plows, which is so constructed as to receive any ordinary
+plow; it may be adjusted to cause the plow to work deeper or shallower
+in the ground, and will allow the plow to be turned to either side.
+
+Mr. Osman C. Du Souchet, of Alexandria, Mo., has invented an improved
+Check Row Corn Planter and Drill, which is so constructed that its
+operating mechanism may be at all times under the control of the
+driver. It will plant the corn in accurate check row, and is easily
+controlled.
+
+An improved Thrashing Machine has been patented by Mr. Peter Parrott,
+of Red Bud, Ill. This is an improvement in the class of thrashing
+machines having an attachment for removing dust from the space in
+front of the cylinder, and having pickers for loosening or shaking the
+grain from straw delivered from the cylinder.
+
+An improved Corn Planter has been patented by Mr. John H. Zarley, of
+Oakland, Ill. The object of this invention is to provide an efficient
+and cheaply constructed corn planter, which may be drawn forward by
+horses, but is arranged so that the seed valves may be operated by
+hand.
+
+Messrs. Clayton M. Van Orman and James M. Hagenbaugh, of Athens,
+Mich., have patented an improved Grain Separator, in which the
+arrangement of the screens, feedboard, and blast of a fanning mill
+effect the thorough removal from the grain of all impurities. Only two
+screens are employed.
+
+An improved Churning Apparatus has been patented by Messrs. William
+H. Foster and Isaac C. Roberts, of Louisburg, Kan. It is simple,
+inexpensive, convenient, and effective in operation. It will bring the
+butter very quickly, and at the same time gather it.
+
+An improved Plow has been patented by Mr. Robert B. Mitchell, of
+Minneapolis, Kan. The object of this invention is to improve the
+construction of sod, stirring, and other plows, so that the cutter
+may be moved forward as it is worn or ground off. It prevents roots,
+grass, and other trash from gathering upon the share.
+
+Messrs. John B. Martin and William T. Carothers, of Clarence, Mo.,
+have patented an improved Hay Loader capable of placing hay upon
+stacks or ricks, or upon wagons. It is simple in its construction and
+effective in its operation.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+NAPHTHA AND BENZINE.
+
+
+We have often been asked the difference between benzine and naphtha,
+many people wanting to know whether naphtha didn't include benzine, or
+whether it wasn't the same thing under a marketable name. A prominent
+refiner says that benzine is the first product that arises from the
+process of refining crude oil, and bears the same relation to naphtha
+that that distillate does to refined oil. In other words, benzine
+is crude naphtha. The reason it is not quotable under the name of
+benzine, therefore, is because it has to be reduced to naphtha before
+it is marketable in any extensive quantity.
+
+The process that benzine is subject to, to produce naphtha, is not a
+separate business, but is carried on by the regular oil refiners in
+the same stills and retorts that the refined oil is produced. The
+benzine is treated with sulphuric acid, and the result is naphtha,
+which is in wide demand in Europe, especially in France, for the
+purpose of producing aniline dyes, while it is also put to many other
+purposes.
+
+This demand is partially instrumental in keeping up its price, but its
+rapid evaporation also has a tendency in that direction, as any large
+seller of it has to take into consideration the depreciation that
+might take place by the time he sells it on that account, and for
+the same reason buyers give no more orders than immediate necessity
+requires.
+
+All refiners, however, do not produce naphtha, but some of them sell
+the benzine, which is largely used for fuel purposes, for which it is
+much better than coal, as it is not only absolutely cheaper, but gives
+a steadier heat.--_Parker Daily_.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+For joining the porcelain heads to the metal spikes used for
+ornamental nails, the _Prakt. Maschinen Construct._, recommends the
+use of a thick paste made of a mixture of Portland cement and glue.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+TO INVENTORS.
+
+
+An experience of more than thirty years, and the preparation of not
+less than one hundred thousand applications for patents at home
+and abroad, enable us to understand the laws and practice on both
+continents, and to possess unequaled facilities for procuring patents
+everywhere. In addition to our facilities for preparing drawings and
+specifications quickly, the applicant can rest assured that his case
+will be filed in the Patent Office without delay. Every application,
+in which the fees have been paid, is sent complete--including the
+model--to the Patent Office the same day the papers are signed at our
+office, or received by mail, so there is no delay in filing the case,
+a complaint we often hear from other sources. Another advantage to the
+inventor in securing his patent through the Scientific American Patent
+Agency, it insures a special notice of the invention in the SCIENTIFIC
+AMERICAN, which publication often opens negotiations for the sale of
+the patent or manufacture of the article. A synopsis of the patent
+laws in foreign countries may be found on another page, and persons
+contemplating the securing of patents abroad are invited to write to
+this office for prices, which have been reduced in accordance with
+the times, and our perfected facilities for conducting the business.
+Address MUNN & CO., office SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+BUSINESS AND PERSONAL.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+_The Charge for Insertion under this head is One Dollar a line for
+each insertion; about eight words to a line. Advertisements must be
+received at publication office as early as Thursday morning to appear
+in next issue._
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+Magic Lanterns and Stereopticons of all prices. Views illustrating
+every subject for public exhibitions. Profitable business for a man
+with a small capital. Also lanterns for college and home amusement. 74
+page catalogue free. McAllister, Mf. Optician, 49 Nassau St., N. Y.
+
+Chapman Valves and Hydrants received the highest award at Mass.
+Mechanics Fair. Chapman Valve Manuf. Co., Boston, Mass.
+
+Wanted, cheap.--2d hand Lathe Chuck to swing 17 in. Iron sheave.
+Penfield Block Works, Lockport, N. Y.
+
+To Manufacturers.--Messrs. Bignall & Ostrander, 806-808 N. 2d St.,
+St. Louis, Mo., have added to their present establishment a Machinery
+Department, from whence the wants of the Western machine-using public
+will be supplied. Manufacturers will do well to correspond with them.
+
+On actual test the Eaton Sulky Plow is ahead. Manufacturers wanted to
+build them. Territory for sale. Address E. C. Eaton, Pinckneyville,
+Ill.
+
+Sir Henry Halford says Vanity Fair Smoking Tobacco has no equal.
+Received highest award at Paris, 1878.
+
+Wanted.--Tools for the manufacture of Wagon Axles and Springs. Address
+Box 66, Lambertville, N. J.
+
+For Sale.--Norwalk Engine, 16 x 42; little used; excellent order; very
+cheap. Address Box 106, Meriden, Ct.
+
+H. W. Johns' Asbestos Liquid Paints contain no water. They are the
+best and most economical paints in the world for general purposes,
+and for wood and iron structures exposed to severe tests of climatic
+changes, saltwater atmosphere, etc. They are 50 per cent more durable
+than the best white lead and linseed oil.
+
+1,000 2d hand machines for sale. Send stamp for descriptive price
+list. Forsaith & Co., Manchester, N. H.
+
+Florey & Smith, San Francisco, make a specialty of introducing useful
+inventions in the Pacific States.
+
+J. C. Hoadley, Consulting Engineer and Mechanical and Scientific
+Expert, Lawrence, Mass.
+
+Nickel Plating.--Wenzel's Patent Perforated Carbon Box Anode for
+holding Grain Nickel. A. C. Wenzel, 114 Center St., New York City.
+
+Bolt Forging Machine & Power Hammers a specialty. Send for circulars.
+Forsaith & Co., Manchester, N. H.
+
+For Sale.--A 6 x 6 Upright Yacht Engine, 6 H.P. Wm. F. Codd, Nantucket,
+Mass.
+
+For Solid Wrought Iron Beams, etc., see advertisement. Address Union
+Iron Mills, Pittsburgh, Pa., for lithograph, etc.
+
+The Lawrence Engine is the best. See ad. page 381.
+
+Sheet Metal Presses, Ferracute Co., Bridgeton, N. J.
+
+The only Engine in the market attached to boiler having cold bearings.
+F. F. & A. B. Landis, Lancaster, Pa.
+
+Brush Electric Light.--20 lights from one machine. Latest & best
+light. Telegraph Supply Co., Cleveland, O.
+
+The Lathes, Planers, Drills, and other Tools, new and second-hand, of
+the Wood & Light Machine Company, Worcester, are to be sold out very
+low by the George Place Machinery Agency, 121 Chambers St., New York.
+
+For the best advertising at lowest prices in Scientific, Mechanical,
+and other Newspapers, write to E. N. Freshman & Bros., Advertising
+Agents, 186 W. 4th St., Cin., O.
+
+For Town and Village use, comb'd Hand Fire Engine & Hose Carriage,
+$350. Forsaith & Co., Manchester, N. H.
+
+Manufacturers of Improved Goods who desire to build up a lucrative
+foreign trade, will do well to insert a well displayed advertisement
+in the SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN Export Edition. This paper has a very large
+foreign circulation.
+
+Brick Presses for Fire and Red Brick. Factory, 309 S. 5th St.,
+Philadelphia, Pa. S. P. Miller & Son.
+
+Punching Presses, Drop Hammers, and Dies for working Metals, etc. The
+Stiles & Parker Press Co., Middletown, Conn.
+
+Hydraulic Presses and Jacks, new and second hand. Lathes and Machinery
+for Polishing and Buffing Metals. E. Lyon & Co., 470 Grand St., N. Y.
+
+Nickel Plating.--A white deposit guaranteed by using our material.
+Condit, Hanson & Van Winkle, Newark, N. J. English Agency, 18 Caroline
+St., Birmingham.
+
+H. Prentiss & Co., 14 Dey St., N. Y., Manufs. Taps, Dies, Screw
+Plates, Reamers, etc. Send for list.
+
+Diamond Engineer, J. Dickinson, 64 Nassau St., N. Y.
+
+Solid Emery Vulcanite Wheels--The Solid Original Emery Wheel--other
+kinds imitations and inferior. Caution.--Our name is stamped in full
+on all our best Standard Belting, Packing, and Hose. Buy that only.
+The best is the cheapest. New York Belting and Packing Company, 37 and
+38 Park Row, N. Y.
+
+Presses, Dies, and Tools for working Sheet Metals, etc. Fruit
+and other Can Tools. Bliss & Williams, Brooklyn, N. Y., and Paris
+Exposition, 1878.
+
+The Cameron Steam Pump mounted in Phosphor Bronze is an indestructible
+machine. See advertisement.
+
+Wheel Press, Cotton Press, Pipe Line, and Test Mercury Gauges. T.
+Shaw, 915 Ridge Ave., Philadelphia, Pa.
+
+The SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN Export Edition is published monthly, about the
+15th of each month. Every number comprises most of the plates of the
+four preceding weekly numbers of the SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN, with other
+appropriate contents, business announcements etc. It forms a large and
+splendid periodical of nearly one hundred quarto pages, each number
+illustrated with about one hundred engravings. It is a complete record
+of American progress in the arts.
+
+Special Planers for Jointing and Surfacing, Band and Scroll Saws,
+Universal Wood-workers, etc., manufactured by Bentel, Margedant & Co.,
+Hamilton, Ohio.
+
+Boston Blower Co., Boston, Mass. Blowers, Exhaust Fans, Hot Blast
+Apparatus. All parts interchangeable material and workmanship
+warranted the best. Write for particulars.
+
+We make steel castings from ¼ to 10,000 lbs. weight 3 times as
+strong as cast iron. 12,000 Crank Shafts of this steel now running
+and proved superior to wrought iron. Circulars and price, list free.
+Address Chester Steel Castings Co., Evelina St., Philadelphia, Pa.
+
+Machine Cut Brass Gear Wheels for Models, etc. (new list). Models,
+experimental work, and machine work generally. D. Gilbert & Son, 212
+Chester St., Phila., Pa.
+
+Elevators, Freight and Passenger, Shafting, Pulley and Hangers. L. S.
+Graves & Son, Rochester, N. Y.
+
+Holly System of Water Supply and Fire Protection for Cities and
+Villages, is fully described in SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN SUPPLEMENT, No.
+140.
+
+Howard Patent Safety Elevators. Howard Iron Works Buffalo, N. Y.
+
+Mellen, Williams & Co., 57 Kilby St., Boston, Mass. Wiegand Sectional
+Steam Boiler. Ætna Rocking Grate Bar.
+
+North's Lathe Dog. 347 N. 4th St., Philadelphia, Pa.
+
+Self-feeding upright Drilling Machine of superior construction. Drills
+holes from 1/8 to ¾ in. diameter Pratt & Whitney Co., Manufs.,
+Hartford, Conn.
+
+Wm. Sellers & Co., Phila., have introduced a new Injector, worked by a
+single motion of a lever.
+
+For Shafts, Pulleys, or Hangers, call and see stock kept at 79 Liberty
+St. Wm. Sellers & Co.
+
+The Turbine Wheel made by Risdon & Co., Mt. Holly N. J., gave the best
+results at Centennial test.
+
+Wheels and Pinions, heavy and light, remarkably strong and durable.
+Especially suited for sugar mills and similar work. Pittsburgh Steel
+Casting Company, Pittsburgh, Pa.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+NOTES AND QUERIES [illus.]
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+(1) Detroit asks whether a boat propelled with a force of 3 miles an
+hour on still water will with the same propelling force run 6 miles an
+hour in a current running 3 miles an hour? A. We think so.
+
+(2) J. C. R asks: Which was the first railroad built in the United
+States? That is, a regular, incorporated road, connecting two points,
+and conveying passengers, freight, etc. A. We believe that the road
+now known as the Baltimore and Ohio Railroad was the first in the
+United States chartered for carrying on a general transportation
+business.
+
+(3) J. R. E. asks how to make an ordinary sunshade for a telescope
+when placed, and what kind of glass it is composed of. A. Any very
+dark glass will answer, providing it is perfectly plane. It should be
+placed between the eye and eyepiece.
+
+(4) W. H. G. S. writes: I wish to give a blue color to screw heads,
+wire and steel. What shall I use? A. Heat them in a sand bath, or
+apply shellac or copal varnish, to which a little Prussian blue has
+been added.
+
+(5) T. McW. asks (1) for a good recipe for making Babbitt metal. A.
+By weight, 4 parts copper, 8 parts antimony, 96 parts tin. 2. What is
+meant by heating surface in boilers, and how is it computed? A. The
+term heating surface, as ordinarily used, refers to the surface which
+has water on one side, and flame or the products of combustion on the
+other. 3. I have a peculiar kind of steel which I cannot harden by
+fire and water, neither will it caseharden by prussiate of potash.
+What can I do with it to harden it? A. Assuming your account to be
+correct, we judge that you cannot harden it.
+
+(6) A. Van B. writes: A correspondent in your last issue asks how
+to keep rubber belts from slipping. Mine slipped considerably, but I
+checked it by throwing powdered rosin in between the belt and pulley
+while running. The pulley soon becomes covered with a tough black
+coating, very much like leather, and there is no more slip. [This
+expedient can be used to advantage in certain cases, but it is
+better to have a belt large enough to drive without using any
+preparation.--ED.]
+
+(7) E. B. C. asks: 1. Does a more powerful battery produce better
+results in telephone or microphone? A. A powerful battery is not
+required for either. 2. Can you give me a short description of the
+principle and construction of the aerophone? A. We think it has not
+been perfected.
+
+(8) A. T. L. asks for a recipe for a liquid boot or shoe polish. A.
+Clausen's ink is made as follows: Nutgalls, 8 parts; logwood extract,
+10 parts; boil together in water, q. s., and add Castile soap, 4
+parts; glycerin, trace. Crocker's--Logwood extract, 6 ozs.; water, 1
+gallon; ivory black, 1.5 oz.; glycerin, 1 oz.; bichromate of potassa,
+0.125 oz.; copperas, 0.125 oz.; boil together. Sefton's--Orange
+shellac, 64 ozs.; alcohol, 4 gallons; pure asphaltum, 60 ozs.; neat's
+foot oil, 1 pint; lampblack, q. s. Ovington's--Water, 1 gallon;
+logwood extract, 6 ozs.; water, 1 gallon; borax, 6 ozs.; shellac,
+1.5 oz.; water, 0.5 pint; bichromate of potassa, 0.375 oz. Mix the
+solutions, and add 3 ozs. ammonia. Shaw's--Borax, 3 ozs.; orange
+shellac, 5 ozs.; water, q. s.; boil and add soluble aniline black or
+nigrosine, q. s. Rub the spots with strong aqueous solution of ferric
+chloride, and dry before applying the dressing.
+
+(9) J. S. & R. M. write: 1. We propose putting in a steam engine of 20
+horse power, and we are informed there is an engine that weighs 2,700
+lbs., that has a balance wheel weighing 500 lbs., cylinder 10 x 10
+inches; cutting off at ¾ stroke, running at 180 to 200 revolutions
+a minute, and they say that it is 20 horse at 70 lbs. steam. Will such
+an engine develop 20 horse power? A. The engine would develop 20 horse
+power under the above conditions, if well constructed. 2. How can
+we calculate the power of an engine? A. To determine the power of
+an engine, multiply the mean pressure on the piston in lbs., by the
+piston speed in feet per minute, and divide the product by 33,000.
+
+(10) A. L. G. asks: 1. With a boiler 15 inches in diameter by 30
+inches in height, with five 1½ inch tubes 18 inches long, firebox 12
+x 12, and all made of iron plates ¼ inch thick. What is the greatest
+number of pounds of steam to the square inch it will hold, and what
+fraction of a horse power will it give to an engine having a cylinder
+2 x 4 inches, situated 2 feet from the boiler, and connected by 40
+inches of steam pipe? A. You can carry 150 lbs. of steam, and might
+develop 1 horse power. 2. What is meant by the pitch of a wheel in a
+propeller, and what is the inclination of a cylinder? A. The pitch of
+a propeller is the distance it would advance in the direction of its
+axis at each revolution, if it worked without slip. The inclination of
+a cylinder refers to the angle made by its axis with a horizontal or
+vertical line.
+
+(11) J. H. asks: 1. Has steel been used for portable boilers? A. Yes.
+2. What size boiler is required for an engine having a 3 x 4 inch
+cylinder? A. Diameter, 24 inches; height, 45 inches; heating surface,
+65 to 70 square feet.
+
+(12) J. A. M. asks: How large must an air pump be for an engine steam
+cylinder 8 x 8, making 100 revolutions per minute with 90 lbs. of
+steam, allowing the pump to be 4 inches stroke, double acting, to be
+attached to surface condenser? A. Diameter, 3½ inches.
+
+(13) J. A. F. asks: 1. What shall I paint my boiler and smoke stack
+with, and where can I get the paint? My engine is a thrashing engine,
+and of course is out of doors during the fall of the year. A. Get
+some black varnish made from petroleum, from a dealer in machinists'
+supplies. 2. How shall I care for the boiler inside? A. Leave the
+boiler perfectly dry, unless you can coat the interior with oil. 3.
+What shall I do for the engine. Is it necessary to take the piston out
+of cylinder and oil it? A. If the engine is to stand for some time,
+remove the piston, coat it and the cylinder with tallow; the same for
+the journals. Cover all finished parts of the engine with a mixture of
+white lead and tallow. 4. I find my steam gauge does not indicate less
+than 10 lbs. when boiler is cold. What is the trouble and how can it
+be repaired? A. In such a case it is best to send the gauge to a maker
+for repairs.
+
+(14) "Zebra" wishes to know the best test of the genuineness of
+white lead; also the simplest way to try the comparative value of
+two samples of ground white lead. Also the name of the best work to
+consult upon the manufacture of Portland cement. A. See answer No. 29,
+p. 283, current volume, SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN. Also pp. 102-105 Normandy
+and Noad's "Commercial Analysis." The relative value of different
+samples of white lead in oil is roughly judged from the weight of
+a given measured quantity, the covering properties when compared on
+glass with a sample of finest white lead, and the color and general
+appearance of the sample. You may consult Reid's "Manufacture of
+Portland Cement."
+
+(15) J. B. B. asks: Can I arrange an electric battery so as to heat a
+platinum wire for the purpose of cutting wood? Is it practicable? A.
+Two or three Bunsen cells will do it. It is impracticable save as an
+experiment.
+
+(16) D. S. M. asks how to color butter to make it yellow, without
+injuring it in any way. A. A little annotto is often used. If pure, it
+is not injurious.
+
+(17) H. C. M. asks: What substances are there that will absorb light
+during the day when exposed to light, and give it out again at night?
+A. 1. Heat strontium theosulphate for fifteen minutes over a good
+Bunsen gas lamp and then for 5 minutes over a blast lamp. 2. Heat
+equal parts of strontium carbonate and lac Supt gently for 5
+minutes, then strongly for 25 minutes over a Bunsen lamp, and finally
+5 minutes over a blast lamp. 3. Precipitate strong aqueous solution
+of strontium chloride by means of sulphuric acid, dry the precipitate,
+and heat it to redness for some time in a current of hydrogen, then
+over a Bunsen lamp for 10 minutes, and for 20 minutes over a blast
+lamp. Mix any of these with pure melted paraffin for use as a paint,
+and expose for a time to sunlight. The two former yield a greenish
+phosphorescence in the dark, the latter a bluish light.
+
+(18) Z. asks: Is the Great African Desert below the level of the sea,
+and if so, could it be made into an inland sea by flooding from the
+ocean? A. A considerable, though relatively small, portion of the
+Sahara is below the sea level, and the flooding of the lowest portion
+has been proposed. The greater part of North Africa lies at a higher
+level, the exception being a chain of old lake beds or chotts on the
+border of Algeria.
+
+(19) J. P. L. asks: How can I make a filter to cleanse rain water from
+smoke as it passes from the roof to the cistern? The coal which is
+burned here (bituminous) gives us a great deal of trouble in this
+regard. A. The carbonaceous matters may be removed by passing the
+water through a large barrel half filled with fine gravel and pounded,
+freshly-burnt charcoal (free from dust), distributed in alternate
+layers, each several inches deep. Over this spread a clean piece of
+bagging, and fill in with fine gravel or coarse clean quartz sand for
+12 inches or more. The inlet pipe should discharge at the bottom of
+the barrel--the filtered water flowing from the top.
+
+(20) F. E. H. asks: Can percussion caps be so composed as to explode
+when pierced by a sharp pointed needle? If so, of what should they be
+composed? A. Such an arrangement is employed in the needle gun. The
+composition may be of mercuric fulminate.
+
+(21) C. A. N. asks: What is the horse power of an engine 30 inches
+stroke, 14 inches cylinder, 51 revolutions per minute, 60 lbs. mean
+pressure in cylinder?
+
+A. Piston area = 153.94 square inches. Piston speed = 255 feet per
+minute. Indicated horse power =
+
+153.94 x 60 x 255
+-----------------  = 71.4
+      33,000
+
+(22) P. O. asks: If I admit steam 100 lbs. pressure in a cylinder 15
+x 24 inches, and cut the steam off when piston has traveled 6 inches,
+what will be the pressure at 6 inches, 12 inches, 18 inches, and 24
+inches, or just before it exhausts? A. The pressure will vary about in
+the inverse ratio of the volume, so that, approximately,
+
+vol. of cylinder up to point of cut-off + clearance vol.
+---------------------------------------------------------
+vol. of cylinder at any point of expansion + clearance vol.
+
+    pressure above zero, at the given point.
+ =  ----------------------------------------
+    pressure above zero, at point of cut-off.
+
+(23) H. T. S. asks: What size should I make the holes in the side of a
+fan wheel, 20 inches in diameter? Also what size should the nozzle
+be? A. Allow an opening of from 17 to 20 square inches at inlet and
+discharge.
+
+(24) E. M. D. writes: I am constructing a telephone according to
+directions in SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN SUPPLEMENT No. 142, using a bar
+magnet in place of horseshoe magnet and soft iron core. 1. Would it
+reduce the strength of bar magnet to cut a thread on one end of it?
+A. No. 2. Will a bar magnet, used in Bell telephone, lose its power to
+such a degree as not to work? A. Not readily. 3. Is No. 22 copper wire
+of sufficient size for a telephone line of 1,000 feet? A. Yes; but
+larger would be better.
+
+(25) S. & Y. write: We have a pair of burrs on which we grind plaster.
+The burrs are about 4 feet in diameter and 1½ foot thick. We are
+running them as an over runner at this time, but wish to change them
+and make the lower burr run instead of the upper. Can a pair of burrs
+of the above size be run in that way, and if so, what is the maximum
+speed at which they can be run? A. If properly arranged, you can
+run them, after the change, as fast as is allowable for overrunning
+stones.
+
+(26) J. J. asks: Which tire makes a wheel the strongest, 1.25 x 0.50
+inch iron, or 1.25 x 5/16 steel tire? A. The steel tire will be the
+strongest, comparing good qualities of steel and iron.
+
+(27) E. L. W. asks: Is a ton (2,000 lbs.) of first class coke equal in
+heat giving power to a ton (2,000 lbs.) of coal? If not, please
+give me the relative value of coke and coal in heat giving power?
+A. Calling the evaporative power of good anthracite coal 1, good
+bituminous coal rates at about 0.92, and coke from 0.89 to 0.95.
+
+(28) J. W. S. asks what to impregnate paper with to give it an
+agreeable smell while burning. A. You may try a strong ethereal or
+alcoholic solution of benzoin, tolu, storax, olibanum or labdanum.
+To burn well the paper should first be impregnated with an aqueous
+solution of niter and dried.
+
+(29) M. G. asks whether hydrogen and oxygen can be produced as rapidly
+and copiously in the decomposition of water by the galvanic battery as
+by the action of sulphuric acid on zinc or lead in the one case,
+and by heating chlorate of potassa in the other. A. Yes, with a very
+powerful current.
+
+(30) T. G. H. asks for names of useful treatises on mechanical
+movements. A. "Scientific American Reference Book," and "507
+Mechanical Movements."
+
+(31) R. B. T. writes: We have just set up a new engine; the cylinder
+is 8 x 12, has a common slide valve. We think the valve is too short;
+it is set 0.125 inch open when on center, takes steam 10 inches before
+cutting off; the exhaust is very free. The engine runs about 110
+revolutions per minute. We think we could save steam by using a longer
+valve, and cut-off about 5/8 stroke, and make the exhaust space in the
+valve shorter, so that it will shut in a portion of the exhaust and
+form a cushion for the piston. About how much of the exhaust can
+we shut in without overdoing it? A. You can obtain a good action by
+making the ratio of compression equal to the ratio of expansion,
+with the proviso that the final cushion pressure must not exceed the
+initial pressure.
+
+(32) D. B. L. writes: Our boiler after being repaired was tested at
+110 lbs. cold water pressure. Three days after it gave out where it
+was repaired at 58 lbs. steam pressure. To find the leak we put on
+80 lbs. cold water pressure, and could not find it. We then put steam
+pressure at 40 lbs., which made the leak very great, whereas with
+cold water pressure we could find none. Can you explain it? A. The
+phenomenon is probably due to the change of shape in the boiler when
+heated.
+
+(33) F. C. writes: Our engine is a plain slide valve engine, 24 x 9,
+steam following almost to end of stroke. How shall I make a valve to
+cut off at ¾? Our exhaust now is 1 inch, steam ports 0.75, bridges
+0.75. Length of valve 4½ inches, cavity 2-3/8, travel of valve 2
+inches. Will I have to enlarge the steam chest; the valve uses the
+whole length of it now? A. As the length and travel of valve must be
+increased, it will be necessary to lengthen the steam chest, unless
+you can apply an independent cut-off valve.
+
+(34) T. P. writes: A small basement room 9 feet high is to be heated
+by a furnace in an adjoining room. By carrying the hot air pipe
+through the partition midway between the floor and the ceiling it will
+stand at an angle of about 45°. If carried through at the top of the
+room it will of course be nearer vertical. In which position of the
+hot air pipe will the room be most easily heated? A. Place the hot air
+pipe in the position first described. Take the cold air from a point
+near the floor through a flue opening above the roof.
+
+(35) G. M. P. asks: What is a good and cheap substitute for salt for
+raising the temperature of water to 230° Fah.? A. An oil bath is often
+used instead. Chloride of calcium will answer as well as salt, though
+not so cheap.
+
+[Illustration: Right Triangle--sides 15, 20, 25ft.]
+
+(36) J. D. reminds us of an old and good method of drawing a
+perpendicular to a straight line for the purpose of squaring
+foundations, etc. From the corner of the foundation take two lines
+respectively 15 and 20 feet, and connect them by a line of 25 feet;
+the angle included between the two shorter lines will be a right
+angle. The numbers 3, 4, 5, or, as in the present case, their
+multiples 15, 20, 25, are taken to measure respectively the
+perpendicular, base, and slant side of the triangle. It is obvious
+that any scale may be used so long as the ratio of 3, 4, 5, is
+observed.
+
+(37) J. H. asks what kind of iron to use in making cast iron
+armatures. A. Soft gray iron.
+
+(38) F. H. C. asks: How can I etch cheaply on glass to imitate ground
+figures or transparent figures on a ground background? A. For this
+purpose the sand blast is now generally used; the glass is covered
+with a film of wax or varnish, through which, with suitable needles or
+gravers, is etched the design; a fine sharp silicious sand impelled
+by a current of air is then directed from a suitable jet over the
+prepared surface, and the etching is accomplished in a few minutes.
+Glass is etched also by hydrofluoric acid; the plate may be prepared
+as for the sand blast, and placed face downwards over a shallow leaden
+tray, containing powdered fluorspar moistened with strong oil of
+vitriol and gently warmed; the gaseous hydrofluoric acid given off
+rapidly etches the portions of the glass not protected by the wax or
+varnish. Hydrofluoric acid should be used with great care.
+
+(39) L. H. writes: I have seen it asserted that the parasites that
+infest the Asiatic tiger's paw are an exact miniature image of itself.
+Is this so? A. No.
+
+(40) J. G. B. asks if there is any way of melting brass in a common
+sand crucible for castings of a pound or so in weight for a small
+engine. A. You may melt small quantities of brass in any common stove
+having a good draught, using a coal fire. You may use borax as a flux.
+
+(41) F. & Co. ask: 1. In making a telephone as described in Figs. 4
+and 5, SUPPLEMENT 142, must the diaphragm be entirely free, or can it
+be punched and the screws which secure the flange pass through it? A.
+The diaphragm should not be punched. 2. In new form of telephone in No
+20, current volume, must there be a battery in the circuit, or is the
+telephone sufficient to work it? A. A battery is required.
+
+(42) J. M. B. asks: What will prevent the hair from falling out? A.
+Keep the pores of the skin open by frequent bathing and change of
+underclothing. Bathe the head with clean soft water, and stimulate
+the scalp with a moderately stiff brush morning and evening. The head
+should be occasionally cleansed with a weak solution of glycerin soap
+in dilute spirit of wine, with care to remove all traces of soap from
+the hair. Use no pomades or oils of any kind.
+
+(43) B. H. P. asks (1) how to make malleable iron, such as used in
+wrenches. A. Malleable iron castings are made from mottled iron. They
+are cleaned by tumbling and then packed in iron boxes with alternating
+layers of rolling mill scale. The boxes are carefully luted and packed
+in an annealing furnace, where they are kept at a white heat for a
+week or more, and then allowed to cool gradually. 2. How is steel
+or iron made to adhere to the face of the jaws of the wrench? A. By
+welding.
+
+(44) J. G. E. asks: What is the highest column of water that can
+be raised from a well by means of a siphon pump with 60 lbs. steam,
+likewise a 1 inch column of water with 60 lbs. steam? A. Lift, from 26
+to 27 feet.
+
+(45) W. H. W. asks: 1. Is there any solution excepting rubber that
+will make cloth thoroughly waterproof, or at least withstand the
+attack of water for an hour or so? It should be applied by dipping
+the cloth in the solution. A. Linseed oil boiled with a little wax and
+litharge is useful for some purposes. Cloth prepared with paraffin,
+balata gum, the gum of the asclet pias or milkweed, naphtha solution
+of the dried pulp of the bamboo berry, anhydrous aluminum soaps (see
+pp. 149 and 159, "Science Record," 1874), are also employed. 2. Is
+there any chemical that could be combined with the solution, imparting
+some property to the same for which rats or mice would have an
+antipathy so as to prevent their attacks? A. A trace of phenol will
+generally suffice.
+
+(46) J. L. asks: Is the balata gum softened by animal oils or fat? A.
+Yes.
+
+(47) P. L. W. asks. What distance would a 100 lb. weight have to fall
+to run a sewing machine for 5 hours? A. For an ordinary family sewing
+machine, requiring about one thirtieth of a horse power, the weight
+would have to fall about 3,300 feet in the 5 hours.
+
+(48) W. G. R. asks: 1. What is the valve yoke of a steam engine? A.
+We presume you refer to the rectangular yoke that receives the back
+of the valve in the class of engines having balanced valves. 2. What
+should be the diameter of the bore of an engine of 1 horse power with
+100 lbs. pressure, also the length of stroke? A. Diameter, 2¾ inches;
+stroke, 4½ inches. 3. How are the back gears of a lathe made so as
+to be thrown out of gear when it is wished to use the lathe at a high
+speed? A. Ordinarily by a cam and lever, or tight and loose joint. 4.
+Would 1/64 of an inch thickness of sheet steel be strong enough for
+the boiler of a small model locomotive? How much pressure would it
+stand to the inch? A. If the diameter does not exceed 3 inches, you
+can carry a pressure of from 50 to 60 lbs. per square inch.
+
+(49) J. W. W. asks: Which will stand the most pressure, a piece of
+round iron 1 inch long and 1 inch in diameter, or a piece of gas pipe
+the same dimensions, both being set upon end? A. The round iron.
+
+(50) W. M. B. writes: 1. I have one eighth inch basswood, cherry,
+butternut and walnut. Which do you advise for the sounding board of a
+microphone and Hughes telephone? A. Either will do, but pine or spruce
+is better. 2. Would a glazed earthen jar do for the outside of battery
+described in SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN SUPPLEMENT, No. 149? A. Yes. 3. Could
+I make insulated wire myself? If so, how? A. Wire may be insulated by
+giving it a coat of shellac varnish and allowing it to become dry and
+nearly hard before winding.
+
+(51) W. H. S. asks how to satin finish tubing like sample sent. A. The
+specimen has been electro-plated with silver in the usual manner,
+and the electric current then reversed for a few moments, thus
+redissolving a portion of the plate, the remainder presenting the
+peculiar satin like luster.
+
+(52) S. W. C. asks: Has carbon for telephone purposes ever been made
+by subjecting the black deposited by a flame to a heavy pressure? A.
+Yes. Edison's carbons are made in this manner.
+
+(53) "Hardware" asks: 1. Where is best to take hot air in a room, at
+register near ceiling or in floor? A. At or near the floor. 2. Where
+is best place to have ventilation, near floor or near ceiling? A.
+If connected with a flue having a good draught it should be near the
+floor.
+
+(54) R. W. J. asks: What causes the cracking noise in the pipes of a
+steam heating apparatus, when a fire has been started to warm up the
+building? Is it the water in the pipes made by condensed steam, or is
+it the expansion of the pipes from being heated? A. The noise is due
+to both causes in some degree, but principally to the water, which
+produces violent blows.
+
+(55) C. N. A. asks how to temper steel tools for working on stone or
+similar work. There is some preparation which is put in water which
+accomplishes the purpose when the steel is heated and plunged in. A.
+Heat the tools to a cherry red, and plunge in clean, moderately cool
+water. A little common salt is sometimes added to the water.
+
+(56) G. B. asks: 1. Is the height to which water is raised by a
+hydraulic ram measured from the ram itself or from the spring from
+which the supply comes? A. From the ram. 2. Can a hydraulic ram be
+constructed to discharge 1,000 gallons of water per minute? A. Yes.
+
+(57) L. D. writes that benzine will answer much better to exterminate
+roaches, moths, etc., than anything else. It will not hurt furniture
+in the least, will evaporate, and can be easily applied.
+
+
+
+
+MINERALS, ETC.--Specimens have been received from the following
+correspondents, and examined, with the results stated:
+
+
+M. B. W.--No. 1 is a silicious clay--it might be useful in the
+manufacture of some grades of pottery, etc. No. 2 is a ferruginous
+shale--contains about 80 per cent. of silica and 10 per cent. of
+alumina, besides lime, magnesia, iron oxide, and water.--W. S.--It is
+fibrous talc--talc of good quality is in considerable demand for paper
+making and other purposes.--W. G. H.--The sand contains no precious
+metal--the glittering particles are mica.--S. F.--The specimen you
+send consists of a mass of the long hairs which have been attached
+to the seeds of the "milkweed" (_asclepias_), or, as it is sometimes
+called, from the silky nature of these appendages, "silkweed." We
+believe that this material is put to no other economic use at present
+than that of a filling for cushions and pillows. The beauty of this
+silk like down long ago attracted attention, and many unsuccessful
+attempts have been made to put it to some practical use in the arts;
+but, as you have probably noticed, the hairs are both brittle and
+weak, and an examination with a lens will show that it wants the
+roughness and angularity necessary to fit it for being spun like other
+fibers. It has, however, been mixed with cotton and woven into fabrics
+having a silky luster and capable of taking brilliant dyes, but the
+manufacture has never been prosecuted. The plants, though widely
+distributed over the United States, and quite common, are nevertheless
+not abundant enough in a wild state to afford much of a supply, and we
+believe no experiments have been made in cultivating them.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+Any numbers of the SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN SUPPLEMENT referred to in these
+columns may be had at this office. Price 10 cents each.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+COMMUNICATIONS RECEIVED.
+
+
+The Editor of the SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN acknowledges with much pleasure
+the receipt of original papers and contributions on the following
+subjects:
+
+Manufacture of Porous Cups for Tyndall Grove Battery. By W. H. S.
+
+Cylinder Condensation. By F. F. H.
+
+Sawdust. By W. H. M.
+
+Keely Motor. By G. R. S.
+
+Firing. By A. P. A.
+
+Steam Launches. By G. F. S.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+HINTS TO CORRESPONDENTS.
+
+
+We renew our request that correspondents, in referring to former
+answers or articles, will be kind enough to name the date of the paper
+and the page, or the number of the question.
+
+Many of our correspondents make inquiries which cannot properly be
+answered in these columns. Such inquiries, if signed by initials only,
+are liable to be cast into the waste basket.
+
+Persons desiring special information which is purely of a personal
+character, and not of general interest, should remit from $1 to $5,
+according to the subject, as we cannot be expected to spend time and
+labor to obtain such information without remuneration.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+English Patents Issued to Americans. From November 8 to November 12,
+inclusive. Electric light.--T. A. Edison, Menlo Park, N. J. Feed water
+apparatus.--S. J. Hayes et al.,-------.
+
+
+Pipe, manufacture of.--W. Radde, N. Y. city.
+
+Potato digger.--L. A. Aspinwall, Albany, N. Y.
+
+Refrigerator.--J. A. Whitney, N. Y. city.
+
+Screw cutting machinery.--C. D. Rogers, Providence, R. I.
+
+Sewing machine.--Wilson Sewing Machine Company, Chicago, Ill.
+
+Wire machinery.--C. D. Rogers, Providence, R. I.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+[OFFICIAL.]
+
+INDEX OF INVENTIONS
+
+FOR WHICH
+
+Letters Patent of the United States were
+
+Granted in the Week Ending
+
+October 15, 1878,
+
+AND EACH BEARING THAT DATE.
+
+[Those marked (r) are reissued patents.]
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+A complete copy of any patent in the annexed list, including both the
+specifications and drawings, will be furnished from this office for
+one dollar. In ordering, please state the number and date of the
+patent desired, and remit to Munn & Co., 37 Park Row, New York city.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+Animal trap, B. H. Noelting                          209,068
+Axle box, car, J. N. Smith                           208,993
+Axle skein, vehicle, L. A. Winchester                209,096
+Ballot box, W. L. Barnes                             208,951
+Bed bottom, F. W. Mitchell                           208,917
+Bed bottom, spring, H. Pitcher                       208,987
+Bed lounge, H. S. Carter                             209,019
+Bed, spring, A. J. Lattin                            208,979
+Bedstead fastening, L. P. Clark                      209,022
+Boilers, low water alarm for steam, G. H. Crosby     208,962
+Boot and shoe counter support, etc., J. Wissen       208,943
+Bootjack, C. Tyson                                   209,091
+Brake, vacuum, F. W. Eames                           208,895
+Bran scourer, R. Tyson                               209,092
+Broom, M. T. Boult                                   209,017
+Brush, A. C. Estabrook                               208,898
+Camera, J. W. T. Cadett                              208,956
+Can, E. Norton                                       209,070
+Can, metallic, J. Broughton                          209,009
+Can, oil, A. E. Gardner                              209,037
+Can, sheet metal, A. N. Lapierre                     209,060
+Car bumper, S. M. Cummings (r)                         8,448
+Car coupling, J. Simmons                             208,934
+Car draw bar attachment, railway, J. H. Smitt        208,994
+Car journal box, F. M. Alexander                     208,947
+Car running gear, railway, J. C. Weaver              209,093
+Cars, dust deflector for, Morgan & Gilleland         209,066
+Carbureter, air, G. Reznor                           209,076
+Carriage, C. H. Palmer, Jr.                          208,923
+Carriage seats, corner iron for, L. Emerson          208,971
+Carriage top standard, F. W. Whitney                 209,097
+Cartridge loading machine, G. S. Slocum              208,935
+Cartridges, machine for gauging, J. H. Gill          208,903
+Casting andirons, mould for, S. E. Jones             209,054
+Casting temple rollers, mould for, J. B. Stamour     208,997
+Chair for children, high, J. Nichols (r)               8,454
+Chair, reclining, N. N. Horton                       208,907
+Chalk, sharpener for tailor's, J. Butcher            208,955
+Churn, J. H. Folliott                                209,033
+Churn, reciprocating, L. B. Wilson                   208,941
+Clasp, T. P. Taylor                                  208,998
+Clock striking attachment, D. C. Wolf                209,098
+Cock, steam, G. H. Crosby                            208,961
+Coin holder, C. H. Carpenter                         208,958
+Coin holder, B. McGovern                             208,984
+Coin measure, C. H. Fuller                           208,902
+Coke oven, W. H. Rosewarne                           208,930
+Combing machine, Rushton & Macqueen                  208,991
+Cooler and filter, water, J. C. Jewett               208,909
+Cooler, water, G. W. Malpass                         208,913
+Cotton gin, J. B. Hull                               209,049
+Crucible machine, J. C. Clime                        208,960
+Cultivator, J. C. Bean                               209,005
+Cultivator, B. H. Cross                              208,964
+Cultivator, C. Nash                                  208,921
+Dental foil package, R. S. Williams                  209,002
+Dental plugger, W. G. A. Bonwill                     209,006
+Desk, H. E. Moon                                     208,919
+Doffer combs, operator for, E. Wright                208,946
+Draught equalizer, L. O. Brekke                      209,007
+Dredging machine, J. B. Eads                         208,894
+Drill cleaner, grain, J. W. Lucas                    208,982
+Dummy, H. H. Baker                                   208,881
+Ear ring, W. P. Dolloff                              208,968
+Electric machine, dynamo, E. Weston                  209,094
+Elevator, windlass water, J. Knipscheer              209,057
+End gate fastening, F. Rock                          208,928
+Evaporator, fruit and vegetable, J. W. Powers        208,925
+Excavating machine, J. T. Dougine                    208,893
+Exercising machine, W. J. O. Bryon, Jr.              208,954
+Exhaust nozzle, N. J. White                          208,939
+Fabric cutter, Muehling & Davis                      208,920
+Feathers for dusters, G. M. Richmond                 209,080
+Fence, J. Williams                                   209,095
+Fence, picket, Terry & W. W. Green, Jr.              209,089
+Firearm, breech-loading, H. C. Bull                  209,010
+Firearm, breech-loading, J. D. Coon                  208,889
+Fire escape, V. Wohlmann                             208,944
+Firekindler, T. M. Benner                            208,882
+Firekindler, E. J. Norris                            209,069
+Fluting machine, C. G. Cabell (r)                      8,453
+Fork, W. H. Kretsinger                               209,058
+Fuel compressor, W. H. Rosewarne                     208,929
+Gas burner, pressure governing, J. N. Chamberlain    209,021
+Gas burners, apparatus for, A. L. Bogart             209,016
+Gate, C. D. & I. Haldeman                            209,040
+Gate, J. S. Henshaw                                  208,976
+Gate, Nason & Wilson (r)                               8,456
+Grain binder, M. A. Keller                           209,059
+Grain separator, G. W. Earhart                       208,896
+Gun, air, B. T. Babbitt                              209,014
+Harness, neck yoke attachment for, J. S. Nelson      208,922
+Harrow, sulky, S. C. Dix                             209,028
+Harvester rake, J. Barnes                            208,950
+Harvester reel, Hodges & Mohler                      209,047
+Head light, locomotive, E. L. Hall                   209,041
+Heels, turner for wooden, Prenot & Marchal           208,989
+Hide and skin dresser, C. Molinier                   208,918
+Hitching post, Thomas & Knox                         209,090
+Hoe. T. Weiss                                        209,000
+Hog cholera compound, M. Hemmingway                  208,975
+Horse collar, J. J. Crowley                          209,025
+Horse power, C. H. Baker                             208,948
+Horsepower, A. B. Farquhar                           209,032
+Horse toe weight, J. W. Bopp                         208,927
+Ice, manufacturing, A. Albertson (r)                   8,455
+Indicator, water level, E. Jerome                    209,052
+Journal, R. Macdonald                                208,983
+Journal bearing, W. W. Smalley                       209,084
+Knife, chopping, W. Millspaugh                       209,065
+Knob attachment, door, J. F. Peacock                 208,924
+Lamp holder, A. A. Noyes                             209,071
+Lamp bowl, F. Rhind                                  209,077
+Lamp chimney, nursery, E. Mecier                     208,916
+Lamp, miner's, W. Roberts                            209,082
+Lamp, self-extinguishing, F. Rhind                   209,078
+Lantern, J. H. Irwin                                 209,051
+Lantern, signal. H. E. Pond (r)                        8,457
+Latch, B. W. Foster                                  209,034
+Lathe for turning regular forms, E. A. Marsh         209,064
+Lead, refining, impure, N. S. Keith                  209,056
+Leather skiving machine, M. M. Clough                208,959
+Leather splitting machine, A. E. Whitney             209,001
+Loom temple, J. B. Stamour                           209,101
+Lubricator, N. Seibert                               208,932
+Lubricator, steam cylinder, N. Seibert               208,931
+Marble, slate, etc., ornamenting, W. K. Lorenz       209,062
+Match dipping machine, A. R. Sprout                  208,996
+Meter, steam diaphragm, C. Holly                     209,048
+Middlings bolt, M. Inskeep                           209,050
+Middlings separator, G. T. Smith.                    208,936
+Musical instrument, E. P. Needham (r)                  8,451
+Musical string instruments, key for, F. Z. Nicolier  208,985
+Needle, J. Burrows                                   209,018
+Oat meal machine, Eberhard & Turner                  208,970
+Ordnance, operating heavy, H. C. Bull                209,011
+Ore separator, P. Plant                              209,074
+Oven, hot blast, Miles & Burghardt                   208,915
+Package wrapper, G. V. Hecker                        209,044
+Packing for piston rods, metallic, M. H. Gerry       208,973
+Pan cover, milk, C. C. Fairlamb                      208,900
+Paper feeding apparatus, F. H. Lauten                208,980
+Paper making machines, box for, C. Young             209,003
+Paper pulp, reducing wood to, Cornell & Tollner      208,890
+Peach parer, W. S. Plummer                           208,988
+Pen, puncturing, J. M. Griest                        208,905
+Pessary, medicated, T. N. Berlin                     208,883
+Pipe, smoking, W. H. Caddy                           208,886
+Planter, corn, Brigham & Flenniken                   208,885
+Planter, grain, C. E. McBonn                         208,914
+Planter, seed, G. A. Woods                           208,945
+Plaster bandages, making, C. G. Hill                 209,045
+Plow, C. Myers                                       209,067
+Plow and harrow attachment, shovel, A. Heartsill     209,043
+Plow and harrow, W. G. Himrod                        209,046
+Plow clevis, H. Estes                                208,899
+Plow, hillside, shovel, and subsoil, E. Tate         209,088
+Plow, sulky, F. H. Isaacs                            208,978
+Press, cotton and hay, Tappey & Steel                209,087
+Printing and painting machine, O. Currier            208,892
+Printing, photo-mechanical, M. R. Freeman            209,036
+Propelling vessels, P. Boisset                       208,952
+Pulleys to wheels, engaging, Blake & Davis           208,884
+Pump, S. Stucky                                      209,086
+Pump, double acting lift, Dean & Pike                209,027
+Rafter, F. M. Covert                                 209,024
+Railway rails, muffling, A. Atwood                   208,880
+Railway signal, C. E. Hanscom                        209,042
+Railway signal, electro-magnetic, H. W. Spang        208,995
+Railway track, B. F. Card                            208,957
+Rake, horse hay, W. Adriance                         209,004
+Rolling mills, bearing for, S. W. Baldwin            208,949
+Roofs, attaching slates to, S. Farquhar              209,031
+Rope holding reel, C. N. Cass                        209,020
+Rosettes from wood, making, J. H. Burnshow           239,012
+Seal, baggage, E. J. Brooks                          208,953
+Seal, metallic, E. J. Brooks                         209,008
+Seeding machine, S. O. Campbell                      208,887
+Sewing machine, C. S. Cushman                        209,026
+Sewing machine, J. A. Davis                          208,967
+Sewing machine, L. Evans                             209,030
+Sewing machine, book, J. S. Lever                    209,061
+Sewing machine, hem stitching, J. A. Lakin           208,911
+Sewing machine tuck marker, G. Rehfuss               209,075
+Shaft and pulley coupling, H. C. Crowell             208,965
+Shears, metal, W. G. Collins                         208,888
+Ships unloading grain from W. Stanton (r)              8,452
+Shoe, J. F. Emerson                                  208,897
+Shutter bower, T. Thorn                              208,937
+Shutter worker, W. Jones                             209,055
+Sign, W. Gulden                                      208,974
+Sinks, measuring and weighing, D. T. Winter          208,942
+Sled, stone and log, W. Gregg                        209,039
+Sleigh, propeller, R. Schluter                       209,083
+Spittoon, T. Loughran                                208,981
+Spring, car, G. F. Godley                            208,904
+Spring, vehicle, E. Chamberlin (r)             8,449,  8,450
+Spring, vehicle, C. W. Fillmore                      208,901
+Spring, vehicle, H. R. Huie                          208,977
+Steamer, feed, Machamer & McCulloch                  209,063
+Stirrup, saddle, J. M. Freeman                       208,972
+Stove board, A. C. Stoessiger                        209,085
+Stove cover and check damper, H. Ritter              209,081
+Stove pipe shelf, L. W. Turner                       208,938
+Stoves, foot bar and rail for, J. Jewett             209,053
+Stoves, hood for cooking, S. Cromer                  208,891
+Stump puller. W. A. Webb                             208,999
+Sugar, manufacture of hard, J. O. Donner             209,029
+Switch cords, tip for, T. B. Doolittle               208,969
+Table folding, R. M. Lambie                          208,912
+Tablet, writing, W. O. Davis                         208,966
+Target, W. Kuhn                                      208,910
+Ticket, passenger, A. C. Sheldon                     208,933
+Ticket-reel. T. D. Haehnlen                          208,906
+Toy money box J. Gerard                              209,038
+Treadle power, I. M. Rhodes                          209,079
+Turbines, steam and other, P. C. Humblot             208,908
+Valve, J. Patterson                                  208,986
+Valve, feed water regulating, E. C. Da Silva         208,992
+Valve gear, steam engine, J. Butcher                 209,013
+Ventilator, T. Owens                                 209,072
+Wagon jack, W. B. Bartram                            209,015
+Wagon jack, Williams & Dodge                         208,940
+Washing machine, D. Coman                            209,023
+Washing machine, A. R. Fowler                        209,035
+Washing machine, F. F. Reynolds                      208,990
+Water gauge, G. H. Crosby                            208,963
+Weighing apparatus, J. H. Wright                     209,099
+Window, A. K. Phillips                               209,073
+Window frame, C. Rebhun                              208,926
+Wreaths, machine for twining, G. B. Shepard          209,100
+
+
+TRADE MARKS.
+
+Cigars, cigarettes, etc., E. Hilson                    6,726
+Cigars, etc., Engelbrecht Fox & Co.             6,724, 6,725
+Disinfecting compound, Hance Bros. & White             6,718
+Gin, Hoffheimer Brothers                               6,729
+Lamp chimneys, Norcross, Mellen & Co.                  6,730
+Liquid cements. W. H. Sanger                           6,731
+Malt extract, Tarrant & Co.                            6,722
+Matches, J. Eaton & Son                                6,727
+Mustard and spices, H. B. Sherman               6,720, 6,721
+Perfumery, J. T. Lanman                                6,719
+Playing cards, The N. Y. Consolidated Card Co.         6,723
+Smoking tobacco, H. W. Meyer                           6,728
+Wash blue, F. Damcke                                   6,711
+
+
+DESIGNS.
+
+Carpet, C. Magee                                      10,870
+Cigar boxes, Weller & Repetti                         10,871
+Font of printing types, J. M. Conner                  10,868
+Group of statuary, J. Rogers                          10,869
+Handkerchiefs, J. Grimshaw                    10,866, 10,867
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+THE SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN
+
+EXPORT EDITION.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+PUBLISHED MONTHLY.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+THE SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN Export Edition is a large and SPLENDID
+PERIODICAL, issued once a month, forming a complete and interesting
+Monthly Record of all Progress in Science and the Useful Arts
+throughout the World. Each number contains about ONE HUNDRED LARGE
+QUARTO PAGES, profusely illustrated, embracing:
+
+(1.) Most of the plates and pages of the four preceding weekly issues
+of the SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN, with its SPLENDID ENGRAVINGS AND VALUABLE
+INFORMATION.
+
+(2.) Prices Current, Commercial, Trade, and Manufacturing
+Announcements of Leading Houses. In connection with these
+Announcements many of the Principal Articles of American Manufacture
+are exhibited to the eye of the reader by means of SPLENDID
+ENGRAVINGS.
+
+This is by far the most satisfactory and superior Export Journal ever
+brought before the public.
+
+Terms for Export Edition, FIVE DOLLARS A YEAR, sent prepaid to any
+part of the world. Single copies, 50 cents. For sale at this office.
+To be had at all News and Book Stores throughout the country.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+NOW READY.
+
+THE SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN EXPORT
+EDITION FOR NOVEMBER, 1878, WITH
+ONE HUNDRED ILLUSTRATIONS.
+GENERAL TABLE OF CONTENTS
+Of the SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN Export Edition for November,
+1878.
+
+
+I.--INVENTIONS, DISCOVERIES AND PATENTS.
+
+  The Incoming Commissioner of Patents.
+  A South Australian Offer for an Improvement.
+  The Forster-Firmin Amalgamator. Three engravings.
+  Lyman's Trigonometer. One figure.
+  Patent Law.
+  The Benefits of Patent Rights.
+  Hop Picking by Machinery.
+  Description of Recent Most Important Agricultural Inventions.
+  Displays of Ingenuity at the Boston Mechanics Fair.
+  Description of Recent Most Important Mechanical Inventions.
+  New Wilson Oscillating Sewing Machine. Seven figs.
+  A Nail Gun.
+  Who will Invent a Satisfactory Milking Machine?
+  The Hermetical Sanitary Closet. One engraving.
+  New Refrigerator Basket. Two engravings.
+  New Fireproof Shutter. One engraving.
+  Inventors Needed in England.
+  New Foot Power. One engraving.
+  New Wool Scouring and Rinsing Machine. One eng.
+  New Measuring Jacket. Three engravings.
+  New Rheostat. Two engravings.
+  The Paris International Patent Congress.
+  Patent Rights, and Who Oppose Them.
+  New Gas Regulator. Three engravings.
+  Combined Traction Engine and Steam Fire Engine. One engraving.
+  Van Renne's Caloric Engine and Pump. Three engs.
+  The Watson Pump. One engraving.
+  The Swedish Buckeye Machine.
+  Pipe Wrench and Cutter. Two engravings.
+  Drilling Square Holes. Four figures.
+  Description of Recent Most Important Engineering Inventions.
+  New Mortising Machine. One engraving.
+  New Steam Fire Engine. One engraving.
+  New Bank Note Paper Wanted.
+  The Proposed Addition to the Patent Office. Two engravings.
+  A Year's Work in the Patent Office.
+  New Rule in Trade Mark Cases.
+  Electric Light in Chancery.
+  Novel Egg Opener. Two engravings.
+  Patents for Protecting the Dead.
+  Electric Light Patents.
+  A New Platen Gauge. Four engravings.
+  New Draughting Pencil. Two engravings.
+  Gas and Water-tight Cloth.
+  New Regulator for Clock Pendulums. Two engs.
+  Steam Engine Governor. One engraving.
+  Description of Recent Most Important Miscellaneous Inventions.
+  Notices of New Inventions.
+  Patent Office Library.
+
+
+II.--MECHANICS AND ENGINEERING.
+  Chard's Lubricene and Cups.
+  The Electric Light and the Gas Companies.
+  Fuel Gas.
+  New Ways to Use Iron Wanted.
+  Progress and Prospects of the East River Bridge. Two engravings.
+  A Steam Tricycle.
+  New Artesian Well, Victoria, Spain.
+  A Long Train.
+  How a Good House Should be Built.
+  Jetties Under Water.
+  How the Capitol at Albany, N. Y., is to be Warmed and Ventilated.
+  What a Perfect Railway Brake Should do.
+  The Secret of It.
+  Florida Ship Canal.
+  The Torpedo Vessel Destroyer. One illustration.
+  Steam from Petroleum.
+  The Motion of a Wagon Wheel.
+  Building in Steel.
+  Locomotive for the Metropolitan Elevated Railway. One illustration.
+  The French Dam Below Pittsburg, Ohio.
+  The Adelphi Explosion.
+  "Forney" Locomotive for the New York Elevated Railway. One large engraving.
+  The Steam Value of Oil Fuels.
+  The Mechanical and other Properties of Iron and Mild Steel.
+  French Wheelbarrows. Twenty-five engravings.
+  Small Steamboats.
+  Life Preservers.
+  A Gas Clock.
+  Another Mountain Railway.
+  Preservation of Iron.
+  The Salisbury Furnace for Petroleum.
+  Danger from Lubricating Oils.
+  The Testing of Boiler Iron.
+  Tramway Rail Experiments. Two engravings.
+  Aluminum and Platinum in the Manufacture of Watches.
+  Great Machine Tool Makers.
+  Gas as a Substitute for Solid Fuel.
+
+
+III.--MINING AND METALLURGY.
+
+  The Formation of Quartz.
+  Depth of Nevada Gold and Silver Mines.
+  California Mining vs. Farming.
+  New Form of Iron Manufacture.
+  Comstock Silver Lodes.
+
+
+IV.--CHEMISTRY AND PHYSICS.
+
+  Dangers from Impure Potassium Iodide.
+  The Poplar as a Lightning Conductor.
+  The Mariner's Compass.
+  Crude Sulphur from Iron Pyrites.
+  Antimony for Batteries.
+  Delicate Test for Water.
+  The Polarization of Electrodes.
+  Fragarine.
+  Balata Gum.
+  Astronomical Notes. Giving the Positions, Rising,
+  and Setting of the Planets for November.
+  Professor Morton on the Electric Light.
+  The Electrical Department in the Mechanic's Fair, Boston.
+  The Satellites of Mars.
+  Gold Amalgams.
+  Another New Electric Light.
+  Albumen of the Serum and that of Egg, and their Combinations.
+  A Mirror Telegraph.
+  Some Modifications of the Microphone and Telephone. Four engravings.
+  A Chance for Electric Competition.
+  Advantages of Experimental Study.
+  The Black Spot of Jupiter.
+  The Electric Light. With five engravings.
+  Spontaneous Combustion.
+  Recent Military Balloon Experiments.
+  Burner for Electric Light. One engraving.
+  Artificial Ball Lightning. One engraving.
+  To Make Corks Air-tight and Water-tight.
+  Electric Time Service for New York. Four engravings.
+  The Hosmer Motor.
+  Polarized Light.
+  Phosphorescent Timepieces.
+  The De Meritens Magneto-electric Machine. Two figures.
+  Cellulose as a Material for Washers.
+
+
+V.--NATURAL HISTORY, NATURE, MAN, ETC.
+
+  The Golden Cup Oak.
+  Serpulas, or Sea Worms. One engraving.
+  The King Tody Bird. One engraving.
+  Life Without Air.
+  Cadaver-poison of the Australian Natives.
+  The Contortion of Rocks from Heat Mechanically Generated.
+  The Stiffening of Plant Stalks.
+  Immense Labor Performed by Bees.
+  The Torrey Botanical Club.
+  The Big Trees of California.
+  Explorations in Greenland.
+  The Umbrella Bird. One engraving.
+  The Argan Tree.
+  A Spruce-destroying Beetle.
+  A Geological Discovery in Deep Water.
+  The Mound Builder's Unit of Measure.
+  Progress of Horticulture.
+  Bishop Ferrette on the Cedars of Lebanon.
+  Special Senses in Insects.
+  Natural History Notes.
+  New Cave Discovery in Kentucky.
+  Longevity of the Horse.
+  Left-handedness.
+  Bee Culture in Egypt.
+  The Poison Ivy and Virginia Creeper. Two engravings.
+  The Crafty Hermit Crab. One illustration.
+
+
+VI.--MEDICINE AND HYGIENE.
+
+  Nitrate of Amyl in Sea Sickness.
+  Milk cure for Lead Colic.
+  Milkweed Juice for Raw Surfaces.
+  The Use of Snails in Medicine.
+  The Art of Prolonging Life.
+  The Deleterious Use of Alum in Bread and Baking
+  Powders.--Alum being Substituted for Cream of Tartar.
+  The Treatment of Hydrophobia.
+  New Use for Warts.
+  Removal of the Entire Scalp by Machinery.
+  The Probable Starting Point of the Yellow Fever.
+  Piedra.
+  Heredity.
+  Scientific Reliance on Soap.
+  The Medical Ice Hat.
+  Ventilation of Bed Rooms.
+  The Filtration of Drinking Water.
+  The Texas "Screw Worm."
+
+
+VII.--THE PARIS EXHIBITION, SCIENTIFIC MEETINGS, ETC.
+
+  Success of American Exhibitors at Paris.
+  The Main Building at the Exhibition. With one full page illustration.
+  The French Industrial Exhibition of 1878.
+  Awards and Honors at Paris.
+  Ingram Rotary Press. One illustration.
+  A Grand World's Fair in New York.
+  A Mexican Exhibition.
+  Australia to have a World's Fair.
+  Closing of the French Exhibition.
+  Hydraulic Motors at the Exhibition. With two engravings.
+  The National Academy of Sciences.
+  The Official Reports of the Paris Exhibition.
+  American Society of Civil Engineers.
+
+
+VIII.--INDUSTRY AND COMMERCE.
+
+  Should the Nation Engage in Manufactures?
+  American Export of Agricultural Machinery.
+  Corundum.
+  American Made Goods Exhibited as European Manufactures.
+  The California Tea Fields.
+  An Odd Craft.
+  Progress of our Foreign Trade.
+  The Condition of Manufacturing Interests in Germany.
+  Labor in Chicago.
+  Apples for Europe.
+  Adulterated Graham Flour.
+  Addition to our List of Food Fishes.
+  Preservation of Milk.
+  Electrical Test for Oils.
+  Parsnips.
+  Russian Pottery. Two engravings.
+  Notes from the South.--Facts about the Cotton Worm.
+  The Mediterranean Trade.
+  American Competition in Great Britain.
+  Rapid Increase in French Woolen Industries.
+  The Rockport Granite Quarries.
+  Trade Mark Treaty with Brazil.
+  Early Manufacture of Steel Pens.
+  New and Stale Bread.
+  Leather from Sheep Stomachs.
+  New Source of Rubber.
+  A National Law Governing Adulteration Needed.
+  How to get Pure Teas.
+  Skilled Labor in New York City.
+  French Subsoil and Clearing Plow. One figure.
+  Opening for Trade in Madagascar.
+  Handling Grain in Buffalo.
+  The Blue Process of Copying Tracings.
+  We Buy of them that Advertise.
+  Unprofitable Agents.
+  Various Uses of Paper.
+  Improved Grinding Mill and Crusher. Two engravings.
+  The Cultivation of the Common Nettle.
+  The Economic Products of Seaweed.
+  The Japanese Wax Tree in California.
+  Preservation of Food by Gelatin.
+  Pearl Millet.
+  To Turn Oak Black.
+  Dairy and Poultry Produce in America.
+  Australian Gum Trees.
+  Frauds in Wine Making.
+  Removal of Iron Coloring from Liquors.
+  The Utilization of Iron Slag.
+  Relative Cost of Coal Transportation by Water and by Rail.
+  How to get Rid of Ants.
+  The Science of Milling.
+
+
+IX.--PRACTICAL RECIPES AND MISCELLANEOUS.
+
+  Progress in England and America.
+  An Improvement on Tea Chromos.
+  A Correction.
+  The Stability of Modern Civilization.
+  Future Rifle Shooting.
+  "Bruce," the Manchester Fire Horse.
+  The Trial of the "Pyx."
+  Early Gold Payments.
+  Workingmen in England and France.
+  Washington Memorials in Northamptonshire. Three engravings.
+  Culinary Uses of Leaves.
+  A Remarkable Bank Robbery.--Scientific Safeguards Neglected.
+  Cleopatra's Needle.
+  A Steam Juryman.
+  Roads in Baden.
+  Indications of Progress.
+  Practical Education in Russia.
+  Table Forks.
+  The Cost of Insecurity.
+  Improved Copying Pencils.
+
+
+Answers to Correspondents, embodying a large quantity of valuable
+information, practical recipes, and instructions in various arts.
+
+
+Single numbers of the _Scientific American Export Edition_, 50 cents.
+To be had at this office, and at all news stores. Subscriptions, _Five
+Dollars a year_; sent postpaid to all parts of the world.
+
+MUNN & CO., PUBLISHERS,
+37 PARK Row, NEW YORK.
+
+
+To Advertisers:-->Manufacturers and others who desire to secure
+foreign trade may have large and handsomely displayed announcements
+published in this edition at a very moderate cost.
+
+The Scientific American Export Edition has a large guaranteed
+circulation in all commercial places throughout the world. Regular
+Files of the Export Edition are also carried on ALL STEAMSHIPS,
+foreign and coastwise, leaving the port of New York. Address MUNN &
+CO., 37 Park Row, New York.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+STRONG AND CHEAP SPAR BRIDGES.
+
+
+General description, dimensions, and particulars, with 2 pages of
+drawings, covering illustrations of all the details, for a bridge of
+100 feet span or less; specially useful for crossing of creeks, small
+rivers, gullies, or wherever a costly structure is not desirable. The
+drawings are from the Spar Bridge exhibited at the Centennial, in the
+U. S. Department of Military Engineering. These bridges are wholly
+composed of undressed stuff. SUPPLEMENT 71. Price 10 cents.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+FIREPROOF DWELLINGS OF CHEAP CONSTRUCTION. A valuable and important
+paper, containing Plans and Descriptions of Model Fireproof Dwellings
+of cheap construction lately erected in Chicago. By A. J. Smith,
+Architect. With 9 illustrations. Plan No. 1 exhibits the construction
+of comfortable one-story, 16 ft. front dwellings, of brick and
+concrete, finished complete at a cost of $1,200. Plan No. 2 exhibits
+the construction of a comfortable 23 ft. front, two-story dwelling,
+of brick and concrete, finished complete, with cellar, for $1,700.
+Several of these dwellings, on both plans, have been built at the
+prices stated. This valuable paper also contains the Report of the
+City Authorities of Chicago, certifying to the fireproof nature
+of these buildings, with other useful particulars. Contained in
+SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN SUPPLEMENT No. 91. Price 10 cts. To be had at this
+office and of all newsdealers.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+OUTWARD MARKS OF A GOOD COW.
+
+
+By Capt. JOHN C. MORRIS, Pa. Carelessness in Breeding. How to Select
+for Breeding. Marks of the Handsome Cow. Care and Training of the
+Heifer. Infallible Marks of Good Milkers. Distinguishing Marks and
+Characteristics of the "Bastard" and the "Bogus" Cow, etc. Contained,
+with useful Remarks on Bee Culture, in SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN SUPPLEMENT
+No. 135. Price 10 cents. To be had at this office and of all
+newsdealers.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+ON CHRONIC MALARIAL POISONING.
+
+
+By ALFRED L. LOOMIS, M.D. A Highly Instructive Clinical Lecture,
+delivered at the University Medical College, N. Y Contained in
+SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN SUPPLEMENT No. 102. Price 10 cents. To be had at
+this office and of all newsdealers.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+ICE-HOUSE AND COLD ROOM.--BY R. G. Hatfleld. With directions for
+construction. Four engravings. SUPPLEMENT No. 59. Price, 10 cents.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+THE
+
+SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN
+
+The Most Popular Scientific Paper in the World.
+
+THIRTY-THIRD YEAR.
+
+Only $3.20 a Year including Postage. Weekly. 52 Numbers a Year.
+
+
+This widely circulated and splendidly illustrated paper is published
+weekly. Every number contains sixteen pages of useful information,
+and a large number of original engravings of new inventions and
+discoveries, representing Engineering Works, Steam Machinery,
+New Inventions, Novelties in Mechanics, Manufactures, Chemistry,
+Electricity, Telegraphy, Photography, Architecture, Agriculture,
+Horticulture, Natural History, etc.
+
+ALL CLASSES OF READERS find in THE SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN a popular
+_resume_ of the best scientific information of the day; and it is the
+aim of the publishers to present it in an attractive form, avoiding
+as much as possible abstruse terms. To every intelligent mind, this
+journal affords a constant supply of instructive reading. It is
+promotive of knowledge and progress in every community where it
+circulates.
+
+TERMS OF SUBSCRIPTION.--One copy of THE SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN will be
+sent for _one year_--52 numbers--postage prepaid, to any subscriber
+in the United States or Canada, on receipt of THREE DOLLARS AND TWENTY
+CENTS by the publishers; six months, $1.60; three months, $1.00.
+
+CLUBS.--ONE EXTRA COPY of THE SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN will be supplied
+gratis _for every club of five subscribers_ at $3.20 each; additional
+copies at same proportionate rate. Postage prepaid.
+
+One copy of THE SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN and one copy of THE SCIENTIFIC
+AMERICAN SUPPLEMENT will be sent for one year, postage prepaid, to
+any subscriber in the United States or Canada, on receipt of _seven
+dollars_ by the publishers.
+
+The safest way to remit is by Postal Order, Draft, or Express. Money
+carefully placed inside of envelopes, securely sealed, and correctly
+addressed, seldom goes astray, but is at the sender's risk. Address
+all letters and make all orders, drafts, etc., payable to
+
+  MUNN & CO.,
+  37 Park Row, New York.
+
+
+TO FOREIGN SUBSCRIBERS.--Under the facilities of the Postal Union,
+the SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN is now sent by post direct from New York, with
+regularity, to subscribers in Great Britain, India, Australia, and all
+other British colonies; to France, Austria, Belgium, Germany, Russia,
+and all other European States; Japan, Brazil, Mexico, and all States
+of Central and South America. Terms, when sent to foreign countries,
+Canada excepted, $4, gold, for SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN, 1 year; $9, gold,
+for both SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN AND SUPPLEMENT for 1 year. This includes
+postage, which we pay. Remit by postal order or draft to order of Munn
+& Co., 37 Park Row, New York.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+NEW PATENT LAW
+
+FOR
+
+SPAIN, CUBA, PORTO RICO, ETC.
+
+
+By the terms of the New Patent Law of _Spain_, which has lately gone
+into operation, the citizens of the United States may obtain Spanish
+Patents on very favorable conditions.
+
+The Spanish Patent covers SPAIN, and all the Spanish Colonies,
+including CUBA, Porto Rico, the Philippine Islands, etc. Total cost
+of obtaining the Patent, $100. Duration of the Patent, 20 years, 10
+years, and 5 years, as follows:
+
+The Spanish Patent, if applied for by the original inventor before his
+American patent is actually issued, will run for 20 years. Total cost
+of the patent, $100. It covers Spain, Cuba, etc. The Spanish Patent,
+if applied for by the original inventor not more than two years after
+the American patent has been issued, will run for 10 years. Total cost
+of patent, $100. Covers Spain, Cuba, etc.
+
+_A Spanish Patent of Introduction_, good for 5 years, can be taken
+by any person, whether inventor or merely introducer. Cost of such
+patent, $100. Covers Spain, Cuba, and all the Spanish dominions.
+
+In order to facilitate the transaction of our business in obtaining
+Spanish Patents, we have established a special agency at No. 4
+Soldado, Madrid.
+
+Further particulars, with Synopsis of Foreign Patents, Costs, etc.,
+furnished gratis.
+
+MUNN & CO.,
+Solicitors of American and Foreign Patents,
+Proprietors of the SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN,
+37 PARK ROW, NEW YORK.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+WATER SUPPLY FOR TOWNS AND Villages.--By Clarence Delafield, C.E.
+A concise and valuable report, showing the costs and merits of the
+various systems--Discussion of the Holly system, its merits
+and defects--The reservoir system, with pumps, cost, and
+advantages--Results obtained and economy of use of various systems in
+different towns, with names and duty realized--Facts and figures to
+enable town committees to judge for themselves as to the system
+best suited for their wants--The best sources of water supply--
+Water-bearing rocks--Artesian wells, their feasibility, excellence,
+and cost of boring--Importance of pure water--How surface water is
+rendered impure--Cost of water pipes, from 2 to 12 inches diameter,
+for towns, including laying, all labor, materials, gates, joints, etc.
+Estimates of income, water-rates for supply of 1,000 buildings.
+Contained in SUPPLEMENT 27. Price 10 cents.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+ICE BOATS--THEIR CONSTRUCTION and management. With working drawings,
+details, and directions in full. Four engravings, showing mode of
+construction. Views of the two fastest ice-sailing boats used on the
+Hudson river in winter. By H. A. Horsfall, M.E. SUPPLEMENT 1. The same
+number also contains the rules and regulations for the formation of
+ice-boat clubs, the sailing and management of ice-boats, etc. Price 10
+cents.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+ICE AND ICE-HOUSES--HOW TO MAKE ice ponds; amount of ice required,
+etc., and full directions for building ice-house, with illustrated
+plan. SUPPLEMENT 55. Price 10 cents.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+[Illustration: Patents]
+
+CAVEATS, COPYRIGHTS, TRADE MARKS, ETC.
+
+
+Messrs. Munn & Co., in connection with the publication of the
+SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN, continue to examine Improvements, and to act as
+Solicitors of Patents for Inventors.
+
+In this line of business they have had OVER THIRTY YEARS' EXPERIENCE,
+and now have _unequaled facilities_ for the preparation of Patent
+Drawings, Specifications, and the Prosecution of Applications for
+Patents in the United States. Canada, and Foreign Countries. Messrs.
+Munn & Co. also attend to the preparation of Caveats, Trade Mark
+Regulations, Copyrights for Books, Labels, Reissues, Assignments, and
+Reports on Infringements of Patents. All business intrusted to them is
+done with special care and promptness, on very moderate terms.
+
+We send free of charge, on application, a pamphlet containing
+further information about Patents and how to procure them; directions
+concerning Trade Marks, Copyrights, Designs, Patents, Appeals,
+Reissues, Infringements, Assignments, Rejected Cases, Hints on the
+Sale of Patents, etc.
+
+_FOREIGN PATENTS._--We also send, _free of charge_, a Synopsis of
+Foreign Patent Laws, showing the cost and method of securing patents
+in all the principal countries of the world. American inventors should
+bear in mind that, as a general rule, any invention that is valuable
+to the patentee in this country is worth equally as much in England
+and some other foreign countries. Five patents--embracing Canadian,
+English, German, French, and Belgian--will secure to an inventor the
+exclusive monopoly to his discovery among about ONE HUNDRED AND FIFTY
+MILLIONS of the most intelligent people in the world. The facilities
+of business and steam communication are such that patents can be
+obtained abroad by our citizens almost as easily as at home. The
+expense to apply for an English patent is $75; German, $100; French,
+$100; Belgian, $100; Canadian, $50. _COPIES OF PATENTS._--Persons
+desiring any patent issued from 1836 to November 26, 1867, can be
+supplied with official copies at reasonable cost, the price depending
+upon the extent of drawings and length of specifications.
+
+Any patent issued since November 27, 1867, at which time the Patent
+Office commenced printing the drawings and specifications, may be had
+by remitting to this office $1.
+
+A copy of the claims of any patent issued since 1836 will be furnished
+for $1.
+
+When ordering copies, please to remit for the same as above, and state
+name of patentee, title of invention, and date of patent.
+
+A pamphlet, containing full directions for obtaining United States
+patents sent free. A handsomely bound Reference Book, gilt edges,
+contains 140 pages and many engravings and tables important to every
+patentee and mechanic, and is a useful hand book of reference for
+everybody. Price 25 cents, mailed free.
+
+Address
+
+MUNN & CO.,
+Publishers SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN,
+37 Park Row, N. Y.
+_BRANCH OFFICE--Corner of F and 7th Streets,
+Washington, D. C._
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+ADVERTISEMENTS
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+Inside Page, each insertion - - - 75 cents a line.
+Back Page, each insertion - - - - $1.00 a line.
+  (About eight words to a line.)
+
+_Engravings may head advertisements at the same rate per line, by
+measurement, as the letter press. Advertisements must be received
+at publication office as early as Thursday morning to appear in next
+issue._
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+BAIRD'S
+
+CATALOGUES OF BOOKS
+
+Our new and enlarged CATALOGUE OF PRACTICAL AND SCIENTIFIC BOOKS, 96
+pages, 8vo; a Catalogue of Books on DYEING, CALICO PRINTING, WEAVING,
+COTTON and WOOLEN MANUFACTURE, 4to; Catalogue of a choice collection
+of PRACTICAL, SCIENTIFIC, and ECONOMIC BOOKS, 4to; List of Books on
+STEAM AND THE STEAM ENGINE, MECHANICS, MACHINERY, and ENGINEERING,
+4to; List of Important Books on METALLURGY, METALS, STRENGTH OF
+MATERIALS, CHEMICAL ANALYSIS, ASSAYING, etc., 4to; two Catalogues
+of Books and Pamphlets on SOCIAL SCIENCE, POLITICAL ECONOMY, BANKS,
+POPULATION, PAUPERISM, and kindred subjects sent free to any one who
+will forward his address.
+
+HENRY CAREY BAIRD & CO.,
+Industrial Publishers, Booksellers, and Importers,
+810 WALNUT ST., PHILADELPHIA, PA.
+
+
+[Illustration]
+
+An engine that works without Boiler. Always ready to be started and to
+give at once full power.
+
+SAFETY, ECONOMY, CONVENIENCE.
+
+Burns common Gas and Air. No steam, no coal, no ashes, no fires, no
+danger, no extra insurance. Almost no attendance.
+
+THE NEW OTTO SILENT GAS ENGINE.
+
+Useful for all work of small stationary steam engine. Offered in sizes
+of 2, 4, and 7 H.P. Send for illustrated circular. SCHLEICHER, SCHUMM
+& CO., Phila., Pa.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+A GOOD PLAN
+
+_The most profitable plan_ for operating in stocks is by uniting
+capital of various sums in combining or pooling orders of thousands
+of customers and using them as _one mighty whole_, which is done so
+successfully by Messrs. Lawrence & Co., Bankers, 57 Exchange Place,
+N. Y. City. By this cooperative system each investor is placed on an
+equal footing with the largest operator and profits divided _pro rata_
+among shareholders every 30 days. $10 invested makes $50 or 5 per cent.
+on the stock during the month--$50 returns $350 or 7 per cent., $100
+pays $1,000, or 10 per cent., and so on according to the market. The
+firm's new circular (copyrighted and free) contains "Two unerring
+rules for success in stock operations," and explains everything. All
+kinds of Stocks and Bonds wanted. New Government Loan supplied.
+LAWRENCE & CO., _Bankers and Brokers_, 57 Exchange Place, N. Y. City.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+PORTABLE GRAIN MILLS.
+
+[Illustration]
+
+For Mill and Farm. Built on the durable and scientific principles.
+Warranted fully equal to any in the market. Mills for grinding all
+substances. We have made mill building a specialty for 13 years.
+
+WALKER BROS. & CO.,
+
+Engineers, Founders & Machinists,
+
+23d and Wood St., Phila., Pa.
+
+
+ON THE CARE OF HORSES. BY PROF. PRITCHARD, R.V.S. Showing the Proper
+Construction of Stables. Best Floor. Lighting and Ventilation.
+Hay-racks. Watering and Feeding. Grooming and Exercise. Cracked Heels;
+Lice; Colic; Mud Fever; Wind Galls. Also, in same number, facts about
+improved Cow Stables. How to keep Cows clean and maintain Pure Air
+in Stables. Increased Cleanliness and Convenience with Less Labor.
+Contained in SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN SUPPLEMENT. No. 123. Price 10 cents.
+To be had at this office and of all newsdealers.
+
+
+MINING MACHINERY. ENGINES, BOILERS, PUMPS, Coal and Ore Jigs, Dust
+Burning Appliances. Drawings and advice free to customers. Jeanesville
+Iron Works (J. C. Haydon & Co.). Address HOWELL GREEN, Supt.,
+Jeanesville, Luzerne Co., Pa.
+
+
+[Illustration]
+
+Straub's Scientific GRAIN MILL, 12, 20, and 30 inch
+
+MILL STONES,
+
+For Farm and Merchant work. Warranted the full equal of any mill built
+in America. Before purchasing elsewhere send for our circular and
+price list.
+
+A. W. STRAUB & CO.,
+
+Philadelphia, Pa.
+
+
+USE WILHIDE'S NOISELESS, SELF-Setting Rat and Mouse Traps. Caught
+19 rats one hour; 46 one night. Ask your storekeeper for them. State
+right for sale. Circulars, etc., free. J. T. WILHIDE & BRO., York
+Road, Carroll Co., Md.
+
+
+AGENTS and SALESMEN wanted in every city and town to introduce a new
+Work, the
+
+"COMPLETE BUSINESS REGISTER"
+to dealers. Great inducements. Don't fail to write for particulars. W.
+H. Pamphilon, Pub., 30 Bond St., N. Y.
+
+
+LADIES CAN MAKE $5 A DAY IN THEIR OWN CITY OR TOWN. ADDRESS ELLIS
+M'F'G CO., WALTHAM, MASS.
+
+
+[ILLUSTRATION]
+
+THE "BIJOU" MICROSCOPE,
+
+WITH MOUNTED OBJECTS, 50C. A COMPLETE LITTLE INSTRUMENT FOR EXAMINING
+MINUTE OBJECTS. HAS ADJUSTABLE LENS-CAP, OBJECT SLIDES AND DIAPHRAGM,
+AND MAGNIFIES 10,000 TIMES. A MARVEL OF PERFECTION, CHEAPNESS,
+SIMPLICITY AND COMPACTNESS. OF PRETTY DESIGN AND NICELY FINISHED IN
+BRASS. PRICE, WITH AN ASSORTMENT OF INTERESTING MOUNTED MICROSCOPIC
+OBJECTS, 50C. SENT POST PAID ON RECEIPT OF PRICE TO GEM MICROSCOPE
+CO., 156 FULTON ST., N. Y.
+
+
+XMAS "WONDER BOX."
+
+CONTAINS 12 SHEETS PAPER, 12 ENVELOPES, 3 SHEETS COLORED PAPER, 1 LEAD
+PENCIL, 3 PENS, 1 TEXT, 12 COMIC CARDS, 40 SILHOUETTES, 36 MOTTOES, 85
+PATTERNS FOR FANCY WORK, 112 DECALCOMANIE, 131 EMBOSSED PICTURES, 50
+FANCY ORNAMENTS, 1 PENHOLDER, 2 BOOK MARKS, 5 BLACK TABLETS, 5 PICTURE
+CARDS, 30 SCRAP-BOOK PICTURES, 1 XMAS BANNER, 1 GAME AGE CARDS, 2 XMAS
+CARDS, 1 TOY PARASOL. PRICE, 42 CTS.; BY MAIL. 53 CTS. RETAIL VALUE,
+$1.45. _POSTAGE STAMPS TAKEN_. J. JAY GOULD, 10 BROOMFIELD ST.,
+BOSTON, MASS.
+
+
+GOLD, SILVER, AND NICKEL PLATING.
+
+A TRADE EASILY LEARNED. COSTS LITTLE TO START. THE ELECTRO PLATER'S
+GUIDE, A 72 PAGE BOOK, SENT FOR 3 STAMPS. SCIENTIFIC INSTRUMENTS
+AND BOOKS LOANED TO ANY ONE. PRICE LIST FREE. F. LOWEY, 90 11TH ST.,
+BROOKLYN, N. Y.
+
+
+DIAMONDS AND CARBON
+
+SHAPED OR CRUDE, FURNISHED AND SET FOR BORING ROCKS, DRESSING MILL
+BURRS, EMERY WHEELS, GRINDSTONES, HARDENED STEEL, CALENDER ROLLERS,
+AND FOR SAWING, TURNING, OR WORKING STONE AND OTHER HARD SUBSTANCES;
+ALSO GLAZIERS' DIAMONDS. J. DICKINSON, 64 NASSAU ST., N. Y.
+
+
+IMPORTANT FOR ALL CORPORATIONS AND MANF'G CONCERNS.--BUERK'S
+WATCHMAN'S TIME DETECTOR, capable of accurately controlling the motion
+of a watchman or patrolman at the different stations of his beat. Send
+for circular.
+
+J. E. BUERK, P.O. BOX 979, BOSTON, MASS
+
+N. B.--The suit against Imhaeuser & Co., of New York, was decided in my
+favor, June 10, 1874. A fine was assessed against them Nov. 11, 1876,
+for selling contrary to the order of the court. Persons buying or
+using clocks infringing on my patent will be dealt with according to
+law.
+
+
+THE GEORGE PLACE MACHINERY AGENCY
+
+Machinery of Every Description.
+
+121 Chambers and 103 Reade Streets, New York.
+
+
+[Illustration]
+
+THE FORSTER-FIRMIN GOLD AND SILVER AMALGAMATING COMP'Y of Norristown,
+Pa., will grant state rights or licenses on easy terms. This system
+works up to assay, and recovers the mercury rapidly.
+
+Apply as above.
+
+
+THE DRIVEN WELL.
+
+Town and County privileges for making DRIVEN WELLS and selling
+Licenses under the established AMERICAN DRIVEN WELL PATENT, leased by
+the year to responsible parties, by
+
+WM. D. ANDREWS & BRO., NEW YORK.
+
+
+SPARE THE CROTON AND SAVE THE COST.
+
+DRIVEN OR TUBE WELLS
+
+furnished to large consumers of Croton and Ridgewood Water. WM. D.
+ANDREWS & BRO., 414 Water St., N. Y., who control the patent for
+Green's American Driven Well.
+
+
+STEAM AND HYDRAULIC
+
+PASSENGER AND FREIGHT ELEVATORS,
+
+STEAM ENGINES AND BOILERS,
+
+WHITTIER MACHINE CO., Boston, Mass.
+
+
+[Illustration]
+
+PORTABLE STEAM ENGINES
+
+WITH AUTOMATIC CUT-OFF.
+
+No Commissions to Agents. Bottom Prices to Purchasers.
+
+SEND FOR CATALOGUE.
+
+ARMINGTON & SIMS
+
+A. & S. were lately with
+
+THE J. C. HOADLEY COMP.
+
+
+STEAM PUMPS.
+
+HENRY R. WORTHINGTON,
+
+239 Broadway, N. Y. 83 Water St., Boston.
+
+THE WORTHINGTON DUPLEX PUMPING ENGINES FOR WATER WORKS--Compound,
+Condensing or Non-Condensing. Used in over 100 Water-Works Stations.
+
+STEAM PUMPS--Duplex and Single Cylinder.
+
+WATER METERS. OIL METERS.
+
+PRICES LARGELY REDUCED.
+
+
+RIVAL STEAM PUMPS
+
+$35 & UPWARDS
+
+JOHN. H. MCGOWAN & CO.
+
+CINCINNATI OHIO.
+
+
+PATENTS AT AUCTION.
+
+Regular Monthly Sales by George W. Keeler, Auctioneer. For terms,
+address NEW YORK PATENT EXCHANGE, 67 Liberty Street, New York.
+
+
+50 PERFUMED CHROMO AND MOTTO CARDS, 10C. _Name in Gold and Jet._ Seavy
+Bros., Northford, Ct.
+
+
+WARRANTED WATCHES ONLY $3 EACH
+
+$12 WATCHES
+
+FOR ONLY $3 EACH.
+
+A BANKRUPT STOCK OF WATCHES,
+
+_Warranted for One Year._
+
+[Illustration]
+
+This bankrupt stock of Watches must be closed out in 90 days. THE
+FORMER PRICE OF THESE WATCHES WAS $12.00 EACH. They are silvered case
+and open face, all one style, and of French manufacture, the movements
+of which being well known the world over for their fine finish. They
+are used on RAILROADS and STEAMBOATS, where ACCURATE TIME is required,
+and give good satisfaction. Think of it, a $12.00 Watch for ONLY
+$3.00, and WARRANTED ONE YEAR FOR TIME.
+
+CINCINNATI. O., October 1st, 1878.
+
+The Walters Importing Co. is an old established and very reliable
+house, and we cheerfully recommend them.
+
+CINCINNATI POST.
+
+After the closure of sale of this bankrupt stock of Watches, which
+will continue 90 days from date of this paper, no order will be filled
+at less than $12.00 each; so please send your order at once. With each
+Watch we furnish our SPECIAL WARRANTEE FOR ONE YEAR FOR ACCURATE TIME.
+We will forward the Watch promptly on receipt of $3.00, or will send
+C.O.D. if customers desire and remit $1.00 on account.
+
+Address all orders to WALTERS IMPORTING CO., 180 ELM STREET,
+CINCINNATI, O.
+
+-->TO WATCH SPECULATORS: We call particular I attention to these
+Watches, as they sell readily at from $12.00 to $20.00 each.
+
+-->_Cut this Advertisement Out._
+
+WARRANTED WATCHES ONLY $3 EACH
+
+
+$10 to $1000
+
+Invested in Wall St. Stocks makes fortunes every month. Books sent
+free explaining everything.
+
+Address BAXTER & CO., Bankers, 17 Wall St., N. Y.
+
+
+[Illustration]
+
+PATENT PORTABLE CHUCK JAWS.
+
+Improved Solid Emery Wheels, for grinding Iron and Brass Castings.
+Tools, etc. Manufactured by AM. TWIST DRILL CO., Woonsocket, R. I.
+
+
+LATHES, PLANERS, SHAPERS
+
+Drills, Bolt and Gear Cutters, Milling Machines. Special Machinery. E.
+GOULD & EBERHARDT, Newark, N. J.
+
+
+U. S. PIANO CO.,
+
+163 BLEECKER ST., N. Y.,
+
+Manufacturers of strictly first-class Pianos. We sell DIRECT to
+Families from OUR OWN Factory at LOWEST WHOLESALE price. Beautiful NEW
+7 1-3 Octave, Rosewood Pianos. Sent on trial. Thousands in use. HEAVY
+DISCOUNT to CASH buyers. DON'T buy until you read our Catalogue. It
+will INTEREST you--Mailed FREE.
+
+
+[Illustration]
+
+MEDAL & PREMIUM AWARDED TO
+
+[Illustration]
+
+ALCOTT'S
+
+TURBINE WATER WHEELS
+
+MANUFACT'D AT MOUNT HOLLY N. J.
+
+
+MOWRY CAR & WHEEL WORKS,
+
+MANUFACTURERS OF
+
+CARS AND CAR WHEELS of all descriptions,
+
+Wheels and Axles, Chilled Tires, Engine, Car and Bridge Castings, of
+any pattern, furnished to order at short notice. Also Street Car Turn
+Tables.
+
+WHEELS OF ALL SIZES CONSTANTLY ON HAND.
+
+OFFICE, 27 1-2 W. THIRD ST., CINCINNATI, O.
+
+Works, Eastern Avenue and Lewis Street.
+
+
+C. W. LE COUNT, SOUTH NORWALK, CONN., Mfr. of Lathe Dogs, Iron and
+Steel Expanding Mandrels of all sizes. A specialty made of Amateurs'
+Mandrels and Dogs.
+
+
+[Illustration]
+
+BARNES' FOOT POWER MACHINERY.
+
+13 Different machines with which Builders, Cabinet Makers, Wagon
+Makers, and Jobbers in miscellaneous work can compete as to QUALITY
+AND PRICE with steam power manufacturing; also Amateurs' supplies.
+
+MACHINES SENT ON TRIAL.
+
+Say where you read this, and send for catalogue and prices.
+
+W. F. & JOHN BARNES, Rockford, Winnebago Co., Ill.
+
+
+AMERICAN NOVELTIES
+wanted for English trade. 1,000 Sewing Machines to be sold cheap.
+Apply BRITANNIA COMPANY, Colchester, England.
+
+
+[Illustration: Anvil
+
+FISHER & NORRIS TRENTON N. J.]
+
+Retail 9 CENTS PER POUND.
+
+Warranted of the hardest temper, and _never_ to settle.
+
+ESTABLISHED 1843
+
+Steel Horn, warranted not to break and Face of _Best Cast Steel_.
+
+BETTER THAN ANY ENGLISH MAKE, AND ONLY ONE THAT IS FULLY
+
+!! WARRANTED !!
+
+50 SIZES, FROM 1-2 LB. TO 800 LBS.
+
+Catalogues furnished on application.
+
+
+A VALUABLE WORK.
+
+THE STEAM ENGINE.
+
+The Relative Proportions of the Steam Engine. A course of Lectures on
+the Steam Engine delivered to the students of Dynamical Engineering in
+the University of Pennsylvania. By WM. D. MARKS, Whitney Professor
+of Dynamical Engineering. With numerous Illustrations. 12mo. Flexible
+cloth. $1.50.
+
+"A valuable addition to the literature of the Steam Engine, and one
+which will be appreciated by engineers in practice as well as by
+students."--_Pittsburgh American Manufacturer_.
+
+"A valuable work, and one which will meet with a favorable reception.
+* * * There is much need and much room for a rational and practical
+method for proportioning the various parts of the steam engine, and
+in this respect your work is very welcome."--_Augustus Jay Du Bois,
+Ph.D., Yale College_.
+
+*** For sale by all Booksellers, or will be sent by mail, postpaid,
+upon receipt of price, by
+
+J. B. LIPPINCOTT & CO., PUBLISHERS,
+
+715 AND 717 MARKET ST., PHILADELPHIA.
+
+
+[Illustration]
+
+SHEPARD'S CELEBRATED
+
+$50 Screw Cutting Foot Lathe.
+
+Foot and Power Lathes, Drill Presses, Scrolls, Circular and Band Saws,
+Saw Attachments, Chucks, Mandrils, Twist Drills, Dogs, Calipers, etc.
+Send for catalogue of outfits for amateurs or artisans.
+
+H. L. SHEPARD & CO.,
+
+331, 333, 335, & 337 West Front Street,
+
+CINCINNATI, OHIO.
+
+
+[Illustration]
+
+TELEPHONES.
+
+_25 per cent. Discount._
+
+SPECIAL OFFER
+
+OUR NEW IMPROVED DOUBLE COILED METALIC TELEPHONE IS THE FINEST IN THE
+WORLD, and the only completely satisfactory low priced instrument,
+with SPRING CALL ATTACHMENT, made by PRACTICAL MACHINISTS on
+scientific principles; warranted to work ONE MILE, unaffected by
+changes in the weather. We will send to one address ONE SAMPLE SET,
+comprising two Telephones, two walnut holders, six copper bound
+insulators and 200 feet heavy wire, AT 25 PER CENT. DISCOUNT from
+REGULAR RATES, which is $3.00 for the $4.00 instruments. This offer
+WILL NOT hold good after JAN. 15, 1879, as our goods will then be
+sufficiently well known to sell through the trade, and we shall be
+obliged to strictly maintain the retail price. Any person of ordinary
+intelligence can put them up by following directions sent with each
+pair. We have sold during the last three months nearly 1000 of these
+instruments, and have HUNDREDS OF TESTIMONIALS from all parts of the
+country. We GUARANTEE all instruments sold. For any Telephone that
+fails to work, we will REFUND THE MONEY and pay all charges. Ask any
+Commercial Agency, and you will find we are good for all we agree to
+do.
+
+Name this paper when you write.
+
+KENT, WOODMAN & CO., 25 CONGRESS ST., BOSTON, MASS.
+
+
+THE DEFIANCE
+METALLIC PLANES
+
+TRADE MARK
+[Illustration]
+
+"THE BATTLE AXE."
+
+ARE THE BEST IN THE WORLD.
+
+Send for a full descriptive circular and price list to the
+manufacturers, the
+
+BAILEY WRINGING MACHINE CO., 99 CHAMBERS ST., NEW YORK.
+
+
+[Illustration]
+
+BEST AND CHEAPEST
+
+FOOT POWER
+
+SCREW CUTTING
+
+ENGINE LATHES
+
+SEE FULL DESCRIPTION IN SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN JULY 27
+
+SEND FOR ILLUSTRATED CATALOGUE
+
+GOODNOW & WIGHTMAN 176 WASHINGTON ST BOSTON MASS.
+
+
+_THE ONLY GRAND PRIZE_ FOR SEWING MACHINES, AT THE EXPOSITION
+UNIVERSELLE, PARIS, 1878, WAS AWARDED, OVER 80 COMPETITORS, TO WHEELER
+& WILSON MFG. CO. NEW YORK CITY, AND BRIDGEPORT, CONN.
+
+
+Round Writing
+
+Useful for Everybody
+
+Book of Instructions & Pens
+
+Sent on receipt of $1.50
+
+KEUFFEL & ESSER, 127 FULTON ST., N. Y.,
+
+Importers and Manuf'rers of Drawing Materials.
+
+
+AMERICAN STANDARD
+
+GAUGE AND TOOL WORKS.
+
+22d and WOOD STS., PHILADELPHIA.
+
+Standard Gauges and Measuring Implements, Hardened Steel Turning
+Mandrels, Adjustable Blade Reamers, Patent Tool Holders, Lathe
+Drivers, etc. JOHN RICHARDS & CO.,
+
+
+[Illustration]
+
+WARRANTED THE BEST.
+
+1 H.P. BOILER & ENGINE, $150. 2 H.P., $175. 3 H.P., $200.
+
+Tested to 200 lbs. Steam.
+
+LOVEGROVE & CO., 152 N. 3d ST., PHILADELPHIA, PA.,
+
+Builders of Engines and Boilers, 1 to 100 horse power. Send for
+circulars and prices, and state size and style you want.
+
+
+WOOD-WORKING MACHINERY,
+
+Such as Woodworth Planing, Tonguing, and Grooving Machines, Daniel's
+Planers. Richardson's Patent Improved Tenon Machines, Mortising,
+Moulding, and Re-Saw Machines, and Wood-Working Machinery generally.
+Manufactured by
+
+WITHERBY, RUGG & RICHARDSON, 26 Salisbury Street, Worcester, Mass.
+(Shop formerly occupied by R. BALL & CO.)
+
+
+LAP WELDED CHARCOAL IRON
+
+Boiler Tubes, Steam Pipe, Light and Heavy Forgings, Engines, Boilers,
+Cotton Presses, Rolling Mill and Blast Furnace Work.
+
+READING IRON WORKS, 261 SOUTH FOURTH ST., PHILA.
+
+
+PERRY & CO.'S STEEL PENS.
+
+[Illustration]
+
+A sample box, for trial, containing our leading styles, including the
+famous "U" and "Falcon" Pens, mailed on receipt of 25 cts.
+
+IVISON, BLAKEMAN, TAYLOR & CO., SOLE AGENTS FOR U. S., NEW YORK.
+
+
+EAGLE TUBE CO.,
+
+614 TO 626 W. 24TH ST., NEW YORK.
+
+BOILER FLUES of all the Regular Sizes,
+
+OF BEST MATERIAL AND WARRANTED.
+
+-->ORDERS PROMPTLY EXECUTED.
+
+No Payment Required till Tubes are Fully Tested and Satisfactory.
+
+
+[Illustration]
+
+LANSDELL'S PATENT STEAM SYPHON
+
+LANDELL'S AND ENG'S LEVER AND CAM GATE VALVES
+
+WELDLESS STEEL TUBING.
+
+JOHN S. LENG. 4 FLETCHER ST. NEW YORK.
+
+[Illustration]
+
+
+CIGAR BOX LUMBER,
+
+MANUFACTURED by our NEW PATENT PROCESS.
+
+The Best in the World.
+
+SPANISH CEDAR,
+MAHOGANY,
+POPLAR.
+
+Also thin lumber of all other kinds, 1/8 to ½ in., at corresponding
+prices. All qualities. Equal in all respects to any made, and at
+prices much under any to be obtained outside of our establishment.
+Send for price list.
+
+GEO W. READ & CO., 186 TO 200 LEWIS STREET, N. Y.
+
+Advertisements.
+
+
+INSIDE PAGE, EACH INSERTION 75 CENTS A LINE. BACK PAGE, EACH INSERTION
+$1.00 A LINE. (About eight words to a line.)
+
+_Engravings may head advertisements at the same rate per line, by
+measurement, as the letter press. Advertisements must be received
+at publication office as early as Thursday morning to appear in next
+issue._
+
+
+[Illustration:
+
+MARVIN'S
+Fire & Burglar
+SAFES
+Counter
+  Platform
+    Wagon
+      & Track
+SCALES
+MARVIN SAFE & SCALE CO.
+265 BROADWAY N. Y.]
+
+
+[Illustration:
+
+The INGERSOLL
+ROCK DRILL CO
+1½ PARK PLACE N. Y.]
+
+
+PARTNER WANTED
+
+To introduce my IMPROVED PROTRACTOR. Splendid chance for a person with
+small capital. Address or call on O. M. DAYTON, Utica, N. Y.
+
+
+CALVIN WELLS, Prest. JAS. K. VERNER, Secy.
+
+PITTSBURGH FORGE & IRON CO.,
+
+IRON AND HAMMERED CAR AXLES.
+
+Also manufacture as a specialty
+
+WROUGHT IRON BRIDGE BOLTS & BOLT ENDS, WITH PLAIN AND UPSET ENDS,
+
+To any required tensile strength, from one to three and one-half
+inches, with thread and nuts. Orders for which are respectfully
+solicited. Office, 10th Street, near Penn Ave., Pittsburgh, Pa.
+
+
+J. LLOYD HAIGH,
+
+Manufacturer of
+
+[Illustration: WIRE ROPE]
+
+Of every description, for Railroad and Mining Use. Elevators,
+Derricks, Rope Tramways, Transmission of Power, etc. No. 81 John
+St., N. Y. Send for price list. Plans and Estimates furnished for
+Suspension Bridges.
+
+
+MILL STONES AND CORN MILLS.
+
+We make Burr Millstones, Portable Mills, Smut Machines, Packers, Mill
+Picks, Water Wheels, Pulleys, and Gearing, specially adapted to Flour
+Mills. Send for Catalogue.
+
+J. T. NOYE & SON, BUFFALO, N. Y.
+
+
+MACHINISTS' TOOLS.
+
+NEW AND IMPROVED PATTERNS.
+
+Send for new illustrated catalogue.
+
+Lathes, Planers, Drills, &c.
+
+NEW HAVEN MANUFACTURING CO.,
+New Haven, Conn.
+
+
+HYDRAULIC CEMENT
+
+Of the very highest order and quality made any and everywhere from
+Refuse or Decomposed Limestone, Marble, Shells, Chalk and Clay, and
+River Deposit as per Letters Patent. Address
+
+JOHN DIMELOW, Laboratorian, Austin, Texas.
+
+
+PARIS EXHIBITION PRIZES. FULL
+
+Official List of the Awards in the American Department, enumerating
+Exhibits and Names and Addresses of Exhibitors, with kind of Prize
+awarded in each case. SUPPLEMENTS 149, 150. Price 10 cents each.
+
+
+[Illustration:
+
+WROUGHT
+IRON
+BEAMS & GIRDERS]
+
+THE UNION IRON MILLS, Pittsburgh, Pa., Manufacturers of improved
+wrought iron Beams and Girders (patented).
+
+The great fall which has taken place in the prices of Iron, and
+especially in Beams used in the construction of FIRE PROOF BUILDINGS,
+induces us to call the special attention of Engineers, Architects,
+and Builders to the undoubted advantages of now erecting Fire
+Proof structures; and by reference to pages 52 & 54 of our Book of
+Sections--which will be sent on application to those contemplating
+the erection of fire proof buildings--THE COST CAN BE ACCURATELY
+CALCULATED, the cost of Insurance avoided, and the serious losses and
+interruption to business caused by fire; these and like considerations
+fully justify any additional first cost. It is believed, that, were
+owners fully aware of the small difference which now exists between
+the use of Wood and Iron, in many cases the latter would be adopted.
+We shall be pleased to furnish estimates for all the Beams complete,
+for any specific structure, so that the difference in cost may at once
+be ascertained. Address
+
+CARNEGIE, BROS. & CO., Pittsburgh, Pa.
+
+
+$7 A DAY to Agents canvassing for the FIRESIDE VISITOR. Terms and
+Outfit Free. Address P. O. VICKERY, Augusta, Maine.
+
+
+B. W. Payne & Sons, Corning, N. Y.
+
+Established in 1840.
+
+[Illustration]
+
+EUREKA SAFETY POWER.
+
++----+--------+--------+-----+------+-------+
+|h.p.| cyl.   |  ht.   |space| wt.  |price. |
++----+--------+--------+-----+------+-------+
+| 2  |3-1/8x4 | 48 in. |40x25|  900 | $150  |
++----+--------+--------+-----+------+-------+
+| 4  | 4x6    | 56     |46x30| 1600 |  250  |
++----+--------+--------+-----+------+-------+
+| 6  | 5x7    | 72     |72x42| 2700 |  400  |
++----+--------+--------+-----+------+-------+
+
+Also, SPARK ARRESTING PORTABLES, and STATIONARY ENGINES _for
+Plantations_. Send for Circulars.
+
+
+_PERFECT_
+
+NEWSPAPER FILE
+
+       * * *
+
+The Koch Patent File, for preserving newspapers, magazines, and
+pamphlets, has been recently improved and price reduced. Subscribers
+to the SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN and SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN SUPPLEMENT can be
+supplied for the low price of $1.50 by mail, or $1.25 at the office of
+this paper. Heavy board sides; inscription "SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN,"
+in gilt. Necessary for every one who wishes to preserve the paper.
+Address
+
+MUNN & CO.,
+Publishers SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN.
+
+[Illustration:
+
+HOWE SCALE CO.,
+
+Rutland, Vt.
+Paris 1878
+Were awarded the
+GOLD MEDAL]
+
+The highest award for Scales; also several Special Medals of Gold,
+Silver, and Bronze. In addition to the above the
+
+HOWE SCALE CO.
+
+have been awarded the _"First Premium"_ at Twelve different State
+Fairs held during the Fall of the present year.
+
+PRINCIPAL AGENCIES:
+
+PRIEST, PAGE & CO., 325 Broadway, New York.
+PRIEST, PAGE & CO., 145 Franklin St., Boston.
+A. M. GILBERT & CO., 97 to 101 Lake St., Chicago.
+J. FRED DENNIS, European Manager, Bremen, Germany.
+
+
+[Illustration]
+
+THE COLUMBIA BICYCLE,
+
+Made by THE POPE M'F'G CO., 89 Summer Street, Boston.
+
+A practical road machine, easy to learn to ride, and when mastered one
+can beat the best horse in a day's run over an ordinary road. Send 3c.
+stamp for catalogue.
+
+
+BIG PAY.--With Stencil Outfits. What costs 4 cts. sells rapidly
+for 50 cts. Catalogue _free_. S. M. SPENCER, 112 Wash'n St., Boston,
+Mass.
+
+
+65 MIXED CARDS with name, 10c. and stamp.
+Agent's Outfit, 10c. L. C. COE & Co., Bristol, Ct.
+
+
+[Illustration]
+
+YALE VERTICAL MILL
+
+Iron Frame; French Burr; Self-oiling; Self-feeding; Long Bearings;
+Adjustable-balanced; best arranged, made and finished, _cheapest_, and
+for quality and quantity ground no superior in the world.
+
+Also the Yale Vertical and Horizontal Steam Engines and Boilers, Send
+for Circular.
+
+YALE IRON WORKS, New Haven, Conn.
+
+
+_WORKING MODELS_
+
+And Experimental Machinery, Metal or Wood, made to order by
+
+J. F. WERNER, 62 Centre St., N. Y.
+
+
+[Illustration:
+
+H. W. JOHN'S BOILER COVERINGS
+ASBESTOS (Trade Mark)]
+
+Are the most Effective and Economical Non-conducting Coverings in the
+World. Ready for use and can be easily applied by any one. Be sure and
+get the Genuine, which are Manufactured only by
+
+H. W. JOHNS MANUFACTURING CO., 87 Maiden Lane. New York,
+
+Sole Manufacturers of Genuine Asbestos Roofing, Liquid Paints,
+Cements, etc. Send for Price Lists, etc.
+
+
+PYROMETERS,
+
+For showing heat of Ovens, Hot Blast Pipes, Boiler Flues, Superheated
+Steam, Oil Stills, etc.
+
+HENRY W. BULKLEY, Sole Manufacturer, 149 Broadway, N. Y.
+
+
+CAMERON STEAM PUMPS
+
+For Mines, Blast Furnaces, Rolling Mills, Oil Refineries, Boiler
+Feeders, &c.
+
+For Illustrated Catalogue and Reduced Price List send to
+
+WORKS, FOOT EAST 23d ST., NEW YORK.
+
+
+[Illustration: WIRE ROPE]
+
+Address JOHN A. ROEBLING'S SONS, Manufacturers, Trenton, N. J., or 117
+Liberty Street, New York.
+
+Wheels and Rope for conveying power long distances.
+
+Send for circular.
+
+
+ICE AT $1.00 PER TON.
+
+The PICTET ARTIFICIAL ICE CO., LIMITED,
+
+Room 51, Coal and Iron Exchange, P.O. Box 3083, N. Y.
+
+
+ROOTS' ROTARY HYDRAULIC ENGINE.
+
+[Illustration]
+
+FOR
+BLOWING ORGANS
+AND RUNNING
+LIGHT MACHINERY
+OPERATED BY
+HYDRANT PRESSURE,
+GIVES GREATEST USEFUL EFFECT OF WATER.
+IS A POSITIVE PRESSURE ENGINE.
+
+P. H. & F. M. ROOTS, Manuf'rs, CONNERSVILLE, IND. S. S. TOWNSEND,
+Gen'l Ag't, 6 Cortlandt St., NEW YORK.
+
+
+WOODWARD STEAM PUMPS AND FIRE ENGINES,
+
+G. M. WOODWARD,
+76 and 78 Centre Street, New York.
+Send for catalogue and price list.
+
+
+60 Chromo and Perfumed Cards [no 3 alike], Name in Gold and Jet, 10c.
+CLINTON BROS., Clintonville, Ct.
+
+
+DIAMOND ROCK DRILLS
+
+The only Machines giving a solid core showing exact nature of rocks
+passed through.
+
+THE AMERICAN DIAMOND ROCK BORING CO.
+
+NEW YORK.
+
+SEND FOR PAMPHLET.
+
+
+Every Man His Own Printer!
+
+[Illustration: THE EXCELSIOR]
+
+$3 PRESS Prints labels, cards etc. (Self-inker $5) 9 Larger sizes For
+business, pleasure, young or old.
+
+Catalogue of Presses, Type, Etc., for 2 stamps.
+
+KELSEY & Co.
+Meriden, Conn.
+
+
+MICROSCOPES, Opera Glasses, Spectacles, at greatly reduced prices.
+Send three stamps for Illustrated Catalogue.
+
+R. & J. BECK, Philadelphia, Pa.
+
+
+FOR ALL KINDS OF MACHINERY
+--Apply to S. C. HILLS, 78 Chambers St., New York.
+
+
+BEST
+DAMPER REGULATORS
+AND WEIGHTED GAUGE COCKS.
+MURRILL & KEIZER, 44 HOLLIDAY ST., BALTIMORE.
+
+
+GET THE BEST
+
+PIPE AND BOILER COVERING
+
+ASBESTOS-LINED HAIR FELT.
+
+Lightest covering and best non-conductor. Asbestos lining prevents
+any charring of the hair felt. Easily applied and removed. For prices,
+etc., address THE ASBESTOS PACKING CO., 25 STATE ST., BOSTON, MASS.
+
+
+THE TANITE CO.,
+
+STROUDSBURG, PA.
+
+EMERY WHEELS AND GRINDERS.
+
+GEO. PLACE, 131 Chambers St., New York Agent.
+
+
+ROCK DRILLING MACHINES
+AND
+AIR COMPRESSORS,
+MANUFACTURED BY
+BURLEIGH ROCK DRILL Co.
+SEND FOR PAMPHLET.
+FITCHBURG MASS.
+
+
+ESTABLISHED 1844.
+
+JOSEPH C. TODD,
+
+ENGINEER and MACHINIST. Flax, Hemp, Jute, Rope, Oakum and Bagging
+Machinery, Steam Engines, Boilers, etc. I also manufacture Baxter's
+New Portable Engine of 1877. Can be seen in operation at my store.
+A one horse-power portable engine, complete, $125; two horse-power,
+$225; two and a half horse-power, $250; three horse-power, $275.
+Manufactured exclusively by
+
+ J. C. TODD,
+ 10 Barclay St., New York, or Paterson, N. J.
+
+
+BAXTER $100 1 HORSE ENGINE OF 1877.
+
+For State Rights to manufacture above, apply to
+
+A. VAN WINKLE, Newark, N. J.
+
+
+TO ADVERTISERS We fill orders for the insertion of advertisements in
+the newspapers of the United States and Dominion of Canada. To furnish
+advertisers with reliable information concerning newspapers and their
+rates, and thus enable the most inexperienced to select intelligently
+the mediums best adapted to any particular purpose, WE ISSUE
+SEMI-ANNUAL EDITIONS OF
+
+AYER & SON'S MANUAL
+
+FOR ADVERTISERS. 164 8vo. pp. Gives the names, circulation, and
+advertising rates of several thousand newspapers in the United States
+and Canada, and contains more information of value to an advertiser
+than can be found in any other publication. All lists carefully
+revised in each edition, and where practicable prices reduced. The
+special offers are numerous and unusually advantageous. It will pay
+you to examine it before spending any money in newspaper advertising.
+The last edition will be sent postpaid to any address on receipt of
+25 cents by N. W. AYER & SON, ADVERTISING AGENTS, Times Building,
+Philadelphia.
+
+
+[Illustration:
+
+WATSONS NON CHANGEABLE GAP LATHE HAS
+GREAT FACILITIES FOR LARGE OR MEDIUM SIZE WORK
+JAMES WATSON MANR 1608 S. FRONT ST. PHILA. PA.]
+
+
+POND'S TOOLS,
+
+Engine Lathes, Planers, Drills, &c.
+
+DAVID W. POND, Worcester, Mass.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+CAN I OBTAIN A PATENT?
+
+
+This is the first inquiry that naturally occurs to every author or
+discoverer of a new idea or improvement. The quickest and best way to
+obtain a satisfactory answer, without expense, is to write to us (Munn
+& Co.), describing the invention, with a small sketch. All we need
+is to get the _idea_. Do not use pale ink. Be brief. Send stamps for
+postage. We will immediately answer and inform you whether or not your
+improvement is probably patentable; and if so, give you the necessary
+instructions for further procedure. Our long experience enables us to
+decide quickly. For this advice we make _no charge_. All persons who
+desire to consult us in regard to obtaining patents are cordially
+invited to do so. We shall be happy to see them in person at our
+office, or to advise them by letter. In all cases, they may expect
+from us a careful consideration of their plans, an honest opinion, and
+a prompt reply.
+
+_WHAT SECURITY HAVE I_ that my communication to Munn & Co. will be
+faithfully guarded and remain confidential?
+
+_Answer_.--You have none except our well-known integrity in this
+respect, based upon a most extensive practice of thirty years'
+standing. Our clients are numbered by hundreds of thousands. They
+are to be found in every town and city in the Union. Please to
+make inquiry about us. Such a thing as the betrayal of a client's
+interests, when committed to our professional care, never has
+occurred, and is not likely to occur. All business and communications
+intrusted to us are kept _secret and confidential_.
+
+Address
+MUNN & CO.,
+Publishers of the SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN,
+37 Park Row New York.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+THE "Scientific American" is printed with CHAS. ENEU JOHNSON & CO.'S
+INK. Tenth and Lombard Sts., Philadelphia, and 59 Gold St., New York.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+Transcriber's Note:
+
+
+_x_ indicates italic script; =x= indicates bold script. ^ indicates
+superscript.
+
+Some archaic (Early American) spellings have been retained.
+
+
+Erata:
+
+'irridescent' corrected to 'iridescent'.
+"Glass, iridescent"
+(Contents)
+
+'monoply' corrected to 'monopoly'.
+"The cry of monopoly in this case is altogether unfounded,..."
+(Article 4: Progress of Petroleum)
+
+'possesing' corrected to 'possessing'.
+"... possessing in every way the original form of the wood."
+(Article 42: Reduction of Nitrate of Silver by Means of Charcoal.)
+
+
+
+
+
+
+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Scientific American, Vol. XXXIX.--No.
+24. [New Series.], December 14, 1878, by Various
+
+*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN ***
+
+***** This file should be named 38480-8.txt or 38480-8.zip *****
+This and all associated files of various formats will be found in:
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+
+
+Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions
+will be renamed.
+
+Creating the works from public domain print editions means that no
+one owns a United States copyright in these works, so the Foundation
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+redistribution.
+
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