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diff --git a/.gitattributes b/.gitattributes new file mode 100644 index 0000000..6833f05 --- /dev/null +++ b/.gitattributes @@ -0,0 +1,3 @@ +* text=auto +*.txt text +*.md text diff --git a/38480-8.txt b/38480-8.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..eb98203 --- /dev/null +++ b/38480-8.txt @@ -0,0 +1,6428 @@ +The Project Gutenberg EBook of Scientific American, Vol. XXXIX.--No. 24. +[New Series.], December 14, 1878, by Various + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with +almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + +Title: Scientific American, Vol. XXXIX.--No. 24. [New Series.], December 14, 1878 + A Weekly Journal Of Practical Information, Art, Science, + Mechanics, Chemistry, And Manufactures + +Author: Various + +Release Date: January 3, 2012 [EBook #38480] + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1 + +*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN *** + + + + +Produced by Juliet Sutherland, Lesley Halamek, and the +Online Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net + + + + + + +[Illustration] + + +SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN + + +A WEEKLY JOURNAL OF PRACTICAL INFORMATION, ART, SCIENCE, MECHANICS, +CHEMISTRY, AND MANUFACTURES. + + +NEW YORK, DECEMBER 14, 1878. + +Vol. XXXIX.--No. 24. [NEW SERIES.] + +[$3.20 per Annum [POSTAGE PREPAID.]] + + * * * * * + + + + +CONTENTS. + +(Illustrated articles are marked with an asterisk.) + + Alum in baking powders + Alum in bread 376 + Argonaut, or Paper Nautilus* 375 + Astronomical notes 377 + Babbitt metal, to make [5] 378 + Belts, rubber, slipping [6] 378 + Bench, saw, Casson's* 374 + Boot polish liquid [8] 378 + Butter, to color [16] 378 + Canal, ship, Belgian* 367 + Economy, machine shop 371 + Eggs, preservation of 375 + Electric light, Werdermann* 373 + Engineers, warning to 367 + Engine, steam, valve yoke [48] 379 + Exterminator, roach [57] 379 + Filter for rain water [19] 378 + Foot power, new* 370 + Glass, iridescent 368 + Glass, to make a hole in 375 + Hair, to prevent falling out [42]379 + Inks, sympathetic 377 + Invention, reward of 371 + Inventions, new, 370 + Inventions, new agricultural 377 + Inventions, new mechanical 374 + Inventors, bait for 374 + Iron and steel, preservation of 367 + Iron, malleable, to make [43] 379 + Leaves, culinary uses for 370 + Line, straight, to draw* [36] 379 + Mechanics, amateur* 371 + Mexico, progress of science in 376 + Microphone as a thief catcher 375 + Naphtha and benzine 377 + Nitrate of silver, reduction of 377 + Notes and queries 378 + Oil notes 372 + Petroleum and gold 377 + Petroleum, progress of 368 + Poultices 374 + Quinine, effects of on hearing 374 + Railroad, first in U. S. [2] 378 + Rails and railway accidents 368 + Railway notes 373 + Sanitary Science in the U. S. 369 + Screw heads, blue color for [4] 378 + Sheep husbandry, American 375 + Shutter fastener, new* 370 + Silver mill in the clouds 374 + Spider, trap-door* 375 + Sprinkler, garden, improved* 370 + Telescope, sunshade for [3] 378 + Tools, steel, to temper [55] 379 + Tree, tallest in the world 375 + Tree trunks elongation of 376 + Trees, felling by electricity 370 + Tubing, to satin finish [51] 379 + Vise, an improved* 370 + White lead, to test [14] 378 + Wire clothing for cylinders* 377 + Work, the limit of 368 + + * * * * * + + + + +THE BELGIAN SHIP CANAL. + + +The ship canal from Ghent to Terneuzen was originally laid out with +many bends, rendering navigation difficult; it had a depth of 14 feet +4 inches and a width of 98 feet 6 inches at the water level. The works +which are at present in course of execution have especially for their +object the deepening of the canal to 21 feet 3 inches, with a width +of 55 feet 9 inches at the bottom and 103 feet 9 inches on the water +line. The slopes have a uniform inclination of 1 to 3, and the towing +paths on each side are placed 6 feet 6 inches above the water level, +and are 32 feet 8 inches wide. In many instances also the course of +the canal has been altered and straightened for the improvement of +navigation; several important diversions have been made for this +purpose. The excavation has been effected by hand, by dredging, and by +the Couvreux excavator, figured as below in _Engineering_. + +The earth excavated was carried to spoil, and in many cases was +employed to form dikes inclosing large areas, which served as +receptacles for the semi-liquid material excavated by the dredging +machines with the long conductors; the Couvreux excavator used will be +readily understood from the engraving. It had already done service on +the Danube regulation works. The material with which it had to deal, +however, was of a more difficult nature, being a fine sand charged +with water and very adherent. The length of track laid for the +excavator was about 3 miles along the side of the old canal, which had +been previously lowered to the level of the water. + + * * * * * + + + + +PRESERVATION OF IRON AND STEEL FROM OXIDATION. + + +We are indebted to J. Pechar, Railway Director in Teplitz, Bohemia, +for the first official report in English from the Paris International +Exhibition which has come to hand. This volume contains the report +on the coal and iron products in all countries of the world, and is +valuable for its statistical and other information, giving, as it +does, the places where the coal and minerals are found, and the +quantities of each kind produced, for what it is used, and to what +other countries it is exported. The able compiler of these statistics +in the introduction of his report gives the following account of +the means recommended by Professor Barff, of London, for preventing +oxidation, which is being considerably used abroad. The writer says: + +It is well known that the efficient preservation of iron against +rusting is at present only provided for in cases where human life +would be endangered by failure, as in the case of railway bridges +and steamers. Thus, for example, at Mr. Cramer-Klett's ironworks at +Nuremberg every piece of iron used for his bowstring bridges is dipped +in oil heated to eight hundred degrees. The very great care which +is at present taken in this matter may be judged from the current +practice of most bridge and roofing manufacturers. Every piece of +iron before being riveted in its place is cleaned from rust by being +immersed in a solution of hydrochloric acid. The last traces of free +acid having been cleared away, at first by quicklime and afterward by +a copious ablution with hot water, the piece is immediately immersed +in hot linseed oil, which protects every part of the surface from the +action of the atmosphere. Afterward it is riveted and painted. + +Notwithstanding all this, the painting requires continual and +careful renewal. On the Britannia Bridge, near Bangor, the painter is +permanently at work; yet, in spite of all this care and expense, rust +cannot be entirely avoided. The age of iron railway bridges is still +too short to enable us to draw conclusions as to the probabilities of +accidents. Now, Professor Barff has discovered a process by which +iron may be kept from rusting by being entirely coated with its own +sesquioxide. A piece of iron exposed to the action of superheated +steam, in a close chamber and under a certain pressure, becomes +gradually covered by a skin of this black oxide, of a thickness +depending upon the temperature of the steam and the duration of +the experiment. For instance, exposure during five hours to steam +superheated to five hundred degrees will produce a hermetical coating +capable of resisting for a considerable time the application of emery +paper and of preserving the iron from rust even in a humid atmosphere, +if under shelter from the weather. If the temperature is raised to +1,200 degrees, and the time of exposure to six or seven hours, the +skin of sesquioxide will resist every mechanical action, and the +influence of any kind of weather. The sesquioxide being harder than +the iron itself, and adhering to its surface even more firmly than the +atoms of iron do to each other, there is an increased resistance not +only to chemical but also to mechanical action. The surface is not +altered by the process in any other respect, a plain forging retaining +its roughness, a polished piece its smooth surface. If the skin is +broken away oxidation takes place, but only just on the spot from +which the oxide has been removed. If Professor Barff's experiments +are borne out by practice, this invention may become of very great +importance. It is within the bounds of probability that it may enable +iron, by increasing its facility in competing with wood, to recover, +at least for a considerable time, even more than the ground it has +lost by the extraordinary extension of the use of steel. Iron is +already being used for building purposes to a large extent; but +oxidation once thoroughly prevented it will be able to take the place +of wood and stone to a still greater degree. Iron roofing may be +made quite as light as that of wood, and of greater strength, by a +judicious arrangement and use of T iron. + + * * * * * + + + + +WARNING TO LOCOMOTIVE ENGINEERS. + + +Drs. Charles M. Cresson and Robert E. Rogers, of this city, says +the Philadelphia _Ledger_, well known as experts in chemistry and +dynamics, were appointed by the Reading Railroad Company to inquire +into and report upon the causes of the recent explosion of the boiler +of the express locomotive "Gem," at Mahanoy City, by which five lives +were lost. Their report, which is designed to cover the whole scope +of a most careful investigation, is not yet made public, but they have +arrived at the following specific conclusion, which we give in their +own language: "We are, therefore, of the opinion that the explosion of +the boiler of the locomotive 'Gem,' was produced by the projection of +foam upon the heated crown bars of the furnace, caused by suddenly +and widely opening the safety valve, at a time when the water had been +permitted to get so low as to overheat the crown of the furnace." This +is an important matter that should be carefully noted by locomotive +and other engineers. + + * * * * * + + + + +SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN + + +ESTABLISHED 1845 + +MUNN & CO., Editors and Proprietors. + +PUBLISHED WEEKLY AT + +NO. 37 PARK ROW, NEW YORK. + + * * * * * + +O. D. MUNN. A. E. BEACH. + + * * * * * + + +TERMS FOR THE SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN. + + +One copy, one year, postage included $3 20 +One copy, six months, postage included 1 60 + +CLUBS.--One extra copy of THE SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN will be supplied +gratis for every club of five subscribers at $3.20 each; additional +copies at same proportionate rate. Postage prepaid. + +-->Single copies of any desired number of the SUPPLEMENT sent to one +address on receipt of 10 cents. + +Remit by postal order. Address + +MUNN & CO., 37 Park Bow, New York. + + + + +THE SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN SUPPLEMENT + + +is a distinct paper from the SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN. THE SUPPLEMENT is +issued weekly; every number contains 16 octavo pages, with handsome +cover, uniform in size with SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN. Terms of subscription +for SUPPLEMENT, $5.00 a year, postage paid, to subscribers. Single +copies 10 cents. Sold by all news dealers throughout the country. + +Combined Rates.--The SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN and SUPPLEMENT will be sent +for one year, postage free, on receipt of _seven dollars._ Both papers +to one address or different addresses, as desired. + +The safest way to remit is by draft, postal order, or registered +letter. + +Address MUNN & CO., 37 Park Row, N. Y. + + + + +SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN EXPORT EDITION. + + +The SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN Export Edition is a large and splendid +periodical, issued once a month. Each number contains about one +hundred large quarto pages, profusely illustrated, embracing: (1.) +Most of the plates and pages of the four preceding weekly issues of +the SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN, with its splendid engravings and valuable +information; (2.) Commercial, trade, and manufacturing announcements +of leading houses. Terms for Export Edition, $5.00 a year, +sent prepaid to any part of the world. Single copies 50 cents. +-->Manufacturers and others who desire to secure foreign trade may +have large, and handsomely displayed announcements published in this +edition at a very moderate cost. + + +The SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN Export Edition has a large guaranteed +circulation in all commercial places throughout the world. Address +MUNN & CO., 37 Park Row, New York. + + * * * * * + +VOL. XXXIX., No. 24. [NEW SERIES.] Thirty-third Year. NEW YORK, +SATURDAY, DECEMBER 14, 1878. + + * * * * * + + + + +TABLE OF CONTENTS OF + +THE SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN SUPPLEMENT + +No. 154, + +For the Week ending December 14, 1878. + +Price 10 cents. For sale by all newsdealers. + + +I. ENGINEERING AND MECHANICS.--Portable Steam Pumping Engine, 1 + engraving.--New Bone Crushing Mill, 2 engravings.--Picard's Boiler. + Extraction of Salt from Salt Water.--Compressed Air Machines. + Hydraulic vs. air pressure. Causes of the losses of power. + Estimates of useful effects obtainable.--The St. Gothard Tunnel. + By GEO. J. SPECHT, C.E.--Apparatus for Lifting Sunken Vessels, + with 8 figures.--Russia Sheet Iron.--Manufacture of Artificial + Stone.--Compressed Fuel.--The New Magnesi Process for Boiler Feed + Water. + +II. FRENCH INTERNATIONAL EXHIBITION OF 1878.--Wine Presses. + Description of sixteen new and peculiar wine presses at the + Exhibition, with 31 figures and 9 engravings. The Press Primat; + Press Mabille; Press David; Samain Press; Marchand, Maupre, + Boyries, Chapellier, Marmonier, Nogues, Mailhe, Moreau, Piquet, + Delperoux, Terrel des Chenes, and Cassan fils Presses. + + The Algerian Exhibit. The street of Algiers, with 1 + illustration.--Woolen Fabrics. + +III. ELECTRICITY, LIGHT, HEAT, ETC.--Electric Lighting. Estimate + of the comparative heating effect in gas and electric lighting, + and the consequent loss of power.--The Electric Light. Remarks on + its economy.--The Present Bugbear of French Savants. + + New Planets. + + The Dutch Arctic Expedition. The Peak of Beerenburg, Spitzbergen, + with 1 illustration. + +IV. CHEMISTRY AND METALLURGY.--New Process for Separating Iodine + and Bromine from Kelp.--Inoffensive Colors for Toys.--New Coloring + Matters.--Tungsten. + + Ozone and the Atmosphere. By ALBERT R. LEEDS, Ph.D. Table of + percentage of ozone contained in the atmosphere at various + localities in the United States. Register of ozone observations + for one month at Upper Saranac Lake, N. Y., giving thermometric + and barometric observations, and full record of weather. + Examination of methods in ozonometry. Preparation of ozone by + electrolysis of water containing sulphuric acid, with 1 engraving. + Preparation by electricity, with 1 engraving. Does the electric + spark decompose potassium iodide? Collection and preservation of + ozone. Preparation by chemical methods. Critical examination of + ozonoscopes. Potassium iodide; starch; paper classification of + ozonoscopes. Examination of ozonoscopes under certain conditions. + + Limits of the Combustibility of Gases.--The Diffusion of + Salicylate of Soda.--Singular use of Fluorescein.--New Metal. + Philippium By M. MARC DELAFONTAINE.--Better Pharmaceutical + Education. By RICHARD V. MATTISON, Ph. G.--An El Dorado for + Apothecaries. + +V. MEDICINE AND HYGIENE.--The Science of Easy Chairs. The muscular + conditions of fatigue, and how to obtain the greatest rest. How + easy chairs should be made. + + Prof. Huxley on the Hand. Abstract of his inaugural lecture before + the South London Workingmen's College. + + Paint from a Sanitary Point of View. The required abolition of + absorbent surfaces in dwellings. Lead poisoning from paint not + thoroughly dry. Cases described in which white lead paint in + dwellings never dries, but gives off poisonous particles, which + are inhaled by the inmates, causing depression, weakness headache, + and loss of appetite. Zinc recommended in paint to avoid lead + poisoning, and the new oxy-sulphide of Zinc described, with + covering qualities equal to white lead. + + The Purification of Sewage. By HENRY ROBINSON, F.R.S. Paper + read before the Sanitary Institute of Great Britain. Progress + in purifying sewage by precipitation. The use of chemicals for + precipitating, deodorizing, and disinfecting. Practical data on + a large scale, with cost. Average number of gallons per head of + population, etc., of the successful system now in operation at + Coventry and Hertford. How the water is removed from the sludge by + filter presses. Drying and removal of the sludge. Theoretical and + actual values of the sludge for fertilizing. + +VI. AGRICULTURE, HORTICULTURE, ETC.--The Broadside Steam Digger, + with 1 engraving.--Shall I Plow the Lawn?--Bee Culture. + + * * * * * + + + + +PROGRESS OF PETROLEUM. + + +The efforts of the great majority of the Western Pennsylvania +petroleum producers to obtain relief from what they deem the +oppressive acts of the Standard Oil Company and the unjust +discriminations of the United Pipe Lines, and the various railroads +traversing the oil regions, have attracted more than usual attention +to the present condition of this industry and its possible future. + +We would here explain that the Standard Oil Company originated in +Cleveland, Ohio, about twelve years ago, and was incorporated under +the laws of Ohio, with a nominal capital now, we are informed, of +$3,000,000, which, however, very inadequately represents the financial +strength of its members. It is now a combination of the most +prominent refiners in the country, and has before been credited with +manipulating the transportation lines to its own special advantage. + +We can recall no instance of such serious hostility between parties +whose interests are at the same time of such magnitude and so nearly +identical; nor can we see what substantial, enduring benefit would +accrue to the producers in the event of their victory in the struggle. + +They charge that the Standard Oil Company has become the controlling +power to fix prices and to determine the avenues by which the oil +shall be transported eastward for home consumption and for foreign +exportation; that the railway companies have given this company lower +rates than other parties for transporting the oil; and that through +the rates given to it by the railways the value of their property is +destroyed. + +The reply, in effect, is, Granting all this to be true, what does +it amount to? Neither more nor less than that the managers of the +Standard Oil Company, by combination of capital, by intelligence and +shrewdness in the management of their operations, have built up a +successful business, and that they have so extended it by the use of +all practicable appliances, and by the purchase of the property of +competitors, that they do practically control the prices of oil, both +crude and refined, and that the uncombined capital of the other oil +producers, lacking the power, the intelligence, and the business skill +which combined capital can secure, cannot compete with the Standard +Oil Company. Now, is there any great wrong or injustice in this? + +When brains can command capital it is always more successful in +business matters than any amount of brains without capital or capital +without brains. This result is the natural working out of the same +principle that is everywhere to be seen--some men are successful and +others are not. + +It is the essence of communism to drag down those who succeed to the +level of the unsuccessful. + +If men cannot compete with others in any business they must accept the +fact, and try some other employment. + +If, through superior intelligence and capital, the Standard Oil +Company can control the oil business of Pennsylvania, then, according +to the principles of common sense, it must be permitted to do so. + +What right, then, has the oil producer to complain? Why, if all that +is alleged is true, will they persist in sinking more wells, when, +as they say, they are controlled by the Standard Oil Company? No one +forces them to lose money by continuing in the business. Let them find +other employment. They do not show that the Standard Oil Company +does anything that combined capital on their part and equal business +ability could not effect. + +The cry of monopoly in this case is altogether unfounded, those +opposed to the Standard Oil Company having just as much right to do +all that that company does, and, therefore, there can be no monopoly, +because they have no exclusive powers. + +As to the railway companies, they can afford and have a right to +transport the tonnage offered them by the Standard Oil Company at less +cost, because it costs them less to do a regular and large business +than an irregular and smaller one. They would simply be acting in +accordance with business principles the world over. + +These are the arguments, the statement of the position of a successful +combination confident in its resources and of victory in the coming +struggle. The justness, the correctness of the doctrines enunciated, +and the wisdom of so doing at this crisis, we do not propose to +criticise; but it is very safe to say that if the prosperity of the +complainants depends upon relief in this direction they may as well +cease producing. + +There are too many of them for harmonious and concerted action against +the powerful corporations they complain of; and if they should succeed +in securing equal transportation facilities the prices would still be +regulated by the monopolists, who carry more than four-fifths of the +accumulated stock of the oil regions. + +The proposed appeal to Congress to pass some law whereby each producer +can compel railroad companies to carry his produce at regular rates, +amounts to a confession of the desperate straits of the producers +and of their weakness as well; and even if successful, which is most +improbable, would not remedy the deplorable existing state of things. + +Still lower rates would fail to give relief, with all the present +avenues of trade filled to repletion and with an increasing output +at the wells. Relief and permanent relief can be found only in the +direction we have before indicated: in the general application of +petroleum and its products to the manufacture of gas for illuminating +and heating purposes, and its substitution for coal in the metallurgic +and other prominent industries of the world. + + * * * * * + + + + +THE LIMIT OF WORK. + + +In distributing the prizes to workmen at the Paris Exhibition, Louis +Blanc, the leader of the French Republican Socialist party, quoted +approvingly these words of Simonde de Sismondi: + +"If the workman were his own master, when he had done in two hours +with the aid of machinery what would have taken him twelve hours to do +without it, he would stop at the end of the two." + +M. Blanc had been discussing very eloquently, but also very +fallaciously, the relations of machinery to labor. If men were +properly united in the bonds of association, he said, if the +solidarity of interests were realized, "the happy result of the +application of mechanical power to industry would be equal production, +with less of effort, for all. The discovery of an economic method +would never have the lamentable consequence of robbing men of the work +by which they live. Unfortunately, we are far from this ideal. Under +the empire of that universal antagonism which is the very essence of +the economic constitution of modern societies, and which too often +only profits one man by ruining another, machinery has been employed +to make the rule of the strong weigh more heavily on the weak. There +is not a single mechanical invention which has not been a subject of +anguish and a cause of distress to thousands of fathers of families +from the moment it began to work." + +If all this, and much else that M. Blanc alleges, were true, then the +condition of all workingmen to-day should be in every way worse than +that of their fathers, in anti-machinery days. But such is not the +case. There never was a time when the laborer toiled less or enjoyed +more than in these days of machinery; and the laborer's condition is +best where the machinery is best and most used. + +A hundred years ago the laborer toiled long, produced little, and +enjoyed less. To-day, thanks to the victories of invention, machinery +does the heaviest of the work; the workman's hours of labor are fewer +than formerly; his wages are greater; and his earnings will buy vastly +more, dollar for dollar, than in any previous age in the world's +history. + +What laborer of to-day would be satisfied with the remuneration, the +food, the shelter, the clothing of the laboring classes of one hundred +years ago? The wants of men, as well as their thoughts, are widened by +the process of the suns. And in no section of society have the daily +wants been more markedly increased, or the facilities for gratifying +them either, than among those that live by labor. + +"If the workman were his own master, when he had done in two hours +with the aid of machinery what it would have taken him twelve hours to +do without it, he would stop at the end of the two." + +So says the theoretical socialist. The practical workman never has, +nor, we believe, ever will, act so foolishly; certainly not until the +limit of man's capacity to enjoy has been reached. When the united +products of manual and mechanical effort fully satisfy the desires of +all men, and leave no margin of want unfilled, then and then only +will men be satisfied with the reduction of effort demanded by the +socialists. Until then the larger part of every increase in production +by mechanical improvements will go to swell the volume of good things +for human use and enjoyment. Our machinery enables our thousands of +busy workers to accomplish what millions could not have done years +ago, and a very large part of the aggregate increase of product +comes back to them in conveniences and luxuries surpassing those +the wealthiest could enjoy were machinery not employed, or were it +employed, as the socialist advocates, without increasing the aggregate +of production. The laziness of the savage and the advantages of +civilization are incompatible. The chief merit of machinery lies in +its enabling us to multiply constantly the scope and variety of our +enjoyments without a corresponding increase of toil. + + * * * * * + + + + +IRIDESCENT GLASS. + + +Ornamental glassware in many styles, tinted with the glowing colors +of the rainbow, is now making its appearance in the shop windows +of Broadway and Fifth Avenue. This is one of those brilliant little +achievements of science that delights the eye and pleases the +imagination. To produce the colors, the glass, while in a heated +state, is subjected to the vapor of chloride of tin. Shades of more or +less depth or intensity are imparted by adding to the tin chloride a +little nitrate of strontium or barium. + + * * * * * + + + + +RAILS AND RAILWAY ACCIDENTS--NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. + + +A meeting of the Section of Physics, New York Academy of Sciences, +was held November 25, 1878. President J. S. Newberry in the chair. +Numerous publications of learned societies were received and +acknowledged. Professor Newberry read a letter from Professor Agassiz +stating that sea lilies, which had hitherto been very rare--a single +specimen bringing as much as fifty dollars--have been found in some +numbers by dredging in the Gulf of Mexico. Their colors are white, +pink, and yellow. Professor Newberry also exhibited specimens of +garnet from California, lamellar quartz from North Carolina, sharks' +teeth belonging to the eocene and miocene tertiary ages from the +phosphate beds of South Carolina, and a number of shells. + +Professor Thomas Egleston then addressed the Academy on the subject of +"The Structure of Rails as Affecting Railway Accidents." + +The destruction of rails is due to three causes. 1. Defects in the +manufacture; 2. Improper mechanical or chemical composition; and 3. +Physical changes. + +A very large number of rails are annually made which should never be +put in any track. Their defects are often imperceptible to the naked +eye, but they very soon begin to break. Statistics show that the +breakage from defects in making increase until they have been used +18 months; then it decreases to zero, and after that rails break from +different causes. In France, breakage usually begins in December, +reaches its maximum in January, and becomes normal in April. As a more +intense cold would be necessary to explain such breakage than that +which is felt in that climate, the cause must be sought in the +stiffness and inelasticity of the frozen road bed. The impact of +the locomotive is then apt to break the rail, very much on the same +principle that is taken advantage of in breaking them up for the +manufacture of smaller objects. A nick is made somewhere, and the +workman then strikes a blow with a hammer at a point between the nick +and the place where the rail is supported. This will sever the rail at +the nicked place. Sometimes more than a second intervenes between the +blow and the fracture. Now, whenever holes are punched in rails for +the fish plates, flaws are apt to radiate from them; and if these +flaws are not planed or filed out, they may cause the rail to break, +just as the nicks above mentioned. Such rails have been known to last +no longer than 18 months, and some have actually broken on the way +from the manufacturer to their destination. There are establishments +in this country and in Europe where they "doctor" such rails by +filling up the flaws with a mixture of iron filings, sal ammoniac, and +some adhesive substance. Beware of them; a poor cheap rail is dear +at any price. The French government stipulates in its contracts for +rails, that flaws shall be planed, drilled, or filed out; that the +rails shall not be allowed to drop on the ground, but shall be carried +by men and slid down. The Lyons railroad does not pay for its rails +until 15,000 trains have passed over them. + +By imperfect mechanical composition is meant imperfect union of the +parts of rails. Steel heads are welded to the rest of the rail in a +variety of ways, and this welding is necessarily imperfect. A number +of sections of rails etched with acid plainly showed this want of +homogeneity, as did likewise prints taken from the etched surfaces. +Before such rails have lost weight appreciably, they are used up by +the constant rolling they undergo. The advantage of a steel rail is +its homogeneity, but a good iron rail, such as those made under the +direction of the speaker, for the Reading Railroad Company, is likely +to prove better than one of poor steel. The life of a steel rail +is chiefly affected by the temperature at which it is rolled and +annealed. It ought not to wear off more than 1 mm. for 20,000,000 +tons of traffic, and is usually calculated to wear 10 mm. before it is +taken up. In other words, it would last about 20 years on roads doing +as much business as the New York Central. It is, however, unlikely +that our steel rails will stand more than half this amount of traffic. + +The effects of chemical composition are but little understood. Some +of the purest irons have turned out utterly worthless. Apparently the +absolute quantities of carbon, silicon, aluminum, phosphorus, etc., +present are not of so much importance as their relative proportion. +One specimen containing carbon 0.16, silicon 0.08, and phosphorus +0.012, could be bent double when cold, while another, containing +carbon 0.58, silicon 0.56, and phosphorus 0.011 broke at once. + +The physical tests for tensile and torsional strength, usually made on +a portion cut out of the head of the rail, are not sufficient, because +the flaws before spoken of exist mostly in the flange of the rail, and +fracture usually begins there. + +The effect of cold rolling and shocks that a rail is exposed to was +shown by a piece of rail made by the Campbells, Sheffield, Eng., which +had been worn 3 mm. by a traffic of 60,000,000 tons at Spuyten Duyvel. +The head had been somewhat flattened, and the flange driven down into +the foot to a certain extent. Under such usage an iron rail would have +gone to pieces long ago. + +Sometimes steel rails crumble all at once and pieces fall out of +the head. This is probably due to some physical defects or to +crystallization from shocks. The cause has not yet been definitely +ascertained. + +Mr. Collingwood stated that of a rail only a section of 3/8 square +inch was pressed by the wheel of a locomotive, the effect being to +cause this portion to act like a wedge, and thus to contribute to the +disintegration of the rail. He also exhibited a hook which had been +used to hoist stones of 10 to 12 tons, and then suddenly broke with a +weight of only 6½ tons. It had been worn from a thickness of 2 inches +to 1-7/8. The pressure at the upper surface crowded the particles and +caused them to act as wedges. Their fracture was crystalline, while +that of the lower surface, which parted more slowly, was fibrous. + +Professor Egleston asserted that there was no such thing as fibrous +iron; what appeared so being simply crystalline with the ends +drawn out. A sharp blow would cause this to fall off and show the +crystalline structure beneath. + +The discussion was continued by Professors Trowbridge, Egleston, and +Newberry. + +C. F. K. + + * * * * * + + + + +FORMATION OF IODIFORM.--All mixtures in which alcohol and iodine enter +in combination with any alkali forming colorless solutions go in part +to the formation of iodiform. Even chloroform and iodine, forming a +colorless solution, give rise to the same product.--_L. Myers Connor._ + + * * * * * + + + + +SANITARY SCIENCE IN THE UNITED STATES. + + +The following is an abstract of a paper on the Present and Future of +Sanitary Science in the United States, read by Professor Albert R. +Leeds, of the Stevens Institute of Technology, before the New York +Academy of Sciences at their meeting, November 11th, 1878: + +Sciences, such as the one under consideration, that have in them a +side largely practical, are sure of a welcome in our midst. The study +of the laws of public health grew into prominence in this country +during the war, when the Sanitary Commission undertook to supervise +the camps and hospitals. Sanitary associations were then formed +in many States and smaller communities, and these have led to the +establishment of State and city boards of health, clothed to a greater +or less degree with executive functions. Every epidemic has been the +cause of wider dissemination of sanitary knowledge by the daily press. +The yellow fever plague, by which more than twelve thousand people +have perished, has thoroughly aroused public interest. During its +continuance the papers were full of homilies on private and public +hygiene, the people everywhere sent aid and sympathy to the afflicted, +and a lady offered to defray the expenses of a scientific commission +of sanitary experts to inquire into the cause and prevention of the +scourge. The proper execution of sanitary laws depends on the free +and intelligent co-operation of individuals much more than on the +influence of a strong central authority. A general health department +at Washington could not legislate pure air, pure water, and pure +food into use throughout the nation. The people themselves, in each +community, must be educated to demand these requisites of health and +to secure them in their own way. + +I. _Vital Statistics._--The first "Bill of Mortality" in New York city +extended from November 1st, 1801, to January 1st, 1803. In it people +are said to have died of "flux," "hives," "putrid fever," "breaking +out," "stoppage," "fits," of "rash," and, by way of contrast, +of "lingering illness." This rude beginning gradually led to the +organization of the Metropolitan Board of Health, whose first report +was made in 1866. Their second report showed a decrease of 3,152 +deaths, mainly in districts where the greatest amount of sanitary work +had been done. Valuable illustrations of the relation between damp +houses and consumption were obtained by constructing maps of certain +wards, on which every death from phthisis for several years was noted +opposite each house. It was found that the disease was most fatal in +the lowest levels, in rainy seasons, and in crowded localities. + +The registration of marriages continued so defective that a writer on +the subject declares it would be impossible for a large portion of +the adult native population of the United States to prove by any legal +document that they have a right to the name they bear, or that their +parents were ever married. The mortality returns of 1871 were probably +nearly perfect, and their very accuracy told against New York city, +whose death rate was 28.6 per thousand, while St. Louis reported 17, +Rochester 16, Buffalo 14, and Jersey City 7 per thousand. To secure +accuracy in the returns of marriages and births, etc., more stringent +legislation will be necessary. + +In New Jersey the State Sanitary Association has conclusively +shown the utter worthlessness of the State vital statistics. They +memorialized the legislature, and caused the passage of a law which +gives to New Jersey one of the best systems of registration yet +devised. It owes its excellence to the following features, which +should be universally copied: + +1. _Burial Permits_ are issued only after registry has been made by a +properly qualified person; and + +2. The returns are made to an _expert_, who collates them and deduces +practical lessons from them. + +II. _Registration of Disease_.--A large class of diseases may be +prevented from becoming epidemic if their existence is known in time. +For this purpose the boards of health should be invested with power +and provided with means to investigate, reform, and, if necessary, +to punish delinquency. Yet in the face of so practical a requirement +little more is annually appropriated for the Board of Health of New +Jersey than for the pay of two policemen. + +III. _State Sanitary Legislation_.--The agitation for sanitary reform +caused by the yellow fever should not be allowed to die out with the +pressure of the calamity that aroused it. It should continue until +every State that has been the seat of yellow fever, year after year, +has as efficient a health code as Massachusetts and Michigan. The +necessity of educating the people before it is possible to secure +the requisite legislation will cause a considerable period of time +to elapse before all the States have laws in accordance with modern +knowledge. Probably no community takes the trouble to protect itself +until it has actually suffered. To the distress of London the world +owes the report of the Royal Commissions on water supply and the +pollution of rivers, still the best repertory of the best knowledge on +the subject. The manufactories of England have made it necessary for +the government to take cognizance of aerial impurities. Similarly in +this country the pollution of the Passaic has caused inquiries to be +set on foot in the same direction. [1] + +[Footnote 1: See Report to Board of Public Works of Jersey City, +by Professors Wurtz and Leeds; also, Analyt. Beiträge aus dem +Laboratorium des Stevens Institute of Technology, by Professor Leeds, +in _Zeitschr. fur Anal. Chem. _1878.] + +An attempt was made to deprive the inhabitants of New York of their +public parks, and to occupy them with buildings devoted to military +and other purposes; but the people had already been sufficiently +educated up to an appreciation of their sanitary value not to permit +it. Dr. Seguin eloquently advocated the improvement of the parks, +to make them not only pleasure grounds, but places of æsthetical and +practical out-door education of the public school children. + +IV. _Ventilation_.--It would be a great step in the interests of +sanitary science if builders, vestrymen, and school or hospital +trustees could be persuaded that their offices did not make them +temporary authorities on ventilation, and that they had best intrust +this matter to specialists who have fought their way into successful +practice. + +It appears that both the system of ventilation by aspiration and +that by propulsion have had great successes and great failures. Many +authorities have declared in favor of mechanical ventilation, yet in +most institutions where fans had been introduced they are now standing +still. In Roosevelt Hospital, New York, they ran their fan backwards +for months and then stopped it. + +V. _Physical Education_.--Instruction in hygiene and physical +exercise as a part of the college curriculum was first successfully +accomplished at Amherst College, and has now had a trial of nearly +twenty years. The importance attached to it is shown by the fact that +only distinguished members of the medical profession are appointed +as professors, and that they have the same rank as the rest of the +faculty. Their first duty is to know the physical condition of every +student and to see that the laws of health are not violated. In case +of sickness, the students are given certificates to excuse them from +attendance and are put in the way of obtaining suitable treatment. The +records kept are of great interest. All the classes are required to +attend the gymnastic exercises four times a week. For a full account +see Professor Hitchcock's report on Hygiene at Amherst College to +the American Public Health Association. The excellent results of this +feature--it can no longer be regarded as an experiment--recommend its +introduction in all our colleges and public schools. + +VI. _Health Resorts_.--The number of people who leave the cities in +the summer to visit the seashore, the mountains, and the country is +annually increasing. A healthful village is often changed to a center +of pestilence merely by such an influx of strangers, the ordinary +means of removing offal, etc., being no longer adequate. The town of +Bethlehem, N. H., became so popular by reason of its pure air that +several thousand hay fever patients sought relief there in 1877. +The consequence was insufficient drainage; but as the inhabitants +understood their interests, this defect was at once remedied. + +The sea shore of New Jersey from Sandy Hook to Cape May is becoming +an almost continuous city, and harbors a multitude of visitors every +summer. Those whose interest it is to retain this patronage +cannot have it too strongly impressed upon them to preserve their +healthfulness by introducing cemented cisterns, by causing garbage to +be removed daily, and by encouraging local boards of health. + +VII. _Illuminating Gas_ not only withdraws from the air of our rooms a +considerable amount of oxygen, but fills them with noxious products of +combustion. All this may be avoided in the future by the introduction +of the electric light. + +VIII. _Sanitary Surveys_.--Dr. Bowditch has shown that a thousand +deaths from consumption in Massachusetts are due to a wet and +retentive soil, and this fact alone will show the importance of +sanitary surveys of the country, such as that made of Staten Island +by Professors Newberry and Trowbridge, who determined the influence +of the surface soil, of the underlying rock, its porosity, its bedding +and its joints, upon the drainage and upon the local climate and +health. A similar survey of Hudson county, New Jersey, has been +recently made by L. B. Heard, C.E. + +IX. _Composition of the Atmosphere_.--The English government has +been obliged to appoint the celebrated Dr. Angus Smith to examine +the effects of atmospheric contamination. In Philadelphia there is +scarcely a house front that is not disfigured by the stain of magnesia +and lime salts, caused by acid vapors in the atmosphere. + +A discussion followed, which was introduced by Mr. Collingwood, who +remarked that the problem of the sewage of cities was still far from +being solved. Though the recent experiments in England on utilizing +sewage for agricultural purposes by filtration and otherwise were +reported to be successful, we had only dodged the question in this +country. Our sewage is still emptied into rivers to poison the water +of cities further down their course. When the country becomes more +thickly settled, this will answer no longer. + +It was also stated that while gas in large chandeliers could be made +an effective means of ventilation, there was another objection to its +use in the fact that the soil of the city was everywhere impregnated +with it from leaky mains, thus causing poisonous exhalations and an +insufferable odor whenever the ground was opened. Attention was also +called to the evil effects of the system of tenement houses, which led +to an unfavorable comparison of the health and morality of New York +with those of cities like Philadelphia and Cleveland, that abound in +small homes. + +Dr. Minor attributed disease to what Richardson calls +"ultra-microscopic molecular aggregates," which always exist in +the air, but take hold of us only when our vitality is reduced to a +certain point. It has been shown that decay is absolutely impossible +in vessels from which they are excluded. But for them the earth would +now be heaped with the undecomposed remains of animals and vegetables. +According to this view, the future efforts of sanitary science must be +simply in the direction of learning how to protect ourselves against +the "ultra-microscopic molecular aggregates." + +C. F. K. + + * * * * * + + + + +FELLING TREES BY ELECTRICITY. + + +Some years ago a Doctor Robinson of this city obtained a patent +through the agency of the SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN for Felling Trees by +Electricity. Subsequently a description of the invention was published +in this paper, soon after which the newspapers in this country +and Europe teemed with the account of a gentleman in India having +contrived an apparatus for felling trees in the same manner. Since +these several years have elapsed we have heard nothing of the +gentleman from India till a few days ago our papers have taken up the +subject anew, and annexed is the account they give of the inventor's +progress in developing his discovery. + +The electric fluid in the form of lightning oftentimes proves itself +a very efficient wood cutter, and it has occurred to some ingenious +gentleman in India that artificial electricity may be so applied and +controlled as to cut down trees a good deal faster than the clumsy +ax or that American notion the chain saw. The two ends of the copper +wires of a galvanic battery are connected with platinum wire, which of +course instantly becomes red hot, and while in that state it is gently +seesawed across the trunk of the trees to be felled. When arrangements +were made for the experiment, it turned out that the thickness of +the thickest platinum wire that could be got was only that of crochet +cotton. It was at once seen that such a wire would be consumed before +the tree was half severed from its trunk. However, the attempt was +made. The burning wire performed its task very well as long as it +lasted, but, as anticipated, the wire continually broke, and at +length there was no wire left. There can be little doubt that, with +a stronger battery and a thicker wire, the experiment would have been +entirely successful. As it was, the tree was sawn one fifth through. + + * * * * * + + + + +AN IMPROVED VISE. + + +The novel vise shown in the engraving was recently patented by Mr. +William Starkey, of Pittsburg, Pa. + +[Illustration: STARKEY'S VISE.] + +The fixed jaw is supported by two standards from the base piece, and +has a square boxing or tube for receiving the slide of the movable +jaw. This slide is hollow, and contains a rack which is engaged by a +pinion on the short vertical shaft, which is supported by the fixed +jaw. At the lower end of the vertical shaft there is a worm wheel, +that is engaged by a worm on the horizontal shaft on which is placed +the hand wheel. By turning the hand wheel the vertical shaft is +rotated and the movable jaw is drawn against the object to be clamped +by the vise. + + * * * * * + + + + +CULINARY USES FOR LEAVES. + + +A writer in the London _Iron Trade Exchange_, calling attention to a +neglected source of culinary flavors, says: + +"With the exception of sweet and bitter herbs, grown chiefly for the +purpose, and parsley, which is neither bitter nor sweet, but the most +popular of all flavoring plants, comparatively few other leaves are +used. Perhaps I ought also to except the sweet bay, which is popular +in rice and other puddings, and certainly imparts one of the most +pleasant and exquisite flavors; but, on the other hand, what a waste +there is of the flavoring properties of peach, almond, and laurel +leaves, so richly charged with the essence of bitter almonds, so +much used in most kitchens! Of course such leaves must be used with +caution, but so must the spirit as well. An infusion of these could +readily be made, either green or dry, and a tea or table spoonful of +the flavoring liquid used. One of the most useful and harmless of all +leaves for flavoring is that of the common syringa. When cucumbers are +scarce, these are a perfect substitute in salads or anything in which +that flavor is desired. The taste is not only like that of cucumbers, +but identical--a curious instance of the correlation of flavors in +widely different families. Again, the young leaves of cucumbers have a +striking likeness in the way of flavor to that of the fruit. The +same may be affirmed of carrot tops, while in most gardens there is +a prodigious waste of celery flavor in the sacrifice of the external +leaves and their partially blanched footstalks. Scores of celery are +cut up into soup, when the outsides would flavor it equally well or +better. The young leaves of gooseberries added to bottled fruit give +a fresher flavor and a greener color to pies and tarts. The leaves of +the flowering currant give a sort of intermediate flavor between black +currants and red. Orange, citron, and lemon leaves impart a flavoring +equal to that of the fruit and rind combined, and somewhat different +from both. A few leaves added to pies, or boiled in the milk used to +bake with rice, or formed into crusts or paste impart an admirable and +almost inimitable bouquet. In short, leaves are not half so much used +for seasoning purposes as they might be." + + * * * * * + + + + +NEW SHUTTER FASTENER. + + +We give herewith an engraving of a new shutter fastener, recently +patented by Mr. P. F. Fernandez, of San Juan, Porto Rico, West Indies. +This fastener is designed for holding doors or window shutters in +position when open, to prevent them from closing or swinging in the +wind. + +[Illustration: IMPROVED SHUTTER FASTENER.] + +To the wall is secured a plate to which is pivoted the spring-acted +hook, A, and upon the shutter in the proper position for engaging the +hook, A, there is a rigid hook, B. A coil spring is attached to the +plate that supports the hook, A, and when the shutter is open is +engaged by a boss formed on the end of the hook, B. By this means the +hook, B, is pressed forward into close contact with hook, A, thereby +preventing all jarring and rattling. + +The hook, A, is provided with an eye for receiving the cord, C, which +extends to the window casing and is within easy reach, so that when +it is desired to close the shutter the hook, A, may be readily +disengaged from the hook, B, by simply pulling the cord. + +Further information may be obtained by addressing the inventor as +above. + + * * * * * + + + + +AN IMPROVED GARDEN SPRINKLER. + + +A novel garden sprinkler, which may be carried on the back, is shown +in the accompanying engraving. The cylindrical vessel has a removable +cover, and contains a perforated plunger which is operated by a hand +lever from without. The cylindrical vessel is provided with shoulder +straps, and it has two sprinkling nozzles connected with it by +flexible tubes. + +[Illustration: HODEL & STAUBER'S GARDEN SPRINKLER.] + +This sprinkler is especially designed for applying insect-destroying +poison to plants. The operator, as he goes through the field or +garden, takes one nozzle in each hand and distributes the liquid upon +the plants. From time to time the liquid will be agitated by moving +the perforated plunger. + +This invention was recently patented by Adolf Hodel, of Jefferson, and +F. A. Stauber, of Chicago, Ill. + + * * * * * + + + + +A NEW FOOT POWER. + + +In our issue of November 9 we illustrated and described a sewing +machine having W. F. Lane's improved foot power applied. We give +herewith views of the foot power in detail, Fig. 1 being a side +elevation, and Figs. 2 and 3 sectional views. The device is designed +for application to any light machinery that can be propelled by +foot power. A is the shaft to which motion is to be imparted by the +treadles, B, the latter being pivoted to oscillate on the shaft, +H. Two ratchet wheels, C, are secured to the shaft, A, and are each +worked by pawls, D, which are pivoted to a carrier, E, which turns +loosely on the shaft. The pawls are in the form of an elbow lever, and +the movement of their tooth ends is limited by lugs or shoulders on +the carrier, E. The outer ends of the pawls are received between lugs +that project from the plate, F, which turns loosely on the shaft, +A, and has attached to it the rope pulley, G. When the plate, F, is +turned in one direction the pawls are raised and ride loosely over +the teeth, but when the plate turns in the other direction the pawls +engage the ratchet teeth and carry them and also the shaft, A. A +guide pulley, I, is pivoted below the shaft, A, with its axis at right +angles to the shaft. + +The motion from the alternately-oscillated treadles, B, is transmitted +to the pulleys, G, by means of a rope (shown in dotted lines), both +ends of which are fastened by hooks to some fixed point. This rope +runs from one of the hooks down under a pulley pivoted in the toe +of one of the treadles, thence around one of the pulleys, G, thence +around the pulley, I, over the other pulley, G, and downward around +the pulley in the other treadle, and upward to the second fixed hook. +The depression of one of the treadles causes the shaft to rotate, and +also lifts the other treadle into position to be operated. + +[Illustration: LANE'S FOOT POWER.] + +For further information address Wm. F. Lane, Elgin, Ill. + + * * * * * + + + + +NEW INVENTIONS. + + +Mr. Samuel Heaton, of Cedar Rapids, Iowa, has patented an improved +Iron Fence Post, which is particularly adapted for wire fences. It +is formed of a slotted iron bar, constituting the post proper, and a +triangular brace, which is so connected with said bar that it may be +easily adjusted at different angles, corresponding to the undulation +or unevenness of the ground surface where the post is used. + +Mr. Thomas S. Alexander, of Meriden, Conn., has patented an improved +Drawer Pull, which is neat, strong, and durable, and is less expensive +than when made in the usual way. + +An improved Earth Scraper has been patented by Mr. Benjamin Slusser, +of Sidney, Ohio. This is an improvement in that class of earth +scrapers which are arranged to revolve for the purpose of dumping the +load, and during the intervals, or while being filled, are locked in +rigid position. + +An improvement in Wagon Bodies has been patented by Mr. James H. +Paschal, of Camden, Ark. This invention consists, essentially, in a +frame provided with spurs projecting therefrom for engagement with the +bales to prevent them from slipping, and the combination therewith of +removable extension side and end pieces, for enabling the wagon to be +used for other purposes when not employed for hauling cotton bales; +there is an extension of the frame forming a feed trough for the +horses employed to draw the vehicle. + +An improved Scraper has been patented by Mr. George Eiteman, of Round +Grove, Ill. This is a double-ended scraper hung at its center on a rod +connected to the handle arms, whereby either end of the scraper may be +used. It has catches to prevent the scraper from revolving backward, +and spring actuated dogs on the handle frame to retain the scraper in +position and prevent it from turning over until released. + + * * * * * + + + + +AMATEUR MECHANICS. + + +For amusement, exercise, and profit we commend, to those who are +mechanically inclined, the practice of working with tools of the +smaller sort, either in wood or other of the softer materials, or in +metals, glass, or stone. This practice renders the hands dexterous, +the muscles strong, and the head clear, with the further advantage of +producing something for either ornament or use. Of course a bench with +a vise and a few wood working and iron working tools will be required; +but the most expensive as well as the most essential tool is a lathe. +With this tool, not only turning in wood, metal, ivory, rubber, etc., +can be accomplished, but it may also be used for screw-thread cutting, +gear cutting, drilling metals, boring wood, spinning metals, milling, +sawing metal and wood, grinding, polishing, moulding, shaping, and +other purposes. A first class plain lathe of small size cannot be +purchased for less than $50 or $60, and one of inferior quality will +cost $20 to $30. + +While the purchase of a lathe is recommended there may be many who +would prefer to make one. A lathe that will do admirably and which +may be easily made is shown in the accompanying engravings, Fig. +1 representing in perspective the lathe complete; Fig. 2 is a +perspective view of the lathe without the table; Fig. 3 is a vertical +longitudinal section of the lathe, showing the manner of securing the +head and tail stocks to the bars which form the bed or shears. + +In making this lathe one pattern only will be required for the two +standards of the head stock, and the support of the ends of the bars. +The lower part of the tail stock is made in two parts, so that they +may be clamped tightly together on the shears by means of the bolt +that passes through both parts, and is provided with a nut having +a lever handle. The rest support is also made in two parts, clamped +together on the ways in a similar way. + +The patterns may be easily sawed from 1¼ inch pine. The holes that +receive the round bars should be chambered to receive Babbitt metal, +used in making the fit around the bars forming the shears, around the +head and tail spindles, and around the shank of the tool rest. The +smallest diameter of the holes that receive the round bars should be a +little less than that of the bars, so that the several pieces that +are placed on the bars may be fitted to hold them in place while the +Babbitt metal is poured in. + +The dimensions of the lathe are as follows: + +Length of round bars forming shears, 24 inches; diameter of bars, 1 +inch; distance from the upper side of upper bar to center of spindle, +3 inches; between bars, ¾ inch; between standards that support the +live spindle, 3½ inches; size of standard above shears, ¾ x 1¼ +inch; diameter of head and tail spindles, ¾ inch; diameter of +pulleys, 5 inches, 3½ inches, and 2 inches; width of base of +standards, 5 inches; height of standards, 7 inches. + +The live spindle should be enlarged at the face plate end, and tapered +at both ends, as indicated in the engraving. + +The pulleys, which are of hard wood, are made of three pieces glued +together, bored, and driven on the spindle, secured by a pin passing +through both it and the spindle, and turned off. The bars forming the +shears may be either cold rolled iron or round machinery steel; they +will require no labor except perhaps squaring up at the ends. The +castings having been fitted to the bars, and provided with set screws +for clamping them, the two standards that support the live spindle and +the support for the opposite end of the bars are put in position, when +the bars are made truly parallel, and a little clay or putty is placed +around each bar and over the annular cavity that surrounds it, and is +formed into a spout or lip at the upper side to facilitate the pouring +of Babbitt metal. The metal must be quite hot when poured, so that +it will run sharp and fill the cavity. To guard against a possible +difficulty in removing the castings from the bars it might be well to +cover the side of the bar next the screw with a thin piece of paper. +The pieces of the tail stock and tool rest support are fitted to the +bars by means of Babbitt metal, the metal being poured first in one +half and then in the other. The bolts which clamp the two parts of the +rest support and tail stock together are provided with lever handles. +After fitting the parts to the two bars by means of Babbitt metal, the +tail spindle, which is threaded for half its length, is placed in the +tail stock parallel with the bars and Babbitted. A binding screw is +provided for clamping the tail spindle, and the spindle is drilled at +one end to receive the center, and has at the other end a crank for +operating it. A steel or bronze button is placed in the hole in the +standard that supports the smaller end of the live spindle, and the +spindle is supported in its working position and Babbitted. + +The thread on the spindle should be rather coarse, so that wooden or +type metal face plates and chucks may be used. + +The table shown in Fig. 1 is simple and inexpensive. It consists of +two pairs of crossed legs halved together and secured to a plank top. +A small rod passes through the rear legs near their lower ends, and +also through a piece of gas pipe placed between the legs. A diagonal +brace is secured to the top near one end, and is fastened to the lower +end of the rear leg at the other end of the table. + +A block is secured to each pair of legs for supporting a pair of +ordinary grindstone rollers, which form a bearing for the balance +wheel shaft. This shaft has formed in it two cranks, and it carries +an ordinary balance wheel, to the side of which is secured by means +of hook bolts a grooved wooden rim for receiving the driving belt. The +cranks are connected, by means of hooks of ordinary round iron, with a +treadle that is pivoted on the gas pipe at the rear of the table. The +shaft will work tolerably well, even if it is not turned. The cranks +must have half round grooves filed in them to receive the treadle +hooks. The size of the different diameters of the drive wheel may be +found by turning the larger one first and the smaller ones afterward, +using the belt to determine when the proper size is reached. The +wooden rim may be turned off in position by using a pointed tool. + +[Illustration: Fig. 1] + +[Illustration: Fig. 2] + +[Illustration: Fig. 3] + +[LATHES FOR AMATEUR MECHANICS.] + + +The lathe above described, although very easily made and inexpensive, +will be found to serve an excellent purpose for hand work, and if the +holes, instead of being Babbitted, are bored, and if the bars forming +the shears are turned, the lathe may be converted into a kind of +engine lathe by placing a feeding screw between the bars, and putting +a small tool post in the rest support. + +M. + + * * * * * + + + + +MACHINE SHOP ECONOMY. + + +In times like the present, when even with good management our best +machine shops are enabled to exhibit but small margins of profit, and +shops with indifferent management exhibit margins on the wrong side, +it is a question of paramount importance what kind of economy should +be pursued in order to maintain a successful business. The directors +of long established machinery enterprises differ widely upon some +methods of conducting business, and while one gains success by +pursuing a certain plan, another, with perhaps as much ability, cannot +pursue the same with satisfactory results. + +While in the main there are many different plans upon which successful +machinery establishments are conducted, there are some underlying +principles that must be observed to avoid meeting with difficulties. +The rate of wages paid is certainly a large element of shop economy, +but there are so many other elements that should be considered before +wages are reached, that we often find proprietors, who pay their +workmen at a comparatively high rate, doing a more prosperous business +than their competitors who have reduced wages to the lowest possible +scale. Many machine shop owners, not having mastered the various +economies of management, as soon as profits begin to shorten, pounce +directly upon the wages paid to their workmen, and pare them down so +as to make up for the deficiency elsewhere. They don't seem to realize +that there are important elements of economical management other than +closely watching the wages of labor and the cost of material. It is +sometimes necessary to reduce the rate of wages, but what a different +effect it has upon the men in different shops! In one shop you +scarcely hear a murmur--no angry meetings--no threats of a strike--no +growling at the head of the establishment. The intelligent workmen +understand the reasons for the reduction without a wordy explanation, +and accept it, feeling confident that it has not been unjustly made. +In another shop it causes ill feeling, angry protests, and perhaps +a disastrous strike. The owner often charges his trouble to the +character of his workmen. Let him review his course, and see if the +great cause is not in his own management. Mechanics are keen and +observing. If the business is poorly managed they are not slow to +mark it, and when a cut is made in wages can generally cipher out the +cause. It is good economy to keep a systematic record of the cost +of everything. This record will be found very valuable in making +estimates, much more so than guess work. It is not good economy +to keep using worn-out tools when any work of consequence is to be +performed. The extra cost of labor and spoiled pieces would soon pay +for new tools. It is not good economy to keep discharging capable +workmen for petty causes, and employing new hands to take their +places. It is poor economy to use slow-cutting grindstones to +accomplish work that fast cutting emery wheels are suited for. It is +questionable economy to employ lathes, planers, and drills to perform +work of any extent that a milling machine will do better in less time +and at much less expense. + +It is decidedly bad economy to employ engines and boilers that waste +fuel and are troublesome to keep in good running condition. It is +mistaken economy to buy inferior tools, machines, and shop supplies, +because they are low priced. + +It is very defective economy to fit the parts of machines together by +trial instead of making them by aid of correct drawings and standard +tools for accurate measurement. It is faulty economy to practice +borrowing and lending working tools. + +The idea that economy consists in withholding every expense not +absolutely demanded is erroneous. An extra outlay in one or another +direction often assures the saving as well as the making of money. +Wise economy looks to the future as well as the present, and requires +that all work sent out from a shop should be of the best and most +reliable character.--_American Machinist._ + + * * * * * + + + + +THE REWARD OF INVENTION. + + +_Capital and Labor_ publishes the substance of a letter from Mr. Henry +Bessemer with reference to the refusal of the English Government, or +of its ambassador in Paris, to allow the Grand Cross of the Legion of +Honor to be accepted by its countrymen, and in his letter Mr. Bessemer +furnishes some autobiographic particulars which cannot fail to be of +interest. He tells us that at the age of eighteen he came to London +from a small country village, knowing no one, and himself unknown; but +his studious habits and his love of invention soon gained for him +a footing, and in two years he was pursuing a method of his own +invention for taking copies from antique and modern bassi-rilievi in +a manner that enabled him to stamp them on a cardboard, thus producing +thousands of embossed copies of the highest works of art, at a small +cost. The facility for making a permanent die, even from a thin paper +original, capable of producing a thousand copies, would have opened +a wide door to successful fraud if the process had been known to +unscrupulous persons; for by its means, Mr. Bessemer states, there is +not a government stamp, or the paper seal of a corporate body, that +every common office clerk could not forge in a few minutes at the +office of his employer or at his own home. The production of a +die from a common paper stamp is the work of only ten minutes; the +materials cost less than one penny. No sort of technical skill is +necessary, and a common copying press or letter stamp yields most +successful copies. There is no need for the would-be forger to +associate himself with a skillful die sinker, capable of making a good +imitation in steel of the original, for the merest tyro could make +an absolute copy on the first attempt. The public knowledge of such a +means of forging would, at that time, have shattered the whole system +of the British Stamp Office, had a knowledge of the method been +allowed to escape. The secret has, however, been carefully guarded to +this day. + +During the time that Mr. Bessemer was engaged in studying this +question he was informed that the government were themselves cognizant +of the fact that they were losers to a great amount annually by +the transfer of stamps from old and useless deeds to new skins of +parchment, thus making the stamps do duty a second or third time, to +the serious loss of the revenue. One official in high position said +that he believed they were defrauded in this way to the extent of +probably £100,000 per annum. To fully appreciate the importance of +this fact, and realize the facility afforded for this species of fraud +by the system then in use, it must be understood that the ordinary +impressed or embossed stamp, such as is employed on all bills of +exchange, if impressed directly on a skin of parchment, would be +entirely obliterated by exposing the deed for a few months to a damp +atmosphere. The deed would thus appear as if unstamped, and therefore +invalid. To prevent this it has been the practice as far back as +the reign of Queen Anne to gum a small piece of blue paper on to the +parchment; and for still greater security a strip of metal foil is +passed through it, and another small piece of paper with the printed +initials of the Sovereign is gummed over the loose ends of the foil at +the back. The stamp is then impressed on the blue paper, which, unlike +parchment, is incapable of losing the impression by exposure to a damp +atmosphere. But, practically, it has been found that a little piece of +moistened blotting paper applied for a whole night so softens the gum +that the two pieces of paper and the slip of foil can be removed from +the old deed most easily, and be applied to a new skin of parchment, +and thus be made to do duty a second or third time. Thus the expensive +stamps on thousands of old deeds of partnership, leases, and other old +documents, when no longer of value, offer a rich harvest to those who +are dishonest enough to use them. A knowledge of these facts led Mr. +Bessemer to fully appreciate the importance of any system of stamps +that would effectually prevent so great a loss; nor did he for one +moment doubt but that government would amply reward success. After +some months of study and experiment, which he cheerfully undertook +(although it interfered considerably with the pursuit of regular +business, inasmuch as it was necessary to carry on the experiments +with the strictest secrecy, and to do all the work himself during the +night after his people had left work), he succeeded in making a stamp +that satisfied all the necessary conditions. It was impossible to +remove it from one deed and transfer it to another. No amount of +damp, or even saturation with water, could obliterate it, and it +was impossible to take any impression from it capable of producing a +duplicate. + +Mr. Bessemer says that he knew nothing of patents or patent law in +those days; and adds that if he had for a moment thought it necessary +to make any preliminary conditions with government he would have at +once scouted the idea as utterly unworthy, thinking his interests +absolutely secure. In this full confidence he sought an interview with +the then chief of the Stamp Office, Sir Charles Presley, and showed +him by numerous proofs how easily all his stamps could be forged, and +also the mode of prevention. He was greatly astonished, and at a later +interview he suggested that the principle of the invention should be +worked out fully. This Mr. Bessemer was only too anxious to do; and +some five or six weeks later called again with a newly designed stamp, +which greatly pleased him. The design was circular, about 2½ inches +in diameter, and consisted of the Garter with the motto in capital +letters surmounted by a crown. Within the Garter was a shield with the +words "five pounds." The space between the shield and the Garter was +filled with network in imitation of lace. The die had been executed in +steel, which pierced the parchment with more than 400 holes, each one +of the necessary form to produce its special portion of the design. +Since that period perforated paper of this kind has been largely +employed for valentines and other ornamental purposes, but was +previously unknown. It was at once obvious that the transfer of such +a stamp was impossible. It was equally clear that dampness could not +obliterate it; nor was it possible to take any impression from it +capable of perforating another skin of parchment. + +This design gave great satisfaction, and everything went on smoothly; +Sir Charles consulted Lord Althorp, and the Stamp Office authorities +determined to adopt it. Mr. Bessemer was then asked if, instead of +receiving a sum of money from the Treasury, he would be satisfied with +the position of Superintendent of Stamps, at some £600 or £800 per +annum. This was all that he then desired, rejoicing over the prospect, +for he was at that time engaged to be married, and his future position +in life seemed assured. An incident now occurred that reads almost +like romance. A few days after affairs had assumed this satisfactory +position, he called on the young lady to whom he was then engaged +(now Mrs. Bessemer), and showed her the pretty piece of network which +constituted the new parchment stamp, explaining how it could never +be removed from the parchment and used again, and mentioning the fact +that old deeds with stamps on them dated as far back as the reign +of Queen Anne could be fraudulently used. She at once said, "Yes, I +understand this; but surely, if all stamps had a date put upon them, +they could not at a future time be used again without detection?" This +was indeed a new light, and greatly startled the inventor, who at once +said that steel dies used for this purpose could have but one date +engraved upon them. But after a little consideration he saw that +movable dates were by no means impossible, and that this could easily +be effected by drilling three holes of about a quarter of an inch in +diameter in the steel die, and fitting into each of these openings a +steel plug or type with sunk figures engraved on their ends, giving on +one the date of the month, on the next the month of the year, and on +the third circular steel type the last two figures of the year. This +plan would be most simple and efficient, would take less time and +money to inaugurate than the more elaborate plan that had been +devised; but while pleased and proud at the clever and simple +suggestion of the young lady, her future husband saw also that all his +more elaborate system of piercing dies, the result of months of study, +and the toil of many a weary and lonely night, was shattered to pieces +by it. He feared to disturb the decision that Sir Charles Presley +had come to, as to the adoption of the perforated stamp, but, with +a strong conviction of the advantages of the new plan, felt in honor +bound not to suppress it, whatever might be the result. Thus it was +that he soon found himself again closeted with Sir Charles at Somerset +House, discussing the new scheme, which he much preferred, because, +as he said, all the old dies, old presses, and old workmen could +be employed, and there would be but little change in the office--so +little, in fact, that no new superintendent of stamps was required, +which the then unknown art of making and using piercing dies would +have rendered absolutely necessary. After due consideration the first +plan was definitely abandoned by the office in favor of the dated +stamps, with which every one is now familiar. In six or eight weeks +from this time an Act of Parliament was passed calling in the private +stock of stamps dispersed throughout the country, and authorizing the +issue of the new dated ones. + +Thus was inaugurated a system that has been in operation some +forty-five years, successfully preventing that source of fraud from +which the revenue had so severely suffered. If anything like Sir +Charles Presley's estimate of £100,000 per annum was correct, this +saving must now amount to some millions sterling; but whatever the +varying amount might have been, it is certain that so important and +long established a system as that in use at the Stamp Office would +never have been voluntarily broken up by its own officials, except +under the strongest conviction that the losses were very great, and +that the new order of things would prove an effectual barrier to +future fraud. During all the bustle of this great change no steps had +been taken to install the inventor in the office. Lord Althorp had +resigned, and no one seemed to have authority to do anything. All +sorts of half promises and excuses followed each other, with long +delays between, and Mr. Bessemer gradually saw the whole thing sliding +out of his grasp. Instead of holding fast to the first plan, which +they could not have executed without his aid and special knowledge, +he had, in all the trustfulness of youthful inexperience, shown them +another plan, so simple that they could put it in operation without +any assistance. He had no patent to fall back upon, and could not go +to law, even if he wished to do so, for he was reminded, when +pressing for mere money out of pocket, that he had done all the work +voluntarily. Wearied and disgusted, he at last ceased to waste time +in calling at the Stamp Office, and he felt that nothing but increased +exertions could make up for the loss of some nine months of toil and +expenditure. Thus, sad and dispirited, and with a burning sense of +injustice overpowering all other feelings, he went from the Stamp +Office, too proud to ask as a favor that which was indubitably his +just right, and he adds, "Up to this hour I have never received one +shilling or any kind of acknowledgment whatever from the British +Government." It is notorious, adds the editor, that some of the most +renowned and invaluable inventions of recent years, especially those +connected with the navy, have narrowly escaped rejection by permanent +but ignorant officials; and that the authors of the inventions have +had to submit to delay, loss, annoyance, and contumely before their +processes could be tried, even after their success had been officially +demonstrated. Perhaps it is not now so much a question of money, +for it is to be hoped that Mr. Bessemer is reaping the due reward +of ingenuity and skill in other fields of invention. But even his +discoveries in steel making, if they have very properly enriched +himself, have, in an infinitely larger degree, added to the wealth of +the country, and have given employment to many thousands. Such a man +is a public benefactor, and eminently deserves recognition by +the state, especially by way of atonement for former neglect and +injustice. Military men receive titular honors and a pecuniary reward +for slaying a crowd of savages and burning their huts, while the +men who have helped to make England what she is, commercially and +industrially, are in most cases left to their fate, which may chance +to be pecuniary ruin. + + * * * * * + + + + +OIL NOTES. + +PENNSYLVANIA. + + +The total production of crude petroleum for the first three quarters +of 1878 was 11,126,037 barrels, against 8,436,867 barrels for the same +time in 1877; increase in 1878, 1,689,170 barrels. + +The total number of drilling wells completed for the first three +quarters of 1878 were 2,333, against 2,699 for the same time in 1877; +decrease in 1878, 366. + +The daily average production of the new wells completed for the first +three quarters of 1878 was 13 2-10 barrels, against 14 2-10 for the +same time in 1877; decrease in 1878, 1 barrel. + +The total number of dry holes developed in the first three quarters +of 1878 were 280, against 476 for the same time in 1877; decrease in +1878, 196. + +The total amount of crude petroleum held in the producing regions of +Pennsvlvania, at the close of the third quarter of 1878, was 4,599,362 +barrels, against 2,503,657 at the same time in 1877; increase in 1878, +2,095,705 barrels. + +The amount of crude petroleum represented by outstanding certificates +on the last day of September was 1,705,853 barrels, against 1,317,484 +barrels on the last day of October, a reduction during October of +158,127 barrels. + +Mr. J. M. Guffey has purchased of Marcus Hulings an undivided half +interest in the celebrated Kinzua Creek property (Bradford district). +The purchased portion contains 6,400 acres, on which there is a well +that was struck in June last, and since that time has been doing from +16 to 18 barrels, and has never been torpedoed. Mr. Guffey looks upon +this as one of the best prospective oil territories in the country. + +D. W. C. Carroll & Co., of Pittsburg, have kept from 45 to 75 men +employed, since June, in the oil regions, building iron tanks, nearly +all of which are located in the Bradford district. + + +WEST VIRGINIA. + +The Wheeling _Intelligencer_ says: As noticed in our Moundsville +letter this morning, extensive preparations have been made to bore for +oil on the opposite side of the river at the Union Coal Works shaft. +The machinery was brought down from Pittsburg on Tuesday, and is now +being put in position by contractors, who have engaged to go down +1,200 feet. It will be recollected that for a long time past oil has +been found in the coal shaft, and the company who are putting down the +well feel confident that plenty of it exists deeper down. Some parties +look forward to the development of the fact that Moundsville is +situated in an important oil break, and that oil in abundance will +be found on both sides of the river. The progress of the well will be +looked forward to with much interest by the people of that vicinity. + + +MASSACHUSETTS. + +The Maverick Oil Works at East Boston have recently made some very +extensive additions and improvements, lengthening their wharf and +making a variety of alterations in their buildings. They will shortly +complete a new cooper shop, wherein, it is probable, they will +construct all the tin cans required by the demands of their business. + + +OHIO. + +The oil excitement has broken out afresh in West Mecca, Warren county, +Ohio. Oil men, heavily backed with capital, have recently come in from +Pennsylvania, and are making things lively in that locality. Eight new +wells have been put in operation during the past week. This district +is the same where the principal excitement prevailed 18 years ago. + + +JAPAN. + +The Tokio _Times_ states that the principal feature of American trade +with Japan is the petroleum exports from New York. The enterprise was +inaugurated only eight years ago; but the business has so increased +that while only 200 cases of kerosene, valued at $600, were exported +in 1870, in 1877 366,639 cases were sent to Yokohama, and 128,158 +cases to Hiogo, whither none had before been carried direct. The value +of these consignments was over $1,000,000. + +Several refineries are in operation in Japan, making kerosene from +native petroleum. + + +RUSSIA. + +The recent reports concerning the discovery of oil near the shores of +the Caspian Sea seem to be fully confirmed. From one of the wells a +stream, free from gas and froth, is forced to a height of 75 feet, +yielding at the rate of 10,000 barrels a day. It is reported that +companies are forming at Odessa, Kovo-Tcherkask, Astrakhan, and other +cities, for the purpose of obtaining oil. Two large manufacturing +concerns, who have their headquarters in New York city, recently +received orders for considerable quantities of oil-line pipes, +steam pumps, engines, boilers, and other apparatus, to be shipped +immediately for St. Petersburg, Russia. + + +ITALY. + +The oil wells of Italy comprise about 5, with a capacity of about 30 +barrels per day, of a thick substance of 14 gravity. They are pumped +by hand, which, though primitive, is cheaper than steam, for both men +and women are employed, the former receiving as compensation for a +day's work 1 lira, equal to 20 cents; and the women 60 centessimi, +equal to 12 cents of our money. The wells are located in a deep +valley, and the oil carried up on the backs of donkeys to a refinery, +where it is treated, and yields from 2 to 5 per cent. of burning oil. + + +PERU. + +It is proposed to build a pipe line from the refinery on the estates +of Henry Meiggs to the shipping port, a distance of about 7 miles. It +is stated that oil can be produced at this point for less than 1 cent +a gallon, and as the fields have produced from time immemorial, there +is no prospect of their early exhaustion. + + +ONTARIO. + +The oil refinery at St. Thomas, Ont., is running day and night; 494 +barrels of crude petroleum were brought from Petrolia for it in one +week recently.--_Stowell's Petroleum Reporter_. + + * * * * * + + + + +RAILWAY NOTES. + + +The new track laid in this country during the year ending September +10, 1878, was 1,160 miles. During the six preceding years the number +of miles of track laid was: In 1872, 4,498; 1873, 2,455; 1874, 1,066; +1875, 702; 1876, 1,467; 1877, 1,176. + +The statement made in the recent Narrow Gauge Convention, that +standard gauge freight cars weigh ten tons and carry ten tons, is +indignantly disputed by users of the latter. One gentleman, having +much to do with freight cars, says that the modern freight cars weigh +from 17,000 to 18,000 lbs., commonly carry (and that on long hauls) +28,000 lbs., are guaranteed to carry 30,000 lbs., while he has seen +them show on the scales 30,000 and 32,000 lbs. of load, and in one +case 35,000 lbs. The general tendency for some years has been to +increase loads without increasing, but in many cases decreasing, +weights of cars; and it seems quite likely that 30,000 lbs. will soon +be the standard load. The tank cars used for carrying petroleum have +an average capacity--and they are almost always run full--of 30,000 +lbs. The Standard Oil Company, which has some 3,000 of such cars, +carried on four-wheeled trucks with the Master Car Builders' standard +axle, has run them with such loads for years, and only recently had +its first case of a broken axle, manifestly due to a defect in the +iron. + +INTERESTING observations have been made recently on the Cologne-Minden +Road, Prussia, on the rusting of iron rails. A pile of rails of odd +lengths were laid on sleepers over a bed of gravel early in 1870, and +remained undisturbed until the fall of 1877, there being no use for +them. It was then found that they were covered with a layer of rust +0.12 inch thick, which had to be removed by striking the rail with a +hammer. The cleaned rail weighed only 398.2 lbs., while its original +weight was 419.1 lbs., showing that 5 per cent. of the rail had been +destroyed by rust, which covered the rail quite uniformly. This +confirms the observation often made, that rails stacked away are much +more liable to rust than those laid down in a track. + +According to _Le Fer_, at a meeting of directors of the German +railroads held at Constance, the following information was furnished +in regard to the relative value of the different methods of injecting +ties: + +1. Railroad from Hanover and Cologne to Minden. Pine ties injected +with chloride of zinc; after 21 years the proportion of ties renewed +was 21 per cent. Beech ties injected with creasote; after 22 years, +46 per cent. Oak ties injected with chloride of zinc; after 17 years, +20.7 per cent. Oak ties not injected; after 17 years, 49 per cent. The +conditions were very favorable for experiment; the road bed was good, +and permitted of easy desiccation. The unrenewed ties showed, on +cutting, that they were in a condition of perfect health. + +2. Railroad "Kaiser-Ferdinands-Nord." Oak ties not injected; after +12 years the proportion renewed was 74.48 per cent. Oak ties injected +with chloride of zinc; after 7 years, 3.29 per cent. Oak ties injected +with creasote; after 6 years, 0.09 per cent. Pine ties injected with +chloride of zinc; after 17 years, 4.46 per cent. + +The annual official reports of the railroads of India place the length +of railways there at 7,551½ miles, of which 492½ miles were +completed during the year 1877, and 223 miles since the close of the +year. There are 806½ miles of double track; 5,912¾ miles are +constructed on the 5 foot 6 inch gauge, and 1,638¾ on narrower +gauges. The capital outlay on the State lines amounted to £3,122,051, +and on the guaranteed lines to £1,374,882, bringing the total capital +expenditure, up to the end of October, as regards the State, and to the +end of March last, as regards the guaranteed lines, to £113,144,541. +The expenditure up to the end of the year may be taken in round numbers +at £13,344,500. The revenue from all the open lines was £6,232,888, of +which £6,091,532 were earned by the guaranteed lines, with a capital of +£95,482,941, and £141,356 were earned by the State lines, on a capital +expenditure of £17,661,600. The net receipts from the guaranteed lines +exceeded the amount advanced for guaranteed interest by £1,454,591; the +year previous there was a deficit of £216,517. + +A French engineer named Duponchel has made a report on the project of +a railroad across the Desert of Sahara. The projected railway would +run from Algiers to Timbuctoo, a distance of 2,500 kilometers. M. +Duponchel stated that the principal portion of the line would rest +during nearly its whole extent on layers of sand, and toward the end +on primitive volcanic rocks, granite, gneiss, etc. No mountainous +obstructions would have to be encountered. The average heat does not +appear to exceed 23° or 24° C. (73 2-5° or 75 1-5° Fah.), but account +must be taken of the great variations which occur in the 24 hours. For +instance, occasionally, a very cold night succeeds a temperature +of 40° C. (104° Fah.) in the day time. The great difficulty to be +overcome would be the want of water, which is not to be procured in +that region. M. Duponchel calculates that for three trains daily the +amount of water required would be 4,000 cubic meters, and that the +engineering science of the day is quite sufficient to supply even a +much greater quantity at the requisite points. + +The government of Costa Rica has advertised for tenders for building +bridges on the second Atlantic Division of its railroad. There will +be needed 194 bridges. The bridges will vary in length from 3 feet +to 1,044 feet, and will be built for a track of 3 foot 3½ inch gauge. +They will be of sufficient strength to stand a strain of 2,240 lbs. +to the lineal foot, in addition to the weight of the usual freight +carried. + + * * * * * + + + + +THE WERDERMANN ELECTRIC LIGHT. + + +[Illustration: FIG. 1 THE WERDERMANN LAMP.] + +It has been looked upon as essential that a certain distance should +separate the ends of the carbon electrodes used in electric lamps. +Every one has accepted this as an axiom. Mr. Werdermann's skepticism +has, however, caused him to doubt the axiom, and the result is that he +has discarded the electric arc space, and by placing his electrodes +in actual contact, has produced a lamp which provides the means of +dividing the electric current, and promises to give almost any number +of lights from a single machine. Mr. Werdermann's inventions, says the +_Engineering_, are secured by patents considerably in advance of those +of Mr. Edison, and may in their chief points be explained as follows: + +In place of two electrodes of similar form and dimensions, one +electrode consists of a large bun-shaped disk of carbon placed with +the rounded face downward. The other carbon is a fine rod of carbon of +about 1/8 or 5-32 inch in diameter. The upper end of this is pointed +and maintained in contact with the center of the lower surface of the +disk. This rod is supported by means of a spring collar, which also +forms the circuit connection. This is within about ¾ in. of the +top of the carbon, so that the ¾ in. becomes incandescent, and the +contact between the two carbons being only a point, a small electric +arc is produced between the two carbons, while the electricity is at +the same time passed on through the carbon disk, and the connections +there attached to the next lamp. + +[Illustration: DIAGRAM OF CURRENT.] + +Referring to our diagrams, in Fig. 1 the upper carbon is shown at +C, and the rod carbon at c. The former is supported by means of an +adjustable jointed bracket, B, attached to the wood stand. The rod +carbon is guided by the spring collar on the top of the stand, and +to which the connection is made, and is supported by the fine cord +running over the pulley, P. This cord is attached to the clasp, D, at +the bottom of the rod, and to the balance weight, W, by which the rod +is maintained in constant, practical, though not absolute contact +with the disk. Round the upper part of the disk is a metal band, A, to +which the circuit wire is attached, and the current thus passed on to +the next lamps. + +At a recent trial of this lamp, the current was derived from a small +Gramme electro-plating machine, requiring only 2 horse power to put +it in full work. It may therefore be assumed that this was about the +limit of the power at work to produce the light. At the commencement +of the proceedings two lights were maintained, each stated to be equal +to 320 sperm candles. At this rate the two lights would be equal to +640 candles, or 40 full power gas lights, each consuming 5 cubic feet +of 16 candle gas per hour. Such gas lights, it may be observed, are +not often seen, except in the argand form. The two lights burned with +extreme steadiness, there being no undulation, or flickering whatever, +although there was no glass globe to tone down any variations of +luster. The lights were perfectly bare and unprotected, and the place +where the trial was made was a workshop of moderate size. + +Later in the evening one light was exhibited outside the building, in +an open thoroughfare, and the same perfect steadiness was observable. +After the two lights had been burning for a time they were +extinguished, and the current was sent through a row of ten lamps. +The light per lamp was of course reduced, but there was the remarkable +fact that ten lights were maintained by a comparatively weak machine, +driven by an engine exerting the power of only two horses. + +The light of each of these ten lamps was stated to be that of 40 +candles, making, therefore, a total of 400. A reduction of light, +consequent on the further division of the current, is thus apparent; +but for this loss there may be ample compensation in the superior +economy of a distributed light as compared with one that is +concentrated. In the case of the ten lamps, the light is equal to that +of 25 full power gas lights, consuming altogether 125 cubic feet of +gas per hour. The extremely small arc due to the peculiar arrangement +of the carbons in the Werdermann light has the advantage of offering +the least possible resistance to the passage of the current. + +This resistance increases much more rapidly than is represented by +increase of distance between the carbon points. Hence the electric +power with Werdermann's lamp is economized to the utmost in this +respect, and it becomes possible--as in the recent experiment--to make +use of an electric current large in quantity but of low intensity. +The tension being small, there is the less difficulty with regard to +insulation. If one lamp or more should be accidentally extinguished, +the rest will continue to burn. The whole of the lamps can also be +extinguished and relit by merely stopping the current and then sending +it on again. No nice and troublesome adjustment with reference to the +length of the electric arc is requisite, and simple contact between +the point of the rod and the surface of the disk is sufficient for the +manifestation of the light. + +In respect to duration, a carbon rod 5-32 in. in diameter, and a yard +long, obtained from Paris, costs a franc. This, placed in a large +lamp, having an estimated lighting power of 320 candles, will last +from 12 to 15 hours. The smaller lamps take a carbon of 1/8 in. +diameter. + +Mr. Werdermann endeavors to make the resistance of the external +portion of the circuit equal to the internal resistance, in order to +obtain the greatest effect. It is well known that the best results +are obtained when the internal and external resistances are equal. The +method adopted is that known to electricians as the divided arc, and +will easily be understood from Fig. 2. Let B represent the source of +the electric current, and A a copper wire connected to the positive +and negative poles of the source as in the diagram. The wire, A, has +a certain resistance. Suppose, now, we arrange for the current to pass +as in the diagram, Fig. 3. By the insertion of the new wire, C, we +have lessened the total external resistance and increased the current, +as will be seen by reference to Ohm's law. C = E/(R+r) where C += current; E = electromotive force; R = resistance external; r = +resistance internal. The fraction E/(R+r) increases as its denominator +is lessened. + +The current passes along the two branches in equal quantities if the +resistances of the wires are equal, but inversely as the resistances +if they are unequal. Thus, if the branch, A, has a resistance, 9, and +C has a resistance, 1, 9-10 of the current will pass through C, and +1-10 through A. Similarly, for any number of branches the current will +divide itself according to the resistances. If, then, we have a number +of branches, as indicated in Fig. 4, the current will divide itself +equally among the branches when the resistances of the branches are +equal. This is the arrangement adopted by Mr. Werdermann, as will be +seen from the annexed diagram, Fig. 5, in which N and P represent +the negative and positive poles of the machine, and L L the electric +lamps. + +When any one lamp is put out the inventor arranges that an equivalent +resistance shall be put into the circuit, so that as a whole the +circuit is unaltered, and the other lamps unaffected. + + * * * * * + + + + +CASSON'S SAW BENCH. + + +We give herewith a perspective view of a circular saw bench made by +Messrs. Oliver & Co. (Limited), of Chesterfield, England, which we +take from _Engineering_. The chief features in this machine are that +it is fitted with Mr. John Casson's patent feed gear and apparatus for +steadying the saws. This feeding arrangement has now been in use some +years, and has been fitted to a very large number of circular saw +benches. This being the case, and the arrangement being very clearly +shown by our engraving, it will be unnecessary for us to describe it +in detail here. + +The saw-steadying apparatus, with which the saw bench we illustrate +is fitted, is a novel arrangement, recently patented by Mr. Casson; in +the present case it is applied to two saws. + +The steadying arrangement consists of accurately fitted sliding jaws +mounted on the arms of a forked support, so that they can be moved and +adjusted only by fine threaded screws, the jaws having their surfaces +next the saws, accurately parallel with the plane of the collar of the +saw spindle; these jaws, A, are fixed when the adjusting screws are at +rest, and they are faced with strips of greenheart or other suitable +timber, secured by countersunk screw bolts, these faces forming a +perfectly true guide for the saw blades. + +For a single saw the guides just described would suffice; but for two +or more saws the outside guides must be supplemented by others between +the saw blades. + +It will be noticed that the support, F, carrying the guiding jaws, has +a square stem sliding through the head of a suitable standard, and it +can be readily fixed at any desired height by means of the set screw. + +[Illustration: BENCH WITH SAW-STEADYING APPARATUS.] + +The arrangement we have been describing is well carried out, and there +can be no doubt that it will do good service, and enable thin saws +to be efficiently used with a heavy feed. We have received very +satisfactory reports of its performance. + + * * * * * + + + + +A BAIT FOR INVENTORS. + + +I will give $200 for a machine that will bale hay in the field. Rake +and press combined would be preferable, but would not object to +its taking the hay in the windrow. The machine must be expeditious, +executing as fast as a mower is able to cut. Must have sufficient +power to make a bale suitable for commercial uses; shape of the bale +immaterial; a round one preferred. Must be of light draught; one team +is generally all that is available for any machine on the farm. These, +with the other qualifications demanded of every machine, simplicity, +durability, easy to manage, etc. If such an invention could be +produced it would make a revolution in the hay field almost equal to +that which the mower has made. + +What an awkward, ungainly spectacle a man presents, struggling at one +end of a six foot pole, with a ten pound lock of hay at the other end, +endeavoring with all his might and main to elevate it 12 or 15 feet on +top of a load! It is an insult to human intelligence. A load of loose +hay is an uncertain quantity. You are never sure of getting it into +the barn. Top heavy, one sided, too wide or too high for the doors; +and even with the best of luck, a good percentage has drizzled in the +wake of the wagon over the lot to the barn. A 100 or 200 lb. bale, +with an inclined plane, or a pulley on side or aft of a good strong +rack, and all this barbarism has succumbed to civilization. + +At the barn comes a worse servitude. (I don't mean the horse fork; +that is a grand lift to civilization. I hope to modify it shortly to +throw bales.) There a man struggles with sheer desperation to press +by his own avoirdupois 20 tons of hay into a place that won't hold 10. +Tramp, tramp, tramp, leg-weary, panting like an overheated dog, every +fiber of his clothing saturated with perspiration, a subject worthy +of a better immortality than the Greek slave. O Edison! don't fritter +away your genius on sounding brass and tinkling cymbal. Elevate the +laborer. Liberate our overworked people. Make us a chariot to press +our hay.--_Edmund Adams, North Manlius, N. Y., to the New York +Tribune._ + + * * * * * + + + + +A SILVER MILL IN THE CLOUDS. + + +The largest and most complete silver mill ever constructed, says the +San Francisco Stock Report, has recently been built by Messrs. Rankin, +Brayton & Co., of the Pacific Iron Works of that city, for the Cerro +de Pasco Mining Company, of Peru, and shipped for Callao, the port of +destination. This enormous mill consists of 80 stamps, 900 lbs, each, +44 live foot amalgamating pans, 22 nine foot settlers, and all the +accessories of a first-class modern mill. It is to be erected upon the +above named mines, which are situated in the heart of the Andes, +some 150 miles east of the city of Lima, at an elevation of more than +14,000 feet. To admit of mule transportation a portion of the way up +this tremendous ascent, the mill had to be made in sections, no piece +weighing more than 500 lbs. Some idea of the magnitude of this work +may be inferred from the fact that the mill, as thus constructed, +consisted of more than 17,000 pieces, and weighed upward of 600 tons. +This enormous amount of machinery was constructed by the above firm +and put on board a ship 50 days from date of contract. + +The Cerro de Pasco mines have been the richest and most famous in the +world's history. They have been worked by the old arastra process for +the past 200 years, and have produced, according to the most authentic +records, more than $500,000,000. With such improved machinery the +product of these mines will undoubtedly attract the attention of the +world, and so reflect great credit upon the capacity, ingenuity, and +skill of our mechanical establishments. + + * * * * * + + + + +POULTICES. + + +The common practice in making poultices of mixing the linseed meal +with hot water, and applying them directly to the skin, is quite +wrong, because, if we do not wish to burn the patient, we must wait +until a great portion of the heat has been lost. The proper method +is to take a flannel bag (the size of the poultice required), to fill +this with the linseed poultice as hot as it can possibly be made, and +to put between this and the skin a second piece of flannel, so that +there shall be at least two thicknesses of flannel between the skin +and the poultice itself. Above the poultice should be placed more +flannel, or a piece of cotton wool, to prevent it from getting cold. +By this method we are able to apply the linseed meal boiling hot, +without burning the patient, and the heat, gradually diffusing through +the flannel, affords a grateful sense of relief which cannot be +obtained by other means. There are few ways in which such marked +relief is given to abdominal pain as by the application of a poultice +in this manner.--_Dr. T. Lauder Brunton, in Brain._ + + * * * * * + + + + +NEW MECHANICAL INVENTIONS. + + +Mr. Joseph Adams, of Washington, D. C., has patented an improved Gas +Regulator, designed either to cut off the gas entirely or to let on +a larger amount of gas than its automatic action would ordinarily +permit, or to allow the regulator to operate with an automatic action, +as usual. + +Mr. Jean A. Hitter, Jr., of St. Martinsville, La., has patented an +improved Type Writer, of simple and compact construction, that may be +readily used for printing on paper and for other purposes, being +small enough to be carried conveniently in the pocket, if desired, and +readily operated with little practice. + +Messrs. Edwin N. Boynton, Geo. M. Coburn, and Thos. F. Carver, of +Worcester, Mass., have patented an improved Hand Drilling Machine, by +which a fast or slow motion can be readily obtained, at the will +of the operator, the slower motion being especially advantageous in +drilling large holes, as more power is obtained, and the holes are +drilled with greater ease. + +Mr. Reuben R. James, of Rising Sun, Ind., has devised an improved +Adding Machine of simple and comparatively inexpensive construction. +The chief feature of the machine is a series of toothed revolving +counting wheels, which are inscribed on their peripheries with the +nine digits and cipher, and mounted loosely on a common axis, and each +having four lateral inclines or cams, which cause, at the proper time, +a weighted pawl lever to engage the next counting wheel on the left, +so as to carry ten when the numbers added on the wheel on the right +exceed ten. The adding is effected by successively drawing down to a +stop on the finger board the teeth of the counting wheels which are +opposite the numbers to be added, and the numerical result will be +seen on the wheels in a series of slots or apertures in the case of +the machine. + +Mr. Jacob Croft, of Scipio, Utah Ter., has devised an improved Turbine +Water Wheel, which is constructed to prevent back pressure by the +water against the casing as it escapes from the buckets. Sand and +other substances in the water are prevented from entering around the +shaft and cutting or wearing it. + +An improvement in Sweeping Machines has been patented by Mr. Isaac +A. Chomel, of Brooklyn, N. Y. This invention relates to apparatus for +sweeping up and collecting dirt, dust, and other refuse from floors, +carpets, streets, and other places. The dust box is to be rolled over +the floor and the brush revolved by a winch. The speed of the brush is +independent of the motion of the machine along the floor. + +Mr. D. A. Ferris, of Tioga Center, N. Y., has patented an improved +Implement for Forcing Flooring Planks together when laying floors. It +is simple, convenient, and powerful. + + * * * * * + + + + +EFFECT OF QUININE ON THE HEARING. + + +It is a well known fact to medical men that there exists a great +prejudice among a large number of people against taking quinine, the +idea being very prevalent that a prolonged use of it not only affects +the hearing, but (to use the common expression) that it "gets into +the bones." As regards the former belief, Dr. Roosa, of New York, +has recently been collecting and examining the evidence as far as +possible, and has come to the conclusion that in some cases there +really is a permanent nervous affection of the ear produced which +justifies the opinion held by the laity. Hitherto physicians have +generally disbelieved this, and ascribed the notion to prejudice. + + * * * * * + + + + +THE MICROPHONE AS A THIEF CATCHER. + + +The microphone as a thief catcher has proved very useful to an English +resident in India, who found his store of oil rapidly and mysteriously +diminishing. He fixed a microphone to the oil cans, carried the wire +up to his bedroom, and, after the house had been closed for the night, +sat up to await the result. Very shortly he heard the clinking of +bottles, followed by the gurgling sound of liquid being poured out, +and running downstairs he caught his bearer in the act of filling +small bottles with oil for easy conveyance from the premises. + + * * * * * + + + + +THE TALLEST TREE IN THE WORLD. + + +The tallest accurately measured _Sequoia_ standing in the Calaveras +Grove, near Stockton, California, measures 325 feet, and there is +no positive evidence that any trees of this genus ever exceeded that +height. Of late years, explorations in Gippsland, Victoria, have +brought to light some marvelous specimens of _Eucalyptus_, and the +State Surveyor of Forests measured a fallen tree on the banks of the +Watts River, and found it to be 435 feet from the roots to the top of +the trunk. The crest of this tree was broken off, but the trunk at the +fracture was 9 feet in circumference, and the height of the tree when +growing was estimated to have been more than 500 feet. This tree, +however, was dead, though there is no doubt that it was far loftier +than the tallest Sequoia. Near Fernshaw, in the Dandenong district, +Victoria, there has recently been discovered a specimen of the "Almond +Leaf Gum" (_Eucalyptus amygdalesia_), measuring 380 feet from the +ground to the first branch, and 450 feet to the topmost wing. This +tree would overtop the tallest living _Sequoia_ by 125 feet. Its girth +is 80 feet, which is less than that of many Sequoias, but as far as +height is concerned it must be considered the tallest living tree in +the world. + + * * * * * + + + + +THE ARGONAUT, OR PAPER NAUTILUS. + + +[Illustration: ARGONAUT, OR PAPER NAUTILUS.] + +This mollusk received the first title in allusion to the pretty fable +which was formerly narrated of its sailing powers, and the latter +title is given on account of the extreme thinness and fragility of the +shell. It is remarkable that the shell of the argonaut is, during the +life of its owner, elastic and yielding, almost as if it were made of +thin horn. + +The two arms of the argonaut are greatly dilated at their extremities; +and it was formerly asserted, and generally believed, that the +creature was accustomed to employ these arms as sails, raising them +high above the shell, and allowing itself to be driven over the +surface by the breeze, while it directed its course by the remaining +arms, which were suffered to hang over the edge of the shell into the +water and acted like so many oars. In consequence of this belief the +creature was named the argonaut, in allusion to the old classical +fable of the ship Argo and her golden freight. + +The animal, or "poulp," as it is technically called, is a lovely +creature despite its unattractive form. It is a mass of silver with a +cloud of spots of the most beautiful rose color, and a fine dotting +of the same, which heighten its beauty. A large membrane, which is +the expanded velation of the arms, covers all. It has been definitely +proved that the use of the expanded arms which cover the exterior of +the shell is to build up its delicate texture, and to repair damages, +the substance being secreted by these arms, and by their broad +expansions moulded into shape. The larger figure in the engraving +represents the argonaut while thus within its shell. While crawling +the creature turns itself so as to rest on its head, withdraws its +body as far as possible into its shell, and, using its arms like legs, +creeps slowly but securely along the ground, sometimes affixing its +disks to stones or projecting points of rocks for the purpose of +hauling itself along. When, however, it wishes to attain greater +speed, and to pass through the waters, it makes use of a totally +different principle. Respiration is achieved by the passage of water +over double gills or branchiæ; the water, after it has completed its +purpose, being ejected through a moderately long tube, technically +called a siphon. The orifice of the siphon is directed toward the +head of the animal, and it is by means of this simple apparatus that +progression is effected. When the creature desires to dart rapidly +through the water, it gathers its six arms into a straight line, so +as to afford little resistance to the water, keeps its velated arms +stretched tightly over the shell, and then, by violently ejecting +the water from the siphon, drives itself by reaction in the opposite +direction. The uppermost figure shows the argonaut in the act of +swimming. + + * * * * * + + + + +THE TRAP DOOR SPIDER OF JAMAICA. + + +This spider digs a burrow in the earth and lines it with a silken web. +The burrow is closed by a trap door, having a hinge that permits it +to be opened and closed with admirable accuracy. The door is circular, +and is made of alternate layers of earth and web, and is hinged to +the lining of the tube that leads to the burrow by a band of the same +silken secretion. The door exactly fits the entrance to the burrow, +and when closed, so precisely corresponds with the surrounding earth +that it can hardly be distinguished, even when its position is known. +It is a strange sight to see the earth open, a little lid raised, some +hairy legs protrude, and gradually the whole form of the spider show +itself. + +[Illustration: TRAP DOOR SPIDER.] + +The mode in which these spiders procure food seems to be by hunting at +night, and in some cases by catching insects that are entangled in the +threads that the creature spins by the side of its house. + +In the day time they are very chary of opening the door of their +domicile, and if the trap be raised from the outside, they run to the +spot, hitch the claws of their fore feet in the silken webbing of the +door, and those of the hind feet in the lining of the burrow, and so +resist with all their might. The strength of the spider is wonderfully +great in proportion to its size. + + * * * * * + + + + +TO MAKE A HOLE IN GLASS. + + +_New Remedies_ describes the following easy method of making a hole +in plate glass: Make a circle of clay or cement rather larger than the +intended hole; pour some kerosene into the cell thus made, ignite +it, place the plate upon a moderately hard support, and with a stick +rather smaller than the hole required, and a hammer, strike a rather +smart blow. This will leave a rough-edged hole, which may be smoothed +with a file. Cold water is said to answer even better than a blow. + + * * * * * + + + + +THE PRESERVATION OF EGGS. + + +As science advances, the processes proposed for the preservation +of organic substances are being brought to greater and greater +perfection. No subject perhaps in this connection has received +greater attention, and been the subject of more processes, patent and +otherwise, than that of the preservation of eggs. In fact this is a +question of considerable importance, not only from a culinary, but +also from an industrial standpoint--that of the manufacture of albumen +for photographic purposes. In the _Moniteur de la Photographie_ Dr. +Phipson calls attention to a new process, which may be briefly stated +as follows: + +On taking the eggs from the nest they are covered over, by means of a +bit of wool, with butter in which has been dissolved 2 or 3 per cent +of salicylic acid. Each egg, after receiving this coat, is placed in +a box filled with very fine and absolutely dry saw dust. If care +be taken that the eggs do not touch each other, and that they be +perfectly covered with the saw dust, they will keep fresh for several +months--perhaps for more than a year. Dr. Phipson states that he has +experimented with this process for two years, with most excellent +results. So much for the preservation of the entire egg; but there +is also a process for the preservation of the albumen of the egg +for photographic uses, due to M. Berg. In this process, the white, +separated from the yolk, is evaporated in zinc pans or porcelain cups, +at a temperature of 45° C. The solidified albumen thus obtained is +pulverized by means of a mill. The yolk, by means of machinery, is +whipped up into a light mass, and then spread out on zinc plates and +evaporated to dryness at a temperature of 80°, and finally powdered. +The powders thus obtained keep for a long time. The white of eggs, so +prepared, is used for the purposes to which albumen is applied in +the industrial arts, while the powdered yolks are used for domestic +purposes. + + * * * * * + + + + +CHARACTERISTICS OF AMERICAN SHEEP HUSBANDRY. + + +Dr. Hayes, in his recent address before the National Agricultural +Congress, remarking that a very inadequate idea is given of a nation's +resources by the number of sheep raised--the character of the animals +being of the first consideration--proceeds to show some of the +characteristics of American sheep husbandry. He states that the sheep +of the United States consist, first, of what are called native sheep; +second, descendants from improved English races; third, the Mexican +sheep found in Texas, New Mexico, Colorado, and California; fourth, +the merino sheep, and crosses of that breed with the three preceding +races. The merinos constitute the principal and characteristic race +of the United States; and this is the most important fact in the +enumeration of our resources for sheep husbandry and the wool +manufacture. England has no merinos, except in her colonies; Russia +has but 12,000,000 merinos; France, but 9,000,000. The merinos and +grades in the United States exceed 25,000,000. Merino wool is for +clothing what wheat is for food; it is the chief material for cloth +at the present day, the coarsest as well as the finest. While the +softest, it is the strongest of all fibers. From its fulling +and spinning qualities, it is the best adhesive for the cheap +fabrics--coarser wool, cotton, or shoddy; the mixture of merino wool +increasing indefinitely the material for cheap clothing. An abundance +of merino wool is the greatest boon the world has received from the +animal kingdom in the last century. It is, in fact, in its extended +culture the product of the last century. A century ago all the merinos +in the world, confined exclusively to Spain, did not number 1,000,000. +1765 marks the epoch of the first exportation of the merinos to +Saxony; 1786, to France; 1833, to Australia; 1802, the introduction +of the first merino sheep to this country; and to Gen. Humphreys, of +Connecticut, and to the introduction to his farm of twenty-one rams +and seventy ewes, may be directly traced the most celebrated breeds +of the American merino; producing individuals actually sold for $5,000 +each, others for $2,000 to $3,000, and one for which $10,000 was +refused. The fiber of the merino sheep is not the only excellence of +the animal; when properly bred, this race has a hardiness surpassing +all other high-bred races. The "yolk," provided by nature to assist in +the growth of the wool, abounding in this race more than in any +other, causes the tips of the fleece to be cemented, and to become +impenetrable to rains and snows. A lighter pasture suffices for their +maintenance than would support the mutton races. This race is fitted, +above all others, for the remote pastoral lands and for culture on a +large scale. + +Our breeders, in aiming to increase the weight of their fleece, have +developed the length of the staple, and have unconsciously created +a merino combing wool--a wool in special demand through modern +improvements in machinery and changes in the fashion of goods. Mr. +Ferneau, an eminent Belgian wool manufacturer, who has thoroughly +studied our wool resources and manufactures, says that three quarters +of the American wool is "combing wool," and will be ultimately +employed for this purpose. The bulk of American merino wools is of +strong, sound, and healthy staple, having few weak spots in them. +Those from the other States of the West are free from burrs. Those +from California have this defect in a high degree. They are admirably +fitted for blankets, flannels, and fancy cassimeres, and the great +bulk of our card wool manufactures. They are so excellent, as a whole, +that M. Ferneau says they are too valuable to be used for clothing +purposes. They supply nine tenths of all the card or clothing wool +consumed in American mills. + + * * * * * + + + + +THE PROGRESS OF SCIENCE IN MEXICO. + + +Mexico, the land of so many and such frequent revolutions, and the +scene of such intestinal commotions and bitter strife through the +whole period of her existence, from the Spanish conquest up to within +a few years, is at present happily in a state of comparative peace +and quiet; the laws are less disregarded, brigandage is gradually +disappearing, more attention is being paid to the protection of life +and property, and public education is in a prosperous condition. No +greater evidence of this felicitous state of affairs could be afforded +than that shown in the display of energy and zeal with which the +present administration, aided by the foremost Mexican scientists, +is carrying out an extended system of scientific explorations, +investigations, and internal improvements; and the progress of which +is being recorded in a valuable series of government publications; +one of these--the _Annals of the Minister of Public Works_--being +now before us. This volume, the third of the series, begins with +an article by the able director of the National Meteorological +Observatory, Sr. Mariano Barcena, calling attention, in the first +place, to the great national importance, as well as necessity, of a +well organized system of meteorological observations; (2) giving a +description of the Mexican Observatory, its equipment, the questions +it proposes to investigate, and the hours of observation; (3) +an explanation, accompanied by charts, of the daily system of +registration pursued at the observatory; and, finally, observations on +the periodic phenomena of vegetation, and notes on the orography +and geology of the valley of Mexico. Sr. A. Anquiano follows with a +communication on the "Geographical Position of Chalco," prefacing +the results of his labors by an able essay on the "Mexican Method" +of determining the latitude of places, a "method" founded on an +observation of the stars. It would be interesting to quote from this, +but our limited space will not permit. The "Citlaltepetl Commission," +consisting of the engineers, Srs. Plowes, Rodriguez, and Vigil, whose +patriotic ardor induced the minister to commission them to explore +"and be the first to plant the flag of Mexican science on the snow +clad peak of Citlaltepetl," render their report of operations during +the year 1877 in the form of an exceedingly interesting memoir. They +ascertained the peak of the volcano Citlaltepetl (or Orizaba) to be +17,651 feet above the level of the sea, which is 292 feet more +than Humboldt made it. After a somewhat exhaustive treatise on the +"Telescope and its Amplifying Power," by Sr. Jimenez, we have a long +and extremely interesting account of the Ancient Aqueduct of Zempoala, +one of the most notable of existing monuments of the old Spanish rule. +These aqueducts (for there were three) were projected and carried to a +successful termination by an humble and ignorant Franciscan monk--the +Friar Tembleque. The construction of these remarkable works, begun +in 1554 and occupying a period of 17 years, was undertaken for the +purpose of carrying water from Zempoala to Otumba (a distance of +27 miles), and was the occasion of a curious contract between the +inhabitants of these two cities. It seems that Otumba, situated at a +high elevation, needed water; Zempoala was blessed with water, but was +sadly in need of spiritual advisers; the people of the former city, +therefore, agreed to furnish a certain proportion of friars to +minister to the religious wants of the parties of the second part, and +the latter in return bound themselves to furnish water, and the labor +and materials for the building of an aqueduct to lead it, to the +parties of the first part. No tradition remains to state when these +structures ceased to be used. The longest of the three extends across +the valley of the Papelote, a distance of 2,960 feet, and consists +of 68 arches, the highest of which has an altitude of 106 feet. Señor +Salazar urges on the Minister of Public Works the importance of having +these monuments of a past age repaired and restored, not alone for +archaeological reasons, but because Otumba to-day is as greatly in +need of running water as it was in that remote period when these +viaducts were constructed. Señor Barcena follows with a description +and colored plate of a plant (_Gaudichaudia Enrico-Martinezii_) new +to the Mexican flora, and Sr. Federico Weidner with some "General +Reflections on the Iron Industry of the Country." Succeeding the +latter paper, an exhaustive article by the same writer gives us, +from a geological point of view, the structure, as far as can be +ascertained, of the "Cerro de Mercado" of Durango, which is said to be +one vast mass of iron. The author after a thorough examination of this +hill, last year, concludes that it is of eruptive or volcanic origin. +This is contrary to the statements made in most published works, +the authors of which probably derived their notions from the views +expressed by Humboldt, who was of the opinion that this mass of iron +was an immense aerolite. Sr. Weidner, however, concludes that the +great traveler never visited the locality in person, but obtained his +information from heresay. He shows that the hill is deficient in the +chemical constituents of aerolites, namely, iron, nickel, and cobalt, +in a native or malleable state; but, on the contrary, is made up in a +great measure of crystalline magnetic iron, and various useful oxides +of the same metal. By a careful estimate of the quantity of iron +contained in that portion only of the Cerro which appears above the +surface of the soil, the author obtains as a result the enormous sum +of 507,000,000 pounds, and this reduced to a metallic state would +yield 250,000,000 pounds of pure iron. The structure of this +remarkable hill is made apparent to the reader by means of an +excellent geological section, in colors, accompanying the text. + +The volume closes with some notes by Sr. Barcena on the "Hydrographic +System of the Hacienda of Cienega de Mata, and its application to one +of the theories that explain Natural Fountains." + +In taking leave of this subject we have to congratulate the Mexican +Government not only for the valuable matter contained in its +scientific publications, but also for the very excellent style in +which the latter are being issued. The general make up of the volume +before us leaves little to be desired; the arrangement of the types +is extremely tasty, the imprint is clean, sharp, and clear, the +paper good, the margins of the pages broad, and the illustrations +exceedingly well executed. It is to be sincerely hoped that the +present state of peace, which our sister republic is enjoying, will +endure for numerous years to come; and that the scientific work begun +under such happy auspices may go on uninterruptedly until the whole +country shall have been thoroughly explored. For as yet, we know but +comparatively little about the geology of Mexico, and a great deal is +yet to be learned, too, about her natural productions. + + * * * * * + + + + +CORRESPONDENCE. + + * * * * * + + + + +ALUM IN BREAD.--A REPLY TO DR. MOTT'S ARTICLE IN SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN +OF NOVEMBER 16, ENTITLED "DELETERIOUS USE OF ALUM IN BAKING POWDER." + +By W. P. CLOTWORTHY, BALTIMORE, MD. + + +On August 13, 1878, I obtained letters patent for the exclusive right +to use exsiccated ammonia alum in baking powders. This fact I state +that the public may know the reason that elicits this reply to +the remarkable article on adulterations in baking powders, in the +SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN of Nov. 16th, emanating from the pen of Henry A. +Mott, Jr. I wish the Professor had been equally candid in stating his +reasons for contributing the article. It is rare for a chemist to turn +philanthropist without some consideration. The analysis of forty-two +baking powders requires no little labor; twenty-one were examined +at the expense of the government for the benefit of the Indian +Department, the others, no doubt, at the expense and for the benefit +of the Royal Baking Powder Company. I hope his services have been +liberally requited. The public certainly owe him nothing for his labor +or opinions. An excuse can be made for the prejudice existing against +the use of alum in any form for baking purposes; it is an inheritance +from a preceding age; but no apology can be offered for a practical +chemist in this day, who labors to keep alive and foster a prejudice +by the suppression of truths and facts. Professor Mott, in attempting +to prove a fraud in food, has perpetrated a fraud in facts. That this +opinion may not be unwarranted, I will state the facts about alum, +which may be new to the public, but familiar to every chemist. Alum +was formerly a compound of sulph. alumina and sulph. potash. In the +past ten years nearly all manufacturers of alum have substituted +sulph. ammonia for the sulph. potash; this change removes from alum +a dangerous and objectionable ingredient, and adds a healthful +one. Professor Mott recommends the use of ammonia in the form of a +carbonate--carbonate of ammonia is one of the results in baking powder +of the decomposition which takes place between alum and bicarbonate of +soda; in the complete decomposition which takes place pure alumina is +eliminated, highly recommended as an antacid. During the process +of baking, alum is completely decomposed through the liberation of +carbonic acid. Professor Mott must have known this, yet with this +knowledge warns the public on the deleterious effect of alum in bread. + +About the first of last October I determined to vindicate the use +of exsiccated ammonia alum as a substitute for cream of tartar, and +accordingly issued a circular to the trade; from this circular I now +give the following extract, which enters minutely into the subject: + +"To claim that an experience of 35 years in compounding medicines +should entitle my opinion on chemicals and chemical compounds to a +respectful consideration, is neither presumptuous nor unreasonable. +With this simple introduction I now avow myself the originator +and patentee of exsiccated ammonia alum baking powder. The use of +exsiccated ammonia alum has been declared unhealthful by the advocates +of other baking powders, and every manufacturer using it has been held +up for public reprobation. This has been done by rival manufacturers, +either through ignorance or malice; if from the former they are to be +pitied, if from the latter they are contemptible. These opinions have +been promulgated by kitchen chemists, whose circle of knowledge begins +and ends with cream tartar and soda; and even of these articles they +only know that cream tartar is in some way derived from grapes. In +this circular I propose to state a few facts in relation to cream +tartar and exsiccated alum, and the combinations they form with +bicarbonate of soda, and allow you to form your own opinion of their +respective merits. Crude tartar is the incrustation found in wine +casks. It contains coloring matter and about 15 per cent of lime. +This article is purified and called the cream of tartar, but it is +impossible to extract all the lime. Commercially pure cream tartar +contains at least 5 per cent of lime. When cream tartar is used in +proportion of two parts to one of bicarbonate of soda, you will have +an average of 3 to 4 per cent of lime. In using cream tartar and soda +in baking, a chemical change commences as soon as water is added; the +cream tartar unites with the soda, setting free the carbonic acid gas, +which lightens the bread, and the residue is Rochelle salts. This +is what you eat in your bread, the cream tartar and soda entirely +disappearing in the process of baking, by forming this salt. Any +doctor or chemist will confirm the above statement. When I undertook +to manufacture baking powder, I labored to improve the quality and +cheapen the cost. The first I accomplished by retaining the carbonic +acid until heat was applied, the latter, by manufacturing a more +economical acid than foreign cream tartar. After more than a +thousand experiments covering a period of six months, I discovered by +exsiccating ammonia alum I provided an article that would possess the +necessary qualities. This article no more resembles the ordinary +alum than charcoal resembles wood--it is light, porous, friable, and +without taste. This article, under the influence of heat, combines +with the soda and forms Glauber salts. In baking, the alum unites +with the soda, just as cream tartar unites. In using the baking powder +prepared according to my formula, you have in your bread Glauber +instead of Rochelle salts. To your physician apply for his opinion +of these salts; I will bow to his decision. Another false impression +these zealous guardians of the public health have made is, that I +used the exsiccated alum because it was cheap. The fact is that when I +commenced its use it cost by the thousand pounds 12 per cent. more +than the best cream tartar is worth to-day, and 33 per cent. more than +average price of that article for the past year. I have since reduced +the cost of manufacturing, and as I did so, correspondingly reduced +the price of powder to the public. I regard the quantity of soda in +cream tartar baking powders as very objectionable; they generally +contain about 33 per cent. In my powder only 20 per cent. The +prejudice in the public mind against alum, originated in the habit of +the English bakers buying damaged flour, and by the addition of crude +alum, made their bread in appearance equal to that made from best +flour. Against this practice laws were enacted, not so much against +the qualities of alum, as against its use in covering up a fraud +in flour. This was the common potash alum and uncombined with any +carbonated alkali, and it passed into the stomach unchanged. It is +a trick--for it deserves no better name--of our rivals to show by +chemical analysis that my powder contains alum, but are careful +neither to state the kind nor the change it undergoes in baking. The +manufacturer who knowingly misrepresents the goods of a rival, may +well be doubted when he speaks of the quality of his own. + +"Great stress is laid on the fact that cream tartar is a vegetable +acid, the product of the grape, hence it must be healthy. They forget +that cream tartar is not entirely vegetable, but principally second +handed minerals. It is a compound of tartaric acid, potash, and lime; +the last two are minerals, which the grape takes up from the earth, +but redeposits them as crude tartar when fermentation converts the +grape into wine. In 1807 Sir Humphry Davy from this crude tartar first +made the metal potassium. Of lime it is unnecessary to speak. The +potash and lime form the bulk of cream tartar. In ammonia alum there +is no more mineral substance than in cream tartar. The chemistry +of nature is wonderful. Vegetation lives on minerals--wheat, corn, +potatoes, are all mineral compounds. Lime, soda, potash, magnesia, +sulphur, iron, etc., are all found abundantly in water and grain, and +all these minerals are essential in food." + +Professor Mott has given the Royal Baking Powder the benefit of his +indorsement; it may be all that he claims for it. But baking powders +are now judged by constituent ingredients and chemical analysis; to +this test I propose to bring the Royal. It is now in the hands of a +competent chemist, and when the analysis is complete I will give +the public the benefit of a comparison between that powder and the +Patapsco. I will take Professor Mott's analysis of Patapsco, which, +though not correct, I accept as such. The comparison will be made on +the healthfulness of constituents in combination, and the chemical +changes they undergo in baking. This is a progressive age. The people +want facts, and they will form their own theories. Will the reader +believe that in the reign of Henry VIII. of England, a citizen +of London was executed for burning coal, which was then a capital +offense? A pope about the same time issued a Bull excommunicating all +Catholics who used tobacco, calling it the devil's weed. To-day coals +still burn, and tobacco solaces millions of the civilized world. If +the Royal Baking Powder Company (what a misnomer) possessed royal +prerogatives, the advocates of exsiccated alum would fare no better +than they did under the sumptuary laws of England. Professor Mott has +fulminated _ex cathedra_ his blast, but we survive. "Truth is a torch, +the more 'tis shook it shines." Our strength is in the intelligence of +the age. SMITH, HANWAY & Co., Baltimore. + + * * * * * + + + + +THE ELONGATION OF TREE TRUNKS. + + +The _College Quarterly_ says that experiments made at the Iowa +Agricultural College show that the popular notion that the trunks +of trees elongate is entirely erroneous. Tacks were driven into the +trunks of various trees, and the distance between them accurately +measured. At the end of the season they were found to have neither +increased nor decreased their distances. In the experiment, tree +trunks were selected of all ages, from one year up to five or six, and +in no case was there any change whatever noticeable. + + * * * * * + + + + +ASTRONOMICAL NOTES. + +BY BERLIN H. WRIGHT. + + +PENN YAN, N. Y., Saturday, December 14, 1878. The following +calculations are adapted to the latitude of New York city, and are +expressed in true or clock time, being for the date given in the +caption when not otherwise stated: + + +PLANETS. + H.M. +Mars rises 4 57 mo. +Jupiter sets 7 54 eve. +Saturn in meridian 6 16 eve. +Uranus rises 10 11 eve. +Neptune in meridian 8 48 eve. + + +FIRST MAGNITUDE STARS, ETC. + H.M. +Alpheratz in meridian 6 28 mo. +Mira (var.) in meridian 8 39 eve. +Algol (var.) in meridian 9 26 eve. +7 stars (Pleiades) in merid. 10 06 eve. +Aldebaran in meridian 10 54 eve. +Capella in meridian 11 33 eve. +Rigel in meridian 11 34 eve. +Betelgeuse in meridian 0 18 mo. +Sirius rises 8 05 eve. +Procyon rises 7 40 eve. +Regulus rises 9 43 eve. +Spica rises 2 24 mo. +Arcturus rises 1 27 mo. +Antares rises 6 30 mo. +Vega sets 9 52 eve. +Altair sets 8 40 eve. +Deneb sets 1 02 mo. +Fomalhaut sets 9 16 eve. + + +MOON'S PLACE IN THE CONSTELLATIONS AT 7 P.M. + +Saturday, Cancer 26° +Sunday, Leo 9° +Monday, Leo 23° +Tuesday, Virgo 7° +Wednesday, Virgo 22° +Thursday, Libra 6° +Friday, Libra 21° + + +REMARKS. + +The sun will attain his greatest southern declination and enter the +constellation _Sagittarius_ December 21, 5h. 45m. evening, at which +time winter begins. Mars will be 5° north of the moon December 21, in +the morning. Saturn will be 90° east of the sun December 18, passing +the meridian at 6 o'clock in the evening. He is now advancing among +the stars, and will soon be again upon the equinoctial colure. Uranus +will be nearly 4° north of the moon December 15. + + * * * * * + + + + +SYMPATHETIC INKS. + + +Under the name of sympathetic inks are designated certain liquids +which, being used for writing, leave no visible traces on the paper, +but which, through the agency of heat, or by the action of chemicals, +are made to appear in various colors. The use of such means for secret +correspondence is very ancient. Ovid, Pliny, and other Roman writers +speak of an ink of this kind, which, however, was nothing more than +fresh milk. It merely sufficed to dust powdered charcoal over the +surface of the paper upon which characters had been traced with the +colorless fluid, when the black powder adhered only to those places +where the fatty matter of the milk had spread. Such a process, +however, was merely mechanical, and the results very crude. + +A great number of sympathetic inks may be obtained by means of +reactions known to chemistry. For instance, write on paper with a +colorless solution of sugar of lead; if the water that is used for the +solution be pure, no trace of the writing will remain when it becomes +dry. Now hold the paper over a jet of sulphureted hydrogen, and the +characters will immediately appear on the paper, of an intense black +color. The following recipes for inks of this kind are more simple: +If writing be executed with a dilute solution of sulphate of iron, the +invisible characters will appear of a beautiful blue, if the dry paper +be brushed over with a pencil full of a solution of yellow prussiate +of potash; or they will be black, if a solution of tannin be +substituted for the prussiate. If the characters be written with +a solution of sulphate of copper, they will at once turn blue on +exposing to the vapors of ammonia. Another sympathetic ink is afforded +by chloride of gold, which becomes of a reddish purple when acted upon +by a salt of tin. A red sympathetic ink may be made in the following +manner: Write with a very dilute solution of perchloride of iron--so +dilute, indeed, that the writing will be invisible when dry. By +holding the paper in the vapor arising from a long-necked glass +flask containing sulphuric acid and a few drops of a solution of +sulpho-cyanide of potassium, the characters will appear of a blood-red +color, which will again disappear on submitting them to the vapors of +caustic ammonia. This experiment can be repeated _ad infinitum_. + +During the war in India, some years ago, important correspondence +was carried on by the English by means of the use of rice water as a +writing fluid. On the application of iodine the dispatches immediately +appeared in blue characters. + +Sympathetic inks which are developed under the influence of heat only +are much easier to use than the foregoing. The liquids which possess +such a property are very numerous. Almost every one perhaps knows that +if writing be executed on paper with a clean quill pen dipped in onion +or turnip juice, it becomes absolutely invisible when dry; and that +when the paper is heated the writing at once makes its appearance +in characters of a brown color. All albuminoid, mucilaginous, and +saccharine vegetable juices make excellent sympathetic inks; we may +cite, as among the best, the juices of lemon, orange, apple, and pear. +A dilute solution of chloride of copper used for writing is invisible +until the paper is heated, when the letters are seen of a beautiful +yellow, disappearing again when the heat that developed them is +removed. The salts of cobalt, as the acetate, nitrate, sulphate, and +chloride, possess a like property. When a dilute solution of these +salts is used as an ink, the writing, although invisible when dry, +becomes blue when exposed to heat. The addition of chloride of iron, +or of a salt of nickel, renders them green, and this opens the way for +a very pretty experiment: If a winter landscape be drawn in India ink, +and the sky be painted with a wash of cobalt alone, and the branches +of the trees be clothed with leaves executed with a mixture of cobalt +and nickel, and the snow-clad earth be washed over with the same +mixture, a magic transformation at once takes place on the application +of heat, the winter landscape changing to a summer scene. + +There is a well known proprietary article sold in Paris under the +name of _"Encre pour les Dames"_ (ink for ladies). Hager, in a recent +scientific journal, states that this consists of an aqueous solution +of iodide of starch, and is "specially intended for love letters." In +four weeks characters written with it disappear, preventing all abuse +of letters, and doing away with all documentary evidence of any kind +in the hands of the recipient. The signers of bills of exchange who +use this ink are of course freed from all obligations in the same +length of time. + + * * * * * + + + + +NEW WIRE CLOTHING FOR BURRING CYLINDERS. + + +Heretofore two kinds of clothing for cylinders for treating fibrous +material have been employed, one consisting of a set of serrated rings +cut from sheet steel and secured to the periphery of the cylinder, and +the other consisting of flat serrated iron wire. The serrated rings, +of necessity, entail a great loss of material in their manufacture, +and the iron wire clothing is so soft that it soon wears out or +becomes dull, necessitating the reclothing or sharpening of the +cylinder. + +[Illustration: NEW WIRE CLOTHING FOR BURRING CYLINDERS.] + +Our engraving represents a new form of steel wire clothing for such +cylinders, which was recently patented by Mr. Frank P. Pendleton, of +Philadelphia, Pa. + +The improvement consists in notching or nicking the base of the teeth +or back of the wire, so as to admit of bending the wire around the +cylinders without breaking. + + * * * * * + + + + +PETROLEUM AND GOLD. + + +As one of the leading staples of American export, our petroleum wells +have been more valuable than gold mines. A recent discovery by Mr. +John Turnbridge, of Newark, N. J., indicates that in some cases +petroleum wells may be in fact, as well as in effect, real gold +mines. He says that while investigating the peculiar behavior of the +hydrocarbons and their singular quality of separating the precious +metals from aqueous solutions, assisted by constant application that +furnished evidence of the force of chemical action which could be +satisfactorily measured, there occurred to him the probability that +analogous effects might be traced in the operations of nature; more +particularly in certain geological formations peculiar to auriferous +soils. These ideas, he asserts, have been singularly verified in +subsequent research by the discovery of gold in many samples of crude +petroleum, also in the sediment or refuse of the distillation of that +substance. The attraction existing between the hydrocarbons and many +elementary bodies ought to create no surprise, especially if reference +is had to the reducing action of the hydrocarbons in contact with +metallic solutions. The procedure in the examples above referred to +consist in pouring crude petroleum on vegetable fiber or wood shavings +and firing it, collecting the ashes and making the usual fire assay. +The cupel disclosed a small pellet. After due examination with the +appropriate test it was found to be pure gold. The distillery refuse +when assayed gave $34.85 value per ton. It may be mentioned in the +last case considerable molybdenum was present, a substance resembling +plumbago. Mr. Turnbridge has no knowledge of the locality whence +these samples of crude petroleum were originally obtained. He infers, +however, that oil wells in the vicinity of auriferous deposits may +yield a larger quantity of gold than from oil wells situated +in carboniferous strata. There has been, he states, a practical +application of this discovery for the recovery of gold, applied in +cases where quicksilver has failed to be of service. + + * * * * * + + + + +REDUCTION OF NITRATE OF SILVER BY MEANS OF CHARCOAL. + + +A very simple method of reducing nitrate of silver, analagous to +that some years ago mentioned by the late Mr. Hadow, is given in the +_Archiv der Pharmacie_, by Mr. C. F. Chandler. If crystallized or +fused nitrate of silver be placed upon glowing charcoal, combustion +forthwith takes place, the silver remaining behind in a metallic +form, while nitrous oxide and carbonic acid are freely given off. The +nitrate of silver is fused by the heat developed by the reaction, +and is imbibed through the pores of the charcoal; as every atom of +consumed carbon is replaced by an atom of metallic silver, the original +form and structure of the charcoal are preserved intact in pure +silver. By proceeding in this manner it is possible to produce silver +structures of any desired size, possessing in every way the original +form of the wood. A crystal of nitrate of silver is in the first place +put upon a piece of charcoal, and a blowpipe flame is then applied in +the vicinity, in order to start the reaction in the first instance, +and as soon as combustion commences crystal after crystal may be +added as these, one after another, become consumed. The silver salt is +liquefied, and penetrates into the charcoal, where it becomes reduced. +Pieces of silver may in this way be prepared, of one or two ounces in +weight, which exhibit all the markings and rings of the original wood +to a most perfect and beautiful degree. + + * * * * * + + + + +NEW AGRICULTURAL INVENTIONS. + + +Mr. Charles E. Macarthy, of Forsyth, Ga., has patented an improved +Horse Power, designed more particularly to be located beneath a gin +house for ginning cotton, but applicable for all purposes for which a +horse power is ordinarily employed. + +An improved Corn Planter has been patented by Mr. Thomas A. Sammons, +of Lewisburg, West Va. This corn planter is designed to plant the +corn in straight rows both ways and at varying distances apart. It +is constructed upon the general principle of a reciprocating slide, +passing alternately beneath a hopper, and carrying a number of grains +from beneath the same to a discharge outlet. + +An improved machine for Cutting the Bands of Gavels or bundles of +grain, and feeding the same to the cylinder of a thrasher, has been +patented by Mr. James M. O'Neall, of Fort Worth, Texas. + +An improved Sulky Breaking Plow has been patented by Mr. Edward T. +Hunter, of Hallsville, Ill. This is an improved sulky attachment for +breaking plows, which is so constructed as to receive any ordinary +plow; it may be adjusted to cause the plow to work deeper or shallower +in the ground, and will allow the plow to be turned to either side. + +Mr. Osman C. Du Souchet, of Alexandria, Mo., has invented an improved +Check Row Corn Planter and Drill, which is so constructed that its +operating mechanism may be at all times under the control of the +driver. It will plant the corn in accurate check row, and is easily +controlled. + +An improved Thrashing Machine has been patented by Mr. Peter Parrott, +of Red Bud, Ill. This is an improvement in the class of thrashing +machines having an attachment for removing dust from the space in +front of the cylinder, and having pickers for loosening or shaking the +grain from straw delivered from the cylinder. + +An improved Corn Planter has been patented by Mr. John H. Zarley, of +Oakland, Ill. The object of this invention is to provide an efficient +and cheaply constructed corn planter, which may be drawn forward by +horses, but is arranged so that the seed valves may be operated by +hand. + +Messrs. Clayton M. Van Orman and James M. Hagenbaugh, of Athens, +Mich., have patented an improved Grain Separator, in which the +arrangement of the screens, feedboard, and blast of a fanning mill +effect the thorough removal from the grain of all impurities. Only two +screens are employed. + +An improved Churning Apparatus has been patented by Messrs. William +H. Foster and Isaac C. Roberts, of Louisburg, Kan. It is simple, +inexpensive, convenient, and effective in operation. It will bring the +butter very quickly, and at the same time gather it. + +An improved Plow has been patented by Mr. Robert B. Mitchell, of +Minneapolis, Kan. The object of this invention is to improve the +construction of sod, stirring, and other plows, so that the cutter +may be moved forward as it is worn or ground off. It prevents roots, +grass, and other trash from gathering upon the share. + +Messrs. John B. Martin and William T. Carothers, of Clarence, Mo., +have patented an improved Hay Loader capable of placing hay upon +stacks or ricks, or upon wagons. It is simple in its construction and +effective in its operation. + + * * * * * + + + + +NAPHTHA AND BENZINE. + + +We have often been asked the difference between benzine and naphtha, +many people wanting to know whether naphtha didn't include benzine, or +whether it wasn't the same thing under a marketable name. A prominent +refiner says that benzine is the first product that arises from the +process of refining crude oil, and bears the same relation to naphtha +that that distillate does to refined oil. In other words, benzine +is crude naphtha. The reason it is not quotable under the name of +benzine, therefore, is because it has to be reduced to naphtha before +it is marketable in any extensive quantity. + +The process that benzine is subject to, to produce naphtha, is not a +separate business, but is carried on by the regular oil refiners in +the same stills and retorts that the refined oil is produced. The +benzine is treated with sulphuric acid, and the result is naphtha, +which is in wide demand in Europe, especially in France, for the +purpose of producing aniline dyes, while it is also put to many other +purposes. + +This demand is partially instrumental in keeping up its price, but its +rapid evaporation also has a tendency in that direction, as any large +seller of it has to take into consideration the depreciation that +might take place by the time he sells it on that account, and for +the same reason buyers give no more orders than immediate necessity +requires. + +All refiners, however, do not produce naphtha, but some of them sell +the benzine, which is largely used for fuel purposes, for which it is +much better than coal, as it is not only absolutely cheaper, but gives +a steadier heat.--_Parker Daily_. + + * * * * * + +For joining the porcelain heads to the metal spikes used for +ornamental nails, the _Prakt. Maschinen Construct._, recommends the +use of a thick paste made of a mixture of Portland cement and glue. + + * * * * * + + + + +TO INVENTORS. + + +An experience of more than thirty years, and the preparation of not +less than one hundred thousand applications for patents at home +and abroad, enable us to understand the laws and practice on both +continents, and to possess unequaled facilities for procuring patents +everywhere. In addition to our facilities for preparing drawings and +specifications quickly, the applicant can rest assured that his case +will be filed in the Patent Office without delay. Every application, +in which the fees have been paid, is sent complete--including the +model--to the Patent Office the same day the papers are signed at our +office, or received by mail, so there is no delay in filing the case, +a complaint we often hear from other sources. Another advantage to the +inventor in securing his patent through the Scientific American Patent +Agency, it insures a special notice of the invention in the SCIENTIFIC +AMERICAN, which publication often opens negotiations for the sale of +the patent or manufacture of the article. A synopsis of the patent +laws in foreign countries may be found on another page, and persons +contemplating the securing of patents abroad are invited to write to +this office for prices, which have been reduced in accordance with +the times, and our perfected facilities for conducting the business. +Address MUNN & CO., office SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN. + + * * * * * + + + + +BUSINESS AND PERSONAL. + + * * * * * + +_The Charge for Insertion under this head is One Dollar a line for +each insertion; about eight words to a line. Advertisements must be +received at publication office as early as Thursday morning to appear +in next issue._ + + * * * * * + + +Magic Lanterns and Stereopticons of all prices. Views illustrating +every subject for public exhibitions. Profitable business for a man +with a small capital. Also lanterns for college and home amusement. 74 +page catalogue free. McAllister, Mf. Optician, 49 Nassau St., N. Y. + +Chapman Valves and Hydrants received the highest award at Mass. +Mechanics Fair. Chapman Valve Manuf. Co., Boston, Mass. + +Wanted, cheap.--2d hand Lathe Chuck to swing 17 in. Iron sheave. +Penfield Block Works, Lockport, N. Y. + +To Manufacturers.--Messrs. Bignall & Ostrander, 806-808 N. 2d St., +St. Louis, Mo., have added to their present establishment a Machinery +Department, from whence the wants of the Western machine-using public +will be supplied. Manufacturers will do well to correspond with them. + +On actual test the Eaton Sulky Plow is ahead. Manufacturers wanted to +build them. Territory for sale. Address E. C. Eaton, Pinckneyville, +Ill. + +Sir Henry Halford says Vanity Fair Smoking Tobacco has no equal. +Received highest award at Paris, 1878. + +Wanted.--Tools for the manufacture of Wagon Axles and Springs. Address +Box 66, Lambertville, N. J. + +For Sale.--Norwalk Engine, 16 x 42; little used; excellent order; very +cheap. Address Box 106, Meriden, Ct. + +H. W. Johns' Asbestos Liquid Paints contain no water. They are the +best and most economical paints in the world for general purposes, +and for wood and iron structures exposed to severe tests of climatic +changes, saltwater atmosphere, etc. They are 50 per cent more durable +than the best white lead and linseed oil. + +1,000 2d hand machines for sale. Send stamp for descriptive price +list. Forsaith & Co., Manchester, N. H. + +Florey & Smith, San Francisco, make a specialty of introducing useful +inventions in the Pacific States. + +J. C. Hoadley, Consulting Engineer and Mechanical and Scientific +Expert, Lawrence, Mass. + +Nickel Plating.--Wenzel's Patent Perforated Carbon Box Anode for +holding Grain Nickel. A. C. Wenzel, 114 Center St., New York City. + +Bolt Forging Machine & Power Hammers a specialty. Send for circulars. +Forsaith & Co., Manchester, N. H. + +For Sale.--A 6 x 6 Upright Yacht Engine, 6 H.P. Wm. F. Codd, Nantucket, +Mass. + +For Solid Wrought Iron Beams, etc., see advertisement. Address Union +Iron Mills, Pittsburgh, Pa., for lithograph, etc. + +The Lawrence Engine is the best. See ad. page 381. + +Sheet Metal Presses, Ferracute Co., Bridgeton, N. J. + +The only Engine in the market attached to boiler having cold bearings. +F. F. & A. B. Landis, Lancaster, Pa. + +Brush Electric Light.--20 lights from one machine. Latest & best +light. Telegraph Supply Co., Cleveland, O. + +The Lathes, Planers, Drills, and other Tools, new and second-hand, of +the Wood & Light Machine Company, Worcester, are to be sold out very +low by the George Place Machinery Agency, 121 Chambers St., New York. + +For the best advertising at lowest prices in Scientific, Mechanical, +and other Newspapers, write to E. N. Freshman & Bros., Advertising +Agents, 186 W. 4th St., Cin., O. + +For Town and Village use, comb'd Hand Fire Engine & Hose Carriage, +$350. Forsaith & Co., Manchester, N. H. + +Manufacturers of Improved Goods who desire to build up a lucrative +foreign trade, will do well to insert a well displayed advertisement +in the SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN Export Edition. This paper has a very large +foreign circulation. + +Brick Presses for Fire and Red Brick. Factory, 309 S. 5th St., +Philadelphia, Pa. S. P. Miller & Son. + +Punching Presses, Drop Hammers, and Dies for working Metals, etc. The +Stiles & Parker Press Co., Middletown, Conn. + +Hydraulic Presses and Jacks, new and second hand. Lathes and Machinery +for Polishing and Buffing Metals. E. Lyon & Co., 470 Grand St., N. Y. + +Nickel Plating.--A white deposit guaranteed by using our material. +Condit, Hanson & Van Winkle, Newark, N. J. English Agency, 18 Caroline +St., Birmingham. + +H. Prentiss & Co., 14 Dey St., N. Y., Manufs. Taps, Dies, Screw +Plates, Reamers, etc. Send for list. + +Diamond Engineer, J. Dickinson, 64 Nassau St., N. Y. + +Solid Emery Vulcanite Wheels--The Solid Original Emery Wheel--other +kinds imitations and inferior. Caution.--Our name is stamped in full +on all our best Standard Belting, Packing, and Hose. Buy that only. +The best is the cheapest. New York Belting and Packing Company, 37 and +38 Park Row, N. Y. + +Presses, Dies, and Tools for working Sheet Metals, etc. Fruit +and other Can Tools. Bliss & Williams, Brooklyn, N. Y., and Paris +Exposition, 1878. + +The Cameron Steam Pump mounted in Phosphor Bronze is an indestructible +machine. See advertisement. + +Wheel Press, Cotton Press, Pipe Line, and Test Mercury Gauges. T. +Shaw, 915 Ridge Ave., Philadelphia, Pa. + +The SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN Export Edition is published monthly, about the +15th of each month. Every number comprises most of the plates of the +four preceding weekly numbers of the SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN, with other +appropriate contents, business announcements etc. It forms a large and +splendid periodical of nearly one hundred quarto pages, each number +illustrated with about one hundred engravings. It is a complete record +of American progress in the arts. + +Special Planers for Jointing and Surfacing, Band and Scroll Saws, +Universal Wood-workers, etc., manufactured by Bentel, Margedant & Co., +Hamilton, Ohio. + +Boston Blower Co., Boston, Mass. Blowers, Exhaust Fans, Hot Blast +Apparatus. All parts interchangeable material and workmanship +warranted the best. Write for particulars. + +We make steel castings from ¼ to 10,000 lbs. weight 3 times as +strong as cast iron. 12,000 Crank Shafts of this steel now running +and proved superior to wrought iron. Circulars and price, list free. +Address Chester Steel Castings Co., Evelina St., Philadelphia, Pa. + +Machine Cut Brass Gear Wheels for Models, etc. (new list). Models, +experimental work, and machine work generally. D. Gilbert & Son, 212 +Chester St., Phila., Pa. + +Elevators, Freight and Passenger, Shafting, Pulley and Hangers. L. S. +Graves & Son, Rochester, N. Y. + +Holly System of Water Supply and Fire Protection for Cities and +Villages, is fully described in SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN SUPPLEMENT, No. +140. + +Howard Patent Safety Elevators. Howard Iron Works Buffalo, N. Y. + +Mellen, Williams & Co., 57 Kilby St., Boston, Mass. Wiegand Sectional +Steam Boiler. Ætna Rocking Grate Bar. + +North's Lathe Dog. 347 N. 4th St., Philadelphia, Pa. + +Self-feeding upright Drilling Machine of superior construction. Drills +holes from 1/8 to ¾ in. diameter Pratt & Whitney Co., Manufs., +Hartford, Conn. + +Wm. Sellers & Co., Phila., have introduced a new Injector, worked by a +single motion of a lever. + +For Shafts, Pulleys, or Hangers, call and see stock kept at 79 Liberty +St. Wm. Sellers & Co. + +The Turbine Wheel made by Risdon & Co., Mt. Holly N. J., gave the best +results at Centennial test. + +Wheels and Pinions, heavy and light, remarkably strong and durable. +Especially suited for sugar mills and similar work. Pittsburgh Steel +Casting Company, Pittsburgh, Pa. + + * * * * * + + + + +NOTES AND QUERIES [illus.] + + * * * * * + +(1) Detroit asks whether a boat propelled with a force of 3 miles an +hour on still water will with the same propelling force run 6 miles an +hour in a current running 3 miles an hour? A. We think so. + +(2) J. C. R asks: Which was the first railroad built in the United +States? That is, a regular, incorporated road, connecting two points, +and conveying passengers, freight, etc. A. We believe that the road +now known as the Baltimore and Ohio Railroad was the first in the +United States chartered for carrying on a general transportation +business. + +(3) J. R. E. asks how to make an ordinary sunshade for a telescope +when placed, and what kind of glass it is composed of. A. Any very +dark glass will answer, providing it is perfectly plane. It should be +placed between the eye and eyepiece. + +(4) W. H. G. S. writes: I wish to give a blue color to screw heads, +wire and steel. What shall I use? A. Heat them in a sand bath, or +apply shellac or copal varnish, to which a little Prussian blue has +been added. + +(5) T. McW. asks (1) for a good recipe for making Babbitt metal. A. +By weight, 4 parts copper, 8 parts antimony, 96 parts tin. 2. What is +meant by heating surface in boilers, and how is it computed? A. The +term heating surface, as ordinarily used, refers to the surface which +has water on one side, and flame or the products of combustion on the +other. 3. I have a peculiar kind of steel which I cannot harden by +fire and water, neither will it caseharden by prussiate of potash. +What can I do with it to harden it? A. Assuming your account to be +correct, we judge that you cannot harden it. + +(6) A. Van B. writes: A correspondent in your last issue asks how +to keep rubber belts from slipping. Mine slipped considerably, but I +checked it by throwing powdered rosin in between the belt and pulley +while running. The pulley soon becomes covered with a tough black +coating, very much like leather, and there is no more slip. [This +expedient can be used to advantage in certain cases, but it is +better to have a belt large enough to drive without using any +preparation.--ED.] + +(7) E. B. C. asks: 1. Does a more powerful battery produce better +results in telephone or microphone? A. A powerful battery is not +required for either. 2. Can you give me a short description of the +principle and construction of the aerophone? A. We think it has not +been perfected. + +(8) A. T. L. asks for a recipe for a liquid boot or shoe polish. A. +Clausen's ink is made as follows: Nutgalls, 8 parts; logwood extract, +10 parts; boil together in water, q. s., and add Castile soap, 4 +parts; glycerin, trace. Crocker's--Logwood extract, 6 ozs.; water, 1 +gallon; ivory black, 1.5 oz.; glycerin, 1 oz.; bichromate of potassa, +0.125 oz.; copperas, 0.125 oz.; boil together. Sefton's--Orange +shellac, 64 ozs.; alcohol, 4 gallons; pure asphaltum, 60 ozs.; neat's +foot oil, 1 pint; lampblack, q. s. Ovington's--Water, 1 gallon; +logwood extract, 6 ozs.; water, 1 gallon; borax, 6 ozs.; shellac, +1.5 oz.; water, 0.5 pint; bichromate of potassa, 0.375 oz. Mix the +solutions, and add 3 ozs. ammonia. Shaw's--Borax, 3 ozs.; orange +shellac, 5 ozs.; water, q. s.; boil and add soluble aniline black or +nigrosine, q. s. Rub the spots with strong aqueous solution of ferric +chloride, and dry before applying the dressing. + +(9) J. S. & R. M. write: 1. We propose putting in a steam engine of 20 +horse power, and we are informed there is an engine that weighs 2,700 +lbs., that has a balance wheel weighing 500 lbs., cylinder 10 x 10 +inches; cutting off at ¾ stroke, running at 180 to 200 revolutions +a minute, and they say that it is 20 horse at 70 lbs. steam. Will such +an engine develop 20 horse power? A. The engine would develop 20 horse +power under the above conditions, if well constructed. 2. How can +we calculate the power of an engine? A. To determine the power of +an engine, multiply the mean pressure on the piston in lbs., by the +piston speed in feet per minute, and divide the product by 33,000. + +(10) A. L. G. asks: 1. With a boiler 15 inches in diameter by 30 +inches in height, with five 1½ inch tubes 18 inches long, firebox 12 +x 12, and all made of iron plates ¼ inch thick. What is the greatest +number of pounds of steam to the square inch it will hold, and what +fraction of a horse power will it give to an engine having a cylinder +2 x 4 inches, situated 2 feet from the boiler, and connected by 40 +inches of steam pipe? A. You can carry 150 lbs. of steam, and might +develop 1 horse power. 2. What is meant by the pitch of a wheel in a +propeller, and what is the inclination of a cylinder? A. The pitch of +a propeller is the distance it would advance in the direction of its +axis at each revolution, if it worked without slip. The inclination of +a cylinder refers to the angle made by its axis with a horizontal or +vertical line. + +(11) J. H. asks: 1. Has steel been used for portable boilers? A. Yes. +2. What size boiler is required for an engine having a 3 x 4 inch +cylinder? A. Diameter, 24 inches; height, 45 inches; heating surface, +65 to 70 square feet. + +(12) J. A. M. asks: How large must an air pump be for an engine steam +cylinder 8 x 8, making 100 revolutions per minute with 90 lbs. of +steam, allowing the pump to be 4 inches stroke, double acting, to be +attached to surface condenser? A. Diameter, 3½ inches. + +(13) J. A. F. asks: 1. What shall I paint my boiler and smoke stack +with, and where can I get the paint? My engine is a thrashing engine, +and of course is out of doors during the fall of the year. A. Get +some black varnish made from petroleum, from a dealer in machinists' +supplies. 2. How shall I care for the boiler inside? A. Leave the +boiler perfectly dry, unless you can coat the interior with oil. 3. +What shall I do for the engine. Is it necessary to take the piston out +of cylinder and oil it? A. If the engine is to stand for some time, +remove the piston, coat it and the cylinder with tallow; the same for +the journals. Cover all finished parts of the engine with a mixture of +white lead and tallow. 4. I find my steam gauge does not indicate less +than 10 lbs. when boiler is cold. What is the trouble and how can it +be repaired? A. In such a case it is best to send the gauge to a maker +for repairs. + +(14) "Zebra" wishes to know the best test of the genuineness of +white lead; also the simplest way to try the comparative value of +two samples of ground white lead. Also the name of the best work to +consult upon the manufacture of Portland cement. A. See answer No. 29, +p. 283, current volume, SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN. Also pp. 102-105 Normandy +and Noad's "Commercial Analysis." The relative value of different +samples of white lead in oil is roughly judged from the weight of +a given measured quantity, the covering properties when compared on +glass with a sample of finest white lead, and the color and general +appearance of the sample. You may consult Reid's "Manufacture of +Portland Cement." + +(15) J. B. B. asks: Can I arrange an electric battery so as to heat a +platinum wire for the purpose of cutting wood? Is it practicable? A. +Two or three Bunsen cells will do it. It is impracticable save as an +experiment. + +(16) D. S. M. asks how to color butter to make it yellow, without +injuring it in any way. A. A little annotto is often used. If pure, it +is not injurious. + +(17) H. C. M. asks: What substances are there that will absorb light +during the day when exposed to light, and give it out again at night? +A. 1. Heat strontium theosulphate for fifteen minutes over a good +Bunsen gas lamp and then for 5 minutes over a blast lamp. 2. Heat +equal parts of strontium carbonate and lac Supt gently for 5 +minutes, then strongly for 25 minutes over a Bunsen lamp, and finally +5 minutes over a blast lamp. 3. Precipitate strong aqueous solution +of strontium chloride by means of sulphuric acid, dry the precipitate, +and heat it to redness for some time in a current of hydrogen, then +over a Bunsen lamp for 10 minutes, and for 20 minutes over a blast +lamp. Mix any of these with pure melted paraffin for use as a paint, +and expose for a time to sunlight. The two former yield a greenish +phosphorescence in the dark, the latter a bluish light. + +(18) Z. asks: Is the Great African Desert below the level of the sea, +and if so, could it be made into an inland sea by flooding from the +ocean? A. A considerable, though relatively small, portion of the +Sahara is below the sea level, and the flooding of the lowest portion +has been proposed. The greater part of North Africa lies at a higher +level, the exception being a chain of old lake beds or chotts on the +border of Algeria. + +(19) J. P. L. asks: How can I make a filter to cleanse rain water from +smoke as it passes from the roof to the cistern? The coal which is +burned here (bituminous) gives us a great deal of trouble in this +regard. A. The carbonaceous matters may be removed by passing the +water through a large barrel half filled with fine gravel and pounded, +freshly-burnt charcoal (free from dust), distributed in alternate +layers, each several inches deep. Over this spread a clean piece of +bagging, and fill in with fine gravel or coarse clean quartz sand for +12 inches or more. The inlet pipe should discharge at the bottom of +the barrel--the filtered water flowing from the top. + +(20) F. E. H. asks: Can percussion caps be so composed as to explode +when pierced by a sharp pointed needle? If so, of what should they be +composed? A. Such an arrangement is employed in the needle gun. The +composition may be of mercuric fulminate. + +(21) C. A. N. asks: What is the horse power of an engine 30 inches +stroke, 14 inches cylinder, 51 revolutions per minute, 60 lbs. mean +pressure in cylinder? + +A. Piston area = 153.94 square inches. Piston speed = 255 feet per +minute. Indicated horse power = + +153.94 x 60 x 255 +----------------- = 71.4 + 33,000 + +(22) P. O. asks: If I admit steam 100 lbs. pressure in a cylinder 15 +x 24 inches, and cut the steam off when piston has traveled 6 inches, +what will be the pressure at 6 inches, 12 inches, 18 inches, and 24 +inches, or just before it exhausts? A. The pressure will vary about in +the inverse ratio of the volume, so that, approximately, + +vol. of cylinder up to point of cut-off + clearance vol. +--------------------------------------------------------- +vol. of cylinder at any point of expansion + clearance vol. + + pressure above zero, at the given point. + = ---------------------------------------- + pressure above zero, at point of cut-off. + +(23) H. T. S. asks: What size should I make the holes in the side of a +fan wheel, 20 inches in diameter? Also what size should the nozzle +be? A. Allow an opening of from 17 to 20 square inches at inlet and +discharge. + +(24) E. M. D. writes: I am constructing a telephone according to +directions in SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN SUPPLEMENT No. 142, using a bar +magnet in place of horseshoe magnet and soft iron core. 1. Would it +reduce the strength of bar magnet to cut a thread on one end of it? +A. No. 2. Will a bar magnet, used in Bell telephone, lose its power to +such a degree as not to work? A. Not readily. 3. Is No. 22 copper wire +of sufficient size for a telephone line of 1,000 feet? A. Yes; but +larger would be better. + +(25) S. & Y. write: We have a pair of burrs on which we grind plaster. +The burrs are about 4 feet in diameter and 1½ foot thick. We are +running them as an over runner at this time, but wish to change them +and make the lower burr run instead of the upper. Can a pair of burrs +of the above size be run in that way, and if so, what is the maximum +speed at which they can be run? A. If properly arranged, you can +run them, after the change, as fast as is allowable for overrunning +stones. + +(26) J. J. asks: Which tire makes a wheel the strongest, 1.25 x 0.50 +inch iron, or 1.25 x 5/16 steel tire? A. The steel tire will be the +strongest, comparing good qualities of steel and iron. + +(27) E. L. W. asks: Is a ton (2,000 lbs.) of first class coke equal in +heat giving power to a ton (2,000 lbs.) of coal? If not, please +give me the relative value of coke and coal in heat giving power? +A. Calling the evaporative power of good anthracite coal 1, good +bituminous coal rates at about 0.92, and coke from 0.89 to 0.95. + +(28) J. W. S. asks what to impregnate paper with to give it an +agreeable smell while burning. A. You may try a strong ethereal or +alcoholic solution of benzoin, tolu, storax, olibanum or labdanum. +To burn well the paper should first be impregnated with an aqueous +solution of niter and dried. + +(29) M. G. asks whether hydrogen and oxygen can be produced as rapidly +and copiously in the decomposition of water by the galvanic battery as +by the action of sulphuric acid on zinc or lead in the one case, +and by heating chlorate of potassa in the other. A. Yes, with a very +powerful current. + +(30) T. G. H. asks for names of useful treatises on mechanical +movements. A. "Scientific American Reference Book," and "507 +Mechanical Movements." + +(31) R. B. T. writes: We have just set up a new engine; the cylinder +is 8 x 12, has a common slide valve. We think the valve is too short; +it is set 0.125 inch open when on center, takes steam 10 inches before +cutting off; the exhaust is very free. The engine runs about 110 +revolutions per minute. We think we could save steam by using a longer +valve, and cut-off about 5/8 stroke, and make the exhaust space in the +valve shorter, so that it will shut in a portion of the exhaust and +form a cushion for the piston. About how much of the exhaust can +we shut in without overdoing it? A. You can obtain a good action by +making the ratio of compression equal to the ratio of expansion, +with the proviso that the final cushion pressure must not exceed the +initial pressure. + +(32) D. B. L. writes: Our boiler after being repaired was tested at +110 lbs. cold water pressure. Three days after it gave out where it +was repaired at 58 lbs. steam pressure. To find the leak we put on +80 lbs. cold water pressure, and could not find it. We then put steam +pressure at 40 lbs., which made the leak very great, whereas with +cold water pressure we could find none. Can you explain it? A. The +phenomenon is probably due to the change of shape in the boiler when +heated. + +(33) F. C. writes: Our engine is a plain slide valve engine, 24 x 9, +steam following almost to end of stroke. How shall I make a valve to +cut off at ¾? Our exhaust now is 1 inch, steam ports 0.75, bridges +0.75. Length of valve 4½ inches, cavity 2-3/8, travel of valve 2 +inches. Will I have to enlarge the steam chest; the valve uses the +whole length of it now? A. As the length and travel of valve must be +increased, it will be necessary to lengthen the steam chest, unless +you can apply an independent cut-off valve. + +(34) T. P. writes: A small basement room 9 feet high is to be heated +by a furnace in an adjoining room. By carrying the hot air pipe +through the partition midway between the floor and the ceiling it will +stand at an angle of about 45°. If carried through at the top of the +room it will of course be nearer vertical. In which position of the +hot air pipe will the room be most easily heated? A. Place the hot air +pipe in the position first described. Take the cold air from a point +near the floor through a flue opening above the roof. + +(35) G. M. P. asks: What is a good and cheap substitute for salt for +raising the temperature of water to 230° Fah.? A. An oil bath is often +used instead. Chloride of calcium will answer as well as salt, though +not so cheap. + +[Illustration: Right Triangle--sides 15, 20, 25ft.] + +(36) J. D. reminds us of an old and good method of drawing a +perpendicular to a straight line for the purpose of squaring +foundations, etc. From the corner of the foundation take two lines +respectively 15 and 20 feet, and connect them by a line of 25 feet; +the angle included between the two shorter lines will be a right +angle. The numbers 3, 4, 5, or, as in the present case, their +multiples 15, 20, 25, are taken to measure respectively the +perpendicular, base, and slant side of the triangle. It is obvious +that any scale may be used so long as the ratio of 3, 4, 5, is +observed. + +(37) J. H. asks what kind of iron to use in making cast iron +armatures. A. Soft gray iron. + +(38) F. H. C. asks: How can I etch cheaply on glass to imitate ground +figures or transparent figures on a ground background? A. For this +purpose the sand blast is now generally used; the glass is covered +with a film of wax or varnish, through which, with suitable needles or +gravers, is etched the design; a fine sharp silicious sand impelled +by a current of air is then directed from a suitable jet over the +prepared surface, and the etching is accomplished in a few minutes. +Glass is etched also by hydrofluoric acid; the plate may be prepared +as for the sand blast, and placed face downwards over a shallow leaden +tray, containing powdered fluorspar moistened with strong oil of +vitriol and gently warmed; the gaseous hydrofluoric acid given off +rapidly etches the portions of the glass not protected by the wax or +varnish. Hydrofluoric acid should be used with great care. + +(39) L. H. writes: I have seen it asserted that the parasites that +infest the Asiatic tiger's paw are an exact miniature image of itself. +Is this so? A. No. + +(40) J. G. B. asks if there is any way of melting brass in a common +sand crucible for castings of a pound or so in weight for a small +engine. A. You may melt small quantities of brass in any common stove +having a good draught, using a coal fire. You may use borax as a flux. + +(41) F. & Co. ask: 1. In making a telephone as described in Figs. 4 +and 5, SUPPLEMENT 142, must the diaphragm be entirely free, or can it +be punched and the screws which secure the flange pass through it? A. +The diaphragm should not be punched. 2. In new form of telephone in No +20, current volume, must there be a battery in the circuit, or is the +telephone sufficient to work it? A. A battery is required. + +(42) J. M. B. asks: What will prevent the hair from falling out? A. +Keep the pores of the skin open by frequent bathing and change of +underclothing. Bathe the head with clean soft water, and stimulate +the scalp with a moderately stiff brush morning and evening. The head +should be occasionally cleansed with a weak solution of glycerin soap +in dilute spirit of wine, with care to remove all traces of soap from +the hair. Use no pomades or oils of any kind. + +(43) B. H. P. asks (1) how to make malleable iron, such as used in +wrenches. A. Malleable iron castings are made from mottled iron. They +are cleaned by tumbling and then packed in iron boxes with alternating +layers of rolling mill scale. The boxes are carefully luted and packed +in an annealing furnace, where they are kept at a white heat for a +week or more, and then allowed to cool gradually. 2. How is steel +or iron made to adhere to the face of the jaws of the wrench? A. By +welding. + +(44) J. G. E. asks: What is the highest column of water that can +be raised from a well by means of a siphon pump with 60 lbs. steam, +likewise a 1 inch column of water with 60 lbs. steam? A. Lift, from 26 +to 27 feet. + +(45) W. H. W. asks: 1. Is there any solution excepting rubber that +will make cloth thoroughly waterproof, or at least withstand the +attack of water for an hour or so? It should be applied by dipping +the cloth in the solution. A. Linseed oil boiled with a little wax and +litharge is useful for some purposes. Cloth prepared with paraffin, +balata gum, the gum of the asclet pias or milkweed, naphtha solution +of the dried pulp of the bamboo berry, anhydrous aluminum soaps (see +pp. 149 and 159, "Science Record," 1874), are also employed. 2. Is +there any chemical that could be combined with the solution, imparting +some property to the same for which rats or mice would have an +antipathy so as to prevent their attacks? A. A trace of phenol will +generally suffice. + +(46) J. L. asks: Is the balata gum softened by animal oils or fat? A. +Yes. + +(47) P. L. W. asks. What distance would a 100 lb. weight have to fall +to run a sewing machine for 5 hours? A. For an ordinary family sewing +machine, requiring about one thirtieth of a horse power, the weight +would have to fall about 3,300 feet in the 5 hours. + +(48) W. G. R. asks: 1. What is the valve yoke of a steam engine? A. +We presume you refer to the rectangular yoke that receives the back +of the valve in the class of engines having balanced valves. 2. What +should be the diameter of the bore of an engine of 1 horse power with +100 lbs. pressure, also the length of stroke? A. Diameter, 2¾ inches; +stroke, 4½ inches. 3. How are the back gears of a lathe made so as +to be thrown out of gear when it is wished to use the lathe at a high +speed? A. Ordinarily by a cam and lever, or tight and loose joint. 4. +Would 1/64 of an inch thickness of sheet steel be strong enough for +the boiler of a small model locomotive? How much pressure would it +stand to the inch? A. If the diameter does not exceed 3 inches, you +can carry a pressure of from 50 to 60 lbs. per square inch. + +(49) J. W. W. asks: Which will stand the most pressure, a piece of +round iron 1 inch long and 1 inch in diameter, or a piece of gas pipe +the same dimensions, both being set upon end? A. The round iron. + +(50) W. M. B. writes: 1. I have one eighth inch basswood, cherry, +butternut and walnut. Which do you advise for the sounding board of a +microphone and Hughes telephone? A. Either will do, but pine or spruce +is better. 2. Would a glazed earthen jar do for the outside of battery +described in SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN SUPPLEMENT, No. 149? A. Yes. 3. Could +I make insulated wire myself? If so, how? A. Wire may be insulated by +giving it a coat of shellac varnish and allowing it to become dry and +nearly hard before winding. + +(51) W. H. S. asks how to satin finish tubing like sample sent. A. The +specimen has been electro-plated with silver in the usual manner, +and the electric current then reversed for a few moments, thus +redissolving a portion of the plate, the remainder presenting the +peculiar satin like luster. + +(52) S. W. C. asks: Has carbon for telephone purposes ever been made +by subjecting the black deposited by a flame to a heavy pressure? A. +Yes. Edison's carbons are made in this manner. + +(53) "Hardware" asks: 1. Where is best to take hot air in a room, at +register near ceiling or in floor? A. At or near the floor. 2. Where +is best place to have ventilation, near floor or near ceiling? A. +If connected with a flue having a good draught it should be near the +floor. + +(54) R. W. J. asks: What causes the cracking noise in the pipes of a +steam heating apparatus, when a fire has been started to warm up the +building? Is it the water in the pipes made by condensed steam, or is +it the expansion of the pipes from being heated? A. The noise is due +to both causes in some degree, but principally to the water, which +produces violent blows. + +(55) C. N. A. asks how to temper steel tools for working on stone or +similar work. There is some preparation which is put in water which +accomplishes the purpose when the steel is heated and plunged in. A. +Heat the tools to a cherry red, and plunge in clean, moderately cool +water. A little common salt is sometimes added to the water. + +(56) G. B. asks: 1. Is the height to which water is raised by a +hydraulic ram measured from the ram itself or from the spring from +which the supply comes? A. From the ram. 2. Can a hydraulic ram be +constructed to discharge 1,000 gallons of water per minute? A. Yes. + +(57) L. D. writes that benzine will answer much better to exterminate +roaches, moths, etc., than anything else. It will not hurt furniture +in the least, will evaporate, and can be easily applied. + + + + +MINERALS, ETC.--Specimens have been received from the following +correspondents, and examined, with the results stated: + + +M. B. W.--No. 1 is a silicious clay--it might be useful in the +manufacture of some grades of pottery, etc. No. 2 is a ferruginous +shale--contains about 80 per cent. of silica and 10 per cent. of +alumina, besides lime, magnesia, iron oxide, and water.--W. S.--It is +fibrous talc--talc of good quality is in considerable demand for paper +making and other purposes.--W. G. H.--The sand contains no precious +metal--the glittering particles are mica.--S. F.--The specimen you +send consists of a mass of the long hairs which have been attached +to the seeds of the "milkweed" (_asclepias_), or, as it is sometimes +called, from the silky nature of these appendages, "silkweed." We +believe that this material is put to no other economic use at present +than that of a filling for cushions and pillows. The beauty of this +silk like down long ago attracted attention, and many unsuccessful +attempts have been made to put it to some practical use in the arts; +but, as you have probably noticed, the hairs are both brittle and +weak, and an examination with a lens will show that it wants the +roughness and angularity necessary to fit it for being spun like other +fibers. It has, however, been mixed with cotton and woven into fabrics +having a silky luster and capable of taking brilliant dyes, but the +manufacture has never been prosecuted. The plants, though widely +distributed over the United States, and quite common, are nevertheless +not abundant enough in a wild state to afford much of a supply, and we +believe no experiments have been made in cultivating them. + + * * * * * + +Any numbers of the SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN SUPPLEMENT referred to in these +columns may be had at this office. Price 10 cents each. + + * * * * * + + + + +COMMUNICATIONS RECEIVED. + + +The Editor of the SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN acknowledges with much pleasure +the receipt of original papers and contributions on the following +subjects: + +Manufacture of Porous Cups for Tyndall Grove Battery. By W. H. S. + +Cylinder Condensation. By F. F. H. + +Sawdust. By W. H. M. + +Keely Motor. By G. R. S. + +Firing. By A. P. A. + +Steam Launches. By G. F. S. + + * * * * * + + + + +HINTS TO CORRESPONDENTS. + + +We renew our request that correspondents, in referring to former +answers or articles, will be kind enough to name the date of the paper +and the page, or the number of the question. + +Many of our correspondents make inquiries which cannot properly be +answered in these columns. Such inquiries, if signed by initials only, +are liable to be cast into the waste basket. + +Persons desiring special information which is purely of a personal +character, and not of general interest, should remit from $1 to $5, +according to the subject, as we cannot be expected to spend time and +labor to obtain such information without remuneration. + + * * * * * + + + + +English Patents Issued to Americans. From November 8 to November 12, +inclusive. Electric light.--T. A. Edison, Menlo Park, N. J. Feed water +apparatus.--S. J. Hayes et al.,-------. + + +Pipe, manufacture of.--W. Radde, N. Y. city. + +Potato digger.--L. A. Aspinwall, Albany, N. Y. + +Refrigerator.--J. A. Whitney, N. Y. city. + +Screw cutting machinery.--C. D. Rogers, Providence, R. I. + +Sewing machine.--Wilson Sewing Machine Company, Chicago, Ill. + +Wire machinery.--C. D. Rogers, Providence, R. I. + + * * * * * + + + + +[OFFICIAL.] + +INDEX OF INVENTIONS + +FOR WHICH + +Letters Patent of the United States were + +Granted in the Week Ending + +October 15, 1878, + +AND EACH BEARING THAT DATE. + +[Those marked (r) are reissued patents.] + + * * * * * + + +A complete copy of any patent in the annexed list, including both the +specifications and drawings, will be furnished from this office for +one dollar. In ordering, please state the number and date of the +patent desired, and remit to Munn & Co., 37 Park Row, New York city. + + * * * * * + + +Animal trap, B. H. Noelting 209,068 +Axle box, car, J. N. Smith 208,993 +Axle skein, vehicle, L. A. Winchester 209,096 +Ballot box, W. L. Barnes 208,951 +Bed bottom, F. W. Mitchell 208,917 +Bed bottom, spring, H. Pitcher 208,987 +Bed lounge, H. S. Carter 209,019 +Bed, spring, A. J. Lattin 208,979 +Bedstead fastening, L. P. Clark 209,022 +Boilers, low water alarm for steam, G. H. Crosby 208,962 +Boot and shoe counter support, etc., J. Wissen 208,943 +Bootjack, C. Tyson 209,091 +Brake, vacuum, F. W. Eames 208,895 +Bran scourer, R. Tyson 209,092 +Broom, M. T. Boult 209,017 +Brush, A. C. Estabrook 208,898 +Camera, J. W. T. Cadett 208,956 +Can, E. Norton 209,070 +Can, metallic, J. Broughton 209,009 +Can, oil, A. E. Gardner 209,037 +Can, sheet metal, A. N. Lapierre 209,060 +Car bumper, S. M. Cummings (r) 8,448 +Car coupling, J. Simmons 208,934 +Car draw bar attachment, railway, J. H. Smitt 208,994 +Car journal box, F. M. Alexander 208,947 +Car running gear, railway, J. C. Weaver 209,093 +Cars, dust deflector for, Morgan & Gilleland 209,066 +Carbureter, air, G. Reznor 209,076 +Carriage, C. H. Palmer, Jr. 208,923 +Carriage seats, corner iron for, L. Emerson 208,971 +Carriage top standard, F. W. Whitney 209,097 +Cartridge loading machine, G. S. Slocum 208,935 +Cartridges, machine for gauging, J. H. Gill 208,903 +Casting andirons, mould for, S. E. Jones 209,054 +Casting temple rollers, mould for, J. B. Stamour 208,997 +Chair for children, high, J. Nichols (r) 8,454 +Chair, reclining, N. N. Horton 208,907 +Chalk, sharpener for tailor's, J. Butcher 208,955 +Churn, J. H. Folliott 209,033 +Churn, reciprocating, L. B. Wilson 208,941 +Clasp, T. P. Taylor 208,998 +Clock striking attachment, D. C. Wolf 209,098 +Cock, steam, G. H. Crosby 208,961 +Coin holder, C. H. Carpenter 208,958 +Coin holder, B. McGovern 208,984 +Coin measure, C. H. Fuller 208,902 +Coke oven, W. H. Rosewarne 208,930 +Combing machine, Rushton & Macqueen 208,991 +Cooler and filter, water, J. C. Jewett 208,909 +Cooler, water, G. W. Malpass 208,913 +Cotton gin, J. B. Hull 209,049 +Crucible machine, J. C. Clime 208,960 +Cultivator, J. C. Bean 209,005 +Cultivator, B. H. Cross 208,964 +Cultivator, C. Nash 208,921 +Dental foil package, R. S. Williams 209,002 +Dental plugger, W. G. A. Bonwill 209,006 +Desk, H. E. Moon 208,919 +Doffer combs, operator for, E. Wright 208,946 +Draught equalizer, L. O. Brekke 209,007 +Dredging machine, J. B. Eads 208,894 +Drill cleaner, grain, J. W. Lucas 208,982 +Dummy, H. H. Baker 208,881 +Ear ring, W. P. Dolloff 208,968 +Electric machine, dynamo, E. Weston 209,094 +Elevator, windlass water, J. Knipscheer 209,057 +End gate fastening, F. Rock 208,928 +Evaporator, fruit and vegetable, J. W. Powers 208,925 +Excavating machine, J. T. Dougine 208,893 +Exercising machine, W. J. O. Bryon, Jr. 208,954 +Exhaust nozzle, N. J. White 208,939 +Fabric cutter, Muehling & Davis 208,920 +Feathers for dusters, G. M. Richmond 209,080 +Fence, J. Williams 209,095 +Fence, picket, Terry & W. W. Green, Jr. 209,089 +Firearm, breech-loading, H. C. Bull 209,010 +Firearm, breech-loading, J. D. Coon 208,889 +Fire escape, V. Wohlmann 208,944 +Firekindler, T. M. Benner 208,882 +Firekindler, E. J. Norris 209,069 +Fluting machine, C. G. Cabell (r) 8,453 +Fork, W. H. Kretsinger 209,058 +Fuel compressor, W. H. Rosewarne 208,929 +Gas burner, pressure governing, J. N. Chamberlain 209,021 +Gas burners, apparatus for, A. L. Bogart 209,016 +Gate, C. D. & I. Haldeman 209,040 +Gate, J. S. Henshaw 208,976 +Gate, Nason & Wilson (r) 8,456 +Grain binder, M. A. Keller 209,059 +Grain separator, G. W. Earhart 208,896 +Gun, air, B. T. Babbitt 209,014 +Harness, neck yoke attachment for, J. S. Nelson 208,922 +Harrow, sulky, S. C. Dix 209,028 +Harvester rake, J. Barnes 208,950 +Harvester reel, Hodges & Mohler 209,047 +Head light, locomotive, E. L. Hall 209,041 +Heels, turner for wooden, Prenot & Marchal 208,989 +Hide and skin dresser, C. Molinier 208,918 +Hitching post, Thomas & Knox 209,090 +Hoe. T. Weiss 209,000 +Hog cholera compound, M. Hemmingway 208,975 +Horse collar, J. J. Crowley 209,025 +Horse power, C. H. Baker 208,948 +Horsepower, A. B. Farquhar 209,032 +Horse toe weight, J. W. Bopp 208,927 +Ice, manufacturing, A. Albertson (r) 8,455 +Indicator, water level, E. Jerome 209,052 +Journal, R. Macdonald 208,983 +Journal bearing, W. W. Smalley 209,084 +Knife, chopping, W. Millspaugh 209,065 +Knob attachment, door, J. F. Peacock 208,924 +Lamp holder, A. A. Noyes 209,071 +Lamp bowl, F. Rhind 209,077 +Lamp chimney, nursery, E. Mecier 208,916 +Lamp, miner's, W. Roberts 209,082 +Lamp, self-extinguishing, F. Rhind 209,078 +Lantern, J. H. Irwin 209,051 +Lantern, signal. H. E. Pond (r) 8,457 +Latch, B. W. Foster 209,034 +Lathe for turning regular forms, E. A. Marsh 209,064 +Lead, refining, impure, N. S. Keith 209,056 +Leather skiving machine, M. M. Clough 208,959 +Leather splitting machine, A. E. Whitney 209,001 +Loom temple, J. B. Stamour 209,101 +Lubricator, N. Seibert 208,932 +Lubricator, steam cylinder, N. Seibert 208,931 +Marble, slate, etc., ornamenting, W. K. Lorenz 209,062 +Match dipping machine, A. R. Sprout 208,996 +Meter, steam diaphragm, C. Holly 209,048 +Middlings bolt, M. Inskeep 209,050 +Middlings separator, G. T. Smith. 208,936 +Musical instrument, E. P. Needham (r) 8,451 +Musical string instruments, key for, F. Z. Nicolier 208,985 +Needle, J. Burrows 209,018 +Oat meal machine, Eberhard & Turner 208,970 +Ordnance, operating heavy, H. C. Bull 209,011 +Ore separator, P. Plant 209,074 +Oven, hot blast, Miles & Burghardt 208,915 +Package wrapper, G. V. Hecker 209,044 +Packing for piston rods, metallic, M. H. Gerry 208,973 +Pan cover, milk, C. C. Fairlamb 208,900 +Paper feeding apparatus, F. H. Lauten 208,980 +Paper making machines, box for, C. Young 209,003 +Paper pulp, reducing wood to, Cornell & Tollner 208,890 +Peach parer, W. S. Plummer 208,988 +Pen, puncturing, J. M. Griest 208,905 +Pessary, medicated, T. N. Berlin 208,883 +Pipe, smoking, W. H. Caddy 208,886 +Planter, corn, Brigham & Flenniken 208,885 +Planter, grain, C. E. McBonn 208,914 +Planter, seed, G. A. Woods 208,945 +Plaster bandages, making, C. G. Hill 209,045 +Plow, C. Myers 209,067 +Plow and harrow attachment, shovel, A. Heartsill 209,043 +Plow and harrow, W. G. Himrod 209,046 +Plow clevis, H. Estes 208,899 +Plow, hillside, shovel, and subsoil, E. Tate 209,088 +Plow, sulky, F. H. Isaacs 208,978 +Press, cotton and hay, Tappey & Steel 209,087 +Printing and painting machine, O. Currier 208,892 +Printing, photo-mechanical, M. R. Freeman 209,036 +Propelling vessels, P. Boisset 208,952 +Pulleys to wheels, engaging, Blake & Davis 208,884 +Pump, S. Stucky 209,086 +Pump, double acting lift, Dean & Pike 209,027 +Rafter, F. M. Covert 209,024 +Railway rails, muffling, A. Atwood 208,880 +Railway signal, C. E. Hanscom 209,042 +Railway signal, electro-magnetic, H. W. Spang 208,995 +Railway track, B. F. Card 208,957 +Rake, horse hay, W. Adriance 209,004 +Rolling mills, bearing for, S. W. Baldwin 208,949 +Roofs, attaching slates to, S. Farquhar 209,031 +Rope holding reel, C. N. Cass 209,020 +Rosettes from wood, making, J. H. Burnshow 239,012 +Seal, baggage, E. J. Brooks 208,953 +Seal, metallic, E. J. Brooks 209,008 +Seeding machine, S. O. Campbell 208,887 +Sewing machine, C. S. Cushman 209,026 +Sewing machine, J. A. Davis 208,967 +Sewing machine, L. Evans 209,030 +Sewing machine, book, J. S. Lever 209,061 +Sewing machine, hem stitching, J. A. Lakin 208,911 +Sewing machine tuck marker, G. Rehfuss 209,075 +Shaft and pulley coupling, H. C. Crowell 208,965 +Shears, metal, W. G. Collins 208,888 +Ships unloading grain from W. Stanton (r) 8,452 +Shoe, J. F. Emerson 208,897 +Shutter bower, T. Thorn 208,937 +Shutter worker, W. Jones 209,055 +Sign, W. Gulden 208,974 +Sinks, measuring and weighing, D. T. Winter 208,942 +Sled, stone and log, W. Gregg 209,039 +Sleigh, propeller, R. Schluter 209,083 +Spittoon, T. Loughran 208,981 +Spring, car, G. F. Godley 208,904 +Spring, vehicle, E. Chamberlin (r) 8,449, 8,450 +Spring, vehicle, C. W. Fillmore 208,901 +Spring, vehicle, H. R. Huie 208,977 +Steamer, feed, Machamer & McCulloch 209,063 +Stirrup, saddle, J. M. Freeman 208,972 +Stove board, A. C. Stoessiger 209,085 +Stove cover and check damper, H. Ritter 209,081 +Stove pipe shelf, L. W. Turner 208,938 +Stoves, foot bar and rail for, J. Jewett 209,053 +Stoves, hood for cooking, S. Cromer 208,891 +Stump puller. W. A. Webb 208,999 +Sugar, manufacture of hard, J. O. Donner 209,029 +Switch cords, tip for, T. B. Doolittle 208,969 +Table folding, R. M. Lambie 208,912 +Tablet, writing, W. O. Davis 208,966 +Target, W. Kuhn 208,910 +Ticket, passenger, A. C. Sheldon 208,933 +Ticket-reel. T. D. Haehnlen 208,906 +Toy money box J. Gerard 209,038 +Treadle power, I. M. Rhodes 209,079 +Turbines, steam and other, P. C. Humblot 208,908 +Valve, J. Patterson 208,986 +Valve, feed water regulating, E. C. Da Silva 208,992 +Valve gear, steam engine, J. Butcher 209,013 +Ventilator, T. Owens 209,072 +Wagon jack, W. B. Bartram 209,015 +Wagon jack, Williams & Dodge 208,940 +Washing machine, D. Coman 209,023 +Washing machine, A. R. Fowler 209,035 +Washing machine, F. F. Reynolds 208,990 +Water gauge, G. H. Crosby 208,963 +Weighing apparatus, J. H. Wright 209,099 +Window, A. K. Phillips 209,073 +Window frame, C. Rebhun 208,926 +Wreaths, machine for twining, G. B. Shepard 209,100 + + +TRADE MARKS. + +Cigars, cigarettes, etc., E. Hilson 6,726 +Cigars, etc., Engelbrecht Fox & Co. 6,724, 6,725 +Disinfecting compound, Hance Bros. & White 6,718 +Gin, Hoffheimer Brothers 6,729 +Lamp chimneys, Norcross, Mellen & Co. 6,730 +Liquid cements. W. H. Sanger 6,731 +Malt extract, Tarrant & Co. 6,722 +Matches, J. Eaton & Son 6,727 +Mustard and spices, H. B. Sherman 6,720, 6,721 +Perfumery, J. T. Lanman 6,719 +Playing cards, The N. Y. Consolidated Card Co. 6,723 +Smoking tobacco, H. W. Meyer 6,728 +Wash blue, F. Damcke 6,711 + + +DESIGNS. + +Carpet, C. Magee 10,870 +Cigar boxes, Weller & Repetti 10,871 +Font of printing types, J. M. Conner 10,868 +Group of statuary, J. Rogers 10,869 +Handkerchiefs, J. Grimshaw 10,866, 10,867 + + * * * * * + + +THE SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN + +EXPORT EDITION. + + * * * * * + + +PUBLISHED MONTHLY. + + * * * * * + + +THE SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN Export Edition is a large and SPLENDID +PERIODICAL, issued once a month, forming a complete and interesting +Monthly Record of all Progress in Science and the Useful Arts +throughout the World. Each number contains about ONE HUNDRED LARGE +QUARTO PAGES, profusely illustrated, embracing: + +(1.) Most of the plates and pages of the four preceding weekly issues +of the SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN, with its SPLENDID ENGRAVINGS AND VALUABLE +INFORMATION. + +(2.) Prices Current, Commercial, Trade, and Manufacturing +Announcements of Leading Houses. In connection with these +Announcements many of the Principal Articles of American Manufacture +are exhibited to the eye of the reader by means of SPLENDID +ENGRAVINGS. + +This is by far the most satisfactory and superior Export Journal ever +brought before the public. + +Terms for Export Edition, FIVE DOLLARS A YEAR, sent prepaid to any +part of the world. Single copies, 50 cents. For sale at this office. +To be had at all News and Book Stores throughout the country. + + * * * * * + + +NOW READY. + +THE SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN EXPORT +EDITION FOR NOVEMBER, 1878, WITH +ONE HUNDRED ILLUSTRATIONS. +GENERAL TABLE OF CONTENTS +Of the SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN Export Edition for November, +1878. + + +I.--INVENTIONS, DISCOVERIES AND PATENTS. + + The Incoming Commissioner of Patents. + A South Australian Offer for an Improvement. + The Forster-Firmin Amalgamator. Three engravings. + Lyman's Trigonometer. One figure. + Patent Law. + The Benefits of Patent Rights. + Hop Picking by Machinery. + Description of Recent Most Important Agricultural Inventions. + Displays of Ingenuity at the Boston Mechanics Fair. + Description of Recent Most Important Mechanical Inventions. + New Wilson Oscillating Sewing Machine. Seven figs. + A Nail Gun. + Who will Invent a Satisfactory Milking Machine? + The Hermetical Sanitary Closet. One engraving. + New Refrigerator Basket. Two engravings. + New Fireproof Shutter. One engraving. + Inventors Needed in England. + New Foot Power. One engraving. + New Wool Scouring and Rinsing Machine. One eng. + New Measuring Jacket. Three engravings. + New Rheostat. Two engravings. + The Paris International Patent Congress. + Patent Rights, and Who Oppose Them. + New Gas Regulator. Three engravings. + Combined Traction Engine and Steam Fire Engine. One engraving. + Van Renne's Caloric Engine and Pump. Three engs. + The Watson Pump. One engraving. + The Swedish Buckeye Machine. + Pipe Wrench and Cutter. Two engravings. + Drilling Square Holes. Four figures. + Description of Recent Most Important Engineering Inventions. + New Mortising Machine. One engraving. + New Steam Fire Engine. One engraving. + New Bank Note Paper Wanted. + The Proposed Addition to the Patent Office. Two engravings. + A Year's Work in the Patent Office. + New Rule in Trade Mark Cases. + Electric Light in Chancery. + Novel Egg Opener. Two engravings. + Patents for Protecting the Dead. + Electric Light Patents. + A New Platen Gauge. Four engravings. + New Draughting Pencil. Two engravings. + Gas and Water-tight Cloth. + New Regulator for Clock Pendulums. Two engs. + Steam Engine Governor. One engraving. + Description of Recent Most Important Miscellaneous Inventions. + Notices of New Inventions. + Patent Office Library. + + +II.--MECHANICS AND ENGINEERING. + Chard's Lubricene and Cups. + The Electric Light and the Gas Companies. + Fuel Gas. + New Ways to Use Iron Wanted. + Progress and Prospects of the East River Bridge. Two engravings. + A Steam Tricycle. + New Artesian Well, Victoria, Spain. + A Long Train. + How a Good House Should be Built. + Jetties Under Water. + How the Capitol at Albany, N. Y., is to be Warmed and Ventilated. + What a Perfect Railway Brake Should do. + The Secret of It. + Florida Ship Canal. + The Torpedo Vessel Destroyer. One illustration. + Steam from Petroleum. + The Motion of a Wagon Wheel. + Building in Steel. + Locomotive for the Metropolitan Elevated Railway. One illustration. + The French Dam Below Pittsburg, Ohio. + The Adelphi Explosion. + "Forney" Locomotive for the New York Elevated Railway. One large engraving. + The Steam Value of Oil Fuels. + The Mechanical and other Properties of Iron and Mild Steel. + French Wheelbarrows. Twenty-five engravings. + Small Steamboats. + Life Preservers. + A Gas Clock. + Another Mountain Railway. + Preservation of Iron. + The Salisbury Furnace for Petroleum. + Danger from Lubricating Oils. + The Testing of Boiler Iron. + Tramway Rail Experiments. Two engravings. + Aluminum and Platinum in the Manufacture of Watches. + Great Machine Tool Makers. + Gas as a Substitute for Solid Fuel. + + +III.--MINING AND METALLURGY. + + The Formation of Quartz. + Depth of Nevada Gold and Silver Mines. + California Mining vs. Farming. + New Form of Iron Manufacture. + Comstock Silver Lodes. + + +IV.--CHEMISTRY AND PHYSICS. + + Dangers from Impure Potassium Iodide. + The Poplar as a Lightning Conductor. + The Mariner's Compass. + Crude Sulphur from Iron Pyrites. + Antimony for Batteries. + Delicate Test for Water. + The Polarization of Electrodes. + Fragarine. + Balata Gum. + Astronomical Notes. Giving the Positions, Rising, + and Setting of the Planets for November. + Professor Morton on the Electric Light. + The Electrical Department in the Mechanic's Fair, Boston. + The Satellites of Mars. + Gold Amalgams. + Another New Electric Light. + Albumen of the Serum and that of Egg, and their Combinations. + A Mirror Telegraph. + Some Modifications of the Microphone and Telephone. Four engravings. + A Chance for Electric Competition. + Advantages of Experimental Study. + The Black Spot of Jupiter. + The Electric Light. With five engravings. + Spontaneous Combustion. + Recent Military Balloon Experiments. + Burner for Electric Light. One engraving. + Artificial Ball Lightning. One engraving. + To Make Corks Air-tight and Water-tight. + Electric Time Service for New York. Four engravings. + The Hosmer Motor. + Polarized Light. + Phosphorescent Timepieces. + The De Meritens Magneto-electric Machine. Two figures. + Cellulose as a Material for Washers. + + +V.--NATURAL HISTORY, NATURE, MAN, ETC. + + The Golden Cup Oak. + Serpulas, or Sea Worms. One engraving. + The King Tody Bird. One engraving. + Life Without Air. + Cadaver-poison of the Australian Natives. + The Contortion of Rocks from Heat Mechanically Generated. + The Stiffening of Plant Stalks. + Immense Labor Performed by Bees. + The Torrey Botanical Club. + The Big Trees of California. + Explorations in Greenland. + The Umbrella Bird. One engraving. + The Argan Tree. + A Spruce-destroying Beetle. + A Geological Discovery in Deep Water. + The Mound Builder's Unit of Measure. + Progress of Horticulture. + Bishop Ferrette on the Cedars of Lebanon. + Special Senses in Insects. + Natural History Notes. + New Cave Discovery in Kentucky. + Longevity of the Horse. + Left-handedness. + Bee Culture in Egypt. + The Poison Ivy and Virginia Creeper. Two engravings. + The Crafty Hermit Crab. One illustration. + + +VI.--MEDICINE AND HYGIENE. + + Nitrate of Amyl in Sea Sickness. + Milk cure for Lead Colic. + Milkweed Juice for Raw Surfaces. + The Use of Snails in Medicine. + The Art of Prolonging Life. + The Deleterious Use of Alum in Bread and Baking + Powders.--Alum being Substituted for Cream of Tartar. + The Treatment of Hydrophobia. + New Use for Warts. + Removal of the Entire Scalp by Machinery. + The Probable Starting Point of the Yellow Fever. + Piedra. + Heredity. + Scientific Reliance on Soap. + The Medical Ice Hat. + Ventilation of Bed Rooms. + The Filtration of Drinking Water. + The Texas "Screw Worm." + + +VII.--THE PARIS EXHIBITION, SCIENTIFIC MEETINGS, ETC. + + Success of American Exhibitors at Paris. + The Main Building at the Exhibition. With one full page illustration. + The French Industrial Exhibition of 1878. + Awards and Honors at Paris. + Ingram Rotary Press. One illustration. + A Grand World's Fair in New York. + A Mexican Exhibition. + Australia to have a World's Fair. + Closing of the French Exhibition. + Hydraulic Motors at the Exhibition. With two engravings. + The National Academy of Sciences. + The Official Reports of the Paris Exhibition. + American Society of Civil Engineers. + + +VIII.--INDUSTRY AND COMMERCE. + + Should the Nation Engage in Manufactures? + American Export of Agricultural Machinery. + Corundum. + American Made Goods Exhibited as European Manufactures. + The California Tea Fields. + An Odd Craft. + Progress of our Foreign Trade. + The Condition of Manufacturing Interests in Germany. + Labor in Chicago. + Apples for Europe. + Adulterated Graham Flour. + Addition to our List of Food Fishes. + Preservation of Milk. + Electrical Test for Oils. + Parsnips. + Russian Pottery. Two engravings. + Notes from the South.--Facts about the Cotton Worm. + The Mediterranean Trade. + American Competition in Great Britain. + Rapid Increase in French Woolen Industries. + The Rockport Granite Quarries. + Trade Mark Treaty with Brazil. + Early Manufacture of Steel Pens. + New and Stale Bread. + Leather from Sheep Stomachs. + New Source of Rubber. + A National Law Governing Adulteration Needed. + How to get Pure Teas. + Skilled Labor in New York City. + French Subsoil and Clearing Plow. One figure. + Opening for Trade in Madagascar. + Handling Grain in Buffalo. + The Blue Process of Copying Tracings. + We Buy of them that Advertise. + Unprofitable Agents. + Various Uses of Paper. + Improved Grinding Mill and Crusher. Two engravings. + The Cultivation of the Common Nettle. + The Economic Products of Seaweed. + The Japanese Wax Tree in California. + Preservation of Food by Gelatin. + Pearl Millet. + To Turn Oak Black. + Dairy and Poultry Produce in America. + Australian Gum Trees. + Frauds in Wine Making. + Removal of Iron Coloring from Liquors. + The Utilization of Iron Slag. + Relative Cost of Coal Transportation by Water and by Rail. + How to get Rid of Ants. + The Science of Milling. + + +IX.--PRACTICAL RECIPES AND MISCELLANEOUS. + + Progress in England and America. + An Improvement on Tea Chromos. + A Correction. + The Stability of Modern Civilization. + Future Rifle Shooting. + "Bruce," the Manchester Fire Horse. + The Trial of the "Pyx." + Early Gold Payments. + Workingmen in England and France. + Washington Memorials in Northamptonshire. Three engravings. + Culinary Uses of Leaves. + A Remarkable Bank Robbery.--Scientific Safeguards Neglected. + Cleopatra's Needle. + A Steam Juryman. + Roads in Baden. + Indications of Progress. + Practical Education in Russia. + Table Forks. + The Cost of Insecurity. + Improved Copying Pencils. + + +Answers to Correspondents, embodying a large quantity of valuable +information, practical recipes, and instructions in various arts. + + +Single numbers of the _Scientific American Export Edition_, 50 cents. +To be had at this office, and at all news stores. Subscriptions, _Five +Dollars a year_; sent postpaid to all parts of the world. + +MUNN & CO., PUBLISHERS, +37 PARK Row, NEW YORK. + + +To Advertisers:-->Manufacturers and others who desire to secure +foreign trade may have large and handsomely displayed announcements +published in this edition at a very moderate cost. + +The Scientific American Export Edition has a large guaranteed +circulation in all commercial places throughout the world. Regular +Files of the Export Edition are also carried on ALL STEAMSHIPS, +foreign and coastwise, leaving the port of New York. Address MUNN & +CO., 37 Park Row, New York. + + * * * * * + + + + +STRONG AND CHEAP SPAR BRIDGES. + + +General description, dimensions, and particulars, with 2 pages of +drawings, covering illustrations of all the details, for a bridge of +100 feet span or less; specially useful for crossing of creeks, small +rivers, gullies, or wherever a costly structure is not desirable. The +drawings are from the Spar Bridge exhibited at the Centennial, in the +U. S. Department of Military Engineering. These bridges are wholly +composed of undressed stuff. SUPPLEMENT 71. Price 10 cents. + + * * * * * + + + + +FIREPROOF DWELLINGS OF CHEAP CONSTRUCTION. A valuable and important +paper, containing Plans and Descriptions of Model Fireproof Dwellings +of cheap construction lately erected in Chicago. By A. J. Smith, +Architect. With 9 illustrations. Plan No. 1 exhibits the construction +of comfortable one-story, 16 ft. front dwellings, of brick and +concrete, finished complete at a cost of $1,200. Plan No. 2 exhibits +the construction of a comfortable 23 ft. front, two-story dwelling, +of brick and concrete, finished complete, with cellar, for $1,700. +Several of these dwellings, on both plans, have been built at the +prices stated. This valuable paper also contains the Report of the +City Authorities of Chicago, certifying to the fireproof nature +of these buildings, with other useful particulars. Contained in +SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN SUPPLEMENT No. 91. Price 10 cts. To be had at this +office and of all newsdealers. + + * * * * * + + + + +OUTWARD MARKS OF A GOOD COW. + + +By Capt. JOHN C. MORRIS, Pa. Carelessness in Breeding. How to Select +for Breeding. Marks of the Handsome Cow. Care and Training of the +Heifer. Infallible Marks of Good Milkers. Distinguishing Marks and +Characteristics of the "Bastard" and the "Bogus" Cow, etc. Contained, +with useful Remarks on Bee Culture, in SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN SUPPLEMENT +No. 135. Price 10 cents. To be had at this office and of all +newsdealers. + + * * * * * + + + + +ON CHRONIC MALARIAL POISONING. + + +By ALFRED L. LOOMIS, M.D. A Highly Instructive Clinical Lecture, +delivered at the University Medical College, N. Y Contained in +SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN SUPPLEMENT No. 102. Price 10 cents. To be had at +this office and of all newsdealers. + + * * * * * + + + + +ICE-HOUSE AND COLD ROOM.--BY R. G. Hatfleld. With directions for +construction. Four engravings. SUPPLEMENT No. 59. Price, 10 cents. + + * * * * * + + + + +THE + +SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN + +The Most Popular Scientific Paper in the World. + +THIRTY-THIRD YEAR. + +Only $3.20 a Year including Postage. Weekly. 52 Numbers a Year. + + +This widely circulated and splendidly illustrated paper is published +weekly. Every number contains sixteen pages of useful information, +and a large number of original engravings of new inventions and +discoveries, representing Engineering Works, Steam Machinery, +New Inventions, Novelties in Mechanics, Manufactures, Chemistry, +Electricity, Telegraphy, Photography, Architecture, Agriculture, +Horticulture, Natural History, etc. + +ALL CLASSES OF READERS find in THE SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN a popular +_resume_ of the best scientific information of the day; and it is the +aim of the publishers to present it in an attractive form, avoiding +as much as possible abstruse terms. To every intelligent mind, this +journal affords a constant supply of instructive reading. It is +promotive of knowledge and progress in every community where it +circulates. + +TERMS OF SUBSCRIPTION.--One copy of THE SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN will be +sent for _one year_--52 numbers--postage prepaid, to any subscriber +in the United States or Canada, on receipt of THREE DOLLARS AND TWENTY +CENTS by the publishers; six months, $1.60; three months, $1.00. + +CLUBS.--ONE EXTRA COPY of THE SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN will be supplied +gratis _for every club of five subscribers_ at $3.20 each; additional +copies at same proportionate rate. Postage prepaid. + +One copy of THE SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN and one copy of THE SCIENTIFIC +AMERICAN SUPPLEMENT will be sent for one year, postage prepaid, to +any subscriber in the United States or Canada, on receipt of _seven +dollars_ by the publishers. + +The safest way to remit is by Postal Order, Draft, or Express. Money +carefully placed inside of envelopes, securely sealed, and correctly +addressed, seldom goes astray, but is at the sender's risk. 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Remit by postal order or draft to order of Munn +& Co., 37 Park Row, New York. + + * * * * * + + + + +NEW PATENT LAW + +FOR + +SPAIN, CUBA, PORTO RICO, ETC. + + +By the terms of the New Patent Law of _Spain_, which has lately gone +into operation, the citizens of the United States may obtain Spanish +Patents on very favorable conditions. + +The Spanish Patent covers SPAIN, and all the Spanish Colonies, +including CUBA, Porto Rico, the Philippine Islands, etc. Total cost +of obtaining the Patent, $100. Duration of the Patent, 20 years, 10 +years, and 5 years, as follows: + +The Spanish Patent, if applied for by the original inventor before his +American patent is actually issued, will run for 20 years. Total cost +of the patent, $100. It covers Spain, Cuba, etc. The Spanish Patent, +if applied for by the original inventor not more than two years after +the American patent has been issued, will run for 10 years. Total cost +of patent, $100. Covers Spain, Cuba, etc. + +_A Spanish Patent of Introduction_, good for 5 years, can be taken +by any person, whether inventor or merely introducer. Cost of such +patent, $100. Covers Spain, Cuba, and all the Spanish dominions. + +In order to facilitate the transaction of our business in obtaining +Spanish Patents, we have established a special agency at No. 4 +Soldado, Madrid. + +Further particulars, with Synopsis of Foreign Patents, Costs, etc., +furnished gratis. + +MUNN & CO., +Solicitors of American and Foreign Patents, +Proprietors of the SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN, +37 PARK ROW, NEW YORK. + + * * * * * + + + + +WATER SUPPLY FOR TOWNS AND Villages.--By Clarence Delafield, C.E. +A concise and valuable report, showing the costs and merits of the +various systems--Discussion of the Holly system, its merits +and defects--The reservoir system, with pumps, cost, and +advantages--Results obtained and economy of use of various systems in +different towns, with names and duty realized--Facts and figures to +enable town committees to judge for themselves as to the system +best suited for their wants--The best sources of water supply-- +Water-bearing rocks--Artesian wells, their feasibility, excellence, +and cost of boring--Importance of pure water--How surface water is +rendered impure--Cost of water pipes, from 2 to 12 inches diameter, +for towns, including laying, all labor, materials, gates, joints, etc. +Estimates of income, water-rates for supply of 1,000 buildings. +Contained in SUPPLEMENT 27. Price 10 cents. + + * * * * * + + + + +ICE BOATS--THEIR CONSTRUCTION and management. With working drawings, +details, and directions in full. Four engravings, showing mode of +construction. Views of the two fastest ice-sailing boats used on the +Hudson river in winter. By H. A. Horsfall, M.E. SUPPLEMENT 1. The same +number also contains the rules and regulations for the formation of +ice-boat clubs, the sailing and management of ice-boats, etc. Price 10 +cents. + + * * * * * + + + + +ICE AND ICE-HOUSES--HOW TO MAKE ice ponds; amount of ice required, +etc., and full directions for building ice-house, with illustrated +plan. SUPPLEMENT 55. Price 10 cents. + + * * * * * + + + + +[Illustration: Patents] + +CAVEATS, COPYRIGHTS, TRADE MARKS, ETC. + + +Messrs. Munn & Co., in connection with the publication of the +SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN, continue to examine Improvements, and to act as +Solicitors of Patents for Inventors. + +In this line of business they have had OVER THIRTY YEARS' EXPERIENCE, +and now have _unequaled facilities_ for the preparation of Patent +Drawings, Specifications, and the Prosecution of Applications for +Patents in the United States. Canada, and Foreign Countries. Messrs. +Munn & Co. also attend to the preparation of Caveats, Trade Mark +Regulations, Copyrights for Books, Labels, Reissues, Assignments, and +Reports on Infringements of Patents. All business intrusted to them is +done with special care and promptness, on very moderate terms. + +We send free of charge, on application, a pamphlet containing +further information about Patents and how to procure them; directions +concerning Trade Marks, Copyrights, Designs, Patents, Appeals, +Reissues, Infringements, Assignments, Rejected Cases, Hints on the +Sale of Patents, etc. + +_FOREIGN PATENTS._--We also send, _free of charge_, a Synopsis of +Foreign Patent Laws, showing the cost and method of securing patents +in all the principal countries of the world. American inventors should +bear in mind that, as a general rule, any invention that is valuable +to the patentee in this country is worth equally as much in England +and some other foreign countries. Five patents--embracing Canadian, +English, German, French, and Belgian--will secure to an inventor the +exclusive monopoly to his discovery among about ONE HUNDRED AND FIFTY +MILLIONS of the most intelligent people in the world. The facilities +of business and steam communication are such that patents can be +obtained abroad by our citizens almost as easily as at home. The +expense to apply for an English patent is $75; German, $100; French, +$100; Belgian, $100; Canadian, $50. _COPIES OF PATENTS._--Persons +desiring any patent issued from 1836 to November 26, 1867, can be +supplied with official copies at reasonable cost, the price depending +upon the extent of drawings and length of specifications. + +Any patent issued since November 27, 1867, at which time the Patent +Office commenced printing the drawings and specifications, may be had +by remitting to this office $1. + +A copy of the claims of any patent issued since 1836 will be furnished +for $1. + +When ordering copies, please to remit for the same as above, and state +name of patentee, title of invention, and date of patent. + +A pamphlet, containing full directions for obtaining United States +patents sent free. A handsomely bound Reference Book, gilt edges, +contains 140 pages and many engravings and tables important to every +patentee and mechanic, and is a useful hand book of reference for +everybody. Price 25 cents, mailed free. + +Address + +MUNN & CO., +Publishers SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN, +37 Park Row, N. Y. +_BRANCH OFFICE--Corner of F and 7th Streets, +Washington, D. C._ + + * * * * * + + + + +ADVERTISEMENTS + + * * * * * + + +Inside Page, each insertion - - - 75 cents a line. +Back Page, each insertion - - - - $1.00 a line. + (About eight words to a line.) + +_Engravings may head advertisements at the same rate per line, by +measurement, as the letter press. Advertisements must be received +at publication office as early as Thursday morning to appear in next +issue._ + + * * * * * + +BAIRD'S + +CATALOGUES OF BOOKS + +Our new and enlarged CATALOGUE OF PRACTICAL AND SCIENTIFIC BOOKS, 96 +pages, 8vo; a Catalogue of Books on DYEING, CALICO PRINTING, WEAVING, +COTTON and WOOLEN MANUFACTURE, 4to; Catalogue of a choice collection +of PRACTICAL, SCIENTIFIC, and ECONOMIC BOOKS, 4to; List of Books on +STEAM AND THE STEAM ENGINE, MECHANICS, MACHINERY, and ENGINEERING, +4to; List of Important Books on METALLURGY, METALS, STRENGTH OF +MATERIALS, CHEMICAL ANALYSIS, ASSAYING, etc., 4to; two Catalogues +of Books and Pamphlets on SOCIAL SCIENCE, POLITICAL ECONOMY, BANKS, +POPULATION, PAUPERISM, and kindred subjects sent free to any one who +will forward his address. + +HENRY CAREY BAIRD & CO., +Industrial Publishers, Booksellers, and Importers, +810 WALNUT ST., PHILADELPHIA, PA. + + +[Illustration] + +An engine that works without Boiler. Always ready to be started and to +give at once full power. + +SAFETY, ECONOMY, CONVENIENCE. + +Burns common Gas and Air. No steam, no coal, no ashes, no fires, no +danger, no extra insurance. Almost no attendance. + +THE NEW OTTO SILENT GAS ENGINE. + +Useful for all work of small stationary steam engine. Offered in sizes +of 2, 4, and 7 H.P. Send for illustrated circular. SCHLEICHER, SCHUMM +& CO., Phila., Pa. + + * * * * * + +A GOOD PLAN + +_The most profitable plan_ for operating in stocks is by uniting +capital of various sums in combining or pooling orders of thousands +of customers and using them as _one mighty whole_, which is done so +successfully by Messrs. Lawrence & Co., Bankers, 57 Exchange Place, +N. Y. City. By this cooperative system each investor is placed on an +equal footing with the largest operator and profits divided _pro rata_ +among shareholders every 30 days. $10 invested makes $50 or 5 per cent. +on the stock during the month--$50 returns $350 or 7 per cent., $100 +pays $1,000, or 10 per cent., and so on according to the market. The +firm's new circular (copyrighted and free) contains "Two unerring +rules for success in stock operations," and explains everything. All +kinds of Stocks and Bonds wanted. New Government Loan supplied. +LAWRENCE & CO., _Bankers and Brokers_, 57 Exchange Place, N. Y. City. + + * * * * * + +PORTABLE GRAIN MILLS. + +[Illustration] + +For Mill and Farm. Built on the durable and scientific principles. +Warranted fully equal to any in the market. Mills for grinding all +substances. We have made mill building a specialty for 13 years. + +WALKER BROS. & CO., + +Engineers, Founders & Machinists, + +23d and Wood St., Phila., Pa. + + +ON THE CARE OF HORSES. BY PROF. PRITCHARD, R.V.S. Showing the Proper +Construction of Stables. Best Floor. Lighting and Ventilation. +Hay-racks. Watering and Feeding. Grooming and Exercise. Cracked Heels; +Lice; Colic; Mud Fever; Wind Galls. Also, in same number, facts about +improved Cow Stables. How to keep Cows clean and maintain Pure Air +in Stables. Increased Cleanliness and Convenience with Less Labor. +Contained in SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN SUPPLEMENT. No. 123. Price 10 cents. +To be had at this office and of all newsdealers. + + +MINING MACHINERY. ENGINES, BOILERS, PUMPS, Coal and Ore Jigs, Dust +Burning Appliances. Drawings and advice free to customers. Jeanesville +Iron Works (J. C. Haydon & Co.). Address HOWELL GREEN, Supt., +Jeanesville, Luzerne Co., Pa. + + +[Illustration] + +Straub's Scientific GRAIN MILL, 12, 20, and 30 inch + +MILL STONES, + +For Farm and Merchant work. Warranted the full equal of any mill built +in America. Before purchasing elsewhere send for our circular and +price list. + +A. W. STRAUB & CO., + +Philadelphia, Pa. + + +USE WILHIDE'S NOISELESS, SELF-Setting Rat and Mouse Traps. Caught +19 rats one hour; 46 one night. Ask your storekeeper for them. State +right for sale. Circulars, etc., free. J. T. WILHIDE & BRO., York +Road, Carroll Co., Md. + + +AGENTS and SALESMEN wanted in every city and town to introduce a new +Work, the + +"COMPLETE BUSINESS REGISTER" +to dealers. Great inducements. Don't fail to write for particulars. W. +H. Pamphilon, Pub., 30 Bond St., N. Y. + + +LADIES CAN MAKE $5 A DAY IN THEIR OWN CITY OR TOWN. ADDRESS ELLIS +M'F'G CO., WALTHAM, MASS. + + +[ILLUSTRATION] + +THE "BIJOU" MICROSCOPE, + +WITH MOUNTED OBJECTS, 50C. A COMPLETE LITTLE INSTRUMENT FOR EXAMINING +MINUTE OBJECTS. HAS ADJUSTABLE LENS-CAP, OBJECT SLIDES AND DIAPHRAGM, +AND MAGNIFIES 10,000 TIMES. A MARVEL OF PERFECTION, CHEAPNESS, +SIMPLICITY AND COMPACTNESS. OF PRETTY DESIGN AND NICELY FINISHED IN +BRASS. PRICE, WITH AN ASSORTMENT OF INTERESTING MOUNTED MICROSCOPIC +OBJECTS, 50C. SENT POST PAID ON RECEIPT OF PRICE TO GEM MICROSCOPE +CO., 156 FULTON ST., N. Y. + + +XMAS "WONDER BOX." + +CONTAINS 12 SHEETS PAPER, 12 ENVELOPES, 3 SHEETS COLORED PAPER, 1 LEAD +PENCIL, 3 PENS, 1 TEXT, 12 COMIC CARDS, 40 SILHOUETTES, 36 MOTTOES, 85 +PATTERNS FOR FANCY WORK, 112 DECALCOMANIE, 131 EMBOSSED PICTURES, 50 +FANCY ORNAMENTS, 1 PENHOLDER, 2 BOOK MARKS, 5 BLACK TABLETS, 5 PICTURE +CARDS, 30 SCRAP-BOOK PICTURES, 1 XMAS BANNER, 1 GAME AGE CARDS, 2 XMAS +CARDS, 1 TOY PARASOL. PRICE, 42 CTS.; BY MAIL. 53 CTS. RETAIL VALUE, +$1.45. _POSTAGE STAMPS TAKEN_. J. JAY GOULD, 10 BROOMFIELD ST., +BOSTON, MASS. + + +GOLD, SILVER, AND NICKEL PLATING. + +A TRADE EASILY LEARNED. COSTS LITTLE TO START. THE ELECTRO PLATER'S +GUIDE, A 72 PAGE BOOK, SENT FOR 3 STAMPS. SCIENTIFIC INSTRUMENTS +AND BOOKS LOANED TO ANY ONE. PRICE LIST FREE. F. LOWEY, 90 11TH ST., +BROOKLYN, N. Y. + + +DIAMONDS AND CARBON + +SHAPED OR CRUDE, FURNISHED AND SET FOR BORING ROCKS, DRESSING MILL +BURRS, EMERY WHEELS, GRINDSTONES, HARDENED STEEL, CALENDER ROLLERS, +AND FOR SAWING, TURNING, OR WORKING STONE AND OTHER HARD SUBSTANCES; +ALSO GLAZIERS' DIAMONDS. J. DICKINSON, 64 NASSAU ST., N. Y. + + +IMPORTANT FOR ALL CORPORATIONS AND MANF'G CONCERNS.--BUERK'S +WATCHMAN'S TIME DETECTOR, capable of accurately controlling the motion +of a watchman or patrolman at the different stations of his beat. Send +for circular. + +J. E. BUERK, P.O. BOX 979, BOSTON, MASS + +N. B.--The suit against Imhaeuser & Co., of New York, was decided in my +favor, June 10, 1874. A fine was assessed against them Nov. 11, 1876, +for selling contrary to the order of the court. Persons buying or +using clocks infringing on my patent will be dealt with according to +law. + + +THE GEORGE PLACE MACHINERY AGENCY + +Machinery of Every Description. + +121 Chambers and 103 Reade Streets, New York. + + +[Illustration] + +THE FORSTER-FIRMIN GOLD AND SILVER AMALGAMATING COMP'Y of Norristown, +Pa., will grant state rights or licenses on easy terms. This system +works up to assay, and recovers the mercury rapidly. + +Apply as above. + + +THE DRIVEN WELL. + +Town and County privileges for making DRIVEN WELLS and selling +Licenses under the established AMERICAN DRIVEN WELL PATENT, leased by +the year to responsible parties, by + +WM. D. ANDREWS & BRO., NEW YORK. + + +SPARE THE CROTON AND SAVE THE COST. + +DRIVEN OR TUBE WELLS + +furnished to large consumers of Croton and Ridgewood Water. WM. D. +ANDREWS & BRO., 414 Water St., N. Y., who control the patent for +Green's American Driven Well. + + +STEAM AND HYDRAULIC + +PASSENGER AND FREIGHT ELEVATORS, + +STEAM ENGINES AND BOILERS, + +WHITTIER MACHINE CO., Boston, Mass. + + +[Illustration] + +PORTABLE STEAM ENGINES + +WITH AUTOMATIC CUT-OFF. + +No Commissions to Agents. Bottom Prices to Purchasers. + +SEND FOR CATALOGUE. + +ARMINGTON & SIMS + +A. & S. were lately with + +THE J. C. HOADLEY COMP. + + +STEAM PUMPS. + +HENRY R. WORTHINGTON, + +239 Broadway, N. Y. 83 Water St., Boston. + +THE WORTHINGTON DUPLEX PUMPING ENGINES FOR WATER WORKS--Compound, +Condensing or Non-Condensing. Used in over 100 Water-Works Stations. + +STEAM PUMPS--Duplex and Single Cylinder. + +WATER METERS. OIL METERS. + +PRICES LARGELY REDUCED. + + +RIVAL STEAM PUMPS + +$35 & UPWARDS + +JOHN. H. MCGOWAN & CO. + +CINCINNATI OHIO. + + +PATENTS AT AUCTION. + +Regular Monthly Sales by George W. Keeler, Auctioneer. For terms, +address NEW YORK PATENT EXCHANGE, 67 Liberty Street, New York. + + +50 PERFUMED CHROMO AND MOTTO CARDS, 10C. _Name in Gold and Jet._ Seavy +Bros., Northford, Ct. + + +WARRANTED WATCHES ONLY $3 EACH + +$12 WATCHES + +FOR ONLY $3 EACH. + +A BANKRUPT STOCK OF WATCHES, + +_Warranted for One Year._ + +[Illustration] + +This bankrupt stock of Watches must be closed out in 90 days. THE +FORMER PRICE OF THESE WATCHES WAS $12.00 EACH. They are silvered case +and open face, all one style, and of French manufacture, the movements +of which being well known the world over for their fine finish. They +are used on RAILROADS and STEAMBOATS, where ACCURATE TIME is required, +and give good satisfaction. Think of it, a $12.00 Watch for ONLY +$3.00, and WARRANTED ONE YEAR FOR TIME. + +CINCINNATI. O., October 1st, 1878. + +The Walters Importing Co. is an old established and very reliable +house, and we cheerfully recommend them. + +CINCINNATI POST. + +After the closure of sale of this bankrupt stock of Watches, which +will continue 90 days from date of this paper, no order will be filled +at less than $12.00 each; so please send your order at once. With each +Watch we furnish our SPECIAL WARRANTEE FOR ONE YEAR FOR ACCURATE TIME. +We will forward the Watch promptly on receipt of $3.00, or will send +C.O.D. if customers desire and remit $1.00 on account. + +Address all orders to WALTERS IMPORTING CO., 180 ELM STREET, +CINCINNATI, O. + +-->TO WATCH SPECULATORS: We call particular I attention to these +Watches, as they sell readily at from $12.00 to $20.00 each. + +-->_Cut this Advertisement Out._ + +WARRANTED WATCHES ONLY $3 EACH + + +$10 to $1000 + +Invested in Wall St. Stocks makes fortunes every month. Books sent +free explaining everything. + +Address BAXTER & CO., Bankers, 17 Wall St., N. Y. + + +[Illustration] + +PATENT PORTABLE CHUCK JAWS. + +Improved Solid Emery Wheels, for grinding Iron and Brass Castings. +Tools, etc. Manufactured by AM. TWIST DRILL CO., Woonsocket, R. I. + + +LATHES, PLANERS, SHAPERS + +Drills, Bolt and Gear Cutters, Milling Machines. Special Machinery. E. +GOULD & EBERHARDT, Newark, N. J. + + +U. S. PIANO CO., + +163 BLEECKER ST., N. Y., + +Manufacturers of strictly first-class Pianos. We sell DIRECT to +Families from OUR OWN Factory at LOWEST WHOLESALE price. Beautiful NEW +7 1-3 Octave, Rosewood Pianos. Sent on trial. Thousands in use. HEAVY +DISCOUNT to CASH buyers. DON'T buy until you read our Catalogue. It +will INTEREST you--Mailed FREE. + + +[Illustration] + +MEDAL & PREMIUM AWARDED TO + +[Illustration] + +ALCOTT'S + +TURBINE WATER WHEELS + +MANUFACT'D AT MOUNT HOLLY N. J. + + +MOWRY CAR & WHEEL WORKS, + +MANUFACTURERS OF + +CARS AND CAR WHEELS of all descriptions, + +Wheels and Axles, Chilled Tires, Engine, Car and Bridge Castings, of +any pattern, furnished to order at short notice. Also Street Car Turn +Tables. + +WHEELS OF ALL SIZES CONSTANTLY ON HAND. + +OFFICE, 27 1-2 W. THIRD ST., CINCINNATI, O. + +Works, Eastern Avenue and Lewis Street. + + +C. W. LE COUNT, SOUTH NORWALK, CONN., Mfr. of Lathe Dogs, Iron and +Steel Expanding Mandrels of all sizes. A specialty made of Amateurs' +Mandrels and Dogs. + + +[Illustration] + +BARNES' FOOT POWER MACHINERY. + +13 Different machines with which Builders, Cabinet Makers, Wagon +Makers, and Jobbers in miscellaneous work can compete as to QUALITY +AND PRICE with steam power manufacturing; also Amateurs' supplies. + +MACHINES SENT ON TRIAL. + +Say where you read this, and send for catalogue and prices. + +W. F. & JOHN BARNES, Rockford, Winnebago Co., Ill. + + +AMERICAN NOVELTIES +wanted for English trade. 1,000 Sewing Machines to be sold cheap. +Apply BRITANNIA COMPANY, Colchester, England. + + +[Illustration: Anvil + +FISHER & NORRIS TRENTON N. J.] + +Retail 9 CENTS PER POUND. + +Warranted of the hardest temper, and _never_ to settle. + +ESTABLISHED 1843 + +Steel Horn, warranted not to break and Face of _Best Cast Steel_. + +BETTER THAN ANY ENGLISH MAKE, AND ONLY ONE THAT IS FULLY + +!! WARRANTED !! + +50 SIZES, FROM 1-2 LB. TO 800 LBS. + +Catalogues furnished on application. + + +A VALUABLE WORK. + +THE STEAM ENGINE. + +The Relative Proportions of the Steam Engine. A course of Lectures on +the Steam Engine delivered to the students of Dynamical Engineering in +the University of Pennsylvania. By WM. D. MARKS, Whitney Professor +of Dynamical Engineering. With numerous Illustrations. 12mo. Flexible +cloth. $1.50. + +"A valuable addition to the literature of the Steam Engine, and one +which will be appreciated by engineers in practice as well as by +students."--_Pittsburgh American Manufacturer_. + +"A valuable work, and one which will meet with a favorable reception. +* * * There is much need and much room for a rational and practical +method for proportioning the various parts of the steam engine, and +in this respect your work is very welcome."--_Augustus Jay Du Bois, +Ph.D., Yale College_. + +*** For sale by all Booksellers, or will be sent by mail, postpaid, +upon receipt of price, by + +J. B. LIPPINCOTT & CO., PUBLISHERS, + +715 AND 717 MARKET ST., PHILADELPHIA. + + +[Illustration] + +SHEPARD'S CELEBRATED + +$50 Screw Cutting Foot Lathe. + +Foot and Power Lathes, Drill Presses, Scrolls, Circular and Band Saws, +Saw Attachments, Chucks, Mandrils, Twist Drills, Dogs, Calipers, etc. +Send for catalogue of outfits for amateurs or artisans. + +H. L. SHEPARD & CO., + +331, 333, 335, & 337 West Front Street, + +CINCINNATI, OHIO. + + +[Illustration] + +TELEPHONES. + +_25 per cent. Discount._ + +SPECIAL OFFER + +OUR NEW IMPROVED DOUBLE COILED METALIC TELEPHONE IS THE FINEST IN THE +WORLD, and the only completely satisfactory low priced instrument, +with SPRING CALL ATTACHMENT, made by PRACTICAL MACHINISTS on +scientific principles; warranted to work ONE MILE, unaffected by +changes in the weather. We will send to one address ONE SAMPLE SET, +comprising two Telephones, two walnut holders, six copper bound +insulators and 200 feet heavy wire, AT 25 PER CENT. DISCOUNT from +REGULAR RATES, which is $3.00 for the $4.00 instruments. This offer +WILL NOT hold good after JAN. 15, 1879, as our goods will then be +sufficiently well known to sell through the trade, and we shall be +obliged to strictly maintain the retail price. Any person of ordinary +intelligence can put them up by following directions sent with each +pair. We have sold during the last three months nearly 1000 of these +instruments, and have HUNDREDS OF TESTIMONIALS from all parts of the +country. We GUARANTEE all instruments sold. For any Telephone that +fails to work, we will REFUND THE MONEY and pay all charges. Ask any +Commercial Agency, and you will find we are good for all we agree to +do. + +Name this paper when you write. + +KENT, WOODMAN & CO., 25 CONGRESS ST., BOSTON, MASS. + + +THE DEFIANCE +METALLIC PLANES + +TRADE MARK +[Illustration] + +"THE BATTLE AXE." + +ARE THE BEST IN THE WORLD. + +Send for a full descriptive circular and price list to the +manufacturers, the + +BAILEY WRINGING MACHINE CO., 99 CHAMBERS ST., NEW YORK. + + +[Illustration] + +BEST AND CHEAPEST + +FOOT POWER + +SCREW CUTTING + +ENGINE LATHES + +SEE FULL DESCRIPTION IN SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN JULY 27 + +SEND FOR ILLUSTRATED CATALOGUE + +GOODNOW & WIGHTMAN 176 WASHINGTON ST BOSTON MASS. + + +_THE ONLY GRAND PRIZE_ FOR SEWING MACHINES, AT THE EXPOSITION +UNIVERSELLE, PARIS, 1878, WAS AWARDED, OVER 80 COMPETITORS, TO WHEELER +& WILSON MFG. CO. NEW YORK CITY, AND BRIDGEPORT, CONN. + + +Round Writing + +Useful for Everybody + +Book of Instructions & Pens + +Sent on receipt of $1.50 + +KEUFFEL & ESSER, 127 FULTON ST., N. Y., + +Importers and Manuf'rers of Drawing Materials. + + +AMERICAN STANDARD + +GAUGE AND TOOL WORKS. + +22d and WOOD STS., PHILADELPHIA. + +Standard Gauges and Measuring Implements, Hardened Steel Turning +Mandrels, Adjustable Blade Reamers, Patent Tool Holders, Lathe +Drivers, etc. JOHN RICHARDS & CO., + + +[Illustration] + +WARRANTED THE BEST. + +1 H.P. BOILER & ENGINE, $150. 2 H.P., $175. 3 H.P., $200. + +Tested to 200 lbs. Steam. + +LOVEGROVE & CO., 152 N. 3d ST., PHILADELPHIA, PA., + +Builders of Engines and Boilers, 1 to 100 horse power. Send for +circulars and prices, and state size and style you want. + + +WOOD-WORKING MACHINERY, + +Such as Woodworth Planing, Tonguing, and Grooving Machines, Daniel's +Planers. Richardson's Patent Improved Tenon Machines, Mortising, +Moulding, and Re-Saw Machines, and Wood-Working Machinery generally. +Manufactured by + +WITHERBY, RUGG & RICHARDSON, 26 Salisbury Street, Worcester, Mass. +(Shop formerly occupied by R. BALL & CO.) + + +LAP WELDED CHARCOAL IRON + +Boiler Tubes, Steam Pipe, Light and Heavy Forgings, Engines, Boilers, +Cotton Presses, Rolling Mill and Blast Furnace Work. + +READING IRON WORKS, 261 SOUTH FOURTH ST., PHILA. + + +PERRY & CO.'S STEEL PENS. + +[Illustration] + +A sample box, for trial, containing our leading styles, including the +famous "U" and "Falcon" Pens, mailed on receipt of 25 cts. + +IVISON, BLAKEMAN, TAYLOR & CO., SOLE AGENTS FOR U. S., NEW YORK. + + +EAGLE TUBE CO., + +614 TO 626 W. 24TH ST., NEW YORK. + +BOILER FLUES of all the Regular Sizes, + +OF BEST MATERIAL AND WARRANTED. + +-->ORDERS PROMPTLY EXECUTED. + +No Payment Required till Tubes are Fully Tested and Satisfactory. + + +[Illustration] + +LANSDELL'S PATENT STEAM SYPHON + +LANDELL'S AND ENG'S LEVER AND CAM GATE VALVES + +WELDLESS STEEL TUBING. + +JOHN S. LENG. 4 FLETCHER ST. NEW YORK. + +[Illustration] + + +CIGAR BOX LUMBER, + +MANUFACTURED by our NEW PATENT PROCESS. + +The Best in the World. + +SPANISH CEDAR, +MAHOGANY, +POPLAR. + +Also thin lumber of all other kinds, 1/8 to ½ in., at corresponding +prices. All qualities. Equal in all respects to any made, and at +prices much under any to be obtained outside of our establishment. +Send for price list. + +GEO W. READ & CO., 186 TO 200 LEWIS STREET, N. Y. + +Advertisements. + + +INSIDE PAGE, EACH INSERTION 75 CENTS A LINE. BACK PAGE, EACH INSERTION +$1.00 A LINE. (About eight words to a line.) + +_Engravings may head advertisements at the same rate per line, by +measurement, as the letter press. Advertisements must be received +at publication office as early as Thursday morning to appear in next +issue._ + + +[Illustration: + +MARVIN'S +Fire & Burglar +SAFES +Counter + Platform + Wagon + & Track +SCALES +MARVIN SAFE & SCALE CO. +265 BROADWAY N. Y.] + + +[Illustration: + +The INGERSOLL +ROCK DRILL CO +1½ PARK PLACE N. Y.] + + +PARTNER WANTED + +To introduce my IMPROVED PROTRACTOR. Splendid chance for a person with +small capital. Address or call on O. M. DAYTON, Utica, N. Y. + + +CALVIN WELLS, Prest. JAS. K. VERNER, Secy. + +PITTSBURGH FORGE & IRON CO., + +IRON AND HAMMERED CAR AXLES. + +Also manufacture as a specialty + +WROUGHT IRON BRIDGE BOLTS & BOLT ENDS, WITH PLAIN AND UPSET ENDS, + +To any required tensile strength, from one to three and one-half +inches, with thread and nuts. Orders for which are respectfully +solicited. Office, 10th Street, near Penn Ave., Pittsburgh, Pa. + + +J. LLOYD HAIGH, + +Manufacturer of + +[Illustration: WIRE ROPE] + +Of every description, for Railroad and Mining Use. Elevators, +Derricks, Rope Tramways, Transmission of Power, etc. No. 81 John +St., N. Y. Send for price list. Plans and Estimates furnished for +Suspension Bridges. + + +MILL STONES AND CORN MILLS. + +We make Burr Millstones, Portable Mills, Smut Machines, Packers, Mill +Picks, Water Wheels, Pulleys, and Gearing, specially adapted to Flour +Mills. Send for Catalogue. + +J. T. NOYE & SON, BUFFALO, N. Y. + + +MACHINISTS' TOOLS. + +NEW AND IMPROVED PATTERNS. + +Send for new illustrated catalogue. + +Lathes, Planers, Drills, &c. + +NEW HAVEN MANUFACTURING CO., +New Haven, Conn. + + +HYDRAULIC CEMENT + +Of the very highest order and quality made any and everywhere from +Refuse or Decomposed Limestone, Marble, Shells, Chalk and Clay, and +River Deposit as per Letters Patent. Address + +JOHN DIMELOW, Laboratorian, Austin, Texas. + + +PARIS EXHIBITION PRIZES. FULL + +Official List of the Awards in the American Department, enumerating +Exhibits and Names and Addresses of Exhibitors, with kind of Prize +awarded in each case. SUPPLEMENTS 149, 150. Price 10 cents each. + + +[Illustration: + +WROUGHT +IRON +BEAMS & GIRDERS] + +THE UNION IRON MILLS, Pittsburgh, Pa., Manufacturers of improved +wrought iron Beams and Girders (patented). + +The great fall which has taken place in the prices of Iron, and +especially in Beams used in the construction of FIRE PROOF BUILDINGS, +induces us to call the special attention of Engineers, Architects, +and Builders to the undoubted advantages of now erecting Fire +Proof structures; and by reference to pages 52 & 54 of our Book of +Sections--which will be sent on application to those contemplating +the erection of fire proof buildings--THE COST CAN BE ACCURATELY +CALCULATED, the cost of Insurance avoided, and the serious losses and +interruption to business caused by fire; these and like considerations +fully justify any additional first cost. It is believed, that, were +owners fully aware of the small difference which now exists between +the use of Wood and Iron, in many cases the latter would be adopted. +We shall be pleased to furnish estimates for all the Beams complete, +for any specific structure, so that the difference in cost may at once +be ascertained. Address + +CARNEGIE, BROS. & CO., Pittsburgh, Pa. + + +$7 A DAY to Agents canvassing for the FIRESIDE VISITOR. Terms and +Outfit Free. Address P. O. VICKERY, Augusta, Maine. + + +B. W. Payne & Sons, Corning, N. Y. + +Established in 1840. + +[Illustration] + +EUREKA SAFETY POWER. + ++----+--------+--------+-----+------+-------+ +|h.p.| cyl. | ht. |space| wt. |price. | ++----+--------+--------+-----+------+-------+ +| 2 |3-1/8x4 | 48 in. |40x25| 900 | $150 | ++----+--------+--------+-----+------+-------+ +| 4 | 4x6 | 56 |46x30| 1600 | 250 | ++----+--------+--------+-----+------+-------+ +| 6 | 5x7 | 72 |72x42| 2700 | 400 | ++----+--------+--------+-----+------+-------+ + +Also, SPARK ARRESTING PORTABLES, and STATIONARY ENGINES _for +Plantations_. Send for Circulars. + + +_PERFECT_ + +NEWSPAPER FILE + + * * * + +The Koch Patent File, for preserving newspapers, magazines, and +pamphlets, has been recently improved and price reduced. Subscribers +to the SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN and SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN SUPPLEMENT can be +supplied for the low price of $1.50 by mail, or $1.25 at the office of +this paper. Heavy board sides; inscription "SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN," +in gilt. Necessary for every one who wishes to preserve the paper. +Address + +MUNN & CO., +Publishers SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN. + +[Illustration: + +HOWE SCALE CO., + +Rutland, Vt. +Paris 1878 +Were awarded the +GOLD MEDAL] + +The highest award for Scales; also several Special Medals of Gold, +Silver, and Bronze. In addition to the above the + +HOWE SCALE CO. + +have been awarded the _"First Premium"_ at Twelve different State +Fairs held during the Fall of the present year. + +PRINCIPAL AGENCIES: + +PRIEST, PAGE & CO., 325 Broadway, New York. +PRIEST, PAGE & CO., 145 Franklin St., Boston. +A. M. GILBERT & CO., 97 to 101 Lake St., Chicago. +J. FRED DENNIS, European Manager, Bremen, Germany. + + +[Illustration] + +THE COLUMBIA BICYCLE, + +Made by THE POPE M'F'G CO., 89 Summer Street, Boston. + +A practical road machine, easy to learn to ride, and when mastered one +can beat the best horse in a day's run over an ordinary road. Send 3c. +stamp for catalogue. + + +BIG PAY.--With Stencil Outfits. What costs 4 cts. sells rapidly +for 50 cts. Catalogue _free_. S. M. SPENCER, 112 Wash'n St., Boston, +Mass. + + +65 MIXED CARDS with name, 10c. and stamp. +Agent's Outfit, 10c. L. C. COE & Co., Bristol, Ct. + + +[Illustration] + +YALE VERTICAL MILL + +Iron Frame; French Burr; Self-oiling; Self-feeding; Long Bearings; +Adjustable-balanced; best arranged, made and finished, _cheapest_, and +for quality and quantity ground no superior in the world. + +Also the Yale Vertical and Horizontal Steam Engines and Boilers, Send +for Circular. + +YALE IRON WORKS, New Haven, Conn. + + +_WORKING MODELS_ + +And Experimental Machinery, Metal or Wood, made to order by + +J. F. WERNER, 62 Centre St., N. Y. + + +[Illustration: + +H. W. JOHN'S BOILER COVERINGS +ASBESTOS (Trade Mark)] + +Are the most Effective and Economical Non-conducting Coverings in the +World. Ready for use and can be easily applied by any one. Be sure and +get the Genuine, which are Manufactured only by + +H. W. JOHNS MANUFACTURING CO., 87 Maiden Lane. New York, + +Sole Manufacturers of Genuine Asbestos Roofing, Liquid Paints, +Cements, etc. Send for Price Lists, etc. + + +PYROMETERS, + +For showing heat of Ovens, Hot Blast Pipes, Boiler Flues, Superheated +Steam, Oil Stills, etc. + +HENRY W. BULKLEY, Sole Manufacturer, 149 Broadway, N. Y. + + +CAMERON STEAM PUMPS + +For Mines, Blast Furnaces, Rolling Mills, Oil Refineries, Boiler +Feeders, &c. + +For Illustrated Catalogue and Reduced Price List send to + +WORKS, FOOT EAST 23d ST., NEW YORK. + + +[Illustration: WIRE ROPE] + +Address JOHN A. ROEBLING'S SONS, Manufacturers, Trenton, N. J., or 117 +Liberty Street, New York. + +Wheels and Rope for conveying power long distances. + +Send for circular. + + +ICE AT $1.00 PER TON. + +The PICTET ARTIFICIAL ICE CO., LIMITED, + +Room 51, Coal and Iron Exchange, P.O. Box 3083, N. Y. + + +ROOTS' ROTARY HYDRAULIC ENGINE. + +[Illustration] + +FOR +BLOWING ORGANS +AND RUNNING +LIGHT MACHINERY +OPERATED BY +HYDRANT PRESSURE, +GIVES GREATEST USEFUL EFFECT OF WATER. +IS A POSITIVE PRESSURE ENGINE. + +P. H. & F. M. ROOTS, Manuf'rs, CONNERSVILLE, IND. S. S. TOWNSEND, +Gen'l Ag't, 6 Cortlandt St., NEW YORK. + + +WOODWARD STEAM PUMPS AND FIRE ENGINES, + +G. M. WOODWARD, +76 and 78 Centre Street, New York. +Send for catalogue and price list. + + +60 Chromo and Perfumed Cards [no 3 alike], Name in Gold and Jet, 10c. +CLINTON BROS., Clintonville, Ct. + + +DIAMOND ROCK DRILLS + +The only Machines giving a solid core showing exact nature of rocks +passed through. + +THE AMERICAN DIAMOND ROCK BORING CO. + +NEW YORK. + +SEND FOR PAMPHLET. + + +Every Man His Own Printer! + +[Illustration: THE EXCELSIOR] + +$3 PRESS Prints labels, cards etc. (Self-inker $5) 9 Larger sizes For +business, pleasure, young or old. + +Catalogue of Presses, Type, Etc., for 2 stamps. + +KELSEY & Co. +Meriden, Conn. + + +MICROSCOPES, Opera Glasses, Spectacles, at greatly reduced prices. +Send three stamps for Illustrated Catalogue. + +R. & J. BECK, Philadelphia, Pa. + + +FOR ALL KINDS OF MACHINERY +--Apply to S. C. HILLS, 78 Chambers St., New York. + + +BEST +DAMPER REGULATORS +AND WEIGHTED GAUGE COCKS. +MURRILL & KEIZER, 44 HOLLIDAY ST., BALTIMORE. + + +GET THE BEST + +PIPE AND BOILER COVERING + +ASBESTOS-LINED HAIR FELT. + +Lightest covering and best non-conductor. Asbestos lining prevents +any charring of the hair felt. Easily applied and removed. For prices, +etc., address THE ASBESTOS PACKING CO., 25 STATE ST., BOSTON, MASS. + + +THE TANITE CO., + +STROUDSBURG, PA. + +EMERY WHEELS AND GRINDERS. + +GEO. PLACE, 131 Chambers St., New York Agent. + + +ROCK DRILLING MACHINES +AND +AIR COMPRESSORS, +MANUFACTURED BY +BURLEIGH ROCK DRILL Co. +SEND FOR PAMPHLET. +FITCHBURG MASS. + + +ESTABLISHED 1844. + +JOSEPH C. TODD, + +ENGINEER and MACHINIST. Flax, Hemp, Jute, Rope, Oakum and Bagging +Machinery, Steam Engines, Boilers, etc. I also manufacture Baxter's +New Portable Engine of 1877. Can be seen in operation at my store. +A one horse-power portable engine, complete, $125; two horse-power, +$225; two and a half horse-power, $250; three horse-power, $275. +Manufactured exclusively by + + J. C. TODD, + 10 Barclay St., New York, or Paterson, N. J. + + +BAXTER $100 1 HORSE ENGINE OF 1877. + +For State Rights to manufacture above, apply to + +A. VAN WINKLE, Newark, N. J. + + +TO ADVERTISERS We fill orders for the insertion of advertisements in +the newspapers of the United States and Dominion of Canada. To furnish +advertisers with reliable information concerning newspapers and their +rates, and thus enable the most inexperienced to select intelligently +the mediums best adapted to any particular purpose, WE ISSUE +SEMI-ANNUAL EDITIONS OF + +AYER & SON'S MANUAL + +FOR ADVERTISERS. 164 8vo. pp. Gives the names, circulation, and +advertising rates of several thousand newspapers in the United States +and Canada, and contains more information of value to an advertiser +than can be found in any other publication. All lists carefully +revised in each edition, and where practicable prices reduced. The +special offers are numerous and unusually advantageous. It will pay +you to examine it before spending any money in newspaper advertising. +The last edition will be sent postpaid to any address on receipt of +25 cents by N. W. AYER & SON, ADVERTISING AGENTS, Times Building, +Philadelphia. + + +[Illustration: + +WATSONS NON CHANGEABLE GAP LATHE HAS +GREAT FACILITIES FOR LARGE OR MEDIUM SIZE WORK +JAMES WATSON MANR 1608 S. FRONT ST. PHILA. PA.] + + +POND'S TOOLS, + +Engine Lathes, Planers, Drills, &c. + +DAVID W. POND, Worcester, Mass. + + * * * * * + + + + +CAN I OBTAIN A PATENT? + + +This is the first inquiry that naturally occurs to every author or +discoverer of a new idea or improvement. The quickest and best way to +obtain a satisfactory answer, without expense, is to write to us (Munn +& Co.), describing the invention, with a small sketch. All we need +is to get the _idea_. Do not use pale ink. Be brief. Send stamps for +postage. We will immediately answer and inform you whether or not your +improvement is probably patentable; and if so, give you the necessary +instructions for further procedure. Our long experience enables us to +decide quickly. For this advice we make _no charge_. All persons who +desire to consult us in regard to obtaining patents are cordially +invited to do so. We shall be happy to see them in person at our +office, or to advise them by letter. In all cases, they may expect +from us a careful consideration of their plans, an honest opinion, and +a prompt reply. + +_WHAT SECURITY HAVE I_ that my communication to Munn & Co. will be +faithfully guarded and remain confidential? + +_Answer_.--You have none except our well-known integrity in this +respect, based upon a most extensive practice of thirty years' +standing. Our clients are numbered by hundreds of thousands. They +are to be found in every town and city in the Union. Please to +make inquiry about us. Such a thing as the betrayal of a client's +interests, when committed to our professional care, never has +occurred, and is not likely to occur. All business and communications +intrusted to us are kept _secret and confidential_. + +Address +MUNN & CO., +Publishers of the SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN, +37 Park Row New York. + + * * * * * + + + + +THE "Scientific American" is printed with CHAS. ENEU JOHNSON & CO.'S +INK. Tenth and Lombard Sts., Philadelphia, and 59 Gold St., New York. + + * * * * * + + + + +Transcriber's Note: + + +_x_ indicates italic script; =x= indicates bold script. ^ indicates +superscript. + +Some archaic (Early American) spellings have been retained. + + +Erata: + +'irridescent' corrected to 'iridescent'. +"Glass, iridescent" +(Contents) + +'monoply' corrected to 'monopoly'. +"The cry of monopoly in this case is altogether unfounded,..." +(Article 4: Progress of Petroleum) + +'possesing' corrected to 'possessing'. +"... possessing in every way the original form of the wood." +(Article 42: Reduction of Nitrate of Silver by Means of Charcoal.) + + + + + + +End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Scientific American, Vol. XXXIX.--No. +24. [New Series.], December 14, 1878, by Various + +*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN *** + +***** This file should be named 38480-8.txt or 38480-8.zip ***** +This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: + http://www.gutenberg.org/3/8/4/8/38480/ + +Produced by Juliet Sutherland, Lesley Halamek, and the +Online Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net + + +Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions +will be renamed. + +Creating the works from public domain print editions means that no +one owns a United States copyright in these works, so the Foundation +(and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United States without +permission and without paying copyright royalties. Special rules, +set forth in the General Terms of Use part of this license, apply to +copying and distributing Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works to +protect the PROJECT GUTENBERG-tm concept and trademark. 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You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + +Title: Scientific American, Vol. XXXIX.--No. 24. [New Series.], December 14, 1878 + A Weekly Journal Of Practical Information, Art, Science, + Mechanics, Chemistry, And Manufactures + +Author: Various + +Release Date: January 3, 2012 [EBook #38480] + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1 + +*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN *** + + + + +Produced by Juliet Sutherland, Lesley Halamek, and the +Online Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net + + + + + + +</pre> + + +<a name="top"></a> +<table summary="transcriber note" width="auto" align="center" style="margin-top: 2em; margin-bottom: 5em;"> +<tr> + <td class="note"> + +<h4>Transcriber's Note</h4> + +<p>Readers using some IE browsers may need to use 'Compatibility View'.</p> + +<p>The <a href="#transcriber_note">Errata</a> are at the end of the book.</p> +<p>(Corrections are also indicated, in the text, by a dotted line underneath the correction.</p> +<p style="margin-top:-1em;">Scroll the mouse over the word and the original text will <ins title="Transcriber's Note: original reads 'apprear'">appear</ins>.)</p> + +</td> +</tr> +</table> + +<div class="figcenter"><img src="images/title-600.png" width="600" height="107" alt="SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN" border="0" /></div> + +<h1>SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN</h1> + +<h2>A WEEKLY JOURNAL OF PRACTICAL INFORMATION, ART, SCIENCE, +MECHANICS, CHEMISTRY, AND MANUFACTURES.</h2> + +<h2>NEW YORK, DECEMBER 14, 1878.</h2> + +<h4>Vol. XXXIX.—No. 24. [NEW SERIES.]</h4> + +<h4>$3.20 per Annum [POSTAGE PREPAID.]</h4> + +<hr /> +<h2>Contents:</h2> <a name="contents" id="contents"></a> +<p class="center">(Illustrated articles are marked with an +asterisk.)</p> + +<table width="80%" align="center" summary="contents"> +<tr> + <td class="right">36</td> + <td><a href="#art36">Alum in baking powders</a></td> + <td>376</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="right">36</td> + <td><a href="#art36">Alum in bread</a></td> + <td>376</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="right">30</td> + <td><a href="#art30">Argonaut, or Paper Nautilus</a>*</td> + <td>375</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="right">38</td> + <td><a href="#art38">Astronomical notes</a></td> + <td>377</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="right"><span style="font-size: 0.7em;">NQ-05</span></td> + <td><a href="#artnq05">Babbitt metal, to make</a> <span class="note1">[5]</span></td> + <td>378</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="right"><span style="font-size: 0.7em;">NQ-06</span></td> + <td><a href="#artnq06">Belts, rubber, slipping</a> <span class="note1">[6]</span></td> + <td>378</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="right">22</td> + <td><a href="#art22">Bench, saw, Casson's</a>*</td> + <td>374</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="right"><span style="font-size: 0.7em;">NQ-08</span></td> + <td><a href="#artnq08">Boot polish liquid</a> <span class="note1">[8]</span></td> + <td>378</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="right"><span style="font-size: 0.7em;">NQ-16</span></td> + <td><a href="#artnq16">Butter, to color</a> <span class="note1">[16]</span></td> + <td>378</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="right">1</td> + <td><a href="#art01">Canal, ship, Belgian</a>*</td> + <td>367</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="right">17</td> + <td><a href="#art17">Economy, machine shop</a></td> + <td>371</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="right">33</td> + <td><a href="#art33">Eggs, preservation of</a></td> + <td>375</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="right">21</td> + <td><a href="#art21">Electric light, Werdermann</a>*</td> + <td>373</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="right">3</td> + <td><a href="#art03">Engineers, warning to</a></td> + <td>367</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="right"><span style="font-size: 0.7em;">NQ-48</span></td> + <td><a href="#artnq48">Engine, steam, valve yoke</a> <span class="note1">[48]</span></td> + <td>379</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="right"><span style="font-size: 0.7em;">NQ-57</span></td> + <td><a href="#artnq57">Exterminator, roach</a> <span class="note1">[57]</span></td> + <td>379</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="right"><span style="font-size: 0.7em;">NQ-19</span></td> + <td><a href="#artnq19">Filter for rain water</a> <span class="note1">[19]</span></td> + <td>378</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="right">14</td> + <td><a href="#art14">Foot power, new</a>*</td> + <td>370</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="right">6</td> + <td><a href="#art06">Glass, <ins title="Transcriber's Note: Original reads 'irridescent'"><span class="u">iridescent</span></ins></a></td> + <td>368</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="right">32</td> + <td><a href="#art32">Glass, to make a hole in</a></td> + <td>375</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="right"><span style="font-size: 0.7em;">NQ-42</span></td> + <td><a href="#artnq42">Hair, to prevent falling out</a> <span class="note1">[42]</span></td> + <td>379</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="right">39</td> + <td><a href="#art39">Inks, sympathetic</a></td> + <td>377</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="right">18</td> + <td><a href="#art18">Invention, reward of</a></td> + <td>371</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="right">15</td> + <td><a href="#art15">Inventions, new</a>,</td> + <td>370</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="right">43</td> + <td><a href="#art43">Inventions, new agricultural</a></td> + <td>377</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="right">26</td> + <td><a href="#art26">Inventions, new mechanical</a></td> + <td>374</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="right">23</td> + <td><a href="#art23">Inventors, bait for</a></td> + <td>374</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="right">2</td> + <td><a href="#art02">Iron and steel, preservation of</a></td> + <td>367</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="right"><span style="font-size: 0.7em;">NQ-43</span></td> + <td><a href="#artnq43">Iron, malleable, to make</a> <span class="note1">[43]</span></td> + <td>379</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="right">11</td> + <td><a href="#art11">Leaves, culinary uses for</a></td> + <td>370</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="right"><span style="font-size: 0.7em;">NQ-36</span></td> + <td><a href="#artnq36">Line, straight, to draw</a>* <span class="note1">[36]</span></td> + <td>379</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="right">16</td> + <td><a href="#art16">Mechanics, amateur</a>*</td> + <td>371</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="right">35</td> + <td><a href="#art35">Mexico, progress of science in</a></td> + <td>376</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="right">28</td> + <td><a href="#art28">Microphone as a thief catcher</a></td> + <td>375</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="right">44</td> + <td><a href="#art44">Naphtha and benzine</a></td> + <td>377</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="right">42</td> + <td><a href="#art42">Nitrate of silver, reduction of</a></td> + <td>377</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="right">45</td> + <td><a href="#art45">Notes and queries</a></td> + <td>378</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="right">19</td> + <td><a href="#art19">Oil notes</a></td> + <td>372</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="right">41</td> + <td><a href="#art41">Petroleum and gold</a></td> + <td>377</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="right">4</td> + <td><a href="#art04">Petroleum, progress of</a></td> + <td>368</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="right">25</td> + <td><a href="#art25">Poultices</a></td> + <td>374</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="right">27</td> + <td><a href="#art27">Quinine, effects of on hearing</a></td> + <td>374</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="right"><span style="font-size: 0.7em;">NQ-02</span></td> + <td><a href="#artnq02">Railroad, first in U. S.</a> <span class="note1">[2]</span></td> + <td>378</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="right">7</td> + <td><a href="#art07">Rails and railway accidents</a></td> + <td>368</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="right">20</td> + <td><a href="#art20">Railway notes</a></td> + <td>373</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="right">8</td> + <td><a href="#art08">Sanitary Science in the U. S.</a></td> + <td>369</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="right"><span style="font-size: 0.7em;">NQ-04</span></td> + <td><a href="#artnq04">Screw heads, blue color for</a> <span class="note1">[4]</span></td> + <td>378</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="right">34</td> + <td><a href="#art34">Sheep husbandry, American</a></td> + <td>375</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="right">12</td> + <td><a href="#art12">Shutter fastener, new</a>*</td> + <td>370</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="right">24</td> + <td><a href="#art24">Silver mill in the clouds</a></td> + <td>374</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="right">31</td> + <td><a href="#art31">Spider, trap-door</a>*</td> + <td>375</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="right">13</td> + <td><a href="#art13">Sprinkler, garden, improved</a>*</td> + <td>370</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="right"><span style="font-size: 0.7em;">NQ-03</span></td> + <td><a href="#artnq03">Telescope, sunshade for</a> <span class="note1">[3]</span></td> + <td>378</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="right"><span style="font-size: 0.7em;">NQ-55</span></td> + <td><a href="#artnq55">Tools, steel, to temper</a> <span class="note1">[55]</span></td> + <td>379</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="right">29</td> + <td><a href="#art29">Tree, tallest in the world</a></td> + <td>375</td> +</tr> + <tr> + <td class="right">37</td> + <td><a href="#art37">Tree trunks elongation of</a></td> + <td>376</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="right">9</td> + <td><a href="#art09">Trees, felling by electricity</a></td> + <td>370</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="right"><span style="font-size: 0.7em;">NQ-51</span></td> + <td><a href="#artnq51">Tubing, to satin finish</a> <span class="note1">[51]</span></td> + <td>379</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="right">10</td> + <td><a href="#art10">Vise, an improved</a>*</td> + <td>370</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="right"><span style="font-size: 0.7em;">NQ-14</span></td> + <td><a href="#artnq14">White lead, to test</a> <span class="note1">[14]</span></td> + <td>378</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="right">40</td> + <td><a href="#art40">Wire clothing for cylinders</a>*</td> + <td>377</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="right">5</td> + <td><a href="#art05">Work, the limit of</a></td> + <td>368</td> +</tr> + </table><br /><br /> + +<a name="Page_367" id="Page_367"></a> + +<hr class="full" /><br /><br /> + +<a name="art01" id="art01"></a> + +<h3>THE BELGIAN SHIP CANAL.</h3> + +<p>The ship canal from Ghent to Terneuzen was originally +laid out with many bends, rendering navigation difficult; it +had a depth of 14 feet 4 inches and a width of 98 feet 6 +inches at the water level. The works which are at present +in course of execution have especially for their object the +deepening of the canal to 21 feet 3 inches, with a width of +55 feet 9 inches at the bottom and 103 feet 9 inches on the +water line. The slopes have a uniform inclination of 1 to 3, +and the towing paths on each side are placed 6 feet 6 inches +above the water level, and are 32 feet 8 inches wide. In +many instances also the course of the canal has been altered +and straightened for the improvement of navigation; several +important diversions have been made for this purpose. The +excavation has been effected by hand, by dredging, and by +the Couvreux excavator, figured as below in <i>Engineering</i>.</p> + +<p>The earth excavated was carried to spoil, and in many +cases was employed to form dikes inclosing large areas, +which served as receptacles for the semi-liquid material +excavated by the dredging machines with the long conductors; +the Couvreux excavator used will be readily understood +from the engraving. It had already done service on +the Danube regulation works. The material with which it +had to deal, however, was of a more difficult nature, being +a fine sand charged with water and very adherent. The +length of track laid for the excavator was about 3 miles +along the side of the old canal, which had been previously +lowered to the level of the water.</p> + +<div class="figcenter"> +<a href="images/01a-canal.png"><img src="images/01-canal-576.png" width="576" height="374" alt="Excavator on the Ghent and Terneuzen Ship Canal Belgium." /></a><br /><br /> + +<p class="center"><b>EXCAVATOR ON THE GHENT AND TERNEUZEN SHIP CANAL BELGIUM.</b></p> +</div> + +<div class="figcenter"><img src="images/fancyhr2-300.png" width="300" height="12" alt="fancy rule" /></div> + +<a name="art02" id="art02"></a><h2>Preservation of Iron and Steel from Oxidation.</h2> + +<p>We are indebted to J. Pechar, Railway Director in Teplitz, +Bohemia, for the first official report in English from the Paris +International Exhibition which has come to hand. This volume +contains the report on the coal and iron products in all +countries of the world, and is valuable for its statistical and +other information, giving, as it does, the places where the +coal and minerals are found, and the quantities of each kind +produced, for what it is used, and to what other countries it +is exported. The able compiler of these statistics in the introduction +of his report gives the following account of the +means recommended by Professor Barff, of London, for preventing +oxidation, which is being considerably used abroad. +The writer says:</p> + +<p>It is well known that the efficient preservation of iron +against rusting is at present only provided for in cases where +human life would be endangered by failure, as in the case of +railway bridges and steamers. Thus, for example, at Mr. +Cramer-Klett's ironworks at Nuremberg every piece of iron +used for his bowstring bridges is dipped in oil heated to +eight hundred degrees. The very great care which is at +present taken in this matter may be judged from the current +practice of most bridge and roofing manufacturers. Every +piece of iron before being riveted in its place is cleaned from +rust by being immersed in a solution of hydrochloric acid. +The last traces of free acid having been cleared away, at first +by quicklime and afterward by a copious ablution with hot +water, the piece is immediately immersed in hot linseed oil, +which protects every part of the surface from the action of +the atmosphere. Afterward it is riveted and painted.</p> + +<p>Notwithstanding all this, the painting requires continual +and careful renewal. On the Britannia Bridge, near Bangor, +the painter is permanently at work; yet, in spite of all this +care and expense, rust cannot be entirely avoided. The age +of iron railway bridges is still too short to enable us to draw +conclusions as to the probabilities of accidents. Now, Professor +Barff has discovered a process by which iron may be +kept from rusting by being entirely coated with its own sesquioxide. +A piece of iron exposed to the action of superheated +steam, in a close chamber and under a certain pressure, +becomes gradually covered by a skin of this black oxide, +of a thickness depending upon the temperature of the steam +and the duration of the experiment. For instance, exposure +during five hours to steam superheated to five hundred degrees +will produce a hermetical coating capable of resisting +for a considerable time the application of emery paper and +of preserving the iron from rust even in a humid atmosphere, +if under shelter from the weather. If the temperature is +raised to 1,200 degrees, and the time of exposure to six or +seven hours, the skin of sesquioxide will resist every mechanical +action, and the influence of any kind of weather. The +sesquioxide being harder than the iron itself, and adhering +to its surface even more firmly than the atoms of iron do to +each other, there is an increased resistance not only to chemical +but also to mechanical action. The surface is not altered +by the process in any other respect, a plain forging retaining +its roughness, a polished piece its smooth surface. If +the skin is broken away oxidation takes place, but only +just on the spot from which the oxide has been removed. If +Professor Barff's experiments are borne out by practice, this +invention may become of very great importance. It is within +the bounds of probability that it may enable iron, by increasing +its facility in competing with wood, to recover, at least +for a considerable time, even more than the ground it has +lost by the extraordinary extension of the use of steel. Iron +is already being used for building purposes to a large extent; +but oxidation once thoroughly prevented it will be able to +take the place of wood and stone to a still greater degree. +Iron roofing may be made quite as light as that of wood, and +of greater strength, by a judicious arrangement and use of +T iron.</p> + +<div class="figcenter"><img src="images/fancyhr2-300.png" width="300" height="12" alt="fancy rule" /></div> + +<a name="art03" id="art03"></a><h2>Warning to Locomotive Engineers.</h2> + +<p>Drs. Charles M. Cresson and Robert E. Rogers, of this +city, says the Philadelphia <i>Ledger</i>, well known as experts in +chemistry and dynamics, were appointed by the Reading +Railroad Company to inquire into and report upon the +causes of the recent explosion of the boiler of the express +locomotive "Gem," at Mahanoy City, by which five lives +were lost. Their report, which is designed to cover the +whole scope of a most careful investigation, is not yet made +public, but they have arrived at the following specific conclusion, +which we give in their own language: "We are, +therefore, of the opinion that the explosion of the boiler of +the locomotive 'Gem,' was produced by the projection of +foam upon the heated crown bars of the furnace, caused by +suddenly and widely opening the safety valve, at a time +when the water had been permitted to get so low as to overheat +the crown of the furnace." This is an important matter +that should be carefully noted by locomotive and other +engineers.</p> + +<hr class="full" /> + +<a name="Page_368" id="Page_368"></a> + +<div class="figcenter"><img src="images/oef-scientificamerican-48n.png" width="548" height="64" alt="Scientific American." border="0" /></div> + +<hr class="short" /> + +<h2>MUNN & CO., Editors and Proprietors.</h2> + +<hr class="short" /> + +<h3>PUBLISHED WEEKLY AT<br /> +NO. 37 PARK ROW (PARK BUILDING), NEW YORK.</h3> + +<hr class="short" /> + +<p class="center"> +<b>O. D. MUNN.</b> <b>A. E. BEACH.</b> +</p> + +<hr /> + +<h3>TERMS FOR THE SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN.</h3> + +<table align="center" summary="terms"> +<tr> + <td>One copy, one year, postage included</td> + <td class="right">$3 20</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td>One copy, six months, postage included</td> + <td class="right">1 60</td> +</tr> +</table> + +<p><b>Clubs.</b>—One extra copy of <span class="sc">The Scientific American</span> will be +supplied gratis for every club of five subscribers at $3.20 each; additional copies at +same proportionate rate. Postage prepaid.</p> +<div class="figleft1"><img src="images/finger-32.png" width="32" height="14" alt="finger pointing right" border="0" /> +</div> +<p>Single copies of any desired number of the <span class="sc">Supplement</span> sent to one +address on receipt of 10 cents.</p> + +<p>Remit by postal order. Address</p> + +<p class="author">MUNN & CO., 37 Park Bow, New York.</p> + +<h2>The Scientific American Supplement</h2> + +<p>is a distinct paper from the <span class="sc">Scientific American</span>. THE SUPPLEMENT +is issued weekly; every number contains 16 octavo pages, with handsome +cover, uniform in size with <span class="sc">Scientific American</span>. Terms of subscription +for SUPPLEMENT, $5.00 a year, postage paid, to subscribers. Single copies +10 cents. Sold by all news dealers throughout the country.</p> + +<p>Combined Rates.—The <span class="sc">Scientific American</span> and <span class="sc">Supplement</span> +will be sent for one year, postage free, on receipt of <i>seven dollars.</i> +Both +papers to one address or different addresses, as desired.</p> + +<p>The safest way to remit is by draft, postal order, or registered letter.</p> + +<p>Address MUNN & CO., 37 Park Row, N. Y.</p> + +<h2>Scientific American Export Edition.</h2> + +<p>The <span class="sc">Scientific American</span> Export Edition is a large and splendid +periodical, +issued once a month. Each number contains about one hundred +large quarto pages, profusely illustrated, embracing: (1.) Most of the +plates and pages of the four preceding weekly issues of the SCIENTIFIC +AMERICAN, with its splendid engravings and valuable information; (2.) +Commercial, trade, and manufacturing announcements of leading houses. +Terms for Export Edition, $5.00 a year, sent prepaid to any part of the +world. Single copies 50 cents. </p> + +<div class="figleft1"><img src="images/finger-32.png" width="32" height="14" alt="finger pointing right" border="0" /> +</div> + +<p>Manufacturers and others who desire +to secure foreign trade may have large, and handsomely displayed announcements +published in this edition at a very moderate cost.</p> + +<p>The <span class="sc">Scientific American</span> Export Edition has a large guaranteed +circulation +in all commercial places throughout the world. Address MUNN & +CO., 37 Park Row, New York.</p> + +<hr class="full" /> + +<h3>VOL. XXXIX., No. 24. [NEW SERIES.] Thirty-third Year.</h3> + +<hr class="full" /> + +<h2>NEW YORK, SATURDAY, DECEMBER 14, 1878.</h2> + +<hr class="full" /> + +<h3>TABLE OF CONTENTS OF</h3> + +<h2>THE SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN SUPPLEMENT</h2> + +<h2>No. 154,</h2> + +<h3>For the Week ending December 14, 1878.</h3> + +<p class="center">Price 10 cents. For sale by all newsdealers.</p> + +<blockquote><p> +<span class="outdent">I. ENGINEERING AND MECHANICS.</span>—Portable Steam Pumping Engine, +1 engraving.—New Bone Crushing Mill, 2 engravings.—Picard's +Boiler. Extraction of Salt from Salt Water.—Compressed Air Machines. +Hydraulic vs. air pressure. Causes of the losses of power. +Estimates of useful effects obtainable.—The St. Gothard Tunnel. By +<span class="sc">Geo. J. Specht</span>, C.E.—Apparatus for Lifting Sunken Vessels, with 8 +figures.—Russia Sheet Iron.—Manufacture of Artificial Stone.—Compressed +Fuel.—The New Magnesi Process for Boiler Feed Water.</p> + +<p> +<span class="outdent">II. FRENCH INTERNATIONAL EXHIBITION OF 1878.</span>—Wine Presses. +Description of sixteen new and peculiar wine presses at the Exhibition, +with 31 figures and 9 engravings. The Press Primat; Press Mabille; +Press David; Samain Press; Marchand, Maupre, Boyries, Chapellier, +Marmonier, Nogues, Mailhe, Moreau, Piquet, Delperoux, Terrel +des Chenes, and Cassan fils Presses.</p> + +<p> +The Algerian Exhibit. The street of Algiers, with 1 illustration.—Woolen Fabrics.</p> + +<p> +<span class="outdent">III. ELECTRICITY, LIGHT, HEAT, ETC.</span>—Electric Lighting. Estimate +of the comparative heating effect in gas and electric lighting, and the +consequent loss of power.—The Electric Light. Remarks on its economy.—The +Present Bugbear of French Savants.</p> + +<p> +New Planets.</p> + +<p> +The Dutch Arctic Expedition. The Peak of Beerenburg, Spitzbergen, +with 1 illustration.</p> + +<p> +<span class="outdent">IV. CHEMISTRY AND METALLURGY.</span>—New Process for Separating +Iodine and Bromine from Kelp.—Inoffensive Colors for Toys.—New +Coloring Matters.—Tungsten.</p> + +<p> +Ozone and the Atmosphere. By <span class="sc">Albert R. Leeds</span>, Ph.D. Table of +percentage of ozone contained in the atmosphere at various localities +in the United States. Register of ozone observations for one month at +Upper Saranac Lake, N. Y., giving thermometric and barometric observations, +and full record of weather. Examination of methods in +ozonometry. Preparation of ozone by electrolysis of water containing +sulphuric acid, with 1 engraving. Preparation by electricity, with +1 engraving. Does the electric spark decompose potassium iodide? +Collection and preservation of ozone. Preparation by chemical methods. +Critical examination of ozonoscopes. Potassium iodide; starch; +paper classification of ozonoscopes. Examination of ozonoscopes under +certain conditions.</p> + +<p> +Limits of the Combustibility of Gases.—The Diffusion of Salicylate +of Soda.—Singular use of Fluorescein.—New Metal. Philippium By +M. <span class="sc">Marc Delafontaine</span>.—Better Pharmaceutical Education. By +<span class="sc">Richard V. Mattison</span>, Ph. G.—An El Dorado for Apothecaries.</p> + +<p> +<span class="outdent">V. MEDICINE AND HYGIENE.</span>—The Science of Easy Chairs. The +muscular conditions of fatigue, and how to obtain the greatest rest. +How easy chairs should be made.</p> + +<p> +Prof. Huxley on the Hand. Abstract of his inaugural lecture before +the South London Workingmen's College.</p> + +<p> +Paint from a Sanitary Point of View. The required abolition of absorbent +surfaces in dwellings. Lead poisoning from paint not thoroughly +dry. Cases described in which white lead paint in dwellings +never dries, but gives off poisonous particles, which are inhaled by the +inmates, causing depression, weakness headache, and loss of appetite. Zinc +recommended in paint to avoid lead poisoning, and the new +oxy-sulphide of Zinc described, with covering qualities equal to white +lead.</p> + +<p> +The Purification of Sewage. By <span class="sc">Henry Robinson</span>, F.R.S. Paper +read before the Sanitary Institute of Great Britain. Progress in purifying +sewage by precipitation. The use of chemicals for precipitating, +deodorizing, and disinfecting. Practical data on a large scale, with +cost. Average number of gallons per head of population, etc., of the +successful system now in operation at Coventry and Hertford. How +the water is removed from the sludge by filter presses. Drying and +removal of the sludge. Theoretical and actual values of the sludge +for fertilizing.</p> + +<p> +<span class="outdent">VI. AGRICULTURE, HORTICULTURE, ETC.</span>—The Broadside Steam +Digger, with 1 engraving.—Shall I Plow the Lawn?—Bee Culture.</p> +</blockquote> + +<div class="figcenter"><img src="images/fancyhr2-300.png" width="300" height="12" alt="fancy rule" /></div> + +<a name="art04" id="art04"></a><h3>PROGRESS OF PETROLEUM.</h3> + +<p>The efforts of the great majority of the Western Pennsylvania +petroleum producers to obtain relief from what +they deem the oppressive acts of the Standard Oil Company +and the unjust discriminations of the United Pipe Lines, +and the various railroads traversing the oil regions, have attracted +more than usual attention to the present condition of +this industry and its possible future.</p> + +<p>We would here explain that the Standard Oil Company +originated in Cleveland, Ohio, about twelve years ago, and +was incorporated under the laws of Ohio, with a nominal +capital now, we are informed, of $3,000,000, which, however, +very inadequately represents the financial strength of +its members. It is now a combination of the most prominent +refiners in the country, and has before been credited +with manipulating the transportation lines to its own special +advantage.</p> + +<p>We can recall no instance of such serious hostility between +parties whose interests are at the same time of such +magnitude and so nearly identical; nor can we see what substantial, +enduring benefit would accrue to the producers in +the event of their victory in the struggle.</p> + +<p>They charge that the Standard Oil Company has become +the controlling power to fix prices and to determine the avenues +by which the oil shall be transported eastward for home +consumption and for foreign exportation; that the railway +companies have given this company lower rates than other +parties for transporting the oil; and that through the rates +given to it by the railways the value of their property is destroyed.</p> + +<p>The reply, in effect, is, Granting all this to be true, what +does it amount to? Neither more nor less than that the +managers of the Standard Oil Company, by combination of +capital, by intelligence and shrewdness in the management +of their operations, have built up a successful business, and +that they have so extended it by the use of all practicable +appliances, and by the purchase of the property of competitors, +that they do practically control the prices of oil, both +crude and refined, and that the uncombined capital of the +other oil producers, lacking the power, the intelligence, and +the business skill which combined capital can secure, cannot +compete with the Standard Oil Company. Now, is there +any great wrong or injustice in this?</p> + +<p>When brains can command capital it is always more successful +in business matters than any amount of brains without +capital or capital without brains. This result is the natural +working out of the same principle that is everywhere +to be seen—some men are successful and others are not.</p> + +<p>It is the essence of communism to drag down those who +succeed to the level of the unsuccessful.</p> + +<p>If men cannot compete with others in any business they +must accept the fact, and try some other employment.</p> + +<p>If, through superior intelligence and capital, the Standard +Oil Company can control the oil business of Pennsylvania, +then, according to the principles of common sense, it must +be permitted to do so.</p> + +<p>What right, then, has the oil producer to complain? Why, +if all that is alleged is true, will they persist in sinking more +wells, when, as they say, they are controlled by the Standard +Oil Company? No one forces them to lose money by continuing +in the business. Let them find other employment. +They do not show that the Standard Oil Company does anything +that combined capital on their part and equal business +ability could not effect.</p> + +<p>The cry of <ins title="Transcriber's Note: Original reads 'monoply'">monopoly</ins> in this case is altogether unfounded, +those opposed to the Standard Oil Company having just as +much right to do all that that company does, and, therefore, +there can be no monopoly, because they have no exclusive +powers.</p> + +<p>As to the railway companies, they can afford and have a +right to transport the tonnage offered them by the Standard +Oil Company at less cost, because it costs them less to do a +regular and large business than an irregular and smaller one. +They would simply be acting in accordance with business +principles the world over.</p> + +<p>These are the arguments, the statement of the position +of a successful combination confident in its resources and of +victory in the coming struggle. The justness, the correctness +of the doctrines enunciated, and the wisdom of so doing +at this crisis, we do not propose to criticise; but it is +very safe to say that if the prosperity of the complainants +depends upon relief in this direction they may as well cease +producing.</p> + +<p>There are too many of them for harmonious and concerted +action against the powerful corporations they complain of; +and if they should succeed in securing equal transportation +facilities the prices would still be regulated by the monopolists, +who carry more than four-fifths of the accumulated +stock of the oil regions.</p> + +<p>The proposed appeal to Congress to pass some law whereby +each producer can compel railroad companies to carry his +produce at regular rates, amounts to a confession of the desperate +straits of the producers and of their weakness as well; +and even if successful, which is most improbable, would not +remedy the deplorable existing state of things.</p> + +<p>Still lower rates would fail to give relief, with all the present +avenues of trade filled to repletion and with an increasing +output at the wells. Relief and permanent relief can be +found only in the direction we have before indicated: in +the general application of petroleum and its products to the +manufacture of gas for illuminating and heating purposes, +and its substitution for coal in the metallurgic and other +prominent industries of the world.</p> + +<div class="figcenter"><img src="images/fancyhr2-300.png" width="300" height="12" alt="fancy rule" /></div> + +<a name="art05" id="art05"></a> +<h3>THE LIMIT OF WORK.</h3> + +<p>In distributing the prizes to workmen at the Paris Exhibition, +Louis Blanc, the leader of the French Republican +Socialist party, quoted approvingly these words of Simonde +de Sismondi:</p> + +<p>"If the workman were his own master, when he had +done in two hours with the aid of machinery what would +have taken him twelve hours to do without it, he would +stop at the end of the two."</p> + +<p>M. Blanc had been discussing very eloquently, but also +very fallaciously, the relations of machinery to labor. If +men were properly united in the bonds of association, he +said, if the solidarity of interests were realized, "the happy +result of the application of mechanical power to industry +would be equal production, with less of effort, for all. The +discovery of an economic method would never have the +lamentable consequence of robbing men of the work by +which they live. Unfortunately, we are far from this ideal. +Under the empire of that universal antagonism which is the +very essence of the economic constitution of modern societies, +and which too often only profits one man by ruining +another, machinery has been employed to make the rule of +the strong weigh more heavily on the weak. There is not a +single mechanical invention which has not been a subject of +anguish and a cause of distress to thousands of fathers of +families from the moment it began to work."</p> + +<p>If all this, and much else that M. Blanc alleges, were true, +then the condition of all workingmen to-day should be in +every way worse than that of their fathers, in anti-machinery +days. But such is not the case. There never was a time +when the laborer toiled less or enjoyed more than in these +days of machinery; and the laborer's condition is best where +the machinery is best and most used.</p> + +<p>A hundred years ago the laborer toiled long, produced +little, and enjoyed less. To-day, thanks to the victories of +invention, machinery does the heaviest of the work; the +workman's hours of labor are fewer than formerly; his +wages are greater; and his earnings will buy vastly more, +dollar for dollar, than in any previous age in the world's +history.</p> + +<p>What laborer of to-day would be satisfied with the remuneration, +the food, the shelter, the clothing of the laboring +classes of one hundred years ago? The wants of men, +as well as their thoughts, are widened by the process of the +suns. And in no section of society have the daily wants +been more markedly increased, or the facilities for gratifying +them either, than among those that live by labor.</p> + +<p>"If the workman were his own master, when he had done +in two hours with the aid of machinery what it would have +taken him twelve hours to do without it, he would stop at +the end of the two."</p> + +<p>So says the theoretical socialist. The practical workman +never has, nor, we believe, ever will, act so foolishly; certainly +not until the limit of man's capacity to enjoy has been +reached. When the united products of manual and mechanical +effort fully satisfy the desires of all men, and leave +no margin of want unfilled, then and then only will men be +satisfied with the reduction of effort demanded by the +socialists. Until then the larger part of every increase in +production by mechanical improvements will go to swell the +volume of good things for human use and enjoyment. Our +machinery enables our thousands of busy workers to accomplish +what millions could not have done years ago, and a +very large part of the aggregate increase of product comes +back to them in conveniences and luxuries surpassing those +the wealthiest could enjoy were machinery not employed, +or were it employed, as the socialist advocates, without increasing +the aggregate of production. The laziness of the +savage and the advantages of civilization are incompatible. +The chief merit of machinery lies in its enabling us to multiply +constantly the scope and variety of our enjoyments +without a corresponding increase of toil.</p> + +<div class="figcenter"><img src="images/fancyhr2-300.png" width="300" height="12" alt="fancy rule" /></div> + +<a name="art06" id="art06"></a><h3>IRIDESCENT GLASS.</h3> + +<p>Ornamental glassware in many styles, tinted with the +glowing colors of the rainbow, is now making its appearance +in the shop windows of Broadway and Fifth Avenue. This +is one of those brilliant little achievements of science that +delights the eye and pleases the imagination. To produce the +colors, the glass, while in a heated state, is subjected to the +vapor of chloride of tin. Shades of more or less depth or intensity +are imparted by adding to the tin chloride a little nitrate +of strontium or barium.</p> + +<div class="figcenter"><img src="images/fancyhr2-300.png" width="300" height="12" alt="fancy rule" /></div> + +<a name="art07" id="art07"></a> +<h3>RAILS AND RAILWAY ACCIDENTS—NEW YORK +ACADEMY OF SCIENCES.</h3> + +<p>A meeting of the Section of Physics, New York Academy +of Sciences, was held November 25, 1878. President +J. S. Newberry in the chair. Numerous publications of +learned societies were received and acknowledged. Professor +Newberry read a letter from Professor Agassiz stating +that sea lilies, which had hitherto been very rare—a single +specimen bringing as much as fifty dollars—have been found +in some numbers by dredging in the Gulf of Mexico. Their +colors are white, pink, and yellow. Professor Newberry +also exhibited specimens of garnet from California, lamellar +quartz from North Carolina, sharks' teeth belonging to the +eocene and miocene tertiary ages from the phosphate beds of +South Carolina, and a number of shells.</p> + +<p>Professor Thomas Egleston then addressed the Academy +on the subject of "The Structure of Rails as Affecting +Railway Accidents."</p> +<a name="Page_369" id="Page_369"></a> + +<p>The destruction of rails is due to three causes. </p> +<ul class="none"> + +<li>1. Defects in the manufacture;</li> +<li>2. Improper mechanical or chemical composition; and</li> +<li>3. Physical changes.</li> +</ul> + +<p>A very large number of rails are annually made which +should never be put in any track. Their defects are often +imperceptible to the naked eye, but they very soon begin to +break. Statistics show that the breakage from defects in +making increase until they have been used 18 months; then +it decreases to zero, and after that rails break from different +causes. In France, breakage usually begins in December, +reaches its maximum in January, and becomes normal in +April. As a more intense cold would be necessary to explain +such breakage than that which is felt in that climate, the +cause must be sought in the stiffness and inelasticity of the +frozen road bed. The impact of the locomotive is then apt +to break the rail, very much on the same principle that is +taken advantage of in breaking them up for the manufacture +of smaller objects. A nick is made somewhere, and +the workman then strikes a blow with a hammer at a point +between the nick and the place where the rail is supported. +This will sever the rail at the nicked place. Sometimes +more than a second intervenes between the blow and the +fracture. Now, whenever holes are punched in rails for the +fish plates, flaws are apt to radiate from them; and if these +flaws are not planed or filed out, they may cause the rail to +break, just as the nicks above mentioned. Such rails have +been known to last no longer than 18 months, and some have +actually broken on the way from the manufacturer to their +destination. There are establishments in this country and in +Europe where they "doctor" such rails by filling up the +flaws with a mixture of iron filings, sal ammoniac, and some +adhesive substance. Beware of them; a poor cheap rail is +dear at any price. The French government stipulates in its +contracts for rails, that flaws shall be planed, drilled, or filed +out; that the rails shall not be allowed to drop on the ground, +but shall be carried by men and slid down. The Lyons railroad +does not pay for its rails until 15,000 trains have passed +over them.</p> + +<p>By imperfect mechanical composition is meant imperfect +union of the parts of rails. Steel heads are welded to the +rest of the rail in a variety of ways, and this welding is necessarily +imperfect. A number of sections of rails etched +with acid plainly showed this want of homogeneity, as did +likewise prints taken from the etched surfaces. Before such +rails have lost weight appreciably, they are used up by the +constant rolling they undergo. The advantage of a steel +rail is its homogeneity, but a good iron rail, such as those +made under the direction of the speaker, for the Reading +Railroad Company, is likely to prove better than one of poor +steel. The life of a steel rail is chiefly affected by the temperature +at which it is rolled and annealed. It ought not to +wear off more than 1 mm. for 20,000,000 tons of traffic, and +is usually calculated to wear 10 mm. before it is taken up. In +other words, it would last about 20 years on roads doing as +much business as the New York Central. It is, however, +unlikely that our steel rails will stand more than half this +amount of traffic.</p> + +<p>The effects of chemical composition are but little understood. +Some of the purest irons have turned out utterly +worthless. Apparently the absolute quantities of carbon, +silicon, aluminum, phosphorus, etc., present are not of so +much importance as their relative proportion. One specimen +containing carbon 0.16, silicon 0.08, and phosphorus +0.012, could be bent double when cold, while another, containing +carbon 0.58, silicon 0.56, and phosphorus 0.011 broke +at once.</p> + +<p>The physical tests for tensile and torsional strength, usually +made on a portion cut out of the head of the rail, are not +sufficient, because the flaws before spoken of exist mostly +in the flange of the rail, and fracture usually begins there.</p> + +<p>The effect of cold rolling and shocks that a rail is exposed +to was shown by a piece of rail made by the Campbells, +Sheffield, Eng., which had been worn 3 mm. by a traffic of +60,000,000 tons at Spuyten Duyvel. The head had been +somewhat flattened, and the flange driven down into the foot +to a certain extent. Under such usage an iron rail would +have gone to pieces long ago.</p> + +<p>Sometimes steel rails crumble all at once and pieces fall +out of the head. This is probably due to some physical defects +or to crystallization from shocks. The cause has not +yet been definitely ascertained.</p> + +<p>Mr. Collingwood stated that of a rail only a section of ⅜ +square inch was pressed by the wheel of a locomotive, the +effect being to cause this portion to act like a wedge, and +thus to contribute to the disintegration of the rail. He also +exhibited a hook which had been used to hoist stones of 10 +to 12 tons, and then suddenly broke with a weight of only +6½ tons. It had been worn from a thickness of 2 inches to +1⅞. The pressure at the upper surface crowded the particles +and caused them to act as wedges. Their fracture was +crystalline, while that of the lower surface, which parted +more slowly, was fibrous.</p> + +<p>Professor Egleston asserted that there was no such thing +as fibrous iron; what appeared so being simply crystalline +with the ends drawn out. A sharp blow would cause this +to fall off and show the crystalline structure beneath.</p> + +<p>The discussion was continued by Professors Trowbridge, +Egleston, and Newberry.</p> <p class="author">C. F. K.</p> + +<div class="figcenter"><img src="images/fancyhr2-300.png" width="300" height="12" alt="fancy rule" /></div> + +<p><span class="sc">Formation of Iodiform</span>.—All mixtures in which alcohol +and iodine enter in combination with any alkali forming +colorless solutions go in part to the formation of iodiform. +Even chloroform and iodine, forming a colorless solution, +give rise to the same product.</p> +<p class="author"> +—<i>L. Myers Connor.</i></p> + +<div class="figcenter"><img src="images/fancyhr2-300.png" width="300" height="12" alt="fancy rule" /></div> + +<a name="art08" id="art08"></a> +<h3>SANITARY SCIENCE IN THE UNITED STATES.</h3> + +<p>The following is an abstract of a paper on the Present and +Future of Sanitary Science in the United States, read by +Professor Albert R. Leeds, of the Stevens Institute of Technology, +before the New York Academy of Sciences at their +meeting, November 11th, 1878:</p> + +<p>Sciences, such as the one under consideration, that have +in them a side largely practical, are sure of a welcome in our +midst. The study of the laws of public health grew into +prominence in this country during the war, when the Sanitary +Commission undertook to supervise the camps and hospitals. +Sanitary associations were then formed in many States +and smaller communities, and these have led to the establishment +of State and city boards of health, clothed to a greater +or less degree with executive functions. Every epidemic +has been the cause of wider dissemination of sanitary knowledge +by the daily press. The yellow fever plague, by which +more than twelve thousand people have perished, has +thoroughly aroused public interest. During its continuance +the papers were full of homilies on private and public +hygiene, the people everywhere sent aid and sympathy to +the afflicted, and a lady offered to defray the expenses of a +scientific commission of sanitary experts to inquire into the +cause and prevention of the scourge. The proper execution +of sanitary laws depends on the free and intelligent co-operation +of individuals much more than on the influence of +a strong central authority. A general health department at +Washington could not legislate pure air, pure water, and +pure food into use throughout the nation. The people themselves, +in each community, must be educated to demand +these requisites of health and to secure them in their own +way.</p> + +<p><b>I. <i>Vital Statistics.</i></b>—The first "Bill of Mortality" in New +York city extended from November 1st, 1801, to January +1st, 1803. In it people are said to have died of "flux," +"hives," "putrid fever," "breaking out," "stoppage," "fits," +of "rash," and, by way of contrast, of "lingering illness." +This rude beginning gradually led to the organization of the +Metropolitan Board of Health, whose first report was made +in 1866. Their second report showed a decrease of 3,152 +deaths, mainly in districts where the greatest amount of sanitary +work had been done. Valuable illustrations of the relation +between damp houses and consumption were obtained +by constructing maps of certain wards, on which every death +from phthisis for several years was noted opposite each +house. It was found that the disease was most fatal in the +lowest levels, in rainy seasons, and in crowded localities.</p> + +<p>The registration of marriages continued so defective that +a writer on the subject declares it would be impossible for a +large portion of the adult native population of the United +States to prove by any legal document that they have a right +to the name they bear, or that their parents were ever married. +The mortality returns of 1871 were probably nearly +perfect, and their very accuracy told against New York city, +whose death rate was 28.6 per thousand, while St. Louis reported +17, Rochester 16, Buffalo 14, and Jersey City 7 per +thousand. To secure accuracy in the returns of marriages +and births, etc., more stringent legislation will be necessary.</p> + +<p>In New Jersey the State Sanitary Association has conclusively +shown the utter worthlessness of the State vital statistics. +They memorialized the legislature, and caused the +passage of a law which gives to New Jersey one of the best +systems of registration yet devised. It owes its excellence +to the following features, which should be universally +copied:</p> + +<p> 1. <i>Burial Permits</i> are issued only after registry has been +made by a properly qualified person; and</p> + +<p> 2. The returns are made to an <i>expert</i>, who collates them +and deduces practical lessons from them.</p> + +<p><b>II. <i>Registration of Disease</i>.</b>—A large class of diseases may +be prevented from becoming epidemic if their existence is +known in time. For this purpose the boards of health should +be invested with power and provided with means to investigate, +reform, and, if necessary, to punish delinquency. Yet +in the face of so practical a requirement little more is annually +appropriated for the Board of Health of New Jersey +than for the pay of two policemen.</p> + +<p><b>III. <i>State Sanitary Legislation</i>.</b>—The agitation for sanitary +reform caused by the yellow fever should not be allowed to +die out with the pressure of the calamity that aroused it. +It should continue until every State that has been the seat of +yellow fever, year after year, has as efficient a health code +as Massachusetts and Michigan. The necessity of educating +the people before it is possible to secure the requisite legislation +will cause a considerable period of time to elapse before +all the States have laws in accordance with modern knowledge. +Probably no community takes the trouble to protect +itself until it has actually suffered. To the distress of London +the world owes the report of the Royal Commissions on +water supply and the pollution of rivers, still the best repertory +of the best knowledge on the subject. The manufactories +of England have made it necessary for the government +to take cognizance of aerial impurities. Similarly in this +country the pollution of the Passaic has caused inquiries +to be set on foot in the same direction.<sup>*</sup></p> + +<div class="note"><sup>*</sup>See Report to Board of Public Works of Jersey City, by Professors +Wurtz and Leeds; also, Analyt. Beiträge aus dem Laboratorium des Stevens +Institute of Technology, by Professor Leeds, in <i>Zeitschr. fur Anal. +Chem. </i>1878.</div> + +<p>An attempt was made to deprive the inhabitants of New +York of their public parks, and to occupy them with buildings +devoted to military and other purposes; but the people +had already been sufficiently educated up to an appreciation +of their sanitary value not to permit it. Dr. Seguin eloquently +advocated the improvement of the parks, to make +them not only pleasure grounds, but places of æsthetical and +practical out-door education of the public school children.</p> + +<p><b>IV. <i>Ventilation</i>.</b>—It would be a great step in the interests +of sanitary science if builders, vestrymen, and school or hospital +trustees could be persuaded that their offices did not +make them temporary authorities on ventilation, and that +they had best intrust this matter to specialists who have +fought their way into successful practice.</p> + +<p>It appears that both the system of ventilation by aspiration +and that by propulsion have had great successes and +great failures. Many authorities have declared in favor of +mechanical ventilation, yet in most institutions where fans +had been introduced they are now standing still. In Roosevelt +Hospital, New York, they ran their fan backwards for +months and then stopped it.</p> + +<p><b>V. <i>Physical Education</i>.</b>—Instruction in hygiene and physical +exercise as a part of the college curriculum was first successfully +accomplished at Amherst College, and has now had +a trial of nearly twenty years. The importance attached to +it is shown by the fact that only distinguished members of +the medical profession are appointed as professors, and that +they have the same rank as the rest of the faculty. Their +first duty is to know the physical condition of every student +and to see that the laws of health are not violated. In case +of sickness, the students are given certificates to excuse them +from attendance and are put in the way of obtaining suitable +treatment. The records kept are of great interest. All +the classes are required to attend the gymnastic exercises +four times a week. For a full account see Professor Hitchcock's +report on Hygiene at Amherst College to the American +Public Health Association. The excellent results of +this feature—it can no longer be regarded as an experiment—recommend +its introduction in all our colleges and public +schools.</p> + +<p><b>VI. <i>Health Resorts</i>.</b>—The number of people who leave the +cities in the summer to visit the seashore, the mountains, +and the country is annually increasing. A healthful village +is often changed to a center of pestilence merely by such an influx +of strangers, the ordinary means of removing offal, etc., +being no longer adequate. The town of Bethlehem, N. H., +became so popular by reason of its pure air that several +thousand hay fever patients sought relief there in 1877. The +consequence was insufficient drainage; but as the inhabitants +understood their interests, this defect was at once remedied.</p> + +<p>The sea shore of New Jersey from Sandy Hook to Cape +May is becoming an almost continuous city, and harbors a +multitude of visitors every summer. Those whose interest +it is to retain this patronage cannot have it too strongly impressed +upon them to preserve their healthfulness by introducing +cemented cisterns, by causing garbage to be removed +daily, and by encouraging local boards of health.</p> + +<p><b>VII. <i>Illuminating Gas</i></b> not only withdraws from the air of +our rooms a considerable amount of oxygen, but fills them +with noxious products of combustion. All this may be +avoided in the future by the introduction of the electric light.</p> + +<p><b>VIII. <i>Sanitary Surveys</i>.</b>—Dr. Bowditch has shown that a +thousand deaths from consumption in Massachusetts are due +to a wet and retentive soil, and this fact alone will show the +importance of sanitary surveys of the country, such as that +made of Staten Island by Professors Newberry and Trowbridge, +who determined the influence of the surface soil, of +the underlying rock, its porosity, its bedding and its joints, +upon the drainage and upon the local climate and health. A +similar survey of Hudson county, New Jersey, has been recently +made by L. B. Heard, C.E.</p> + +<p><b>IX. <i>Composition of the Atmosphere</i>.</b>—The English government +has been obliged to appoint the celebrated Dr. Angus +Smith to examine the effects of atmospheric contamination. +In Philadelphia there is scarcely a house front that is not disfigured +by the stain of magnesia and lime salts, caused by +acid vapors in the atmosphere.</p> + +<p>A discussion followed, which was introduced by Mr. Collingwood, +who remarked that the problem of the sewage of +cities was still far from being solved. Though the recent experiments +in England on utilizing sewage for agricultural +purposes by filtration and otherwise were reported to be successful, +we had only dodged the question in this country. +Our sewage is still emptied into rivers to poison the water of +cities further down their course. When the country becomes +more thickly settled, this will answer no longer.</p> + +<p>It was also stated that while gas in large chandeliers could +be made an effective means of ventilation, there was another +objection to its use in the fact that the soil of the city was +everywhere impregnated with it from leaky mains, thus causing +poisonous exhalations and an insufferable odor whenever +the ground was opened. Attention was also called to the evil +effects of the system of tenement houses, which led to an unfavorable +comparison of the health and morality of New +York with those of cities like Philadelphia and Cleveland, +that abound in small homes.</p> + +<p>Dr. Minor attributed disease to what Richardson calls +"ultra-microscopic molecular aggregates," which always exist +in the air, but take hold of us only when our vitality is reduced +to a certain point. It has been shown that decay is +absolutely impossible in vessels from which they are excluded. +But for them the earth would now be heaped with +the undecomposed remains of animals and vegetables. According +to this view, the future efforts of sanitary science +must be simply in the direction of learning how to protect +ourselves against the "ultra-microscopic molecular aggregates."</p> + +<p class="author">C. F. K.</p> + +<div class="figcenter"><img src="images/fancyhr2-300.png" width="300" height="12" alt="fancy rule" /></div> + +<a name="Page_370" id="Page_370"></a> +<a name="art09" id="art09"></a> +<h3>Felling Trees by Electricity.</h3> + +<p>Some years ago a Doctor Robinson of this city obtained a +patent through the agency of the <span class="sc">Scientific American</span> for +Felling Trees by Electricity. Subsequently a description of +the invention was published in this paper, soon after which +the newspapers in this country and Europe teemed with the +account of a gentleman in India having contrived an apparatus +for felling trees in the same manner. Since these several +years have elapsed we have heard nothing of the gentleman +from India till a few days ago our papers have taken up +the subject anew, and annexed is the account they give of +the inventor's progress in developing his discovery.</p> + +<p>The electric fluid in the form of lightning oftentimes +proves itself a very efficient wood cutter, and it has occurred +to some ingenious gentleman in India that artificial +electricity may be so applied and controlled as to cut down +trees a good deal faster than the clumsy ax or that American +notion the chain saw. The two ends of the copper wires of +a galvanic battery are connected with platinum wire, which +of course instantly becomes red hot, and while in that state +it is gently seesawed across the trunk of the trees to be +felled. When arrangements were made for the experiment, +it turned out that the thickness of the thickest platinum wire +that could be got was only that of crochet cotton. It was at +once seen that such a wire would be consumed before the +tree was half severed from its trunk. However, the attempt +was made. The burning wire performed its task very well +as long as it lasted, but, as anticipated, the wire continually +broke, and at length there was no wire left. There can be +little doubt that, with a stronger battery and a thicker wire, +the experiment would have been entirely successful. As it +was, the tree was sawn one fifth through.</p> + +<div class="figcenter"><img src="images/fancyhr2-300.png" width="300" height="12" alt="fancy rule" /></div> + +<a name="art10" id="art10"></a><h3>AN IMPROVED VISE.</h3> + +<p>The novel vise shown in the engraving was recently +patented by Mr. William Starkey, of Pittsburg, Pa.</p> + +<div class="figcenter"> +<a href="images/04-vise.png"><img src="images/04-vise-300.png" width="300" height="275" alt="STARKEY'S VISE." /></a><br /><br /> +<p class="center"><b>STARKEY'S VISE.</b></p> +</div> + +<p>The fixed jaw is supported by two standards from the base +piece, and has a square boxing or tube for receiving the slide +of the movable jaw. This slide is hollow, and contains a +rack which is engaged by a pinion on the short vertical +shaft, which is supported by the fixed jaw. At the lower +end of the vertical shaft there is a worm wheel, that is engaged +by a worm on the horizontal shaft on which is placed +the hand wheel. By turning the hand wheel the vertical +shaft is rotated and the movable jaw is drawn against the +object to be clamped by the vise.</p> + +<div class="figcenter"><img src="images/fancyhr2-300.png" width="300" height="12" alt="fancy rule" /></div> + +<a name="art11" id="art11"></a><h3>Culinary Uses for Leaves.</h3> + +<p>A writer in the London <i>Iron Trade Exchange</i>, calling attention +to a neglected source of culinary flavors, says:</p> + +<p>"With the exception of sweet and bitter herbs, grown +chiefly for the purpose, and parsley, which is neither bitter +nor sweet, but the most popular of all flavoring plants, comparatively +few other leaves are used. Perhaps I ought also +to except the sweet bay, which is popular in rice and other +puddings, and certainly imparts one of the most pleasant +and exquisite flavors; but, on the other hand, what a waste +there is of the flavoring properties of peach, almond, and +laurel leaves, so richly charged with the essence of bitter +almonds, so much used in most kitchens! Of course such +leaves must be used with caution, but so must the spirit as +well. An infusion of these could readily be made, either +green or dry, and a tea or table spoonful of the flavoring +liquid used. One of the most useful and harmless of all +leaves for flavoring is that of the common syringa. When +cucumbers are scarce, these are a perfect substitute in salads +or anything in which that flavor is desired. The taste is not +only like that of cucumbers, but identical—a curious instance +of the correlation of flavors in widely different families. +Again, the young leaves of cucumbers have a striking likeness +in the way of flavor to that of the fruit. The same +may be affirmed of carrot tops, while in most gardens there +is a prodigious waste of celery flavor in the sacrifice of the +external leaves and their partially blanched footstalks. +Scores of celery are cut up into soup, when the outsides +would flavor it equally well or better. The young leaves of +gooseberries added to bottled fruit give a fresher flavor and +a greener color to pies and tarts. The leaves of the flowering +currant give a sort of intermediate flavor between black +currants and red. Orange, citron, and lemon leaves impart +a flavoring equal to that of the fruit and rind combined, +and somewhat different from both. A few leaves added to +pies, or boiled in the milk used to bake with rice, or formed +into crusts or paste impart an admirable and almost inimitable +bouquet. In short, leaves are not half so much used +for seasoning purposes as they might be.</p> + +<div class="figcenter"><img src="images/fancyhr2-300.png" width="300" height="12" alt="fancy rule" /></div> + +<a name="art12" id="art12"></a><h3>NEW SHUTTER FASTENER.</h3> + +<div class="figleft" style="width: 300px;"> +<a href="images/04-shutterfastener.png"><img src="images/04-shutterfastener-300.png" width="300" height="394" alt="IMPROVED SHUTTER FASTENER." /></a><br /><br /> +<p class="center"><b>IMPROVED SHUTTER FASTENER.</b></p> +</div> + +<p>We give herewith an engraving of a new shutter fastener, +recently patented by Mr. P. F. Fernandez, of San Juan, +Porto Rico, West Indies. This fastener is designed for holding +doors or window shutters in position when open, to prevent +them from closing or swinging in the wind.</p> + +<p>To the wall is secured a plate to which is pivoted the +spring-acted hook, A, and upon the shutter in the proper position +for engaging the hook, A, there is a rigid hook, B. A +coil spring is attached to the plate that supports the hook, A, +and when the shutter is open is engaged by a boss formed on +the end of the hook, B. By this means the hook, B, is +pressed forward into close contact with hook, A, thereby +preventing all jarring and rattling.</p> + +<p>The hook, A, is provided with an eye for receiving the +cord, C, which extends to the window casing and is within +easy reach, so that when it is desired to close the shutter the +hook, A, may be readily disengaged from the hook, B, by +simply pulling the cord.</p> + +<p>Further information may be obtained by addressing the +inventor as above.</p> +<br clear="all" /> + +<div class="figcenter"><img src="images/fancyhr2-300.png" width="300" height="12" alt="fancy rule" /></div> + +<a name="art13" id="art13"></a><h3>AN IMPROVED GARDEN SPRINKLER.</h3> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 300px;"> +<a href="images/04-gardensprinkler.png"><img src="images/04-gardensprinkler-285.png" width="285" height="400" alt="HODEL and STAUBER'S GARDEN SPRINKLER." /></a><br /><br /> +<p class="center"><b>HODEL & STAUBER'S GARDEN SPRINKLER.</b></p> +</div> +<br /> +<p>A novel garden sprinkler, which may be carried on the +back, is shown in the accompanying engraving. The cylindrical +vessel has a removable cover, and contains a perforated +plunger which is operated by a hand lever from without. +The cylindrical vessel is provided with shoulder straps, and +it has two sprinkling nozzles connected with it by flexible +tubes.</p> + +<p>This sprinkler is especially designed for applying insect-destroying +poison to plants. The operator, as he goes +through the field or garden, takes one nozzle in each hand +and distributes the liquid upon the plants. From time to +time the liquid will be agitated by moving the perforated +plunger.</p> + +<p>This invention was recently patented by Adolf Hodel, of +Jefferson, and F. A. Stauber, of Chicago, Ill.</p> + +<br clear="all" /> + +<div class="figcenter"><img src="images/fancyhr2-300.png" width="300" height="12" alt="fancy rule" /></div> + +<a name="art14" id="art14"></a><h3>A NEW FOOT POWER.</h3> + +<div class="figleft" style="width: 300px;"> +<a href="images/04-footpower.png"><img src="images/04-footpower-275.png" width="275" height="380" alt="LANE'S FOOT POWER." /></a><br /><br /> +<p class="center"><b>LANE'S FOOT POWER.</b></p> +</div> + +<p>In our issue of November 9 we illustrated and described a +sewing machine having W. F. Lane's improved foot power +applied. We give herewith views of the foot power in detail, +Fig. 1 being a side elevation, and Figs. 2 and 3 sectional +views. The device is designed for application to any light +machinery that can be propelled by foot power. A is the +shaft to which motion is to be imparted by the treadles, B, +the latter being pivoted to oscillate on the shaft, H. Two +ratchet wheels, C, are secured to the shaft, A, and are each +worked by pawls, D, which are pivoted to a carrier, E, +which turns loosely on the shaft. The pawls are in the +form of an elbow lever, and the movement of their tooth +ends is limited by lugs or shoulders on the carrier, E. The +outer ends of the pawls are received between lugs that project +from the plate, F, which turns loosely on the shaft, A, +and has attached to it the rope pulley, G. When the plate, +F, is turned in one direction the pawls are raised and ride +loosely over the teeth, but when the plate turns in the other +direction the pawls engage the ratchet teeth and carry them +and also the shaft, A. A guide pulley, I, is pivoted below +the shaft, A, with its axis at right angles to the shaft.</p> + +<p>The motion from the alternately-oscillated treadles, B, is +transmitted to the pulleys, G, by means of a rope (shown in +dotted lines), both ends of which are fastened by hooks to +some fixed point. This rope runs from one of the hooks +down under a pulley pivoted in the toe of one of the treadles, +thence around one of the pulleys, G, thence around the pulley, +I, over the other pulley, G, and downward around the +pulley in the other treadle, and upward to the second fixed +hook. The depression of one of the treadles causes the +shaft to rotate, and also lifts the other treadle into position +to be operated.</p> + +<p>For further information address Wm. F. Lane, Elgin, Ill.</p> + +<div class="figcenter"><img src="images/fancyhr2-300.png" width="300" height="12" alt="fancy rule" /></div> + +<a name="art15" id="art15"></a><h3>New Inventions.</h3> + +<p>Mr. Samuel Heaton, of Cedar Rapids, Iowa, has patented +an improved Iron Fence Post, which is particularly adapted +for wire fences. It is formed of a slotted iron bar, constituting +the post proper, and a triangular brace, which is so +connected with said bar that it may be easily adjusted at +different angles, corresponding to the undulation or unevenness +of the ground surface where the post is used.</p> + +<p>Mr. Thomas S. Alexander, of Meriden, Conn., has patented +an improved Drawer Pull, which is neat, strong, and +durable, and is less expensive than when made in the usual +way.</p> + +<p>An improved Earth Scraper has been patented by Mr. +Benjamin Slusser, of Sidney, Ohio. This is an improvement +in that class of earth scrapers which are arranged to +revolve for the purpose of dumping the load, and during +the intervals, or while being filled, are locked in rigid +position.</p> + +<p>An improvement in Wagon Bodies has been patented by +Mr. James H. Paschal, of Camden, Ark. This invention +consists, essentially, in a frame provided with spurs projecting +therefrom for engagement with the bales to prevent +them from slipping, and the combination therewith of removable +extension side and end pieces, for enabling the +wagon to be used for other purposes when not employed for +hauling cotton bales; there is an extension of the frame +forming a feed trough for the horses employed to draw the +vehicle.</p> + +<p>An improved Scraper has been patented by Mr. George +Eiteman, of Round Grove, Ill. This is a double-ended +scraper hung at its center on a rod connected to the handle +arms, whereby either end of the scraper may be used. It +has catches to prevent the scraper from revolving backward, +and spring actuated dogs on the handle frame to retain the +scraper in position and prevent it from turning over until +released.</p> + +<a name="Page_371" id="Page_371"></a> +<a name="art16" id="art16"></a> +<h3>AMATEUR MECHANICS.</h3> + +<p>For amusement, exercise, and profit we commend, to those +who are mechanically inclined, the practice of working with +tools of the smaller sort, either in wood or other of the softer +materials, or in metals, glass, or stone. This practice renders +the hands dexterous, the muscles strong, and the head +clear, with the further advantage of producing something +for either ornament or use. Of course a bench with a vise +and a few wood working and iron working tools will be required; +but the most expensive as well as the most essential +tool is a lathe. With this tool, not only turning in wood, +metal, ivory, rubber, etc., can be accomplished, but it may +also be used for screw-thread cutting, gear cutting, drilling +metals, boring wood, spinning metals, milling, sawing metal +and wood, grinding, polishing, moulding, shaping, and other +purposes. A first class plain lathe of small size cannot be +purchased for less than $50 or $60, and one of inferior quality +will cost $20 to $30.</p> + +<p>While the purchase of a lathe is recommended there may +be many who would prefer to make +one. A lathe that will do admirably +and which may be easily made is shown +in the accompanying engravings, Fig. +1 representing in perspective the lathe +complete; Fig. 2 is a perspective view +of the lathe without the table; Fig. 3 +is a vertical longitudinal section of the +lathe, showing the manner of securing +the head and tail stocks to the bars +which form the bed or shears.</p> + +<p>In making this lathe one pattern only +will be required for the two standards +of the head stock, and the support of +the ends of the bars. The lower part +of the tail stock is made in two parts, so +that they may be clamped tightly together +on the shears by means of the +bolt that passes through both parts, +and is provided with a nut having a +lever handle. The rest support is also +made in two parts, clamped together on +the ways in a similar way.</p> + +<p>The patterns may be easily sawed +from 1¼ inch pine. The holes that receive +the round bars should be chambered +to receive Babbitt metal, used in +making the fit around the bars forming +the shears, around the head and tail +spindles, and around the shank of the +tool rest. The smallest diameter of +the holes that receive the round bars +should be a little less than that of the +bars, so that the several pieces that are +placed on the bars may be fitted to +hold them in place while the Babbitt +metal is poured in.</p> + +<p>The dimensions of the lathe are as +follows:</p> + +<p>Length of round bars forming shears, +24 inches; diameter of bars, 1 inch; +distance from the upper side of upper +bar to center of spindle, 3 inches; between +bars, ¾ inch; between standards +that support the live spindle, 3½ inches; +size of standard above shears, ¾ x 1¼ +inch; diameter of head and tail spindles, +¾ inch; diameter of pulleys, 5 +inches, 3½ inches, and 2 inches; width +of base of standards, 5 inches; height of +standards, 7 inches.</p> + +<p>The live spindle should be enlarged +at the face plate end, and tapered at +both ends, as indicated in the engraving.</p> + +<p>The pulleys, which are of hard wood, +are made of three pieces glued together, +bored, and driven on the spindle, +secured by a pin passing through +both it and the spindle, and turned off. +The bars forming the shears may be either cold rolled iron +or round machinery steel; they will require no labor except +perhaps squaring up at the ends. The castings having been +fitted to the bars, and provided with set screws for clamping +them, the two standards that support the live spindle and +the support for the opposite end of the bars are put in position, +when the bars are made truly parallel, and a little clay +or putty is placed around each bar and over the annular +cavity that surrounds it, and is formed into a spout or lip at +the upper side to facilitate the pouring of Babbitt metal. The +metal must be quite hot when poured, so that it will run +sharp and fill the cavity. To guard against a possible difficulty +in removing the castings from the bars it might be well +to cover the side of the bar next the screw with a thin piece +of paper. The pieces of the tail stock and tool rest support +are fitted to the bars by means of Babbitt metal, the metal +being poured first in one half and then in the other. The +bolts which clamp the two parts of the rest support and tail +stock together are provided with lever handles. After fitting +the parts to the two bars by means of Babbitt metal, the +tail spindle, which is threaded for half its length, is placed +in the tail stock parallel with the bars and Babbitted. A +binding screw is provided for clamping the tail spindle, and +the spindle is drilled at one end to receive the center, and +has at the other end a crank for operating it. +A steel or bronze button is placed in the hole in the standard +that supports the smaller end of the live spindle, and the +spindle is supported in its working position and Babbitted.</p> + +<p>The thread on the spindle should be rather coarse, so that +wooden or type metal face plates and chucks may be used.</p> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 280px;"> +<a href="images/05-lathes.png"><img src="images/05-lathes-261.png" width="261" height="400" alt="LATHES FOR AMATEUR MECHANICS." /></a><br /><br /> +<p class="center"><b>LATHES FOR AMATEUR MECHANICS.</b><br /> +Fig. 1; Fig. 2; Fig. 3.</p> +</div> + +<p>The table shown in Fig. 1 is simple and inexpensive. It +consists of two pairs of crossed legs halved together and +secured to a plank top. A small rod passes through the rear +legs near their lower ends, and also through a piece of gas +pipe placed between the legs. A diagonal brace is secured +to the top near one end, and is fastened to the lower end of +the rear leg at the other end of the table.</p> + +<p>A block is secured to each pair of legs for supporting a +pair of ordinary grindstone rollers, which form a bearing for +the balance wheel shaft. This shaft has formed in it two +cranks, and it carries an ordinary balance wheel, to the side +of which is secured by means of hook bolts a grooved wooden +rim for receiving the driving belt. The cranks are connected, +by means of hooks of ordinary round iron, with a +treadle that is pivoted on the gas pipe at the rear of the table. +The shaft will work tolerably well, even if it is not turned. +The cranks must have half round grooves filed in them to +receive the treadle hooks. The size of the different diameters +of the drive wheel may be found by turning the larger +one first and the smaller ones afterward, using the belt to determine +when the proper size is reached. The wooden rim +may be turned off in position by using a pointed tool.</p> + +<p>The lathe above described, although very easily made and +inexpensive, will be found to serve an excellent purpose for +hand work, and if the holes, instead of being Babbitted, are +bored, and if the bars forming the shears are turned, the +lathe may be converted into a kind of engine lathe by placing +a feeding screw between the bars, and putting a small tool +post in the rest support.</p> + +<p class="author">M.</p> + +<br clear="all" /> + +<div class="figcenter"><img src="images/fancyhr2-300.png" width="300" height="12" alt="fancy rule" /></div> + +<a name="art17" id="art17"></a> +<p class="center"><b>Machine Shop Economy</b>.</p> + +<p>In times like the present, when even with good management +our best machine shops are enabled to exhibit but small +margins of profit, and shops with indifferent management +exhibit margins on the wrong side, it is a question of paramount +importance what kind of economy should be pursued +in order to maintain a successful business. The directors of +long established machinery enterprises differ widely upon +some methods of conducting business, and while one gains +success by pursuing a certain plan, another, with perhaps as +much ability, cannot pursue the same with satisfactory results.</p> + +<p>While in the main there are many different plans upon +which successful machinery establishments are conducted, +there are some underlying principles that must be observed +to avoid meeting with difficulties. The rate of wages paid +is certainly a large element of shop economy, but there are +so many other elements that should be considered before +wages are reached, that we often find proprietors, who pay +their workmen at a comparatively high rate, doing a more +prosperous business than their competitors who have reduced +wages to the lowest possible scale. Many machine shop +owners, not having mastered the various economies of management, +as soon as profits begin to shorten, pounce directly +upon the wages paid to their workmen, and pare them down +so as to make up for the deficiency elsewhere. They don't +seem to realize that there are important elements of economical +management other than closely watching the wages +of labor and the cost of material. It is +sometimes necessary to reduce the rate +of wages, but what a different effect it +has upon the men in different shops! +In one shop you scarcely hear a murmur—no +angry meetings—no threats of +a strike—no growling at the head of +the establishment. The intelligent +workmen understand the reasons for +the reduction without a wordy explanation, +and accept it, feeling confident +that it has not been unjustly made. In +another shop it causes ill feeling, angry +protests, and perhaps a disastrous +strike. The owner often charges his +trouble to the character of his workmen. +Let him review his course, and +see if the great cause is not in his own +management. Mechanics are keen and +observing. If the business is poorly +managed they are not slow to mark it, +and when a cut is made in wages can +generally cipher out the cause. It is +good economy to keep a systematic record +of the cost of everything. This +record will be found very valuable in +making estimates, much more so than +guess work. It is not good economy +to keep using worn-out tools when any +work of consequence is to be performed. +The extra cost of labor and +spoiled pieces would soon pay for new +tools. It is not good economy to keep +discharging capable workmen for petty +causes, and employing new hands to +take their places. It is poor economy +to use slow-cutting grindstones to accomplish +work that fast cutting emery +wheels are suited for. It is questionable +economy to employ lathes, planers, +and drills to perform work of any extent +that a milling machine will do +better in less time and at much less expense.</p> + +<p>It is decidedly bad economy to employ +engines and boilers that waste +fuel and are troublesome to keep in +good running condition. It is mistaken +economy to buy inferior tools, +machines, and shop supplies, because +they are low priced.</p> + +<p>It is very defective economy to fit +the parts of machines together by trial +instead of making them by aid of correct +drawings and standard tools for +accurate measurement. It is faulty +economy to practice borrowing and +lending working tools.</p> + +<p>The idea that economy consists in +withholding every expense not absolutely demanded is +erroneous. An extra outlay in one or another direction +often assures the saving as well as the making of money. +Wise economy looks to the future as well as the present, and +requires that all work sent out from a shop should be of the +best and most reliable character.</p> +<p class="author">—<i>American Machinist.</i></p> + +<div class="figcenter"><img src="images/fancyhr2-300.png" width="300" height="12" alt="fancy rule" /></div> + +<a name="art18" id="art18"></a><h3>The Reward of Invention.</h3> + +<p><i>Capital and Labor</i> publishes the substance of a letter from +Mr. Henry Bessemer with reference to the refusal of the +English Government, or of its ambassador in Paris, to allow +the Grand Cross of the Legion of Honor to be accepted by +its countrymen, and in his letter Mr. Bessemer furnishes +some autobiographic particulars which cannot fail to be of +interest. He tells us that at the age of eighteen he came to +London from a small country village, knowing no one, and +himself unknown; but his studious habits and his love of +invention soon gained for him a footing, and in two years +he was pursuing a method of his own invention for taking +copies from antique and modern bassi-rilievi in a manner +that enabled him to stamp them on a cardboard, thus producing +thousands of embossed copies of the highest works +of art, at a small cost. The facility for making a permanent +die, even from a thin paper original, capable of producing +a thousand copies, would have opened a wide door<a name="Page_372" id="Page_372"></a> +to successful fraud if the process had been known to unscrupulous +persons; for by its means, Mr. Bessemer states, +there is not a government stamp, or the paper seal of a corporate +body, that every common office clerk could not forge +in a few minutes at the office of his employer or at his own +home. The production of a die from a common paper +stamp is the work of only ten minutes; the materials cost +less than one penny. No sort of technical skill is necessary, +and a common copying press or letter stamp yields most successful +copies. There is no need for the would-be forger to +associate himself with a skillful die sinker, capable of making +a good imitation in steel of the original, for the merest +tyro could make an absolute copy on the first attempt. The +public knowledge of such a means of forging would, at +that time, have shattered the whole system of the British +Stamp Office, had a knowledge of the method been allowed +to escape. The secret has, however, been carefully guarded +to this day.</p> + +<p>During the time that Mr. Bessemer was engaged in studying +this question he was informed that the government +were themselves cognizant of the fact that they were losers +to a great amount annually by the transfer of stamps from +old and useless deeds to new skins of parchment, thus making +the stamps do duty a second or third time, to the serious +loss of the revenue. One official in high position said +that he believed they were defrauded in this way to the extent +of probably £100,000 per annum. To fully appreciate +the importance of this fact, and realize the facility afforded +for this species of fraud by the system then in use, it must +be understood that the ordinary impressed or embossed +stamp, such as is employed on all bills of exchange, if impressed +directly on a skin of parchment, would be entirely +obliterated by exposing the deed for a few months to a +damp atmosphere. The deed would thus appear as if unstamped, +and therefore invalid. To prevent this it has +been the practice as far back as the reign of Queen Anne +to gum a small piece of blue paper on to the parchment; +and for still greater security a strip of metal foil is passed +through it, and another small piece of paper with the printed +initials of the Sovereign is gummed over the loose ends of +the foil at the back. The stamp is then impressed on the +blue paper, which, unlike parchment, is incapable of losing +the impression by exposure to a damp atmosphere. But, +practically, it has been found that a little piece of moistened +blotting paper applied for a whole night so softens the +gum that the two pieces of paper and the slip of foil can +be removed from the old deed most easily, and be applied to +a new skin of parchment, and thus be made to do duty a +second or third time. Thus the expensive stamps on thousands +of old deeds of partnership, leases, and other old +documents, when no longer of value, offer a rich harvest to +those who are dishonest enough to use them. A knowledge +of these facts led Mr. Bessemer to fully appreciate +the importance of any system of stamps that would +effectually prevent so great a loss; nor did he for one moment +doubt but that government would amply reward success. +After some months of study and experiment, which +he cheerfully undertook (although it interfered considerably +with the pursuit of regular business, inasmuch as it was +necessary to carry on the experiments with the strictest +secrecy, and to do all the work himself during the night +after his people had left work), he succeeded in making a +stamp that satisfied all the necessary conditions. It was +impossible to remove it from one deed and transfer it to another. +No amount of damp, or even saturation with water, +could obliterate it, and it was impossible to take any impression +from it capable of producing a duplicate.</p> + +<p>Mr. Bessemer says that he knew nothing of patents or +patent law in those days; and adds that if he had for a +moment thought it necessary to make any preliminary conditions +with government he would have at once scouted the +idea as utterly unworthy, thinking his interests absolutely +secure. In this full confidence he sought an interview with +the then chief of the Stamp Office, Sir Charles Presley, and +showed him by numerous proofs how easily all his stamps +could be forged, and also the mode of prevention. He was +greatly astonished, and at a later interview he suggested that +the principle of the invention should be worked out fully. +This Mr. Bessemer was only too anxious to do; and some +five or six weeks later called again with a newly designed +stamp, which greatly pleased him. The design was circular, +about 2½ inches in diameter, and consisted of the Garter +with the motto in capital letters surmounted by a crown. +Within the Garter was a shield with the words "five +pounds." The space between the shield and the Garter was +filled with network in imitation of lace. The die had been +executed in steel, which pierced the parchment with more +than 400 holes, each one of the necessary form to produce +its special portion of the design. Since that period perforated +paper of this kind has been largely employed for valentines +and other ornamental purposes, but was previously +unknown. It was at once obvious that the transfer of such +a stamp was impossible. It was equally clear that dampness +could not obliterate it; nor was it possible to take any +impression from it capable of perforating another skin of +parchment.</p> + +<p>This design gave great satisfaction, and everything went +on smoothly; Sir Charles consulted Lord Althorp, and the +Stamp Office authorities determined to adopt it. Mr. Bessemer +was then asked if, instead of receiving a sum of +money from the Treasury, he would be satisfied with the +position of Superintendent of Stamps, at some £600 or £800 +per annum. This was all that he then desired, rejoicing +over the prospect, for he was at that time engaged to be +married, and his future position in life seemed assured. An +incident now occurred that reads almost like romance. A few +days after affairs had assumed this satisfactory position, he +called on the young lady to whom he was then engaged (now +Mrs. Bessemer), and showed her the pretty piece of network +which constituted the new parchment stamp, explaining +how it could never be removed from the parchment and +used again, and mentioning the fact that old deeds with +stamps on them dated as far back as the reign of Queen +Anne could be fraudulently used. She at once said, "Yes, +I understand this; but surely, if all stamps had a date put +upon them, they could not at a future time be used again +without detection?" This was indeed a new light, and +greatly startled the inventor, who at once said that steel dies +used for this purpose could have but one date engraved upon +them. But after a little consideration he saw that movable +dates were by no means impossible, and that this could +easily be effected by drilling three holes of about a quarter of +an inch in diameter in the steel die, and fitting into each of +these openings a steel plug or type with sunk figures engraved +on their ends, giving on one the date of the month, +on the next the month of the year, and on the third circular +steel type the last two figures of the year. This plan would +be most simple and efficient, would take less time and money +to inaugurate than the more elaborate plan that had been +devised; but while pleased and proud at the clever and simple +suggestion of the young lady, her future husband saw +also that all his more elaborate system of piercing dies, the +result of months of study, and the toil of many a weary and +lonely night, was shattered to pieces by it. He feared to +disturb the decision that Sir Charles Presley had come to, as +to the adoption of the perforated stamp, but, with a strong +conviction of the advantages of the new plan, felt in honor +bound not to suppress it, whatever might be the result. +Thus it was that he soon found himself again closeted with +Sir Charles at Somerset House, discussing the new scheme, +which he much preferred, because, as he said, all the old +dies, old presses, and old workmen could be employed, and +there would be but little change in the office—so little, in +fact, that no new superintendent of stamps was required, +which the then unknown art of making and using piercing +dies would have rendered absolutely necessary. After due +consideration the first plan was definitely abandoned by the +office in favor of the dated stamps, with which every one is +now familiar. In six or eight weeks from this time an Act +of Parliament was passed calling in the private stock of +stamps dispersed throughout the country, and authorizing +the issue of the new dated ones.</p> + +<p>Thus was inaugurated a system that has been in operation +some forty-five years, successfully preventing that source of +fraud from which the revenue had so severely suffered. If +anything like Sir Charles Presley's estimate of £100,000 per +annum was correct, this saving must now amount to some +millions sterling; but whatever the varying amount might +have been, it is certain that so important and long established +a system as that in use at the Stamp Office would never have +been voluntarily broken up by its own officials, except under +the strongest conviction that the losses were very great, and +that the new order of things would prove an effectual barrier +to future fraud. During all the bustle of this great +change no steps had been taken to install the inventor in the +office. Lord Althorp had resigned, and no one seemed to +have authority to do anything. All sorts of half promises +and excuses followed each other, with long delays between, +and Mr. Bessemer gradually saw the whole thing sliding out +of his grasp. Instead of holding fast to the first plan, which +they could not have executed without his aid and special +knowledge, he had, in all the trustfulness of youthful inexperience, +shown them another plan, so simple that they could +put it in operation without any assistance. He had no patent +to fall back upon, and could not go to law, even if he +wished to do so, for he was reminded, when pressing for +mere money out of pocket, that he had done all the work +voluntarily. Wearied and disgusted, he at last ceased to +waste time in calling at the Stamp Office, and he felt that +nothing but increased exertions could make up for the loss +of some nine months of toil and expenditure. Thus, sad +and dispirited, and with a burning sense of injustice overpowering +all other feelings, he went from the Stamp Office, +too proud to ask as a favor that which was indubitably his +just right, and he adds, "Up to this hour I have never received +one shilling or any kind of acknowledgment whatever +from the British Government." It is notorious, adds +the editor, that some of the most renowned and invaluable +inventions of recent years, especially those connected +with the navy, have narrowly escaped rejection by permanent +but ignorant officials; and that the authors of the inventions +have had to submit to delay, loss, annoyance, and +contumely before their processes could be tried, even after +their success had been officially demonstrated. Perhaps it +is not now so much a question of money, for it is to be +hoped that Mr. Bessemer is reaping the due reward of ingenuity +and skill in other fields of invention. But even his +discoveries in steel making, if they have very properly enriched +himself, have, in an infinitely larger degree, added to +the wealth of the country, and have given employment to +many thousands. Such a man is a public benefactor, and +eminently deserves recognition by the state, especially by +way of atonement for former neglect and injustice. Military +men receive titular honors and a pecuniary reward for +slaying a crowd of savages and burning their huts, while +the men who have helped to make England what she is, +commercially and industrially, are in most cases left to their +fate, which may chance to be pecuniary ruin.</p> + +<div class="figcenter"><img src="images/fancyhr2-300.png" width="300" height="12" alt="fancy rule" /></div> + +<a name="art19" id="art19"></a><h3>Oil Notes.</h3> + +<p class="center"><b>PENNSYLVANIA.</b></p> + +<p>The total production of crude petroleum for the first three +quarters of 1878 was 11,126,037 barrels, against 8,436,867 +barrels for the same time in 1877; increase in 1878, 1,689,170 +barrels.</p> + +<p>The total number of drilling wells completed for the first +three quarters of 1878 were 2,333, against 2,699 for the same +time in 1877; decrease in 1878, 366.</p> + +<p>The daily average production of the new wells completed +for the first three quarters of 1878 was 13 <span style="font-size: 0.8em;"><sup>2</sup></span>⁄<span style="font-size: 0.6em;">10</span> barrels, +against 14 <span style="font-size: 0.8em;"><sup>2</sup></span>⁄<span style="font-size: 0.6em;">10</span> for the same time in 1877; decrease in 1878, +1 barrel.</p> + +<p>The total number of dry holes developed in the first three +quarters of 1878 were 280, against 476 for the same time in +1877; decrease in 1878, 196.</p> + +<p>The total amount of crude petroleum held in the producing +regions of Pennsvlvania, at the close of the third quarter +of 1878, was 4,599,362 barrels, against 2,503,657 at the +same time in 1877; increase in 1878, 2,095,705 barrels.</p> + +<p>The amount of crude petroleum represented by outstanding +certificates on the last day of September was 1,705,853 +barrels, against 1,317,484 barrels on the last day of October, +a reduction during October of 158,127 barrels.</p> + +<p>Mr. J. M. Guffey has purchased of Marcus Hulings an undivided +half interest in the celebrated Kinzua Creek property +(Bradford district). The purchased portion contains +6,400 acres, on which there is a well that was struck in June +last, and since that time has been doing from 16 to 18 barrels, +and has never been torpedoed. Mr. Guffey looks upon +this as one of the best prospective oil territories in the +country.</p> + +<p>D. W. C. Carroll & Co., of Pittsburg, have kept from 45 +to 75 men employed, since June, in the oil regions, building +iron tanks, nearly all of which are located in the Bradford +district.</p> + +<p class="center"><b>WEST VIRGINIA.</b></p> + +<p>The Wheeling <i>Intelligencer</i> says: As noticed in our +Moundsville letter this morning, extensive preparations have +been made to bore for oil on the opposite side of the river at +the Union Coal Works shaft. The machinery was brought +down from Pittsburg on Tuesday, and is now being put in +position by contractors, who have engaged to go down 1,200 +feet. It will be recollected that for a long time past oil has +been found in the coal shaft, and the company who are putting +down the well feel confident that plenty of it exists +deeper down. Some parties look forward to the development +of the fact that Moundsville is situated in an important oil +break, and that oil in abundance will be found on both sides +of the river. The progress of the well will be looked forward +to with much interest by the people of that vicinity.</p> + +<p class="center"><b>MASSACHUSETTS.</b></p> + +<p>The Maverick Oil Works at East Boston have recently +made some very extensive additions and improvements, +lengthening their wharf and making a variety of alterations +in their buildings. They will shortly complete a new cooper +shop, wherein, it is probable, they will construct all the tin +cans required by the demands of their business.</p> + +<p class="center"><b>OHIO.</b></p> + +<p>The oil excitement has broken out afresh in West Mecca, +Warren county, Ohio. Oil men, heavily backed with capital, +have recently come in from Pennsylvania, and are making +things lively in that locality. Eight new wells have +been put in operation during the past week. This district +is the same where the principal excitement prevailed 18 +years ago.</p> + +<p class="center"><b>JAPAN.</b></p> + +<p>The Tokio <i>Times</i> states that the principal feature of American +trade with Japan is the petroleum exports from New +York. The enterprise was inaugurated only eight years ago; +but the business has so increased that while only 200 cases +of kerosene, valued at $600, were exported in 1870, in 1877 +366,639 cases were sent to Yokohama, and 128,158 cases to +Hiogo, whither none had before been carried direct. The +value of these consignments was over $1,000,000.</p> + +<p>Several refineries are in operation in Japan, making kerosene +from native petroleum.</p> + +<p class="center"><b>RUSSIA.</b></p> + +<p>The recent reports concerning the discovery of oil near +the shores of the Caspian Sea seem to be fully confirmed. +From one of the wells a stream, free from gas and froth, is +forced to a height of 75 feet, yielding at the rate of 10,000 +barrels a day. It is reported that companies are forming at +Odessa, Kovo-Tcherkask, Astrakhan, and other cities, for +the purpose of obtaining oil. Two large manufacturing +concerns, who have their headquarters in New York city, +recently received orders for considerable quantities of oil-line +pipes, steam pumps, engines, boilers, and other apparatus, +to be shipped immediately for St. Petersburg, Russia.</p> + +<p class="center"><b>ITALY.</b></p> + +<p>The oil wells of Italy comprise about 5, with a capacity +of about 30 barrels per day, of a thick substance of 14 gravity. +They are pumped by hand, which, though primitive, is +cheaper than steam, for both men and women are employed, +the former receiving as compensation for a day's work 1 +lira, equal to 20 cents; and the women 60 centessimi, equal +to 12 cents of our money. The wells are located in a deep +valley, and the oil carried up on the backs of donkeys to a<a name="Page_373" id="Page_373"></a> +refinery, where it is treated, and yields from 2 to 5 per cent. +of burning oil.</p> + +<p class="center"><b>PERU.</b></p> + +<p>It is proposed to build a pipe line from the refinery on the +estates of Henry Meiggs to the shipping port, a distance of +about 7 miles. It is stated that oil can be produced at this +point for less than 1 cent a gallon, and as the fields have +produced from time immemorial, there is no prospect of +their early exhaustion.</p> + +<p class="center"><b>ONTARIO.</b></p> + +<p>The oil refinery at St. Thomas, Ont., is running day and +night; 494 barrels of crude petroleum were brought from +Petrolia for it in one week recently.</p> +<p class="author">—<i>Stowell's Petroleum +Reporter</i>.</p> + +<div class="figcenter"><img src="images/fancyhr2-300.png" width="300" height="12" alt="fancy rule" /></div> + +<a name="art20" id="art20"></a> +<h3>Railway Notes.</h3> + +<p><span class="sc">The</span> new track laid in this country during the year ending +September 10, 1878, was 1,160 miles. During the six +preceding years the number of miles of track laid was: In +1872, 4,498; 1873, 2,455; 1874, 1,066; 1875, 702; 1876, 1,467; +1877, 1,176.</p> + +<p><span class="sc">The</span> statement made in the recent Narrow Gauge Convention, +that standard gauge freight cars weigh ten tons +and carry ten tons, is indignantly disputed by users of the +latter. One gentleman, having much to do with freight +cars, says that the modern freight cars weigh from 17,000 to +18,000 lbs., commonly carry (and that on long hauls) 28,000 +lbs., are guaranteed to carry 30,000 lbs., while he has seen +them show on the scales 30,000 and 32,000 lbs. of load, and +in one case 35,000 lbs. The general tendency for some +years has been to increase loads without increasing, but in +many cases decreasing, weights of cars; and it seems quite +likely that 30,000 lbs. will soon be the standard load. The +tank cars used for carrying petroleum have an average +capacity—and they are almost always run full—of 30,000 +lbs. The Standard Oil Company, which has some 3,000 of +such cars, carried on four-wheeled trucks with the Master +Car Builders' standard axle, has run them with such loads +for years, and only recently had its first case of a broken +axle, manifestly due to a defect in the iron.</p> + +<p><span class="sc">Interesting</span> observations have been made recently on +the Cologne-Minden Road, Prussia, on the rusting of iron +rails. A pile of rails of odd lengths were laid on sleepers +over a bed of gravel early in 1870, and remained undisturbed +until the fall of 1877, there being no use for them. It was +then found that they were covered with a layer of rust 0.12 +inch thick, which had to be removed by striking the rail +with a hammer. The cleaned rail weighed only 398.2 lbs., +while its original weight was 419.1 lbs., showing that 5 per +cent. of the rail had been destroyed by rust, which covered +the rail quite uniformly. This confirms the observation +often made, that rails stacked away are much more liable to +rust than those laid down in a track.</p> + +<p><span class="sc">According</span> to <i>Le Fer</i>, at a meeting of directors of the +German railroads held at Constance, the following information +was furnished in regard to the relative value of the different +methods of injecting ties:</p> + +<p> 1. Railroad from Hanover and Cologne to Minden. Pine +ties injected with chloride of zinc; after 21 years the proportion +of ties renewed was 21 per cent. Beech ties injected +with creasote; after 22 years, 46 per cent. Oak ties +injected with chloride of zinc; after 17 years, 20.7 per cent. +Oak ties not injected; after 17 years, 49 per cent. The conditions +were very favorable for experiment; the road bed +was good, and permitted of easy desiccation. The unrenewed +ties showed, on cutting, that they were in a condition +of perfect health.</p> + +<p> 2. Railroad "Kaiser-Ferdinands-Nord." Oak ties not injected; +after 12 years the proportion renewed was 74.48 per +cent. Oak ties injected with chloride of zinc; after 7 years, +3.29 per cent. Oak ties injected with creasote; after 6 years, +0.09 per cent. Pine ties injected with chloride of zinc; after +17 years, 4.46 per cent.</p> + +<p><span class="sc">The</span> annual official reports of the railroads of India place +the length of railways there at 7,551½ miles, of which 492½ +miles were completed during the year 1877, and 223 miles +since the close of the year. There are 806½ miles of double +track; 5,912¾ miles are constructed on the 5 foot 6 inch +gauge, and 1,638¾ on narrower gauges. The capital outlay +on the State lines amounted to £3,122,051, and on the +guaranteed lines to £1,374,882, bringing the total capital +expenditure, up to the end of October, as regards the State, +and to the end of March last, as regards the guaranteed +lines, to £113,144,541. The expenditure up to the end of +the year may be taken in round numbers at £13,344,500. +The revenue from all the open lines was £6,232,888, of +which £6,091,532 were earned by the guaranteed lines, with +a capital of £95,482,941, and £141,356 were earned by the +State lines, on a capital expenditure of £17,661,600. The +net receipts from the guaranteed lines exceeded the amount +advanced for guaranteed interest by £1,454,591; the year +previous there was a deficit of £216,517.</p> + +<p><span class="sc">A French</span> engineer named Duponchel has made a report +on the project of a railroad across the Desert of Sahara. +The projected railway would run from Algiers to Timbuctoo, +a distance of 2,500 kilometers. M. Duponchel stated +that the principal portion of the line would rest during +nearly its whole extent on layers of sand, and toward the +end on primitive volcanic rocks, granite, gneiss, etc. No +mountainous obstructions would have to be encountered. +The average heat does not appear to exceed 23° or 24° C. +(73 2-5° or 75 1-5° Fah.), but account must be taken of the +great variations which occur in the 24 hours. For instance, +occasionally, a very cold night succeeds a temperature of +40° C. (104° Fah.) in the day time. The great difficulty to +be overcome would be the want of water, which is not to +be procured in that region. M. Duponchel calculates that +for three trains daily the amount of water required would +be 4,000 cubic meters, and that the engineering science of +the day is quite sufficient to supply even a much greater +quantity at the requisite points.</p> + +<p><span class="sc">The</span> government of Costa Rica has advertised for tenders +for building bridges on the second Atlantic Division of its +railroad. There will be needed 194 bridges. The bridges will +vary in length from 3 feet to 1,044 feet, and will be built for +a track of 3 foot 3½ inch gauge. They will be of sufficient +strength to stand a strain of 2,240 lbs. to the lineal foot, in +addition to the weight of the usual freight carried.</p> + +<div class="figcenter"><img src="images/fancyhr2-300.png" width="300" height="12" alt="fancy rule" /></div> + +<a name="art21" id="art21"></a> +<h3>THE WERDERMANN ELECTRIC LIGHT.</h3> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 230px;"> +<a href="images/07-lamp.png"><img src="images/07-lamp-225.png" width="225" height="375" alt="FIG. 1 - THE WERDERMANN LAMP." /></a><br /><br /> +<p class="center"><b>THE WERDERMANN LAMP.</b> +</p> +</div> + +<p>It has been looked upon as essential that a certain distance +should separate the ends of the carbon electrodes used in +electric lamps. Every one has accepted this as an axiom. +Mr. Werdermann's skepticism has, however, caused him to +doubt the axiom, and the result is that he has discarded the +electric arc space, and by placing his electrodes in actual +contact, has produced a lamp which provides the means of +dividing the electric current, and promises to give almost +any number of lights from a single machine. Mr. Werdermann's +inventions, says the <i>Engineering</i>, are secured by patents +considerably in advance of those of Mr. Edison, and +may in their chief points be explained as follows:</p> + +<p>In place of two electrodes of similar form and dimensions, +one electrode consists of a large bun-shaped disk of carbon +placed with the rounded face downward. The other carbon +is a fine rod of carbon of about ⅛ or <span style="font-size: 0.8em;"><sup>5</sup></span>⁄<span style="font-size: 0.6em;">32</span> inch in diameter. +The upper end of this is pointed and maintained in contact +with the center of the lower surface of the disk. This rod +is supported by means of a spring collar, which also forms +the circuit connection. This is within about ¾ in. of the +top of the carbon, so that the ¾ in. becomes incandescent, +and the contact between the two carbons being only a point, +a small electric arc is produced between the two carbons, +while the electricity is at the same time passed on through +the carbon disk, and the connections there attached to the +next lamp.</p> + +<div class="figleft" style="width: 320px;"> +<a href="images/07-current.png"><img src="images/07-current-315.png" width="315" height="400" alt="DIAGRAM OF CURRENT." /></a><br /><br /> +<p class="center"><b>DIAGRAM OF CURRENT.</b></p> +</div> + +<p>Referring to our diagrams, in Fig. 1 the upper carbon is +shown at C, and the rod carbon at c. The former is supported +by means of an adjustable jointed bracket, B, attached +to the wood stand. The rod carbon is guided by the spring +collar on the top of the stand, and to which the connection +is made, and is supported by the fine cord running over the +pulley, P. This cord is attached to the clasp, D, at the bottom +of the rod, and to the balance weight, W, by which the +rod is maintained in constant, practical, though not absolute +contact with the disk. Round the upper part of the disk is +a metal band, A, to which the circuit wire is attached, and +the current thus passed on to the next lamps.</p> + +<p>At a recent trial of this lamp, the current was derived +from a small Gramme electro-plating machine, requiring +only 2 horse power to put it in full work. It may therefore +be assumed that this was about the limit of the power at +work to produce the light. At the commencement of the +proceedings two lights were maintained, each stated to be +equal to 320 sperm candles. At this rate the two lights +would be equal to 640 candles, or 40 full power gas lights, +each consuming 5 cubic feet of 16 candle gas per hour. +Such gas lights, it may be observed, are not often seen, except +in the argand form. The two lights burned with extreme +steadiness, there being no undulation, or flickering +whatever, although there was no glass globe to tone down +any variations of luster. The lights were perfectly bare and +unprotected, and the place where the trial was made was a +workshop of moderate size.</p> + +<p>Later in the evening one light was exhibited outside the +building, in an open thoroughfare, and the same perfect +steadiness was observable. After the two lights had been +burning for a time they were extinguished, and the current +was sent through a row of ten lamps. The light per lamp +was of course reduced, but there was the remarkable fact +that ten lights were maintained by a comparatively weak +machine, driven by an engine exerting the power of only +two horses.</p> + +<p>The light of each of these ten lamps was stated to be that +of 40 candles, making, therefore, a total of 400. A reduction +of light, consequent on the further division of the current, +is thus apparent; but for this loss there may be ample +compensation in the superior economy of a distributed light +as compared with one that is concentrated. In the case of +the ten lamps, the light is equal to that of 25 full power gas +lights, consuming altogether 125 cubic feet of gas per hour. +The extremely small arc due to the peculiar arrangement of +the carbons in the Werdermann light has the advantage of +offering the least possible resistance to the passage of the +current.</p> + +<p>This resistance increases much more rapidly than is represented +by increase of distance between the carbon points. +Hence the electric power with Werdermann's lamp is economized +to the utmost in this respect, and it becomes possible—as +in the recent experiment—to make use of an electric +current large in quantity but of low intensity. The tension +being small, there is the less difficulty with regard to insulation. +If one lamp or more should be accidentally extinguished, +the rest will continue to burn. The whole of the +lamps can also be extinguished and relit by merely stopping +the current and then sending it on again. No nice and +troublesome adjustment with reference to the length of the +electric arc is requisite, and simple contact between the +point of the rod and the surface of the disk is sufficient for +the manifestation of the light.</p> + +<p>In respect to duration, a carbon rod <span style="font-size: 0.8em;"><sup>5</sup></span>⁄<span style="font-size: 0.6em;">32</span> in. in diameter, +and a yard long, obtained from Paris, costs a franc. This, +placed in a large lamp, having an estimated lighting power +of 320 candles, will last from 12 to 15 hours. The smaller +lamps take a carbon of ⅛ in. diameter.</p> + +<p>Mr. Werdermann endeavors to make the resistance of the +external portion of the circuit equal to the internal resistance, +in order to obtain the greatest effect. It is well known +that the best results are obtained when the internal and external +resistances are equal. The method adopted is that +known to electricians as the divided arc, and will easily be +understood from Fig. 2. Let B represent the source of the +electric current, and A a copper wire connected to the positive +and negative poles of the source as in the diagram. The +wire, A, has a certain resistance. Suppose, now, we arrange +for the current to pass as in the diagram, Fig. 3. By +the insertion of the new wire, C, we have lessened the total +external resistance and increased the current, as will be seen +by reference to Ohm's law.</p> + +<table summary="equation"> +<tr> + <td class="left1">C = </td> + <td class="left1"> E<br /><span style="text-decoration: overline;">(R+r)</span></td> +</tr> +</table> + <p style="line-height: 30%">where C = current; +E = electromotive force; R = resistance external; r = +resistance internal. </p> +<p style="line-height: 30%"> +The fraction </p> + +<table summary="equation"> +<tr> + <td class="left1"> E<br /><span style="text-decoration: overline;">(R+r)</span></td> +</tr> +</table> +<p style="line-height: 30%">increases as its denominator +is lessened.</p> + +<p>The current passes along the two branches in equal quantities +if the resistances of the wires are equal, but inversely +as the resistances if they are unequal. Thus, if the branch, +A, has a resistance, 9, and C has a resistance, 1, <span style="font-size: 0.8em;"><sup>9</sup></span>⁄<span style="font-size: 0.6em;">10</span> of the +current will pass through C, and <span style="font-size: 0.8em;"><sup>1</sup></span>⁄<span style="font-size: 0.6em;">10</span> through A. Similarly, +for any number of branches the current will divide itself according +to the resistances. If, then, we have a number of +branches, as indicated in Fig. 4, the current will divide itself +equally among the branches when the resistances of the +branches are equal. This is the arrangement adopted by +Mr. Werdermann, as will be seen from the annexed diagram, +Fig. 5, in which N and P represent the negative and +positive poles of the machine, and L L the electric lamps.</p> + +<p>When any one lamp is put out the inventor arranges that +an equivalent resistance shall be put into the circuit, so +that as a whole the circuit is unaltered, and the other lamps +unaffected.</p> + +<div class="figcenter"><img src="images/fancyhr2-300.png" width="300" height="12" alt="fancy rule" /></div> + +<a name="Page_374" id="Page_374"></a> +<a name="art22" id="art22"></a><h2>CASSON'S SAW BENCH.</h2> + +<p>We give herewith a perspective view of a circular saw +bench made by Messrs. Oliver & Co. (Limited), of Chesterfield, +England, which we take from <i>Engineering</i>. The chief +features in this machine are that it is fitted with Mr. John +Casson's patent feed gear and apparatus for steadying the +saws. This feeding arrangement has now been in use some +years, and has been fitted to a very large number of circular +saw benches. This being the case, and the arrangement being +very clearly shown by our engraving, it will be unnecessary +for us to describe it in detail here.</p> + +<p>The saw-steadying apparatus, with which the saw bench +we illustrate is fitted, is a novel arrangement, recently +patented by Mr. Casson; in the present case it is applied +to two saws.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 450px;"> +<a href="images/08-sawbench.png"><img src="images/08-sawbench-425.png" width="425" height="400" alt="BENCH WITH SAW-STEADYING APPARATUS." /></a><br /><br /> +<p class="center"><b>BENCH WITH SAW-STEADYING APPARATUS.</b></p> +</div> + +<p>The steadying arrangement consists of accurately fitted +sliding jaws mounted +on the arms of +a forked support, so +that they can be +moved and adjusted +only by fine threaded +screws, the jaws +having their surfaces +next the saws, +accurately parallel +with the plane of +the collar of the saw +spindle; these jaws, +A, are fixed when +the adjusting screws +are at rest, and they +are faced with strips +of greenheart or +other suitable timber, +secured by +countersunk screw +bolts, these faces +forming a perfectly +true guide for the +saw blades.</p> + +<p>For a single saw +the guides just described +would suffice; +but for two or +more saws the outside +guides must +be supplemented by +others between the +saw blades.</p> + +<p>It will be noticed +that the support, F, +carrying the guiding +jaws, has a +square stem sliding +through the head of +a suitable standard, +and it can be readily +fixed at any desired +height by +means of the set +screw.</p> + +<p>The arrangement +we have been describing +is well carried +out, and there +can be no doubt +that it will do good +service, and enable +thin saws to be efficiently used with a heavy feed. We have +received very satisfactory reports of its performance.</p> + +<div class="figcenter"><img src="images/fancyhr2-300.png" width="300" height="12" alt="fancy rule" /></div> + +<a name="art23" id="art23"></a><h2>A Bait for Inventors.</h2> + +<p>I will give $200 for a machine that will bale hay in the +field. Rake and press combined would be preferable, but +would not object to its taking the hay in the windrow. The +machine must be expeditious, executing as fast as a mower +is able to cut. Must have sufficient power to make a bale +suitable for commercial uses; shape of the bale immaterial; +a round one preferred. Must be of light draught; one team +is generally all that is available for any machine on the +farm. These, with the other qualifications demanded of +every machine, simplicity, durability, easy to manage, etc. +If such an invention could be produced it would make a +revolution in the hay field almost equal to that which the +mower has made.</p> + +<p>What an awkward, ungainly spectacle a man presents, +struggling at one end of a six foot pole, with a ten pound +lock of hay at the other end, endeavoring with all his might +and main to elevate it 12 or 15 feet on top of a load! It is +an insult to human intelligence. A load of loose hay is an +uncertain quantity. You are never sure of getting it into +the barn. Top heavy, one sided, too wide or too high for +the doors; and even with the best of luck, a good percentage +has drizzled in the wake of the wagon over the lot to +the barn. A 100 or 200 lb. bale, with an inclined plane, or +a pulley on side or aft of a good strong rack, and all this barbarism +has succumbed to civilization.</p> + +<p>At the barn comes a worse servitude. (I don't mean the +horse fork; that is a grand lift to civilization. I hope to +modify it shortly to throw bales.) There a man struggles +with sheer desperation to press by his own avoirdupois 20 +tons of hay into a place that won't hold 10. Tramp, tramp, +tramp, leg-weary, panting like an overheated dog, every +fiber of his clothing saturated with perspiration, a subject +worthy of a better immortality than the Greek slave. O +Edison! don't fritter away your genius on sounding brass +and tinkling cymbal. Elevate the laborer. Liberate our +overworked people. Make us a chariot to press our hay.</p> +<p class="author">—<i>Edmund +Adams, North Manlius, N. Y., to the New York +Tribune.</i></p> + +<div class="figcenter"><img src="images/fancyhr2-300.png" width="300" height="12" alt="fancy rule" /></div> + +<a name="art24" id="art24"></a><h2>A Silver Mill in the Clouds.</h2> + +<p>The largest and most complete silver mill ever constructed, +says the San Francisco Stock Report, has recently been built +by Messrs. Rankin, Brayton & Co., of the Pacific Iron +Works of that city, for the Cerro de Pasco Mining Company, +of Peru, and shipped for Callao, the port of destination. +This enormous mill consists of 80 stamps, 900 lbs, +each, 44 live foot amalgamating pans, 22 nine foot settlers, +and all the accessories of a first-class modern mill. It is to +be erected upon the above named mines, which are situated +in the heart of the Andes, some 150 miles east of the city of +Lima, at an elevation of more than 14,000 feet. To admit +of mule transportation a portion of the way up this tremendous +ascent, the mill had to be made in sections, no piece +weighing more than 500 lbs. Some idea of the magnitude +of this work may be inferred from the fact that the mill, as +thus constructed, consisted of more than 17,000 pieces, and +weighed upward of 600 tons. This enormous amount of +machinery was constructed by the above firm and put on +board a ship 50 days from date of contract.</p> + +<p>The Cerro de Pasco mines have been the richest and most +famous in the world's history. They have been worked by +the old arastra process for the past 200 years, and have produced, +according to the most authentic records, more than +$500,000,000. With such improved machinery the product +of these mines will undoubtedly attract the attention of the +world, and so reflect great credit upon the capacity, ingenuity, +and skill of our mechanical establishments.</p> + +<div class="figcenter"><img src="images/fancyhr2-300.png" width="300" height="12" alt="fancy rule" /></div> + +<a name="art25" id="art25"></a><h2>Poultices.</h2> + +<p>The common practice in making poultices of mixing the +linseed meal with hot water, and applying them directly to +the skin, is quite wrong, because, if we do not wish to burn +the patient, we must wait until a great portion of the heat +has been lost. The proper method is to take a flannel bag +(the size of the poultice required), to fill this with the linseed +poultice as hot as it can possibly be made, and to put +between this and the skin a second piece of flannel, so that +there shall be at least two thicknesses of flannel between the +skin and the poultice itself. Above the poultice should be +placed more flannel, or a piece of cotton wool, to prevent it +from getting cold. By this method we are able to apply the +linseed meal boiling hot, without burning the patient, and +the heat, gradually diffusing through the flannel, affords a +grateful sense of relief which cannot be obtained by other +means. There are few ways in which such marked relief is +given to abdominal pain as by the application of a poultice +in this manner.</p> +<p class="author">—<i>Dr. T. Lauder Brunton, in Brain.</i></p> + +<div class="figcenter"><img src="images/fancyhr2-300.png" width="300" height="12" alt="fancy rule" /></div> + +<a name="art26" id="art26"></a> +<h2>New Mechanical Inventions.</h2> + +<p>Mr. Joseph Adams, of Washington, D. C., has patented +an improved Gas Regulator, designed either to cut off the +gas entirely or to let on a larger amount of gas than its automatic +action would ordinarily permit, or to allow the regulator +to operate with an automatic action, as usual.</p> + +<p>Mr. Jean A. Hitter, Jr., of St. Martinsville, La., has patented +an improved Type Writer, of simple and compact +construction, that +may be readily used +for printing on paper +and for other +purposes, being +small enough to be +carried conveniently +in the pocket, if +desired, and readily +operated with little +practice.</p> + +<p>Messrs. Edwin N. +Boynton, Geo. M. +Coburn, and Thos. +F. Carver, of Worcester, +Mass., have +patented an improved +Hand Drilling +Machine, by +which a fast or slow +motion can be +readily obtained, at +the will of the +operator, the slower +motion being especially +advantageous +in drilling large +holes, as more power +is obtained, and +the holes are drilled +with greater ease.</p> + +<p>Mr. Reuben R. +James, of Rising +Sun, Ind., has devised +an improved +Adding Machine of +simple and comparatively +inexpensive +construction. The +chief feature of the +machine is a series +of toothed revolving +counting wheels, +which are inscribed +on their peripheries +with the nine digits +and cipher, and +mounted loosely on +a common axis, and +each having four +lateral inclines or +cams, which cause, +at the proper time, +a weighted pawl lever to engage the next counting wheel on +the left, so as to carry ten when the numbers added on the +wheel on the right exceed ten. The adding is effected by +successively drawing down to a stop on the finger board the +teeth of the counting wheels which are opposite the numbers +to be added, and the numerical result will be seen on the +wheels in a series of slots or apertures in the case of the machine.</p> + +<p>Mr. Jacob Croft, of Scipio, Utah Ter., has devised an improved +Turbine Water Wheel, which is constructed to prevent +back pressure by the water against the casing as it +escapes from the buckets. Sand and other substances in the +water are prevented from entering around the shaft and cutting +or wearing it.</p> + +<p>An improvement in Sweeping Machines has been patented +by Mr. Isaac A. Chomel, of Brooklyn, N. Y. This invention +relates to apparatus for sweeping up and collecting dirt, +dust, and other refuse from floors, carpets, streets, and other +places. The dust box is to be rolled over the floor and the +brush revolved by a winch. The speed of the brush is +independent of the motion of the machine along the floor.</p> + +<p>Mr. D. A. Ferris, of Tioga Center, N. Y., has patented an +improved Implement for Forcing Flooring Planks together +when laying floors. It is simple, convenient, and powerful.</p> + +<div class="figcenter"><img src="images/fancyhr2-300.png" width="300" height="12" alt="fancy rule" /></div> + +<a name="art27" id="art27"></a><h2>Effect of Quinine on the Hearing.</h2> + +<p>It is a well known fact to medical men that there exists a +great prejudice among a large number of people against +taking quinine, the idea being very prevalent that a prolonged +use of it not only affects the hearing, but (to use the +common expression) that it "gets into the bones." As regards +the former belief, Dr. Roosa, of New York, has recently +been collecting and examining the evidence as far as +possible, and has come to the conclusion that in some cases<a name="Page_375" id="Page_375"></a> +there really is a permanent nervous affection of the ear produced +which justifies the opinion held by the laity. Hitherto +physicians have generally disbelieved this, and ascribed +the notion to prejudice.</p> + +<div class="figcenter"><img src="images/fancyhr2-300.png" width="300" height="12" alt="fancy rule" /></div> + +<a name="art28" id="art28"></a><h2>The Microphone as a Thief Catcher.</h2> + +<p>The microphone as a thief catcher has proved very useful +to an English resident in India, who found his store of oil +rapidly and mysteriously diminishing. He fixed a microphone +to the oil cans, carried the wire up to his bedroom, +and, after the house had been closed for the night, sat up +to await the result. Very shortly he heard the clinking of +bottles, followed by the gurgling sound of liquid being +poured out, and running downstairs he caught his bearer in +the act of filling small bottles with oil for easy conveyance +from the premises.</p> + +<div class="figcenter"><img src="images/fancyhr2-300.png" width="300" height="12" alt="fancy rule" /></div> + +<a name="art29" id="art29"></a><h2>The Tallest Tree in the World.</h2> + +<p>The tallest accurately measured <i>Sequoia</i> standing in the +Calaveras Grove, near Stockton, California, measures 325 +feet, and there is no positive evidence that any trees of this +genus ever exceeded that height. Of late years, explorations +in Gippsland, Victoria, have brought to light some +marvelous specimens of <i>Eucalyptus</i>, and the State Surveyor +of Forests measured a fallen tree on the banks of the +Watts River, and found it to be 435 feet from the roots to the +top of the trunk. The crest of this tree was broken off, +but the trunk at the fracture was 9 feet in circumference, +and the height of the tree when growing was estimated to +have been more than 500 feet. This tree, however, was +dead, though there is no doubt that it was far loftier than +the tallest Sequoia. Near Fernshaw, in the Dandenong district, +Victoria, there has recently been discovered a specimen +of the "Almond Leaf Gum" (<i>Eucalyptus amygdalesia</i>), +measuring 380 feet from the ground to the first branch, and +450 feet to the topmost wing. This tree would overtop +the tallest living <i>Sequoia</i> by 125 feet. Its girth is 80 feet, +which is less than that of many Sequoias, but as far as +height is concerned it must be considered the tallest living +tree in the world.</p> + +<div class="figcenter"><img src="images/fancyhr2-300.png" width="300" height="12" alt="fancy rule" /></div> + +<a name="art30" id="art30"></a><h2>THE ARGONAUT, OR PAPER NAUTILUS.</h2> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"> +<a href="images/09-papernautilus.png"><img src="images/09-papernautilus-450.png" width="450" height="365" alt="ARGONAUT, OR PAPER NAUTILUS." /></a><br /><br /> +<p class="center"><b>ARGONAUT, OR PAPER NAUTILUS.</b></p> +</div> + +<p>This mollusk received the first title in allusion to the pretty +fable which was formerly narrated of its sailing powers, and +the latter title is given on account of the extreme thinness +and fragility of the shell. It is remarkable that the shell of +the argonaut is, during the life of its owner, elastic and +yielding, almost as if it were made of thin horn.</p> + +<p>The two arms of the argonaut are greatly dilated at their +extremities; and it was formerly asserted, and generally believed, +that the creature was accustomed to employ these arms +as sails, raising them high above the shell, and allowing itself +to be driven over the surface by the breeze, while it directed +its course by the remaining arms, which were suffered to +hang over the edge of the shell into +the water and acted like so many +oars. In consequence of this belief +the creature was named the argonaut, +in allusion to the old classical +fable of the ship Argo and her +golden freight.</p> + +<p>The animal, or "poulp," as it is +technically called, is a lovely creature +despite its unattractive form. +It is a mass of silver with a cloud +of spots of the most beautiful rose +color, and a fine dotting of the same, +which heighten its beauty. A +large membrane, which is the expanded +velation of the arms, covers +all. It has been definitely proved +that the use of the expanded arms +which cover the exterior of the shell +is to build up its delicate texture, +and to repair damages, the substance +being secreted by these arms, and by +their broad expansions moulded into +shape. The larger figure in the en- +graving represents the argonaut +while thus within its shell. +While crawling the creature turns +itself so as to rest on its head, withdraws +its body as far as possible +into its shell, and, using its arms +like legs, creeps slowly but securely +along the ground, sometimes affixing +its disks to stones or projecting +points of rocks for the purpose of +hauling itself along. When, however, +it wishes to attain greater speed, and to pass through +the waters, it makes use of a totally different principle. +Respiration is achieved by the passage of water over +double gills or branchiæ; the water, after it has completed +its purpose, being ejected through a moderately long tube, +technically called a siphon. The orifice of the siphon is +directed toward the head of the animal, and it is by means +of this simple apparatus that progression is effected. When +the creature desires to dart rapidly through the water, it +gathers its six arms into a straight line, so as to afford little +resistance to the water, keeps its velated arms stretched +tightly over the shell, and then, by violently ejecting the +water from the siphon, drives itself by reaction in the opposite +direction. The uppermost figure shows the argonaut in +the act of swimming.</p> + +<div class="figcenter"><img src="images/fancyhr2-300.png" width="300" height="12" alt="fancy rule" /></div> + +<a name="art31" id="art31"></a><h3>THE TRAP DOOR SPIDER OF JAMAICA.</h3> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 300px;"> +<a href="images/09-spider.png"><img src="images/09-spider-300.png" width="300" height="391" alt="TRAP DOOR SPIDER." /></a><br /><br /> +<p class="center"><b>TRAP DOOR SPIDER.</b></p> +</div> + +<p>This spider digs a burrow in the earth and lines it with a +silken web. The burrow is closed by a trap door, having a +hinge that permits it to be opened and closed with admirable +accuracy. The door is circular, and is made of alternate +layers of earth and web, and is hinged to the lining of the +tube that leads to the burrow by a band of the same silken +secretion. The door exactly fits the entrance to the burrow, +and when closed, so precisely corresponds with the surrounding +earth that it can hardly be distinguished, even when its +position is known. It is a strange sight to see the earth +open, a little lid raised, some hairy legs protrude, and gradually +the whole form of the spider show itself.</p> + +<p> The mode in which these spiders procure food seems to +be by hunting at night, and in some cases by catching insects +that are entangled in the threads that the creature spins by +the side of its house.</p> + +<p> In the day time they are very chary of opening the door +of their domicile, and if the trap be raised from the outside, +they run to the spot, hitch the claws of their fore feet in the +silken webbing of the door, and those of the hind feet in +the lining of the burrow, and so resist with all their might. +The strength of the spider is wonderfully great in proportion +to its size.</p> + +<br clear="all" /> + +<div class="figcenter"><img src="images/fancyhr2-300.png" width="300" height="12" alt="fancy rule" /></div> + +<a name="art32" id="art32"></a><h3>To Make a Hole in Glass.</h3> + +<p> <i>New Remedies</i> describes the following easy method of +making a hole in plate glass: Make a circle of clay or +cement rather larger than the intended hole; pour some kerosene +into the cell thus made, ignite it, place the plate upon a +moderately hard support, and with a stick rather smaller +than the hole required, and a hammer, strike a rather smart +blow. This will leave a rough-edged hole, which may be +smoothed with a file. Cold water is said to answer even +better than a blow.</p> + +<div class="figcenter"><img src="images/fancyhr2-300.png" width="300" height="12" alt="fancy rule" /></div> + +<a name="art33" id="art33"></a> +<h3>The Preservation of Eggs.</h3> + +<p>As science advances, the processes proposed for the preservation +of organic substances are being brought to greater +and greater perfection. No subject perhaps in this connection +has received greater attention, and been the subject of +more processes, patent and otherwise, than that of the preservation +of eggs. In fact this is a question of considerable +importance, not only from a culinary, but also from an industrial +standpoint—that of the manufacture of albumen for +photographic purposes. In the <i>Moniteur de la Photographie</i> +Dr. Phipson calls attention to a new process, which may be +briefly stated as follows:</p> + +<p>On taking the eggs from the nest they are covered over, +by means of a bit of wool, with butter in which has been +dissolved 2 or 3 per cent of salicylic acid. Each egg, after +receiving this coat, is placed in a box filled with very fine +and absolutely dry saw dust. If care be taken that the eggs do +not touch each other, and that they be perfectly covered with +the saw dust, they will keep fresh for several months—perhaps +for more than a year. Dr. Phipson states that he has +experimented with this process for two years, with most excellent +results. So much for the preservation of the entire +egg; but there is also a process for the preservation of +the albumen of the egg for photographic uses, due to M. +Berg. In this process, the white, separated from the yolk, +is evaporated in zinc pans or porcelain cups, at a temperature +of 45° C. The solidified albumen thus obtained is pulverized +by means of a mill. The yolk, by means of machinery, +is whipped up into a light mass, and then spread +out on zinc plates and evaporated to dryness at a temperature +of 80°, and finally powdered. The powders thus obtained +keep for a long time. The white of eggs, so prepared, +is used for the purposes to which albumen is applied +in the industrial arts, while the powdered yolks are +used for domestic purposes.</p> + +<div class="figcenter"><img src="images/fancyhr2-300.png" width="300" height="12" alt="fancy rule" /></div> + +<a name="art34" id="art34"></a><h3>Characteristics of American Sheep Husbandry.</h3> + +<p>Dr. Hayes, in his recent address before the National Agricultural +Congress, remarking that a very inadequate idea is +given of a nation's resources by the number of sheep raised—the +character of the animals being of the first consideration—proceeds +to show some of the characteristics of American +sheep husbandry. He states that the sheep of the United +States consist, first, of what are called native sheep; second, +descendants from improved English races; third, the Mexican +sheep found in Texas, New Mexico, Colorado, and California; +fourth, the merino sheep, and crosses of that breed +with the three preceding races. The merinos constitute the +principal and characteristic race of the United States; and +this is the most important fact in the enumeration of our +resources for sheep husbandry and the wool manufacture. +England has no merinos, except in her colonies; Russia has +but 12,000,000 merinos; France, but 9,000,000. The merinos +and grades in the United States exceed 25,000,000. Merino +wool is for clothing what wheat is for food; it is the chief +material for cloth at the present day, the coarsest as well as +the finest. While the softest, it is the strongest of all fibers. +From its fulling and spinning qualities, it is the best adhesive +for the cheap fabrics—coarser wool, cotton, or shoddy; +the mixture of merino wool increasing indefinitely the material +for cheap clothing. An abundance +of merino wool is the greatest +boon the world has received from +the animal kingdom in the last century. +It is, in fact, in its extended +culture the product of the last century. +A century ago all the merinos +in the world, confined exclusively +to Spain, did not number +1,000,000. 1765 marks the epoch of +the first exportation of the merinos +to Saxony; 1786, to France; 1833, +to Australia; 1802, the introduction +of the first merino sheep to this +country; and to Gen. Humphreys, +of Connecticut, and to the introduction +to his farm of twenty-one rams +and seventy ewes, may be directly +traced the most celebrated breeds of +the American merino; producing +individuals actually sold for $5,000 +each, others for $2,000 to $3,000, and +one for which $10,000 was refused. +The fiber of the merino sheep is not +the only excellence of the animal; +when properly bred, this race has a +hardiness surpassing all other high-bred +races. The "yolk," provided +by nature to assist in the growth of +the wool, abounding in this race +more than in any other, causes the +tips of the fleece to be cemented, +and to become impenetrable to rains +and snows. A lighter pasture suffices +for their maintenance than +would support the mutton races. This race is fitted, above +all others, for the remote pastoral lands and for culture on +a large scale.</p> + +<p>Our breeders, in aiming to increase the weight of their +fleece, have developed the length of the staple, and have +unconsciously created a merino combing wool—a wool in +special demand through modern improvements in machinery +and changes in the fashion of goods. Mr. Ferneau, an eminent +Belgian wool manufacturer, who has thoroughly studied +our wool resources and manufactures, says that three quarters +of the American wool is "combing wool," and will be +ultimately employed for this purpose. The bulk of American +merino wools is of strong, sound, and healthy staple, +having few weak spots in them. Those from the other States +of the West are free from burrs. Those from California have<a name="Page_376" id="Page_376"></a> +this defect in a high degree. They are admirably fitted for +blankets, flannels, and fancy cassimeres, and the great bulk +of our card wool manufactures. They are so excellent, as a +whole, that M. Ferneau says they are too valuable to be used +for clothing purposes. They supply nine tenths of all the +card or clothing wool consumed in American mills.</p> + +<div class="figcenter"><img src="images/fancyhr2-300.png" width="300" height="12" alt="fancy rule" /></div> + +<a name="art35" id="art35"></a> +<h3>THE PROGRESS OF SCIENCE IN MEXICO.</h3> + +<p>Mexico, the land of so many and such frequent revolutions, +and the scene of such intestinal commotions and bitter +strife through the whole period of her existence, from the +Spanish conquest up to within a few years, is at present happily +in a state of comparative peace and quiet; the laws are +less disregarded, brigandage is gradually disappearing, more +attention is being paid to the protection of life and property, +and public education is in a prosperous condition. No +greater evidence of this felicitous state of affairs could be +afforded than that shown in the display of energy and zeal +with which the present administration, aided by the foremost +Mexican scientists, is carrying out an extended system +of scientific explorations, investigations, and internal improvements; +and the progress of which is being recorded in +a valuable series of government publications; one of these—the +<i>Annals of the Minister of Public Works</i>—being now +before us. This volume, the third of the series, begins +with an article by the able director of the National Meteorological +Observatory, Sr. Mariano Barcena, calling attention, +in the first place, to the great national importance, as well +as necessity, of a well organized system of meteorological +observations; (2) giving a description of the Mexican Observatory, +its equipment, the questions it proposes to investigate, +and the hours of observation; (3) an explanation, +accompanied by charts, of the daily system of registration +pursued at the observatory; and, finally, observations on the +periodic phenomena of vegetation, and notes on the orography +and geology of the valley of Mexico. Sr. A. Anquiano +follows with a communication on the "Geographical +Position of Chalco," prefacing the results of his labors +by an able essay on the "Mexican Method" of determining +the latitude of places, a "method" founded on an observation +of the stars. It would be interesting to quote from this, +but our limited space will not permit. The "Citlaltepetl +Commission," consisting of the engineers, Srs. Plowes, +Rodriguez, and Vigil, whose patriotic ardor induced the +minister to commission them to explore "and be the first to +plant the flag of Mexican science on the snow clad peak of +Citlaltepetl," render their report of operations during the +year 1877 in the form of an exceedingly interesting memoir. +They ascertained the peak of the volcano Citlaltepetl (or +Orizaba) to be 17,651 feet above the level of the sea, which +is 292 feet more than Humboldt made it. After a somewhat +exhaustive treatise on the "Telescope and its Amplifying +Power," by Sr. Jimenez, we have a long and extremely interesting +account of the Ancient Aqueduct of Zempoala, one +of the most notable of existing monuments of the old Spanish +rule. These aqueducts (for there were three) were projected +and carried to a successful termination by an humble +and ignorant Franciscan monk—the Friar Tembleque. The +construction of these remarkable works, begun in 1554 and +occupying a period of 17 years, was undertaken for the purpose +of carrying water from Zempoala to Otumba (a distance +of 27 miles), and was the occasion of a curious contract between +the inhabitants of these two cities. It seems that +Otumba, situated at a high elevation, needed water; Zempoala +was blessed with water, but was sadly in need of spiritual +advisers; the people of the former city, therefore, +agreed to furnish a certain proportion of friars to minister +to the religious wants of the parties of the second part, +and the latter in return bound themselves to furnish +water, and the labor and materials for the building of an +aqueduct to lead it, to the parties of the first part. No tradition +remains to state when these structures ceased to be +used. The longest of the three extends across the valley of +the Papelote, a distance of 2,960 feet, and consists of 68 +arches, the highest of which has an altitude of 106 feet. Señor +Salazar urges on the Minister of Public Works the importance +of having these monuments of a past age repaired and +restored, not alone for archaeological reasons, but because +Otumba to-day is as greatly in need of running water as it +was in that remote period when these viaducts were constructed. +Señor Barcena follows with a description and +colored plate of a plant (<i>Gaudichaudia Enrico-Martinezii</i>) +new to the Mexican flora, and Sr. Federico Weidner with +some "General Reflections on the Iron Industry of the Country." +Succeeding the latter paper, an exhaustive article by +the same writer gives us, from a geological point of view, +the structure, as far as can be ascertained, of the "Cerro de +Mercado" of Durango, which is said to be one vast mass of +iron. The author after a thorough examination of this hill, +last year, concludes that it is of eruptive or volcanic origin. +This is contrary to the statements made in most published +works, the authors of which probably derived their notions +from the views expressed by Humboldt, who was of the +opinion that this mass of iron was an immense aerolite. Sr. +Weidner, however, concludes that the great traveler never +visited the locality in person, but obtained his information +from heresay. He shows that the hill is deficient in the +chemical constituents of aerolites, namely, iron, nickel, and +cobalt, in a native or malleable state; but, on the contrary, +is made up in a great measure of crystalline magnetic iron, +and various useful oxides of the same metal. By a careful +estimate of the quantity of iron contained in that portion +only of the Cerro which appears above the surface of the +soil, the author obtains as a result the enormous sum of +507,000,000 pounds, and this reduced to a metallic state would +yield 250,000,000 pounds of pure iron. The structure of +this remarkable hill is made apparent to the reader by means +of an excellent geological section, in colors, accompanying +the text.</p> + +<p>The volume closes with some notes by Sr. Barcena on the +"Hydrographic System of the Hacienda of Cienega de +Mata, and its application to one of the theories that explain +Natural Fountains."</p> + +<p>In taking leave of this subject we have to congratulate +the Mexican Government not only for the valuable matter +contained in its scientific publications, but also for the very +excellent style in which the latter are being issued. The +general make up of the volume before us leaves little to be +desired; the arrangement of the types is extremely tasty, +the imprint is clean, sharp, and clear, the paper good, the +margins of the pages broad, and the illustrations exceedingly +well executed. It is to be sincerely hoped that the present +state of peace, which our sister republic is enjoying, will endure +for numerous years to come; and that the scientific +work begun under such happy auspices may go on uninterruptedly +until the whole country shall have been thoroughly +explored. For as yet, we know but comparatively little +about the geology of Mexico, and a great deal is yet to be +learned, too, about her natural productions.</p> + +<div class="figcenter"><img src="images/fancyhr2-300.png" width="300" height="12" alt="fancy rule" /></div> + +<div class="figcenter"><img src="images/oef-correspondence-20.png" width="185" height="29" alt="Correspondence." border="0" /></div> + +<a name="art36" id="art36"></a> + +<p><b>Alum in Bread.—A Reply to Dr. Mott's Article in +Scientific American of November 16, entitled +"Deleterious Use of Alum in Baking Powder."</b></p> + +<p class="center"><span class="sc">by w. p. clotworthy, baltimore, md</span>.</p> + +<p>On August 13, 1878, I obtained letters patent for the exclusive +right to use exsiccated ammonia alum in baking powders. +This fact I state that the public may know the reason that +elicits this reply to the remarkable article on adulterations in +baking powders, in the <span class="sc">Scientific American</span> of Nov. 16th, +emanating from the pen of Henry A. Mott, Jr. I wish the +Professor had been equally candid in stating his reasons for +contributing the article. It is rare for a chemist to turn +philanthropist without some consideration. The analysis of +forty-two baking powders requires no little labor; twenty-one +were examined at the expense of the government for +the benefit of the Indian Department, the others, no doubt, at +the expense and for the benefit of the Royal Baking Powder +Company. I hope his services have been liberally requited. +The public certainly owe him nothing for his labor or +opinions. An excuse can be made for the prejudice existing +against the use of alum in any form for baking purposes; it +is an inheritance from a preceding age; but no apology can +be offered for a practical chemist in this day, who labors to +keep alive and foster a prejudice by the suppression of +truths and facts. Professor Mott, in attempting to prove a +fraud in food, has perpetrated a fraud in facts. That this +opinion may not be unwarranted, I will state the facts about +alum, which may be new to the public, but familiar to every +chemist. Alum was formerly a compound of sulph. alumina +and sulph. potash. In the past ten years nearly all manufacturers +of alum have substituted sulph. ammonia for the +sulph. potash; this change removes from alum a dangerous +and objectionable ingredient, and adds a healthful one. +Professor Mott recommends the use of ammonia in the form +of a carbonate—carbonate of ammonia is one of the results +in baking powder of the decomposition which takes place +between alum and bicarbonate of soda; in the complete decomposition +which takes place pure alumina is eliminated, +highly recommended as an antacid. During the process of +baking, alum is completely decomposed through the liberation +of carbonic acid. Professor Mott must have known +this, yet with this knowledge warns the public on the deleterious +effect of alum in bread.</p> + +<p>About the first of last October I determined to vindicate +the use of exsiccated ammonia alum as a substitute for +cream of tartar, and accordingly issued a circular to the +trade; from this circular I now give the following extract, +which enters minutely into the subject:</p> + +<p>"To claim that an experience of 35 years in compounding +medicines should entitle my opinion on chemicals and +chemical compounds to a respectful consideration, is neither +presumptuous nor unreasonable. With this simple introduction +I now avow myself the originator and patentee of exsiccated +ammonia alum baking powder. The use of exsiccated +ammonia alum has been declared unhealthful by the +advocates of other baking powders, and every manufacturer +using it has been held up for public reprobation. This has +been done by rival manufacturers, either through ignorance +or malice; if from the former they are to be pitied, if from +the latter they are contemptible. These opinions have been +promulgated by kitchen chemists, whose circle of knowledge +begins and ends with cream tartar and soda; and even of +these articles they only know that cream tartar is in some +way derived from grapes. In this circular I propose to state +a few facts in relation to cream tartar and exsiccated alum, +and the combinations they form with bicarbonate of soda, +and allow you to form your own opinion of their respective +merits. Crude tartar is the incrustation found in wine +casks. It contains coloring matter and about 15 per cent. of +lime. This article is purified and called the cream of tartar, +but it is impossible to extract all the lime. Commercially +pure cream tartar contains at least 5 per cent. of lime. When +cream tartar is used in proportion of two parts to one of bicarbonate +of soda, you will have an average of 3 to 4 per +cent of lime. In using cream tartar and soda in baking, a +chemical change commences as soon as water is added; the +cream tartar unites with the soda, setting free the carbonic +acid gas, which lightens the bread, and the residue is +Rochelle salts. This is what you eat in your bread, the +cream tartar and soda entirely disappearing in the process of +baking, by forming this salt. Any doctor or chemist will +confirm the above statement. When I undertook to manufacture +baking powder, I labored to improve the quality and +cheapen the cost. The first I accomplished by retaining the +carbonic acid until heat was applied, the latter, by manufacturing +a more economical acid than foreign cream tartar. +After more than a thousand experiments covering a period +of six months, I discovered by exsiccating ammonia alum I +provided an article that would possess the necessary qualities. +This article no more resembles the ordinary alum than +charcoal resembles wood—it is light, porous, friable, and +without taste. This article, under the influence of heat, +combines with the soda and forms Glauber salts. In baking, +the alum unites with the soda, just as cream tartar unites. +In using the baking powder prepared according to my formula, +you have in your bread Glauber instead of Rochelle +salts. To your physician apply for his opinion of these salts; +I will bow to his decision. Another false impression these +zealous guardians of the public health have made is, that I +used the exsiccated alum because it was cheap. The fact is +that when I commenced its use it cost by the thousand +pounds 12 per cent. more than the best cream tartar is worth +to-day, and 33 per cent. more than average price of that article +for the past year. I have since reduced the cost of +manufacturing, and as I did so, correspondingly reduced the +price of powder to the public. I regard the quantity of +soda in cream tartar baking powders as very objectionable; +they generally contain about 33 per cent. In my powder +only 20 per cent. The prejudice in the public mind against +alum, originated in the habit of the English bakers buying +damaged flour, and by the addition of crude alum, made +their bread in appearance equal to that made from best flour. +Against this practice laws were enacted, not so much against +the qualities of alum, as against its use in covering up a +fraud in flour. This was the common potash alum and uncombined +with any carbonated alkali, and it passed into the +stomach unchanged. It is a trick—for it deserves no better +name—of our rivals to show by chemical analysis that my +powder contains alum, but are careful neither to state the +kind nor the change it undergoes in baking. The manufacturer +who knowingly misrepresents the goods of a rival, +may well be doubted when he speaks of the quality of his +own.</p> + +<p>"Great stress is laid on the fact that cream tartar is a vegetable +acid, the product of the grape, hence it must be +healthy. They forget that cream tartar is not entirely vegetable, +but principally second handed minerals. It is a +compound of tartaric acid, potash, and lime; the last two +are minerals, which the grape takes up from the earth, but +redeposits them as crude tartar when fermentation converts +the grape into wine. In 1807 Sir Humphry Davy from +this crude tartar first made the metal potassium. Of lime +it is unnecessary to speak. The potash and lime form the +bulk of cream tartar. In ammonia alum there is no more +mineral substance than in cream tartar. The chemistry of +nature is wonderful. Vegetation lives on minerals—wheat, +corn, potatoes, are all mineral compounds. Lime, soda, potash, +magnesia, sulphur, iron, etc., are all found abundantly +in water and grain, and all these minerals are essential in +food."</p> + +<p>Professor Mott has given the Royal Baking Powder the +benefit of his indorsement; it may be all that he claims for +it. But baking powders are now judged by constituent ingredients +and chemical analysis; to this test I propose to +bring the Royal. It is now in the hands of a competent +chemist, and when the analysis is complete I will give the +public the benefit of a comparison between that powder and +the Patapsco. I will take Professor Mott's analysis of Patapsco, +which, though not correct, I accept as such. The +comparison will be made on the healthfulness of constituents +in combination, and the chemical changes they undergo +in baking. This is a progressive age. The people want +facts, and they will form their own theories. Will the +reader believe that in the reign of Henry VIII. of England, +a citizen of London was executed for burning coal, which +was then a capital offense? A pope about the same time issued +a Bull excommunicating all Catholics who used tobacco, +calling it the devil's weed. To-day coals still burn, and tobacco +solaces millions of the civilized world. If the Royal +Baking Powder Company (what a misnomer) possessed royal +prerogatives, the advocates of exsiccated alum would fare +no better than they did under the sumptuary laws of England. +Professor Mott has fulminated <i>ex cathedra</i> his blast, +but we survive. "Truth is a torch, the more 'tis shook it +shines." Our strength is in the intelligence of the age.</p> +<p class="author"> +<span class="sc">Smith, Hanway</span> & Co., Baltimore.</p> + +<div class="figcenter"><img src="images/fancyhr2-300.png" width="300" height="12" alt="fancy rule" /></div> + +<a name="art37" id="art37"></a><h3>The Elongation of Tree Trunks.</h3> + +<p>The <i>College Quarterly</i> says that experiments made at the +Iowa Agricultural College show that the popular notion +that the trunks of trees elongate is entirely erroneous. +Tacks were driven into the trunks of various trees, and the +distance between them accurately measured. At the end of +the season they were found to have neither increased nor decreased +their distances. In the experiment, tree trunks were +selected of all ages, from one year up to five or six, and in +no case was there any change whatever noticeable.</p> + +<div class="figcenter"><img src="images/fancyhr2-300.png" width="300" height="12" alt="fancy rule" /></div> + +<a name="Page_377" id="Page_377"></a> +<a name="art38" id="art38"></a><h2>ASTRONOMICAL NOTES.</h2> + +<p class="center"><span class="sc">by berlin h. wright</span>.</p> + +<p><span class="sc">Penn Yan</span>, N. Y., Saturday, December 14, 1878. +The following calculations are adapted to the latitude of +New York city, and are expressed in true or clock time, being +for the date given in the caption when not otherwise stated:</p> + +<h3>PLANETS.</h3> + +<table align="center" summary="planets"> +<tr> + <td> </td> + <td><span class="sc"> <b>h.</b> <b>m.</b></span></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td>Mars rises</td> + <td> 4 57 mo.</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td>Jupiter sets</td> + <td> 7 54 eve.</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td>Saturn in meridian</td> + <td> 6 16 eve.</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td>Uranus rises </td> + <td>10 11 eve.</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td>Neptune in meridian</td> + <td> 8 48 eve.</td> +</tr> +</table> + +<br /><br /> + +<h3>FIRST MAGNITUDE STARS, ETC.</h3> + +<table align="center" summary="First magnitude stars"> +<tr> +<td> </td> + <td><span class="sc"> <b>h.</b> <b>m.</b></span></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td>Alpheratz in meridian</td> + <td> 6 28 mo.</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td>Mira (var.) in meridian</td> + <td> 8 39 eve.</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td>Algol (var.) in meridian</td> + <td> 9 26 eve.</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td>7 stars (Pleiades) in merid.</td> + <td>10 06 eve.</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td>Aldebaran in meridian</td> + <td>10 54 eve.</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td>Capella in meridian</td> + <td>11 33 eve.</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td>Rigel in meridian</td> + <td>11 34 eve.</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td>Betelgeuse in meridian</td> + <td> 0 18 mo.</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td>Sirius rises</td> + <td> 8 05 eve.</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td>Procyon rises</td> + <td> 7 40 eve.</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td>Regulus rises</td> + <td> 9 43 eve.</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td>Spica rises</td> + <td> 2 24 mo.</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td>Arcturus rises</td> + <td> 1 27 mo.</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td>Antares rises</td> + <td> 6 30 mo.</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td>Vega sets</td> + <td> 9 52 eve.</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td>Altair sets</td> + <td> 8 40 eve.</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td>Deneb sets</td> + <td> 1 02 mo.</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td>Fomalhaut sets</td> + <td> 9 16 eve.</td> +</tr> +</table> +<br /><br /> + +<h3>MOON'S PLACE IN THE CONSTELLATIONS AT 7 P.M.</h3> + +<table align="center" summary="moon"> +<tr> + <td>Saturday, Cancer</td> + <td>26°</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td>Sunday, Leo</td> + <td> 9°</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td>Monday, Leo</td> + <td>23°</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td>Tuesday, Virgo </td> + <td> 7°</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td>Wednesday, Virgo</td> + <td>22°</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td>Thursday, Libra</td> + <td> 6°</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td>Friday, Libra</td> + <td>21°</td> +</tr> +</table> + +<br /><br /> + +<h3>REMARKS.</h3> + +<p>The sun will attain his greatest southern declination and +enter the constellation <i>Sagittarius</i> December 21, 5h. 45m. +evening, at which time winter begins. Mars will be 5° north +of the moon December 21, in the morning. Saturn will be +90° east of the sun December 18, passing the meridian at 6 +o'clock in the evening. He is now advancing among the +stars, and will soon be again upon the equinoctial colure. +Uranus will be nearly 4° north of the moon December 15.</p> + +<div class="figcenter"><img src="images/fancyhr2-300.png" width="300" height="12" alt="fancy rule" /></div> + +<a name="art39" id="art39"></a><h3>Sympathetic Inks.</h3> + +<p>Under the name of sympathetic inks are designated certain +liquids which, being used for writing, leave no visible +traces on the paper, but which, through the agency of heat, +or by the action of chemicals, are made to appear in various +colors. The use of such means for secret correspondence +is very ancient. Ovid, Pliny, and other Roman +writers speak of an ink of this kind, which, however, was +nothing more than fresh milk. It merely sufficed to dust +powdered charcoal over the surface of the paper upon which +characters had been traced with the colorless fluid, when the +black powder adhered only to those places where the fatty +matter of the milk had spread. Such a process, however, +was merely mechanical, and the results very crude.</p> + +<p>A great number of sympathetic inks may be obtained by +means of reactions known to chemistry. For instance, write +on paper with a colorless solution of sugar of lead; if the +water that is used for the solution be pure, no trace of the +writing will remain when it becomes dry. Now hold the +paper over a jet of sulphureted hydrogen, and the characters +will immediately appear on the paper, of an intense +black color. The following recipes for inks of this kind are +more simple: If writing be executed with a dilute solution +of sulphate of iron, the invisible characters will appear of a +beautiful blue, if the dry paper be brushed over with a pencil +full of a solution of yellow prussiate of potash; or they +will be black, if a solution of tannin be substituted for the +prussiate. If the characters be written with a solution of +sulphate of copper, they will at once turn blue on exposing +to the vapors of ammonia. Another sympathetic ink is +afforded by chloride of gold, which becomes of a reddish +purple when acted upon by a salt of tin. A red sympathetic +ink may be made in the following manner: Write with a +very dilute solution of perchloride of iron—so dilute, indeed, +that the writing will be invisible when dry. By holding +the paper in the vapor arising from a long-necked glass flask +containing sulphuric acid and a few drops of a solution of +sulpho-cyanide of potassium, the characters will appear of a +blood-red color, which will again disappear on submitting +them to the vapors of caustic ammonia. This experiment +can be repeated <i>ad infinitum</i>.</p> + +<p>During the war in India, some years ago, important correspondence +was carried on by the English by means of the +use of rice water as a writing fluid. On the application of +iodine the dispatches immediately appeared in blue characters.</p> + +<p>Sympathetic inks which are developed under the influence +of heat only are much easier to use than the foregoing. +The liquids which possess such a property are very numerous. +Almost every one perhaps knows that if writing be +executed on paper with a clean quill pen dipped in onion or +turnip juice, it becomes absolutely invisible when dry; and +that when the paper is heated the writing at once makes its +appearance in characters of a brown color. All albuminoid, +mucilaginous, and saccharine vegetable juices make excellent +sympathetic inks; we may cite, as among the best, the +juices of lemon, orange, apple, and pear. A dilute solution +of chloride of copper used for writing is invisible until the +paper is heated, when the letters are seen of a beautiful yellow, +disappearing again when the heat that developed them +is removed. The salts of cobalt, as the acetate, nitrate, sulphate, +and chloride, possess a like property. When a dilute +solution of these salts is used as an ink, the writing, although +invisible when dry, becomes blue when exposed to heat. +The addition of chloride of iron, or of a salt of nickel, renders +them green, and this opens the way for a very pretty +experiment: If a winter landscape be drawn in India ink, +and the sky be painted with a wash of cobalt alone, and the +branches of the trees be clothed with leaves executed with a +mixture of cobalt and nickel, and the snow-clad earth be +washed over with the same mixture, a magic transformation +at once takes place on the application of heat, the winter +landscape changing to a summer scene.</p> + +<p>There is a well known proprietary article sold in Paris +under the name of <i>"Encre pour les Dames"</i> (ink for ladies). +Hager, in a recent scientific journal, states that this consists +of an aqueous solution of iodide of starch, and is "specially +intended for love letters." In four weeks characters written +with it disappear, preventing all abuse of letters, and doing +away with all documentary evidence of any kind in the +hands of the recipient. The signers of bills of exchange +who use this ink are of course freed from all obligations in +the same length of time.</p> + +<div class="figcenter"><img src="images/fancyhr2-300.png" width="300" height="12" alt="fancy rule" /></div> + +<a name="art40" id="art40"></a><h3>NEW WIRE CLOTHING FOR BURRING CYLINDERS.</h3> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 400px;"> +<a href="images/11-wire.png"><img src="images/11-wire-300.png" width="300" height="273" alt="NEW WIRE CLOTHING FOR BURRING CYLINDERS." /></a><br /><br /> +<p class="center"><b>NEW WIRE CLOTHING FOR BURRING CYLINDERS.</b></p> +</div> + +<p>Heretofore two kinds of clothing for cylinders for treating +fibrous material have been employed, one consisting of +a set of serrated rings cut from sheet steel and secured to +the periphery of the cylinder, and the other consisting of +flat serrated iron wire. The serrated rings, of necessity, entail +a great loss of material in their manufacture, and the +iron wire clothing is so soft that it soon wears out or becomes +dull, necessitating the reclothing or sharpening of the +cylinder.</p> + +<p>Our engraving represents a new form of steel wire clothing +for such cylinders, which was recently patented by Mr. +Frank P. Pendleton, of Philadelphia, Pa.</p> + +<p>The improvement consists in notching or nicking the base +of the teeth or back of the wire, so as to admit of bending +the wire around the cylinders without breaking.</p> +<br clear="all" /> + +<div class="figcenter"><img src="images/fancyhr2-300.png" width="300" height="12" alt="fancy rule" /></div> + +<a name="art41" id="art41"></a><h3>Petroleum and Gold.</h3> + +<p>As one of the leading staples of American export, our petroleum +wells have been more valuable than gold mines. A +recent discovery by Mr. John Turnbridge, of Newark, N. J., +indicates that in some cases petroleum wells may be in fact, +as well as in effect, real gold mines. He says that while investigating +the peculiar behavior of the hydrocarbons and +their singular quality of separating the precious metals from +aqueous solutions, assisted by constant application that furnished +evidence of the force of chemical action which could +be satisfactorily measured, there occurred to him the probability +that analogous effects might be traced in the operations +of nature; more particularly in certain geological formations +peculiar to auriferous soils. These ideas, he asserts, have +been singularly verified in subsequent research by the discovery +of gold in many samples of crude petroleum, also in +the sediment or refuse of the distillation of that substance. +The attraction existing between the hydrocarbons and many +elementary bodies ought to create no surprise, especially if +reference is had to the reducing action of the hydrocarbons +in contact with metallic solutions. The procedure in the +examples above referred to consist in pouring crude petroleum +on vegetable fiber or wood shavings and firing it, collecting +the ashes and making the usual fire assay. The +cupel disclosed a small pellet. After due examination with +the appropriate test it was found to be pure gold. The distillery +refuse when assayed gave $34.85 value per ton. It +may be mentioned in the last case considerable molybdenum +was present, a substance resembling plumbago. Mr. Turnbridge +has no knowledge of the locality whence these samples +of crude petroleum were originally obtained. He infers, +however, that oil wells in the vicinity of auriferous deposits +may yield a larger quantity of gold than from oil wells +situated in carboniferous strata. There has been, he states, +a practical application of this discovery for the recovery of +gold, applied in cases where quicksilver has failed to be of +service.</p> + +<div class="figcenter"><img src="images/fancyhr2-300.png" width="300" height="12" alt="fancy rule" /></div> + +<a name="art42" id="art42"></a><h3>Reduction of Nitrate of Silver by Means of Charcoal.</h3> + +<p>A very simple method of reducing nitrate of silver, <ins title="Transcriber's Note: original reads 'analagous'">analogous</ins> +to that some years ago mentioned by the late Mr. +Hadow, is given in the <i>Archiv der Pharmacie</i>, by Mr. C. F. +Chandler. If crystallized or fused nitrate of silver be placed +upon glowing charcoal, combustion forthwith takes place, +the silver remaining behind in a metallic form, while nitrous +oxide and carbonic acid are freely given off. The nitrate of +silver is fused by the heat developed by the reaction, and is +imbibed through the pores of the charcoal; as every atom +of consumed carbon is replaced by an atom of metallic silver, +the original form and structure of the charcoal are preserved +intact in pure silver. By proceeding in this manner +it is possible to produce silver structures of any desired size, +<ins title="Transcriber's Note: Original read 'possesing'.">possessing</ins> in every way the original form of the wood. A +crystal of nitrate of silver is in the first place put upon a +piece of charcoal, and a blowpipe flame is then applied in +the vicinity, in order to start the reaction in the first instance, +and as soon as combustion commences crystal after +crystal may be added as these, one after another, become +consumed. The silver salt is liquefied, and penetrates +into the charcoal, where it becomes reduced. Pieces +of silver may in this way be prepared, of one or two ounces +in weight, which exhibit all the markings and rings of the +original wood to a most perfect and beautiful degree.</p> + +<div class="figcenter"><img src="images/fancyhr2-300.png" width="300" height="12" alt="fancy rule" /></div> + +<a name="art43" id="art43"></a><h3>New Agricultural Inventions.</h3> + +<p>Mr. Charles E. Macarthy, of Forsyth, Ga., has patented an +improved Horse Power, designed more particularly to be +located beneath a gin house for ginning cotton, but applicable +for all purposes for which a horse power is ordinarily +employed.</p> + +<p>An improved Corn Planter has been patented by Mr. +Thomas A. Sammons, of Lewisburg, West Va. This corn +planter is designed to plant the corn in straight rows both +ways and at varying distances apart. It is constructed +upon the general principle of a reciprocating slide, passing +alternately beneath a hopper, and carrying a number of +grains from beneath the same to a discharge outlet.</p> + +<p>An improved machine for Cutting the Bands of Gavels or +bundles of grain, and feeding the same to the cylinder of a +thrasher, has been patented by Mr. James M. O'Neall, of +Fort Worth, Texas.</p> + +<p>An improved Sulky Breaking Plow has been patented by +Mr. Edward T. Hunter, of Hallsville, Ill. This is an improved +sulky attachment for breaking plows, which is so +constructed as to receive any ordinary plow; it may be adjusted +to cause the plow to work deeper or shallower in the +ground, and will allow the plow to be turned to either side.</p> + +<p>Mr. Osman C. Du Souchet, of Alexandria, Mo., has invented +an improved Check Row Corn Planter and Drill, +which is so constructed that its operating mechanism may +be at all times under the control of the driver. It will plant +the corn in accurate check row, and is easily controlled.</p> + +<p>An improved Thrashing Machine has been patented by +Mr. Peter Parrott, of Red Bud, Ill. This is an improvement +in the class of thrashing machines having an attachment +for removing dust from the space in front of the cylinder, +and having pickers for loosening or shaking the grain +from straw delivered from the cylinder.</p> + +<p>An improved Corn Planter has been patented by Mr. +John H. Zarley, of Oakland, Ill. The object of this invention +is to provide an efficient and cheaply constructed corn +planter, which may be drawn forward by horses, but is arranged +so that the seed valves may be operated by hand.</p> + +<p>Messrs. Clayton M. Van Orman and James M. Hagenbaugh, +of Athens, Mich., have patented an improved Grain +Separator, in which the arrangement of the screens, feedboard, +and blast of a fanning mill effect the thorough removal +from the grain of all impurities. Only two screens +are employed.</p> + +<p>An improved Churning Apparatus has been patented by +Messrs. William H. Foster and Isaac C. Roberts, of Louisburg, +Kan. It is simple, inexpensive, convenient, and effective +in operation. It will bring the butter very quickly, +and at the same time gather it.</p> + +<p>An improved Plow has been patented by Mr. Robert B. +Mitchell, of Minneapolis, Kan. The object of this invention +is to improve the construction of sod, stirring, and other +plows, so that the cutter may be moved forward as it is +worn or ground off. It prevents roots, grass, and other +trash from gathering upon the share.</p> + +<p>Messrs. John B. Martin and William T. Carothers, of +Clarence, Mo., have patented an improved Hay Loader capable +of placing hay upon stacks or ricks, or upon wagons. +It is simple in its construction and effective in its operation.</p> + +<div class="figcenter"><img src="images/fancyhr2-300.png" width="300" height="12" alt="fancy rule" /></div> + +<a name="art44" id="art44"></a><h3>Naphtha and Benzine.</h3> + +<p>We have often been asked the difference between benzine +and naphtha, many people wanting to know whether naphtha +didn't include benzine, or whether it wasn't the same +thing under a marketable name. A prominent refiner says +that benzine is the first product that arises from the process +of refining crude oil, and bears the same relation to naphtha +that that distillate does to refined oil. In other words, benzine +is crude naphtha. The reason it is not quotable under +the name of benzine, therefore, is because it has to be reduced +to naphtha before it is marketable in any extensive +quantity.</p> + +<p>The process that benzine is subject to, to produce naphtha, +is not a separate business, but is carried on by the regular oil +refiners in the same stills and retorts that the refined oil is +produced. The benzine is treated with sulphuric acid, and +the result is naphtha, which is in wide demand in Europe, +especially in France, for the purpose of producing aniline +dyes, while it is also put to many other purposes.</p> + +<p>This demand is partially instrumental in keeping up its +price, but its rapid evaporation also has a tendency in that +direction, as any large seller of it has to take into consideration +the depreciation that might take place by the time he +sells it on that account, and for the same reason buyers give +no more orders than immediate necessity requires.</p> + +<p>All refiners, however, do not produce naphtha, but some +of them sell the benzine, which is largely used for fuel purposes, +for which it is much better than coal, as it is not only +absolutely cheaper, but gives a steadier heat.—<i>Parker Daily</i>.</p> + +<div class="figcenter"><img src="images/fancyhr2-300.png" width="300" height="12" alt="fancy rule" /></div> + +<p><span class="sc">For</span> joining the porcelain heads to the metal spikes used +for ornamental nails, the <i>Prakt. Maschinen Construct.</i>, recommends +the use of a thick paste made of a mixture of +Portland cement and glue.</p> + +<div class="figcenter"><img src="images/fancyhr2-300.png" width="300" height="12" alt="fancy rule" /></div> + +<a name="Page_378" id="Page_378"></a> +<h2>TO INVENTORS.</h2> + +<p>An experience of more than thirty years, and the preparation +of not less than one hundred thousand applications +for patents at home and abroad, enable us to understand +the laws and practice on both continents, and +to possess unequaled facilities for procuring patents +everywhere. In addition to our facilities for preparing +drawings and specifications quickly, the applicant can +rest assured that his case will be filed in the Patent Office +without delay. Every application, in which the fees +have been paid, is sent complete—including the model—to +the Patent Office the same day the papers are signed +at our office, or received by mail, so there is no delay in +filing the case, a complaint we often hear from other +sources. Another advantage to the inventor in securing +his patent through the Scientific American Patent +Agency, it insures a special notice of the invention in +the <span class="sc">Scientific American</span>, which publication often +opens negotiations for the sale of the patent or manufacture +of the article. A synopsis of the patent laws +in foreign countries may be found on another page, +and persons contemplating the securing of patents +abroad are invited to write to this office for prices, +which have been reduced in accordance with the times, +and our perfected facilities for conducting the business. +Address MUNN & CO., office <span class="sc">Scientific American</span>.</p> + +<hr class="full" /> + +<div class="figcenter"><img src="images/oef-businessandpersonal-20n.png" width="289" height="35" alt="Business and Personal." border="0" /></div> + +<p><i>The Charge for Insertion under this head is One Dollar +a line for each insertion; about eight words to a line. +Advertisements must be received at publication office +as early as Thursday morning to appear in next issue.</i></p> + +<hr class="full" /> + +<p>Magic Lanterns and Stereopticons of all prices. Views +illustrating every subject for public exhibitions. Profitable +business for a man with a small capital. Also lanterns +for college and home amusement. 74 page catalogue +free. McAllister, Mf. Optician, 49 Nassau St., N. Y.</p> + +<p>Chapman Valves and Hydrants received the highest +award at Mass. Mechanics Fair. Chapman Valve Manuf. +Co., Boston, Mass.</p> + +<p>Wanted, cheap.—2d hand Lathe Chuck to swing 17 in. +Iron sheave. Penfield Block Works, Lockport, N. Y.</p> + +<p>To Manufacturers.—Messrs. Bignall & Ostrander, 806-808 +N. 2d St., St. Louis, Mo., have added to their present +establishment a Machinery Department, from whence +the wants of the Western machine-using public will be +supplied. Manufacturers will do well to correspond +with them.</p> + +<p>On actual test the Eaton Sulky Plow is ahead. Manufacturers +wanted to build them. Territory for sale. +Address E. C. Eaton, Pinckneyville, Ill.</p> + +<p>Sir Henry Halford says Vanity Fair Smoking Tobacco +has no equal. Received highest award at Paris, 1878.</p> + +<p>Wanted.—Tools for the manufacture of Wagon Axles +and Springs. Address Box 66, Lambertville, N. J.</p> + +<p>For Sale.—Norwalk Engine, 16 x 42; little used; excellent +order; very cheap. Address Box 106, Meriden, Ct.</p> + +<p>H. W. Johns' Asbestos Liquid Paints contain no +water. They are the best and most economical paints +in the world for general purposes, and for wood and iron +structures exposed to severe tests of climatic changes, +saltwater atmosphere, etc. They are 50 per cent more +durable than the best white lead and linseed oil.</p> + +<p>1,000 2d hand machines for sale. Send stamp for descriptive +price list. Forsaith & Co., Manchester, N. H.</p> + +<p>Florey & Smith, San Francisco, make a specialty of +introducing useful inventions in the Pacific States.</p> + +<p>J. C. Hoadley, Consulting Engineer and Mechanical +and Scientific Expert, Lawrence, Mass.</p> + +<p>Nickel Plating.—Wenzel's Patent Perforated Carbon +Box Anode for holding Grain Nickel. A. C. Wenzel, 114 +Center St., New York City.</p> + +<p>Bolt Forging Machine & Power Hammers a specialty. +Send for circulars. Forsaith & Co., Manchester, N. H.</p> + +<p>For Sale.—A 6 x 6 Upright Yacht Engine, 6 H. P. +Wm. F. Codd, Nantucket, Mass.</p> + +<p>For Solid Wrought Iron Beams, etc., see advertisement. +Address Union Iron Mills, Pittsburgh, Pa., for +lithograph, etc.</p> + +<p>The Lawrence Engine is the best. See ad. page 381.</p> + +<p>Sheet Metal Presses, Ferracute Co., Bridgeton, N. J.</p> + +<p>The only Engine in the market attached to boiler +having cold bearings. F. F. & A. B. Landis, Lancaster, Pa.</p> + +<p>Brush Electric Light.—20 lights from one machine. +Latest & best light. Telegraph Supply Co., Cleveland, O.</p> + +<p>The Lathes, Planers, Drills, and other Tools, new and +second-hand, of the Wood & Light Machine Company, +Worcester, are to be sold out very low by the George +Place Machinery Agency, 121 Chambers St., New York.</p> + +<p>For the best advertising at lowest prices in Scientific, +Mechanical, and other Newspapers, write to E. N. Freshman +& Bros., Advertising Agents, 186 W. 4th St., Cin., O.</p> + +<p>For Town and Village use, comb'd Hand Fire Engine +& Hose Carriage, $350. Forsaith & Co., Manchester, N. H.</p> + +<p>Manufacturers of Improved Goods who desire to build +up a lucrative foreign trade, will do well to insert a well +displayed advertisement in the <span class="sc">Scientific American</span> +Export Edition. This paper has a very large foreign +circulation.</p> + +<p>Brick Presses for Fire and Red Brick. Factory, 309 +S. 5th St., Philadelphia, Pa. S. P. Miller & Son.</p> + +<p>Punching Presses, Drop Hammers, and Dies for working +Metals, etc. The Stiles & Parker Press Co., Middletown, Conn.</p> + +<p>Hydraulic Presses and Jacks, new and second hand. +Lathes and Machinery for Polishing and Buffing Metals. +E. Lyon & Co., 470 Grand St., N. Y.</p> + +<p>Nickel Plating.—A white deposit guaranteed by using +our material. Condit, Hanson & Van Winkle, Newark, N. J. +English Agency, 18 Caroline St., Birmingham.</p> + +<p>H. Prentiss & Co., 14 Dey St., N. Y., Manufs. Taps, +Dies, Screw Plates, Reamers, etc. Send for list.</p> + +<p>Diamond Engineer, J. Dickinson, 64 Nassau St., N. Y.</p> + +<p>Solid Emery Vulcanite Wheels—The Solid Original +Emery Wheel—other kinds imitations and inferior. +Caution.—Our name is stamped in full on all our best +Standard Belting, Packing, and Hose. Buy that only. +The best is the cheapest. New York Belting and Packing +Company, 37 and 38 Park Row, N. Y.</p> + +<p>Presses, Dies, and Tools for working Sheet Metals, etc. +Fruit and other Can Tools. Bliss & Williams, Brooklyn, +N. Y., and Paris Exposition, 1878.</p> + +<p>The Cameron Steam Pump mounted in Phosphor +Bronze is an indestructible machine. See advertisement.</p> + +<p>Wheel Press, Cotton Press, Pipe Line, and Test Mercury +Gauges. T. Shaw, 915 Ridge Ave., Philadelphia, Pa.</p> + +<p>The <span class="sc">Scientific American</span> Export Edition is published +monthly, about the 15th of each month. Every +number comprises most of the plates of the four preceding +weekly numbers of the <span class="sc">Scientific American</span>, with +other appropriate contents, business announcements +etc. It forms a large and splendid periodical of nearly +one hundred quarto pages, each number illustrated with +about one hundred engravings. It is a complete record +of American progress in the arts.</p> + +<p>Special Planers for Jointing and Surfacing, Band and +Scroll Saws, Universal Wood-workers, etc., manufactured +by Bentel, Margedant & Co., Hamilton, Ohio.</p> + +<p>Boston Blower Co., Boston, Mass. Blowers, Exhaust +Fans, Hot Blast Apparatus. All parts interchangeable +material and workmanship warranted the best. Write +for particulars.</p> + +<p>We make steel castings from ¼ to 10,000 lbs. weight +3 times as strong as cast iron. 12,000 Crank Shafts of this +steel now running and proved superior to wrought iron. +Circulars and price, list free. Address Chester Steel +Castings Co., Evelina St., Philadelphia, Pa.</p> + +<p>Machine Cut Brass Gear Wheels for Models, etc. (new +list). Models, experimental work, and machine work +generally. D. Gilbert & Son, 212 Chester St., Phila., Pa.</p> + +<p>Elevators, Freight and Passenger, Shafting, Pulley +and Hangers. L. S. Graves & Son, Rochester, N. Y.</p> + +<p>Holly System of Water Supply and Fire Protection +for Cities and Villages, is fully described in SCIENTIFIC +AMERICAN SUPPLEMENT, No. 140.</p> + +<p>Howard Patent Safety Elevators. Howard Iron Works +Buffalo, N. Y.</p> + +<p>Mellen, Williams & Co., 57 Kilby St., Boston, Mass. Wiegand +Sectional Steam Boiler. Ætna Rocking Grate Bar.</p> + +<p>North's Lathe Dog. 347 N. 4th St., Philadelphia, Pa.</p> + +<p>Self-feeding upright Drilling Machine of superior +construction. Drills holes from ⅛ to ¾ in. diameter +Pratt & Whitney Co., Manufs., Hartford, Conn.</p> + +<p>Wm. Sellers & Co., Phila., have introduced a new +Injector, worked by a single motion of a lever.</p> + +<p>For Shafts, Pulleys, or Hangers, call and see stock +kept at 79 Liberty St. Wm. Sellers & Co.</p> + +<p>The Turbine Wheel made by Risdon & Co., Mt. Holly +N. J., gave the best results at Centennial test.</p> + +<p>Wheels and Pinions, heavy and light, remarkably +strong and durable. Especially suited for sugar mills +and similar work. Pittsburgh Steel Casting Company, +Pittsburgh, Pa.</p> + +<hr class="full" /> + +<a name="art45" id="art45"></a> + +<div class="figcenter"> +<img src="images/12-notesqueries-400.png" width="400" height="100" alt="Notes and Queries" /><br /><br /> +</div> + +<hr class="full" /> + +<p style="text-indent: 1em;">(1) Detroit asks whether a boat propelled +with a force of 3 miles an hour on still water will with +the same propelling force run 6 miles an hour in a current +running 3 miles an hour? A. We think so.</p> + +<a name="artnq02" id="artnq02"></a> +<p style="text-indent: 1em;">(2) J. C. R asks: Which was the first railroad +built in the United States? That is, a regular, incorporated +road, connecting two points, and conveying +passengers, freight, etc. A. We believe that the road +now known as the Baltimore and Ohio Railroad was the +first in the United States chartered for carrying on a general +transportation business.</p> + +<a name="artnq03" id="artnq03"></a> +<p style="text-indent: 1em;">(3) J. R. E. asks how to make an ordinary +sunshade for a telescope when placed, and what +kind of glass it is composed of. A. Any very dark +glass will answer, providing it is perfectly plane. It +should be placed between the eye and eyepiece.</p> + +<a name="artnq04" id="artnq04"></a> +<p style="text-indent: 1em;">(4) W. H. G. S. writes: I wish to give a +blue color to screw heads, wire and steel. What shall I +use? A. Heat them in a sand bath, or apply shellac or +copal varnish, to which a little Prussian blue has been +added.</p> + +<a name="artnq05" id="artnq05"></a> +<p style="text-indent: 1em;">(5) T. McW. asks (1) for a good recipe for +making Babbitt metal. A. By weight, 4 parts copper, +8 parts antimony, 96 parts tin. 2. What is meant by +heating surface in boilers, and how is it computed? + A. The term heating surface, as ordinarily used, refers to +the surface which has water on one side, and flame or +the products of combustion on the other. 3. I have a +peculiar kind of steel which I cannot harden by fire and +water, neither will it caseharden by prussiate of potash. +What can I do with it to harden it? A. Assuming your +account to be correct, we judge that you cannot harden it.</p> + +<a name="artnq06" id="artnq06"></a> +<p style="text-indent: 1em;">(6) A. Van B. writes: A correspondent in +your last issue asks how to keep rubber belts from slipping. +Mine slipped considerably, but I checked it by +throwing powdered rosin in between the belt and pulley +while running. The pulley soon becomes covered with +a tough black coating, very much like leather, and there +is no more slip. [This expedient can be used to advantage +in certain cases, but it is better to have a belt large +enough to drive without using any preparation.—<span class="sc">Ed</span>.]</p> + +<p style="text-indent: 1em;">(7) E. B. C. asks: 1. Does a more powerful +battery produce better results in telephone or microphone? + A. A powerful battery is not required for +either. 2. Can you give me a short description of the +principle and construction of the aerophone? + A. We think it has not been perfected.</p> + +<a name="artnq08" id="artnq08"></a> +<p style="text-indent: 1em;">(8) A. T. L. asks for a recipe for a liquid +boot or shoe polish. + A. Clausen's ink is made as follows: +Nutgalls, 8 parts; logwood extract, 10 parts; boil +together in water, q. s., and add Castile soap, 4 parts; +glycerin, trace. +Crocker's—Logwood extract, 6 ozs.; +water, 1 gallon; ivory black, 1.5 oz.; glycerin, 1 oz.; +bichromate of potassa, 0.125 oz.; copperas, 0.125 oz.; boil together. +Sefton's—Orange shellac, 64 ozs.; alcohol, +4 gallons; pure asphaltum, 60 ozs.; neat's foot oil, +1 pint; lampblack, q. s. +Ovington's—Water, 1 gallon; +logwood extract, 6 ozs.; water, 1 gallon; borax, 6 ozs.; +shellac, 1.5 oz.; water, 0.5 pint; bichromate of potassa, +0.375 oz. Mix the solutions, and add 3 ozs. ammonia. +Shaw's—Borax, 3 ozs.; orange shellac, 5 ozs.; water, +q. s.; boil and add soluble aniline black or nigrosine, +q. s. Rub the spots with strong aqueous solution of +ferric chloride, and dry before applying the dressing.</p> + +<p style="text-indent: 1em;">(9) J. S. & R. M. write: 1. We propose +putting in a steam engine of 20 horse power, and we are +informed there is an engine that weighs 2,700 lbs., that +has a balance wheel weighing 500 lbs., cylinder 10 x 10 +inches; cutting off at ¾ stroke, running at 180 to 200 revolutions +a minute, and they say that it is 20 horse at 70 +lbs. steam. Will such an engine develop 20 horse +power? A. The engine would develop 20 horse power +under the above conditions, if well constructed. 2. +How can we calculate the power of an engine? A. To +determine the power of an engine, multiply the mean +pressure on the piston in lbs., by the piston speed in feet +per minute, and divide the product by 33,000.</p> + +<p style="text-indent: 1em;">(10) A. L. G. asks: 1. With a boiler 15 +inches in diameter by 30 inches in height, with five 1½ +inch tubes 18 inches long, firebox 12 x 12, and all made +of iron plates ¼ inch thick. What is the greatest number +of pounds of steam to the square inch it will hold, +and what fraction of a horse power will it give to an engine +having a cylinder 2 x 4 inches, situated 2 feet from +the boiler, and connected by 40 inches of steam pipe? + A. You can carry 150 lbs. of steam, and might develop +1 horse power. 2. What is meant by the pitch of a +wheel in a propeller, and what is the inclination of a +cylinder? A. The pitch of a propeller is the distance +it would advance in the direction of its axis at each revolution, +if it worked without slip. The inclination of a +cylinder refers to the angle made by its axis with a horizontal +or vertical line.</p> + +<p style="text-indent: 1em;">(11) J. H. asks: 1. Has steel been used +for portable boilers? A. Yes. 2. What size boiler is +required for an engine having a 3 x 4 inch cylinder? A. +Diameter, 24 inches; height, 45 inches; heating surface, +65 to 70 square feet.</p> + +<p style="text-indent: 1em;">(12) J. A. M. asks: How large must an air +pump be for an engine steam cylinder 8 x 8, making 100 +revolutions per minute with 90 lbs. of steam, allowing +the pump to be 4 inches stroke, double acting, to be attached +to surface condenser? A. Diameter, 3½ inches.</p> + +<p style="text-indent: 1em;">(13) J. A. F. asks: 1. What shall I paint +my boiler and smoke stack with, and where can I get the +paint? My engine is a thrashing engine, and of course +is out of doors during the fall of the year. A. Get some +black varnish made from petroleum, from a dealer in +machinists' supplies. 2. How shall I care for the boiler +inside? A. Leave the boiler perfectly dry, unless you +can coat the interior with oil. 3. What shall I do for +the engine. Is it necessary to take the piston out of +cylinder and oil it? A. If the engine is to stand for +some time, remove the piston, coat it and the cylinder +with tallow; the same for the journals. Cover all finished +parts of the engine with a mixture of white lead +and tallow. 4. I find my steam gauge does not indicate +less than 10 lbs. when boiler is cold. What is the +trouble and how can it be repaired? A. In such a case +it is best to send the gauge to a maker for repairs.</p> + +<a name="artnq14" id="artnq14"></a> +<p style="text-indent: 1em;">(14) "Zebra" wishes to know the best test +of the genuineness of white lead; also the simplest +way to try the comparative value of two samples of +ground white lead. Also the name of the best work to +consult upon the manufacture of Portland cement. A. +See answer No. 29, p. 283, current volume, <span class="sc">Scientific +American</span>. Also pp. 102-105 Normandy and Noad's +"Commercial Analysis." The relative value of different +samples of white lead in oil is roughly judged from the +weight of a given measured quantity, the covering properties +when compared on glass with a sample of finest +white lead, and the color and general appearance of the +sample. You may consult Reid's "Manufacture of +Portland Cement."</p> + +<p style="text-indent: 1em;">(15) J. B. B. asks: Can I arrange an electric +battery so as to heat a platinum wire for the purpose +of cutting wood? Is it practicable? A. Two or +three Bunsen cells will do it. It is impracticable save +as an experiment.</p> + +<a name="artnq16" id="artnq16"></a> +<p style="text-indent: 1em;">(16) D. S. M. asks how to color butter to +make it yellow, without injuring it in any way. A. A +little annotto is often used. If pure, it is not injurious.</p> + +<p style="text-indent: 1em;">(17) H. C. M. asks: What substances are +there that will absorb light during the day when exposed +to light, and give it out again at night? A. 1. Heat strontium +theosulphate for fifteen minutes over a good Bunsen +gas lamp and then for 5 minutes over a blast lamp. 2. +Heat equal parts of strontium carbonate and lac sulphuris +gently for 5 minutes, then strongly for 25 minutes +over a Bunsen lamp, and finally 5 minutes over a blast +lamp. 3. Precipitate strong aqueous solution of strontium +chloride by means of sulphuric acid, dry the precipitate, +and heat it to redness for some time in a current +of hydrogen, then over a Bunsen lamp for 10 minutes, +and for 20 minutes over a blast lamp. Mix any of +these with pure melted paraffin for use as a paint, and +expose for a time to sunlight. The two former yield a +greenish phosphorescence in the dark, the latter a bluish +light.</p> + +<p style="text-indent: 1em;">(18) Z. asks: Is the Great African Desert +below the level of the sea, and if so, could it be made +into an inland sea by flooding from the ocean? A. A +considerable, though relatively small, portion of the Sahara +is below the sea level, and the flooding of the lowest +portion has been proposed. The greater part of +North Africa lies at a higher level, the exception being +a chain of old lake beds or chotts on the border of Algeria.</p> + +<a name="artnq19" id="artnq19"></a> +<p style="text-indent: 1em;">(19) J. P. L. asks: How can I make a filter +to cleanse rain water from smoke as it passes from the +roof to the cistern? The coal which is burned here +(bituminous) gives us a great deal of trouble in this regard. + A. The carbonaceous matters may be removed +by passing the water through a large barrel half filled +with fine gravel and pounded, freshly-burnt charcoal +(free from dust), distributed in alternate layers, each +several inches deep. Over this spread a clean piece of +bagging, and fill in with fine gravel or coarse clean +quartz sand for 12 inches or more. The inlet pipe +should discharge at the bottom of the barrel—the filtered +water flowing from the top.</p> + +<p style="text-indent: 1em;">(20) F. E. H. asks: Can percussion caps be +so composed as to explode when pierced by a sharp +pointed needle? If so, of what should they be composed? + A. Such an arrangement is employed in the +needle gun. The composition may be of mercuric fulminate.</p> + +<p style="text-indent: 1em;">(21) C. A. N. asks: What is the horse power +of an engine 30 inches stroke, 14 inches cylinder, 51 revolutions +per minute, 60 lbs. mean pressure in cylinder?<br /> +A. Piston area = 153.94 square inches. +Piston speed = 255 feet per minute.</p> + +<table align="center" summary="horsepower calculation"> +<tr> + <td class="left1">Indicated horse power = </td> + <td class="left1"><span style="text-decoration: underline">153.94 x 60 x 255</span> + <br /> 33,000</td> + <td class="left1"> = 71.4</td> +</tr> +</table> + +<p style="text-indent: 1em;">(22) P. O. asks: If I admit steam 100 lbs. +pressure in a cylinder 15 x 24 inches, and cut the steam +off when piston has traveled 6 inches, what will be +the pressure at 6 inches, 12 inches, 18 inches, and 24 +inches, or just before it exhausts? A. The pressure will +vary about in the inverse ratio of the volume, so that, +approximately,</p> + +<table align="center" summary="cylinder pressure"> +<tr> + <td class="left1"> vol. of cylinder up to point of cut-off + clearance vol.<br /> +<span style="text-decoration: overline">vol. of cylinder at any point of expansion + clearance vol.</span></td> + <td class="left1"> = </td> + <td class="left1">pressure above zero, at the given point.<br /> + <span style="text-decoration: overline">pressure above zero, at point of cut-off.</span></td> +</tr> +</table> + +<p style="text-indent: 1em;">(23) H. T. S. asks: What size should I +make the holes in the side of a fan wheel, 20 inches in +diameter? Also what size should the nozzle be? A. +Allow an opening of from 17 to 20 square inches at inlet +and discharge.</p> + +<p style="text-indent: 1em;">(24) E. M. D. writes: I am constructing a +telephone according to directions in <span class="sc">Scientific American +Supplement</span> No. 142, using a bar magnet in place +of horseshoe magnet and soft iron core. 1. Would it +reduce the strength of bar magnet to cut a thread on +one end of it? A. No. 2. Will a bar magnet, used in +Bell telephone, lose its power to such a degree as not to +work? A. Not readily. 3. Is No. 22 copper wire of sufficient +size for a telephone line of 1,000 feet? A. Yes; +but larger would be better.</p> + +<p style="text-indent: 1em;">(25) S. & Y. write: We have a pair of burrs +on which we grind plaster. The burrs are about 4 feet +in diameter and 1½ foot thick. We are running them as +an over runner at this time, but wish to change them +and make the lower burr run instead of the upper. Can +a pair of burrs of the above size be run in that way, +and if so, what is the maximum speed at which they +can be run? A. If properly arranged, you can run +them, after the change, as fast as is allowable for overrunning +stones.</p> + +<p style="text-indent: 1em;">(26) J. J. asks: Which tire makes a wheel +the strongest, 1.25 x 0.50 inch iron, or 1.25 x <span style="font-size: 0.7em;"><sup>5</sup></span>⁄<span style="font-size: 0.6em;">16</span> + steel tire? + A. The steel tire will be the strongest, comparing good +qualities of steel and iron.</p> + +<p style="text-indent: 1em;">(27) E. L. W. asks: Is a ton (2,000 lbs.) of +first class coke equal in heat giving power to a ton (2,000 +lbs.) of coal? If not, please give me the relative value +of coke and coal in heat giving power? A. Calling the +evaporative power of good anthracite coal 1, good bituminous +coal rates at about 0.92, and coke from 0.89 +to 0.95.</p> + +<p style="text-indent: 1em;">(28) J. W. S. asks what to impregnate paper +with to give it an agreeable smell while burning. A. +You may try a strong ethereal or alcoholic solution of +benzoin, tolu, storax, olibanum or labdanum. To burn +well the paper should first be impregnated with an +aqueous solution of niter and dried.</p> + +<p style="text-indent: 1em;">(29) M. G. asks whether hydrogen and oxygen +can be produced as rapidly and copiously in the decomposition +of water by the galvanic battery as by the +action of sulphuric acid on zinc or lead in the one case, +and by heating chlorate of potassa in the other. A. +Yes, with a very powerful current.</p> + +<p style="text-indent: 1em;">(30) T. G. H. asks for names of useful +treatises on mechanical movements. A. "Scientific +American Reference Book," and "507 Mechanical +Movements."</p> + +<p style="text-indent: 1em;">(31) R. B. T. writes: We have just set up a +new engine; the cylinder is 8 x 12, has a common slide +valve. We think the valve is too short; it is set 0.125 +inch open when on center, takes steam 10 inches before +cutting off; the exhaust is very free. The engine runs +about 110 revolutions per minute. We think we could +save steam by using a longer valve, and cut-off about ⅝ +stroke, and make the exhaust space in the valve shorter, +so that it will shut in a portion of the exhaust and form +a cushion for the piston. About how much of the exhaust +can we shut in without overdoing it? A. You can +obtain a good action by making the ratio of compression +equal to the ratio of expansion, with the proviso that the +final cushion pressure must not exceed the initial +pressure.</p> + +<p style="text-indent: 1em;">(32) D. B. L. writes: Our boiler after being +repaired was tested at 110 lbs. cold water pressure. +Three days after it gave out where it was repaired at 58 +lbs. steam pressure. To find the leak we put on 80 lbs. +cold water pressure, and could not find it. We then put +steam pressure at 40 lbs., which made the leak very great, +whereas with cold water pressure we could find none. +Can you explain it? A. The phenomenon is probably +due to the change of shape in the boiler when heated.</p> + +<p style="text-indent: 1em;">(33) F. C. writes: Our engine is a plain +slide valve engine, 24 x 9, steam following almost to end +of stroke. How shall I make a valve to cut off at ¾? +Our exhaust now is 1 inch, steam ports 0.75, bridges +0.75. Length of valve 4½ inches, cavity 2⅜, travel of +valve 2 inches. Will I have to enlarge the steam chest; +the valve uses the whole length of it now? A. As the +length and travel of valve must be increased, it will be +necessary to lengthen the steam chest, unless you can +apply an independent cut-off valve.</p> + +<p style="text-indent: 1em;">(34) T. P. writes: A small basement room 9 +feet high is to be heated by a furnace in an adjoining +room. By carrying the hot air pipe through the partition +midway between the floor and the ceiling it will +stand at an angle of about 45°. If carried through at +the top of the room it will of course be nearer vertical. +In which position of the hot air pipe will the room be +most easily heated? A. Place the hot air pipe in the position +first described. Take the cold air from a point +near the floor through a flue opening above the roof.</p> + +<p style="text-indent: 1em;">(35) G. M. P. asks: What is a good and +cheap substitute for salt for raising the temperature of +water to 230° Fah.? A. An oil bath is often used instead. +Chloride of calcium will answer as well as salt, +though not so cheap.</p> + +<a name="Page_379" id="Page_379"></a> +<a name="artnq36" id="artnq36"></a> + +<div class="figright" style="width:250px;"> +<a href="images/13-triangle.png"><img src="images/13-triangle-250.png" width="250" height="175" alt="Right Triangle - sides 15, 20, 25ft." /></a><br /><br /> +<p class="center"><b>Right Triangle - sides 15, 20, 25ft.</b></p> +</div><br style="line-height: 50%;" /> + +<p style="text-indent: 1em;">(36) J. D. reminds us of an old and good +method of drawing a perpendicular to a straight line for +the purpose of squaring foundations, etc. +From the corner of the foundation take two +lines respectively 15 and 20 feet, and connect +them by a line of 25 feet; the +angle included between the two shorter lines will be a +right angle. The numbers 3, 4, 5, or, as in the present +case, their multiples 15, 20, 25, are taken to measure respectively +the perpendicular, base, and slant side of the +triangle. It is obvious that any scale may be used so +long as the ratio of 3, 4, 5, is observed.</p><br clear="all" /> + +<p style="text-indent: 1em;">(37) J. H. asks what kind of iron to use in +making cast iron armatures. A. Soft gray iron.</p> + +<p style="text-indent: 1em;">(38) F. H. C. asks: How can I etch cheaply +on glass to imitate ground figures or transparent figures +on a ground background? A. For this purpose the sand +blast is now generally used; the glass is covered with a +film of wax or varnish, through which, with suitable +needles or gravers, is etched the design; a fine sharp silicious +sand impelled by a current of air is then directed +from a suitable jet over the prepared surface, and the +etching is accomplished in a few minutes. Glass is +etched also by hydrofluoric acid; the plate may be prepared +as for the sand blast, and placed face downwards +over a shallow leaden tray, containing powdered fluorspar +moistened with strong oil of vitriol and gently +warmed; the gaseous hydrofluoric acid given off rapidly +etches the portions of the glass not protected by the +wax or varnish. Hydrofluoric acid should be used with +great care.</p> + +<p style="text-indent: 1em;">(39) L. H. writes: I have seen it asserted +that the parasites that infest the Asiatic tiger's paw are +an exact miniature image of itself. Is this so? A. +No.</p> + +<p style="text-indent: 1em;">(40) J. G. B. asks if there is any way of +melting brass in a common sand crucible for castings of +a pound or so in weight for a small engine. A. You +may melt small quantities of brass in any common +stove having a good draught, using a coal fire. You may +use borax as a flux.</p> + +<p style="text-indent: 1em;">(41) F. & Co. ask: 1. In making a telephone +as described in Figs. 4 and 5, <span class="sc">Supplement</span> 142, must the +diaphragm be entirely free, or can it be punched and +the screws which secure the flange pass through it? A. +The diaphragm should not be punched. 2. In new form +of telephone in No 20, current volume, must there be a +battery in the circuit, or is the telephone sufficient to +work it? A. A battery is required.</p> +<a name="artnq42" id="artnq42"></a> +<p style="text-indent: 1em;">(42) J. M. B. asks: What will prevent the +hair from falling out? A. Keep the pores of the skin +open by frequent bathing and change of underclothing. +Bathe the head with clean soft water, and stimulate the +scalp with a moderately stiff brush morning and evening. +The head should be occasionally cleansed with a +weak solution of glycerin soap in dilute spirit of wine, +with care to remove all traces of soap from the hair. +Use no pomades or oils of any kind.</p> +<a name="artnq43" id="artnq43"></a> +<p style="text-indent: 1em;">(43) B. H. P. asks (1) how to make malleable +iron, such as used in wrenches. A. Malleable iron +castings are made from mottled iron. They are cleaned +by tumbling and then packed in iron boxes with alternating +layers of rolling mill scale. The boxes are carefully +luted and packed in an annealing furnace, where +they are kept at a white heat for a week or more, and +then allowed to cool gradually. 2. How is steel or iron +made to adhere to the face of the jaws of the wrench? + A. By welding.</p> + +<p style="text-indent: 1em;">(44) J. G. E. asks: What is the highest column +of water that can be raised from a well by means +of a siphon pump with 60 lbs. steam, likewise a 1 inch +column of water with 60 lbs. steam? A. Lift, from 26 +to 27 feet.</p> + +<p style="text-indent: 1em;">(45) W. H. W. asks: 1. Is there any solution +excepting rubber that will make cloth thoroughly +waterproof, or at least withstand the attack of water +for an hour or so? It should be applied by dipping the +cloth in the solution. A. Linseed oil boiled with a little +wax and litharge is useful for some purposes. Cloth prepared +with paraffin, balata gum, the gum of the asclet +pias or milkweed, naphtha solution of the dried pulp of +the bamboo berry, anhydrous aluminum soaps (see pp. +149 and 159, "Science Record," 1874), are also employed. +2. Is there any chemical that could be combined with the +solution, imparting some property to the same for which +rats or mice would have an antipathy so as to prevent +their attacks? A. A trace of phenol will generally suffice.</p> + +<p style="text-indent: 1em;">(46) J. L. asks: Is the balata gum softened +by animal oils or fat? A. Yes.</p> + +<p style="text-indent: 1em;">(47) P. L. W. asks. What distance would a +100 lb. weight have to fall to run a sewing machine +for 5 hours? A. For an ordinary family sewing machine, +requiring about one thirtieth of a horse power, +the weight would have to fall about 3,300 feet in the 5 +hours.</p> +<a name="artnq48" id="artnq48"></a> +<p style="text-indent: 1em;">(48) W. G. R. asks: 1. What is the valve +yoke of a steam engine? A. We presume you refer to +the rectangular yoke that receives the back of the valve +in the class of engines having balanced valves. 2. What +should be the diameter of the bore of an engine of 1 +horse power with 100 lbs. pressure, also the length of +stroke? A. Diameter, 2¾ inches; stroke, 4½ inches. 3. +How are the back gears of a lathe made so as to be +thrown out of gear when it is wished to use the lathe at +a high speed? A. Ordinarily by a cam and lever, or +tight and loose joint. 4. Would <span style="font-size: 0.7em;"><sup>1</sup></span>⁄<span style="font-size: 0.6em;">64</span> +of an inch thickness +of sheet steel be strong enough for the boiler of a small +model locomotive? How much pressure would it stand +to the inch? A. If the diameter does not exceed 3 inches, +you can carry a pressure of from 50 to 60 lbs. per +square inch.</p> + +<p style="text-indent: 1em;">(49) J. W. W. asks: Which will stand the +most pressure, a piece of round iron 1 inch long and 1 +inch in diameter, or a piece of gas pipe the same dimensions, +both being set upon end? A. The round +iron.</p> + +<p style="text-indent: 1em;">(50) W. M. B. writes: 1. I have one +eighth inch basswood, cherry, butternut and walnut. +Which do you advise for the sounding board of a microphone +and Hughes telephone? A. Either will do, but +pine or spruce is better. 2. Would a glazed earthen jar +do for the outside of battery described in <span class="sc">Scientific +American Supplement</span>, No. 149? A. Yes. 3. Could I +make insulated wire myself? If so, how? A. Wire +may be insulated by giving it a coat of shellac varnish +and allowing it to become dry and nearly hard before +winding.</p> +<a name="artnq51" id="artnq51"></a> +<p style="text-indent: 1em;">(51) W. H. S. asks how to satin finish +tubing like sample sent. A. The specimen has been +electro-plated with silver in the usual manner, and the +electric current then reversed for a few moments, thus +redissolving a portion of the plate, the remainder presenting +the peculiar satin like luster.</p> + +<p style="text-indent: 1em;">(52) S. W. C. asks: Has carbon for telephone +purposes ever been made by subjecting the black +deposited by a flame to a heavy pressure? A. Yes. Edison's +carbons are made in this manner.</p> + +<p style="text-indent: 1em;">(53) "Hardware" asks: 1. Where is best +to take hot air in a room, at register near ceiling or in +floor? A. At or near the floor. 2. Where is best place +to have ventilation, near floor or near ceiling? A. If +connected with a flue having a good draught it should +be near the floor.</p> + +<p style="text-indent: 1em;">(54) R. W. J. asks: What causes the cracking +noise in the pipes of a steam heating apparatus, +when a fire has been started to warm up the building? +Is it the water in the pipes made by condensed steam, +or is it the expansion of the pipes from being heated? + A. The noise is due to both causes in some degree, but +principally to the water, which produces violent blows.</p> +<a name="artnq55" id="artnq55"></a> +<p style="text-indent: 1em;">(55) C. N. A. asks how to temper steel tools +for working on stone or similar work. There is some +preparation which is put in water which accomplishes +the purpose when the steel is heated and plunged in. + A. Heat the tools to a cherry red, and plunge in clean, +moderately cool water. A little common salt is sometimes +added to the water.</p> + +<p style="text-indent: 1em;">(56) G. B. asks: 1. Is the height to which +water is raised by a hydraulic ram measured from the +ram itself or from the spring from which the supply +comes? A. From the ram. 2. Can a hydraulic ram be +constructed to discharge 1,000 gallons of water per minute? + A. Yes.</p> +<a name="artnq57" id="artnq57"></a> +<p style="text-indent: 1em;">(57) L. D. writes that benzine will answer +much better to exterminate roaches, moths, etc., than +anything else. It will not hurt furniture in the least, +will evaporate, and can be easily applied.</p> + +<p><span class="sc">Minerals, Etc.</span>—Specimens have been received +from the following correspondents, and +examined, with the results stated:</p> + +<p>M. B. W.—No. 1 is a silicious clay—it might be useful +in the manufacture of some grades of pottery, etc. +No. 2 is a ferruginous shale—contains about 80 per cent. +of silica and 10 per cent. of alumina, besides lime, magnesia, +iron oxide, and water.—W. S.—It is fibrous talc—talc +of good quality is in considerable demand for paper +making and other purposes.—W. G. H.—The sand contains +no precious metal—the glittering particles are +mica.—S. F.—The specimen you send consists of a +mass of the long hairs which have been attached to the +seeds of the "milkweed" (<i>asclepias</i>), or, as it is sometimes +called, from the silky nature of these appendages, +"silkweed." We believe that this material is put to no +other economic use at present than that of a filling for +cushions and pillows. The beauty of this silk like down +long ago attracted attention, and many unsuccessful attempts +have been made to put it to some practical use in +the arts; but, as you have probably noticed, the hairs +are both brittle and weak, and an examination with a +lens will show that it wants the roughness and angularity +necessary to fit it for being spun like other fibers. +It has, however, been mixed with cotton and woven into +fabrics having a silky luster and capable of taking brilliant +dyes, but the manufacture has never been prosecuted. +The plants, though widely distributed over the +United States, and quite common, are nevertheless not +abundant enough in a wild state to afford much of a +supply, and we believe no experiments have been made +in cultivating them.</p> + +<hr /> + +<p>Any numbers of the <span class="sc">Scientific American Supplement</span> +referred to in these columns may be had at this +office. Price 10 cents each.</p> + +<hr /> + +<h3>COMMUNICATIONS RECEIVED.</h3> + +<p>The Editor of the <span class="sc">Scientific American</span> acknowledges +with much pleasure the receipt of original papers and +contributions on the following subjects:</p> + +<p>Manufacture of Porous Cups for Tyndall Grove Battery. By W. H. S.<br /> +Cylinder Condensation. By F. F. H.<br /> +Sawdust. By W. H. M.<br /> +Keely Motor. By G. R. S.<br /> +Firing. By A. P. A.<br /> +Steam Launches. By G. F. S.</p> + +<hr /> + +<p class="center"><b>HINTS TO CORRESPONDENTS.</b></p> + +<p>We renew our request that correspondents, in referring +to former answers or articles, will be kind enough to +name the date of the paper and the page, or the number +of the question.</p> + +<p>Many of our correspondents make inquiries which +cannot properly be answered in these columns. Such +inquiries, if signed by initials only, are liable to be cast +into the waste basket.</p> + +<p>Persons desiring special information which is purely +of a personal character, and not of general interest, +should remit from $1 to $5, according to the subject, +as we cannot be expected to spend time and labor to +obtain such information without remuneration.</p> + +<hr class="full" /> + +<h3>English Patents Issued to Americans.</h3> + +<p class="center">From November 8 to November 12, inclusive.</p> +<p> +Electric light.—T. A. Edison, Menlo Park, N. J.<br /> +Feed water apparatus.—S. J. Hayes et al.,———.<br /> +Pipe, manufacture of.—W. Radde, N. Y. city.<br /> +Potato digger.—L. A. Aspinwall, Albany, N. Y.<br /> +Refrigerator.—J. A. Whitney, N. Y. city.<br /> +Screw cutting machinery.—C. D. Rogers, Providence, R. I.<br /> +Sewing machine.—Wilson Sewing Machine Company, Chicago, Ill.<br /> +Wire machinery.—C. D. Rogers, Providence, R. I.</p> + +<hr class="full" /> + +<h4>[OFFICIAL.]</h4> + +<hr class="short" /> + +<h2>INDEX OF INVENTIONS</h2> + +<p class="center">FOR WHICH</p> + +<h3>Letters Patent of the United States were</h3> + +<h3>Granted in the Week Ending</h3> + +<h2>October 15, 1878,</h2> + +<h3>AND EACH BEARING THAT DATE.</h3> + +<p class="center">[Those marked (r) are reissued patents.]</p> + +<hr /> + +<p>A complete copy of any patent in the annexed list, +including both the specifications and drawings, will be +furnished from this office for one dollar. In ordering, +please state the number and date of the patent desired, +and remit to Munn & Co., 37 Park Row, New York city.</p> + +<table align="center" summary="patents list"> +<tr> + <td>Animal trap, B. H. Noelting </td> + <td class="right">209,068</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td>Axle box, car, J. N. Smith</td> + <td class="right">208,993</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td>Axle skein, vehicle, L. A. Winchester</td> + <td class="right">209,096</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td>Ballot box, W. L. Barnes</td> + <td class="right">208,951</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td>Bed bottom, F. W. Mitchell</td> + <td class="right">208,917</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td>Bed bottom, spring, H. Pitcher</td> + <td class="right">208,987</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td>Bed lounge, H. S. Carter</td> + <td class="right">209,019</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td>Bed, spring, A. J. Lattin</td> + <td class="right">208,979</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td>Bedstead fastening, L. P. Clark</td> + <td class="right">209,022</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td>Boilers, low water alarm for steam, G. H. Crosby</td> + <td class="right">208,962</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td>Boot and shoe counter support, etc., J. Wissen</td> + <td class="right">208,943</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td>Bootjack, C. Tyson</td> + <td class="right">209,091</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td>Brake, vacuum, F. W. Eames</td> + <td class="right">208,895</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td>Bran scourer, R. Tyson</td> + <td class="right">209,092</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td>Broom, M. T. Boult</td> + <td class="right">209,017</td> +</tr> + <tr> + <td>Brush, A. C. Estabrook</td> + <td class="right">208,898</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td>Camera, J. W. T. Cadett</td> + <td class="right">208,956</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td>Can, E. Norton</td> + <td class="right">209,070</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td>Can, metallic, J. Broughton</td> + <td class="right">209,009</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td>Can, oil, A. E. Gardner</td> + <td class="right">209,037</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td>Can, sheet metal, A. N. Lapierre</td> + <td class="right">209,060</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td>Car bumper, S. M. Cummings (r)</td> + <td class="right"> 8,448</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td>Car coupling, J. Simmons</td> + <td class="right">208,934</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td>Car draw bar attachment, railway, J. H. Smitt</td> + <td class="right">208,994</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td>Car journal box, F. M. Alexander</td> + <td class="right">208,947</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td>Car running gear, railway, J. C. Weaver</td> + <td class="right">209,093</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td>Cars, dust deflector for, Morgan & Gilleland</td> + <td class="right">209,066</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td>Carbureter, air, G. Reznor</td> + <td class="right">209,076</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td>Carriage, C. H. Palmer, Jr.</td> + <td class="right">208,923</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td>Carriage seats, corner iron for, L. Emerson</td> + <td class="right">208,971</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td>Carriage top standard, F. W. Whitney</td> + <td class="right">209,097</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td>Cartridge loading machine, G. S. Slocum</td> + <td class="right">208,935</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td>Cartridges, machine for gauging, J. H. Gill</td> + <td class="right">208,903</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td>Casting andirons, mould for, S. E. Jones</td> + <td class="right">209,054</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td>Casting temple rollers, mould for, J. B. Stamour</td> + <td class="right">208,997</td> +</tr> + <tr> + <td>Chair for children, high, J. Nichols (r)</td> + <td class="right">8,454</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td>Chair, reclining, N. N. Horton</td> + <td class="right">208,907</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td>Chalk, sharpener for tailor's, J. Butcher</td> + <td class="right">208,955</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td>Churn, J .H. Folliott</td> + <td class="right">209,033</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td>Churn, reciprocating, L. B. Wilson</td> + <td class="right">208,941</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td>Clasp, T. P. Taylor</td> + <td class="right">208,998</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td>Clock striking attachment, D. C. Wolf</td> + <td class="right">209,098</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td>Cock, steam, G. H. Crosby</td> + <td class="right">208,961</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td>Coin holder, C. H. Carpenter</td> + <td class="right">208,958</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td>Coin holder, B. McGovern</td> + <td class="right">208,984</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td>Coin measure, C. H. Fuller</td> + <td class="right">208,902</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td>Coke oven, W. H. Rosewarne</td> + <td class="right">208,930</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td>Combing machine, Rushton & Macqueen</td> + <td class="right">208,991</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td>Cooler and filter, water, J. C. Jewett</td> + <td class="right">208,909</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td>Cooler, water, G. W. Malpass</td> + <td class="right">208,913</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td>Cotton gin, J. B. Hull</td> + <td class="right">209,049</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td>Crucible machine, J. C. Clime</td> + <td class="right">208,960</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td>Cultivator, J. C. Bean</td> + <td class="right">209,005</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td>Cultivator, B. H. Cross</td> + <td class="right">208,964</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td>Cultivator, C. </td> + <td class="right">208,921</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td>Dental foil package, R. S. Williams</td> + <td class="right">209,002</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td>Dental plugger, W. G. A. Bonwill</td> + <td class="right">209,006</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td>Desk, H. E. Moon</td> + <td class="right">208,919</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td>Doffer combs, operator for, E. Wright</td> + <td class="right">208,946</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td>Draught equalizer, L. O. Brekke</td> + <td class="right">209,007</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td>Dredging machine, J. B. Eads</td> + <td class="right">208,894</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td>Drill cleaner, grain, J. W. Lucas</td> + <td class="right">208,982</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td>Dummy, H. H. Baker</td> + <td class="right">208,881</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td>Ear ring, W. P. Dolloff</td> + <td class="right">208,968</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td>Electric machine, dynamo, E. Weston</td> + <td class="right">209,094</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td>Elevator, windlass water, J. Knipscheer</td> + <td class="right">209,057</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td>End gate fastening, F. Rock</td> + <td class="right">208,928</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td>Evaporator, fruit and vegetable, J. W. Powers </td> + <td class="right">208,925</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td>Excavating machine, J. T. Dougine </td> + <td class="right">208,893</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td>Exercising machine, W. J. O. Bryon, Jr.</td> + <td class="right">208,954</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td>Exhaust nozzle, N. J. White</td> + <td class="right">208,939</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td>Fabric cutter, Muehling & Davis</td> + <td class="right">208,920</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td>Feathers for dusters, G. M. Richmond</td> + <td class="right">209,080</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td>Fence, J. Williams</td> + <td class="right">209,095</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td>Fence, picket, Terry & W. W. Green, Jr.</td> + <td class="right">209,089</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td>Firearm, breech-loading, H. C. Bull</td> + <td class="right">209,010</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td>Firearm, breech-loading, J. D. Coon</td> + <td class="right">208,889</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td>Fire escape, V. Wohlmann</td> + <td class="right">208,944</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td>Firekindler, T. M. Benner</td> + <td class="right">208,882</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td>Firekindler, E. J. Norris</td> + <td class="right">209,069</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td>Fluting machine, C. G. Cabell (r)</td> + <td class="right">8,453</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td>Fork, W. H. Kretsinger</td> + <td class="right">209,058</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td>Fuel compressor, W. H. Rosewarne</td> + <td class="right">208,929</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td>Gas burner, pressure governing, J. N. Chamberlain</td> + <td class="right">209,021</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td>Gas burners, apparatus for, A. L. Bogart</td> + <td class="right">209,016</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td>Gate, C. D. & I. Haldeman</td> + <td class="right">209,040</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td>Gate, J. S. Henshaw</td> + <td class="right">208,976</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td>Gate, Nason & Wilson (r)</td> + <td class="right">8,456</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td>Grain binder, M. A. Keller</td> + <td class="right">209,059</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td>Grain separator, G. W. Earhart</td> + <td class="right">208,896</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td>Gun, air, B. T. Babbitt</td> + <td class="right">209,014</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td>Harness, neck yoke attachment for, J. S. Nelson</td> + <td class="right">208,922</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td>Harrow, sulky, S. C. Dix</td> + <td class="right">209,028</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td>Harvester rake, J. Barnes</td> + <td class="right">208,950</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td>Harvester reel, Hodges & Mohler</td> + <td class="right">209,047</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td>Head light, locomotive, E. L. Hall</td> + <td class="right">209,041</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td>Heels, turner for wooden, Prenot & Marchal</td> + <td class="right">208,989</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td>Hide and skin dresser, C. Molinier</td> + <td class="right">208,918</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td>Hitching post, Thomas & Knox</td> + <td class="right">209,090</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td>Hoe. T. Weiss</td> + <td class="right">209,000</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td>Hog cholera compound, M. Hemmingway</td> + <td class="right">208,975</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td>Horse collar, J. J. Crowley</td> + <td class="right">209,025</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td>Horse power, C. H. Baker</td> + <td class="right">208,948</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td>Horsepower, A. B. Farquhar</td> + <td class="right">209,032</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td>Horse toe weight, J. W. Bopp</td> + <td class="right">208,927</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td>Ice, manufacturing, A. Albertson (r)</td> + <td class="right">8,455</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td>Indicator, water level, E. Jerome</td> + <td class="right">209,052</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td>Journal, R. Macdonald</td> + <td class="right">208,983</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td>Journal bearing, W. W. Smalley</td> + <td class="right">209,084</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td>Knife, chopping, W. Millspaugh</td> + <td class="right">209,065</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td>Knob attachment, door, J. F. Peacock</td> + <td class="right">208,924</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td>Lamp holder, A. A. Noyes</td> + <td class="right">209,071</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td>Lamp bowl, F. Rhind</td> + <td class="right">209,077</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td>Lamp chimney, nursery, E. Mecier</td> + <td class="right">208,916</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td>Lamp, miner's, W. Roberts</td> + <td class="right">209,082</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td>Lamp, self-extinguishing, F. Rhind</td> + <td class="right">209,078</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td>Lantern, J. H. Irwin</td> + <td class="right">209,051</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td>Lantern, signal. H. E. Pond (r)</td> + <td class="right">8,457</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td>Latch, B. W. Foster</td> + <td class="right">209,034</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td>Lathe for turning regular forms, E. A. Marsh</td> + <td class="right">209,064</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td>Lead, refining, impure, N. S. Keith</td> + <td class="right">209,056</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td>Leather skiving machine, M. M. Clough</td> + <td class="right">208,959</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td>Leather splitting machine, A. E. Whitney</td> + <td class="right">209,001</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td>Loom temple, J. B. Stamour</td> + <td class="right">209,101</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td>Lubricator, N. Seibert</td> + <td class="right">208,932</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td>Lubricator, steam cylinder, N. Seibert </td> + <td class="right">208,931</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td>Marble, slate, etc., ornamenting, W. K. Lorenz</td> + <td class="right">209,062</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td>Match dipping machine, A. R. Sprout</td> + <td class="right">208,996</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td>Meter, steam diaphragm, C. Holly</td> + <td class="right">209,048</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td>Middlings bolt, M. Inskeep</td> + <td class="right">209,050</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td>Middlings separator, G. T. Smith</td> + <td class="right">208,936</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td>Musical instrument, E. P. Needham (r)</td> + <td class="right">8,451</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td>Musical string instruments, key for, F. Z. Nicolier</td> + <td class="right">208,985</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td>Needle, J. Burrows</td> + <td class="right">209,018</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td>Oat meal machine, Eberhard & Turner</td> + <td class="right">208,970</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td>Ordnance, operating heavy, H. C. Bull</td> + <td class="right">209,011</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td>Ore separator, P. Plant</td> + <td class="right">209,074</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td>Oven, hot blast, Miles & Burghardt</td> + <td class="right">208,915</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td>Package wrapper, G. V. Hecker</td> + <td class="right">209,044</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td>Packing for piston rods, metallic, M. H. Gerry</td> + <td class="right">208,973</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td>Pan cover, milk, C. C. Fairlamb</td> + <td class="right">208,900</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td>Paper feeding apparatus, F. H. Lauten</td> + <td class="right">208,980</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td>Paper making machines, box for, C. Young</td> + <td class="right">209,003</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td>Paper pulp, reducing wood to, Cornell & Tollner</td> + <td class="right">208,890</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td>Peach parer, W. S. Plummer</td> + <td class="right">208,988</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td>Pen, puncturing, J. M. Griest</td> + <td class="right">208,905</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td>Pessary, medicated, T. N. Berlin</td> + <td class="right">208,883</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td>Pipe, smoking, W. H. Caddy</td> + <td class="right">208,886</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td>Planter, corn, Brigham & Flenniken</td> + <td class="right">208,885</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td>Planter, grain, C. E. McBonn</td> + <td class="right">208,914</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td>Planter, seed, G. A. Woods</td> + <td class="right">208,945</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td>Plaster bandages, making, C. G. Hill</td> + <td class="right">209,045</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td>Plow, C. Myers</td> + <td class="right">209,067</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td>Plow and harrow attachment, shovel, A. Heartsill</td> + <td class="right">209,043</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td>Plow and harrow, W. G. Himrod</td> + <td class="right">209,046</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td>Plow clevis, H. Estes</td> + <td class="right">208,899</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td>Plow, hillside, shovel, and subsoil, E. Tate</td> + <td class="right">209,088</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td>Plow, sulky, F. H. Isaacs</td> + <td class="right">208,978</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td>Press, cotton and hay, Tappey & Steel</td> + <td class="right">209,087</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td>Printing and painting machine, O. Currier</td> + <td class="right">208,892</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td>Printing, photo-mechanical, M. R. Freeman</td> + <td class="right">209,036</td> +</tr> + <tr> + <td>Propelling vessels, P. Boisset</td> + <td class="right">208,952</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td>Pulleys to wheels, engaging, Blake & Davis</td> + <td class="right">208,884</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td>Pump, S. Stucky</td> + <td class="right">209,086</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td>Pump, double acting lift, Dean & Pike</td> + <td class="right"> 209,027</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td>Rafter, F. M. Covert</td> + <td class="right">209,024</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td>Railway rails, muffling, A. Atwood</td> + <td class="right">208,880</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td>Railway signal, C. E. Hanscom</td> + <td class="right">209,042</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td>Railway signal, electro-magnetic, H. W. Spang</td> + <td class="right">208,995</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td>Railway track, B. F. Card</td> + <td class="right">208,957</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td>Rake, horse hay, W. Adriance</td> + <td class="right">209,004</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td>Rolling mills, bearing for, S. W. Baldwin</td> + <td class="right">208,949</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td>Roofs, attaching slates to, S. Farquhar</td> + <td class="right">209,031</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td>Rope holding reel, C. N. Cass</td> + <td class="right">209,020</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td>Rosettes from wood, making, J. H. Burnshow</td> + <td class="right">239,012</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td>Seal, baggage, E. J. Brooks</td> + <td class="right">208,953</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td>Seal, metallic, E. J. Brooks</td> + <td class="right">209,008</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td>Seeding machine, S. O. Campbell</td> + <td class="right">208,887</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td>Sewing machine, C. S. Cushman</td> + <td class="right">209,026</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td>Sewing machine, J. A. Davis</td> + <td class="right">208,967</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td>Sewing machine, L. Evans</td> + <td class="right">209,030</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td>Sewing machine, book, J. S. Lever</td> + <td class="right">209,061</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td>Sewing machine, hem stitching, J. A. Lakin</td> + <td class="right">208,911</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td>Sewing machine tuck marker, G. Rehfuss</td> + <td class="right">209,075</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td>Shaft and pulley coupling, H. C. Crowell</td> + <td class="right">208,965</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td>Shears, metal, W. G. Collins</td> + <td class="right">208,888</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td>Ships unloading grain from W. Stanton (r)</td> + <td class="right">8,452</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td>Shoe, J. F. Emerson</td> + <td class="right">208,897</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td>Shutter bower, T. Thorn</td> + <td class="right">208,937</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td>Shutter worker, W. Jones</td> + <td class="right">209,055</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td>Sign, W. Gulden</td> + <td class="right">208,974</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td>Sinks, measuring and weighing, D. T. Winter</td> + <td class="right">208,942</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td>Sled, stone and log, W. Gregg</td> + <td class="right">209,039</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td>Sleigh, propeller, R. Schluter</td> + <td class="right">209,083</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td>Spittoon, T. Loughran</td> + <td class="right">208,981</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td>Spring, car, G. F. Godley</td> + <td class="right">208,904</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td>Spring, vehicle, E. Chamberlin (r)</td> + <td class="right">8,449, 8,450</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td>Spring, vehicle, C. W. Fillmore</td> + <td class="right">208,901</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td>Spring,vehicle, H. R. Huie</td> + <td class="right">208,977</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td>Steamer, feed, Machamer & McCulloch</td> + <td class="right">209,063</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td>Stirrup, saddle, J. M. Freeman</td> + <td class="right">208,972</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td>Stove board, A. C. Stoessiger </td> + <td class="right">209,085</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td>Stove cover and check damper, H. Ritter</td> + <td class="right">209,081</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td>Stove pipe shelf, L. W. Turner</td> + <td class="right">208,938</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td>Stoves, foot bar and rail for, J. Jewett</td> + <td class="right">209,053</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td>Stoves, hood for cooking, S. Cromer</td> + <td class="right">208,891</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td>Stump puller. W. A. Webb</td> + <td class="right">208,999</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td>Sugar, manufacture of hard, J. O. Donner</td> + <td class="right">209,029</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td>Switch cords, tip for, T. B. Doolittle</td> + <td class="right">208,969</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td>Table folding, R. M. Lambie</td> + <td class="right">208,912</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td>Tablet, writing, W. O. Davis </td> + <td class="right">208,966</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td>Target, W. Kuhn</td> + <td class="right">208,910</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td>Ticket, passenger, A. C. Sheldon</td> + <td class="right">208,933</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td>Ticket-reel. T. D. Haehnlen</td> + <td class="right">208,906</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td>Toy money box J. Gerard</td> + <td class="right">209,038</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td>Treadle power, I. M. Rhodes</td> + <td class="right">209,079</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td>Turbines, steam and other, P. C. Humblot</td> + <td class="right">208,908</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td>Valve, J. Patterson</td> + <td class="right">208,986</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td>Valve, feed water regulating, E. C. Da Silva</td> + <td class="right">208,992</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td>Valve gear, steam engine, J. Butcher</td> + <td class="right">209,013</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td>Ventilator, T. Owens</td> + <td class="right">209,072</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td>Wagon jack, W. B. Bartram</td> + <td class="right">209,015</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td>Wagon jack, Williams & Dodge</td> + <td class="right">208,940</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td>Washing machine, D. Coman</td> + <td class="right">209,023</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td>Washing machine, A. R. Fowler</td> + <td class="right">209,035</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td>Washing machine, F. F. Reynolds</td> + <td class="right">208,990</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td>Water gauge, G. H. Crosby</td> + <td class="right">208,963</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td>Weighing apparatus, J. H. Wright</td> + <td class="right">209,099</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td>Window, A. K. Phillips</td> + <td class="right">209,073 </td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td>Window frame, C. Rebhun</td> + <td class="right">208,926</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td>Wreaths, machine for twining, G. B. Shepard</td> + <td class="right">209,100</td> +</tr> +</table> + +<h2>TRADE MARKS.</h2> + +<table align="center" summary="patents list"> +<tr> + <td>Cigars, cigarettes, etc., E. Hilson</td> + <td class="right">6,726</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td>Cigars, etc., Engelbrecht Fox & Co.</td> + <td class="right">6,724, 6,725</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td>Disinfecting compound, Hance Bros. & White</td> + <td class="right">6,718</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td>Gin, Hoffheimer Brothers</td> + <td class="right">6,729</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td>Lamp chimneys, Norcross, Mellen & Co.</td> + <td class="right">6,730</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td>Liquid cements. W. H. Sanger</td> + <td class="right">6,731</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td>Malt extract, Tarrant & Co.</td> + <td class="right">6,722</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td>Matches, J. Eaton & Son</td> + <td class="right">6,727</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td>Mustard and spices, H. B. Sherman</td> + <td class="right">6,720, 6,721</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td>Perfumery, J. T. Lanman</td> + <td class="right">6,719</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td>Playing cards, The N. Y. Consolidated Card Co.</td> + <td class="right">6,723</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td>Smoking tobacco, H. W. Meyer</td> + <td class="right">6,728</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td>Wash blue, F. Damcke</td> + <td class="right">6,711</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td> </td> + <td> </td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td colspan="2"><h2>DESIGNS.</h2></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td>Carpet, C. Magee</td> + <td class="right">10,870</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td>Cigar boxes, Weller & Repetti</td> + <td class="right">10,871</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td>Font of printing types, J. M. Conner</td> + <td class="right">10,868</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td>Group of statuary, J. Rogers</td> + <td class="right">10,869</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td>Handkerchiefs, J. Grimshaw</td> + <td class="right">10,866, 10,867</td> +</tr> +</table> + +<hr class="full" /> + +<a name="Page_380" id="Page_380"></a> +<h2>The Scientific American</h2> + +<h2>EXPORT EDITION.</h2> + +<hr class="short" /> + +<h3>PUBLISHED MONTHLY.</h3> + +<hr class="short" /> + +<p><span class="sc">The Scientific American</span> Export Edition is a large +and SPLENDID PERIODICAL, issued once a month, +forming a complete and interesting Monthly Record +of all Progress in Science and the Useful Arts throughout +the World. Each number contains about ONE +HUNDRED LARGE QUARTO PAGES, profusely +illustrated, embracing:</p> + +<p>(1.) Most of the plates and pages of the four preceding +weekly issues of the <span class="sc">Scientific American</span>, +with its SPLENDID ENGRAVINGS AND VALUABLE +INFORMATION.</p> + +<p>(2.) Prices Current, Commercial, Trade, and Manufacturing +Announcements of Leading Houses. In +connection with these Announcements many of the +Principal Articles of American Manufacture are exhibited +to the eye of the reader by means of SPLENDID +ENGRAVINGS.</p> + +<p>This is by far the most satisfactory and superior Export +Journal ever brought before the public.</p> + +<p>Terms for Export Edition, FIVE DOLLARS A YEAR, +sent prepaid to any part of the world. Single copies, +50 cents. For sale at this office. To be had at all +News and Book Stores throughout the country.</p> + +<hr class="short" /> + +<p class="center"><b>NOW READY.</b></p> + +<h2>THE SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN EXPORT<br /> +EDITION FOR NOVEMBER, 1878, WITH<br /> +ONE HUNDRED ILLUSTRATIONS.</h2> +<h3>GENERAL TABLE OF CONTENTS</h3> +<p class="center">Of the <span class="sc">Scientific American</span> Export Edition for November, +1878.</p> + +<table align="center" summary="contents"> +<tr> + <td> +<p> +<span class="outdent">I.—INVENTIONS, DISCOVERIES AND PATENTS.</span><br /> +The Incoming Commissioner of Patents.<br /> +A South Australian Offer for an Improvement.<br /> +The Forster-Firmin Amalgamator. Three engravings.<br /> +Lyman's Trigonometer. One figure.<br /> +Patent Law.<br /> +The Benefits of Patent Rights.<br /> +Hop Picking by Machinery.<br /> +Description of Recent Most Important Agricultural Inventions.<br /> +Displays of Ingenuity at the Boston Mechanics Fair.<br /> +Description of Recent Most Important Mechanical Inventions.<br /> +New Wilson Oscillating Sewing Machine. Seven figs.<br /> +A Nail Gun.<br /> +Who will Invent a Satisfactory Milking Machine?<br /> +The Hermetical Sanitary Closet. One engraving.<br /> +New Refrigerator Basket. Two engravings.<br /> +New Fireproof Shutter. One engraving.<br /> +Inventors Needed in England.<br /> +New Foot Power. One engraving.<br /> +New Wool Scouring and Rinsing Machine. One eng.<br /> +New Measuring Jacket. Three engravings.<br /> +New Rheostat. Two engravings.<br /> +The Paris International Patent Congress.<br /> +Patent Rights, and Who Oppose Them.<br /> +New Gas Regulator. Three engravings.<br /> +Combined Traction Engine and Steam Fire Engine. One engraving.<br /> +Van Renne's Caloric Engine and Pump. Three engs.<br /> +The Watson Pump. One engraving.<br /> +The Swedish Buckeye Machine.<br /> +Pipe Wrench and Cutter. Two engravings.<br /> +Drilling Square Holes. Four figures.<br /> +Description of Recent Most Important Engineering Inventions.<br /> +New Mortising Machine. One engraving.<br /> +New Steam Fire Engine. One engraving.<br /> +New Bank Note Paper Wanted.<br /> +The Proposed Addition to the Patent Office. Two engravings.<br /> +A Year's Work in the Patent Office.<br /> +New Rule in Trade Mark Cases.<br /> +Electric Light in Chancery.<br /> +Novel Egg Opener. Two engravings.<br /> +Patents for Protecting the Dead.<br /> +Electric Light Patents.<br /> +A New Platen Gauge. Four engravings.<br /> +New Draughting Pencil. Two engravings.<br /> +Gas and Water-tight Cloth.<br /> +New Regulator for Clock Pendulums. Two engs.<br /> +Steam Engine Governor. One engraving.<br /> +Description of Recent Most Important Miscellaneous Inventions.<br /> +Notices of New Inventions.<br /> +Patent Office Library.</p> + +<p><span class="outdent">II.—MECHANICS AND ENGINEERING.</span><br /> +Chard's Lubricene and Cups.<br /> +The Electric Light and the Gas Companies.<br /> +Fuel Gas.<br /> +New Ways to Use Iron Wanted.<br /> +Progress and Prospects of the East River Bridge. Two engravings.<br /> +A Steam Tricycle.<br /> +New Artesian Well, Victoria, Spain.<br /> +A Long Train.<br /> +How a Good House Should be Built.<br /> +Jetties Under Water.<br /> +How the Capitol at Albany, N. Y., is to be Warmed and Ventilated.<br /> +What a Perfect Railway Brake Should do.<br /> +The Secret of It.<br /> +Florida Ship Canal.<br /> +The Torpedo Vessel Destroyer. One illustration.<br /> +Steam from Petroleum.<br /> +The Motion of a Wagon Wheel.<br /> +Building in Steel.<br /> +Locomotive for the Metropolitan Elevated Railway. One illustration.<br /> +The French Dam Below Pittsburg, Ohio.<br /> +The Adelphi Explosion.<br /> +"Forney" Locomotive for the New York Elevated Railway. One large engraving.<br /> +The Steam Value of Oil Fuels.<br /> +The Mechanical and other Properties of Iron and Mild Steel.<br /> +French Wheelbarrows. Twenty-five engravings.<br /> +Small Steamboats.<br /> +Life Preservers.<br /> +A Gas Clock.<br /> +Another Mountain Railway.<br /> +Preservation of Iron.<br /> +The Salisbury Furnace for Petroleum.<br /> +Danger from Lubricating Oils.<br /> +The Testing of Boiler Iron.<br /> +Tramway Rail Experiments. Two engravings.<br /> +Aluminum and Platinum in the Manufacture of Watches.<br /> +Great Machine Tool Makers.<br /> +Gas as a Substitute for Solid Fuel.</p> + +<p> +<span class="outdent">III.—MINING AND METALLURGY.</span><br /> +The Formation of Quartz.<br /> +Depth of Nevada Gold and Silver Mines.<br /> +California Mining vs. Farming.<br /> +New Form of Iron Manufacture.<br /> +Comstock Silver Lodes.</p> + +<p> +<span class="outdent">IV.—CHEMISTRY AND PHYSICS.</span><br /> +Dangers from Impure Potassium Iodide.<br /> +The Poplar as a Lightning Conductor.<br /> +The Mariner's Compass.<br /> +Crude Sulphur from Iron Pyrites.<br /> +Antimony for Batteries.<br /> +Delicate Test for Water.<br /> +The Polarization of Electrodes.<br /> +Fragarine.<br /> +Balata Gum.<br /> +Astronomical Notes. Giving the Positions, Rising,<br /> +and Setting of the Planets for November.<br /> +Professor Morton on the Electric Light.<br /> +The Electrical Department in the Mechanic's Fair, Boston.<br /> +The Satellites of Mars.<br /> +Gold Amalgams.<br /> +Another New Electric Light.<br /> +Albumen of the Serum and that of Egg, and their Combinations.<br /> +A Mirror Telegraph.<br /> +Some Modifications of the Microphone and Telephone. Four engravings.<br /> +A Chance for Electric Competition.<br /> +Advantages of Experimental Study.<br /> +The Black Spot of Jupiter.<br /> +The Electric Light. With five engravings.<br /> +Spontaneous Combustion.<br /> +Recent Military Balloon Experiments.<br /> +Burner for Electric Light. One engraving.<br /> +Artificial Ball Lightning. One engraving.<br /> +To Make Corks Air-tight and Water-tight.<br /> +Electric Time Service for New York. Four engravings.<br /> +The Hosmer Motor.<br /> +Polarized Light.<br /> +Phosphorescent Timepieces.<br /> +The De Meritens Magneto-electric Machine. Two figures.<br /> +Cellulose as a Material for Washers.</p> + +<p> +<span class="outdent">V.—NATURAL HISTORY, NATURE, MAN, ETC.</span><br /> +The Golden Cup Oak.<br /> +Serpulas, or Sea Worms. One engraving.<br /> +The King Tody Bird. One engraving.<br /> +Life Without Air.<br /> +Cadaver-poison of the Australian Natives.<br /> +The Contortion of Rocks from Heat Mechanically Generated.<br /> +The Stiffening of Plant Stalks.<br /> +Immense Labor Performed by Bees.<br /> +The Torrey Botanical Club.<br /> +The Big Trees of California.<br /> +Explorations in Greenland.<br /> +The Umbrella Bird. One engraving.<br /> +The Argan Tree.<br /> +A Spruce-destroying Beetle.<br /> +A Geological Discovery in Deep Water.<br /> +The Mound Builder's Unit of Measure.<br /> +Progress of Horticulture.<br /> +Bishop Ferrette on the Cedars of Lebanon.<br /> +Special Senses in Insects.<br /> +Natural History Notes.<br /> +New Cave Discovery in Kentucky.<br /> +Longevity of the Horse.<br /> +Left-handedness.<br /> +Bee Culture in Egypt.<br /> +The Poison Ivy and Virginia Creeper. Two engravings.<br /> +The Crafty Hermit Crab. One illustration.</p> + +<p> +<span class="outdent">VI.—MEDICINE AND HYGIENE.</span><br /> +Nitrate of Amyl in Sea Sickness.<br /> +Milk cure for Lead Colic.<br /> +Milkweed Juice for Raw Surfaces.<br /> +The Use of Snails in Medicine.<br /> +The Art of Prolonging Life.<br /> +The Deleterious Use of Alum in Bread and Baking<br /> +Powders.—Alum being Substituted for Cream of Tartar.<br /> +The Treatment of Hydrophobia.<br /> +New Use for Warts.<br /> +Removal of the Entire Scalp by Machinery.<br /> +The Probable Starting Point of the Yellow Fever.<br /> +Piedra.<br /> +Heredity.<br /> +Scientific Reliance on Soap.<br /> +The Medical Ice Hat.<br /> +Ventilation of Bed Rooms.<br /> +The Filtration of Drinking Water.<br /> +The Texas "Screw Worm."</p> + +<p> +<span class="outdent">VII.—THE PARIS EXHIBITION, SCIENTIFIC MEETINGS, ETC.</span><br /> +Success of American Exhibitors at Paris.<br /> +The Main Building at the Exhibition. With one full page illustration.<br /> +The French Industrial Exhibition of 1878.<br /> +Awards and Honors at Paris.<br /> +Ingram Rotary Press. One illustration.<br /> +A Grand World's Fair in New York.<br /> +A Mexican Exhibition.<br /> +Australia to have a World's Fair.<br /> +Closing of the French Exhibition.<br /> +Hydraulic Motors at the Exhibition. With two engravings.<br /> +The National Academy of Sciences.<br /> +The Official Reports of the Paris Exhibition.<br /> +American Society of Civil Engineers.</p> + +<p> +<span class="outdent">VIII.—INDUSTRY AND COMMERCE.</span><br /> +Should the Nation Engage in Manufactures?<br /> +American Export of Agricultural Machinery.<br /> +Corundum.<br /> +American Made Goods Exhibited as European Manufactures.<br /> +The California Tea Fields.<br /> +An Odd Craft.<br /> +Progress of our Foreign Trade.<br /> +The Condition of Manufacturing Interests in Germany.<br /> +Labor in Chicago.<br /> +Apples for Europe.<br /> +Adulterated Graham Flour.<br /> +Addition to our List of Food Fishes.<br /> +Preservation of Milk.<br /> +Electrical Test for Oils.<br /> +Parsnips.<br /> +Russian Pottery. Two engravings.<br /> +Notes from the South.—Facts about the Cotton Worm.<br /> +The Mediterranean Trade.<br /> +American Competition in Great Britain.<br /> +Rapid Increase in French Woolen Industries.<br /> +The Rockport Granite Quarries.<br /> +Trade Mark Treaty with Brazil.<br /> +Early Manufacture of Steel Pens.<br /> +New and Stale Bread.<br /> +Leather from Sheep Stomachs.<br /> +New Source of Rubber.<br /> +A National Law Governing Adulteration Needed.<br /> +How to get Pure Teas.<br /> +Skilled Labor in New York City.<br /> +French Subsoil and Clearing Plow. One figure.<br /> +Opening for Trade in Madagascar.<br /> +Handling Grain in Buffalo.<br /> +The Blue Process of Copying Tracings.<br /> +We Buy of them that Advertise.<br /> +Unprofitable Agents.<br /> +Various Uses of Paper.<br /> +Improved Grinding Mill and Crusher. Two engravings.<br /> +The Cultivation of the Common Nettle.<br /> +The Economic Products of Seaweed.<br /> +The Japanese Wax Tree in California.<br /> +Preservation of Food by Gelatin.<br /> +Pearl Millet.<br /> +To Turn Oak Black.<br /> +Dairy and Poultry Produce in America.<br /> +Australian Gum Trees.<br /> +Frauds in Wine Making.<br /> +Removal of Iron Coloring from Liquors.<br /> +The Utilization of Iron Slag.<br /> +Relative Cost of Coal Transportation by Water and by Rail.<br /> +How to get Rid of Ants.<br /> +The Science of Milling.</p> + +<p> +<span class="outdent">IX.—PRACTICAL RECIPES AND MISCELLANEOUS.</span><br /> +Progress in England and America.<br /> +An Improvement on Tea Chromos.<br /> +A Correction.<br /> +The Stability of Modern Civilization.<br /> +Future Rifle Shooting.<br /> +"Bruce," the Manchester Fire Horse.<br /> +The Trial of the "Pyx."<br /> +Early Gold Payments.<br /> +Workingmen in England and France.<br /> +Washington Memorials in Northamptonshire. Three engravings.<br /> +Culinary Uses of Leaves.<br /> +A Remarkable Bank Robbery.—Scientific Safeguards Neglected.<br /> +Cleopatra's Needle.<br /> +A Steam Juryman.<br /> +Roads in Baden.<br /> +Indications of Progress.<br /> +Practical Education in Russia.<br /> +Table Forks.<br /> +The Cost of Insecurity.<br /> +Improved Copying Pencils.</p> +</td> +</tr> +</table> + +<p>Answers to Correspondents, embodying a large quantity +of valuable information, practical recipes, and instructions +in various arts.</p> + +<p>Single numbers of the <i>Scientific American Export +Edition</i>, 50 cents. To be had at this office, and at all +news stores. Subscriptions, <i>Five Dollars a year</i>; sent +postpaid to all parts of the world.</p> + +<p class="author"> +MUNN & CO., <span class="sc">Publishers</span>, <br /> +37 <span class="sc">Park Row, New York</span>.</p> + +<p style="float: left;">To Advertisers: </p> +<div class="figleft1"><img src="images/finger-32.png" width="32" height="14" alt="finger pointing right" border="0" /> +</div> +<p>Manufacturers and others who +desire to secure foreign trade may have large and handsomely +displayed announcements published in this edition +at a very moderate cost.</p> + +<p>The Scientific American Export Edition has a large +guaranteed circulation in all commercial places throughout +the world. Regular Files of the Export Edition +are also carried on ALL STEAMSHIPS, foreign and +coastwise, leaving the port of New York.</p> +<p>Address +MUNN & CO., 37 Park Row, New York.</p> + +<hr class="full" /> + +<p class="ind"><b>STRONG AND CHEAP SPAR BRIDGES.</b><span class="font9"> +General description, dimensions, and particulars, with +2 pages of drawings, covering illustrations of all the +details, for a bridge of 100 feet span or less; specially +useful for crossing of creeks, small rivers, gullies, or +wherever a costly structure is not desirable. The drawings +are from the Spar Bridge exhibited at the Centennial, +in the U. S. Department of Military Engineering. +These bridges are wholly composed of undressed stuff. +<span class="sc">Supplement</span> <b>71.</b> Price 10 cents.</span></p> + +<hr /> + +<p class="ind"><b>FIREPROOF DWELLINGS OF CHEAP CONSTRUCTION.</b><span class="font9"> +A valuable and important paper, containing +Plans and Descriptions of Model Fireproof Dwellings +of cheap construction lately erected in Chicago. By +A. J. Smith, Architect. With 9 illustrations. Plan No. 1 +exhibits the construction of comfortable one-story, 16 ft. +front dwellings, of brick and concrete, finished complete +at a cost of $1,200. Plan No. 2 exhibits the construction +of a comfortable 23 ft. front, two-story dwelling, of brick +and concrete, finished complete, with cellar, for $1,700. +Several of these dwellings, on both plans, have been +built at the prices stated. This valuable paper also contains +the Report of the City Authorities of Chicago, +certifying to the fireproof nature of these buildings, with +other useful particulars. Contained in <span class="sc">Scientific +American Supplement</span> No. <b>91.</b> Price 10 cts. To be +had at this office and of all newsdealers.</span></p> + +<hr /> + +<p class="ind"><b>OUTWARD MARKS OF A GOOD COW.</b><span class="font9"> +By Capt. <span class="sc">John C. Morris</span>, Pa. Carelessness in Breeding. +How to Select for Breeding. Marks of the Handsome +Cow. Care and Training of the Heifer. Infallible +Marks of Good Milkers. Distinguishing Marks and +Characteristics of the "Bastard" and the "Bogus" +Cow, etc. Contained, with useful Remarks on Bee +Culture, in <span class="sc">Scientific American Supplement</span> No. +<b>135.</b> Price 10 cents. To be had at this office and of all +newsdealers.</span></p> + +<hr /> + +<p class="ind"><b>ON CHRONIC MALARIAL POISONING.</b><span class="font9"> +By <span class="sc">Alfred L. Loomis</span>, M.D. A Highly Instructive +Clinical Lecture, delivered at the University Medical +College, N. Y Contained in <span class="sc">Scientific American +Supplement</span> No. <b>102.</b> Price 10 cents. To be had at +this office and of all newsdealers.</span></p> + +<hr /> + +<p class="ind"><b>ICE-HOUSE AND COLD ROOM.</b> <span class="font9">—BY R. G. +Hatfleld. With directions for construction. Four +engravings. <span class="sc">Supplement</span> No. <b>59.</b> Price, 10 cents.</span></p> + +<hr /> + +<h3>THE</h3> + +<div class="figcenter"><img src="images/oef-scientificamerican-24.png" width="296" height="32" alt="Scientific American." border="0" /></div> + +<p class="center"><b>The Most Popular Scientific Paper in the World.</b></p> + +<p class="center"><b>THIRTY-THIRD YEAR.</b></p> + +<p class="center"><b>Only $3.20 a Year including Postage. Weekly.</b><br /> +<b>52 Numbers a Year.</b></p> + +<p>This widely circulated and splendidly illustrated +paper is published weekly. Every number contains sixteen +pages of useful information, and a large number of +original engravings of new inventions and discoveries, +representing Engineering Works, Steam Machinery, +New Inventions, Novelties in Mechanics, Manufactures, +Chemistry, Electricity, Telegraphy, Photography, Architecture, +Agriculture, Horticulture, Natural History, etc.</p> + +<p><b>All Classes of Readers</b> find in <span class="sc">The Scientific +American</span> a popular <i>resume</i> of the best scientific information +of the day; and it is the aim of the publishers +to present it in an attractive form, avoiding as much as +possible abstruse terms. To every intelligent mind, +this journal affords a constant supply of instructive +reading. It is promotive of knowledge and progress in +every community where it circulates.</p> + +<p><b>Terms of Subscription.</b>—One copy of <span class="sc">The Scientific +American</span> will be sent for <i>one year</i>—52 numbers—postage +prepaid, to any subscriber in the United States +or Canada, on receipt of <b>three dollars and twenty +cents</b> by the publishers; six months, $1.60; three +months, $1.00.</p> + +<p><b>Clubs.—One extra copy</b> of <span class="sc">The Scientific American</span> +will be supplied gratis <i>for every club of five subscribers</i> +at $3.20 each; additional copies at same proportionate +rate. Postage prepaid.</p> + +<p>One copy of <span class="sc">The Scientific American</span> and one copy +of <span class="sc">The Scientific American Supplement</span> will be sent +for one year, postage prepaid, to any subscriber in the +United States or Canada, on receipt of <i>seven dollars</i> by +the publishers.</p> + +<p>The safest way to remit is by Postal Order, Draft, or +Express. Money carefully placed inside of envelopes, +securely sealed, and correctly addressed, seldom goes +astray, but is at the sender's risk. Address all letters +and make all orders, drafts, etc., payable to</p> + +<p class="author"> + <b>MUNN & CO.,</b> <br /> + <b>37 Park Row, New York.</b> +</p> + +<p><b>To Foreign Subscribers.</b>—Under the facilities of +the Postal Union, the <span class="sc">Scientific American</span> is now sent +by post direct from New York, with regularity, to subscribers +in Great Britain, India, Australia, and all other +British colonies; to France, Austria, Belgium, Germany, +Russia, and all other European States; Japan, Brazil, +Mexico, and all States of Central and South America. +Terms, when sent to foreign countries, Canada excepted, +$4, gold, for <span class="sc">Scientific American</span>, 1 year; $9, gold, for +both <span class="sc">Scientific American and Supplement</span> for 1 +year. This includes postage, which we pay. Remit by +postal order or draft to order of Munn & Co., 37 Park +Row, New York.</p> + +<hr class="full" /> + +<h2>NEW PATENT LAW</h2> + +<p class="center">FOR</p> + +<h2>Spain, Cuba, Porto Rico, etc.</h2> + +<p>By the terms of the New Patent Law of <i>Spain</i>, which +has lately gone into operation, the citizens of the United +States may obtain Spanish Patents on very favorable +conditions.</p> + +<p>The Spanish Patent covers SPAIN, and all the Spanish +Colonies, including CUBA, Porto Rico, the Philippine +Islands, etc. Total cost of obtaining the Patent, $100. +Duration of the Patent, 20 years, 10 years, and 5 years, +as follows:</p> + +<p>The Spanish Patent, if applied for by the original inventor +before his American patent is actually issued, +will run for 20 years. Total cost of the patent, $100. It +covers Spain, Cuba, etc. The Spanish Patent, if applied +for by the original inventor not more than two years +after the American patent has been issued, will run for +10 years. Total cost of patent, $100. Covers Spain, +Cuba, etc.</p> + +<p><i>A Spanish Patent of Introduction</i>, good for 5 years, can +be taken by any person, whether inventor or merely introducer. +Cost of such patent, $100. Covers Spain, +Cuba, and all the Spanish dominions.</p> + +<p>In order to facilitate the transaction of our business +in obtaining Spanish Patents, we have established a +special agency at No. 4 Soldado, Madrid.</p> + +<p>Further particulars, with Synopsis of Foreign Patents, +Costs, etc., furnished gratis.</p> + +<p class="author"> +<b>MUNN & CO.,</b> <br /> +<b>Solicitors of American and Foreign Patents,</b><br /> +Proprietors of the <span class="sc">Scientific American</span>,<br /> +<b>37 PARK ROW, NEW YORK.</b> +</p> + +<hr /> + +<p class="ind"><b>WATER SUPPLY FOR TOWNS AND VILLAGES.</b><span class="font9"> +—By Clarence Delafield, C.E. A concise and +valuable report, showing the costs and merits of the +various systems—Discussion of the Holly system, its +merits and defects—The reservoir system, with pumps, +cost, and advantages—Results obtained and economy of +use of various systems in different towns, with names +and duty realized—Facts and figures to enable town +committees to judge for themselves as to the system +best suited for their wants—The best sources of water +supply—Water-bearing rocks—Artesian wells, their +feasibility, excellence, and cost of boring—Importance +of pure water—How surface water is rendered impure—Cost +of water pipes, from 2 to 12 inches diameter, +for towns, including laying, all labor, materials, gates, +joints, etc. Estimates of income, water-rates for supply +of 1,000 buildings. Contained in <span class="sc">Supplement</span> <b>27.</b> +Price 10 cents.</span></p> + +<hr /> + +<p class="ind"><b>ICE BOATS—THEIR CONSTRUCTION</b><span class="font9"> +and management. With working drawings, details, +and directions in full. Four engravings, showing mode +of construction. Views of the two fastest ice-sailing +boats used on the Hudson river in winter. By H. A. +Horsfall, M.E. <span class="sc">Supplement</span> <b>1.</b> The same number +also contains the rules and regulations for the formation +of ice-boat clubs, the sailing and management of +ice-boats, etc. Price 10 cents.</span></p> + +<hr /> + +<p class="ind"><b>ICE AND ICE-HOUSES—HOW TO MAKE</b><span class="font9"> +ice ponds; amount of ice required, etc., and full directions +for building ice-house, with illustrated plan. +<span class="sc">Supplement</span> <b>55.</b> Price 10 cents.</span></p> + +<hr class="full" /> + +<div class="figcenter"> +<img src="images/14-patents-400.png" width="400" height="112" alt="Patents" /><br /><br /> +</div> + +<h3>CAVEATS, COPYRIGHTS, TRADE MARKS, ETC.</h3> + +<p>Messrs. Munn & Co., in connection with the publication +of the <span class="sc">Scientific American</span>, continue to examine +Improvements, and to act as Solicitors of Patents for +Inventors.</p> + +<p>In this line of business they have had <span class="sc">over thirty +years' experience</span>, and now have <i>unequaled facilities</i> +for the preparation of Patent Drawings, Specifications, +and the Prosecution of Applications for Patents in the +United States. Canada, and Foreign Countries. Messrs. +Munn & Co. also attend to the preparation of Caveats, +Trade Mark Regulations, Copyrights for Books, Labels, +Reissues, Assignments, and Reports on Infringements +of Patents. All business intrusted to them is done +with special care and promptness, on very moderate +terms.</p> + +<p>We send free of charge, on application, a pamphlet +containing further information about Patents and how +to procure them; directions concerning Trade Marks, +Copyrights, Designs, Patents, Appeals, Reissues, Infringements, +Assignments, Rejected Cases, Hints on +the Sale of Patents, etc.</p> + +<p><b><i>Foreign Patents.</i></b>—We also send, <i>free of charge</i>, a +Synopsis of Foreign Patent Laws, showing the cost and +method of securing patents in all the principal countries +of the world. American inventors should bear in +mind that, as a general rule, any invention that is valuable +to the patentee in this country is worth equally as +much in England and some other foreign countries. +Five patents—embracing Canadian, English, German, +French, and Belgian—will secure to an inventor the exclusive +monopoly to his discovery among about <span class="sc">one +hundred and fifty millions</span> of the most intelligent +people in the world. The facilities of business and +steam communication are such that patents can be obtained +abroad by our citizens almost as easily as at +home. The expense to apply for an English patent is +$75; German, $100; French, $100; Belgian, $100; Canadian, +$50.</p> +<p><b><i>Copies of Patents.</i></b>—Persons desiring any patent +issued from 1836 to November 26, 1867, can be supplied +with official copies at reasonable cost, the price depending +upon the extent of drawings and length of +specifications.</p> + +<p>Any patent issued since November 27, 1867, at which +time the Patent Office commenced printing the drawings +and specifications, may be had by remitting to +this office $1.</p> + +<p>A copy of the claims of any patent issued since 1836 +will be furnished for $1.</p> + +<p>When ordering copies, please to remit for the same +as above, and state name of patentee, title of invention, +and date of patent.</p> + +<p>A pamphlet, containing full directions for obtaining +United States patents sent free. A handsomely bound +Reference Book, gilt edges, contains 140 pages and +many engravings and tables important to every patentee +and mechanic, and is a useful hand book of reference +for everybody. Price 25 cents, mailed free.</p> + +<p> +Address</p> + +<p class="author"><b>MUNN & CO.,</b> <br /> +Publishers SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN,<br /> +<b>37 Park Row, N. Y.</b></p> +<p class="indfoo"> +<i>BRANCH OFFICE—Corner of F and 7th Streets, +Washington, D. C.</i> +</p> + +<hr class="full" /> + +<a name="Page_381" id="Page_381"></a> + +<div class="figcenter"><img src="images/oef-advertisements.png" width="229" height="34" alt="Advertisements." border="0" /></div> + +<hr /> + +<p><b>Inside Page, each insertion - - - 75 cents a line.</b><br /> +<b>Back Page, each insertion - - - - $1.00 a line.</b><br /> +(About eight words to a line.)</p> + +<p><i>Engravings may head advertisements at the same rate +per line, by measurement, as the letter press. Advertisements +must be received at publication office as early +as Thursday morning to appear in next issue.</i></p> + +<table align="center" width="80%" summary="advertisements"> +<tr> + <td> + +<hr class="full" /> + +<p class="adl">BAIRD'S</p> + +<p class="adxl">CATALOGUES OF BOOKS</p> + +<hr class="full" /> + +<p>Our new and enlarged <span class="sc">Catalogue of Practical and +Scientific Books</span>, 96 pages, 8vo; a Catalogue of Books +on <span class="sc">Dyeing, Calico Printing, Weaving, Cotton</span> and +<span class="sc">Woolen Manufacture</span>, 4to; Catalogue of a choice +collection of <span class="sc">Practical, Scientific</span>, and <span class="sc">Economic +Books</span>, 4to; List of Books on <span class="sc">Steam and the Steam +Engine, Mechanics, Machinery</span>, and <span class="sc">Engineering</span>, +4to; List of Important Books on <span class="sc">Metallurgy, Metals, +Strength of Materials, Chemical Analysis, +Assaying</span>, etc., 4to; two Catalogues of Books and +Pamphlets on <span class="sc">Social Science, Political Economy, +Banks, Population, Pauperism</span>, and kindred subjects +sent free to any one who will forward his address.</p> + +<p class="centerfoo"> +HENRY CAREY BAIRD & CO.,<br /> +Industrial Publishers, Booksellers, and Importers,<br /> +810 <span class="sc">Walnut St., Philadelphia, Pa</span>. +</p> + +<hr class="full" /> + +<div class="figleft"> +<a href="images/15-gasengine.png"><img src="images/15-gasengine-200.png" width="200" height="137" alt="THE NEW OTTO SILENT GAS ENGINE." /></a> +</div> + +<p>An engine that works without +Boiler. Always ready to be started +and to give at once full power.</p> + +<p class="adl">SAFETY, ECONOMY, CONVENIENCE.</p> + +<p class="foo">Burns common Gas and Air. No +steam, no coal, no ashes, no fires, +no danger, no extra insurance. +Almost no attendance.</p> + +<p class="adxl">THE NEW OTTO SILENT GAS ENGINE.</p> + +<p class="foo">Useful for all work of small stationary steam engine. +Offered in sizes of 2, 4, and 7 H. P. Send for illustrated +circular. SCHLEICHER, SCHUMM & CO., Phila., Pa.</p> + +<hr class="full" /> +<p class="adxxl">A GOOD PLAN</p> + +<p class="foo9"><i>The most profitable plan</i> for operating in stocks is by +uniting capital of various sums in combining or pooling orders +of thousands of customers and using them as <i>one mighty +whole</i>, which is done so successfully by Messrs. Lawrence & +Co., Bankers, 57 Exchange Place, N. Y. City. By this cooperative +system each investor is placed on an equal footing +with the largest operator and profits divided <i>pro rata</i> among +shareholders every 30 days. $10 invested makes $50 or 5 per +cent. on the stock during the month—$50 returns $350 or 7 per +cent., $100 pays $1,000, or 10 per cent., and so on according to +the market. The firm's new circular (copyrighted and free) +contains "Two unerring rules for success in stock operations," +and explains everything. All kinds of Stocks and Bonds +wanted. New Government Loan supplied. LAWRENCE & +CO., <i>Bankers and Brokers</i>, 57 Exchange Place, N. Y. City.</p> + +<hr class="full" /> + +<div class="figleft"> +<a href="images/15-grainmill_portable.png"><img src="images/15-grainmill_portable-150.png" width="150" height="185" alt="Portable Grain Mills." /></a> +</div> +<p style="font-size: 1.8em;">Portable Grain Mills.</p> + +<p class="foo">For Mill and Farm. Built on the +durable and scientific principles. +Warranted fully equal to any in the +market. Mills for grinding all substances. +We have made mill building +a specialty for 13 years.</p> + +<p class="centerfoo1" style="line-height:40%;">WALKER BROS. & CO.,</p> + +<p class="centerfoo1" style="line-height:40%;">Engineers, Founders & Machinists,</p> + +<p class="centerfoo1" style="line-height:40%;">23d and Wood St., Phila., Pa.</p> + +<br clear="all" /> +<hr class="full" /> +<p class="adxl">ON THE CARE OF HORSES. BY PROF.</p> +<p class="foo"><span class="sc"><b>Pritchard</b></span><b>, R.V.S.</b> Showing the Proper Construction +of Stables. Best Floor. Lighting and Ventilation. +Hay-racks. Watering and Feeding. Grooming and +Exercise. Cracked Heels; Lice; Colic; Mud Fever; +Wind Galls. Also, in same number, facts about improved +Cow Stables. How to keep Cows clean and +maintain Pure Air in Stables. Increased Cleanliness and +Convenience with Less Labor. Contained in <span class="sc">Scientific +American Supplement</span>. No. <b>123.</b> Price 10 cents. To +be had at this office and of all newsdealers.</p> + +<hr class="full" /> + +<p><b>MINING MACHINERY. Engines, Boilers, Pumps,</b> +Coal and Ore Jigs, Dust Burning Appliances. Drawings +and advice free to customers. Jeanesville Iron Works +(J. C. Haydon & Co.). Address HOWELL GREEN, +Supt., Jeanesville, Luzerne Co., Pa.</p> + +<hr class="full" /> + +<div class="figleft"> +<a href="images/15-mill.png"><img src="images/15-mill-150.png" width="150" height="183" alt="Straub's Scientific Grain Mill." /></a> +</div> + +<p class="adln">Straub's Scientific</p> +<p class="adxl">Grain Mill,</p> +<h4 class="centerfoo">12, 20, and 30 inch</h4> +<p class="adl">MILL STONES,</p> + +<p class="foo">For Farm and Merchant work. +Warranted the full equal of any +mill built in America. Before +purchasing elsewhere send for +our circular and price list.</p> + +<p class="author">A. W. STRAUB & CO., <br /> +Philadelphia, Pa.</p> + +<hr class="full" /> + +<p><b>USE WILHIDE'S NOISELESS, SELF-Setting +Rat and Mouse Traps.</b> Caught 19 rats one hour; +46 one night. Ask your storekeeper for them. State +right for sale. Circulars, etc., free.</p> +<p class="author"> +J. T. WILHIDE & BRO., York Road, Carroll Co., Md.</p> + +<hr class="full" /> + +<p><b>AGENTS</b> and <b>SALESMEN</b> wanted in every city +and town to introduce a new Work, the</p> + +<p class="adl">"COMPLETE BUSINESS REGISTER"</p> + +<p class="foo">to dealers. Great inducements. Don't fail to write for +particulars.</p> +<p class="author">W. H. Pamphilon, Pub., 30 Bond St., N. Y.</p> + +<hr class="full" /> + +<p><span style="float:left; font-size:2.3em; font-weight:bold; line-height:85%;">L</span></p> +<p><b>ADIES</b> can make $5 a day in their own city or town.<br /> + Address ELLIS M'F'G CO., Waltham, Mass.</p> + +<hr class="full" /> + +<div class="figleft"> +<a href="images/15-microscope.png"><img src="images/15-microscope-200.png" width="200" height="155" alt="The 'Bijou' Microscope." /></a> +</div> + +<p class="adxl">The "Bijou" Microscope.</p> + +<p class="foo">With mounted objects, <b>50c.</b> +A complete little instrument +for examining minute objects. +Has adjustable lens-cap, +object slides and diaphragm, +and magnifies 10,000 +times. A marvel of perfection, +cheapness, simplicity +and compactness. Of pretty +design and nicely finished in +brass. Price, with an assortment of interesting mounted +microscopic objects, <b>50c.</b> Sent post paid on receipt of +price to <b>Gem Microscope Co., 156 Fulton St., N. Y.</b></p> + +<hr class="full" /> + +<p><span style="float:left; font-size:1.9em; font-weight:bold; line-height:85%;"> +XMAS "WONDER BOX."</span> +Contains 12 Sheets Paper, 12 Envelopes, +3 Sheets Colored Paper, 1 Lead Pencil, 3 Pens, +1 Text, 12 Comic Cards, 40 Silhouettes, 36 Mottoes, 85 Patterns +for Fancy Work, 112 Decalcomanie, 131 Embossed +Pictures, 50 Fancy Ornaments, 1 Penholder, 2 Book Marks, +5 Black Tablets, 5 Picture Cards, 30 Scrap-Book Pictures, +1 Xmas Banner, 1 Game Age Cards, 2 Xmas Cards, 1 Toy +Parasol. Price, 42 cts.; by mail. 53 cts. Retail value, +$1.45. <i>Postage stamps taken</i>. <br />J. JAY GOULD, 10 Broomfield +st., Boston, Mass.</p> + +<hr class="full" /> + +<p class="adxl">Gold, Silver, and Nickel Plating.</p> + +<p class="foo">A trade easily learned. Costs little to start. The Electro +Plater's Guide, a 72 page book, sent for 3 stamps. +Scientific instruments and books loaned to any one.<br /> +Price list free. F. LOWEY, 90 11th St., Brooklyn, N. Y.</p> + +<hr class="full" /> + +<div class="figcenter"> +<img src="images/15-diamonds-400.png" width="400" height="65" alt="Diamonds and Carbon." /><br /><br /> +</div> + +<p class="foo">Shaped or Crude, furnished and set for Boring Rocks, +Dressing Mill Burrs, Emery Wheels, Grindstones, Hardened +Steel, Calender Rollers, and for Sawing, Turning, +or Working Stone and other hard substances; also +Glaziers' Diamonds. </p> +<p class="author">J. DICKINSON, 64 Nassau St., N. Y.</p> + +<hr class="full" /> + +<p><b>IMPORTANT FOR ALL CORPORATIONS AND +MANF'G CONCERNS.</b>—<b>Buerk's Watchman's +Time Detector,</b> capable of accurately controlling +the motion of a watchman or patrolman at the +different stations of his beat. Send for circular.</p> + +<p class="centerfoo"><b>J. E. BUERK, P.O. BOX 979, Boston, Mass</b></p> + +<p class="foo">N. B.—The suit against Imhaeuser & Co., of New York, +was decided in my favor, June 10, 1874. A fine was +assessed against them Nov. 11, 1876, for selling contrary +to the order of the court. Persons buying or using +clocks infringing on my patent will be dealt with according +to law.</p> + +<hr class="full" /> + +<p class="adxl">The George Place Machinery Agency</p> + +<p class="centerfoo"><b>Machinery of Every Description.</b></p> + +<p class="centerfoo">121 Chambers and 103 Reade Streets, New York.</p> + +<hr class="full" /> + +<div class="figleft"> +<a href="images/15-forster_firmin.png"><img src="images/15-forster_firmin-200.png" width="200" height="140" alt="THE FORSTER-FIRMIN GOLD AND SILVER AMALGAMATING COMP'Y" /></a> +</div> + +<p><b>THE FORSTER-FIRMIN +GOLD AND SILVER +AMALGAMATING COMP'Y</b> +of Norristown, Pa., will grant +state rights or licenses on +easy terms. This system +works up to assay, and recovers +the mercury rapidly.</p> + +<p class="foo">Apply as above.</p> +<br clear="all" /> +<hr class="full" /> + +<p class="adxl">THE DRIVEN WELL.</p> + +<p class="foo">Town and County privileges for making <b>Driven +Wells</b> and selling Licenses under the established +<b>American Driven Well Patent,</b> leased by the year +to responsible parties, by</p> + +<p class="centerfoo"><b>WM. D. ANDREWS & BRO.,</b></p> +<p class="author1"><b>NEW YORK.</b></p> + +<hr class="full" /> + +<p class="center"><b>SPARE THE CROTON AND SAVE THE COST.</b></p> +<p class="adxxl">Driven or Tube Wells</p> + +<p class="centerfoo">furnished to large consumers of Croton and Ridgewood +Water. <br />WM. D. ANDREWS & BRO., 414 Water St., N. Y.,<br /> +who control the patent for Green's American Driven Well.</p> + +<hr class="full" /> + +<p class="adl">STEAM AND HYDRAULIC</p> + +<p class="adxl">Passenger and Freight Elevators,</p> + +<h3 class="foo1">STEAM ENGINES AND BOILERS,</h3> + +<p class="centerfoo1" style="line-height: 50%;"><b>WHITTIER MACHINE CO., Boston, Mass.</b></p> + +<hr class="full" /> + +<div class="figleft"> +<img src="images/15-lawrence_engine-b-200.png" width="200" height="205" alt="The Lawrence Engine" /> +</div> + +<p class="adxl">Portable Steam Engines</p> + +<p class="centerfoo"><b>With Automatic Cut-off.</b></p> + +<p>No Commissions to Agents.<br /> + Bottom Prices to Purchasers.</p> + +<p class="centerfoo1">SEND FOR CATALOGUE.</p> + +<h2 class="foo1">Armington & Sims</h2> + +<p class="centerfoo1">A. & S. were lately with</p> + +<p class="centerfoo1">THE J. C. HOADLEY COMP.</p> + +<hr class="full" /> +<p class="adxxl">STEAM PUMPS.</p> + +<p class="adl">HENRY R. WORTHINGTON,</p> + +<p class="adl"><span class="left">239 Broadway, N. Y.</span> <span class="right">83 Water St., Boston.</span></p> +<br clear="all" /><br /> + +<p class="foo"><span class="sc">The Worthington Duplex Pumping Engines for +Water Works</span>—Compound, Condensing or Non-Condensing. +Used in over 100 Water-Works Stations.</p> + +<p class="foo1"><span class="sc">Steam Pumps</span>—Duplex and Single Cylinder.<br /> + +<span class="sc">Water Meters</span>. <span class="sc">Oil Meters</span>.</p> + +<p class="centerfoo"><b>Prices Largely Reduced.</b></p> + +<hr class="full" /> + +<div class="figcenter"> +<img src="images/15-steampumps-400.png" width="400" height="47" alt="RIVAL STEAM PUMPS, $35 and UPWARDS. JOHN. H. MCGOWAN and CO. CINCINNATI OHIO." /> +</div> + +<hr class="full" /> + +<p class="adxl">PATENTS at AUCTION.</p> + +<p class="foo">Regular Monthly Sales by George W. Keeler, Auctioneer. +For terms, address NEW YORK PATENT EXCHANGE, +67 Liberty Street, New York.</p> + +<hr class="full" /> + +<p><span style="float:left; font-size:2.3em; font-weight:bold; line-height:85%;">50 </span> +<b>Perfumed Chromo and Motto Cards, 10c.</b><br /> +<i>Name in Gold and Jet.</i> Seavy Bros., Northford, Ct.<br /></p> + +</td></tr></table> + +<hr class="full" /> + +<table align="center" width="600px" summary="watches" border="0" style="margin-bottom: 1.5em; border-collapse: collapse; margin-top: 1em;"> +<tr> + <td colspan="3" class="center" style="background: black; color: inherit;"><img src="images/watches-top-600.png" width="600" height="60" alt="WARRANTED WATCHES ONLY $3 EACH" /></td> + +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="left1" width="5%" style="background: black; color: inherit;"><img src="images/watches-left.png" width="50" height="500" alt="WARRANTED WATCHES ONLY $3 EACH" /></td> + <td class="center1" valign="top"> +<p class="adxl">$12 WATCHES</p> +<p class="centerfoo1"><span style="font-size: 1.9em; font-family: sans-serif; font-weight: bolder;"><b>For Only $3 Each.</b></span></p> + +<div class="figleft"> +<a href="images/15-watch.png"><img src="images/15-watch-100.png" width="100" height="186" alt="Watch" border="0" /></a> +</div> + +<p class="centerfoo" style="font-family: sans-serif;"><b>A BANKRUPT STOCK OF WATCHES,</b><br /> +<i>Warranted for One Year.</i></p> +<p class="foo" style="font-size: 0.8em;">This bankrupt stock of Watches must be closed out +in <b>90</b> days. <b>The former price of these Watches +was $12.00 each.</b> They are silvered case and open +face, all one style, and of French manufacture, the +movements of which being well known the world over +for their fine finish. They are used on <b>railroads</b> and +<b>steamboats,</b> where <b>accurate time</b> is required, and +give good satisfaction. Think of it, a $12.00 Watch for +<b>only $3.00,</b> and <b>warranted one year for time.</b> +<span class="right"><span class="sc">Cincinnati</span>. O., October 1st, 1878.</span></p> + +<p style="font-size: 0.8em;">The Walters Importing Co. is an old established and +very reliable house, and we cheerfully recommend +them. + +<span class="right"><span class="sc">Cincinnati Post</span>.</span></p> + +<p style="font-size: 0.8em;">After the closure of sale of this bankrupt stock of +Watches, which will continue <b>90</b> days from date of this +paper, no order will be filled at less than $12.00 each; so +please send your order at once. With each Watch we +furnish our <b>special warrantee for one year for +accurate time.</b> We will forward the Watch promptly +on receipt of $3.00, or will send C.O.D. if customers +desire and remit $1.00 on account. +Address all orders to</p> +<p class="author" style="font-size: 0.8em;"> +<b>Walters Importing Co.,</b><br /> +180 <span class="sc">Elm Street, Cincinnati, O.</span></p> +<div class="figleft1"><img src="images/finger-32.png" width="32" height="14" alt="finger pointing right" border="0" /> +</div> +<p style="font-size: 0.8em;"><b>TO WATCH SPECULATORS:</b> We call particular I +attention to these Watches, as they sell readily at from $12.00 +to $20.00 each.</p> +<div class="figleft1"><img src="images/finger-32.png" width="32" height="14" alt="finger pointing right" border="0" /> +</div> +<p style="font-size: 0.8em;"><i>Cut this Advertisement Out.</i></p> + </td> + <td class="right1" width="5%" style="background: black; color: inherit;"><img src="images/watches-right.png" width="50" height="500" alt="WARRANTED WATCHES ONLY $3 EACH" /></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td colspan="3" class="center" style="background: black; color: inherit;"><img src="images/watches-top-600.png" width="600" height="60" alt="WARRANTED WATCHES ONLY $3 EACH" /></td> +</tr> +</table> + +<hr class="full" /> +<table align="center" width="80%" summary="advertisements"> +<tr> + <td> +<p><span style="float:left; font-size:2.3em; font-weight:bold; line-height:85%;"> +$10 to $1000 </span> +Invested in Wall St. Stocks makes +fortunes every month. Books sent +free explaining everything.</p> + +<p class="author">Address BAXTER & CO., Bankers, 17 Wall St., N. Y.</p> + +<hr class="full" /> + +<div class="figleft"> +<a href="images/15-chuckjaws.png"><img src="images/15-chuckjaws-100.png" width="100" height="104" alt="Patent Portable Chuck Jaws." /></a> +</div> + +<p class="adxl">Patent Portable Chuck Jaws.</p> + +<p class="foo">Improved Solid Emery Wheels, for grinding Iron +and Brass Castings. Tools, etc. Manufactured<br /> +by AM. TWIST DRILL CO., Woonsocket, R. I.</p> +<br /> +<hr class="full" /> +<p class="adxls">Lathes, Planers, Shapers</p> + +<p class="centerfoo">Drills, Bolt and Gear Cutters, Milling Machines. Special<br /> +Machinery. E. GOULD & EBERHARDT, Newark, N. J.</p> + +<hr class="full" /> + + <p><span style="float:left; font-size:4em; font-weight:bold; line-height:85%;"> +U. S. P</span> +<b><span style="font-size: 2.0em;">IANO CO.,</span></b> <br /><b>163 BLEECKER ST., N. Y.,</b></p> + +<p class="foo2">Manufacturers of strictly first-class +Pianos. We sell <b>direct</b> +to Families from <b>our own</b> Factory at <b>lowest wholesale</b> +price. Beautiful <b>new</b> 7 1-3 Octave, Rosewood Pianos. +Sent on trial. Thousands in use. <b>Heavy Discount</b> +to <b>cash</b> buyers. <b>DON'T</b> buy until you read +our Catalogue. It will <b>interest</b> you—Mailed <b>free</b>.</p> + +<hr class="full" /> + +<div class="figcenter"> +<img src="images/15-turbinewaterwheels-400.png" width="400" height="101" alt="MEDAL and PREMIUM AWARDED TO ALCOTT'S TURBINE WATER WHEELS MANUFACT'D AT MOUNT HOLLY N. J." /> +</div> + +<hr class="full" /> + +<p class="adxl">Mowry Car & Wheel Works,</p> + +<p class="centerfoo"><span class="sc"><b>manufacturers of</b></span></p> + +<p class="centerfoo"><b>CARS AND CAR WHEELS of all descriptions,</b></p> + +<p class="foo1">Wheels and Axles, Chilled Tires, Engine, Car and Bridge +Castings, of any pattern, furnished to order at short +notice. Also Street Car Turn Tables.</p> + +<p class="centerfoo"><b>Wheels of all sizes constantly on hand.</b></p> + +<p class="centerfoo"><b>Office, 27 1-2 W. Third St., CINCINNATI, O.</b></p> + +<p class="centerfoo">Works, Eastern Avenue and Lewis Street.</p> + +<hr class="full" /> + +<p><b>C. W. LE COUNT, SOUTH NORWALK, CONN.</b>, Mfr. of +Lathe Dogs, Iron and Steel Expanding Mandrels of all +sizes. A specialty made of Amateurs' Mandrels and Dogs.</p> + +<hr class="full" /> + +<div class="figleft"><br /> +<a href="images/15-barnes.png"><img src="images/15-barnes-200.png" width="200" height="265" alt="BARNES' FOOT POWER MACHINERY." /></a> +</div> + +<p><span style="float:left; font-size:3em; font-weight:bold; line-height:80%;">B</span></p> +<b>ARNES' FOOT POWER MACHINERY.</b> +<p><span style="float:left; font-size:4em; font-weight:bold; line-height:85%;">13 </span> +Different machines with which +Builders, Cabinet Makers, +Wagon Makers, and Jobbers +in miscellaneous work can +compete as to <span class="sc">Quality and +Price</span> with steam power manufacturing; +also Amateurs' supplies.</p> + +<p class="foo"><span class="sc">Machines sent on trial</span>.</p> + +<p class="foo">Say where you read this, and send +for catalogue and prices.</p> + +<p class="author"><b>W. F. & JOHN BARNES,</b><br /> +Rockford, Winnebago Co., Ill.</p> +<br /><br clear="all" /> + +<hr class="full" /> + +<p class="adxl">AMERICAN NOVELTIES</p> + +<p class="foo">wanted for English trade. 1,000 Sewing Machines to be +sold cheap. Apply</p> + +<p class="author"><b>BRITANNIA COMPANY,</b> Colchester, England.</p> +</td></tr></table> +<hr class="full" /> + +<table align="center" summary="anvil" border="0"> +<tr> + <td class="left1"><p style="margin-top: 2em;"><span style="font-size: 1.4em;">Retail</span></p> + +<p><span style="float:left; font-size:3em; font-weight:bold; line-height:80%;">9 </span> +<br style="line-height: 60%" /> +<span style="font-size: 1.2em;"><b>Cents</b></span></p> +<p class="foo1" style="font-size: 1.2em;"><b>Per Pound.</b></p> + +<p>Warranted of the hardest temper, and +<i>never</i> to settle.</p><br /></td> + <td class="center"><a href="images/15-anvil.png"><img src="images/15-anvil-300.png" width="300" height="155" alt="Anvil - FISHER and NORRIS TRENTON N. J." /></a> +</td> + <td class="center"><p class="center"><b>ESTABLISHED <br />1843</b></p> + +<p>Steel Horn, warranted +not to break +and Face of <i>Best +Cast Steel</i>.</p></td> +</tr> +</table> +<p class="centerfoo"><b>Better than any English make, and only one +that is fully</b></p> + +<p class="adxl">!! WARRENTED !!</p> + +<p class="centerfoo1"><b>50 sizes, from 1-2 lb. to 800 lbs.</b></p> + +<p class="indfoo">Catalogues furnished on application.</p> + +<hr class="full" /> + +<table align="center" width="80%" summary="advertisements"> +<tr> + <td> +<p class="center"><b>A VALUABLE WORK.</b></p> + +<p class="adxl">THE STEAM ENGINE</p> + +<p class="foo9">The Relative Proportions of the Steam Engine. A +course of Lectures on the Steam Engine delivered to +the students of Dynamical Engineering in the University +of Pennsylvania. By <span class="sc">Wm. D. Marks</span>, Whitney +Professor of Dynamical Engineering. With numerous +Illustrations. 12mo. Flexible cloth. $1.50.</p> + +<p class="foo9">"A valuable addition to the literature of the Steam +Engine, and one which will be appreciated by engineers +in practice as well as by students."—<i>Pittsburgh American +Manufacturer</i>.</p> + +<p class="foo9">"A valuable work, and one which will meet with a +favorable reception. * * * There is much need and much +room for a rational and practical method for proportioning +the various parts of the steam engine, and in this +respect your work is very welcome."—<i>Augustus Jay Du +Bois, Ph.D., Yale College</i>.</p> + +<table summary="asterisk layout"> +<tr> + <td class="left1" style="line-height: 60%;" valign="top"><br style="line-height: 30%;" />* * <br /> + * </td> + <td class="left1">For sale by all Booksellers, or will be sent by mail, +postpaid, upon receipt of price, by<br /><br /></td> +</tr> +</table> + +<p class="author"><b>J. B. LIPPINCOTT & CO., Publishers, <br /> +715 and 717 Market St., Philadelphia.</b></p> + +<hr class="full" /> + +<div class="figleft"> +<a href="images/15-footlathe.png"><img src="images/15-footlathe-150.png" width="150" height="198" alt="SHEPARD'S CELEBRATED $50 Screw Cutting Foot Lathe." /></a> +</div> + +<p class="center"><b>SHEPARD'S CELEBRATED</b></p> + +<p class="adl">$50 Screw Cutting Foot Lathe.</p> + +<p class="foo">Foot and Power Lathes, Drill Presses, +Scrolls, Circular and Band Saws, Saw +Attachments, Chucks, Mandrils, Twist +Drills, Dogs, Calipers, etc. Send for +catalogue of outfits for amateurs or +artisans.</p> + +<p class="centerfoo"><b>H. L. SHEPARD & CO.,</b></p> + +<p class="author">331, 333, 335, & 337 West Front Street,<br /> + +<b>Cincinnati, Ohio. </b></p> + +<br /> +</td></tr></table> + +<hr class="full" /> + +<div class="figleft" style="padding-left: 0; padding-bottom: 0;"> +<a href="images/15-telephones1.png"><img src="images/15-telephones1-100.png" width="100" height="130" alt="telephone use" /></a> +</div> + +<div class="figright" style="padding-right: 0; padding-bottom: 0;"> +<a href="images/15-telephones2.png"><img src="images/15-telephones2-100.png" width="100" height="132" alt="telephone use" /></a> +</div> + +<table align="center" summary="telephones" border="0" style="border-bottom: 1px solid black; margin-bottom: -1em; border-collapse: collapse;"> +<tr> + <td class="left1" valign="top"><span style="font-size: 4em;">TEL</span></td> + <td style="padding: 0; border-spacing: 0"> + <table summary="layout" border="0" style="border-collapse: collapse;"> + <tr> + <td class="center"><br style="line-height: 20%" /><span style="font-size: 3.0em;">EPHO</span></td></tr> + <tr> + <td class="center"><span style="font-size: 0.7em; vertical-align: top;"><i>25 per cent. Discount.</i></span></td> + </tr></table></td> + <td class="left1" valign="top"><span style="font-size: 4em;">NES.</span></td> +</tr> + +</table> + +<p><span style="float:left; font-size:1.8em;"><b>Special Offer.</b> </span> +<span class="font9"><b>OUR NEW IMPROVED DOUBLE +COILED METALIC TELEPHONE<br /> +is the finest in the world,</b> and the only completely satisfactory low +priced instrument, with <b>Spring Call Attachment</b>, made by <b>practical +machinists</b> on scientific principles; warranted to work +<b>one mile</b>, unaffected +by changes in the weather. We will send to one address <b>one sample set</b>, +comprising two Telephones, two walnut holders, six copper bound insulators +and 200 feet heavy wire, <b>at 25 per cent. discount</b> +from <b>regular rates</b>, +which is $3.00 for the $4.00 instruments. This offer <b>will +not</b> hold good after +<b>Jan. 15, 1879</b>, as our goods will then be sufficiently well +known to sell through the trade, and we shall +be obliged to strictly maintain the retail price. Any +person of ordinary intelligence can put them up by following +directions sent with each pair. We have sold during the last +three months nearly <b>1000</b> of these instruments, and have +<b>hundreds of testimonials</b> from all parts of the country. +We <b>guarantee</b> all instruments sold. For any Telephone that +fails to work, we will <b>refund the money</b> and pay +all charges. Ask any Commercial Agency, and you will find we are +good for all we agree to do.</span></p> + +<p class="font9">Name this paper when you write.</p> + +<p class="author" style="font-size: 0.9em;"><b>Kent, Woodman & Co., 25 Congress St., Boston, Mass.</b></p> + +<hr class="full" /> + +<table align="center" width="80%" summary="advertisements"> +<tr> + <td> + + <br /> + +<p class="center"><b>THE</b></p> +<p style="font-size: 2.5em; margin-top: -0.2em;" class="ind"><b>DEFIANCE</b></p> +<p style="font-size: 2.5em; margin-top: -0.5em;" class="ind1"><b>METALLIC</b></p> +<p style="font-size: 2.5em; margin-top: -0.5em;" class="ind2"><b>PLANES</b></p> + +<table align="center" summary="Trade Mark"> +<tr> + <td class="left1"><b>TRADE</b></td> + <td class="center"><img src="images/15-battleaxe-250.png" width="250" height="99" alt="THE BATTLE AXE." border="0" /></td> + <td class="left1"><b>MARK</b></td> +</tr> +</table> + +<p class="center"><b>"THE BATTLE AXE."</b></p> + +<p class="adxl"><b>ARE THE BEST<img src="images/in_the-22.png" width="22" height="18" alt="in the" border="0" /> WORLD.</b></p> + +<p>Send for a full descriptive circular and price list to the +manufacturers, the</p> + +<p class="center"><b>BAILEY WRINGING MACHINE CO.,<br /> +99 Chambers St., New York.</b></p> + +<hr class="full" /> + +<div class="figleft"> +<a href="images/15-enginelathe.png"><img src="images/15-enginelathe-200.png" width="200" height="221" alt="ENGINE LATHES" /></a> +</div> + +<p class="adl">BEST <span style="font-size: 0.7em;">AND</span> CHEAPEST</p> + +<p class="centerfoo"><b>FOOT POWER</b></p> + +<h3 class="foo" style="margin-bottom: 0em;">SCREW CUTTING</h3> + +<div class="figcenter"> +<img src="images/15-engine-lathes-250.png" width="250" height="30" alt="ENGINE LATHES" /> +</div> + +<div class="figcenter" style="margin-top: -1em;"> +<img src="images/15-seefulldescription.png" width="250" height="53" alt="SEE FULL DESCRIPTION IN SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN JULY 27" /> +</div> +<br style="line-height: 30%" /> +<p class="author"><b>GOODNOW & WIGHTMAN</b><br /> +<span class="font9"><b><i>176 WASHINGTON ST BOSTON MASS.</i></b></span></p> + +<hr class="full" /> +<p class="center"><span style="font-size: 1.8em; border-bottom: 2px solid;"><b>The Only Grand Prize</b></span></p> +<p style="font-size: 1.4em; margin-top: -0.5em;"><b>for Sewing Machines, +at the Exposition Universelle, +Paris, 1878, +was awarded, over 80 +competitors, to Wheeler +& Wilson Mfg. Co. +New York City, and +Bridgeport, Conn.</b></p> + +<hr class="full" /> + +<div class="figcenter"> +<img src="images/15-roundwriting-400.png" width="400" height="226" alt="Round Writing Useful for Everybody Book of Instructions and Pens Sent on receipt of $1.50 KEUFFEL and ESSER, 127 Fulton St., N. Y., Importers and Manuf'rers of Drawing Materials." /> +</div> + +<hr class="full" /> + +<p class="adxl">American Standard</p> + +<h2 style="margin-top: -0.8em;">Gauge and Tool Works.</h2> + +<p class="centerfoo"><b>22d and WOOD STS., PHILADELPHIA.</b></p> + +<p class="indfoo"><b>Standard Gauges and Measuring Implements, +Hardened Steel Turning Mandrels, Adjustable +Blade Reamers, Patent Tool Holders, Lathe +Drivers, etc.</b></p> +<p class="author"><b>JOHN RICHARDS & CO.,</b></p> + +<hr class="full" /> + +<div class="figleft"> +<a href="images/15-boiler.png"><img src="images/15-boiler-100.png" width="100" height="150" alt="1 H. P. Boiler and Engine." /></a> +</div> + +<h3 style="line-height: 50%">WARRANTED THE BEST.</h3> + +<p class="centerfoo"><b>1 H. P. Boiler & Engine, $150.<br /> +2 H. P., $175. 3 H. P., $200.</b></p> + +<p class="foo"> Tested to 200 lbs. Steam.</p> + +<p class="centerfoo"><b>LOVEGROVE & CO.,<br /> +152 N. 3d St., Philadelphia, Pa.,</b></p> + +<p class="foo">Builders of Engines and Boilers, 1 to 100 +horse power. Send for circulars and +prices, and state size and style you want.</p> + +<hr class="full" /> +<p class="adxl">Wood-Working Machinery,</p> +<p class="indfoo">Such as Woodworth Planing, Tonguing, and Grooving +Machines, Daniel's Planers. Richardson's Patent Improved +Tenon Machines, Mortising, Moulding, and +Re-Saw Machines, and Wood-Working Machinery generally. +Manufactured by</p> + +<p class="author1"><b>WITHERBY, RUGG & RICHARDSON, </b><br /> +26 Salisbury Street, Worcester, Mass.</p> +<p class="indfoo">(Shop formerly occupied by R. BALL & CO.)</p> + +<hr class="full" /> + +<p class="adl">LAP WELDED CHARCOAL IRON</p> + +<p class="indfoo">Boiler Tubes, Steam Pipe, Light and Heavy Forgings, +Engines, Boilers, Cotton Presses, Rolling Mill and Blast +Furnace Work.</p> + +<p class="centerfoo"><b>READING IRON WORKS,</b></p> +<p class="author"><b>261 South Fourth St., Phila.</b></p> + +<hr class="full" /> +<p class="adxls">PERRY & CO.'S STEEL PENS.</p> + +<div class="figleft" style="padding-left: 0; padding-right: 0;"> +<a href="images/15-pen_nib.png"><img src="images/15-pen_nib-350.png" width="350" height="76" alt="Steel Pen." /></a> +</div> + +<p>A sample box, +for trial, containing +our leading +styles, including +the famous "U" +and "Falcon" +Pens, mailed on +receipt of 25 cts.</p> + +<p class="centerfoo1"><b>Ivison, Blakeman, Taylor & Co., Sole Agents for U. S., New York.</b></p> + +<hr class="full" /> +<p class="adxl">EAGLE TUBE CO.,</p> + +<p class="center"><b>614 to 626 W. 24th St., New York.</b></p> + +<p class="adl">BOILER FLUES of all the Regular Sizes,</p> + +<p class="centerfoo1"><b>Of Best Material and Warranted.</b></p> +<div class="figleft1"><img src="images/finger-32.png" width="32" height="14" alt="finger pointing right" border="0" /> +</div> +<p class="foo1"> ORDERS PROMPTLY EXECUTED.</p> + +<p class="foo1">No Payment Required till Tubes are Fully Tested and +Satisfactory.</p> + +<hr class="full" /> + +<div class="figcenter"> +<img src="images/15-steamsyphon-400.png" width="400" height="99" alt="LANSDELL'S PATENT STEAM SYPHON." /> +</div> + +<hr class="full" /> +<p class="adxxl">Cigar Box Lumber,</p> + +<h3 class="foo1">MANUFACTURED by our NEW PATENT PROCESS.</h3> + +<p class="adl">The Best in the World.</p> + +<p style="font-size: 1.6em; margin-top: -0.5em;" class="ind"><b>SPANISH CEDAR,</b></p> +<p style="font-size: 1.6em; margin-top: -0.8em;" class="ind1"><b>MAHOGANY,</b></p> +<p style="font-size: 1.6em; margin-top: -0.8em;" class="ind2"><b>POPLAR.</b></p> + +<p class="indfoo">Also thin lumber of all other kinds, ⅛ to ½ in., at corresponding +prices. All qualities. Equal in all respects to +any made, and at prices much under any to be obtained +outside of our establishment. Send for price list.</p> + +<p class="centerfoo"><b>GEO W. READ & CO.,</b></p> +<p class="author1"><b>186 to 200 Lewis Street, N. Y.</b></p> + +<a name="Page_382" id="Page_382"></a> + +<hr class="full" /> + +<div class="figcenter"> +<img src="images/16-marvinsafes-400.png" width="400" height="387" alt="MARVIN'S Fire and Burglar SAFES Counter Platform Wagon and Track SCALES MARVIN SAFE and SCALE CO. 265 BROADWAY N. Y." /> +</div> + +<hr class="full" /> + +<div class="figcenter"> +<img src="images/16-ingersol-400.png" width="400" height="159" alt="The INGERSOLL ROCK DRILL CO 1-1/2 PARK PLACE N. Y." /> +</div> + +<hr class="full" /> + +<p class="adxl">Partner Wanted</p> + +<p class="indfoo" style="font-size: 0.9em;">To introduce my <b>IMPROVED PROTRACTOR.</b> +Splendid chance for a person with small capital.</p> +<p class="author" style="font-size: 0.9em;">Address +or call on O. M. DAYTON, Utica, N. Y.</p> + +<hr class="full" /> + +<p><span class="left"><span class="sc">Calvin Wells, Prest.</span></span><span class="right"><span class="sc">Jas. K. Verner, Secy.</span></span> +</p> + +<br clear="all" /><br /> + +<p class="adxl">Pittsburgh Forge & Iron Co.,</p> + +<p class="adl">IRON and HAMMERED CAR AXLES.</p> + +<p class="centerfoo">Also manufacture as a specialty</p> + +<p class="adl">Wrought Iron Bridge Bolts & Bolt Ends,<br /> +With Plain and Upset Ends,</p> + +<p class="foo9">To any required tensile strength, from one to three and +one-half inches, with thread and nuts. Orders for which +are respectfully solicited. Office, 10th Street, near Penn +Ave., Pittsburgh, Pa.</p> + +<hr class="full" /> + +<p class="adxl">J. LLOYD HAIGH,</p> + +<p class="centerfoo" style="margin-bottom: 0;">Manufacturer of</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="padding-top: 0; padding-bottom: 0;"> +<img src="images/16-wirerope1-400.png" width="400" height="113" alt="WIRE ROPE" /> +</div> + +<p class="foo2" style="font-size: 0.9em;">Of every description, for Railroad and Mining Use. +Elevators, Derricks, Rope Tramways, Transmission of +Power, etc. No. 81 John St., N. Y. Send for price list. +Plans and Estimates furnished for Suspension Bridges.</p> + +<hr class="full" /> +<p class="adxls">Mill Stones and Corn Mills</p> + +<p class="foo">We make Burr Millstones, Portable Mills, Smut Machines, +Packers, Mill Picks, Water Wheels, Pulleys, and +Gearing, specially adapted to Flour Mills. Send for +Catalogue.</p> + +<p class="author"><b>J. T. NOYE & SON, Buffalo, N. Y.</b></p> + +<hr class="full" /> + +<p class="adxls">MACHINISTS' TOOLS.</p> + +<p class="centerfoo"><span class="sc">New and Improved Patterns.</span></p> + +<p class="indfoo">Send for new illustrated catalogue.</p> + +<p class="centerfoo">Lathes, Planers, Drills, &c.</p> + + <p class="centerfoo"> +<b>NEW HAVEN MANUFACTURING CO.,</b></p> +<p class="author"> +<b>New Haven, Conn.</b></p> + +<hr class="full" /> + +<p class="adxls">HYDRAULIC CEMENT</p> + +<p class="foo">Of the very highest order and quality made any and +everywhere from Refuse or Decomposed Limestone, +Marble, Shells, Chalk and Clay, and River Deposit as per +Letters Patent. Address</p> + +<p class="author">JOHN DIMELOW, Laboratorian, Austin, Texas.</p> + +<hr class="full" /> + +<p class="adxl">PARIS EXHIBITION PRIZES. <span style="font-size: 0.8em;">FULL</span></p> + +<p class="foo"><b>Official List</b> of the Awards in the American Department, +enumerating Exhibits and Names and Addresses +of Exhibitors, with kind of Prize awarded in each case. +<span class="sc">Supplements</span> <b>149, 150.</b> Price 10 cents each.</p> + +<hr class="full" /> + +<div class="figcenter"> +<img src="images/16-girders-400.png" width="400" height="73" alt="WROUGHT IRON BEAMS and GIRDERS" /> +</div> + +<p><span style="float:left; font-size:2.3em; font-weight:bold; line-height:85%;">T</span> +<span class="font9">HE UNION IRON MILLS, Pittsburgh, Pa., Manufacturers +of improved wrought iron Beams and +Girders (patented).</span></p> + +<p class="foo9">The great fall which has taken place in the prices of +Iron, and especially in Beams used in the construction +of FIRE PROOF BUILDINGS, induces us to call the special +attention of Engineers, Architects, and Builders to +the undoubted advantages of now erecting Fire Proof +structures; and by reference to pages 52 & 54 of our Book +of Sections—which will be sent on application to those +contemplating the erection of fire proof buildings—THE +COST CAN BE ACCURATELY CALCULATED, the +cost of Insurance avoided, and the serious losses and interruption +to business caused by fire; these and like considerations +fully justify any additional first cost. It is +believed, that, were owners fully aware of the small +difference which now exists between the use of Wood +and Iron, in many cases the latter would be adopted. +We shall be pleased to furnish estimates for all the Beams +complete, for any specific structure, so that the difference +in cost may at once be ascertained. Address</p> + +<p class="author" style="font-size: 0.9em;">CARNEGIE, BROS. & CO., Pittsburgh, Pa.</p> + +<hr class="full" /> + +<p><span style="float:left; font-size:2.3em; font-weight:bold; line-height:85%;">$7 </span> +A DAY to Agents canvassing for the <b>Fireside +Visitor.</b> Terms and Outfit Free. Address +P. O. VICKERY, Augusta, Maine.</p> + +<hr class="full" /> + +<p class="adxl">B. W. Payne & Sons, Corning, N. Y.</p> + +<div class="figleft"> +<a href="images/16-eureka.png"><img src="images/16-eureka-150.png" width="150" height="187" alt="Eureka Safety Power." /></a> +</div> + +<p class="centerfoo">Established in 1840.</p> +<p class="adxxl">Eureka Safety Power.</p> + +<table align="center" summary="h.p." style="border: 1px solid black; border-collapse: collapse;"> + +<tr> + <td class="insetc"> h.p. </td> + <td class="insetc"> cyl. </td> + <td class="insetc"> ht. </td> + <td class="insetc"> space </td> + <td class="insetc"> wt. </td> + <td class="insetr"> price. </td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="insetc">2</td> + <td class="insetc"> 3⅛ x 4 </td> + <td class="insetc"> 48 in. </td> + <td class="insetc"> 40 x 25 </td> + <td class="insetr">900 </td> + <td class="insetr">$150 </td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="insetc">4</td> + <td class="insetr">4 x 6 </td> + <td class="insetl"> 56</td> + <td class="insetc"> 46 x 30 </td> + <td class="insetr"> 1600 </td> + <td class="insetr">250 </td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="insetc">6</td> + <td class="insetr">5 x 7 </td> + <td class="insetl"> 72</td> + <td class="insetc"> 72 x 42 </td> + <td class="insetr"> 2700 </td> + <td class="insetr">400 </td> +</tr> +</table> + +<br /><br /> +<p class="foo">Also, <b>SPARK ARRESTING PORTABLES,</b> +and <b>Stationary Engines <i>for +Plantations</i>. Send for Circulars.</b></p> + +<hr class="full" /> + +<p class="adl"><i>PERFECT</i></p> +<p class="adxl">NEWSPAPER FILE</p> + +<div class="figcenter"><img src="images/16-fancyrule3-120.png" width="118" height="9" alt="fancy rule" border="0" /></div> + +<p class="foo1" style="font-size: 0.9em;">The Koch Patent File, for preserving newspapers, +magazines, and pamphlets, has been recently improved +and price reduced. Subscribers to the <span class="sc">Scientific American</span> +and <span class="sc">Scientific American Supplement</span> can be +supplied for the low price of $1.50 by mail, or $1.25 at the +office of this paper. Heavy board sides; inscription +"SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN," in gilt. Necessary for +every one who wishes to preserve the paper. +Address</p> + +<p class="centerfoo"><b>MUNN & CO.,</b></p> +<p class="author">Publishers <span class="sc">Scientific American</span>.</p> + +<br /> + +</td></tr></table> + +<hr class="full" /> + +<table align="center" summary="gold medal" border="0"> +<tr> + <td class="left1"> +<a href="images/16-goldmedal_front.png"><img src="images/16-goldmedal_front-150.png" width="150" height="150" alt="gold medal front" /></a> +</td> + <td class="center"><span style="font-size: 1.8em"><b>HOWE SCALE CO.,</b></span><br /><br /> + +<h2 class="foo1">Rutland, Vt.</h2> +<p class="adl">Paris 1878</p> +<p class="centerfoo">Were awarded the</p> +<h2 class="foo1">GOLD MEDAL</h2> + +<p class="foo9">The highest award for Scales; also several Special Medals of Gold, +Silver, and Bronze. In addition to the above the</p></td> + <td class="right1"><a href="images/16-goldmedal_back.png"><img src="images/16-goldmedal_back-150.png" width="150" height="149" alt="gold medal back" /></a> +</td> +</tr> +</table> + +<h3 class="foo2">HOWE SCALE CO.</h3> + +<p class="foo9">have been awarded the <i>"First Premium"</i> at Twelve different +State Fairs held during the Fall of the present year.</p> + +<h4 class="foo">Principal Agencies:</h4> + +<p class="foo"><span class="left"><span class="font9">PRIEST, PAGE & CO., 325 Broadway, New York.</span></span><span class="right"><span class="font9">PRIEST, PAGE & CO., 145 Franklin St., Boston.</span></span> +</p><br /> +<p><span class="left"><span class="font9">A. M. GILBERT & CO., 97 to 101 Lake St., Chicago.</span></span><span class="right"><span class="font9">J. FRED DENNIS, European Manager, Bremen, Germany.</span></span> +</p><br clear="all" /><br /> + +<hr class="full" /> + +<table align="center" width="80%" summary="advertisements"> +<tr> + <td> +<br /> + +<div class="figleft"> +<a href="images/16-pennyfarthing.png"><img src="images/16-pennyfarthing-150.png" width="150" height="147" alt="The Columbia Bicycle." /></a> +</div> +<p class="adxxl">The Columbia Bicycle,</p> + +<p class="centerfoo1"><b>Made by THE POPE M'F'G CO.,</b><br /> +<b>89 Summer Street, Boston.</b></p> + +<p class="foo1">A practical road machine, easy to +learn to ride, and when mastered +one can beat the best horse in a +day's run over an ordinary road. +Send 3c. stamp for catalogue.</p> +<br /> + +<hr class="full" /> + +<p><span style="float:left; font-size:2.3em; font-weight:bold; line-height:85%;">BIG </span> +PAY.—With Stencil Outfits. What costs 4 cts. +sells rapidly for 50 cts. <br />Catalogue <i>free</i>. +<span class="sc">S. M. SPENCER</span>, 112 Wash'n St., Boston, Mass.</p> + +<hr class="full" /> + +<p><span style="float:left; font-size:2.3em; font-weight:bold; line-height:85%;">65 </span> +<b>MIXED CARDS</b> with name, 10c. and stamp.<br /> +Agent's Outfit, 10c. <span class="sc">L. C. COE</span> & Co., Bristol, Ct.</p> + +<hr class="full" /> + +<div class="figleft"><br /> +<a href="images/16-yalemill.png"><img src="images/16-yalemill-200.png" width="200" height="127" alt="YALE VERTICAL, MILL" /></a> +</div> + +<p class="adxl">YALE VERTICAL MILL</p> + +<p class="foo">Iron Frame; French Burr; Self-oiling; +Self-feeding; Long Bearings; Adjustable-balanced; +best arranged, made and +finished, <i>cheapest</i>, +and for quality +and quantity +ground no superior +in the world.</p> + +<p class="foo">Also the Yale +Vertical and Horizontal +Steam Engines +and Boilers. +Send for Circular.</p> + +<p class="centerfoo1">YALE IRON WORKS, New Haven, Conn.</p> + +<hr class="full" /> + +<p class="adxl"><i>Working Models</i></p> + +<p class="indfoo">And Experimental Machinery, Metal or Wood, made to +order by</p> + +<p class="author1">J. F. WERNER, 62 Centre St., N. Y.</p> + +</td></tr></table> + +<hr class="full" /> + +<div class="figleft"> +<img src="images/16-hwjohnsasbestos-300.png" width="300" height="82" alt="H. W. JOHN'S BOILER COVERINGS ASBESTOS (Trade Mark)" /> +</div> +<p class="center"><span class="adxxl">BOILER COVERINGS.</span></p> + +<br clear="all" /> +<p class="foo">Are the most Effective and Economical Non-conducting Coverings in +the World. Ready for use and can be easily applied by any one. +Be sure and get the Genuine, which are Manufactured only by</p> + +<p class="adl">H. W. JOHNS MANUFACTURING CO., 87 Maiden Lane. New York,</p> + +<p class="foo">Sole Manufacturers of Genuine Asbestos Roofing, Liquid Paints, +Cements, etc. Send for Price Lists, etc.</p> + +<hr class="full" /> + +<table align="center" width="80%" summary="advertisements"> +<tr> + <td> + <p><span style="float:left; font-size:2.3em; font-weight:bold;">Pyrometers, </span> +For showing heat of +Ovens, Hot Blast Pipes, +Boiler Flues, Superheated Steam, Oil Stills, etc.</p> + +<p class="centerfoo1">HENRY W. BULKLEY, Sole Manufacturer,</p> + <p class="author">149 Broadway, N. Y.</p> + +<hr class="full" /> + +<p class="adxxl">CAMERON<br />Steam Pumps +</p> + +<p class="centerfoo"><b>For Mines, Blast Furnaces, Rolling</b><br /> +<b>Mills, Oil Refineries, Boiler</b><br /> +<b>Feeders, &c.</b></p> + +<p class="centerfoo">For Illustrated Catalogue and Reduced Price List send to<br /> +<b>Works, Foot East 23d St., New York.</b></p> + +<hr class="full" /> + +<div class="figcenter"> +<img src="images/16-wirerope2-400.png" width="400" height="122" alt="WIRE ROPE" /> +</div> + +<p class="indfoo">Address JOHN A. ROEBLING'S SONS, Manufacturers, +Trenton, N. J., or 117 Liberty Street, New York.</p> + +<p class="indfoo">Wheels and Rope for conveying power long distances.<br /> +Send for circular.</p> + +<hr class="full" /> + +<p class="adl">ICE AT $1.00 PER TON.</p> + +<p class="adxl">The PICTET ARTIFICIAL ICE CO.,</p> +<p class="adla">LIMITED,</p> + +<p class="author">Room 51, Coal and Iron Exchange, P.O. BOX 3083, N. Y.</p> +<br /> + +<hr class="full" /> + +<p class="adxxl">ROOTS' ROTARY HYDRAULIC ENGINE.</p> + +<div class="figleft"> +<a href="images/16-rootsengine.png"><img src="images/16-rootsengine-200.png" width="200" height="125" alt="ROOTS' ROTARY HYDRAULIC ENGINE." /></a> +</div> + +<p class="center" style="line-height: 50%">FOR</p> +<h2 style="line-height: 50%">BLOWING ORGANS</h2> +<p class="center" style="line-height: 50%"><b>AND RUNNING</b></p> +<h2 style="line-height: 50%">LIGHT MACHINERY</h2> +<p class="center" style="line-height: 50%"><b>OPERATED BY</b></p> +<h2 style="line-height: 50%">HYDRANT PRESSURE,</h2> +<h2 style="line-height: 50%">GIVES GREATEST USEFUL EFFECT OF WATER.</h2> +<p class="adxl">IS A POSITIVE PRESSURE ENGINE.</p> + +<p class="center"><b>P. H. & F. M. ROOTS, Manuf'rs, CONNERSVILLE, IND.</b><br /> +S. S. TOWNSEND, Gen'l Ag't, 6 Cortlandt St., NEW YORK.</p> + +<hr class="full" /> + +<p class="adxl">Woodward Steam Pumps and Fire Engines,</p> + +<p class="centerfoo"> +<b>G. M. WOODWARD,</b><br /> +<b>76 and 78 Centre Street, New York.</b></p> +<p class="indfoo"> +Send for catalogue and price list. +</p> + +<hr class="full" /> +<table align="center" summary="60 Chromo and perfumed cards"> +<tr> + <td> +<p><span style="float:left; font-size:2.3em; font-weight:bold; line-height:85%;">60 </span> +Chromo and Perfumed Cards [no 3 alike], Name in<br /> +Gold and Jet, 10c. <span class="sc">Clinton Bros</span>., Clintonville, Ct.</p> +</td> +</tr> +</table> +<hr class="full" /> + +<div class="figcenter"> +<img src="images/16-diamond_drills1-400.png" width="400" height="64" alt="DIAMOND ROCK DRILLS" /> +</div> + +<p class="indfoo" style="font-size: 0.9em; margin-bottom: -0.8em;">The only Machines giving a solid core showing exact +nature of rocks passed through.</p> + +<div class="figcenter"> +<img src="images/16-diamond_drills2-400.png" width="400" height="62" alt="THE AMERICAN DIAMOND ROCK BORING CO." /> +</div> + +<hr class="full" /> + +<table align="center" summary="Excelsior Printer" border="0"> +<tr> + <td style="padding: 0;"><p class="adl">Every Man<br /> +His Own<br /> +Printer!</p></td> + <td style="padding: 0;"> +<a href="images/16-printer.png"><img src="images/16-printer-100.png" width="100" height="106" alt="THE EXCELSIOR" /></a> +</td><td> +<p><span style="float:left; font-size:2.4em; font-weight:bold; line-height:85%;">$3 PRESS </span> + Prints labels, +cards etc. (Self-inker $5) 9 Larger sizes +For business, pleasure, young or old.<br /> +Catalogue of Presses, Type, Etc., +for 2 stamps.</p> + +<p class="author"> +<b>KELSEY & Co.</b><br /> +<b>Meriden, Conn.</b></p></td> +</tr> +</table> +<br /> + +<hr class="full" /> + +<p><span style="float:left; font-size:2.5em; font-weight:bold; line-height:85%;">M</span> +<b>ICROSCOPES, Opera Glasses, Spectacles,</b> +at greatly reduced prices. Send three stamps for +Illustrated Catalogue.</p> + +<p class="author"><b>R. & J. BECK, Philadelphia, Pa.</b></p> + +<hr class="full" /> + +<p><span style="float:left; font-size:2.3em; font-weight:bold; line-height:85%;">F</span> +<b>OR ALL KINDS OF MACHINERY</b>—Apply to</p> +<p class="author"> +S. C. HILLS, 78 Chambers St., New York.</p> + +<hr class="full" /> + +<table align="center" summary="Best" border="0"> +<tr> + <td class="center" style="padding-right: 0.5em;"><br /><b>DAMPER</b><br /> + <b>REGULATORS</b></td> + <td class="center1" valign="top"><br /><span style="font-size: 3.0em; font-weight: bold;">BEST</span></td> + <td class="left1" style="padding-left: 0.5em;"><br /><b>AND WEIGHTED</b><br /> + <b>GAUGE COCKS.</b></td> +</tr> +</table> + +<p class="centerfoo2"> +<b>MURRILL & KEIZER, 44 HOLLIDAY ST., BALTIMORE.</b></p> + +</td></tr></table> + +<hr class="full" /> + +<p class="center">GET THE BEST</p> + +<p class="adxl">PIPE AND BOILER COVERING</p> + +<p class="adxxl">ASBESTOS-LINED HAIR FELT.</p> + +<p class="indfoo">Lightest covering and best non-conductor. Asbestos lining prevents +any charring of the hair felt. Easily applied and removed.</p> +<p class="centerfoo">For prices, +etc., address <b>THE ASBESTOS PACKING CO., 25 State St., Boston, Mass.</b></p> + +<hr class="full" /> +<table align="center" width="80%" summary="advertisements"> +<tr> + <td> + + <p class="adxxl">THE TANITE CO.,</p> + +<p class="adxl">STROUDSBURG, PA.</p> + +<p class="adl">EMERY WHEELS AND GRINDERS.</p> + +<p class="author">GEO. PLACE, 131 Chambers St., New York Agent.</p> + +<hr class="full" /> + +<div class="figcenter"> +<img src="images/16-rock_drilling-400.png" width="400" height="132" alt="ROCK DRILLING MACHINES AND AIR COMPRESSORS" /> +</div> + +<hr class="full" /> + +<p class="center"><span class="sc">Established</span> 1844.</p> + +<p class="adxl">JOSEPH C. TODD,</p> + +<p class="indfoo" style="font-size: 0.9em;"><span class="sc">Engineer</span> and <span class="sc">Machinist</span>. Flax, Hemp, Jute, Rope, +Oakum and Bagging Machinery, Steam Engines, Boilers, +etc. I also manufacture Baxter's New Portable Engine +of 1877. Can be seen in operation at my store. A one +horse-power portable engine, complete, $125; two horse-power, +$225; two and a half horse-power, $250; three +horse-power, $275. Manufactured exclusively by</p> + +<p class="adl">J. C. TODD,</p> + <p class="centerfoo"><b>10 Barclay St., New York, or Paterson, N. J.</b> +</p> + +<hr class="full" /> +<p class="adl">BAXTER $100 1 HORSE ENGINE OF 1877.</p> + +<p class="indfoo">For State Rights to manufacture above, apply to</p> + +<p class="author">A. VAN WINKLE, Newark, N. J.</p> + +<hr class="full" /> + +<p><span style="float:left; font-size:2.3em; font-weight:bold; line-height:85%;">TO ADVERTISERS! </span> + +<span class="font9"> +We fill orders +for the insertion +of advertisements +in the newspapers of the United States and +Dominion of Canada. To furnish advertisers with +reliable information concerning newspapers and their +rates, and thus enable the most inexperienced to select +intelligently the mediums best adapted to any particular +purpose, WE ISSUE SEMI-ANNUAL EDITIONS OF</span></p> + +<h3 class="foo1" style="font-family: sans-serif;">AYER & SON'S MANUAL</h3> + +<p class="foo1"><b>FOR ADVERTISERS.</b> 164 8vo. pp. Gives the +names, circulation, and advertising rates of several +thousand newspapers in the United States and Canada, +and contains more information of value to an advertiser +than can be found in any other publication. All lists +carefully revised in each edition, and where practicable +prices reduced. The special offers are numerous and +unusually advantageous. It will pay you to examine +it before spending any money in newspaper advertising. +The last edition will be sent postpaid to any address on +receipt of <b>25</b> cents by</p> +<p class="author"> +<b>N. W. AYER & SON,</b> +<span class="sc">Advertising Agents</span>, Times Building, Philadelphia.</p> + +<hr class="full" /> + +<div class="figcenter"> +<img src="images/16-watsons-400.png" width="400" height="63" alt="WATSONS NON CHANGEABLE GAP LATHE HAS GREAT FACILITIES FOR LARGE OR MEDIUM SIZE WORK." /> +</div> + +<hr class="full" /> + +<p class="center" style="font-size: 3.0em;"><b>Pond's Tools,</b></p> + +<p class="centerfoo"><b>Engine Lathes, Planers, Drills, &c.</b></p> + +<p class="adxl"><span style="font-family: sans-serif;">DAVID W. POND</span>, Worcester, Mass.</p> + +<hr class="full" /> + +<p class="adxl">Can I Obtain a Patent?</p> + +<p>This is the first inquiry that naturally occurs to every +author or discoverer of a new idea or improvement. The +quickest and best way to obtain a satisfactory answer, +without expense, is to write to us (Munn & Co.), describing +the invention, with a small sketch. All we +need is to get the <i>idea</i>. Do not use pale ink. Be brief. +Send stamps for postage. We will immediately answer +and inform you whether or not your improvement is +probably patentable; and if so, give you the necessary +instructions for further procedure. Our long experience +enables us to decide quickly. For this advice we make +<i>no charge</i>. All persons who desire to consult us in regard +to obtaining patents are cordially invited to do +so. We shall be happy to see them in person at our +office, or to advise them by letter. In all cases, they +may expect from us a careful consideration of their +plans, an honest opinion, and a prompt reply.</p> + +<p><b><i>What Security Have I</i></b> that my communication +to Munn & Co. will be faithfully guarded and remain +confidential?</p> + +<p><i>Answer</i>.—You have none except our well-known integrity +in this respect, based upon a most extensive +practice of thirty years' standing. Our clients are +numbered by hundreds of thousands. They are to be +found in every town and city in the Union. Please to +make inquiry about us. Such a thing as the betrayal +of a client's interests, when committed to our professional +care, never has occurred, and is not likely to occur. +All business and communications intrusted to us +are kept <i>secret and confidential</i>.</p> + +<p class="center"> +Address +<b>MUNN & CO.,</b><br /> +Publishers of the <span class="sc">Scientific American</span>,</p> +<p class="author"> +<b>37 Park Row New York.</b> +</p> + +<hr class="full" /> + +<p><span style="float:left; font-size:2.3em; font-weight:bold; line-height:85%;">T</span> +HE "Scientific American" is printed with CHAS. +ENEU JOHNSON & CO.'S INK. Tenth and Lombard +Sts., Philadelphia, and 59 Gold St., New York.</p> + +</td> +</tr> +</table> + +<hr class="full" /> + +<a name="transcriber_note"></a> +<table summary="transcriber note" width="80%" align="center" style="margin-top: 5em;"> +<tr> + <td class="note"> + +<h3>Transcriber's Note</h3> + +<p>Some archaic (Early American) spellings have been retained.</p> + +<p>Damaged or missing punctuation has been repaired.</p> + +<h4>Errata</h4> + +<p>(Corrections are also indicated, in the text, by a dotted line underneath the correction.</p> +<p style="margin-top:-1em;">Scroll the mouse over the word and the original text will <ins title="Transcriber's Note: original reads 'apprear'">appear</ins>.)</p> + +<p>'irridescent' corrected to 'iridescent'.<br /> +"Glass, iridescent"<br /> +(<a href="#contents">Contents</a>)</p> + +<p>'monoply' corrected to 'monopoly'.<br /> +"The cry of monopoly in this case is altogether unfounded,..."<br /> +(<a href="#art04">Article 4</a>)</p> + +<p>'analagous' corrected to 'analogous'.<br /> +A very simple method of reducing nitrate of silver, analogous +to that some years ago mentioned by the late Mr. +Hadow<br /> +(<a href="#art42">Article 42</a>)</p> + +<p>'possesing' corrected to 'possessing'.<br /> +"... possessing in every way the original form of the wood." <br /> +(<a href="#art42">Article 42</a>)</p> + +<a href="#top">Return to Top</a> + +</td> +</tr> +</table> + + + + + + + + +<pre> + + + + + +End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Scientific American, Vol. XXXIX.--No. +24. [New Series.], December 14, 1878, by Various + +*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN *** + +***** This file should be named 38480-h.htm or 38480-h.zip ***** +This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: + http://www.gutenberg.org/3/8/4/8/38480/ + +Produced by Juliet Sutherland, Lesley Halamek, and the +Online Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net + + +Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions +will be renamed. + +Creating the works from public domain print editions means that no +one owns a United States copyright in these works, so the Foundation +(and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United States without +permission and without paying copyright royalties. Special rules, +set forth in the General Terms of Use part of this license, apply to +copying and distributing Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works to +protect the PROJECT GUTENBERG-tm concept and trademark. 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You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + +Title: Scientific American, Vol. XXXIX.--No. 24. [New Series.], December 14, 1878 + A Weekly Journal Of Practical Information, Art, Science, + Mechanics, Chemistry, And Manufactures + +Author: Various + +Release Date: January 3, 2012 [EBook #38480] + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ASCII + +*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN *** + + + + +Produced by Juliet Sutherland, Lesley Halamek, and the +Online Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net + + + + + + +[Illustration] + + +SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN + + +A WEEKLY JOURNAL OF PRACTICAL INFORMATION, ART, SCIENCE, MECHANICS, +CHEMISTRY, AND MANUFACTURES. + + +NEW YORK, DECEMBER 14, 1878. + +Vol. XXXIX.--No. 24. [NEW SERIES.] + +[$3.20 per Annum [POSTAGE PREPAID.]] + + * * * * * + + + + +CONTENTS. + +(Illustrated articles are marked with an asterisk.) + + Alum in baking powders + Alum in bread 376 + Argonaut, or Paper Nautilus* 375 + Astronomical notes 377 + Babbitt metal, to make [5] 378 + Belts, rubber, slipping [6] 378 + Bench, saw, Casson's* 374 + Boot polish liquid [8] 378 + Butter, to color [16] 378 + Canal, ship, Belgian* 367 + Economy, machine shop 371 + Eggs, preservation of 375 + Electric light, Werdermann* 373 + Engineers, warning to 367 + Engine, steam, valve yoke [48] 379 + Exterminator, roach [57] 379 + Filter for rain water [19] 378 + Foot power, new* 370 + Glass, iridescent 368 + Glass, to make a hole in 375 + Hair, to prevent falling out [42]379 + Inks, sympathetic 377 + Invention, reward of 371 + Inventions, new, 370 + Inventions, new agricultural 377 + Inventions, new mechanical 374 + Inventors, bait for 374 + Iron and steel, preservation of 367 + Iron, malleable, to make [43] 379 + Leaves, culinary uses for 370 + Line, straight, to draw* [36] 379 + Mechanics, amateur* 371 + Mexico, progress of science in 376 + Microphone as a thief catcher 375 + Naphtha and benzine 377 + Nitrate of silver, reduction of 377 + Notes and queries 378 + Oil notes 372 + Petroleum and gold 377 + Petroleum, progress of 368 + Poultices 374 + Quinine, effects of on hearing 374 + Railroad, first in U. S. [2] 378 + Rails and railway accidents 368 + Railway notes 373 + Sanitary Science in the U. S. 369 + Screw heads, blue color for [4] 378 + Sheep husbandry, American 375 + Shutter fastener, new* 370 + Silver mill in the clouds 374 + Spider, trap-door* 375 + Sprinkler, garden, improved* 370 + Telescope, sunshade for [3] 378 + Tools, steel, to temper [55] 379 + Tree, tallest in the world 375 + Tree trunks elongation of 376 + Trees, felling by electricity 370 + Tubing, to satin finish [51] 379 + Vise, an improved* 370 + White lead, to test [14] 378 + Wire clothing for cylinders* 377 + Work, the limit of 368 + + * * * * * + + + + +THE BELGIAN SHIP CANAL. + + +The ship canal from Ghent to Terneuzen was originally laid out with +many bends, rendering navigation difficult; it had a depth of 14 feet +4 inches and a width of 98 feet 6 inches at the water level. The works +which are at present in course of execution have especially for their +object the deepening of the canal to 21 feet 3 inches, with a width +of 55 feet 9 inches at the bottom and 103 feet 9 inches on the water +line. The slopes have a uniform inclination of 1 to 3, and the towing +paths on each side are placed 6 feet 6 inches above the water level, +and are 32 feet 8 inches wide. In many instances also the course of +the canal has been altered and straightened for the improvement of +navigation; several important diversions have been made for this +purpose. The excavation has been effected by hand, by dredging, and by +the Couvreux excavator, figured as below in _Engineering_. + +The earth excavated was carried to spoil, and in many cases was +employed to form dikes inclosing large areas, which served as +receptacles for the semi-liquid material excavated by the dredging +machines with the long conductors; the Couvreux excavator used will be +readily understood from the engraving. It had already done service on +the Danube regulation works. The material with which it had to deal, +however, was of a more difficult nature, being a fine sand charged +with water and very adherent. The length of track laid for the +excavator was about 3 miles along the side of the old canal, which had +been previously lowered to the level of the water. + + * * * * * + + + + +PRESERVATION OF IRON AND STEEL FROM OXIDATION. + + +We are indebted to J. Pechar, Railway Director in Teplitz, Bohemia, +for the first official report in English from the Paris International +Exhibition which has come to hand. This volume contains the report +on the coal and iron products in all countries of the world, and is +valuable for its statistical and other information, giving, as it +does, the places where the coal and minerals are found, and the +quantities of each kind produced, for what it is used, and to what +other countries it is exported. The able compiler of these statistics +in the introduction of his report gives the following account of +the means recommended by Professor Barff, of London, for preventing +oxidation, which is being considerably used abroad. The writer says: + +It is well known that the efficient preservation of iron against +rusting is at present only provided for in cases where human life +would be endangered by failure, as in the case of railway bridges +and steamers. Thus, for example, at Mr. Cramer-Klett's ironworks at +Nuremberg every piece of iron used for his bowstring bridges is dipped +in oil heated to eight hundred degrees. The very great care which +is at present taken in this matter may be judged from the current +practice of most bridge and roofing manufacturers. Every piece of +iron before being riveted in its place is cleaned from rust by being +immersed in a solution of hydrochloric acid. The last traces of free +acid having been cleared away, at first by quicklime and afterward by +a copious ablution with hot water, the piece is immediately immersed +in hot linseed oil, which protects every part of the surface from the +action of the atmosphere. Afterward it is riveted and painted. + +Notwithstanding all this, the painting requires continual and +careful renewal. On the Britannia Bridge, near Bangor, the painter is +permanently at work; yet, in spite of all this care and expense, rust +cannot be entirely avoided. The age of iron railway bridges is still +too short to enable us to draw conclusions as to the probabilities of +accidents. Now, Professor Barff has discovered a process by which +iron may be kept from rusting by being entirely coated with its own +sesquioxide. A piece of iron exposed to the action of superheated +steam, in a close chamber and under a certain pressure, becomes +gradually covered by a skin of this black oxide, of a thickness +depending upon the temperature of the steam and the duration of +the experiment. For instance, exposure during five hours to steam +superheated to five hundred degrees will produce a hermetical coating +capable of resisting for a considerable time the application of emery +paper and of preserving the iron from rust even in a humid atmosphere, +if under shelter from the weather. If the temperature is raised to +1,200 degrees, and the time of exposure to six or seven hours, the +skin of sesquioxide will resist every mechanical action, and the +influence of any kind of weather. The sesquioxide being harder than +the iron itself, and adhering to its surface even more firmly than the +atoms of iron do to each other, there is an increased resistance not +only to chemical but also to mechanical action. The surface is not +altered by the process in any other respect, a plain forging retaining +its roughness, a polished piece its smooth surface. If the skin is +broken away oxidation takes place, but only just on the spot from +which the oxide has been removed. If Professor Barff's experiments +are borne out by practice, this invention may become of very great +importance. It is within the bounds of probability that it may enable +iron, by increasing its facility in competing with wood, to recover, +at least for a considerable time, even more than the ground it has +lost by the extraordinary extension of the use of steel. Iron is +already being used for building purposes to a large extent; but +oxidation once thoroughly prevented it will be able to take the place +of wood and stone to a still greater degree. Iron roofing may be +made quite as light as that of wood, and of greater strength, by a +judicious arrangement and use of T iron. + + * * * * * + + + + +WARNING TO LOCOMOTIVE ENGINEERS. + + +Drs. Charles M. Cresson and Robert E. Rogers, of this city, says +the Philadelphia _Ledger_, well known as experts in chemistry and +dynamics, were appointed by the Reading Railroad Company to inquire +into and report upon the causes of the recent explosion of the boiler +of the express locomotive "Gem," at Mahanoy City, by which five lives +were lost. Their report, which is designed to cover the whole scope +of a most careful investigation, is not yet made public, but they have +arrived at the following specific conclusion, which we give in their +own language: "We are, therefore, of the opinion that the explosion of +the boiler of the locomotive 'Gem,' was produced by the projection of +foam upon the heated crown bars of the furnace, caused by suddenly +and widely opening the safety valve, at a time when the water had been +permitted to get so low as to overheat the crown of the furnace." This +is an important matter that should be carefully noted by locomotive +and other engineers. + + * * * * * + + + + +SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN + + +ESTABLISHED 1845 + +MUNN & CO., Editors and Proprietors. + +PUBLISHED WEEKLY AT + +NO. 37 PARK ROW, NEW YORK. + + * * * * * + +O. D. MUNN. A. E. BEACH. + + * * * * * + + +TERMS FOR THE SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN. + + +One copy, one year, postage included $3 20 +One copy, six months, postage included 1 60 + +CLUBS.--One extra copy of THE SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN will be supplied +gratis for every club of five subscribers at $3.20 each; additional +copies at same proportionate rate. Postage prepaid. + +-->Single copies of any desired number of the SUPPLEMENT sent to one +address on receipt of 10 cents. + +Remit by postal order. Address + +MUNN & CO., 37 Park Bow, New York. + + + + +THE SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN SUPPLEMENT + + +is a distinct paper from the SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN. THE SUPPLEMENT is +issued weekly; every number contains 16 octavo pages, with handsome +cover, uniform in size with SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN. Terms of subscription +for SUPPLEMENT, $5.00 a year, postage paid, to subscribers. Single +copies 10 cents. Sold by all news dealers throughout the country. + +Combined Rates.--The SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN and SUPPLEMENT will be sent +for one year, postage free, on receipt of _seven dollars._ Both papers +to one address or different addresses, as desired. + +The safest way to remit is by draft, postal order, or registered +letter. + +Address MUNN & CO., 37 Park Row, N. Y. + + + + +SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN EXPORT EDITION. + + +The SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN Export Edition is a large and splendid +periodical, issued once a month. Each number contains about one +hundred large quarto pages, profusely illustrated, embracing: (1.) +Most of the plates and pages of the four preceding weekly issues of +the SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN, with its splendid engravings and valuable +information; (2.) Commercial, trade, and manufacturing announcements +of leading houses. Terms for Export Edition, $5.00 a year, +sent prepaid to any part of the world. Single copies 50 cents. +-->Manufacturers and others who desire to secure foreign trade may +have large, and handsomely displayed announcements published in this +edition at a very moderate cost. + + +The SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN Export Edition has a large guaranteed +circulation in all commercial places throughout the world. Address +MUNN & CO., 37 Park Row, New York. + + * * * * * + +VOL. XXXIX., No. 24. [NEW SERIES.] Thirty-third Year. NEW YORK, +SATURDAY, DECEMBER 14, 1878. + + * * * * * + + + + +TABLE OF CONTENTS OF + +THE SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN SUPPLEMENT + +No. 154, + +For the Week ending December 14, 1878. + +Price 10 cents. For sale by all newsdealers. + + +I. ENGINEERING AND MECHANICS.--Portable Steam Pumping Engine, 1 + engraving.--New Bone Crushing Mill, 2 engravings.--Picard's Boiler. + Extraction of Salt from Salt Water.--Compressed Air Machines. + Hydraulic vs. air pressure. Causes of the losses of power. + Estimates of useful effects obtainable.--The St. Gothard Tunnel. + By GEO. J. SPECHT, C.E.--Apparatus for Lifting Sunken Vessels, + with 8 figures.--Russia Sheet Iron.--Manufacture of Artificial + Stone.--Compressed Fuel.--The New Magnesi Process for Boiler Feed + Water. + +II. FRENCH INTERNATIONAL EXHIBITION OF 1878.--Wine Presses. + Description of sixteen new and peculiar wine presses at the + Exhibition, with 31 figures and 9 engravings. The Press Primat; + Press Mabille; Press David; Samain Press; Marchand, Maupre, + Boyries, Chapellier, Marmonier, Nogues, Mailhe, Moreau, Piquet, + Delperoux, Terrel des Chenes, and Cassan fils Presses. + + The Algerian Exhibit. The street of Algiers, with 1 + illustration.--Woolen Fabrics. + +III. ELECTRICITY, LIGHT, HEAT, ETC.--Electric Lighting. Estimate + of the comparative heating effect in gas and electric lighting, + and the consequent loss of power.--The Electric Light. Remarks on + its economy.--The Present Bugbear of French Savants. + + New Planets. + + The Dutch Arctic Expedition. The Peak of Beerenburg, Spitzbergen, + with 1 illustration. + +IV. CHEMISTRY AND METALLURGY.--New Process for Separating Iodine + and Bromine from Kelp.--Inoffensive Colors for Toys.--New Coloring + Matters.--Tungsten. + + Ozone and the Atmosphere. By ALBERT R. LEEDS, Ph.D. Table of + percentage of ozone contained in the atmosphere at various + localities in the United States. Register of ozone observations + for one month at Upper Saranac Lake, N. Y., giving thermometric + and barometric observations, and full record of weather. + Examination of methods in ozonometry. Preparation of ozone by + electrolysis of water containing sulphuric acid, with 1 engraving. + Preparation by electricity, with 1 engraving. Does the electric + spark decompose potassium iodide? Collection and preservation of + ozone. Preparation by chemical methods. Critical examination of + ozonoscopes. Potassium iodide; starch; paper classification of + ozonoscopes. Examination of ozonoscopes under certain conditions. + + Limits of the Combustibility of Gases.--The Diffusion of + Salicylate of Soda.--Singular use of Fluorescein.--New Metal. + Philippium By M. MARC DELAFONTAINE.--Better Pharmaceutical + Education. By RICHARD V. MATTISON, Ph. G.--An El Dorado for + Apothecaries. + +V. MEDICINE AND HYGIENE.--The Science of Easy Chairs. The muscular + conditions of fatigue, and how to obtain the greatest rest. How + easy chairs should be made. + + Prof. Huxley on the Hand. Abstract of his inaugural lecture before + the South London Workingmen's College. + + Paint from a Sanitary Point of View. The required abolition of + absorbent surfaces in dwellings. Lead poisoning from paint not + thoroughly dry. Cases described in which white lead paint in + dwellings never dries, but gives off poisonous particles, which + are inhaled by the inmates, causing depression, weakness headache, + and loss of appetite. Zinc recommended in paint to avoid lead + poisoning, and the new oxy-sulphide of Zinc described, with + covering qualities equal to white lead. + + The Purification of Sewage. By HENRY ROBINSON, F.R.S. Paper + read before the Sanitary Institute of Great Britain. Progress + in purifying sewage by precipitation. The use of chemicals for + precipitating, deodorizing, and disinfecting. Practical data on + a large scale, with cost. Average number of gallons per head of + population, etc., of the successful system now in operation at + Coventry and Hertford. How the water is removed from the sludge by + filter presses. Drying and removal of the sludge. Theoretical and + actual values of the sludge for fertilizing. + +VI. AGRICULTURE, HORTICULTURE, ETC.--The Broadside Steam Digger, + with 1 engraving.--Shall I Plow the Lawn?--Bee Culture. + + * * * * * + + + + +PROGRESS OF PETROLEUM. + + +The efforts of the great majority of the Western Pennsylvania +petroleum producers to obtain relief from what they deem the +oppressive acts of the Standard Oil Company and the unjust +discriminations of the United Pipe Lines, and the various railroads +traversing the oil regions, have attracted more than usual attention +to the present condition of this industry and its possible future. + +We would here explain that the Standard Oil Company originated in +Cleveland, Ohio, about twelve years ago, and was incorporated under +the laws of Ohio, with a nominal capital now, we are informed, of +$3,000,000, which, however, very inadequately represents the financial +strength of its members. It is now a combination of the most +prominent refiners in the country, and has before been credited with +manipulating the transportation lines to its own special advantage. + +We can recall no instance of such serious hostility between parties +whose interests are at the same time of such magnitude and so nearly +identical; nor can we see what substantial, enduring benefit would +accrue to the producers in the event of their victory in the struggle. + +They charge that the Standard Oil Company has become the controlling +power to fix prices and to determine the avenues by which the oil +shall be transported eastward for home consumption and for foreign +exportation; that the railway companies have given this company lower +rates than other parties for transporting the oil; and that through +the rates given to it by the railways the value of their property is +destroyed. + +The reply, in effect, is, Granting all this to be true, what does +it amount to? Neither more nor less than that the managers of the +Standard Oil Company, by combination of capital, by intelligence and +shrewdness in the management of their operations, have built up a +successful business, and that they have so extended it by the use of +all practicable appliances, and by the purchase of the property of +competitors, that they do practically control the prices of oil, both +crude and refined, and that the uncombined capital of the other oil +producers, lacking the power, the intelligence, and the business skill +which combined capital can secure, cannot compete with the Standard +Oil Company. Now, is there any great wrong or injustice in this? + +When brains can command capital it is always more successful in +business matters than any amount of brains without capital or capital +without brains. This result is the natural working out of the same +principle that is everywhere to be seen--some men are successful and +others are not. + +It is the essence of communism to drag down those who succeed to the +level of the unsuccessful. + +If men cannot compete with others in any business they must accept the +fact, and try some other employment. + +If, through superior intelligence and capital, the Standard Oil +Company can control the oil business of Pennsylvania, then, according +to the principles of common sense, it must be permitted to do so. + +What right, then, has the oil producer to complain? Why, if all that +is alleged is true, will they persist in sinking more wells, when, +as they say, they are controlled by the Standard Oil Company? No one +forces them to lose money by continuing in the business. Let them find +other employment. They do not show that the Standard Oil Company +does anything that combined capital on their part and equal business +ability could not effect. + +The cry of monopoly in this case is altogether unfounded, those +opposed to the Standard Oil Company having just as much right to do +all that that company does, and, therefore, there can be no monopoly, +because they have no exclusive powers. + +As to the railway companies, they can afford and have a right to +transport the tonnage offered them by the Standard Oil Company at less +cost, because it costs them less to do a regular and large business +than an irregular and smaller one. They would simply be acting in +accordance with business principles the world over. + +These are the arguments, the statement of the position of a successful +combination confident in its resources and of victory in the coming +struggle. The justness, the correctness of the doctrines enunciated, +and the wisdom of so doing at this crisis, we do not propose to +criticise; but it is very safe to say that if the prosperity of the +complainants depends upon relief in this direction they may as well +cease producing. + +There are too many of them for harmonious and concerted action against +the powerful corporations they complain of; and if they should succeed +in securing equal transportation facilities the prices would still be +regulated by the monopolists, who carry more than four-fifths of the +accumulated stock of the oil regions. + +The proposed appeal to Congress to pass some law whereby each producer +can compel railroad companies to carry his produce at regular rates, +amounts to a confession of the desperate straits of the producers +and of their weakness as well; and even if successful, which is most +improbable, would not remedy the deplorable existing state of things. + +Still lower rates would fail to give relief, with all the present +avenues of trade filled to repletion and with an increasing output +at the wells. Relief and permanent relief can be found only in the +direction we have before indicated: in the general application of +petroleum and its products to the manufacture of gas for illuminating +and heating purposes, and its substitution for coal in the metallurgic +and other prominent industries of the world. + + * * * * * + + + + +THE LIMIT OF WORK. + + +In distributing the prizes to workmen at the Paris Exhibition, Louis +Blanc, the leader of the French Republican Socialist party, quoted +approvingly these words of Simonde de Sismondi: + +"If the workman were his own master, when he had done in two hours +with the aid of machinery what would have taken him twelve hours to do +without it, he would stop at the end of the two." + +M. Blanc had been discussing very eloquently, but also very +fallaciously, the relations of machinery to labor. If men were +properly united in the bonds of association, he said, if the +solidarity of interests were realized, "the happy result of the +application of mechanical power to industry would be equal production, +with less of effort, for all. The discovery of an economic method +would never have the lamentable consequence of robbing men of the work +by which they live. Unfortunately, we are far from this ideal. Under +the empire of that universal antagonism which is the very essence of +the economic constitution of modern societies, and which too often +only profits one man by ruining another, machinery has been employed +to make the rule of the strong weigh more heavily on the weak. There +is not a single mechanical invention which has not been a subject of +anguish and a cause of distress to thousands of fathers of families +from the moment it began to work." + +If all this, and much else that M. Blanc alleges, were true, then the +condition of all workingmen to-day should be in every way worse than +that of their fathers, in anti-machinery days. But such is not the +case. There never was a time when the laborer toiled less or enjoyed +more than in these days of machinery; and the laborer's condition is +best where the machinery is best and most used. + +A hundred years ago the laborer toiled long, produced little, and +enjoyed less. To-day, thanks to the victories of invention, machinery +does the heaviest of the work; the workman's hours of labor are fewer +than formerly; his wages are greater; and his earnings will buy vastly +more, dollar for dollar, than in any previous age in the world's +history. + +What laborer of to-day would be satisfied with the remuneration, the +food, the shelter, the clothing of the laboring classes of one hundred +years ago? The wants of men, as well as their thoughts, are widened by +the process of the suns. And in no section of society have the daily +wants been more markedly increased, or the facilities for gratifying +them either, than among those that live by labor. + +"If the workman were his own master, when he had done in two hours +with the aid of machinery what it would have taken him twelve hours to +do without it, he would stop at the end of the two." + +So says the theoretical socialist. The practical workman never has, +nor, we believe, ever will, act so foolishly; certainly not until the +limit of man's capacity to enjoy has been reached. When the united +products of manual and mechanical effort fully satisfy the desires of +all men, and leave no margin of want unfilled, then and then only +will men be satisfied with the reduction of effort demanded by the +socialists. Until then the larger part of every increase in production +by mechanical improvements will go to swell the volume of good things +for human use and enjoyment. Our machinery enables our thousands of +busy workers to accomplish what millions could not have done years +ago, and a very large part of the aggregate increase of product +comes back to them in conveniences and luxuries surpassing those +the wealthiest could enjoy were machinery not employed, or were it +employed, as the socialist advocates, without increasing the aggregate +of production. The laziness of the savage and the advantages of +civilization are incompatible. The chief merit of machinery lies in +its enabling us to multiply constantly the scope and variety of our +enjoyments without a corresponding increase of toil. + + * * * * * + + + + +IRIDESCENT GLASS. + + +Ornamental glassware in many styles, tinted with the glowing colors +of the rainbow, is now making its appearance in the shop windows +of Broadway and Fifth Avenue. This is one of those brilliant little +achievements of science that delights the eye and pleases the +imagination. To produce the colors, the glass, while in a heated +state, is subjected to the vapor of chloride of tin. Shades of more or +less depth or intensity are imparted by adding to the tin chloride a +little nitrate of strontium or barium. + + * * * * * + + + + +RAILS AND RAILWAY ACCIDENTS--NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. + + +A meeting of the Section of Physics, New York Academy of Sciences, +was held November 25, 1878. President J. S. Newberry in the chair. +Numerous publications of learned societies were received and +acknowledged. Professor Newberry read a letter from Professor Agassiz +stating that sea lilies, which had hitherto been very rare--a single +specimen bringing as much as fifty dollars--have been found in some +numbers by dredging in the Gulf of Mexico. Their colors are white, +pink, and yellow. Professor Newberry also exhibited specimens of +garnet from California, lamellar quartz from North Carolina, sharks' +teeth belonging to the eocene and miocene tertiary ages from the +phosphate beds of South Carolina, and a number of shells. + +Professor Thomas Egleston then addressed the Academy on the subject of +"The Structure of Rails as Affecting Railway Accidents." + +The destruction of rails is due to three causes. 1. Defects in the +manufacture; 2. Improper mechanical or chemical composition; and 3. +Physical changes. + +A very large number of rails are annually made which should never be +put in any track. Their defects are often imperceptible to the naked +eye, but they very soon begin to break. Statistics show that the +breakage from defects in making increase until they have been used +18 months; then it decreases to zero, and after that rails break from +different causes. In France, breakage usually begins in December, +reaches its maximum in January, and becomes normal in April. As a more +intense cold would be necessary to explain such breakage than that +which is felt in that climate, the cause must be sought in the +stiffness and inelasticity of the frozen road bed. The impact of +the locomotive is then apt to break the rail, very much on the same +principle that is taken advantage of in breaking them up for the +manufacture of smaller objects. A nick is made somewhere, and the +workman then strikes a blow with a hammer at a point between the nick +and the place where the rail is supported. This will sever the rail at +the nicked place. Sometimes more than a second intervenes between the +blow and the fracture. Now, whenever holes are punched in rails for +the fish plates, flaws are apt to radiate from them; and if these +flaws are not planed or filed out, they may cause the rail to break, +just as the nicks above mentioned. Such rails have been known to last +no longer than 18 months, and some have actually broken on the way +from the manufacturer to their destination. There are establishments +in this country and in Europe where they "doctor" such rails by +filling up the flaws with a mixture of iron filings, sal ammoniac, and +some adhesive substance. Beware of them; a poor cheap rail is dear +at any price. The French government stipulates in its contracts for +rails, that flaws shall be planed, drilled, or filed out; that the +rails shall not be allowed to drop on the ground, but shall be carried +by men and slid down. The Lyons railroad does not pay for its rails +until 15,000 trains have passed over them. + +By imperfect mechanical composition is meant imperfect union of the +parts of rails. Steel heads are welded to the rest of the rail in a +variety of ways, and this welding is necessarily imperfect. A number +of sections of rails etched with acid plainly showed this want of +homogeneity, as did likewise prints taken from the etched surfaces. +Before such rails have lost weight appreciably, they are used up by +the constant rolling they undergo. The advantage of a steel rail is +its homogeneity, but a good iron rail, such as those made under the +direction of the speaker, for the Reading Railroad Company, is likely +to prove better than one of poor steel. The life of a steel rail +is chiefly affected by the temperature at which it is rolled and +annealed. It ought not to wear off more than 1 mm. for 20,000,000 +tons of traffic, and is usually calculated to wear 10 mm. before it is +taken up. In other words, it would last about 20 years on roads doing +as much business as the New York Central. It is, however, unlikely +that our steel rails will stand more than half this amount of traffic. + +The effects of chemical composition are but little understood. Some +of the purest irons have turned out utterly worthless. Apparently the +absolute quantities of carbon, silicon, aluminum, phosphorus, etc., +present are not of so much importance as their relative proportion. +One specimen containing carbon 0.16, silicon 0.08, and phosphorus +0.012, could be bent double when cold, while another, containing +carbon 0.58, silicon 0.56, and phosphorus 0.011 broke at once. + +The physical tests for tensile and torsional strength, usually made on +a portion cut out of the head of the rail, are not sufficient, because +the flaws before spoken of exist mostly in the flange of the rail, and +fracture usually begins there. + +The effect of cold rolling and shocks that a rail is exposed to was +shown by a piece of rail made by the Campbells, Sheffield, Eng., which +had been worn 3 mm. by a traffic of 60,000,000 tons at Spuyten Duyvel. +The head had been somewhat flattened, and the flange driven down into +the foot to a certain extent. Under such usage an iron rail would have +gone to pieces long ago. + +Sometimes steel rails crumble all at once and pieces fall out of +the head. This is probably due to some physical defects or to +crystallization from shocks. The cause has not yet been definitely +ascertained. + +Mr. Collingwood stated that of a rail only a section of 3/8 square +inch was pressed by the wheel of a locomotive, the effect being to +cause this portion to act like a wedge, and thus to contribute to the +disintegration of the rail. He also exhibited a hook which had been +used to hoist stones of 10 to 12 tons, and then suddenly broke with a +weight of only 61/2 tons. It had been worn from a thickness of 2 inches +to 1-7/8. The pressure at the upper surface crowded the particles and +caused them to act as wedges. Their fracture was crystalline, while +that of the lower surface, which parted more slowly, was fibrous. + +Professor Egleston asserted that there was no such thing as fibrous +iron; what appeared so being simply crystalline with the ends +drawn out. A sharp blow would cause this to fall off and show the +crystalline structure beneath. + +The discussion was continued by Professors Trowbridge, Egleston, and +Newberry. + +C. F. K. + + * * * * * + + + + +FORMATION OF IODIFORM.--All mixtures in which alcohol and iodine enter +in combination with any alkali forming colorless solutions go in part +to the formation of iodiform. Even chloroform and iodine, forming a +colorless solution, give rise to the same product.--_L. Myers Connor._ + + * * * * * + + + + +SANITARY SCIENCE IN THE UNITED STATES. + + +The following is an abstract of a paper on the Present and Future of +Sanitary Science in the United States, read by Professor Albert R. +Leeds, of the Stevens Institute of Technology, before the New York +Academy of Sciences at their meeting, November 11th, 1878: + +Sciences, such as the one under consideration, that have in them a +side largely practical, are sure of a welcome in our midst. The study +of the laws of public health grew into prominence in this country +during the war, when the Sanitary Commission undertook to supervise +the camps and hospitals. Sanitary associations were then formed +in many States and smaller communities, and these have led to the +establishment of State and city boards of health, clothed to a greater +or less degree with executive functions. Every epidemic has been the +cause of wider dissemination of sanitary knowledge by the daily press. +The yellow fever plague, by which more than twelve thousand people +have perished, has thoroughly aroused public interest. During its +continuance the papers were full of homilies on private and public +hygiene, the people everywhere sent aid and sympathy to the afflicted, +and a lady offered to defray the expenses of a scientific commission +of sanitary experts to inquire into the cause and prevention of the +scourge. The proper execution of sanitary laws depends on the free +and intelligent co-operation of individuals much more than on the +influence of a strong central authority. A general health department +at Washington could not legislate pure air, pure water, and pure +food into use throughout the nation. The people themselves, in each +community, must be educated to demand these requisites of health and +to secure them in their own way. + +I. _Vital Statistics._--The first "Bill of Mortality" in New York city +extended from November 1st, 1801, to January 1st, 1803. In it people +are said to have died of "flux," "hives," "putrid fever," "breaking +out," "stoppage," "fits," of "rash," and, by way of contrast, +of "lingering illness." This rude beginning gradually led to the +organization of the Metropolitan Board of Health, whose first report +was made in 1866. Their second report showed a decrease of 3,152 +deaths, mainly in districts where the greatest amount of sanitary work +had been done. Valuable illustrations of the relation between damp +houses and consumption were obtained by constructing maps of certain +wards, on which every death from phthisis for several years was noted +opposite each house. It was found that the disease was most fatal in +the lowest levels, in rainy seasons, and in crowded localities. + +The registration of marriages continued so defective that a writer on +the subject declares it would be impossible for a large portion of +the adult native population of the United States to prove by any legal +document that they have a right to the name they bear, or that their +parents were ever married. The mortality returns of 1871 were probably +nearly perfect, and their very accuracy told against New York city, +whose death rate was 28.6 per thousand, while St. Louis reported 17, +Rochester 16, Buffalo 14, and Jersey City 7 per thousand. To secure +accuracy in the returns of marriages and births, etc., more stringent +legislation will be necessary. + +In New Jersey the State Sanitary Association has conclusively +shown the utter worthlessness of the State vital statistics. They +memorialized the legislature, and caused the passage of a law which +gives to New Jersey one of the best systems of registration yet +devised. It owes its excellence to the following features, which +should be universally copied: + +1. _Burial Permits_ are issued only after registry has been made by a +properly qualified person; and + +2. The returns are made to an _expert_, who collates them and deduces +practical lessons from them. + +II. _Registration of Disease_.--A large class of diseases may be +prevented from becoming epidemic if their existence is known in time. +For this purpose the boards of health should be invested with power +and provided with means to investigate, reform, and, if necessary, +to punish delinquency. Yet in the face of so practical a requirement +little more is annually appropriated for the Board of Health of New +Jersey than for the pay of two policemen. + +III. _State Sanitary Legislation_.--The agitation for sanitary reform +caused by the yellow fever should not be allowed to die out with the +pressure of the calamity that aroused it. It should continue until +every State that has been the seat of yellow fever, year after year, +has as efficient a health code as Massachusetts and Michigan. The +necessity of educating the people before it is possible to secure +the requisite legislation will cause a considerable period of time +to elapse before all the States have laws in accordance with modern +knowledge. Probably no community takes the trouble to protect itself +until it has actually suffered. To the distress of London the world +owes the report of the Royal Commissions on water supply and the +pollution of rivers, still the best repertory of the best knowledge on +the subject. The manufactories of England have made it necessary for +the government to take cognizance of aerial impurities. Similarly in +this country the pollution of the Passaic has caused inquiries to be +set on foot in the same direction. [1] + +[Footnote 1: See Report to Board of Public Works of Jersey City, +by Professors Wurtz and Leeds; also, Analyt. Beitraege aus dem +Laboratorium des Stevens Institute of Technology, by Professor Leeds, +in _Zeitschr. fur Anal. Chem. _1878.] + +An attempt was made to deprive the inhabitants of New York of their +public parks, and to occupy them with buildings devoted to military +and other purposes; but the people had already been sufficiently +educated up to an appreciation of their sanitary value not to permit +it. Dr. Seguin eloquently advocated the improvement of the parks, +to make them not only pleasure grounds, but places of aesthetical and +practical out-door education of the public school children. + +IV. _Ventilation_.--It would be a great step in the interests of +sanitary science if builders, vestrymen, and school or hospital +trustees could be persuaded that their offices did not make them +temporary authorities on ventilation, and that they had best intrust +this matter to specialists who have fought their way into successful +practice. + +It appears that both the system of ventilation by aspiration and +that by propulsion have had great successes and great failures. Many +authorities have declared in favor of mechanical ventilation, yet in +most institutions where fans had been introduced they are now standing +still. In Roosevelt Hospital, New York, they ran their fan backwards +for months and then stopped it. + +V. _Physical Education_.--Instruction in hygiene and physical +exercise as a part of the college curriculum was first successfully +accomplished at Amherst College, and has now had a trial of nearly +twenty years. The importance attached to it is shown by the fact that +only distinguished members of the medical profession are appointed +as professors, and that they have the same rank as the rest of the +faculty. Their first duty is to know the physical condition of every +student and to see that the laws of health are not violated. In case +of sickness, the students are given certificates to excuse them from +attendance and are put in the way of obtaining suitable treatment. The +records kept are of great interest. All the classes are required to +attend the gymnastic exercises four times a week. For a full account +see Professor Hitchcock's report on Hygiene at Amherst College to +the American Public Health Association. The excellent results of this +feature--it can no longer be regarded as an experiment--recommend its +introduction in all our colleges and public schools. + +VI. _Health Resorts_.--The number of people who leave the cities in +the summer to visit the seashore, the mountains, and the country is +annually increasing. A healthful village is often changed to a center +of pestilence merely by such an influx of strangers, the ordinary +means of removing offal, etc., being no longer adequate. The town of +Bethlehem, N. H., became so popular by reason of its pure air that +several thousand hay fever patients sought relief there in 1877. +The consequence was insufficient drainage; but as the inhabitants +understood their interests, this defect was at once remedied. + +The sea shore of New Jersey from Sandy Hook to Cape May is becoming +an almost continuous city, and harbors a multitude of visitors every +summer. Those whose interest it is to retain this patronage +cannot have it too strongly impressed upon them to preserve their +healthfulness by introducing cemented cisterns, by causing garbage to +be removed daily, and by encouraging local boards of health. + +VII. _Illuminating Gas_ not only withdraws from the air of our rooms a +considerable amount of oxygen, but fills them with noxious products of +combustion. All this may be avoided in the future by the introduction +of the electric light. + +VIII. _Sanitary Surveys_.--Dr. Bowditch has shown that a thousand +deaths from consumption in Massachusetts are due to a wet and +retentive soil, and this fact alone will show the importance of +sanitary surveys of the country, such as that made of Staten Island +by Professors Newberry and Trowbridge, who determined the influence +of the surface soil, of the underlying rock, its porosity, its bedding +and its joints, upon the drainage and upon the local climate and +health. A similar survey of Hudson county, New Jersey, has been +recently made by L. B. Heard, C.E. + +IX. _Composition of the Atmosphere_.--The English government has +been obliged to appoint the celebrated Dr. Angus Smith to examine +the effects of atmospheric contamination. In Philadelphia there is +scarcely a house front that is not disfigured by the stain of magnesia +and lime salts, caused by acid vapors in the atmosphere. + +A discussion followed, which was introduced by Mr. Collingwood, who +remarked that the problem of the sewage of cities was still far from +being solved. Though the recent experiments in England on utilizing +sewage for agricultural purposes by filtration and otherwise were +reported to be successful, we had only dodged the question in this +country. Our sewage is still emptied into rivers to poison the water +of cities further down their course. When the country becomes more +thickly settled, this will answer no longer. + +It was also stated that while gas in large chandeliers could be made +an effective means of ventilation, there was another objection to its +use in the fact that the soil of the city was everywhere impregnated +with it from leaky mains, thus causing poisonous exhalations and an +insufferable odor whenever the ground was opened. Attention was also +called to the evil effects of the system of tenement houses, which led +to an unfavorable comparison of the health and morality of New York +with those of cities like Philadelphia and Cleveland, that abound in +small homes. + +Dr. Minor attributed disease to what Richardson calls +"ultra-microscopic molecular aggregates," which always exist in +the air, but take hold of us only when our vitality is reduced to a +certain point. It has been shown that decay is absolutely impossible +in vessels from which they are excluded. But for them the earth would +now be heaped with the undecomposed remains of animals and vegetables. +According to this view, the future efforts of sanitary science must be +simply in the direction of learning how to protect ourselves against +the "ultra-microscopic molecular aggregates." + +C. F. K. + + * * * * * + + + + +FELLING TREES BY ELECTRICITY. + + +Some years ago a Doctor Robinson of this city obtained a patent +through the agency of the SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN for Felling Trees by +Electricity. Subsequently a description of the invention was published +in this paper, soon after which the newspapers in this country +and Europe teemed with the account of a gentleman in India having +contrived an apparatus for felling trees in the same manner. Since +these several years have elapsed we have heard nothing of the +gentleman from India till a few days ago our papers have taken up the +subject anew, and annexed is the account they give of the inventor's +progress in developing his discovery. + +The electric fluid in the form of lightning oftentimes proves itself +a very efficient wood cutter, and it has occurred to some ingenious +gentleman in India that artificial electricity may be so applied and +controlled as to cut down trees a good deal faster than the clumsy +ax or that American notion the chain saw. The two ends of the copper +wires of a galvanic battery are connected with platinum wire, which of +course instantly becomes red hot, and while in that state it is gently +seesawed across the trunk of the trees to be felled. When arrangements +were made for the experiment, it turned out that the thickness of +the thickest platinum wire that could be got was only that of crochet +cotton. It was at once seen that such a wire would be consumed before +the tree was half severed from its trunk. However, the attempt was +made. The burning wire performed its task very well as long as it +lasted, but, as anticipated, the wire continually broke, and at +length there was no wire left. There can be little doubt that, with +a stronger battery and a thicker wire, the experiment would have been +entirely successful. As it was, the tree was sawn one fifth through. + + * * * * * + + + + +AN IMPROVED VISE. + + +The novel vise shown in the engraving was recently patented by Mr. +William Starkey, of Pittsburg, Pa. + +[Illustration: STARKEY'S VISE.] + +The fixed jaw is supported by two standards from the base piece, and +has a square boxing or tube for receiving the slide of the movable +jaw. This slide is hollow, and contains a rack which is engaged by a +pinion on the short vertical shaft, which is supported by the fixed +jaw. At the lower end of the vertical shaft there is a worm wheel, +that is engaged by a worm on the horizontal shaft on which is placed +the hand wheel. By turning the hand wheel the vertical shaft is +rotated and the movable jaw is drawn against the object to be clamped +by the vise. + + * * * * * + + + + +CULINARY USES FOR LEAVES. + + +A writer in the London _Iron Trade Exchange_, calling attention to a +neglected source of culinary flavors, says: + +"With the exception of sweet and bitter herbs, grown chiefly for the +purpose, and parsley, which is neither bitter nor sweet, but the most +popular of all flavoring plants, comparatively few other leaves are +used. Perhaps I ought also to except the sweet bay, which is popular +in rice and other puddings, and certainly imparts one of the most +pleasant and exquisite flavors; but, on the other hand, what a waste +there is of the flavoring properties of peach, almond, and laurel +leaves, so richly charged with the essence of bitter almonds, so +much used in most kitchens! Of course such leaves must be used with +caution, but so must the spirit as well. An infusion of these could +readily be made, either green or dry, and a tea or table spoonful of +the flavoring liquid used. One of the most useful and harmless of all +leaves for flavoring is that of the common syringa. When cucumbers are +scarce, these are a perfect substitute in salads or anything in which +that flavor is desired. The taste is not only like that of cucumbers, +but identical--a curious instance of the correlation of flavors in +widely different families. Again, the young leaves of cucumbers have a +striking likeness in the way of flavor to that of the fruit. The +same may be affirmed of carrot tops, while in most gardens there is +a prodigious waste of celery flavor in the sacrifice of the external +leaves and their partially blanched footstalks. Scores of celery are +cut up into soup, when the outsides would flavor it equally well or +better. The young leaves of gooseberries added to bottled fruit give +a fresher flavor and a greener color to pies and tarts. The leaves of +the flowering currant give a sort of intermediate flavor between black +currants and red. Orange, citron, and lemon leaves impart a flavoring +equal to that of the fruit and rind combined, and somewhat different +from both. A few leaves added to pies, or boiled in the milk used to +bake with rice, or formed into crusts or paste impart an admirable and +almost inimitable bouquet. In short, leaves are not half so much used +for seasoning purposes as they might be." + + * * * * * + + + + +NEW SHUTTER FASTENER. + + +We give herewith an engraving of a new shutter fastener, recently +patented by Mr. P. F. Fernandez, of San Juan, Porto Rico, West Indies. +This fastener is designed for holding doors or window shutters in +position when open, to prevent them from closing or swinging in the +wind. + +[Illustration: IMPROVED SHUTTER FASTENER.] + +To the wall is secured a plate to which is pivoted the spring-acted +hook, A, and upon the shutter in the proper position for engaging the +hook, A, there is a rigid hook, B. A coil spring is attached to the +plate that supports the hook, A, and when the shutter is open is +engaged by a boss formed on the end of the hook, B. By this means the +hook, B, is pressed forward into close contact with hook, A, thereby +preventing all jarring and rattling. + +The hook, A, is provided with an eye for receiving the cord, C, which +extends to the window casing and is within easy reach, so that when +it is desired to close the shutter the hook, A, may be readily +disengaged from the hook, B, by simply pulling the cord. + +Further information may be obtained by addressing the inventor as +above. + + * * * * * + + + + +AN IMPROVED GARDEN SPRINKLER. + + +A novel garden sprinkler, which may be carried on the back, is shown +in the accompanying engraving. The cylindrical vessel has a removable +cover, and contains a perforated plunger which is operated by a hand +lever from without. The cylindrical vessel is provided with shoulder +straps, and it has two sprinkling nozzles connected with it by +flexible tubes. + +[Illustration: HODEL & STAUBER'S GARDEN SPRINKLER.] + +This sprinkler is especially designed for applying insect-destroying +poison to plants. The operator, as he goes through the field or +garden, takes one nozzle in each hand and distributes the liquid upon +the plants. From time to time the liquid will be agitated by moving +the perforated plunger. + +This invention was recently patented by Adolf Hodel, of Jefferson, and +F. A. Stauber, of Chicago, Ill. + + * * * * * + + + + +A NEW FOOT POWER. + + +In our issue of November 9 we illustrated and described a sewing +machine having W. F. Lane's improved foot power applied. We give +herewith views of the foot power in detail, Fig. 1 being a side +elevation, and Figs. 2 and 3 sectional views. The device is designed +for application to any light machinery that can be propelled by +foot power. A is the shaft to which motion is to be imparted by the +treadles, B, the latter being pivoted to oscillate on the shaft, +H. Two ratchet wheels, C, are secured to the shaft, A, and are each +worked by pawls, D, which are pivoted to a carrier, E, which turns +loosely on the shaft. The pawls are in the form of an elbow lever, and +the movement of their tooth ends is limited by lugs or shoulders on +the carrier, E. The outer ends of the pawls are received between lugs +that project from the plate, F, which turns loosely on the shaft, +A, and has attached to it the rope pulley, G. When the plate, F, is +turned in one direction the pawls are raised and ride loosely over +the teeth, but when the plate turns in the other direction the pawls +engage the ratchet teeth and carry them and also the shaft, A. A +guide pulley, I, is pivoted below the shaft, A, with its axis at right +angles to the shaft. + +The motion from the alternately-oscillated treadles, B, is transmitted +to the pulleys, G, by means of a rope (shown in dotted lines), both +ends of which are fastened by hooks to some fixed point. This rope +runs from one of the hooks down under a pulley pivoted in the toe +of one of the treadles, thence around one of the pulleys, G, thence +around the pulley, I, over the other pulley, G, and downward around +the pulley in the other treadle, and upward to the second fixed hook. +The depression of one of the treadles causes the shaft to rotate, and +also lifts the other treadle into position to be operated. + +[Illustration: LANE'S FOOT POWER.] + +For further information address Wm. F. Lane, Elgin, Ill. + + * * * * * + + + + +NEW INVENTIONS. + + +Mr. Samuel Heaton, of Cedar Rapids, Iowa, has patented an improved +Iron Fence Post, which is particularly adapted for wire fences. It +is formed of a slotted iron bar, constituting the post proper, and a +triangular brace, which is so connected with said bar that it may be +easily adjusted at different angles, corresponding to the undulation +or unevenness of the ground surface where the post is used. + +Mr. Thomas S. Alexander, of Meriden, Conn., has patented an improved +Drawer Pull, which is neat, strong, and durable, and is less expensive +than when made in the usual way. + +An improved Earth Scraper has been patented by Mr. Benjamin Slusser, +of Sidney, Ohio. This is an improvement in that class of earth +scrapers which are arranged to revolve for the purpose of dumping the +load, and during the intervals, or while being filled, are locked in +rigid position. + +An improvement in Wagon Bodies has been patented by Mr. James H. +Paschal, of Camden, Ark. This invention consists, essentially, in a +frame provided with spurs projecting therefrom for engagement with the +bales to prevent them from slipping, and the combination therewith of +removable extension side and end pieces, for enabling the wagon to be +used for other purposes when not employed for hauling cotton bales; +there is an extension of the frame forming a feed trough for the +horses employed to draw the vehicle. + +An improved Scraper has been patented by Mr. George Eiteman, of Round +Grove, Ill. This is a double-ended scraper hung at its center on a rod +connected to the handle arms, whereby either end of the scraper may be +used. It has catches to prevent the scraper from revolving backward, +and spring actuated dogs on the handle frame to retain the scraper in +position and prevent it from turning over until released. + + * * * * * + + + + +AMATEUR MECHANICS. + + +For amusement, exercise, and profit we commend, to those who are +mechanically inclined, the practice of working with tools of the +smaller sort, either in wood or other of the softer materials, or in +metals, glass, or stone. This practice renders the hands dexterous, +the muscles strong, and the head clear, with the further advantage of +producing something for either ornament or use. Of course a bench with +a vise and a few wood working and iron working tools will be required; +but the most expensive as well as the most essential tool is a lathe. +With this tool, not only turning in wood, metal, ivory, rubber, etc., +can be accomplished, but it may also be used for screw-thread cutting, +gear cutting, drilling metals, boring wood, spinning metals, milling, +sawing metal and wood, grinding, polishing, moulding, shaping, and +other purposes. A first class plain lathe of small size cannot be +purchased for less than $50 or $60, and one of inferior quality will +cost $20 to $30. + +While the purchase of a lathe is recommended there may be many who +would prefer to make one. A lathe that will do admirably and which +may be easily made is shown in the accompanying engravings, Fig. +1 representing in perspective the lathe complete; Fig. 2 is a +perspective view of the lathe without the table; Fig. 3 is a vertical +longitudinal section of the lathe, showing the manner of securing the +head and tail stocks to the bars which form the bed or shears. + +In making this lathe one pattern only will be required for the two +standards of the head stock, and the support of the ends of the bars. +The lower part of the tail stock is made in two parts, so that they +may be clamped tightly together on the shears by means of the bolt +that passes through both parts, and is provided with a nut having +a lever handle. The rest support is also made in two parts, clamped +together on the ways in a similar way. + +The patterns may be easily sawed from 11/4 inch pine. The holes that +receive the round bars should be chambered to receive Babbitt metal, +used in making the fit around the bars forming the shears, around the +head and tail spindles, and around the shank of the tool rest. The +smallest diameter of the holes that receive the round bars should be a +little less than that of the bars, so that the several pieces that +are placed on the bars may be fitted to hold them in place while the +Babbitt metal is poured in. + +The dimensions of the lathe are as follows: + +Length of round bars forming shears, 24 inches; diameter of bars, 1 +inch; distance from the upper side of upper bar to center of spindle, +3 inches; between bars, 3/4 inch; between standards that support the +live spindle, 31/2 inches; size of standard above shears, 3/4 x 11/4 +inch; diameter of head and tail spindles, 3/4 inch; diameter of +pulleys, 5 inches, 31/2 inches, and 2 inches; width of base of +standards, 5 inches; height of standards, 7 inches. + +The live spindle should be enlarged at the face plate end, and tapered +at both ends, as indicated in the engraving. + +The pulleys, which are of hard wood, are made of three pieces glued +together, bored, and driven on the spindle, secured by a pin passing +through both it and the spindle, and turned off. The bars forming the +shears may be either cold rolled iron or round machinery steel; they +will require no labor except perhaps squaring up at the ends. The +castings having been fitted to the bars, and provided with set screws +for clamping them, the two standards that support the live spindle and +the support for the opposite end of the bars are put in position, when +the bars are made truly parallel, and a little clay or putty is placed +around each bar and over the annular cavity that surrounds it, and is +formed into a spout or lip at the upper side to facilitate the pouring +of Babbitt metal. The metal must be quite hot when poured, so that +it will run sharp and fill the cavity. To guard against a possible +difficulty in removing the castings from the bars it might be well to +cover the side of the bar next the screw with a thin piece of paper. +The pieces of the tail stock and tool rest support are fitted to the +bars by means of Babbitt metal, the metal being poured first in one +half and then in the other. The bolts which clamp the two parts of the +rest support and tail stock together are provided with lever handles. +After fitting the parts to the two bars by means of Babbitt metal, the +tail spindle, which is threaded for half its length, is placed in the +tail stock parallel with the bars and Babbitted. A binding screw is +provided for clamping the tail spindle, and the spindle is drilled at +one end to receive the center, and has at the other end a crank for +operating it. A steel or bronze button is placed in the hole in the +standard that supports the smaller end of the live spindle, and the +spindle is supported in its working position and Babbitted. + +The thread on the spindle should be rather coarse, so that wooden or +type metal face plates and chucks may be used. + +The table shown in Fig. 1 is simple and inexpensive. It consists of +two pairs of crossed legs halved together and secured to a plank top. +A small rod passes through the rear legs near their lower ends, and +also through a piece of gas pipe placed between the legs. A diagonal +brace is secured to the top near one end, and is fastened to the lower +end of the rear leg at the other end of the table. + +A block is secured to each pair of legs for supporting a pair of +ordinary grindstone rollers, which form a bearing for the balance +wheel shaft. This shaft has formed in it two cranks, and it carries +an ordinary balance wheel, to the side of which is secured by means +of hook bolts a grooved wooden rim for receiving the driving belt. The +cranks are connected, by means of hooks of ordinary round iron, with a +treadle that is pivoted on the gas pipe at the rear of the table. The +shaft will work tolerably well, even if it is not turned. The cranks +must have half round grooves filed in them to receive the treadle +hooks. The size of the different diameters of the drive wheel may be +found by turning the larger one first and the smaller ones afterward, +using the belt to determine when the proper size is reached. The +wooden rim may be turned off in position by using a pointed tool. + +[Illustration: Fig. 1] + +[Illustration: Fig. 2] + +[Illustration: Fig. 3] + +[LATHES FOR AMATEUR MECHANICS.] + + +The lathe above described, although very easily made and inexpensive, +will be found to serve an excellent purpose for hand work, and if the +holes, instead of being Babbitted, are bored, and if the bars forming +the shears are turned, the lathe may be converted into a kind of +engine lathe by placing a feeding screw between the bars, and putting +a small tool post in the rest support. + +M. + + * * * * * + + + + +MACHINE SHOP ECONOMY. + + +In times like the present, when even with good management our best +machine shops are enabled to exhibit but small margins of profit, and +shops with indifferent management exhibit margins on the wrong side, +it is a question of paramount importance what kind of economy should +be pursued in order to maintain a successful business. The directors +of long established machinery enterprises differ widely upon some +methods of conducting business, and while one gains success by +pursuing a certain plan, another, with perhaps as much ability, cannot +pursue the same with satisfactory results. + +While in the main there are many different plans upon which successful +machinery establishments are conducted, there are some underlying +principles that must be observed to avoid meeting with difficulties. +The rate of wages paid is certainly a large element of shop economy, +but there are so many other elements that should be considered before +wages are reached, that we often find proprietors, who pay their +workmen at a comparatively high rate, doing a more prosperous business +than their competitors who have reduced wages to the lowest possible +scale. Many machine shop owners, not having mastered the various +economies of management, as soon as profits begin to shorten, pounce +directly upon the wages paid to their workmen, and pare them down so +as to make up for the deficiency elsewhere. They don't seem to realize +that there are important elements of economical management other than +closely watching the wages of labor and the cost of material. It is +sometimes necessary to reduce the rate of wages, but what a different +effect it has upon the men in different shops! In one shop you +scarcely hear a murmur--no angry meetings--no threats of a strike--no +growling at the head of the establishment. The intelligent workmen +understand the reasons for the reduction without a wordy explanation, +and accept it, feeling confident that it has not been unjustly made. +In another shop it causes ill feeling, angry protests, and perhaps +a disastrous strike. The owner often charges his trouble to the +character of his workmen. Let him review his course, and see if the +great cause is not in his own management. Mechanics are keen and +observing. If the business is poorly managed they are not slow to +mark it, and when a cut is made in wages can generally cipher out the +cause. It is good economy to keep a systematic record of the cost +of everything. This record will be found very valuable in making +estimates, much more so than guess work. It is not good economy +to keep using worn-out tools when any work of consequence is to be +performed. The extra cost of labor and spoiled pieces would soon pay +for new tools. It is not good economy to keep discharging capable +workmen for petty causes, and employing new hands to take their +places. It is poor economy to use slow-cutting grindstones to +accomplish work that fast cutting emery wheels are suited for. It is +questionable economy to employ lathes, planers, and drills to perform +work of any extent that a milling machine will do better in less time +and at much less expense. + +It is decidedly bad economy to employ engines and boilers that waste +fuel and are troublesome to keep in good running condition. It is +mistaken economy to buy inferior tools, machines, and shop supplies, +because they are low priced. + +It is very defective economy to fit the parts of machines together by +trial instead of making them by aid of correct drawings and standard +tools for accurate measurement. It is faulty economy to practice +borrowing and lending working tools. + +The idea that economy consists in withholding every expense not +absolutely demanded is erroneous. An extra outlay in one or another +direction often assures the saving as well as the making of money. +Wise economy looks to the future as well as the present, and requires +that all work sent out from a shop should be of the best and most +reliable character.--_American Machinist._ + + * * * * * + + + + +THE REWARD OF INVENTION. + + +_Capital and Labor_ publishes the substance of a letter from Mr. Henry +Bessemer with reference to the refusal of the English Government, or +of its ambassador in Paris, to allow the Grand Cross of the Legion of +Honor to be accepted by its countrymen, and in his letter Mr. Bessemer +furnishes some autobiographic particulars which cannot fail to be of +interest. He tells us that at the age of eighteen he came to London +from a small country village, knowing no one, and himself unknown; but +his studious habits and his love of invention soon gained for him +a footing, and in two years he was pursuing a method of his own +invention for taking copies from antique and modern bassi-rilievi in +a manner that enabled him to stamp them on a cardboard, thus producing +thousands of embossed copies of the highest works of art, at a small +cost. The facility for making a permanent die, even from a thin paper +original, capable of producing a thousand copies, would have opened +a wide door to successful fraud if the process had been known to +unscrupulous persons; for by its means, Mr. Bessemer states, there is +not a government stamp, or the paper seal of a corporate body, that +every common office clerk could not forge in a few minutes at the +office of his employer or at his own home. The production of a +die from a common paper stamp is the work of only ten minutes; the +materials cost less than one penny. No sort of technical skill is +necessary, and a common copying press or letter stamp yields most +successful copies. There is no need for the would-be forger to +associate himself with a skillful die sinker, capable of making a good +imitation in steel of the original, for the merest tyro could make +an absolute copy on the first attempt. The public knowledge of such a +means of forging would, at that time, have shattered the whole system +of the British Stamp Office, had a knowledge of the method been +allowed to escape. The secret has, however, been carefully guarded to +this day. + +During the time that Mr. Bessemer was engaged in studying this +question he was informed that the government were themselves cognizant +of the fact that they were losers to a great amount annually by +the transfer of stamps from old and useless deeds to new skins of +parchment, thus making the stamps do duty a second or third time, to +the serious loss of the revenue. One official in high position said +that he believed they were defrauded in this way to the extent of +probably L100,000 per annum. To fully appreciate the importance of +this fact, and realize the facility afforded for this species of fraud +by the system then in use, it must be understood that the ordinary +impressed or embossed stamp, such as is employed on all bills of +exchange, if impressed directly on a skin of parchment, would be +entirely obliterated by exposing the deed for a few months to a damp +atmosphere. The deed would thus appear as if unstamped, and therefore +invalid. To prevent this it has been the practice as far back as +the reign of Queen Anne to gum a small piece of blue paper on to the +parchment; and for still greater security a strip of metal foil is +passed through it, and another small piece of paper with the printed +initials of the Sovereign is gummed over the loose ends of the foil at +the back. The stamp is then impressed on the blue paper, which, unlike +parchment, is incapable of losing the impression by exposure to a damp +atmosphere. But, practically, it has been found that a little piece of +moistened blotting paper applied for a whole night so softens the gum +that the two pieces of paper and the slip of foil can be removed from +the old deed most easily, and be applied to a new skin of parchment, +and thus be made to do duty a second or third time. Thus the expensive +stamps on thousands of old deeds of partnership, leases, and other old +documents, when no longer of value, offer a rich harvest to those who +are dishonest enough to use them. A knowledge of these facts led Mr. +Bessemer to fully appreciate the importance of any system of stamps +that would effectually prevent so great a loss; nor did he for one +moment doubt but that government would amply reward success. After +some months of study and experiment, which he cheerfully undertook +(although it interfered considerably with the pursuit of regular +business, inasmuch as it was necessary to carry on the experiments +with the strictest secrecy, and to do all the work himself during the +night after his people had left work), he succeeded in making a stamp +that satisfied all the necessary conditions. It was impossible to +remove it from one deed and transfer it to another. No amount of +damp, or even saturation with water, could obliterate it, and it +was impossible to take any impression from it capable of producing a +duplicate. + +Mr. Bessemer says that he knew nothing of patents or patent law in +those days; and adds that if he had for a moment thought it necessary +to make any preliminary conditions with government he would have at +once scouted the idea as utterly unworthy, thinking his interests +absolutely secure. In this full confidence he sought an interview with +the then chief of the Stamp Office, Sir Charles Presley, and showed +him by numerous proofs how easily all his stamps could be forged, and +also the mode of prevention. He was greatly astonished, and at a later +interview he suggested that the principle of the invention should be +worked out fully. This Mr. Bessemer was only too anxious to do; and +some five or six weeks later called again with a newly designed stamp, +which greatly pleased him. The design was circular, about 21/2 inches +in diameter, and consisted of the Garter with the motto in capital +letters surmounted by a crown. Within the Garter was a shield with the +words "five pounds." The space between the shield and the Garter was +filled with network in imitation of lace. The die had been executed in +steel, which pierced the parchment with more than 400 holes, each one +of the necessary form to produce its special portion of the design. +Since that period perforated paper of this kind has been largely +employed for valentines and other ornamental purposes, but was +previously unknown. It was at once obvious that the transfer of such +a stamp was impossible. It was equally clear that dampness could not +obliterate it; nor was it possible to take any impression from it +capable of perforating another skin of parchment. + +This design gave great satisfaction, and everything went on smoothly; +Sir Charles consulted Lord Althorp, and the Stamp Office authorities +determined to adopt it. Mr. Bessemer was then asked if, instead of +receiving a sum of money from the Treasury, he would be satisfied with +the position of Superintendent of Stamps, at some L600 or L800 per +annum. This was all that he then desired, rejoicing over the prospect, +for he was at that time engaged to be married, and his future position +in life seemed assured. An incident now occurred that reads almost +like romance. A few days after affairs had assumed this satisfactory +position, he called on the young lady to whom he was then engaged +(now Mrs. Bessemer), and showed her the pretty piece of network which +constituted the new parchment stamp, explaining how it could never +be removed from the parchment and used again, and mentioning the fact +that old deeds with stamps on them dated as far back as the reign +of Queen Anne could be fraudulently used. She at once said, "Yes, I +understand this; but surely, if all stamps had a date put upon them, +they could not at a future time be used again without detection?" This +was indeed a new light, and greatly startled the inventor, who at once +said that steel dies used for this purpose could have but one date +engraved upon them. But after a little consideration he saw that +movable dates were by no means impossible, and that this could easily +be effected by drilling three holes of about a quarter of an inch in +diameter in the steel die, and fitting into each of these openings a +steel plug or type with sunk figures engraved on their ends, giving on +one the date of the month, on the next the month of the year, and on +the third circular steel type the last two figures of the year. This +plan would be most simple and efficient, would take less time and +money to inaugurate than the more elaborate plan that had been +devised; but while pleased and proud at the clever and simple +suggestion of the young lady, her future husband saw also that all his +more elaborate system of piercing dies, the result of months of study, +and the toil of many a weary and lonely night, was shattered to pieces +by it. He feared to disturb the decision that Sir Charles Presley +had come to, as to the adoption of the perforated stamp, but, with +a strong conviction of the advantages of the new plan, felt in honor +bound not to suppress it, whatever might be the result. Thus it was +that he soon found himself again closeted with Sir Charles at Somerset +House, discussing the new scheme, which he much preferred, because, +as he said, all the old dies, old presses, and old workmen could +be employed, and there would be but little change in the office--so +little, in fact, that no new superintendent of stamps was required, +which the then unknown art of making and using piercing dies would +have rendered absolutely necessary. After due consideration the first +plan was definitely abandoned by the office in favor of the dated +stamps, with which every one is now familiar. In six or eight weeks +from this time an Act of Parliament was passed calling in the private +stock of stamps dispersed throughout the country, and authorizing the +issue of the new dated ones. + +Thus was inaugurated a system that has been in operation some +forty-five years, successfully preventing that source of fraud from +which the revenue had so severely suffered. If anything like Sir +Charles Presley's estimate of L100,000 per annum was correct, this +saving must now amount to some millions sterling; but whatever the +varying amount might have been, it is certain that so important and +long established a system as that in use at the Stamp Office would +never have been voluntarily broken up by its own officials, except +under the strongest conviction that the losses were very great, and +that the new order of things would prove an effectual barrier to +future fraud. During all the bustle of this great change no steps had +been taken to install the inventor in the office. Lord Althorp had +resigned, and no one seemed to have authority to do anything. All +sorts of half promises and excuses followed each other, with long +delays between, and Mr. Bessemer gradually saw the whole thing sliding +out of his grasp. Instead of holding fast to the first plan, which +they could not have executed without his aid and special knowledge, +he had, in all the trustfulness of youthful inexperience, shown them +another plan, so simple that they could put it in operation without +any assistance. He had no patent to fall back upon, and could not go +to law, even if he wished to do so, for he was reminded, when +pressing for mere money out of pocket, that he had done all the work +voluntarily. Wearied and disgusted, he at last ceased to waste time +in calling at the Stamp Office, and he felt that nothing but increased +exertions could make up for the loss of some nine months of toil and +expenditure. Thus, sad and dispirited, and with a burning sense of +injustice overpowering all other feelings, he went from the Stamp +Office, too proud to ask as a favor that which was indubitably his +just right, and he adds, "Up to this hour I have never received one +shilling or any kind of acknowledgment whatever from the British +Government." It is notorious, adds the editor, that some of the most +renowned and invaluable inventions of recent years, especially those +connected with the navy, have narrowly escaped rejection by permanent +but ignorant officials; and that the authors of the inventions have +had to submit to delay, loss, annoyance, and contumely before their +processes could be tried, even after their success had been officially +demonstrated. Perhaps it is not now so much a question of money, +for it is to be hoped that Mr. Bessemer is reaping the due reward +of ingenuity and skill in other fields of invention. But even his +discoveries in steel making, if they have very properly enriched +himself, have, in an infinitely larger degree, added to the wealth of +the country, and have given employment to many thousands. Such a man +is a public benefactor, and eminently deserves recognition by +the state, especially by way of atonement for former neglect and +injustice. Military men receive titular honors and a pecuniary reward +for slaying a crowd of savages and burning their huts, while the +men who have helped to make England what she is, commercially and +industrially, are in most cases left to their fate, which may chance +to be pecuniary ruin. + + * * * * * + + + + +OIL NOTES. + +PENNSYLVANIA. + + +The total production of crude petroleum for the first three quarters +of 1878 was 11,126,037 barrels, against 8,436,867 barrels for the same +time in 1877; increase in 1878, 1,689,170 barrels. + +The total number of drilling wells completed for the first three +quarters of 1878 were 2,333, against 2,699 for the same time in 1877; +decrease in 1878, 366. + +The daily average production of the new wells completed for the first +three quarters of 1878 was 13 2-10 barrels, against 14 2-10 for the +same time in 1877; decrease in 1878, 1 barrel. + +The total number of dry holes developed in the first three quarters +of 1878 were 280, against 476 for the same time in 1877; decrease in +1878, 196. + +The total amount of crude petroleum held in the producing regions of +Pennsvlvania, at the close of the third quarter of 1878, was 4,599,362 +barrels, against 2,503,657 at the same time in 1877; increase in 1878, +2,095,705 barrels. + +The amount of crude petroleum represented by outstanding certificates +on the last day of September was 1,705,853 barrels, against 1,317,484 +barrels on the last day of October, a reduction during October of +158,127 barrels. + +Mr. J. M. Guffey has purchased of Marcus Hulings an undivided half +interest in the celebrated Kinzua Creek property (Bradford district). +The purchased portion contains 6,400 acres, on which there is a well +that was struck in June last, and since that time has been doing from +16 to 18 barrels, and has never been torpedoed. Mr. Guffey looks upon +this as one of the best prospective oil territories in the country. + +D. W. C. Carroll & Co., of Pittsburg, have kept from 45 to 75 men +employed, since June, in the oil regions, building iron tanks, nearly +all of which are located in the Bradford district. + + +WEST VIRGINIA. + +The Wheeling _Intelligencer_ says: As noticed in our Moundsville +letter this morning, extensive preparations have been made to bore for +oil on the opposite side of the river at the Union Coal Works shaft. +The machinery was brought down from Pittsburg on Tuesday, and is now +being put in position by contractors, who have engaged to go down +1,200 feet. It will be recollected that for a long time past oil has +been found in the coal shaft, and the company who are putting down the +well feel confident that plenty of it exists deeper down. Some parties +look forward to the development of the fact that Moundsville is +situated in an important oil break, and that oil in abundance will +be found on both sides of the river. The progress of the well will be +looked forward to with much interest by the people of that vicinity. + + +MASSACHUSETTS. + +The Maverick Oil Works at East Boston have recently made some very +extensive additions and improvements, lengthening their wharf and +making a variety of alterations in their buildings. They will shortly +complete a new cooper shop, wherein, it is probable, they will +construct all the tin cans required by the demands of their business. + + +OHIO. + +The oil excitement has broken out afresh in West Mecca, Warren county, +Ohio. Oil men, heavily backed with capital, have recently come in from +Pennsylvania, and are making things lively in that locality. Eight new +wells have been put in operation during the past week. This district +is the same where the principal excitement prevailed 18 years ago. + + +JAPAN. + +The Tokio _Times_ states that the principal feature of American trade +with Japan is the petroleum exports from New York. The enterprise was +inaugurated only eight years ago; but the business has so increased +that while only 200 cases of kerosene, valued at $600, were exported +in 1870, in 1877 366,639 cases were sent to Yokohama, and 128,158 +cases to Hiogo, whither none had before been carried direct. The value +of these consignments was over $1,000,000. + +Several refineries are in operation in Japan, making kerosene from +native petroleum. + + +RUSSIA. + +The recent reports concerning the discovery of oil near the shores of +the Caspian Sea seem to be fully confirmed. From one of the wells a +stream, free from gas and froth, is forced to a height of 75 feet, +yielding at the rate of 10,000 barrels a day. It is reported that +companies are forming at Odessa, Kovo-Tcherkask, Astrakhan, and other +cities, for the purpose of obtaining oil. Two large manufacturing +concerns, who have their headquarters in New York city, recently +received orders for considerable quantities of oil-line pipes, +steam pumps, engines, boilers, and other apparatus, to be shipped +immediately for St. Petersburg, Russia. + + +ITALY. + +The oil wells of Italy comprise about 5, with a capacity of about 30 +barrels per day, of a thick substance of 14 gravity. They are pumped +by hand, which, though primitive, is cheaper than steam, for both men +and women are employed, the former receiving as compensation for a +day's work 1 lira, equal to 20 cents; and the women 60 centessimi, +equal to 12 cents of our money. The wells are located in a deep +valley, and the oil carried up on the backs of donkeys to a refinery, +where it is treated, and yields from 2 to 5 per cent. of burning oil. + + +PERU. + +It is proposed to build a pipe line from the refinery on the estates +of Henry Meiggs to the shipping port, a distance of about 7 miles. It +is stated that oil can be produced at this point for less than 1 cent +a gallon, and as the fields have produced from time immemorial, there +is no prospect of their early exhaustion. + + +ONTARIO. + +The oil refinery at St. Thomas, Ont., is running day and night; 494 +barrels of crude petroleum were brought from Petrolia for it in one +week recently.--_Stowell's Petroleum Reporter_. + + * * * * * + + + + +RAILWAY NOTES. + + +The new track laid in this country during the year ending September +10, 1878, was 1,160 miles. During the six preceding years the number +of miles of track laid was: In 1872, 4,498; 1873, 2,455; 1874, 1,066; +1875, 702; 1876, 1,467; 1877, 1,176. + +The statement made in the recent Narrow Gauge Convention, that +standard gauge freight cars weigh ten tons and carry ten tons, is +indignantly disputed by users of the latter. One gentleman, having +much to do with freight cars, says that the modern freight cars weigh +from 17,000 to 18,000 lbs., commonly carry (and that on long hauls) +28,000 lbs., are guaranteed to carry 30,000 lbs., while he has seen +them show on the scales 30,000 and 32,000 lbs. of load, and in one +case 35,000 lbs. The general tendency for some years has been to +increase loads without increasing, but in many cases decreasing, +weights of cars; and it seems quite likely that 30,000 lbs. will soon +be the standard load. The tank cars used for carrying petroleum have +an average capacity--and they are almost always run full--of 30,000 +lbs. The Standard Oil Company, which has some 3,000 of such cars, +carried on four-wheeled trucks with the Master Car Builders' standard +axle, has run them with such loads for years, and only recently had +its first case of a broken axle, manifestly due to a defect in the +iron. + +INTERESTING observations have been made recently on the Cologne-Minden +Road, Prussia, on the rusting of iron rails. A pile of rails of odd +lengths were laid on sleepers over a bed of gravel early in 1870, and +remained undisturbed until the fall of 1877, there being no use for +them. It was then found that they were covered with a layer of rust +0.12 inch thick, which had to be removed by striking the rail with a +hammer. The cleaned rail weighed only 398.2 lbs., while its original +weight was 419.1 lbs., showing that 5 per cent. of the rail had been +destroyed by rust, which covered the rail quite uniformly. This +confirms the observation often made, that rails stacked away are much +more liable to rust than those laid down in a track. + +According to _Le Fer_, at a meeting of directors of the German +railroads held at Constance, the following information was furnished +in regard to the relative value of the different methods of injecting +ties: + +1. Railroad from Hanover and Cologne to Minden. Pine ties injected +with chloride of zinc; after 21 years the proportion of ties renewed +was 21 per cent. Beech ties injected with creasote; after 22 years, +46 per cent. Oak ties injected with chloride of zinc; after 17 years, +20.7 per cent. Oak ties not injected; after 17 years, 49 per cent. The +conditions were very favorable for experiment; the road bed was good, +and permitted of easy desiccation. The unrenewed ties showed, on +cutting, that they were in a condition of perfect health. + +2. Railroad "Kaiser-Ferdinands-Nord." Oak ties not injected; after +12 years the proportion renewed was 74.48 per cent. Oak ties injected +with chloride of zinc; after 7 years, 3.29 per cent. Oak ties injected +with creasote; after 6 years, 0.09 per cent. Pine ties injected with +chloride of zinc; after 17 years, 4.46 per cent. + +The annual official reports of the railroads of India place the length +of railways there at 7,5511/2 miles, of which 4921/2 miles were +completed during the year 1877, and 223 miles since the close of the +year. There are 8061/2 miles of double track; 5,9123/4 miles are +constructed on the 5 foot 6 inch gauge, and 1,6383/4 on narrower +gauges. The capital outlay on the State lines amounted to L3,122,051, +and on the guaranteed lines to L1,374,882, bringing the total capital +expenditure, up to the end of October, as regards the State, and to the +end of March last, as regards the guaranteed lines, to L113,144,541. +The expenditure up to the end of the year may be taken in round numbers +at L13,344,500. The revenue from all the open lines was L6,232,888, of +which L6,091,532 were earned by the guaranteed lines, with a capital of +L95,482,941, and L141,356 were earned by the State lines, on a capital +expenditure of L17,661,600. The net receipts from the guaranteed lines +exceeded the amount advanced for guaranteed interest by L1,454,591; the +year previous there was a deficit of L216,517. + +A French engineer named Duponchel has made a report on the project of +a railroad across the Desert of Sahara. The projected railway would +run from Algiers to Timbuctoo, a distance of 2,500 kilometers. M. +Duponchel stated that the principal portion of the line would rest +during nearly its whole extent on layers of sand, and toward the end +on primitive volcanic rocks, granite, gneiss, etc. No mountainous +obstructions would have to be encountered. The average heat does not +appear to exceed 23 deg. or 24 deg. C. (73 2-5 deg. or 75 1-5 deg. Fah.), but account +must be taken of the great variations which occur in the 24 hours. For +instance, occasionally, a very cold night succeeds a temperature +of 40 deg. C. (104 deg. Fah.) in the day time. The great difficulty to be +overcome would be the want of water, which is not to be procured in +that region. M. Duponchel calculates that for three trains daily the +amount of water required would be 4,000 cubic meters, and that the +engineering science of the day is quite sufficient to supply even a +much greater quantity at the requisite points. + +The government of Costa Rica has advertised for tenders for building +bridges on the second Atlantic Division of its railroad. There will +be needed 194 bridges. The bridges will vary in length from 3 feet +to 1,044 feet, and will be built for a track of 3 foot 31/2 inch gauge. +They will be of sufficient strength to stand a strain of 2,240 lbs. +to the lineal foot, in addition to the weight of the usual freight +carried. + + * * * * * + + + + +THE WERDERMANN ELECTRIC LIGHT. + + +[Illustration: FIG. 1 THE WERDERMANN LAMP.] + +It has been looked upon as essential that a certain distance should +separate the ends of the carbon electrodes used in electric lamps. +Every one has accepted this as an axiom. Mr. Werdermann's skepticism +has, however, caused him to doubt the axiom, and the result is that he +has discarded the electric arc space, and by placing his electrodes +in actual contact, has produced a lamp which provides the means of +dividing the electric current, and promises to give almost any number +of lights from a single machine. Mr. Werdermann's inventions, says the +_Engineering_, are secured by patents considerably in advance of those +of Mr. Edison, and may in their chief points be explained as follows: + +In place of two electrodes of similar form and dimensions, one +electrode consists of a large bun-shaped disk of carbon placed with +the rounded face downward. The other carbon is a fine rod of carbon of +about 1/8 or 5-32 inch in diameter. The upper end of this is pointed +and maintained in contact with the center of the lower surface of the +disk. This rod is supported by means of a spring collar, which also +forms the circuit connection. This is within about 3/4 in. of the +top of the carbon, so that the 3/4 in. becomes incandescent, and the +contact between the two carbons being only a point, a small electric +arc is produced between the two carbons, while the electricity is at +the same time passed on through the carbon disk, and the connections +there attached to the next lamp. + +[Illustration: DIAGRAM OF CURRENT.] + +Referring to our diagrams, in Fig. 1 the upper carbon is shown at +C, and the rod carbon at c. The former is supported by means of an +adjustable jointed bracket, B, attached to the wood stand. The rod +carbon is guided by the spring collar on the top of the stand, and +to which the connection is made, and is supported by the fine cord +running over the pulley, P. This cord is attached to the clasp, D, at +the bottom of the rod, and to the balance weight, W, by which the rod +is maintained in constant, practical, though not absolute contact +with the disk. Round the upper part of the disk is a metal band, A, to +which the circuit wire is attached, and the current thus passed on to +the next lamps. + +At a recent trial of this lamp, the current was derived from a small +Gramme electro-plating machine, requiring only 2 horse power to put +it in full work. It may therefore be assumed that this was about the +limit of the power at work to produce the light. At the commencement +of the proceedings two lights were maintained, each stated to be equal +to 320 sperm candles. At this rate the two lights would be equal to +640 candles, or 40 full power gas lights, each consuming 5 cubic feet +of 16 candle gas per hour. Such gas lights, it may be observed, are +not often seen, except in the argand form. The two lights burned with +extreme steadiness, there being no undulation, or flickering whatever, +although there was no glass globe to tone down any variations of +luster. The lights were perfectly bare and unprotected, and the place +where the trial was made was a workshop of moderate size. + +Later in the evening one light was exhibited outside the building, in +an open thoroughfare, and the same perfect steadiness was observable. +After the two lights had been burning for a time they were +extinguished, and the current was sent through a row of ten lamps. +The light per lamp was of course reduced, but there was the remarkable +fact that ten lights were maintained by a comparatively weak machine, +driven by an engine exerting the power of only two horses. + +The light of each of these ten lamps was stated to be that of 40 +candles, making, therefore, a total of 400. A reduction of light, +consequent on the further division of the current, is thus apparent; +but for this loss there may be ample compensation in the superior +economy of a distributed light as compared with one that is +concentrated. In the case of the ten lamps, the light is equal to that +of 25 full power gas lights, consuming altogether 125 cubic feet of +gas per hour. The extremely small arc due to the peculiar arrangement +of the carbons in the Werdermann light has the advantage of offering +the least possible resistance to the passage of the current. + +This resistance increases much more rapidly than is represented by +increase of distance between the carbon points. Hence the electric +power with Werdermann's lamp is economized to the utmost in this +respect, and it becomes possible--as in the recent experiment--to make +use of an electric current large in quantity but of low intensity. +The tension being small, there is the less difficulty with regard to +insulation. If one lamp or more should be accidentally extinguished, +the rest will continue to burn. The whole of the lamps can also be +extinguished and relit by merely stopping the current and then sending +it on again. No nice and troublesome adjustment with reference to the +length of the electric arc is requisite, and simple contact between +the point of the rod and the surface of the disk is sufficient for the +manifestation of the light. + +In respect to duration, a carbon rod 5-32 in. in diameter, and a yard +long, obtained from Paris, costs a franc. This, placed in a large +lamp, having an estimated lighting power of 320 candles, will last +from 12 to 15 hours. The smaller lamps take a carbon of 1/8 in. +diameter. + +Mr. Werdermann endeavors to make the resistance of the external +portion of the circuit equal to the internal resistance, in order to +obtain the greatest effect. It is well known that the best results +are obtained when the internal and external resistances are equal. The +method adopted is that known to electricians as the divided arc, and +will easily be understood from Fig. 2. Let B represent the source of +the electric current, and A a copper wire connected to the positive +and negative poles of the source as in the diagram. The wire, A, has +a certain resistance. Suppose, now, we arrange for the current to pass +as in the diagram, Fig. 3. By the insertion of the new wire, C, we +have lessened the total external resistance and increased the current, +as will be seen by reference to Ohm's law. C = E/(R+r) where C += current; E = electromotive force; R = resistance external; r = +resistance internal. The fraction E/(R+r) increases as its denominator +is lessened. + +The current passes along the two branches in equal quantities if the +resistances of the wires are equal, but inversely as the resistances +if they are unequal. Thus, if the branch, A, has a resistance, 9, and +C has a resistance, 1, 9-10 of the current will pass through C, and +1-10 through A. Similarly, for any number of branches the current will +divide itself according to the resistances. If, then, we have a number +of branches, as indicated in Fig. 4, the current will divide itself +equally among the branches when the resistances of the branches are +equal. This is the arrangement adopted by Mr. Werdermann, as will be +seen from the annexed diagram, Fig. 5, in which N and P represent +the negative and positive poles of the machine, and L L the electric +lamps. + +When any one lamp is put out the inventor arranges that an equivalent +resistance shall be put into the circuit, so that as a whole the +circuit is unaltered, and the other lamps unaffected. + + * * * * * + + + + +CASSON'S SAW BENCH. + + +We give herewith a perspective view of a circular saw bench made by +Messrs. Oliver & Co. (Limited), of Chesterfield, England, which we +take from _Engineering_. The chief features in this machine are that +it is fitted with Mr. John Casson's patent feed gear and apparatus for +steadying the saws. This feeding arrangement has now been in use some +years, and has been fitted to a very large number of circular saw +benches. This being the case, and the arrangement being very clearly +shown by our engraving, it will be unnecessary for us to describe it +in detail here. + +The saw-steadying apparatus, with which the saw bench we illustrate +is fitted, is a novel arrangement, recently patented by Mr. Casson; in +the present case it is applied to two saws. + +The steadying arrangement consists of accurately fitted sliding jaws +mounted on the arms of a forked support, so that they can be moved and +adjusted only by fine threaded screws, the jaws having their surfaces +next the saws, accurately parallel with the plane of the collar of the +saw spindle; these jaws, A, are fixed when the adjusting screws are at +rest, and they are faced with strips of greenheart or other suitable +timber, secured by countersunk screw bolts, these faces forming a +perfectly true guide for the saw blades. + +For a single saw the guides just described would suffice; but for two +or more saws the outside guides must be supplemented by others between +the saw blades. + +It will be noticed that the support, F, carrying the guiding jaws, has +a square stem sliding through the head of a suitable standard, and it +can be readily fixed at any desired height by means of the set screw. + +[Illustration: BENCH WITH SAW-STEADYING APPARATUS.] + +The arrangement we have been describing is well carried out, and there +can be no doubt that it will do good service, and enable thin saws +to be efficiently used with a heavy feed. We have received very +satisfactory reports of its performance. + + * * * * * + + + + +A BAIT FOR INVENTORS. + + +I will give $200 for a machine that will bale hay in the field. Rake +and press combined would be preferable, but would not object to +its taking the hay in the windrow. The machine must be expeditious, +executing as fast as a mower is able to cut. Must have sufficient +power to make a bale suitable for commercial uses; shape of the bale +immaterial; a round one preferred. Must be of light draught; one team +is generally all that is available for any machine on the farm. These, +with the other qualifications demanded of every machine, simplicity, +durability, easy to manage, etc. If such an invention could be +produced it would make a revolution in the hay field almost equal to +that which the mower has made. + +What an awkward, ungainly spectacle a man presents, struggling at one +end of a six foot pole, with a ten pound lock of hay at the other end, +endeavoring with all his might and main to elevate it 12 or 15 feet on +top of a load! It is an insult to human intelligence. A load of loose +hay is an uncertain quantity. You are never sure of getting it into +the barn. Top heavy, one sided, too wide or too high for the doors; +and even with the best of luck, a good percentage has drizzled in the +wake of the wagon over the lot to the barn. A 100 or 200 lb. bale, +with an inclined plane, or a pulley on side or aft of a good strong +rack, and all this barbarism has succumbed to civilization. + +At the barn comes a worse servitude. (I don't mean the horse fork; +that is a grand lift to civilization. I hope to modify it shortly to +throw bales.) There a man struggles with sheer desperation to press +by his own avoirdupois 20 tons of hay into a place that won't hold 10. +Tramp, tramp, tramp, leg-weary, panting like an overheated dog, every +fiber of his clothing saturated with perspiration, a subject worthy +of a better immortality than the Greek slave. O Edison! don't fritter +away your genius on sounding brass and tinkling cymbal. Elevate the +laborer. Liberate our overworked people. Make us a chariot to press +our hay.--_Edmund Adams, North Manlius, N. Y., to the New York +Tribune._ + + * * * * * + + + + +A SILVER MILL IN THE CLOUDS. + + +The largest and most complete silver mill ever constructed, says the +San Francisco Stock Report, has recently been built by Messrs. Rankin, +Brayton & Co., of the Pacific Iron Works of that city, for the Cerro +de Pasco Mining Company, of Peru, and shipped for Callao, the port of +destination. This enormous mill consists of 80 stamps, 900 lbs, each, +44 live foot amalgamating pans, 22 nine foot settlers, and all the +accessories of a first-class modern mill. It is to be erected upon the +above named mines, which are situated in the heart of the Andes, +some 150 miles east of the city of Lima, at an elevation of more than +14,000 feet. To admit of mule transportation a portion of the way up +this tremendous ascent, the mill had to be made in sections, no piece +weighing more than 500 lbs. Some idea of the magnitude of this work +may be inferred from the fact that the mill, as thus constructed, +consisted of more than 17,000 pieces, and weighed upward of 600 tons. +This enormous amount of machinery was constructed by the above firm +and put on board a ship 50 days from date of contract. + +The Cerro de Pasco mines have been the richest and most famous in the +world's history. They have been worked by the old arastra process for +the past 200 years, and have produced, according to the most authentic +records, more than $500,000,000. With such improved machinery the +product of these mines will undoubtedly attract the attention of the +world, and so reflect great credit upon the capacity, ingenuity, and +skill of our mechanical establishments. + + * * * * * + + + + +POULTICES. + + +The common practice in making poultices of mixing the linseed meal +with hot water, and applying them directly to the skin, is quite +wrong, because, if we do not wish to burn the patient, we must wait +until a great portion of the heat has been lost. The proper method +is to take a flannel bag (the size of the poultice required), to fill +this with the linseed poultice as hot as it can possibly be made, and +to put between this and the skin a second piece of flannel, so that +there shall be at least two thicknesses of flannel between the skin +and the poultice itself. Above the poultice should be placed more +flannel, or a piece of cotton wool, to prevent it from getting cold. +By this method we are able to apply the linseed meal boiling hot, +without burning the patient, and the heat, gradually diffusing through +the flannel, affords a grateful sense of relief which cannot be +obtained by other means. There are few ways in which such marked +relief is given to abdominal pain as by the application of a poultice +in this manner.--_Dr. T. Lauder Brunton, in Brain._ + + * * * * * + + + + +NEW MECHANICAL INVENTIONS. + + +Mr. Joseph Adams, of Washington, D. C., has patented an improved Gas +Regulator, designed either to cut off the gas entirely or to let on +a larger amount of gas than its automatic action would ordinarily +permit, or to allow the regulator to operate with an automatic action, +as usual. + +Mr. Jean A. Hitter, Jr., of St. Martinsville, La., has patented an +improved Type Writer, of simple and compact construction, that may be +readily used for printing on paper and for other purposes, being +small enough to be carried conveniently in the pocket, if desired, and +readily operated with little practice. + +Messrs. Edwin N. Boynton, Geo. M. Coburn, and Thos. F. Carver, of +Worcester, Mass., have patented an improved Hand Drilling Machine, by +which a fast or slow motion can be readily obtained, at the will +of the operator, the slower motion being especially advantageous in +drilling large holes, as more power is obtained, and the holes are +drilled with greater ease. + +Mr. Reuben R. James, of Rising Sun, Ind., has devised an improved +Adding Machine of simple and comparatively inexpensive construction. +The chief feature of the machine is a series of toothed revolving +counting wheels, which are inscribed on their peripheries with the +nine digits and cipher, and mounted loosely on a common axis, and each +having four lateral inclines or cams, which cause, at the proper time, +a weighted pawl lever to engage the next counting wheel on the left, +so as to carry ten when the numbers added on the wheel on the right +exceed ten. The adding is effected by successively drawing down to a +stop on the finger board the teeth of the counting wheels which are +opposite the numbers to be added, and the numerical result will be +seen on the wheels in a series of slots or apertures in the case of +the machine. + +Mr. Jacob Croft, of Scipio, Utah Ter., has devised an improved Turbine +Water Wheel, which is constructed to prevent back pressure by the +water against the casing as it escapes from the buckets. Sand and +other substances in the water are prevented from entering around the +shaft and cutting or wearing it. + +An improvement in Sweeping Machines has been patented by Mr. Isaac +A. Chomel, of Brooklyn, N. Y. This invention relates to apparatus for +sweeping up and collecting dirt, dust, and other refuse from floors, +carpets, streets, and other places. The dust box is to be rolled over +the floor and the brush revolved by a winch. The speed of the brush is +independent of the motion of the machine along the floor. + +Mr. D. A. Ferris, of Tioga Center, N. Y., has patented an improved +Implement for Forcing Flooring Planks together when laying floors. It +is simple, convenient, and powerful. + + * * * * * + + + + +EFFECT OF QUININE ON THE HEARING. + + +It is a well known fact to medical men that there exists a great +prejudice among a large number of people against taking quinine, the +idea being very prevalent that a prolonged use of it not only affects +the hearing, but (to use the common expression) that it "gets into +the bones." As regards the former belief, Dr. Roosa, of New York, +has recently been collecting and examining the evidence as far as +possible, and has come to the conclusion that in some cases there +really is a permanent nervous affection of the ear produced which +justifies the opinion held by the laity. Hitherto physicians have +generally disbelieved this, and ascribed the notion to prejudice. + + * * * * * + + + + +THE MICROPHONE AS A THIEF CATCHER. + + +The microphone as a thief catcher has proved very useful to an English +resident in India, who found his store of oil rapidly and mysteriously +diminishing. He fixed a microphone to the oil cans, carried the wire +up to his bedroom, and, after the house had been closed for the night, +sat up to await the result. Very shortly he heard the clinking of +bottles, followed by the gurgling sound of liquid being poured out, +and running downstairs he caught his bearer in the act of filling +small bottles with oil for easy conveyance from the premises. + + * * * * * + + + + +THE TALLEST TREE IN THE WORLD. + + +The tallest accurately measured _Sequoia_ standing in the Calaveras +Grove, near Stockton, California, measures 325 feet, and there is +no positive evidence that any trees of this genus ever exceeded that +height. Of late years, explorations in Gippsland, Victoria, have +brought to light some marvelous specimens of _Eucalyptus_, and the +State Surveyor of Forests measured a fallen tree on the banks of the +Watts River, and found it to be 435 feet from the roots to the top of +the trunk. The crest of this tree was broken off, but the trunk at the +fracture was 9 feet in circumference, and the height of the tree when +growing was estimated to have been more than 500 feet. This tree, +however, was dead, though there is no doubt that it was far loftier +than the tallest Sequoia. Near Fernshaw, in the Dandenong district, +Victoria, there has recently been discovered a specimen of the "Almond +Leaf Gum" (_Eucalyptus amygdalesia_), measuring 380 feet from the +ground to the first branch, and 450 feet to the topmost wing. This +tree would overtop the tallest living _Sequoia_ by 125 feet. Its girth +is 80 feet, which is less than that of many Sequoias, but as far as +height is concerned it must be considered the tallest living tree in +the world. + + * * * * * + + + + +THE ARGONAUT, OR PAPER NAUTILUS. + + +[Illustration: ARGONAUT, OR PAPER NAUTILUS.] + +This mollusk received the first title in allusion to the pretty fable +which was formerly narrated of its sailing powers, and the latter +title is given on account of the extreme thinness and fragility of the +shell. It is remarkable that the shell of the argonaut is, during the +life of its owner, elastic and yielding, almost as if it were made of +thin horn. + +The two arms of the argonaut are greatly dilated at their extremities; +and it was formerly asserted, and generally believed, that the +creature was accustomed to employ these arms as sails, raising them +high above the shell, and allowing itself to be driven over the +surface by the breeze, while it directed its course by the remaining +arms, which were suffered to hang over the edge of the shell into the +water and acted like so many oars. In consequence of this belief the +creature was named the argonaut, in allusion to the old classical +fable of the ship Argo and her golden freight. + +The animal, or "poulp," as it is technically called, is a lovely +creature despite its unattractive form. It is a mass of silver with a +cloud of spots of the most beautiful rose color, and a fine dotting +of the same, which heighten its beauty. A large membrane, which is +the expanded velation of the arms, covers all. It has been definitely +proved that the use of the expanded arms which cover the exterior of +the shell is to build up its delicate texture, and to repair damages, +the substance being secreted by these arms, and by their broad +expansions moulded into shape. The larger figure in the engraving +represents the argonaut while thus within its shell. While crawling +the creature turns itself so as to rest on its head, withdraws its +body as far as possible into its shell, and, using its arms like legs, +creeps slowly but securely along the ground, sometimes affixing its +disks to stones or projecting points of rocks for the purpose of +hauling itself along. When, however, it wishes to attain greater +speed, and to pass through the waters, it makes use of a totally +different principle. Respiration is achieved by the passage of water +over double gills or branchiae; the water, after it has completed its +purpose, being ejected through a moderately long tube, technically +called a siphon. The orifice of the siphon is directed toward the +head of the animal, and it is by means of this simple apparatus that +progression is effected. When the creature desires to dart rapidly +through the water, it gathers its six arms into a straight line, so +as to afford little resistance to the water, keeps its velated arms +stretched tightly over the shell, and then, by violently ejecting +the water from the siphon, drives itself by reaction in the opposite +direction. The uppermost figure shows the argonaut in the act of +swimming. + + * * * * * + + + + +THE TRAP DOOR SPIDER OF JAMAICA. + + +This spider digs a burrow in the earth and lines it with a silken web. +The burrow is closed by a trap door, having a hinge that permits it +to be opened and closed with admirable accuracy. The door is circular, +and is made of alternate layers of earth and web, and is hinged to +the lining of the tube that leads to the burrow by a band of the same +silken secretion. The door exactly fits the entrance to the burrow, +and when closed, so precisely corresponds with the surrounding earth +that it can hardly be distinguished, even when its position is known. +It is a strange sight to see the earth open, a little lid raised, some +hairy legs protrude, and gradually the whole form of the spider show +itself. + +[Illustration: TRAP DOOR SPIDER.] + +The mode in which these spiders procure food seems to be by hunting at +night, and in some cases by catching insects that are entangled in the +threads that the creature spins by the side of its house. + +In the day time they are very chary of opening the door of their +domicile, and if the trap be raised from the outside, they run to the +spot, hitch the claws of their fore feet in the silken webbing of the +door, and those of the hind feet in the lining of the burrow, and so +resist with all their might. The strength of the spider is wonderfully +great in proportion to its size. + + * * * * * + + + + +TO MAKE A HOLE IN GLASS. + + +_New Remedies_ describes the following easy method of making a hole +in plate glass: Make a circle of clay or cement rather larger than the +intended hole; pour some kerosene into the cell thus made, ignite +it, place the plate upon a moderately hard support, and with a stick +rather smaller than the hole required, and a hammer, strike a rather +smart blow. This will leave a rough-edged hole, which may be smoothed +with a file. Cold water is said to answer even better than a blow. + + * * * * * + + + + +THE PRESERVATION OF EGGS. + + +As science advances, the processes proposed for the preservation +of organic substances are being brought to greater and greater +perfection. No subject perhaps in this connection has received +greater attention, and been the subject of more processes, patent and +otherwise, than that of the preservation of eggs. In fact this is a +question of considerable importance, not only from a culinary, but +also from an industrial standpoint--that of the manufacture of albumen +for photographic purposes. In the _Moniteur de la Photographie_ Dr. +Phipson calls attention to a new process, which may be briefly stated +as follows: + +On taking the eggs from the nest they are covered over, by means of a +bit of wool, with butter in which has been dissolved 2 or 3 per cent +of salicylic acid. Each egg, after receiving this coat, is placed in +a box filled with very fine and absolutely dry saw dust. If care +be taken that the eggs do not touch each other, and that they be +perfectly covered with the saw dust, they will keep fresh for several +months--perhaps for more than a year. Dr. Phipson states that he has +experimented with this process for two years, with most excellent +results. So much for the preservation of the entire egg; but there +is also a process for the preservation of the albumen of the egg +for photographic uses, due to M. Berg. In this process, the white, +separated from the yolk, is evaporated in zinc pans or porcelain cups, +at a temperature of 45 deg. C. The solidified albumen thus obtained is +pulverized by means of a mill. The yolk, by means of machinery, is +whipped up into a light mass, and then spread out on zinc plates and +evaporated to dryness at a temperature of 80 deg., and finally powdered. +The powders thus obtained keep for a long time. The white of eggs, so +prepared, is used for the purposes to which albumen is applied in +the industrial arts, while the powdered yolks are used for domestic +purposes. + + * * * * * + + + + +CHARACTERISTICS OF AMERICAN SHEEP HUSBANDRY. + + +Dr. Hayes, in his recent address before the National Agricultural +Congress, remarking that a very inadequate idea is given of a nation's +resources by the number of sheep raised--the character of the animals +being of the first consideration--proceeds to show some of the +characteristics of American sheep husbandry. He states that the sheep +of the United States consist, first, of what are called native sheep; +second, descendants from improved English races; third, the Mexican +sheep found in Texas, New Mexico, Colorado, and California; fourth, +the merino sheep, and crosses of that breed with the three preceding +races. The merinos constitute the principal and characteristic race +of the United States; and this is the most important fact in the +enumeration of our resources for sheep husbandry and the wool +manufacture. England has no merinos, except in her colonies; Russia +has but 12,000,000 merinos; France, but 9,000,000. The merinos and +grades in the United States exceed 25,000,000. Merino wool is for +clothing what wheat is for food; it is the chief material for cloth +at the present day, the coarsest as well as the finest. While the +softest, it is the strongest of all fibers. From its fulling +and spinning qualities, it is the best adhesive for the cheap +fabrics--coarser wool, cotton, or shoddy; the mixture of merino wool +increasing indefinitely the material for cheap clothing. An abundance +of merino wool is the greatest boon the world has received from the +animal kingdom in the last century. It is, in fact, in its extended +culture the product of the last century. A century ago all the merinos +in the world, confined exclusively to Spain, did not number 1,000,000. +1765 marks the epoch of the first exportation of the merinos to +Saxony; 1786, to France; 1833, to Australia; 1802, the introduction +of the first merino sheep to this country; and to Gen. Humphreys, of +Connecticut, and to the introduction to his farm of twenty-one rams +and seventy ewes, may be directly traced the most celebrated breeds +of the American merino; producing individuals actually sold for $5,000 +each, others for $2,000 to $3,000, and one for which $10,000 was +refused. The fiber of the merino sheep is not the only excellence of +the animal; when properly bred, this race has a hardiness surpassing +all other high-bred races. The "yolk," provided by nature to assist in +the growth of the wool, abounding in this race more than in any +other, causes the tips of the fleece to be cemented, and to become +impenetrable to rains and snows. A lighter pasture suffices for their +maintenance than would support the mutton races. This race is fitted, +above all others, for the remote pastoral lands and for culture on a +large scale. + +Our breeders, in aiming to increase the weight of their fleece, have +developed the length of the staple, and have unconsciously created +a merino combing wool--a wool in special demand through modern +improvements in machinery and changes in the fashion of goods. Mr. +Ferneau, an eminent Belgian wool manufacturer, who has thoroughly +studied our wool resources and manufactures, says that three quarters +of the American wool is "combing wool," and will be ultimately +employed for this purpose. The bulk of American merino wools is of +strong, sound, and healthy staple, having few weak spots in them. +Those from the other States of the West are free from burrs. Those +from California have this defect in a high degree. They are admirably +fitted for blankets, flannels, and fancy cassimeres, and the great +bulk of our card wool manufactures. They are so excellent, as a whole, +that M. Ferneau says they are too valuable to be used for clothing +purposes. They supply nine tenths of all the card or clothing wool +consumed in American mills. + + * * * * * + + + + +THE PROGRESS OF SCIENCE IN MEXICO. + + +Mexico, the land of so many and such frequent revolutions, and the +scene of such intestinal commotions and bitter strife through the +whole period of her existence, from the Spanish conquest up to within +a few years, is at present happily in a state of comparative peace +and quiet; the laws are less disregarded, brigandage is gradually +disappearing, more attention is being paid to the protection of life +and property, and public education is in a prosperous condition. No +greater evidence of this felicitous state of affairs could be afforded +than that shown in the display of energy and zeal with which the +present administration, aided by the foremost Mexican scientists, +is carrying out an extended system of scientific explorations, +investigations, and internal improvements; and the progress of which +is being recorded in a valuable series of government publications; +one of these--the _Annals of the Minister of Public Works_--being +now before us. This volume, the third of the series, begins with +an article by the able director of the National Meteorological +Observatory, Sr. Mariano Barcena, calling attention, in the first +place, to the great national importance, as well as necessity, of a +well organized system of meteorological observations; (2) giving a +description of the Mexican Observatory, its equipment, the questions +it proposes to investigate, and the hours of observation; (3) +an explanation, accompanied by charts, of the daily system of +registration pursued at the observatory; and, finally, observations on +the periodic phenomena of vegetation, and notes on the orography +and geology of the valley of Mexico. Sr. A. Anquiano follows with a +communication on the "Geographical Position of Chalco," prefacing +the results of his labors by an able essay on the "Mexican Method" +of determining the latitude of places, a "method" founded on an +observation of the stars. It would be interesting to quote from this, +but our limited space will not permit. The "Citlaltepetl Commission," +consisting of the engineers, Srs. Plowes, Rodriguez, and Vigil, whose +patriotic ardor induced the minister to commission them to explore +"and be the first to plant the flag of Mexican science on the snow +clad peak of Citlaltepetl," render their report of operations during +the year 1877 in the form of an exceedingly interesting memoir. They +ascertained the peak of the volcano Citlaltepetl (or Orizaba) to be +17,651 feet above the level of the sea, which is 292 feet more +than Humboldt made it. After a somewhat exhaustive treatise on the +"Telescope and its Amplifying Power," by Sr. Jimenez, we have a long +and extremely interesting account of the Ancient Aqueduct of Zempoala, +one of the most notable of existing monuments of the old Spanish rule. +These aqueducts (for there were three) were projected and carried to a +successful termination by an humble and ignorant Franciscan monk--the +Friar Tembleque. The construction of these remarkable works, begun +in 1554 and occupying a period of 17 years, was undertaken for the +purpose of carrying water from Zempoala to Otumba (a distance of +27 miles), and was the occasion of a curious contract between the +inhabitants of these two cities. It seems that Otumba, situated at a +high elevation, needed water; Zempoala was blessed with water, but was +sadly in need of spiritual advisers; the people of the former city, +therefore, agreed to furnish a certain proportion of friars to +minister to the religious wants of the parties of the second part, and +the latter in return bound themselves to furnish water, and the labor +and materials for the building of an aqueduct to lead it, to the +parties of the first part. No tradition remains to state when these +structures ceased to be used. The longest of the three extends across +the valley of the Papelote, a distance of 2,960 feet, and consists +of 68 arches, the highest of which has an altitude of 106 feet. Senor +Salazar urges on the Minister of Public Works the importance of having +these monuments of a past age repaired and restored, not alone for +archaeological reasons, but because Otumba to-day is as greatly in +need of running water as it was in that remote period when these +viaducts were constructed. Senor Barcena follows with a description +and colored plate of a plant (_Gaudichaudia Enrico-Martinezii_) new +to the Mexican flora, and Sr. Federico Weidner with some "General +Reflections on the Iron Industry of the Country." Succeeding the +latter paper, an exhaustive article by the same writer gives us, +from a geological point of view, the structure, as far as can be +ascertained, of the "Cerro de Mercado" of Durango, which is said to be +one vast mass of iron. The author after a thorough examination of this +hill, last year, concludes that it is of eruptive or volcanic origin. +This is contrary to the statements made in most published works, +the authors of which probably derived their notions from the views +expressed by Humboldt, who was of the opinion that this mass of iron +was an immense aerolite. Sr. Weidner, however, concludes that the +great traveler never visited the locality in person, but obtained his +information from heresay. He shows that the hill is deficient in the +chemical constituents of aerolites, namely, iron, nickel, and cobalt, +in a native or malleable state; but, on the contrary, is made up in a +great measure of crystalline magnetic iron, and various useful oxides +of the same metal. By a careful estimate of the quantity of iron +contained in that portion only of the Cerro which appears above the +surface of the soil, the author obtains as a result the enormous sum +of 507,000,000 pounds, and this reduced to a metallic state would +yield 250,000,000 pounds of pure iron. The structure of this +remarkable hill is made apparent to the reader by means of an +excellent geological section, in colors, accompanying the text. + +The volume closes with some notes by Sr. Barcena on the "Hydrographic +System of the Hacienda of Cienega de Mata, and its application to one +of the theories that explain Natural Fountains." + +In taking leave of this subject we have to congratulate the Mexican +Government not only for the valuable matter contained in its +scientific publications, but also for the very excellent style in +which the latter are being issued. The general make up of the volume +before us leaves little to be desired; the arrangement of the types +is extremely tasty, the imprint is clean, sharp, and clear, the +paper good, the margins of the pages broad, and the illustrations +exceedingly well executed. It is to be sincerely hoped that the +present state of peace, which our sister republic is enjoying, will +endure for numerous years to come; and that the scientific work begun +under such happy auspices may go on uninterruptedly until the whole +country shall have been thoroughly explored. For as yet, we know but +comparatively little about the geology of Mexico, and a great deal is +yet to be learned, too, about her natural productions. + + * * * * * + + + + +CORRESPONDENCE. + + * * * * * + + + + +ALUM IN BREAD.--A REPLY TO DR. MOTT'S ARTICLE IN SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN +OF NOVEMBER 16, ENTITLED "DELETERIOUS USE OF ALUM IN BAKING POWDER." + +By W. P. CLOTWORTHY, BALTIMORE, MD. + + +On August 13, 1878, I obtained letters patent for the exclusive right +to use exsiccated ammonia alum in baking powders. This fact I state +that the public may know the reason that elicits this reply to +the remarkable article on adulterations in baking powders, in the +SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN of Nov. 16th, emanating from the pen of Henry A. +Mott, Jr. I wish the Professor had been equally candid in stating his +reasons for contributing the article. It is rare for a chemist to turn +philanthropist without some consideration. The analysis of forty-two +baking powders requires no little labor; twenty-one were examined +at the expense of the government for the benefit of the Indian +Department, the others, no doubt, at the expense and for the benefit +of the Royal Baking Powder Company. I hope his services have been +liberally requited. The public certainly owe him nothing for his labor +or opinions. An excuse can be made for the prejudice existing against +the use of alum in any form for baking purposes; it is an inheritance +from a preceding age; but no apology can be offered for a practical +chemist in this day, who labors to keep alive and foster a prejudice +by the suppression of truths and facts. Professor Mott, in attempting +to prove a fraud in food, has perpetrated a fraud in facts. That this +opinion may not be unwarranted, I will state the facts about alum, +which may be new to the public, but familiar to every chemist. Alum +was formerly a compound of sulph. alumina and sulph. potash. In the +past ten years nearly all manufacturers of alum have substituted +sulph. ammonia for the sulph. potash; this change removes from alum +a dangerous and objectionable ingredient, and adds a healthful +one. Professor Mott recommends the use of ammonia in the form of a +carbonate--carbonate of ammonia is one of the results in baking powder +of the decomposition which takes place between alum and bicarbonate of +soda; in the complete decomposition which takes place pure alumina is +eliminated, highly recommended as an antacid. During the process +of baking, alum is completely decomposed through the liberation of +carbonic acid. Professor Mott must have known this, yet with this +knowledge warns the public on the deleterious effect of alum in bread. + +About the first of last October I determined to vindicate the use +of exsiccated ammonia alum as a substitute for cream of tartar, and +accordingly issued a circular to the trade; from this circular I now +give the following extract, which enters minutely into the subject: + +"To claim that an experience of 35 years in compounding medicines +should entitle my opinion on chemicals and chemical compounds to a +respectful consideration, is neither presumptuous nor unreasonable. +With this simple introduction I now avow myself the originator +and patentee of exsiccated ammonia alum baking powder. The use of +exsiccated ammonia alum has been declared unhealthful by the advocates +of other baking powders, and every manufacturer using it has been held +up for public reprobation. This has been done by rival manufacturers, +either through ignorance or malice; if from the former they are to be +pitied, if from the latter they are contemptible. These opinions have +been promulgated by kitchen chemists, whose circle of knowledge begins +and ends with cream tartar and soda; and even of these articles they +only know that cream tartar is in some way derived from grapes. In +this circular I propose to state a few facts in relation to cream +tartar and exsiccated alum, and the combinations they form with +bicarbonate of soda, and allow you to form your own opinion of their +respective merits. Crude tartar is the incrustation found in wine +casks. It contains coloring matter and about 15 per cent of lime. +This article is purified and called the cream of tartar, but it is +impossible to extract all the lime. Commercially pure cream tartar +contains at least 5 per cent of lime. When cream tartar is used in +proportion of two parts to one of bicarbonate of soda, you will have +an average of 3 to 4 per cent of lime. In using cream tartar and soda +in baking, a chemical change commences as soon as water is added; the +cream tartar unites with the soda, setting free the carbonic acid gas, +which lightens the bread, and the residue is Rochelle salts. This +is what you eat in your bread, the cream tartar and soda entirely +disappearing in the process of baking, by forming this salt. Any +doctor or chemist will confirm the above statement. When I undertook +to manufacture baking powder, I labored to improve the quality and +cheapen the cost. The first I accomplished by retaining the carbonic +acid until heat was applied, the latter, by manufacturing a more +economical acid than foreign cream tartar. After more than a +thousand experiments covering a period of six months, I discovered by +exsiccating ammonia alum I provided an article that would possess the +necessary qualities. This article no more resembles the ordinary +alum than charcoal resembles wood--it is light, porous, friable, and +without taste. This article, under the influence of heat, combines +with the soda and forms Glauber salts. In baking, the alum unites +with the soda, just as cream tartar unites. In using the baking powder +prepared according to my formula, you have in your bread Glauber +instead of Rochelle salts. To your physician apply for his opinion +of these salts; I will bow to his decision. Another false impression +these zealous guardians of the public health have made is, that I +used the exsiccated alum because it was cheap. The fact is that when I +commenced its use it cost by the thousand pounds 12 per cent. more +than the best cream tartar is worth to-day, and 33 per cent. more than +average price of that article for the past year. I have since reduced +the cost of manufacturing, and as I did so, correspondingly reduced +the price of powder to the public. I regard the quantity of soda in +cream tartar baking powders as very objectionable; they generally +contain about 33 per cent. In my powder only 20 per cent. The +prejudice in the public mind against alum, originated in the habit of +the English bakers buying damaged flour, and by the addition of crude +alum, made their bread in appearance equal to that made from best +flour. Against this practice laws were enacted, not so much against +the qualities of alum, as against its use in covering up a fraud +in flour. This was the common potash alum and uncombined with any +carbonated alkali, and it passed into the stomach unchanged. It is +a trick--for it deserves no better name--of our rivals to show by +chemical analysis that my powder contains alum, but are careful +neither to state the kind nor the change it undergoes in baking. The +manufacturer who knowingly misrepresents the goods of a rival, may +well be doubted when he speaks of the quality of his own. + +"Great stress is laid on the fact that cream tartar is a vegetable +acid, the product of the grape, hence it must be healthy. They forget +that cream tartar is not entirely vegetable, but principally second +handed minerals. It is a compound of tartaric acid, potash, and lime; +the last two are minerals, which the grape takes up from the earth, +but redeposits them as crude tartar when fermentation converts the +grape into wine. In 1807 Sir Humphry Davy from this crude tartar first +made the metal potassium. Of lime it is unnecessary to speak. The +potash and lime form the bulk of cream tartar. In ammonia alum there +is no more mineral substance than in cream tartar. The chemistry +of nature is wonderful. Vegetation lives on minerals--wheat, corn, +potatoes, are all mineral compounds. Lime, soda, potash, magnesia, +sulphur, iron, etc., are all found abundantly in water and grain, and +all these minerals are essential in food." + +Professor Mott has given the Royal Baking Powder the benefit of his +indorsement; it may be all that he claims for it. But baking powders +are now judged by constituent ingredients and chemical analysis; to +this test I propose to bring the Royal. It is now in the hands of a +competent chemist, and when the analysis is complete I will give +the public the benefit of a comparison between that powder and the +Patapsco. I will take Professor Mott's analysis of Patapsco, which, +though not correct, I accept as such. The comparison will be made on +the healthfulness of constituents in combination, and the chemical +changes they undergo in baking. This is a progressive age. The people +want facts, and they will form their own theories. Will the reader +believe that in the reign of Henry VIII. of England, a citizen +of London was executed for burning coal, which was then a capital +offense? A pope about the same time issued a Bull excommunicating all +Catholics who used tobacco, calling it the devil's weed. To-day coals +still burn, and tobacco solaces millions of the civilized world. If +the Royal Baking Powder Company (what a misnomer) possessed royal +prerogatives, the advocates of exsiccated alum would fare no better +than they did under the sumptuary laws of England. Professor Mott has +fulminated _ex cathedra_ his blast, but we survive. "Truth is a torch, +the more 'tis shook it shines." Our strength is in the intelligence of +the age. SMITH, HANWAY & Co., Baltimore. + + * * * * * + + + + +THE ELONGATION OF TREE TRUNKS. + + +The _College Quarterly_ says that experiments made at the Iowa +Agricultural College show that the popular notion that the trunks +of trees elongate is entirely erroneous. Tacks were driven into the +trunks of various trees, and the distance between them accurately +measured. At the end of the season they were found to have neither +increased nor decreased their distances. In the experiment, tree +trunks were selected of all ages, from one year up to five or six, and +in no case was there any change whatever noticeable. + + * * * * * + + + + +ASTRONOMICAL NOTES. + +BY BERLIN H. WRIGHT. + + +PENN YAN, N. Y., Saturday, December 14, 1878. The following +calculations are adapted to the latitude of New York city, and are +expressed in true or clock time, being for the date given in the +caption when not otherwise stated: + + +PLANETS. + H.M. +Mars rises 4 57 mo. +Jupiter sets 7 54 eve. +Saturn in meridian 6 16 eve. +Uranus rises 10 11 eve. +Neptune in meridian 8 48 eve. + + +FIRST MAGNITUDE STARS, ETC. + H.M. +Alpheratz in meridian 6 28 mo. +Mira (var.) in meridian 8 39 eve. +Algol (var.) in meridian 9 26 eve. +7 stars (Pleiades) in merid. 10 06 eve. +Aldebaran in meridian 10 54 eve. +Capella in meridian 11 33 eve. +Rigel in meridian 11 34 eve. +Betelgeuse in meridian 0 18 mo. +Sirius rises 8 05 eve. +Procyon rises 7 40 eve. +Regulus rises 9 43 eve. +Spica rises 2 24 mo. +Arcturus rises 1 27 mo. +Antares rises 6 30 mo. +Vega sets 9 52 eve. +Altair sets 8 40 eve. +Deneb sets 1 02 mo. +Fomalhaut sets 9 16 eve. + + +MOON'S PLACE IN THE CONSTELLATIONS AT 7 P.M. + +Saturday, Cancer 26 deg. +Sunday, Leo 9 deg. +Monday, Leo 23 deg. +Tuesday, Virgo 7 deg. +Wednesday, Virgo 22 deg. +Thursday, Libra 6 deg. +Friday, Libra 21 deg. + + +REMARKS. + +The sun will attain his greatest southern declination and enter the +constellation _Sagittarius_ December 21, 5h. 45m. evening, at which +time winter begins. Mars will be 5 deg. north of the moon December 21, in +the morning. Saturn will be 90 deg. east of the sun December 18, passing +the meridian at 6 o'clock in the evening. He is now advancing among +the stars, and will soon be again upon the equinoctial colure. Uranus +will be nearly 4 deg. north of the moon December 15. + + * * * * * + + + + +SYMPATHETIC INKS. + + +Under the name of sympathetic inks are designated certain liquids +which, being used for writing, leave no visible traces on the paper, +but which, through the agency of heat, or by the action of chemicals, +are made to appear in various colors. The use of such means for secret +correspondence is very ancient. Ovid, Pliny, and other Roman writers +speak of an ink of this kind, which, however, was nothing more than +fresh milk. It merely sufficed to dust powdered charcoal over the +surface of the paper upon which characters had been traced with the +colorless fluid, when the black powder adhered only to those places +where the fatty matter of the milk had spread. Such a process, +however, was merely mechanical, and the results very crude. + +A great number of sympathetic inks may be obtained by means of +reactions known to chemistry. For instance, write on paper with a +colorless solution of sugar of lead; if the water that is used for the +solution be pure, no trace of the writing will remain when it becomes +dry. Now hold the paper over a jet of sulphureted hydrogen, and the +characters will immediately appear on the paper, of an intense black +color. The following recipes for inks of this kind are more simple: +If writing be executed with a dilute solution of sulphate of iron, the +invisible characters will appear of a beautiful blue, if the dry paper +be brushed over with a pencil full of a solution of yellow prussiate +of potash; or they will be black, if a solution of tannin be +substituted for the prussiate. If the characters be written with +a solution of sulphate of copper, they will at once turn blue on +exposing to the vapors of ammonia. Another sympathetic ink is afforded +by chloride of gold, which becomes of a reddish purple when acted upon +by a salt of tin. A red sympathetic ink may be made in the following +manner: Write with a very dilute solution of perchloride of iron--so +dilute, indeed, that the writing will be invisible when dry. By +holding the paper in the vapor arising from a long-necked glass +flask containing sulphuric acid and a few drops of a solution of +sulpho-cyanide of potassium, the characters will appear of a blood-red +color, which will again disappear on submitting them to the vapors of +caustic ammonia. This experiment can be repeated _ad infinitum_. + +During the war in India, some years ago, important correspondence +was carried on by the English by means of the use of rice water as a +writing fluid. On the application of iodine the dispatches immediately +appeared in blue characters. + +Sympathetic inks which are developed under the influence of heat only +are much easier to use than the foregoing. The liquids which possess +such a property are very numerous. Almost every one perhaps knows that +if writing be executed on paper with a clean quill pen dipped in onion +or turnip juice, it becomes absolutely invisible when dry; and that +when the paper is heated the writing at once makes its appearance +in characters of a brown color. All albuminoid, mucilaginous, and +saccharine vegetable juices make excellent sympathetic inks; we may +cite, as among the best, the juices of lemon, orange, apple, and pear. +A dilute solution of chloride of copper used for writing is invisible +until the paper is heated, when the letters are seen of a beautiful +yellow, disappearing again when the heat that developed them is +removed. The salts of cobalt, as the acetate, nitrate, sulphate, and +chloride, possess a like property. When a dilute solution of these +salts is used as an ink, the writing, although invisible when dry, +becomes blue when exposed to heat. The addition of chloride of iron, +or of a salt of nickel, renders them green, and this opens the way for +a very pretty experiment: If a winter landscape be drawn in India ink, +and the sky be painted with a wash of cobalt alone, and the branches +of the trees be clothed with leaves executed with a mixture of cobalt +and nickel, and the snow-clad earth be washed over with the same +mixture, a magic transformation at once takes place on the application +of heat, the winter landscape changing to a summer scene. + +There is a well known proprietary article sold in Paris under the +name of _"Encre pour les Dames"_ (ink for ladies). Hager, in a recent +scientific journal, states that this consists of an aqueous solution +of iodide of starch, and is "specially intended for love letters." In +four weeks characters written with it disappear, preventing all abuse +of letters, and doing away with all documentary evidence of any kind +in the hands of the recipient. The signers of bills of exchange who +use this ink are of course freed from all obligations in the same +length of time. + + * * * * * + + + + +NEW WIRE CLOTHING FOR BURRING CYLINDERS. + + +Heretofore two kinds of clothing for cylinders for treating fibrous +material have been employed, one consisting of a set of serrated rings +cut from sheet steel and secured to the periphery of the cylinder, and +the other consisting of flat serrated iron wire. The serrated rings, +of necessity, entail a great loss of material in their manufacture, +and the iron wire clothing is so soft that it soon wears out or +becomes dull, necessitating the reclothing or sharpening of the +cylinder. + +[Illustration: NEW WIRE CLOTHING FOR BURRING CYLINDERS.] + +Our engraving represents a new form of steel wire clothing for such +cylinders, which was recently patented by Mr. Frank P. Pendleton, of +Philadelphia, Pa. + +The improvement consists in notching or nicking the base of the teeth +or back of the wire, so as to admit of bending the wire around the +cylinders without breaking. + + * * * * * + + + + +PETROLEUM AND GOLD. + + +As one of the leading staples of American export, our petroleum wells +have been more valuable than gold mines. A recent discovery by Mr. +John Turnbridge, of Newark, N. J., indicates that in some cases +petroleum wells may be in fact, as well as in effect, real gold +mines. He says that while investigating the peculiar behavior of the +hydrocarbons and their singular quality of separating the precious +metals from aqueous solutions, assisted by constant application that +furnished evidence of the force of chemical action which could be +satisfactorily measured, there occurred to him the probability that +analogous effects might be traced in the operations of nature; more +particularly in certain geological formations peculiar to auriferous +soils. These ideas, he asserts, have been singularly verified in +subsequent research by the discovery of gold in many samples of crude +petroleum, also in the sediment or refuse of the distillation of that +substance. The attraction existing between the hydrocarbons and many +elementary bodies ought to create no surprise, especially if reference +is had to the reducing action of the hydrocarbons in contact with +metallic solutions. The procedure in the examples above referred to +consist in pouring crude petroleum on vegetable fiber or wood shavings +and firing it, collecting the ashes and making the usual fire assay. +The cupel disclosed a small pellet. After due examination with the +appropriate test it was found to be pure gold. The distillery refuse +when assayed gave $34.85 value per ton. It may be mentioned in the +last case considerable molybdenum was present, a substance resembling +plumbago. Mr. Turnbridge has no knowledge of the locality whence +these samples of crude petroleum were originally obtained. He infers, +however, that oil wells in the vicinity of auriferous deposits may +yield a larger quantity of gold than from oil wells situated +in carboniferous strata. There has been, he states, a practical +application of this discovery for the recovery of gold, applied in +cases where quicksilver has failed to be of service. + + * * * * * + + + + +REDUCTION OF NITRATE OF SILVER BY MEANS OF CHARCOAL. + + +A very simple method of reducing nitrate of silver, analagous to +that some years ago mentioned by the late Mr. Hadow, is given in the +_Archiv der Pharmacie_, by Mr. C. F. Chandler. If crystallized or +fused nitrate of silver be placed upon glowing charcoal, combustion +forthwith takes place, the silver remaining behind in a metallic +form, while nitrous oxide and carbonic acid are freely given off. The +nitrate of silver is fused by the heat developed by the reaction, +and is imbibed through the pores of the charcoal; as every atom of +consumed carbon is replaced by an atom of metallic silver, the original +form and structure of the charcoal are preserved intact in pure +silver. By proceeding in this manner it is possible to produce silver +structures of any desired size, possessing in every way the original +form of the wood. A crystal of nitrate of silver is in the first place +put upon a piece of charcoal, and a blowpipe flame is then applied in +the vicinity, in order to start the reaction in the first instance, +and as soon as combustion commences crystal after crystal may be +added as these, one after another, become consumed. The silver salt is +liquefied, and penetrates into the charcoal, where it becomes reduced. +Pieces of silver may in this way be prepared, of one or two ounces in +weight, which exhibit all the markings and rings of the original wood +to a most perfect and beautiful degree. + + * * * * * + + + + +NEW AGRICULTURAL INVENTIONS. + + +Mr. Charles E. Macarthy, of Forsyth, Ga., has patented an improved +Horse Power, designed more particularly to be located beneath a gin +house for ginning cotton, but applicable for all purposes for which a +horse power is ordinarily employed. + +An improved Corn Planter has been patented by Mr. Thomas A. Sammons, +of Lewisburg, West Va. This corn planter is designed to plant the +corn in straight rows both ways and at varying distances apart. It +is constructed upon the general principle of a reciprocating slide, +passing alternately beneath a hopper, and carrying a number of grains +from beneath the same to a discharge outlet. + +An improved machine for Cutting the Bands of Gavels or bundles of +grain, and feeding the same to the cylinder of a thrasher, has been +patented by Mr. James M. O'Neall, of Fort Worth, Texas. + +An improved Sulky Breaking Plow has been patented by Mr. Edward T. +Hunter, of Hallsville, Ill. This is an improved sulky attachment for +breaking plows, which is so constructed as to receive any ordinary +plow; it may be adjusted to cause the plow to work deeper or shallower +in the ground, and will allow the plow to be turned to either side. + +Mr. Osman C. Du Souchet, of Alexandria, Mo., has invented an improved +Check Row Corn Planter and Drill, which is so constructed that its +operating mechanism may be at all times under the control of the +driver. It will plant the corn in accurate check row, and is easily +controlled. + +An improved Thrashing Machine has been patented by Mr. Peter Parrott, +of Red Bud, Ill. This is an improvement in the class of thrashing +machines having an attachment for removing dust from the space in +front of the cylinder, and having pickers for loosening or shaking the +grain from straw delivered from the cylinder. + +An improved Corn Planter has been patented by Mr. John H. Zarley, of +Oakland, Ill. The object of this invention is to provide an efficient +and cheaply constructed corn planter, which may be drawn forward by +horses, but is arranged so that the seed valves may be operated by +hand. + +Messrs. Clayton M. Van Orman and James M. Hagenbaugh, of Athens, +Mich., have patented an improved Grain Separator, in which the +arrangement of the screens, feedboard, and blast of a fanning mill +effect the thorough removal from the grain of all impurities. Only two +screens are employed. + +An improved Churning Apparatus has been patented by Messrs. William +H. Foster and Isaac C. Roberts, of Louisburg, Kan. It is simple, +inexpensive, convenient, and effective in operation. It will bring the +butter very quickly, and at the same time gather it. + +An improved Plow has been patented by Mr. Robert B. Mitchell, of +Minneapolis, Kan. The object of this invention is to improve the +construction of sod, stirring, and other plows, so that the cutter +may be moved forward as it is worn or ground off. It prevents roots, +grass, and other trash from gathering upon the share. + +Messrs. John B. Martin and William T. Carothers, of Clarence, Mo., +have patented an improved Hay Loader capable of placing hay upon +stacks or ricks, or upon wagons. It is simple in its construction and +effective in its operation. + + * * * * * + + + + +NAPHTHA AND BENZINE. + + +We have often been asked the difference between benzine and naphtha, +many people wanting to know whether naphtha didn't include benzine, or +whether it wasn't the same thing under a marketable name. A prominent +refiner says that benzine is the first product that arises from the +process of refining crude oil, and bears the same relation to naphtha +that that distillate does to refined oil. In other words, benzine +is crude naphtha. The reason it is not quotable under the name of +benzine, therefore, is because it has to be reduced to naphtha before +it is marketable in any extensive quantity. + +The process that benzine is subject to, to produce naphtha, is not a +separate business, but is carried on by the regular oil refiners in +the same stills and retorts that the refined oil is produced. The +benzine is treated with sulphuric acid, and the result is naphtha, +which is in wide demand in Europe, especially in France, for the +purpose of producing aniline dyes, while it is also put to many other +purposes. + +This demand is partially instrumental in keeping up its price, but its +rapid evaporation also has a tendency in that direction, as any large +seller of it has to take into consideration the depreciation that +might take place by the time he sells it on that account, and for +the same reason buyers give no more orders than immediate necessity +requires. + +All refiners, however, do not produce naphtha, but some of them sell +the benzine, which is largely used for fuel purposes, for which it is +much better than coal, as it is not only absolutely cheaper, but gives +a steadier heat.--_Parker Daily_. + + * * * * * + +For joining the porcelain heads to the metal spikes used for +ornamental nails, the _Prakt. Maschinen Construct._, recommends the +use of a thick paste made of a mixture of Portland cement and glue. + + * * * * * + + + + +TO INVENTORS. + + +An experience of more than thirty years, and the preparation of not +less than one hundred thousand applications for patents at home +and abroad, enable us to understand the laws and practice on both +continents, and to possess unequaled facilities for procuring patents +everywhere. In addition to our facilities for preparing drawings and +specifications quickly, the applicant can rest assured that his case +will be filed in the Patent Office without delay. Every application, +in which the fees have been paid, is sent complete--including the +model--to the Patent Office the same day the papers are signed at our +office, or received by mail, so there is no delay in filing the case, +a complaint we often hear from other sources. Another advantage to the +inventor in securing his patent through the Scientific American Patent +Agency, it insures a special notice of the invention in the SCIENTIFIC +AMERICAN, which publication often opens negotiations for the sale of +the patent or manufacture of the article. A synopsis of the patent +laws in foreign countries may be found on another page, and persons +contemplating the securing of patents abroad are invited to write to +this office for prices, which have been reduced in accordance with +the times, and our perfected facilities for conducting the business. +Address MUNN & CO., office SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN. + + * * * * * + + + + +BUSINESS AND PERSONAL. + + * * * * * + +_The Charge for Insertion under this head is One Dollar a line for +each insertion; about eight words to a line. Advertisements must be +received at publication office as early as Thursday morning to appear +in next issue._ + + * * * * * + + +Magic Lanterns and Stereopticons of all prices. Views illustrating +every subject for public exhibitions. Profitable business for a man +with a small capital. Also lanterns for college and home amusement. 74 +page catalogue free. McAllister, Mf. Optician, 49 Nassau St., N. Y. + +Chapman Valves and Hydrants received the highest award at Mass. +Mechanics Fair. Chapman Valve Manuf. Co., Boston, Mass. + +Wanted, cheap.--2d hand Lathe Chuck to swing 17 in. Iron sheave. +Penfield Block Works, Lockport, N. Y. + +To Manufacturers.--Messrs. Bignall & Ostrander, 806-808 N. 2d St., +St. Louis, Mo., have added to their present establishment a Machinery +Department, from whence the wants of the Western machine-using public +will be supplied. Manufacturers will do well to correspond with them. + +On actual test the Eaton Sulky Plow is ahead. Manufacturers wanted to +build them. Territory for sale. Address E. C. Eaton, Pinckneyville, +Ill. + +Sir Henry Halford says Vanity Fair Smoking Tobacco has no equal. +Received highest award at Paris, 1878. + +Wanted.--Tools for the manufacture of Wagon Axles and Springs. Address +Box 66, Lambertville, N. J. + +For Sale.--Norwalk Engine, 16 x 42; little used; excellent order; very +cheap. Address Box 106, Meriden, Ct. + +H. W. Johns' Asbestos Liquid Paints contain no water. They are the +best and most economical paints in the world for general purposes, +and for wood and iron structures exposed to severe tests of climatic +changes, saltwater atmosphere, etc. They are 50 per cent more durable +than the best white lead and linseed oil. + +1,000 2d hand machines for sale. Send stamp for descriptive price +list. Forsaith & Co., Manchester, N. H. + +Florey & Smith, San Francisco, make a specialty of introducing useful +inventions in the Pacific States. + +J. C. Hoadley, Consulting Engineer and Mechanical and Scientific +Expert, Lawrence, Mass. + +Nickel Plating.--Wenzel's Patent Perforated Carbon Box Anode for +holding Grain Nickel. A. C. Wenzel, 114 Center St., New York City. + +Bolt Forging Machine & Power Hammers a specialty. Send for circulars. +Forsaith & Co., Manchester, N. H. + +For Sale.--A 6 x 6 Upright Yacht Engine, 6 H.P. Wm. F. Codd, Nantucket, +Mass. + +For Solid Wrought Iron Beams, etc., see advertisement. Address Union +Iron Mills, Pittsburgh, Pa., for lithograph, etc. + +The Lawrence Engine is the best. See ad. page 381. + +Sheet Metal Presses, Ferracute Co., Bridgeton, N. J. + +The only Engine in the market attached to boiler having cold bearings. +F. F. & A. B. Landis, Lancaster, Pa. + +Brush Electric Light.--20 lights from one machine. Latest & best +light. Telegraph Supply Co., Cleveland, O. + +The Lathes, Planers, Drills, and other Tools, new and second-hand, of +the Wood & Light Machine Company, Worcester, are to be sold out very +low by the George Place Machinery Agency, 121 Chambers St., New York. + +For the best advertising at lowest prices in Scientific, Mechanical, +and other Newspapers, write to E. N. Freshman & Bros., Advertising +Agents, 186 W. 4th St., Cin., O. + +For Town and Village use, comb'd Hand Fire Engine & Hose Carriage, +$350. Forsaith & Co., Manchester, N. H. + +Manufacturers of Improved Goods who desire to build up a lucrative +foreign trade, will do well to insert a well displayed advertisement +in the SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN Export Edition. This paper has a very large +foreign circulation. + +Brick Presses for Fire and Red Brick. Factory, 309 S. 5th St., +Philadelphia, Pa. S. P. Miller & Son. + +Punching Presses, Drop Hammers, and Dies for working Metals, etc. The +Stiles & Parker Press Co., Middletown, Conn. + +Hydraulic Presses and Jacks, new and second hand. Lathes and Machinery +for Polishing and Buffing Metals. E. Lyon & Co., 470 Grand St., N. Y. + +Nickel Plating.--A white deposit guaranteed by using our material. +Condit, Hanson & Van Winkle, Newark, N. J. English Agency, 18 Caroline +St., Birmingham. + +H. Prentiss & Co., 14 Dey St., N. Y., Manufs. Taps, Dies, Screw +Plates, Reamers, etc. Send for list. + +Diamond Engineer, J. Dickinson, 64 Nassau St., N. Y. + +Solid Emery Vulcanite Wheels--The Solid Original Emery Wheel--other +kinds imitations and inferior. Caution.--Our name is stamped in full +on all our best Standard Belting, Packing, and Hose. Buy that only. +The best is the cheapest. New York Belting and Packing Company, 37 and +38 Park Row, N. Y. + +Presses, Dies, and Tools for working Sheet Metals, etc. Fruit +and other Can Tools. Bliss & Williams, Brooklyn, N. Y., and Paris +Exposition, 1878. + +The Cameron Steam Pump mounted in Phosphor Bronze is an indestructible +machine. See advertisement. + +Wheel Press, Cotton Press, Pipe Line, and Test Mercury Gauges. T. +Shaw, 915 Ridge Ave., Philadelphia, Pa. + +The SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN Export Edition is published monthly, about the +15th of each month. Every number comprises most of the plates of the +four preceding weekly numbers of the SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN, with other +appropriate contents, business announcements etc. It forms a large and +splendid periodical of nearly one hundred quarto pages, each number +illustrated with about one hundred engravings. It is a complete record +of American progress in the arts. + +Special Planers for Jointing and Surfacing, Band and Scroll Saws, +Universal Wood-workers, etc., manufactured by Bentel, Margedant & Co., +Hamilton, Ohio. + +Boston Blower Co., Boston, Mass. Blowers, Exhaust Fans, Hot Blast +Apparatus. All parts interchangeable material and workmanship +warranted the best. Write for particulars. + +We make steel castings from 1/4 to 10,000 lbs. weight 3 times as +strong as cast iron. 12,000 Crank Shafts of this steel now running +and proved superior to wrought iron. Circulars and price, list free. +Address Chester Steel Castings Co., Evelina St., Philadelphia, Pa. + +Machine Cut Brass Gear Wheels for Models, etc. (new list). Models, +experimental work, and machine work generally. D. Gilbert & Son, 212 +Chester St., Phila., Pa. + +Elevators, Freight and Passenger, Shafting, Pulley and Hangers. L. S. +Graves & Son, Rochester, N. Y. + +Holly System of Water Supply and Fire Protection for Cities and +Villages, is fully described in SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN SUPPLEMENT, No. +140. + +Howard Patent Safety Elevators. Howard Iron Works Buffalo, N. Y. + +Mellen, Williams & Co., 57 Kilby St., Boston, Mass. Wiegand Sectional +Steam Boiler. AEtna Rocking Grate Bar. + +North's Lathe Dog. 347 N. 4th St., Philadelphia, Pa. + +Self-feeding upright Drilling Machine of superior construction. Drills +holes from 1/8 to 3/4 in. diameter Pratt & Whitney Co., Manufs., +Hartford, Conn. + +Wm. Sellers & Co., Phila., have introduced a new Injector, worked by a +single motion of a lever. + +For Shafts, Pulleys, or Hangers, call and see stock kept at 79 Liberty +St. Wm. Sellers & Co. + +The Turbine Wheel made by Risdon & Co., Mt. Holly N. J., gave the best +results at Centennial test. + +Wheels and Pinions, heavy and light, remarkably strong and durable. +Especially suited for sugar mills and similar work. Pittsburgh Steel +Casting Company, Pittsburgh, Pa. + + * * * * * + + + + +NOTES AND QUERIES [illus.] + + * * * * * + +(1) Detroit asks whether a boat propelled with a force of 3 miles an +hour on still water will with the same propelling force run 6 miles an +hour in a current running 3 miles an hour? A. We think so. + +(2) J. C. R asks: Which was the first railroad built in the United +States? That is, a regular, incorporated road, connecting two points, +and conveying passengers, freight, etc. A. We believe that the road +now known as the Baltimore and Ohio Railroad was the first in the +United States chartered for carrying on a general transportation +business. + +(3) J. R. E. asks how to make an ordinary sunshade for a telescope +when placed, and what kind of glass it is composed of. A. Any very +dark glass will answer, providing it is perfectly plane. It should be +placed between the eye and eyepiece. + +(4) W. H. G. S. writes: I wish to give a blue color to screw heads, +wire and steel. What shall I use? A. Heat them in a sand bath, or +apply shellac or copal varnish, to which a little Prussian blue has +been added. + +(5) T. McW. asks (1) for a good recipe for making Babbitt metal. A. +By weight, 4 parts copper, 8 parts antimony, 96 parts tin. 2. What is +meant by heating surface in boilers, and how is it computed? A. The +term heating surface, as ordinarily used, refers to the surface which +has water on one side, and flame or the products of combustion on the +other. 3. I have a peculiar kind of steel which I cannot harden by +fire and water, neither will it caseharden by prussiate of potash. +What can I do with it to harden it? A. Assuming your account to be +correct, we judge that you cannot harden it. + +(6) A. Van B. writes: A correspondent in your last issue asks how +to keep rubber belts from slipping. Mine slipped considerably, but I +checked it by throwing powdered rosin in between the belt and pulley +while running. The pulley soon becomes covered with a tough black +coating, very much like leather, and there is no more slip. [This +expedient can be used to advantage in certain cases, but it is +better to have a belt large enough to drive without using any +preparation.--ED.] + +(7) E. B. C. asks: 1. Does a more powerful battery produce better +results in telephone or microphone? A. A powerful battery is not +required for either. 2. Can you give me a short description of the +principle and construction of the aerophone? A. We think it has not +been perfected. + +(8) A. T. L. asks for a recipe for a liquid boot or shoe polish. A. +Clausen's ink is made as follows: Nutgalls, 8 parts; logwood extract, +10 parts; boil together in water, q. s., and add Castile soap, 4 +parts; glycerin, trace. Crocker's--Logwood extract, 6 ozs.; water, 1 +gallon; ivory black, 1.5 oz.; glycerin, 1 oz.; bichromate of potassa, +0.125 oz.; copperas, 0.125 oz.; boil together. Sefton's--Orange +shellac, 64 ozs.; alcohol, 4 gallons; pure asphaltum, 60 ozs.; neat's +foot oil, 1 pint; lampblack, q. s. Ovington's--Water, 1 gallon; +logwood extract, 6 ozs.; water, 1 gallon; borax, 6 ozs.; shellac, +1.5 oz.; water, 0.5 pint; bichromate of potassa, 0.375 oz. Mix the +solutions, and add 3 ozs. ammonia. Shaw's--Borax, 3 ozs.; orange +shellac, 5 ozs.; water, q. s.; boil and add soluble aniline black or +nigrosine, q. s. Rub the spots with strong aqueous solution of ferric +chloride, and dry before applying the dressing. + +(9) J. S. & R. M. write: 1. We propose putting in a steam engine of 20 +horse power, and we are informed there is an engine that weighs 2,700 +lbs., that has a balance wheel weighing 500 lbs., cylinder 10 x 10 +inches; cutting off at 3/4 stroke, running at 180 to 200 revolutions +a minute, and they say that it is 20 horse at 70 lbs. steam. Will such +an engine develop 20 horse power? A. The engine would develop 20 horse +power under the above conditions, if well constructed. 2. How can +we calculate the power of an engine? A. To determine the power of +an engine, multiply the mean pressure on the piston in lbs., by the +piston speed in feet per minute, and divide the product by 33,000. + +(10) A. L. G. asks: 1. With a boiler 15 inches in diameter by 30 +inches in height, with five 11/2 inch tubes 18 inches long, firebox 12 +x 12, and all made of iron plates 1/4 inch thick. What is the greatest +number of pounds of steam to the square inch it will hold, and what +fraction of a horse power will it give to an engine having a cylinder +2 x 4 inches, situated 2 feet from the boiler, and connected by 40 +inches of steam pipe? A. You can carry 150 lbs. of steam, and might +develop 1 horse power. 2. What is meant by the pitch of a wheel in a +propeller, and what is the inclination of a cylinder? A. The pitch of +a propeller is the distance it would advance in the direction of its +axis at each revolution, if it worked without slip. The inclination of +a cylinder refers to the angle made by its axis with a horizontal or +vertical line. + +(11) J. H. asks: 1. Has steel been used for portable boilers? A. Yes. +2. What size boiler is required for an engine having a 3 x 4 inch +cylinder? A. Diameter, 24 inches; height, 45 inches; heating surface, +65 to 70 square feet. + +(12) J. A. M. asks: How large must an air pump be for an engine steam +cylinder 8 x 8, making 100 revolutions per minute with 90 lbs. of +steam, allowing the pump to be 4 inches stroke, double acting, to be +attached to surface condenser? A. Diameter, 31/2 inches. + +(13) J. A. F. asks: 1. What shall I paint my boiler and smoke stack +with, and where can I get the paint? My engine is a thrashing engine, +and of course is out of doors during the fall of the year. A. Get +some black varnish made from petroleum, from a dealer in machinists' +supplies. 2. How shall I care for the boiler inside? A. Leave the +boiler perfectly dry, unless you can coat the interior with oil. 3. +What shall I do for the engine. Is it necessary to take the piston out +of cylinder and oil it? A. If the engine is to stand for some time, +remove the piston, coat it and the cylinder with tallow; the same for +the journals. Cover all finished parts of the engine with a mixture of +white lead and tallow. 4. I find my steam gauge does not indicate less +than 10 lbs. when boiler is cold. What is the trouble and how can it +be repaired? A. In such a case it is best to send the gauge to a maker +for repairs. + +(14) "Zebra" wishes to know the best test of the genuineness of +white lead; also the simplest way to try the comparative value of +two samples of ground white lead. Also the name of the best work to +consult upon the manufacture of Portland cement. A. See answer No. 29, +p. 283, current volume, SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN. Also pp. 102-105 Normandy +and Noad's "Commercial Analysis." The relative value of different +samples of white lead in oil is roughly judged from the weight of +a given measured quantity, the covering properties when compared on +glass with a sample of finest white lead, and the color and general +appearance of the sample. You may consult Reid's "Manufacture of +Portland Cement." + +(15) J. B. B. asks: Can I arrange an electric battery so as to heat a +platinum wire for the purpose of cutting wood? Is it practicable? A. +Two or three Bunsen cells will do it. It is impracticable save as an +experiment. + +(16) D. S. M. asks how to color butter to make it yellow, without +injuring it in any way. A. A little annotto is often used. If pure, it +is not injurious. + +(17) H. C. M. asks: What substances are there that will absorb light +during the day when exposed to light, and give it out again at night? +A. 1. Heat strontium theosulphate for fifteen minutes over a good +Bunsen gas lamp and then for 5 minutes over a blast lamp. 2. Heat +equal parts of strontium carbonate and lac Supt gently for 5 +minutes, then strongly for 25 minutes over a Bunsen lamp, and finally +5 minutes over a blast lamp. 3. Precipitate strong aqueous solution +of strontium chloride by means of sulphuric acid, dry the precipitate, +and heat it to redness for some time in a current of hydrogen, then +over a Bunsen lamp for 10 minutes, and for 20 minutes over a blast +lamp. Mix any of these with pure melted paraffin for use as a paint, +and expose for a time to sunlight. The two former yield a greenish +phosphorescence in the dark, the latter a bluish light. + +(18) Z. asks: Is the Great African Desert below the level of the sea, +and if so, could it be made into an inland sea by flooding from the +ocean? A. A considerable, though relatively small, portion of the +Sahara is below the sea level, and the flooding of the lowest portion +has been proposed. The greater part of North Africa lies at a higher +level, the exception being a chain of old lake beds or chotts on the +border of Algeria. + +(19) J. P. L. asks: How can I make a filter to cleanse rain water from +smoke as it passes from the roof to the cistern? The coal which is +burned here (bituminous) gives us a great deal of trouble in this +regard. A. The carbonaceous matters may be removed by passing the +water through a large barrel half filled with fine gravel and pounded, +freshly-burnt charcoal (free from dust), distributed in alternate +layers, each several inches deep. Over this spread a clean piece of +bagging, and fill in with fine gravel or coarse clean quartz sand for +12 inches or more. The inlet pipe should discharge at the bottom of +the barrel--the filtered water flowing from the top. + +(20) F. E. H. asks: Can percussion caps be so composed as to explode +when pierced by a sharp pointed needle? If so, of what should they be +composed? A. Such an arrangement is employed in the needle gun. The +composition may be of mercuric fulminate. + +(21) C. A. N. asks: What is the horse power of an engine 30 inches +stroke, 14 inches cylinder, 51 revolutions per minute, 60 lbs. mean +pressure in cylinder? + +A. Piston area = 153.94 square inches. Piston speed = 255 feet per +minute. Indicated horse power = + +153.94 x 60 x 255 +----------------- = 71.4 + 33,000 + +(22) P. O. asks: If I admit steam 100 lbs. pressure in a cylinder 15 +x 24 inches, and cut the steam off when piston has traveled 6 inches, +what will be the pressure at 6 inches, 12 inches, 18 inches, and 24 +inches, or just before it exhausts? A. The pressure will vary about in +the inverse ratio of the volume, so that, approximately, + +vol. of cylinder up to point of cut-off + clearance vol. +--------------------------------------------------------- +vol. of cylinder at any point of expansion + clearance vol. + + pressure above zero, at the given point. + = ---------------------------------------- + pressure above zero, at point of cut-off. + +(23) H. T. S. asks: What size should I make the holes in the side of a +fan wheel, 20 inches in diameter? Also what size should the nozzle +be? A. Allow an opening of from 17 to 20 square inches at inlet and +discharge. + +(24) E. M. D. writes: I am constructing a telephone according to +directions in SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN SUPPLEMENT No. 142, using a bar +magnet in place of horseshoe magnet and soft iron core. 1. Would it +reduce the strength of bar magnet to cut a thread on one end of it? +A. No. 2. Will a bar magnet, used in Bell telephone, lose its power to +such a degree as not to work? A. Not readily. 3. Is No. 22 copper wire +of sufficient size for a telephone line of 1,000 feet? A. Yes; but +larger would be better. + +(25) S. & Y. write: We have a pair of burrs on which we grind plaster. +The burrs are about 4 feet in diameter and 11/2 foot thick. We are +running them as an over runner at this time, but wish to change them +and make the lower burr run instead of the upper. Can a pair of burrs +of the above size be run in that way, and if so, what is the maximum +speed at which they can be run? A. If properly arranged, you can +run them, after the change, as fast as is allowable for overrunning +stones. + +(26) J. J. asks: Which tire makes a wheel the strongest, 1.25 x 0.50 +inch iron, or 1.25 x 5/16 steel tire? A. The steel tire will be the +strongest, comparing good qualities of steel and iron. + +(27) E. L. W. asks: Is a ton (2,000 lbs.) of first class coke equal in +heat giving power to a ton (2,000 lbs.) of coal? If not, please +give me the relative value of coke and coal in heat giving power? +A. Calling the evaporative power of good anthracite coal 1, good +bituminous coal rates at about 0.92, and coke from 0.89 to 0.95. + +(28) J. W. S. asks what to impregnate paper with to give it an +agreeable smell while burning. A. You may try a strong ethereal or +alcoholic solution of benzoin, tolu, storax, olibanum or labdanum. +To burn well the paper should first be impregnated with an aqueous +solution of niter and dried. + +(29) M. G. asks whether hydrogen and oxygen can be produced as rapidly +and copiously in the decomposition of water by the galvanic battery as +by the action of sulphuric acid on zinc or lead in the one case, +and by heating chlorate of potassa in the other. A. Yes, with a very +powerful current. + +(30) T. G. H. asks for names of useful treatises on mechanical +movements. A. "Scientific American Reference Book," and "507 +Mechanical Movements." + +(31) R. B. T. writes: We have just set up a new engine; the cylinder +is 8 x 12, has a common slide valve. We think the valve is too short; +it is set 0.125 inch open when on center, takes steam 10 inches before +cutting off; the exhaust is very free. The engine runs about 110 +revolutions per minute. We think we could save steam by using a longer +valve, and cut-off about 5/8 stroke, and make the exhaust space in the +valve shorter, so that it will shut in a portion of the exhaust and +form a cushion for the piston. About how much of the exhaust can +we shut in without overdoing it? A. You can obtain a good action by +making the ratio of compression equal to the ratio of expansion, +with the proviso that the final cushion pressure must not exceed the +initial pressure. + +(32) D. B. L. writes: Our boiler after being repaired was tested at +110 lbs. cold water pressure. Three days after it gave out where it +was repaired at 58 lbs. steam pressure. To find the leak we put on +80 lbs. cold water pressure, and could not find it. We then put steam +pressure at 40 lbs., which made the leak very great, whereas with +cold water pressure we could find none. Can you explain it? A. The +phenomenon is probably due to the change of shape in the boiler when +heated. + +(33) F. C. writes: Our engine is a plain slide valve engine, 24 x 9, +steam following almost to end of stroke. How shall I make a valve to +cut off at 3/4? Our exhaust now is 1 inch, steam ports 0.75, bridges +0.75. Length of valve 41/2 inches, cavity 2-3/8, travel of valve 2 +inches. Will I have to enlarge the steam chest; the valve uses the +whole length of it now? A. As the length and travel of valve must be +increased, it will be necessary to lengthen the steam chest, unless +you can apply an independent cut-off valve. + +(34) T. P. writes: A small basement room 9 feet high is to be heated +by a furnace in an adjoining room. By carrying the hot air pipe +through the partition midway between the floor and the ceiling it will +stand at an angle of about 45 deg.. If carried through at the top of the +room it will of course be nearer vertical. In which position of the +hot air pipe will the room be most easily heated? A. Place the hot air +pipe in the position first described. Take the cold air from a point +near the floor through a flue opening above the roof. + +(35) G. M. P. asks: What is a good and cheap substitute for salt for +raising the temperature of water to 230 deg. Fah.? A. An oil bath is often +used instead. Chloride of calcium will answer as well as salt, though +not so cheap. + +[Illustration: Right Triangle--sides 15, 20, 25ft.] + +(36) J. D. reminds us of an old and good method of drawing a +perpendicular to a straight line for the purpose of squaring +foundations, etc. From the corner of the foundation take two lines +respectively 15 and 20 feet, and connect them by a line of 25 feet; +the angle included between the two shorter lines will be a right +angle. The numbers 3, 4, 5, or, as in the present case, their +multiples 15, 20, 25, are taken to measure respectively the +perpendicular, base, and slant side of the triangle. It is obvious +that any scale may be used so long as the ratio of 3, 4, 5, is +observed. + +(37) J. H. asks what kind of iron to use in making cast iron +armatures. A. Soft gray iron. + +(38) F. H. C. asks: How can I etch cheaply on glass to imitate ground +figures or transparent figures on a ground background? A. For this +purpose the sand blast is now generally used; the glass is covered +with a film of wax or varnish, through which, with suitable needles or +gravers, is etched the design; a fine sharp silicious sand impelled +by a current of air is then directed from a suitable jet over the +prepared surface, and the etching is accomplished in a few minutes. +Glass is etched also by hydrofluoric acid; the plate may be prepared +as for the sand blast, and placed face downwards over a shallow leaden +tray, containing powdered fluorspar moistened with strong oil of +vitriol and gently warmed; the gaseous hydrofluoric acid given off +rapidly etches the portions of the glass not protected by the wax or +varnish. Hydrofluoric acid should be used with great care. + +(39) L. H. writes: I have seen it asserted that the parasites that +infest the Asiatic tiger's paw are an exact miniature image of itself. +Is this so? A. No. + +(40) J. G. B. asks if there is any way of melting brass in a common +sand crucible for castings of a pound or so in weight for a small +engine. A. You may melt small quantities of brass in any common stove +having a good draught, using a coal fire. You may use borax as a flux. + +(41) F. & Co. ask: 1. In making a telephone as described in Figs. 4 +and 5, SUPPLEMENT 142, must the diaphragm be entirely free, or can it +be punched and the screws which secure the flange pass through it? A. +The diaphragm should not be punched. 2. In new form of telephone in No +20, current volume, must there be a battery in the circuit, or is the +telephone sufficient to work it? A. A battery is required. + +(42) J. M. B. asks: What will prevent the hair from falling out? A. +Keep the pores of the skin open by frequent bathing and change of +underclothing. Bathe the head with clean soft water, and stimulate +the scalp with a moderately stiff brush morning and evening. The head +should be occasionally cleansed with a weak solution of glycerin soap +in dilute spirit of wine, with care to remove all traces of soap from +the hair. Use no pomades or oils of any kind. + +(43) B. H. P. asks (1) how to make malleable iron, such as used in +wrenches. A. Malleable iron castings are made from mottled iron. They +are cleaned by tumbling and then packed in iron boxes with alternating +layers of rolling mill scale. The boxes are carefully luted and packed +in an annealing furnace, where they are kept at a white heat for a +week or more, and then allowed to cool gradually. 2. How is steel +or iron made to adhere to the face of the jaws of the wrench? A. By +welding. + +(44) J. G. E. asks: What is the highest column of water that can +be raised from a well by means of a siphon pump with 60 lbs. steam, +likewise a 1 inch column of water with 60 lbs. steam? A. Lift, from 26 +to 27 feet. + +(45) W. H. W. asks: 1. Is there any solution excepting rubber that +will make cloth thoroughly waterproof, or at least withstand the +attack of water for an hour or so? It should be applied by dipping +the cloth in the solution. A. Linseed oil boiled with a little wax and +litharge is useful for some purposes. Cloth prepared with paraffin, +balata gum, the gum of the asclet pias or milkweed, naphtha solution +of the dried pulp of the bamboo berry, anhydrous aluminum soaps (see +pp. 149 and 159, "Science Record," 1874), are also employed. 2. Is +there any chemical that could be combined with the solution, imparting +some property to the same for which rats or mice would have an +antipathy so as to prevent their attacks? A. A trace of phenol will +generally suffice. + +(46) J. L. asks: Is the balata gum softened by animal oils or fat? A. +Yes. + +(47) P. L. W. asks. What distance would a 100 lb. weight have to fall +to run a sewing machine for 5 hours? A. For an ordinary family sewing +machine, requiring about one thirtieth of a horse power, the weight +would have to fall about 3,300 feet in the 5 hours. + +(48) W. G. R. asks: 1. What is the valve yoke of a steam engine? A. +We presume you refer to the rectangular yoke that receives the back +of the valve in the class of engines having balanced valves. 2. What +should be the diameter of the bore of an engine of 1 horse power with +100 lbs. pressure, also the length of stroke? A. Diameter, 23/4 inches; +stroke, 41/2 inches. 3. How are the back gears of a lathe made so as +to be thrown out of gear when it is wished to use the lathe at a high +speed? A. Ordinarily by a cam and lever, or tight and loose joint. 4. +Would 1/64 of an inch thickness of sheet steel be strong enough for +the boiler of a small model locomotive? How much pressure would it +stand to the inch? A. If the diameter does not exceed 3 inches, you +can carry a pressure of from 50 to 60 lbs. per square inch. + +(49) J. W. W. asks: Which will stand the most pressure, a piece of +round iron 1 inch long and 1 inch in diameter, or a piece of gas pipe +the same dimensions, both being set upon end? A. The round iron. + +(50) W. M. B. writes: 1. I have one eighth inch basswood, cherry, +butternut and walnut. Which do you advise for the sounding board of a +microphone and Hughes telephone? A. Either will do, but pine or spruce +is better. 2. Would a glazed earthen jar do for the outside of battery +described in SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN SUPPLEMENT, No. 149? A. Yes. 3. Could +I make insulated wire myself? If so, how? A. Wire may be insulated by +giving it a coat of shellac varnish and allowing it to become dry and +nearly hard before winding. + +(51) W. H. S. asks how to satin finish tubing like sample sent. A. The +specimen has been electro-plated with silver in the usual manner, +and the electric current then reversed for a few moments, thus +redissolving a portion of the plate, the remainder presenting the +peculiar satin like luster. + +(52) S. W. C. asks: Has carbon for telephone purposes ever been made +by subjecting the black deposited by a flame to a heavy pressure? A. +Yes. Edison's carbons are made in this manner. + +(53) "Hardware" asks: 1. Where is best to take hot air in a room, at +register near ceiling or in floor? A. At or near the floor. 2. Where +is best place to have ventilation, near floor or near ceiling? A. +If connected with a flue having a good draught it should be near the +floor. + +(54) R. W. J. asks: What causes the cracking noise in the pipes of a +steam heating apparatus, when a fire has been started to warm up the +building? Is it the water in the pipes made by condensed steam, or is +it the expansion of the pipes from being heated? A. The noise is due +to both causes in some degree, but principally to the water, which +produces violent blows. + +(55) C. N. A. asks how to temper steel tools for working on stone or +similar work. There is some preparation which is put in water which +accomplishes the purpose when the steel is heated and plunged in. A. +Heat the tools to a cherry red, and plunge in clean, moderately cool +water. A little common salt is sometimes added to the water. + +(56) G. B. asks: 1. Is the height to which water is raised by a +hydraulic ram measured from the ram itself or from the spring from +which the supply comes? A. From the ram. 2. Can a hydraulic ram be +constructed to discharge 1,000 gallons of water per minute? A. Yes. + +(57) L. D. writes that benzine will answer much better to exterminate +roaches, moths, etc., than anything else. It will not hurt furniture +in the least, will evaporate, and can be easily applied. + + + + +MINERALS, ETC.--Specimens have been received from the following +correspondents, and examined, with the results stated: + + +M. B. W.--No. 1 is a silicious clay--it might be useful in the +manufacture of some grades of pottery, etc. No. 2 is a ferruginous +shale--contains about 80 per cent. of silica and 10 per cent. of +alumina, besides lime, magnesia, iron oxide, and water.--W. S.--It is +fibrous talc--talc of good quality is in considerable demand for paper +making and other purposes.--W. G. H.--The sand contains no precious +metal--the glittering particles are mica.--S. F.--The specimen you +send consists of a mass of the long hairs which have been attached +to the seeds of the "milkweed" (_asclepias_), or, as it is sometimes +called, from the silky nature of these appendages, "silkweed." We +believe that this material is put to no other economic use at present +than that of a filling for cushions and pillows. The beauty of this +silk like down long ago attracted attention, and many unsuccessful +attempts have been made to put it to some practical use in the arts; +but, as you have probably noticed, the hairs are both brittle and +weak, and an examination with a lens will show that it wants the +roughness and angularity necessary to fit it for being spun like other +fibers. It has, however, been mixed with cotton and woven into fabrics +having a silky luster and capable of taking brilliant dyes, but the +manufacture has never been prosecuted. The plants, though widely +distributed over the United States, and quite common, are nevertheless +not abundant enough in a wild state to afford much of a supply, and we +believe no experiments have been made in cultivating them. + + * * * * * + +Any numbers of the SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN SUPPLEMENT referred to in these +columns may be had at this office. Price 10 cents each. + + * * * * * + + + + +COMMUNICATIONS RECEIVED. + + +The Editor of the SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN acknowledges with much pleasure +the receipt of original papers and contributions on the following +subjects: + +Manufacture of Porous Cups for Tyndall Grove Battery. By W. H. S. + +Cylinder Condensation. By F. F. H. + +Sawdust. By W. H. M. + +Keely Motor. By G. R. S. + +Firing. By A. P. A. + +Steam Launches. By G. F. S. + + * * * * * + + + + +HINTS TO CORRESPONDENTS. + + +We renew our request that correspondents, in referring to former +answers or articles, will be kind enough to name the date of the paper +and the page, or the number of the question. + +Many of our correspondents make inquiries which cannot properly be +answered in these columns. Such inquiries, if signed by initials only, +are liable to be cast into the waste basket. + +Persons desiring special information which is purely of a personal +character, and not of general interest, should remit from $1 to $5, +according to the subject, as we cannot be expected to spend time and +labor to obtain such information without remuneration. + + * * * * * + + + + +English Patents Issued to Americans. From November 8 to November 12, +inclusive. Electric light.--T. A. Edison, Menlo Park, N. J. Feed water +apparatus.--S. J. Hayes et al.,-------. + + +Pipe, manufacture of.--W. Radde, N. Y. city. + +Potato digger.--L. A. Aspinwall, Albany, N. Y. + +Refrigerator.--J. A. Whitney, N. Y. city. + +Screw cutting machinery.--C. D. Rogers, Providence, R. I. + +Sewing machine.--Wilson Sewing Machine Company, Chicago, Ill. + +Wire machinery.--C. D. Rogers, Providence, R. I. + + * * * * * + + + + +[OFFICIAL.] + +INDEX OF INVENTIONS + +FOR WHICH + +Letters Patent of the United States were + +Granted in the Week Ending + +October 15, 1878, + +AND EACH BEARING THAT DATE. + +[Those marked (r) are reissued patents.] + + * * * * * + + +A complete copy of any patent in the annexed list, including both the +specifications and drawings, will be furnished from this office for +one dollar. In ordering, please state the number and date of the +patent desired, and remit to Munn & Co., 37 Park Row, New York city. + + * * * * * + + +Animal trap, B. H. Noelting 209,068 +Axle box, car, J. N. Smith 208,993 +Axle skein, vehicle, L. A. Winchester 209,096 +Ballot box, W. L. Barnes 208,951 +Bed bottom, F. W. Mitchell 208,917 +Bed bottom, spring, H. Pitcher 208,987 +Bed lounge, H. S. Carter 209,019 +Bed, spring, A. J. Lattin 208,979 +Bedstead fastening, L. P. Clark 209,022 +Boilers, low water alarm for steam, G. H. Crosby 208,962 +Boot and shoe counter support, etc., J. Wissen 208,943 +Bootjack, C. Tyson 209,091 +Brake, vacuum, F. W. Eames 208,895 +Bran scourer, R. Tyson 209,092 +Broom, M. T. Boult 209,017 +Brush, A. C. Estabrook 208,898 +Camera, J. W. T. Cadett 208,956 +Can, E. Norton 209,070 +Can, metallic, J. Broughton 209,009 +Can, oil, A. E. Gardner 209,037 +Can, sheet metal, A. N. Lapierre 209,060 +Car bumper, S. M. Cummings (r) 8,448 +Car coupling, J. Simmons 208,934 +Car draw bar attachment, railway, J. H. Smitt 208,994 +Car journal box, F. M. Alexander 208,947 +Car running gear, railway, J. C. Weaver 209,093 +Cars, dust deflector for, Morgan & Gilleland 209,066 +Carbureter, air, G. Reznor 209,076 +Carriage, C. H. Palmer, Jr. 208,923 +Carriage seats, corner iron for, L. Emerson 208,971 +Carriage top standard, F. W. Whitney 209,097 +Cartridge loading machine, G. S. Slocum 208,935 +Cartridges, machine for gauging, J. H. Gill 208,903 +Casting andirons, mould for, S. E. Jones 209,054 +Casting temple rollers, mould for, J. B. Stamour 208,997 +Chair for children, high, J. Nichols (r) 8,454 +Chair, reclining, N. N. Horton 208,907 +Chalk, sharpener for tailor's, J. Butcher 208,955 +Churn, J. H. Folliott 209,033 +Churn, reciprocating, L. B. Wilson 208,941 +Clasp, T. P. Taylor 208,998 +Clock striking attachment, D. C. Wolf 209,098 +Cock, steam, G. H. Crosby 208,961 +Coin holder, C. H. Carpenter 208,958 +Coin holder, B. McGovern 208,984 +Coin measure, C. H. Fuller 208,902 +Coke oven, W. H. Rosewarne 208,930 +Combing machine, Rushton & Macqueen 208,991 +Cooler and filter, water, J. C. Jewett 208,909 +Cooler, water, G. W. Malpass 208,913 +Cotton gin, J. B. Hull 209,049 +Crucible machine, J. C. Clime 208,960 +Cultivator, J. C. Bean 209,005 +Cultivator, B. H. Cross 208,964 +Cultivator, C. Nash 208,921 +Dental foil package, R. S. Williams 209,002 +Dental plugger, W. G. A. Bonwill 209,006 +Desk, H. E. Moon 208,919 +Doffer combs, operator for, E. Wright 208,946 +Draught equalizer, L. O. Brekke 209,007 +Dredging machine, J. B. Eads 208,894 +Drill cleaner, grain, J. W. Lucas 208,982 +Dummy, H. H. Baker 208,881 +Ear ring, W. P. Dolloff 208,968 +Electric machine, dynamo, E. Weston 209,094 +Elevator, windlass water, J. Knipscheer 209,057 +End gate fastening, F. Rock 208,928 +Evaporator, fruit and vegetable, J. W. Powers 208,925 +Excavating machine, J. T. Dougine 208,893 +Exercising machine, W. J. O. Bryon, Jr. 208,954 +Exhaust nozzle, N. J. White 208,939 +Fabric cutter, Muehling & Davis 208,920 +Feathers for dusters, G. M. Richmond 209,080 +Fence, J. Williams 209,095 +Fence, picket, Terry & W. W. Green, Jr. 209,089 +Firearm, breech-loading, H. C. Bull 209,010 +Firearm, breech-loading, J. D. Coon 208,889 +Fire escape, V. Wohlmann 208,944 +Firekindler, T. M. Benner 208,882 +Firekindler, E. J. Norris 209,069 +Fluting machine, C. G. Cabell (r) 8,453 +Fork, W. H. Kretsinger 209,058 +Fuel compressor, W. H. Rosewarne 208,929 +Gas burner, pressure governing, J. N. Chamberlain 209,021 +Gas burners, apparatus for, A. L. Bogart 209,016 +Gate, C. D. & I. Haldeman 209,040 +Gate, J. S. Henshaw 208,976 +Gate, Nason & Wilson (r) 8,456 +Grain binder, M. A. Keller 209,059 +Grain separator, G. W. Earhart 208,896 +Gun, air, B. T. Babbitt 209,014 +Harness, neck yoke attachment for, J. S. Nelson 208,922 +Harrow, sulky, S. C. Dix 209,028 +Harvester rake, J. Barnes 208,950 +Harvester reel, Hodges & Mohler 209,047 +Head light, locomotive, E. L. Hall 209,041 +Heels, turner for wooden, Prenot & Marchal 208,989 +Hide and skin dresser, C. Molinier 208,918 +Hitching post, Thomas & Knox 209,090 +Hoe. T. Weiss 209,000 +Hog cholera compound, M. Hemmingway 208,975 +Horse collar, J. J. Crowley 209,025 +Horse power, C. H. Baker 208,948 +Horsepower, A. B. Farquhar 209,032 +Horse toe weight, J. W. Bopp 208,927 +Ice, manufacturing, A. Albertson (r) 8,455 +Indicator, water level, E. Jerome 209,052 +Journal, R. Macdonald 208,983 +Journal bearing, W. W. Smalley 209,084 +Knife, chopping, W. Millspaugh 209,065 +Knob attachment, door, J. F. Peacock 208,924 +Lamp holder, A. A. Noyes 209,071 +Lamp bowl, F. Rhind 209,077 +Lamp chimney, nursery, E. Mecier 208,916 +Lamp, miner's, W. Roberts 209,082 +Lamp, self-extinguishing, F. Rhind 209,078 +Lantern, J. H. Irwin 209,051 +Lantern, signal. H. E. Pond (r) 8,457 +Latch, B. W. Foster 209,034 +Lathe for turning regular forms, E. A. Marsh 209,064 +Lead, refining, impure, N. S. Keith 209,056 +Leather skiving machine, M. M. Clough 208,959 +Leather splitting machine, A. E. Whitney 209,001 +Loom temple, J. B. Stamour 209,101 +Lubricator, N. Seibert 208,932 +Lubricator, steam cylinder, N. Seibert 208,931 +Marble, slate, etc., ornamenting, W. K. Lorenz 209,062 +Match dipping machine, A. R. Sprout 208,996 +Meter, steam diaphragm, C. Holly 209,048 +Middlings bolt, M. Inskeep 209,050 +Middlings separator, G. T. Smith. 208,936 +Musical instrument, E. P. Needham (r) 8,451 +Musical string instruments, key for, F. Z. Nicolier 208,985 +Needle, J. Burrows 209,018 +Oat meal machine, Eberhard & Turner 208,970 +Ordnance, operating heavy, H. C. Bull 209,011 +Ore separator, P. Plant 209,074 +Oven, hot blast, Miles & Burghardt 208,915 +Package wrapper, G. V. Hecker 209,044 +Packing for piston rods, metallic, M. H. Gerry 208,973 +Pan cover, milk, C. C. Fairlamb 208,900 +Paper feeding apparatus, F. H. Lauten 208,980 +Paper making machines, box for, C. Young 209,003 +Paper pulp, reducing wood to, Cornell & Tollner 208,890 +Peach parer, W. S. Plummer 208,988 +Pen, puncturing, J. M. Griest 208,905 +Pessary, medicated, T. N. Berlin 208,883 +Pipe, smoking, W. H. Caddy 208,886 +Planter, corn, Brigham & Flenniken 208,885 +Planter, grain, C. E. McBonn 208,914 +Planter, seed, G. A. Woods 208,945 +Plaster bandages, making, C. G. Hill 209,045 +Plow, C. Myers 209,067 +Plow and harrow attachment, shovel, A. Heartsill 209,043 +Plow and harrow, W. G. Himrod 209,046 +Plow clevis, H. Estes 208,899 +Plow, hillside, shovel, and subsoil, E. Tate 209,088 +Plow, sulky, F. H. Isaacs 208,978 +Press, cotton and hay, Tappey & Steel 209,087 +Printing and painting machine, O. Currier 208,892 +Printing, photo-mechanical, M. R. Freeman 209,036 +Propelling vessels, P. Boisset 208,952 +Pulleys to wheels, engaging, Blake & Davis 208,884 +Pump, S. Stucky 209,086 +Pump, double acting lift, Dean & Pike 209,027 +Rafter, F. M. Covert 209,024 +Railway rails, muffling, A. Atwood 208,880 +Railway signal, C. E. Hanscom 209,042 +Railway signal, electro-magnetic, H. W. Spang 208,995 +Railway track, B. F. Card 208,957 +Rake, horse hay, W. Adriance 209,004 +Rolling mills, bearing for, S. W. Baldwin 208,949 +Roofs, attaching slates to, S. Farquhar 209,031 +Rope holding reel, C. N. Cass 209,020 +Rosettes from wood, making, J. H. Burnshow 239,012 +Seal, baggage, E. J. Brooks 208,953 +Seal, metallic, E. J. Brooks 209,008 +Seeding machine, S. O. Campbell 208,887 +Sewing machine, C. S. Cushman 209,026 +Sewing machine, J. A. Davis 208,967 +Sewing machine, L. Evans 209,030 +Sewing machine, book, J. S. Lever 209,061 +Sewing machine, hem stitching, J. A. Lakin 208,911 +Sewing machine tuck marker, G. Rehfuss 209,075 +Shaft and pulley coupling, H. C. Crowell 208,965 +Shears, metal, W. G. Collins 208,888 +Ships unloading grain from W. Stanton (r) 8,452 +Shoe, J. F. Emerson 208,897 +Shutter bower, T. Thorn 208,937 +Shutter worker, W. Jones 209,055 +Sign, W. Gulden 208,974 +Sinks, measuring and weighing, D. T. Winter 208,942 +Sled, stone and log, W. Gregg 209,039 +Sleigh, propeller, R. Schluter 209,083 +Spittoon, T. Loughran 208,981 +Spring, car, G. F. Godley 208,904 +Spring, vehicle, E. Chamberlin (r) 8,449, 8,450 +Spring, vehicle, C. W. Fillmore 208,901 +Spring, vehicle, H. R. Huie 208,977 +Steamer, feed, Machamer & McCulloch 209,063 +Stirrup, saddle, J. M. Freeman 208,972 +Stove board, A. C. Stoessiger 209,085 +Stove cover and check damper, H. Ritter 209,081 +Stove pipe shelf, L. W. Turner 208,938 +Stoves, foot bar and rail for, J. Jewett 209,053 +Stoves, hood for cooking, S. Cromer 208,891 +Stump puller. W. A. Webb 208,999 +Sugar, manufacture of hard, J. O. Donner 209,029 +Switch cords, tip for, T. B. Doolittle 208,969 +Table folding, R. M. Lambie 208,912 +Tablet, writing, W. O. Davis 208,966 +Target, W. Kuhn 208,910 +Ticket, passenger, A. C. Sheldon 208,933 +Ticket-reel. T. D. Haehnlen 208,906 +Toy money box J. Gerard 209,038 +Treadle power, I. M. Rhodes 209,079 +Turbines, steam and other, P. C. Humblot 208,908 +Valve, J. Patterson 208,986 +Valve, feed water regulating, E. C. Da Silva 208,992 +Valve gear, steam engine, J. Butcher 209,013 +Ventilator, T. Owens 209,072 +Wagon jack, W. B. Bartram 209,015 +Wagon jack, Williams & Dodge 208,940 +Washing machine, D. Coman 209,023 +Washing machine, A. R. Fowler 209,035 +Washing machine, F. F. Reynolds 208,990 +Water gauge, G. H. Crosby 208,963 +Weighing apparatus, J. H. Wright 209,099 +Window, A. K. Phillips 209,073 +Window frame, C. Rebhun 208,926 +Wreaths, machine for twining, G. B. Shepard 209,100 + + +TRADE MARKS. + +Cigars, cigarettes, etc., E. Hilson 6,726 +Cigars, etc., Engelbrecht Fox & Co. 6,724, 6,725 +Disinfecting compound, Hance Bros. & White 6,718 +Gin, Hoffheimer Brothers 6,729 +Lamp chimneys, Norcross, Mellen & Co. 6,730 +Liquid cements. W. H. Sanger 6,731 +Malt extract, Tarrant & Co. 6,722 +Matches, J. Eaton & Son 6,727 +Mustard and spices, H. B. Sherman 6,720, 6,721 +Perfumery, J. T. Lanman 6,719 +Playing cards, The N. Y. Consolidated Card Co. 6,723 +Smoking tobacco, H. W. Meyer 6,728 +Wash blue, F. Damcke 6,711 + + +DESIGNS. + +Carpet, C. Magee 10,870 +Cigar boxes, Weller & Repetti 10,871 +Font of printing types, J. M. Conner 10,868 +Group of statuary, J. Rogers 10,869 +Handkerchiefs, J. Grimshaw 10,866, 10,867 + + * * * * * + + +THE SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN + +EXPORT EDITION. + + * * * * * + + +PUBLISHED MONTHLY. + + * * * * * + + +THE SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN Export Edition is a large and SPLENDID +PERIODICAL, issued once a month, forming a complete and interesting +Monthly Record of all Progress in Science and the Useful Arts +throughout the World. Each number contains about ONE HUNDRED LARGE +QUARTO PAGES, profusely illustrated, embracing: + +(1.) Most of the plates and pages of the four preceding weekly issues +of the SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN, with its SPLENDID ENGRAVINGS AND VALUABLE +INFORMATION. + +(2.) Prices Current, Commercial, Trade, and Manufacturing +Announcements of Leading Houses. In connection with these +Announcements many of the Principal Articles of American Manufacture +are exhibited to the eye of the reader by means of SPLENDID +ENGRAVINGS. + +This is by far the most satisfactory and superior Export Journal ever +brought before the public. + +Terms for Export Edition, FIVE DOLLARS A YEAR, sent prepaid to any +part of the world. Single copies, 50 cents. For sale at this office. +To be had at all News and Book Stores throughout the country. + + * * * * * + + +NOW READY. + +THE SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN EXPORT +EDITION FOR NOVEMBER, 1878, WITH +ONE HUNDRED ILLUSTRATIONS. +GENERAL TABLE OF CONTENTS +Of the SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN Export Edition for November, +1878. + + +I.--INVENTIONS, DISCOVERIES AND PATENTS. + + The Incoming Commissioner of Patents. + A South Australian Offer for an Improvement. + The Forster-Firmin Amalgamator. Three engravings. + Lyman's Trigonometer. One figure. + Patent Law. + The Benefits of Patent Rights. + Hop Picking by Machinery. + Description of Recent Most Important Agricultural Inventions. + Displays of Ingenuity at the Boston Mechanics Fair. + Description of Recent Most Important Mechanical Inventions. + New Wilson Oscillating Sewing Machine. Seven figs. + A Nail Gun. + Who will Invent a Satisfactory Milking Machine? + The Hermetical Sanitary Closet. One engraving. + New Refrigerator Basket. Two engravings. + New Fireproof Shutter. One engraving. + Inventors Needed in England. + New Foot Power. One engraving. + New Wool Scouring and Rinsing Machine. One eng. + New Measuring Jacket. Three engravings. + New Rheostat. Two engravings. + The Paris International Patent Congress. + Patent Rights, and Who Oppose Them. + New Gas Regulator. Three engravings. + Combined Traction Engine and Steam Fire Engine. One engraving. + Van Renne's Caloric Engine and Pump. Three engs. + The Watson Pump. One engraving. + The Swedish Buckeye Machine. + Pipe Wrench and Cutter. Two engravings. + Drilling Square Holes. Four figures. + Description of Recent Most Important Engineering Inventions. + New Mortising Machine. One engraving. + New Steam Fire Engine. One engraving. + New Bank Note Paper Wanted. + The Proposed Addition to the Patent Office. Two engravings. + A Year's Work in the Patent Office. + New Rule in Trade Mark Cases. + Electric Light in Chancery. + Novel Egg Opener. Two engravings. + Patents for Protecting the Dead. + Electric Light Patents. + A New Platen Gauge. Four engravings. + New Draughting Pencil. Two engravings. + Gas and Water-tight Cloth. + New Regulator for Clock Pendulums. Two engs. + Steam Engine Governor. One engraving. + Description of Recent Most Important Miscellaneous Inventions. + Notices of New Inventions. + Patent Office Library. + + +II.--MECHANICS AND ENGINEERING. + Chard's Lubricene and Cups. + The Electric Light and the Gas Companies. + Fuel Gas. + New Ways to Use Iron Wanted. + Progress and Prospects of the East River Bridge. Two engravings. + A Steam Tricycle. + New Artesian Well, Victoria, Spain. + A Long Train. + How a Good House Should be Built. + Jetties Under Water. + How the Capitol at Albany, N. Y., is to be Warmed and Ventilated. + What a Perfect Railway Brake Should do. + The Secret of It. + Florida Ship Canal. + The Torpedo Vessel Destroyer. One illustration. + Steam from Petroleum. + The Motion of a Wagon Wheel. + Building in Steel. + Locomotive for the Metropolitan Elevated Railway. One illustration. + The French Dam Below Pittsburg, Ohio. + The Adelphi Explosion. + "Forney" Locomotive for the New York Elevated Railway. One large engraving. + The Steam Value of Oil Fuels. + The Mechanical and other Properties of Iron and Mild Steel. + French Wheelbarrows. Twenty-five engravings. + Small Steamboats. + Life Preservers. + A Gas Clock. + Another Mountain Railway. + Preservation of Iron. + The Salisbury Furnace for Petroleum. + Danger from Lubricating Oils. + The Testing of Boiler Iron. + Tramway Rail Experiments. Two engravings. + Aluminum and Platinum in the Manufacture of Watches. + Great Machine Tool Makers. + Gas as a Substitute for Solid Fuel. + + +III.--MINING AND METALLURGY. + + The Formation of Quartz. + Depth of Nevada Gold and Silver Mines. + California Mining vs. Farming. + New Form of Iron Manufacture. + Comstock Silver Lodes. + + +IV.--CHEMISTRY AND PHYSICS. + + Dangers from Impure Potassium Iodide. + The Poplar as a Lightning Conductor. + The Mariner's Compass. + Crude Sulphur from Iron Pyrites. + Antimony for Batteries. + Delicate Test for Water. + The Polarization of Electrodes. + Fragarine. + Balata Gum. + Astronomical Notes. Giving the Positions, Rising, + and Setting of the Planets for November. + Professor Morton on the Electric Light. + The Electrical Department in the Mechanic's Fair, Boston. + The Satellites of Mars. + Gold Amalgams. + Another New Electric Light. + Albumen of the Serum and that of Egg, and their Combinations. + A Mirror Telegraph. + Some Modifications of the Microphone and Telephone. Four engravings. + A Chance for Electric Competition. + Advantages of Experimental Study. + The Black Spot of Jupiter. + The Electric Light. With five engravings. + Spontaneous Combustion. + Recent Military Balloon Experiments. + Burner for Electric Light. One engraving. + Artificial Ball Lightning. One engraving. + To Make Corks Air-tight and Water-tight. + Electric Time Service for New York. Four engravings. + The Hosmer Motor. + Polarized Light. + Phosphorescent Timepieces. + The De Meritens Magneto-electric Machine. Two figures. + Cellulose as a Material for Washers. + + +V.--NATURAL HISTORY, NATURE, MAN, ETC. + + The Golden Cup Oak. + Serpulas, or Sea Worms. One engraving. + The King Tody Bird. One engraving. + Life Without Air. + Cadaver-poison of the Australian Natives. + The Contortion of Rocks from Heat Mechanically Generated. + The Stiffening of Plant Stalks. + Immense Labor Performed by Bees. + The Torrey Botanical Club. + The Big Trees of California. + Explorations in Greenland. + The Umbrella Bird. One engraving. + The Argan Tree. + A Spruce-destroying Beetle. + A Geological Discovery in Deep Water. + The Mound Builder's Unit of Measure. + Progress of Horticulture. + Bishop Ferrette on the Cedars of Lebanon. + Special Senses in Insects. + Natural History Notes. + New Cave Discovery in Kentucky. + Longevity of the Horse. + Left-handedness. + Bee Culture in Egypt. + The Poison Ivy and Virginia Creeper. Two engravings. + The Crafty Hermit Crab. One illustration. + + +VI.--MEDICINE AND HYGIENE. + + Nitrate of Amyl in Sea Sickness. + Milk cure for Lead Colic. + Milkweed Juice for Raw Surfaces. + The Use of Snails in Medicine. + The Art of Prolonging Life. + The Deleterious Use of Alum in Bread and Baking + Powders.--Alum being Substituted for Cream of Tartar. + The Treatment of Hydrophobia. + New Use for Warts. + Removal of the Entire Scalp by Machinery. + The Probable Starting Point of the Yellow Fever. + Piedra. + Heredity. + Scientific Reliance on Soap. + The Medical Ice Hat. + Ventilation of Bed Rooms. + The Filtration of Drinking Water. + The Texas "Screw Worm." + + +VII.--THE PARIS EXHIBITION, SCIENTIFIC MEETINGS, ETC. + + Success of American Exhibitors at Paris. + The Main Building at the Exhibition. With one full page illustration. + The French Industrial Exhibition of 1878. + Awards and Honors at Paris. + Ingram Rotary Press. One illustration. + A Grand World's Fair in New York. + A Mexican Exhibition. + Australia to have a World's Fair. + Closing of the French Exhibition. + Hydraulic Motors at the Exhibition. With two engravings. + The National Academy of Sciences. + The Official Reports of the Paris Exhibition. + American Society of Civil Engineers. + + +VIII.--INDUSTRY AND COMMERCE. + + Should the Nation Engage in Manufactures? + American Export of Agricultural Machinery. + Corundum. + American Made Goods Exhibited as European Manufactures. + The California Tea Fields. + An Odd Craft. + Progress of our Foreign Trade. + The Condition of Manufacturing Interests in Germany. + Labor in Chicago. + Apples for Europe. + Adulterated Graham Flour. + Addition to our List of Food Fishes. + Preservation of Milk. + Electrical Test for Oils. + Parsnips. + Russian Pottery. Two engravings. + Notes from the South.--Facts about the Cotton Worm. + The Mediterranean Trade. + American Competition in Great Britain. + Rapid Increase in French Woolen Industries. + The Rockport Granite Quarries. + Trade Mark Treaty with Brazil. + Early Manufacture of Steel Pens. + New and Stale Bread. + Leather from Sheep Stomachs. + New Source of Rubber. + A National Law Governing Adulteration Needed. + How to get Pure Teas. + Skilled Labor in New York City. + French Subsoil and Clearing Plow. One figure. + Opening for Trade in Madagascar. + Handling Grain in Buffalo. + The Blue Process of Copying Tracings. + We Buy of them that Advertise. + Unprofitable Agents. + Various Uses of Paper. + Improved Grinding Mill and Crusher. Two engravings. + The Cultivation of the Common Nettle. + The Economic Products of Seaweed. + The Japanese Wax Tree in California. + Preservation of Food by Gelatin. + Pearl Millet. + To Turn Oak Black. + Dairy and Poultry Produce in America. + Australian Gum Trees. + Frauds in Wine Making. + Removal of Iron Coloring from Liquors. + The Utilization of Iron Slag. + Relative Cost of Coal Transportation by Water and by Rail. + How to get Rid of Ants. + The Science of Milling. + + +IX.--PRACTICAL RECIPES AND MISCELLANEOUS. + + Progress in England and America. + An Improvement on Tea Chromos. + A Correction. + The Stability of Modern Civilization. + Future Rifle Shooting. + "Bruce," the Manchester Fire Horse. + The Trial of the "Pyx." + Early Gold Payments. + Workingmen in England and France. + Washington Memorials in Northamptonshire. Three engravings. + Culinary Uses of Leaves. + A Remarkable Bank Robbery.--Scientific Safeguards Neglected. + Cleopatra's Needle. + A Steam Juryman. + Roads in Baden. + Indications of Progress. + Practical Education in Russia. + Table Forks. + The Cost of Insecurity. + Improved Copying Pencils. + + +Answers to Correspondents, embodying a large quantity of valuable +information, practical recipes, and instructions in various arts. + + +Single numbers of the _Scientific American Export Edition_, 50 cents. +To be had at this office, and at all news stores. Subscriptions, _Five +Dollars a year_; sent postpaid to all parts of the world. + +MUNN & CO., PUBLISHERS, +37 PARK Row, NEW YORK. + + +To Advertisers:-->Manufacturers and others who desire to secure +foreign trade may have large and handsomely displayed announcements +published in this edition at a very moderate cost. + +The Scientific American Export Edition has a large guaranteed +circulation in all commercial places throughout the world. Regular +Files of the Export Edition are also carried on ALL STEAMSHIPS, +foreign and coastwise, leaving the port of New York. Address MUNN & +CO., 37 Park Row, New York. + + * * * * * + + + + +STRONG AND CHEAP SPAR BRIDGES. + + +General description, dimensions, and particulars, with 2 pages of +drawings, covering illustrations of all the details, for a bridge of +100 feet span or less; specially useful for crossing of creeks, small +rivers, gullies, or wherever a costly structure is not desirable. The +drawings are from the Spar Bridge exhibited at the Centennial, in the +U. S. Department of Military Engineering. These bridges are wholly +composed of undressed stuff. SUPPLEMENT 71. Price 10 cents. + + * * * * * + + + + +FIREPROOF DWELLINGS OF CHEAP CONSTRUCTION. A valuable and important +paper, containing Plans and Descriptions of Model Fireproof Dwellings +of cheap construction lately erected in Chicago. By A. J. Smith, +Architect. With 9 illustrations. Plan No. 1 exhibits the construction +of comfortable one-story, 16 ft. front dwellings, of brick and +concrete, finished complete at a cost of $1,200. Plan No. 2 exhibits +the construction of a comfortable 23 ft. front, two-story dwelling, +of brick and concrete, finished complete, with cellar, for $1,700. +Several of these dwellings, on both plans, have been built at the +prices stated. This valuable paper also contains the Report of the +City Authorities of Chicago, certifying to the fireproof nature +of these buildings, with other useful particulars. Contained in +SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN SUPPLEMENT No. 91. Price 10 cts. To be had at this +office and of all newsdealers. + + * * * * * + + + + +OUTWARD MARKS OF A GOOD COW. + + +By Capt. JOHN C. MORRIS, Pa. Carelessness in Breeding. How to Select +for Breeding. Marks of the Handsome Cow. Care and Training of the +Heifer. Infallible Marks of Good Milkers. Distinguishing Marks and +Characteristics of the "Bastard" and the "Bogus" Cow, etc. Contained, +with useful Remarks on Bee Culture, in SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN SUPPLEMENT +No. 135. Price 10 cents. To be had at this office and of all +newsdealers. + + * * * * * + + + + +ON CHRONIC MALARIAL POISONING. + + +By ALFRED L. LOOMIS, M.D. A Highly Instructive Clinical Lecture, +delivered at the University Medical College, N. Y Contained in +SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN SUPPLEMENT No. 102. Price 10 cents. To be had at +this office and of all newsdealers. + + * * * * * + + + + +ICE-HOUSE AND COLD ROOM.--BY R. G. Hatfleld. With directions for +construction. Four engravings. SUPPLEMENT No. 59. Price, 10 cents. + + * * * * * + + + + +THE + +SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN + +The Most Popular Scientific Paper in the World. + +THIRTY-THIRD YEAR. + +Only $3.20 a Year including Postage. Weekly. 52 Numbers a Year. + + +This widely circulated and splendidly illustrated paper is published +weekly. Every number contains sixteen pages of useful information, +and a large number of original engravings of new inventions and +discoveries, representing Engineering Works, Steam Machinery, +New Inventions, Novelties in Mechanics, Manufactures, Chemistry, +Electricity, Telegraphy, Photography, Architecture, Agriculture, +Horticulture, Natural History, etc. + +ALL CLASSES OF READERS find in THE SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN a popular +_resume_ of the best scientific information of the day; and it is the +aim of the publishers to present it in an attractive form, avoiding +as much as possible abstruse terms. To every intelligent mind, this +journal affords a constant supply of instructive reading. 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Covers Spain, Cuba, etc. + +_A Spanish Patent of Introduction_, good for 5 years, can be taken +by any person, whether inventor or merely introducer. Cost of such +patent, $100. Covers Spain, Cuba, and all the Spanish dominions. + +In order to facilitate the transaction of our business in obtaining +Spanish Patents, we have established a special agency at No. 4 +Soldado, Madrid. + +Further particulars, with Synopsis of Foreign Patents, Costs, etc., +furnished gratis. + +MUNN & CO., +Solicitors of American and Foreign Patents, +Proprietors of the SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN, +37 PARK ROW, NEW YORK. + + * * * * * + + + + +WATER SUPPLY FOR TOWNS AND Villages.--By Clarence Delafield, C.E. +A concise and valuable report, showing the costs and merits of the +various systems--Discussion of the Holly system, its merits +and defects--The reservoir system, with pumps, cost, and +advantages--Results obtained and economy of use of various systems in +different towns, with names and duty realized--Facts and figures to +enable town committees to judge for themselves as to the system +best suited for their wants--The best sources of water supply-- +Water-bearing rocks--Artesian wells, their feasibility, excellence, +and cost of boring--Importance of pure water--How surface water is +rendered impure--Cost of water pipes, from 2 to 12 inches diameter, +for towns, including laying, all labor, materials, gates, joints, etc. +Estimates of income, water-rates for supply of 1,000 buildings. +Contained in SUPPLEMENT 27. Price 10 cents. + + * * * * * + + + + +ICE BOATS--THEIR CONSTRUCTION and management. With working drawings, +details, and directions in full. Four engravings, showing mode of +construction. Views of the two fastest ice-sailing boats used on the +Hudson river in winter. By H. A. Horsfall, M.E. SUPPLEMENT 1. The same +number also contains the rules and regulations for the formation of +ice-boat clubs, the sailing and management of ice-boats, etc. Price 10 +cents. + + * * * * * + + + + +ICE AND ICE-HOUSES--HOW TO MAKE ice ponds; amount of ice required, +etc., and full directions for building ice-house, with illustrated +plan. SUPPLEMENT 55. Price 10 cents. + + * * * * * + + + + +[Illustration: Patents] + +CAVEATS, COPYRIGHTS, TRADE MARKS, ETC. + + +Messrs. Munn & Co., in connection with the publication of the +SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN, continue to examine Improvements, and to act as +Solicitors of Patents for Inventors. + +In this line of business they have had OVER THIRTY YEARS' EXPERIENCE, +and now have _unequaled facilities_ for the preparation of Patent +Drawings, Specifications, and the Prosecution of Applications for +Patents in the United States. Canada, and Foreign Countries. Messrs. +Munn & Co. also attend to the preparation of Caveats, Trade Mark +Regulations, Copyrights for Books, Labels, Reissues, Assignments, and +Reports on Infringements of Patents. 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A handsomely bound Reference Book, gilt edges, +contains 140 pages and many engravings and tables important to every +patentee and mechanic, and is a useful hand book of reference for +everybody. Price 25 cents, mailed free. + +Address + +MUNN & CO., +Publishers SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN, +37 Park Row, N. Y. +_BRANCH OFFICE--Corner of F and 7th Streets, +Washington, D. C._ + + * * * * * + + + + +ADVERTISEMENTS + + * * * * * + + +Inside Page, each insertion - - - 75 cents a line. +Back Page, each insertion - - - - $1.00 a line. + (About eight words to a line.) + +_Engravings may head advertisements at the same rate per line, by +measurement, as the letter press. Advertisements must be received +at publication office as early as Thursday morning to appear in next +issue._ + + * * * * * + +BAIRD'S + +CATALOGUES OF BOOKS + +Our new and enlarged CATALOGUE OF PRACTICAL AND SCIENTIFIC BOOKS, 96 +pages, 8vo; a Catalogue of Books on DYEING, CALICO PRINTING, WEAVING, +COTTON and WOOLEN MANUFACTURE, 4to; Catalogue of a choice collection +of PRACTICAL, SCIENTIFIC, and ECONOMIC BOOKS, 4to; List of Books on +STEAM AND THE STEAM ENGINE, MECHANICS, MACHINERY, and ENGINEERING, +4to; List of Important Books on METALLURGY, METALS, STRENGTH OF +MATERIALS, CHEMICAL ANALYSIS, ASSAYING, etc., 4to; two Catalogues +of Books and Pamphlets on SOCIAL SCIENCE, POLITICAL ECONOMY, BANKS, +POPULATION, PAUPERISM, and kindred subjects sent free to any one who +will forward his address. + +HENRY CAREY BAIRD & CO., +Industrial Publishers, Booksellers, and Importers, +810 WALNUT ST., PHILADELPHIA, PA. + + +[Illustration] + +An engine that works without Boiler. Always ready to be started and to +give at once full power. + +SAFETY, ECONOMY, CONVENIENCE. + +Burns common Gas and Air. No steam, no coal, no ashes, no fires, no +danger, no extra insurance. Almost no attendance. + +THE NEW OTTO SILENT GAS ENGINE. + +Useful for all work of small stationary steam engine. Offered in sizes +of 2, 4, and 7 H.P. Send for illustrated circular. SCHLEICHER, SCHUMM +& CO., Phila., Pa. + + * * * * * + +A GOOD PLAN + +_The most profitable plan_ for operating in stocks is by uniting +capital of various sums in combining or pooling orders of thousands +of customers and using them as _one mighty whole_, which is done so +successfully by Messrs. Lawrence & Co., Bankers, 57 Exchange Place, +N. Y. City. By this cooperative system each investor is placed on an +equal footing with the largest operator and profits divided _pro rata_ +among shareholders every 30 days. $10 invested makes $50 or 5 per cent. +on the stock during the month--$50 returns $350 or 7 per cent., $100 +pays $1,000, or 10 per cent., and so on according to the market. The +firm's new circular (copyrighted and free) contains "Two unerring +rules for success in stock operations," and explains everything. All +kinds of Stocks and Bonds wanted. New Government Loan supplied. +LAWRENCE & CO., _Bankers and Brokers_, 57 Exchange Place, N. Y. City. + + * * * * * + +PORTABLE GRAIN MILLS. + +[Illustration] + +For Mill and Farm. Built on the durable and scientific principles. +Warranted fully equal to any in the market. Mills for grinding all +substances. We have made mill building a specialty for 13 years. + +WALKER BROS. & CO., + +Engineers, Founders & Machinists, + +23d and Wood St., Phila., Pa. + + +ON THE CARE OF HORSES. BY PROF. PRITCHARD, R.V.S. Showing the Proper +Construction of Stables. Best Floor. Lighting and Ventilation. +Hay-racks. Watering and Feeding. Grooming and Exercise. Cracked Heels; +Lice; Colic; Mud Fever; Wind Galls. Also, in same number, facts about +improved Cow Stables. How to keep Cows clean and maintain Pure Air +in Stables. Increased Cleanliness and Convenience with Less Labor. +Contained in SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN SUPPLEMENT. No. 123. Price 10 cents. +To be had at this office and of all newsdealers. + + +MINING MACHINERY. ENGINES, BOILERS, PUMPS, Coal and Ore Jigs, Dust +Burning Appliances. Drawings and advice free to customers. Jeanesville +Iron Works (J. C. Haydon & Co.). Address HOWELL GREEN, Supt., +Jeanesville, Luzerne Co., Pa. + + +[Illustration] + +Straub's Scientific GRAIN MILL, 12, 20, and 30 inch + +MILL STONES, + +For Farm and Merchant work. Warranted the full equal of any mill built +in America. Before purchasing elsewhere send for our circular and +price list. + +A. W. STRAUB & CO., + +Philadelphia, Pa. + + +USE WILHIDE'S NOISELESS, SELF-Setting Rat and Mouse Traps. Caught +19 rats one hour; 46 one night. Ask your storekeeper for them. State +right for sale. Circulars, etc., free. J. T. WILHIDE & BRO., York +Road, Carroll Co., Md. + + +AGENTS and SALESMEN wanted in every city and town to introduce a new +Work, the + +"COMPLETE BUSINESS REGISTER" +to dealers. Great inducements. Don't fail to write for particulars. W. +H. Pamphilon, Pub., 30 Bond St., N. Y. + + +LADIES CAN MAKE $5 A DAY IN THEIR OWN CITY OR TOWN. ADDRESS ELLIS +M'F'G CO., WALTHAM, MASS. + + +[ILLUSTRATION] + +THE "BIJOU" MICROSCOPE, + +WITH MOUNTED OBJECTS, 50C. A COMPLETE LITTLE INSTRUMENT FOR EXAMINING +MINUTE OBJECTS. HAS ADJUSTABLE LENS-CAP, OBJECT SLIDES AND DIAPHRAGM, +AND MAGNIFIES 10,000 TIMES. A MARVEL OF PERFECTION, CHEAPNESS, +SIMPLICITY AND COMPACTNESS. OF PRETTY DESIGN AND NICELY FINISHED IN +BRASS. PRICE, WITH AN ASSORTMENT OF INTERESTING MOUNTED MICROSCOPIC +OBJECTS, 50C. SENT POST PAID ON RECEIPT OF PRICE TO GEM MICROSCOPE +CO., 156 FULTON ST., N. Y. + + +XMAS "WONDER BOX." + +CONTAINS 12 SHEETS PAPER, 12 ENVELOPES, 3 SHEETS COLORED PAPER, 1 LEAD +PENCIL, 3 PENS, 1 TEXT, 12 COMIC CARDS, 40 SILHOUETTES, 36 MOTTOES, 85 +PATTERNS FOR FANCY WORK, 112 DECALCOMANIE, 131 EMBOSSED PICTURES, 50 +FANCY ORNAMENTS, 1 PENHOLDER, 2 BOOK MARKS, 5 BLACK TABLETS, 5 PICTURE +CARDS, 30 SCRAP-BOOK PICTURES, 1 XMAS BANNER, 1 GAME AGE CARDS, 2 XMAS +CARDS, 1 TOY PARASOL. PRICE, 42 CTS.; BY MAIL. 53 CTS. RETAIL VALUE, +$1.45. _POSTAGE STAMPS TAKEN_. J. JAY GOULD, 10 BROOMFIELD ST., +BOSTON, MASS. + + +GOLD, SILVER, AND NICKEL PLATING. + +A TRADE EASILY LEARNED. COSTS LITTLE TO START. THE ELECTRO PLATER'S +GUIDE, A 72 PAGE BOOK, SENT FOR 3 STAMPS. SCIENTIFIC INSTRUMENTS +AND BOOKS LOANED TO ANY ONE. PRICE LIST FREE. F. LOWEY, 90 11TH ST., +BROOKLYN, N. Y. + + +DIAMONDS AND CARBON + +SHAPED OR CRUDE, FURNISHED AND SET FOR BORING ROCKS, DRESSING MILL +BURRS, EMERY WHEELS, GRINDSTONES, HARDENED STEEL, CALENDER ROLLERS, +AND FOR SAWING, TURNING, OR WORKING STONE AND OTHER HARD SUBSTANCES; +ALSO GLAZIERS' DIAMONDS. J. DICKINSON, 64 NASSAU ST., N. Y. + + +IMPORTANT FOR ALL CORPORATIONS AND MANF'G CONCERNS.--BUERK'S +WATCHMAN'S TIME DETECTOR, capable of accurately controlling the motion +of a watchman or patrolman at the different stations of his beat. Send +for circular. + +J. E. BUERK, P.O. BOX 979, BOSTON, MASS + +N. B.--The suit against Imhaeuser & Co., of New York, was decided in my +favor, June 10, 1874. A fine was assessed against them Nov. 11, 1876, +for selling contrary to the order of the court. Persons buying or +using clocks infringing on my patent will be dealt with according to +law. + + +THE GEORGE PLACE MACHINERY AGENCY + +Machinery of Every Description. + +121 Chambers and 103 Reade Streets, New York. + + +[Illustration] + +THE FORSTER-FIRMIN GOLD AND SILVER AMALGAMATING COMP'Y of Norristown, +Pa., will grant state rights or licenses on easy terms. This system +works up to assay, and recovers the mercury rapidly. + +Apply as above. + + +THE DRIVEN WELL. + +Town and County privileges for making DRIVEN WELLS and selling +Licenses under the established AMERICAN DRIVEN WELL PATENT, leased by +the year to responsible parties, by + +WM. D. ANDREWS & BRO., NEW YORK. + + +SPARE THE CROTON AND SAVE THE COST. + +DRIVEN OR TUBE WELLS + +furnished to large consumers of Croton and Ridgewood Water. WM. D. +ANDREWS & BRO., 414 Water St., N. Y., who control the patent for +Green's American Driven Well. + + +STEAM AND HYDRAULIC + +PASSENGER AND FREIGHT ELEVATORS, + +STEAM ENGINES AND BOILERS, + +WHITTIER MACHINE CO., Boston, Mass. + + +[Illustration] + +PORTABLE STEAM ENGINES + +WITH AUTOMATIC CUT-OFF. + +No Commissions to Agents. Bottom Prices to Purchasers. + +SEND FOR CATALOGUE. + +ARMINGTON & SIMS + +A. & S. were lately with + +THE J. C. HOADLEY COMP. + + +STEAM PUMPS. + +HENRY R. WORTHINGTON, + +239 Broadway, N. Y. 83 Water St., Boston. + +THE WORTHINGTON DUPLEX PUMPING ENGINES FOR WATER WORKS--Compound, +Condensing or Non-Condensing. Used in over 100 Water-Works Stations. + +STEAM PUMPS--Duplex and Single Cylinder. + +WATER METERS. OIL METERS. + +PRICES LARGELY REDUCED. + + +RIVAL STEAM PUMPS + +$35 & UPWARDS + +JOHN. H. MCGOWAN & CO. + +CINCINNATI OHIO. + + +PATENTS AT AUCTION. + +Regular Monthly Sales by George W. Keeler, Auctioneer. For terms, +address NEW YORK PATENT EXCHANGE, 67 Liberty Street, New York. + + +50 PERFUMED CHROMO AND MOTTO CARDS, 10C. _Name in Gold and Jet._ Seavy +Bros., Northford, Ct. + + +WARRANTED WATCHES ONLY $3 EACH + +$12 WATCHES + +FOR ONLY $3 EACH. + +A BANKRUPT STOCK OF WATCHES, + +_Warranted for One Year._ + +[Illustration] + +This bankrupt stock of Watches must be closed out in 90 days. THE +FORMER PRICE OF THESE WATCHES WAS $12.00 EACH. They are silvered case +and open face, all one style, and of French manufacture, the movements +of which being well known the world over for their fine finish. They +are used on RAILROADS and STEAMBOATS, where ACCURATE TIME is required, +and give good satisfaction. Think of it, a $12.00 Watch for ONLY +$3.00, and WARRANTED ONE YEAR FOR TIME. + +CINCINNATI. O., October 1st, 1878. + +The Walters Importing Co. is an old established and very reliable +house, and we cheerfully recommend them. + +CINCINNATI POST. + +After the closure of sale of this bankrupt stock of Watches, which +will continue 90 days from date of this paper, no order will be filled +at less than $12.00 each; so please send your order at once. With each +Watch we furnish our SPECIAL WARRANTEE FOR ONE YEAR FOR ACCURATE TIME. +We will forward the Watch promptly on receipt of $3.00, or will send +C.O.D. if customers desire and remit $1.00 on account. + +Address all orders to WALTERS IMPORTING CO., 180 ELM STREET, +CINCINNATI, O. + +-->TO WATCH SPECULATORS: We call particular I attention to these +Watches, as they sell readily at from $12.00 to $20.00 each. + +-->_Cut this Advertisement Out._ + +WARRANTED WATCHES ONLY $3 EACH + + +$10 to $1000 + +Invested in Wall St. Stocks makes fortunes every month. Books sent +free explaining everything. + +Address BAXTER & CO., Bankers, 17 Wall St., N. Y. + + +[Illustration] + +PATENT PORTABLE CHUCK JAWS. + +Improved Solid Emery Wheels, for grinding Iron and Brass Castings. +Tools, etc. Manufactured by AM. TWIST DRILL CO., Woonsocket, R. I. + + +LATHES, PLANERS, SHAPERS + +Drills, Bolt and Gear Cutters, Milling Machines. Special Machinery. E. +GOULD & EBERHARDT, Newark, N. J. + + +U. S. PIANO CO., + +163 BLEECKER ST., N. Y., + +Manufacturers of strictly first-class Pianos. We sell DIRECT to +Families from OUR OWN Factory at LOWEST WHOLESALE price. Beautiful NEW +7 1-3 Octave, Rosewood Pianos. Sent on trial. Thousands in use. HEAVY +DISCOUNT to CASH buyers. DON'T buy until you read our Catalogue. It +will INTEREST you--Mailed FREE. + + +[Illustration] + +MEDAL & PREMIUM AWARDED TO + +[Illustration] + +ALCOTT'S + +TURBINE WATER WHEELS + +MANUFACT'D AT MOUNT HOLLY N. J. + + +MOWRY CAR & WHEEL WORKS, + +MANUFACTURERS OF + +CARS AND CAR WHEELS of all descriptions, + +Wheels and Axles, Chilled Tires, Engine, Car and Bridge Castings, of +any pattern, furnished to order at short notice. Also Street Car Turn +Tables. + +WHEELS OF ALL SIZES CONSTANTLY ON HAND. + +OFFICE, 27 1-2 W. THIRD ST., CINCINNATI, O. + +Works, Eastern Avenue and Lewis Street. + + +C. W. LE COUNT, SOUTH NORWALK, CONN., Mfr. of Lathe Dogs, Iron and +Steel Expanding Mandrels of all sizes. A specialty made of Amateurs' +Mandrels and Dogs. + + +[Illustration] + +BARNES' FOOT POWER MACHINERY. + +13 Different machines with which Builders, Cabinet Makers, Wagon +Makers, and Jobbers in miscellaneous work can compete as to QUALITY +AND PRICE with steam power manufacturing; also Amateurs' supplies. + +MACHINES SENT ON TRIAL. + +Say where you read this, and send for catalogue and prices. + +W. F. & JOHN BARNES, Rockford, Winnebago Co., Ill. + + +AMERICAN NOVELTIES +wanted for English trade. 1,000 Sewing Machines to be sold cheap. +Apply BRITANNIA COMPANY, Colchester, England. + + +[Illustration: Anvil + +FISHER & NORRIS TRENTON N. J.] + +Retail 9 CENTS PER POUND. + +Warranted of the hardest temper, and _never_ to settle. + +ESTABLISHED 1843 + +Steel Horn, warranted not to break and Face of _Best Cast Steel_. + +BETTER THAN ANY ENGLISH MAKE, AND ONLY ONE THAT IS FULLY + +!! WARRANTED !! + +50 SIZES, FROM 1-2 LB. TO 800 LBS. + +Catalogues furnished on application. + + +A VALUABLE WORK. + +THE STEAM ENGINE. + +The Relative Proportions of the Steam Engine. A course of Lectures on +the Steam Engine delivered to the students of Dynamical Engineering in +the University of Pennsylvania. By WM. D. MARKS, Whitney Professor +of Dynamical Engineering. With numerous Illustrations. 12mo. Flexible +cloth. $1.50. + +"A valuable addition to the literature of the Steam Engine, and one +which will be appreciated by engineers in practice as well as by +students."--_Pittsburgh American Manufacturer_. + +"A valuable work, and one which will meet with a favorable reception. +* * * There is much need and much room for a rational and practical +method for proportioning the various parts of the steam engine, and +in this respect your work is very welcome."--_Augustus Jay Du Bois, +Ph.D., Yale College_. + +*** For sale by all Booksellers, or will be sent by mail, postpaid, +upon receipt of price, by + +J. B. LIPPINCOTT & CO., PUBLISHERS, + +715 AND 717 MARKET ST., PHILADELPHIA. + + +[Illustration] + +SHEPARD'S CELEBRATED + +$50 Screw Cutting Foot Lathe. + +Foot and Power Lathes, Drill Presses, Scrolls, Circular and Band Saws, +Saw Attachments, Chucks, Mandrils, Twist Drills, Dogs, Calipers, etc. +Send for catalogue of outfits for amateurs or artisans. + +H. L. SHEPARD & CO., + +331, 333, 335, & 337 West Front Street, + +CINCINNATI, OHIO. + + +[Illustration] + +TELEPHONES. + +_25 per cent. Discount._ + +SPECIAL OFFER + +OUR NEW IMPROVED DOUBLE COILED METALIC TELEPHONE IS THE FINEST IN THE +WORLD, and the only completely satisfactory low priced instrument, +with SPRING CALL ATTACHMENT, made by PRACTICAL MACHINISTS on +scientific principles; warranted to work ONE MILE, unaffected by +changes in the weather. We will send to one address ONE SAMPLE SET, +comprising two Telephones, two walnut holders, six copper bound +insulators and 200 feet heavy wire, AT 25 PER CENT. DISCOUNT from +REGULAR RATES, which is $3.00 for the $4.00 instruments. This offer +WILL NOT hold good after JAN. 15, 1879, as our goods will then be +sufficiently well known to sell through the trade, and we shall be +obliged to strictly maintain the retail price. Any person of ordinary +intelligence can put them up by following directions sent with each +pair. We have sold during the last three months nearly 1000 of these +instruments, and have HUNDREDS OF TESTIMONIALS from all parts of the +country. We GUARANTEE all instruments sold. For any Telephone that +fails to work, we will REFUND THE MONEY and pay all charges. Ask any +Commercial Agency, and you will find we are good for all we agree to +do. + +Name this paper when you write. + +KENT, WOODMAN & CO., 25 CONGRESS ST., BOSTON, MASS. + + +THE DEFIANCE +METALLIC PLANES + +TRADE MARK +[Illustration] + +"THE BATTLE AXE." + +ARE THE BEST IN THE WORLD. + +Send for a full descriptive circular and price list to the +manufacturers, the + +BAILEY WRINGING MACHINE CO., 99 CHAMBERS ST., NEW YORK. + + +[Illustration] + +BEST AND CHEAPEST + +FOOT POWER + +SCREW CUTTING + +ENGINE LATHES + +SEE FULL DESCRIPTION IN SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN JULY 27 + +SEND FOR ILLUSTRATED CATALOGUE + +GOODNOW & WIGHTMAN 176 WASHINGTON ST BOSTON MASS. + + +_THE ONLY GRAND PRIZE_ FOR SEWING MACHINES, AT THE EXPOSITION +UNIVERSELLE, PARIS, 1878, WAS AWARDED, OVER 80 COMPETITORS, TO WHEELER +& WILSON MFG. CO. NEW YORK CITY, AND BRIDGEPORT, CONN. + + +Round Writing + +Useful for Everybody + +Book of Instructions & Pens + +Sent on receipt of $1.50 + +KEUFFEL & ESSER, 127 FULTON ST., N. Y., + +Importers and Manuf'rers of Drawing Materials. + + +AMERICAN STANDARD + +GAUGE AND TOOL WORKS. + +22d and WOOD STS., PHILADELPHIA. + +Standard Gauges and Measuring Implements, Hardened Steel Turning +Mandrels, Adjustable Blade Reamers, Patent Tool Holders, Lathe +Drivers, etc. JOHN RICHARDS & CO., + + +[Illustration] + +WARRANTED THE BEST. + +1 H.P. BOILER & ENGINE, $150. 2 H.P., $175. 3 H.P., $200. + +Tested to 200 lbs. Steam. + +LOVEGROVE & CO., 152 N. 3d ST., PHILADELPHIA, PA., + +Builders of Engines and Boilers, 1 to 100 horse power. Send for +circulars and prices, and state size and style you want. + + +WOOD-WORKING MACHINERY, + +Such as Woodworth Planing, Tonguing, and Grooving Machines, Daniel's +Planers. Richardson's Patent Improved Tenon Machines, Mortising, +Moulding, and Re-Saw Machines, and Wood-Working Machinery generally. +Manufactured by + +WITHERBY, RUGG & RICHARDSON, 26 Salisbury Street, Worcester, Mass. +(Shop formerly occupied by R. BALL & CO.) + + +LAP WELDED CHARCOAL IRON + +Boiler Tubes, Steam Pipe, Light and Heavy Forgings, Engines, Boilers, +Cotton Presses, Rolling Mill and Blast Furnace Work. + +READING IRON WORKS, 261 SOUTH FOURTH ST., PHILA. + + +PERRY & CO.'S STEEL PENS. + +[Illustration] + +A sample box, for trial, containing our leading styles, including the +famous "U" and "Falcon" Pens, mailed on receipt of 25 cts. + +IVISON, BLAKEMAN, TAYLOR & CO., SOLE AGENTS FOR U. S., NEW YORK. + + +EAGLE TUBE CO., + +614 TO 626 W. 24TH ST., NEW YORK. + +BOILER FLUES of all the Regular Sizes, + +OF BEST MATERIAL AND WARRANTED. + +-->ORDERS PROMPTLY EXECUTED. + +No Payment Required till Tubes are Fully Tested and Satisfactory. + + +[Illustration] + +LANSDELL'S PATENT STEAM SYPHON + +LANDELL'S AND ENG'S LEVER AND CAM GATE VALVES + +WELDLESS STEEL TUBING. + +JOHN S. LENG. 4 FLETCHER ST. NEW YORK. + +[Illustration] + + +CIGAR BOX LUMBER, + +MANUFACTURED by our NEW PATENT PROCESS. + +The Best in the World. + +SPANISH CEDAR, +MAHOGANY, +POPLAR. + +Also thin lumber of all other kinds, 1/8 to 1/2 in., at corresponding +prices. All qualities. Equal in all respects to any made, and at +prices much under any to be obtained outside of our establishment. +Send for price list. + +GEO W. READ & CO., 186 TO 200 LEWIS STREET, N. Y. + +Advertisements. + + +INSIDE PAGE, EACH INSERTION 75 CENTS A LINE. BACK PAGE, EACH INSERTION +$1.00 A LINE. (About eight words to a line.) + +_Engravings may head advertisements at the same rate per line, by +measurement, as the letter press. Advertisements must be received +at publication office as early as Thursday morning to appear in next +issue._ + + +[Illustration: + +MARVIN'S +Fire & Burglar +SAFES +Counter + Platform + Wagon + & Track +SCALES +MARVIN SAFE & SCALE CO. +265 BROADWAY N. Y.] + + +[Illustration: + +The INGERSOLL +ROCK DRILL CO +11/2 PARK PLACE N. Y.] + + +PARTNER WANTED + +To introduce my IMPROVED PROTRACTOR. Splendid chance for a person with +small capital. Address or call on O. M. DAYTON, Utica, N. Y. + + +CALVIN WELLS, Prest. JAS. K. VERNER, Secy. + +PITTSBURGH FORGE & IRON CO., + +IRON AND HAMMERED CAR AXLES. + +Also manufacture as a specialty + +WROUGHT IRON BRIDGE BOLTS & BOLT ENDS, WITH PLAIN AND UPSET ENDS, + +To any required tensile strength, from one to three and one-half +inches, with thread and nuts. Orders for which are respectfully +solicited. Office, 10th Street, near Penn Ave., Pittsburgh, Pa. + + +J. LLOYD HAIGH, + +Manufacturer of + +[Illustration: WIRE ROPE] + +Of every description, for Railroad and Mining Use. Elevators, +Derricks, Rope Tramways, Transmission of Power, etc. No. 81 John +St., N. Y. Send for price list. Plans and Estimates furnished for +Suspension Bridges. + + +MILL STONES AND CORN MILLS. + +We make Burr Millstones, Portable Mills, Smut Machines, Packers, Mill +Picks, Water Wheels, Pulleys, and Gearing, specially adapted to Flour +Mills. Send for Catalogue. + +J. T. NOYE & SON, BUFFALO, N. Y. + + +MACHINISTS' TOOLS. + +NEW AND IMPROVED PATTERNS. + +Send for new illustrated catalogue. + +Lathes, Planers, Drills, &c. + +NEW HAVEN MANUFACTURING CO., +New Haven, Conn. + + +HYDRAULIC CEMENT + +Of the very highest order and quality made any and everywhere from +Refuse or Decomposed Limestone, Marble, Shells, Chalk and Clay, and +River Deposit as per Letters Patent. Address + +JOHN DIMELOW, Laboratorian, Austin, Texas. + + +PARIS EXHIBITION PRIZES. FULL + +Official List of the Awards in the American Department, enumerating +Exhibits and Names and Addresses of Exhibitors, with kind of Prize +awarded in each case. SUPPLEMENTS 149, 150. Price 10 cents each. + + +[Illustration: + +WROUGHT +IRON +BEAMS & GIRDERS] + +THE UNION IRON MILLS, Pittsburgh, Pa., Manufacturers of improved +wrought iron Beams and Girders (patented). + +The great fall which has taken place in the prices of Iron, and +especially in Beams used in the construction of FIRE PROOF BUILDINGS, +induces us to call the special attention of Engineers, Architects, +and Builders to the undoubted advantages of now erecting Fire +Proof structures; and by reference to pages 52 & 54 of our Book of +Sections--which will be sent on application to those contemplating +the erection of fire proof buildings--THE COST CAN BE ACCURATELY +CALCULATED, the cost of Insurance avoided, and the serious losses and +interruption to business caused by fire; these and like considerations +fully justify any additional first cost. It is believed, that, were +owners fully aware of the small difference which now exists between +the use of Wood and Iron, in many cases the latter would be adopted. +We shall be pleased to furnish estimates for all the Beams complete, +for any specific structure, so that the difference in cost may at once +be ascertained. Address + +CARNEGIE, BROS. & CO., Pittsburgh, Pa. + + +$7 A DAY to Agents canvassing for the FIRESIDE VISITOR. Terms and +Outfit Free. Address P. O. VICKERY, Augusta, Maine. + + +B. W. Payne & Sons, Corning, N. Y. + +Established in 1840. + +[Illustration] + +EUREKA SAFETY POWER. + ++----+--------+--------+-----+------+-------+ +|h.p.| cyl. | ht. |space| wt. |price. | ++----+--------+--------+-----+------+-------+ +| 2 |3-1/8x4 | 48 in. |40x25| 900 | $150 | ++----+--------+--------+-----+------+-------+ +| 4 | 4x6 | 56 |46x30| 1600 | 250 | ++----+--------+--------+-----+------+-------+ +| 6 | 5x7 | 72 |72x42| 2700 | 400 | ++----+--------+--------+-----+------+-------+ + +Also, SPARK ARRESTING PORTABLES, and STATIONARY ENGINES _for +Plantations_. Send for Circulars. + + +_PERFECT_ + +NEWSPAPER FILE + + * * * + +The Koch Patent File, for preserving newspapers, magazines, and +pamphlets, has been recently improved and price reduced. Subscribers +to the SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN and SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN SUPPLEMENT can be +supplied for the low price of $1.50 by mail, or $1.25 at the office of +this paper. Heavy board sides; inscription "SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN," +in gilt. Necessary for every one who wishes to preserve the paper. +Address + +MUNN & CO., +Publishers SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN. + +[Illustration: + +HOWE SCALE CO., + +Rutland, Vt. +Paris 1878 +Were awarded the +GOLD MEDAL] + +The highest award for Scales; also several Special Medals of Gold, +Silver, and Bronze. In addition to the above the + +HOWE SCALE CO. + +have been awarded the _"First Premium"_ at Twelve different State +Fairs held during the Fall of the present year. + +PRINCIPAL AGENCIES: + +PRIEST, PAGE & CO., 325 Broadway, New York. +PRIEST, PAGE & CO., 145 Franklin St., Boston. +A. M. GILBERT & CO., 97 to 101 Lake St., Chicago. +J. FRED DENNIS, European Manager, Bremen, Germany. + + +[Illustration] + +THE COLUMBIA BICYCLE, + +Made by THE POPE M'F'G CO., 89 Summer Street, Boston. + +A practical road machine, easy to learn to ride, and when mastered one +can beat the best horse in a day's run over an ordinary road. Send 3c. +stamp for catalogue. + + +BIG PAY.--With Stencil Outfits. What costs 4 cts. sells rapidly +for 50 cts. Catalogue _free_. S. M. SPENCER, 112 Wash'n St., Boston, +Mass. + + +65 MIXED CARDS with name, 10c. and stamp. +Agent's Outfit, 10c. L. C. COE & Co., Bristol, Ct. + + +[Illustration] + +YALE VERTICAL MILL + +Iron Frame; French Burr; Self-oiling; Self-feeding; Long Bearings; +Adjustable-balanced; best arranged, made and finished, _cheapest_, and +for quality and quantity ground no superior in the world. + +Also the Yale Vertical and Horizontal Steam Engines and Boilers, Send +for Circular. + +YALE IRON WORKS, New Haven, Conn. + + +_WORKING MODELS_ + +And Experimental Machinery, Metal or Wood, made to order by + +J. F. WERNER, 62 Centre St., N. Y. + + +[Illustration: + +H. W. JOHN'S BOILER COVERINGS +ASBESTOS (Trade Mark)] + +Are the most Effective and Economical Non-conducting Coverings in the +World. Ready for use and can be easily applied by any one. Be sure and +get the Genuine, which are Manufactured only by + +H. W. JOHNS MANUFACTURING CO., 87 Maiden Lane. New York, + +Sole Manufacturers of Genuine Asbestos Roofing, Liquid Paints, +Cements, etc. Send for Price Lists, etc. + + +PYROMETERS, + +For showing heat of Ovens, Hot Blast Pipes, Boiler Flues, Superheated +Steam, Oil Stills, etc. + +HENRY W. BULKLEY, Sole Manufacturer, 149 Broadway, N. Y. + + +CAMERON STEAM PUMPS + +For Mines, Blast Furnaces, Rolling Mills, Oil Refineries, Boiler +Feeders, &c. + +For Illustrated Catalogue and Reduced Price List send to + +WORKS, FOOT EAST 23d ST., NEW YORK. + + +[Illustration: WIRE ROPE] + +Address JOHN A. ROEBLING'S SONS, Manufacturers, Trenton, N. J., or 117 +Liberty Street, New York. + +Wheels and Rope for conveying power long distances. + +Send for circular. + + +ICE AT $1.00 PER TON. + +The PICTET ARTIFICIAL ICE CO., LIMITED, + +Room 51, Coal and Iron Exchange, P.O. Box 3083, N. Y. + + +ROOTS' ROTARY HYDRAULIC ENGINE. + +[Illustration] + +FOR +BLOWING ORGANS +AND RUNNING +LIGHT MACHINERY +OPERATED BY +HYDRANT PRESSURE, +GIVES GREATEST USEFUL EFFECT OF WATER. +IS A POSITIVE PRESSURE ENGINE. + +P. H. & F. M. ROOTS, Manuf'rs, CONNERSVILLE, IND. S. S. TOWNSEND, +Gen'l Ag't, 6 Cortlandt St., NEW YORK. + + +WOODWARD STEAM PUMPS AND FIRE ENGINES, + +G. M. WOODWARD, +76 and 78 Centre Street, New York. +Send for catalogue and price list. + + +60 Chromo and Perfumed Cards [no 3 alike], Name in Gold and Jet, 10c. +CLINTON BROS., Clintonville, Ct. + + +DIAMOND ROCK DRILLS + +The only Machines giving a solid core showing exact nature of rocks +passed through. + +THE AMERICAN DIAMOND ROCK BORING CO. + +NEW YORK. + +SEND FOR PAMPHLET. + + +Every Man His Own Printer! + +[Illustration: THE EXCELSIOR] + +$3 PRESS Prints labels, cards etc. (Self-inker $5) 9 Larger sizes For +business, pleasure, young or old. + +Catalogue of Presses, Type, Etc., for 2 stamps. + +KELSEY & Co. +Meriden, Conn. + + +MICROSCOPES, Opera Glasses, Spectacles, at greatly reduced prices. +Send three stamps for Illustrated Catalogue. + +R. & J. BECK, Philadelphia, Pa. + + +FOR ALL KINDS OF MACHINERY +--Apply to S. C. HILLS, 78 Chambers St., New York. + + +BEST +DAMPER REGULATORS +AND WEIGHTED GAUGE COCKS. +MURRILL & KEIZER, 44 HOLLIDAY ST., BALTIMORE. + + +GET THE BEST + +PIPE AND BOILER COVERING + +ASBESTOS-LINED HAIR FELT. + +Lightest covering and best non-conductor. Asbestos lining prevents +any charring of the hair felt. Easily applied and removed. For prices, +etc., address THE ASBESTOS PACKING CO., 25 STATE ST., BOSTON, MASS. + + +THE TANITE CO., + +STROUDSBURG, PA. + +EMERY WHEELS AND GRINDERS. + +GEO. PLACE, 131 Chambers St., New York Agent. + + +ROCK DRILLING MACHINES +AND +AIR COMPRESSORS, +MANUFACTURED BY +BURLEIGH ROCK DRILL Co. +SEND FOR PAMPHLET. +FITCHBURG MASS. + + +ESTABLISHED 1844. + +JOSEPH C. TODD, + +ENGINEER and MACHINIST. Flax, Hemp, Jute, Rope, Oakum and Bagging +Machinery, Steam Engines, Boilers, etc. I also manufacture Baxter's +New Portable Engine of 1877. Can be seen in operation at my store. +A one horse-power portable engine, complete, $125; two horse-power, +$225; two and a half horse-power, $250; three horse-power, $275. +Manufactured exclusively by + + J. C. TODD, + 10 Barclay St., New York, or Paterson, N. J. + + +BAXTER $100 1 HORSE ENGINE OF 1877. + +For State Rights to manufacture above, apply to + +A. VAN WINKLE, Newark, N. J. + + +TO ADVERTISERS We fill orders for the insertion of advertisements in +the newspapers of the United States and Dominion of Canada. To furnish +advertisers with reliable information concerning newspapers and their +rates, and thus enable the most inexperienced to select intelligently +the mediums best adapted to any particular purpose, WE ISSUE +SEMI-ANNUAL EDITIONS OF + +AYER & SON'S MANUAL + +FOR ADVERTISERS. 164 8vo. pp. Gives the names, circulation, and +advertising rates of several thousand newspapers in the United States +and Canada, and contains more information of value to an advertiser +than can be found in any other publication. All lists carefully +revised in each edition, and where practicable prices reduced. The +special offers are numerous and unusually advantageous. It will pay +you to examine it before spending any money in newspaper advertising. +The last edition will be sent postpaid to any address on receipt of +25 cents by N. W. AYER & SON, ADVERTISING AGENTS, Times Building, +Philadelphia. + + +[Illustration: + +WATSONS NON CHANGEABLE GAP LATHE HAS +GREAT FACILITIES FOR LARGE OR MEDIUM SIZE WORK +JAMES WATSON MANR 1608 S. FRONT ST. PHILA. PA.] + + +POND'S TOOLS, + +Engine Lathes, Planers, Drills, &c. + +DAVID W. POND, Worcester, Mass. + + * * * * * + + + + +CAN I OBTAIN A PATENT? + + +This is the first inquiry that naturally occurs to every author or +discoverer of a new idea or improvement. The quickest and best way to +obtain a satisfactory answer, without expense, is to write to us (Munn +& Co.), describing the invention, with a small sketch. All we need +is to get the _idea_. Do not use pale ink. Be brief. Send stamps for +postage. We will immediately answer and inform you whether or not your +improvement is probably patentable; and if so, give you the necessary +instructions for further procedure. Our long experience enables us to +decide quickly. For this advice we make _no charge_. All persons who +desire to consult us in regard to obtaining patents are cordially +invited to do so. We shall be happy to see them in person at our +office, or to advise them by letter. In all cases, they may expect +from us a careful consideration of their plans, an honest opinion, and +a prompt reply. + +_WHAT SECURITY HAVE I_ that my communication to Munn & Co. will be +faithfully guarded and remain confidential? + +_Answer_.--You have none except our well-known integrity in this +respect, based upon a most extensive practice of thirty years' +standing. Our clients are numbered by hundreds of thousands. They +are to be found in every town and city in the Union. Please to +make inquiry about us. Such a thing as the betrayal of a client's +interests, when committed to our professional care, never has +occurred, and is not likely to occur. All business and communications +intrusted to us are kept _secret and confidential_. + +Address +MUNN & CO., +Publishers of the SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN, +37 Park Row New York. + + * * * * * + + + + +THE "Scientific American" is printed with CHAS. ENEU JOHNSON & CO.'S +INK. Tenth and Lombard Sts., Philadelphia, and 59 Gold St., New York. + + * * * * * + + + + +Transcriber's Note: + + +_x_ indicates italic script; =x= indicates bold script. ^ indicates +superscript. + +Some archaic (Early American) spellings have been retained. + + +Erata: + +'irridescent' corrected to 'iridescent'. +"Glass, iridescent" +(Contents) + +'monoply' corrected to 'monopoly'. +"The cry of monopoly in this case is altogether unfounded,..." +(Article 4: Progress of Petroleum) + +'possesing' corrected to 'possessing'. +"... possessing in every way the original form of the wood." +(Article 42: Reduction of Nitrate of Silver by Means of Charcoal.) + + + + + + +End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Scientific American, Vol. XXXIX.--No. +24. 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