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diff --git a/38454-8.txt b/38454-8.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..a9b4892 --- /dev/null +++ b/38454-8.txt @@ -0,0 +1,15836 @@ +The Project Gutenberg EBook of Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th Edition, +Volume 12, Slice 8, by Various + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with +almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + +Title: Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th Edition, Volume 12, Slice 8 + "Haller, Albrecht" to "Harmonium" + +Author: Various + +Release Date: December 31, 2011 [EBook #38454] + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1 + +*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA *** + + + + +Produced by Marius Masi, Don Kretz and the Online +Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net + + + + + + + + +Transcriber's notes: + +(1) Numbers following letters (without space) like C2 were originally + printed in subscript. Letter subscripts are preceded by an + underscore, like C_n. + +(2) Characters following a carat (^) were printed in superscript. + +(3) Side-notes were relocated to function as titles of their respective + paragraphs. + +(4) Macrons and breves above letters and dots below letters were not + inserted. + +(5) [root] stands for the root symbol; [alpha], [beta], etc. for greek + letters, [oo] for infinity symbol and [dP] for partial differential + symbol. + +(6) The following typographical errors have been corrected: + + ARTICLE HALLER, ALBRECHT VON: "From a literary point of view the + main result of this, the first of his many journeys through the + Alps, was his poem entitled Die Alpen, which was finished in March + 1729, and appeared in the first edition (1732) of his Gedichte." + 'poem' amended from 'peom'. + + ARTICLE HAMBURG: "... and if the progress of the tide up the river + gives indication of danger, another three shots follow." 'another' + amended from 'other'. + + ARTICLE HARBOUR: "Ostend is the only jetty harbour in which a large + sluicing basin has been recently constructed, but it can only + provide for the maintenance of deep-water quays in its vicinity; + ..." 'harbour' amended from 'habour'. + + ARTICLE HARMONICA: "... Franz Leppich's panmelodicon in 1810, + Buschmann's uranion in the same year, &c. Of most of these nothing + now remains but the name and a description in the Allgemeine + musikalische Zeitung ..." Added 'in'. + + + + + ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA + + A DICTIONARY OF ARTS, SCIENCES, LITERATURE + AND GENERAL INFORMATION + + ELEVENTH EDITION + + + VOLUME XII, SLICE VIII + + Haller, Albrecht to Harmonium + + + + +ARTICLES IN THIS SLICE: + + + HALLER, ALBRECHT VON HANDICAP + HALLER, BERTHOLD HANDSEL + HALLEY, EDMUND HANDSWORTH + HALLGRÍMSSON, JÓNAS HANDWRITING + HALLIDAY, ANDREW HANG-CHOW-FU + HALLIWELL-PHILLIPPS, ORCHARD HANGING + HALLOWE'EN HANGÖ + HALLSTATT HANKA, WENCESLAUS + HALLUCINATION HANLEY + HALLUIN HANNA, MARCUS ALONZO + HALM, CARL FELIX HANNAY, JAMES + HALMA HANNEN, JAMES HANNEN + HALMAHERA HANNIBAL (Carthaginian statesman) + HALMSTAD HANNIBAL (Missouri, U.S.A.) + HALO HANNINGTON, JAMES + HALOGENS HANNINGTON + HALS, FRANS HANNO + HALSBURY, HARDINGE GIFFARD HANOI + HALSTEAD HANOTAUX, ALBERT AUGUSTE GABRIEL + HALT HANOVER (province of Prussia) + HALUNTIUM HANOVER (city of Prussia) + HALYBURTON, JAMES HANOVER (Indiana, U.S.A.) + HALYBURTON, THOMAS HANOVER (New Hampshire, U.S.A.) + HAM (son of Noah) HANOVER (Pennsylvania, U.S.A.) + HAM (town of France) HANRIOT, FRANÇOIS + HAMADAN HANSARD, LUKE + HAMADHANI HANSEATIC LEAGUE + HAMAH HANSEN, PETER ANDREAS + HAMANN, JOHANN GEORG HANSI + HAMAR HANSOM, JOSEPH ALOYSIUS + HAMASA HANSON, SIR RICHARD DAVIES + HAMBURG (German state) HANSTEEN, CHRISTOPHER + HAMBURG (German seaport) HANTHAWADDY + HAMDANI HANUKKAH + HAMELIN, FRANÇOIS ALPHONSE HANUMAN + HAMELN HANWAY, JONAS + HAMERLING, ROBERT HANWELL + HAMERTON, PHILIP GILBERT HAPARANDA + HAMI HAPLODRILI + HAMILCAR BARCA HAPTARA + HAMILTON HAPUR + HAMILTON, MARQUESSES & DUKES OF HARA-KIRI + HAMILTON, ALEXANDER HARALD + HAMILTON, ANTHONY HARBIN + HAMILTON, ELIZABETH HARBINGER + HAMILTON, EMMA HARBOUR + HAMILTON, JAMES HARBURG + HAMILTON, JAMES HAMILTON HARCOURT + HAMILTON, JOHN HARCOURT, SIMON HARCOURT + HAMILTON, PATRICK HARCOURT, SIR WILLIAM VENABLES VERNON + HAMILTON, ROBERT HARCOURT, WILLIAM VERNON + HAMILTON, THOMAS HARDANGER FJORD + HAMILTON, WILLIAM HARDEE, WILLIAM JOSEPH + HAMILTON, SIR WILLIAM (1730-1803) HARDENBERG, KARL AUGUST VON + HAMILTON, SIR WILLIAM (1788-1856) HARDERWYK + HAMILTON, WILLIAM GERARD HARDICANUTE + HAMILTON, SIR WILLIAM ROWAN HARDING, CHESTER + HAMILTON (town of Australia) HARDING, JAMES DUFFIELD + HAMILTON (river of Canada) HARDINGE, HENRY HARDINGE + HAMILTON (city of Canada) HARDOI + HAMILTON (burgh of Scotland) HARDOUIN, JEAN + HAMILTON (New York, U.S.A.) HARDT, HERMANN VON DER + HAMILTON (Ohio, U.S.A.) HARDT, THE + HAMIRPUR HARDWAR + HAMITIC RACES AND LANGUAGES HARDWICKE, PHILIP YORKE + HAMLET HARDY, ALEXANDRE + HAMLEY, SIR EDWARD BRUCE HARDY, THOMAS + HAMLIN, HANNIBAL HARDY, SIR THOMAS DUFFUS + HAMM HARDY, SIR THOMAS MASTERMAN + HAMMAD AR-RAWIYA HARDYNG, JOHN + HAMMER, FRIEDRICH JULIUS HARE, AUGUSTUS JOHN CUTHBERT + HAMMER HARE, SIR JOHN + HAMMERBEAM ROOF HARE, JULIUS CHARLES + HAMMERFEST HARE + HAMMER-KOP HAREBELL + HAMMER-PURGSTALL, JOSEPH HAREM + HAMMERSMITH HARFLEUR + HAMMER-THROWING HARIANA + HAMMER-TOE HARINGTON, SIR JOHN + HAMMOCK HARIRI + HAMMOND, HENRY HARI-RUD + HAMMOND HARISCHANDRA + HAMON, JEAN LOUIS HARITH IBN HILLIZA UL-YASHKURI + HAMPDEN, HENRY BOUVERIE BRAND HARIZI, JUDAH BEN SOLOMON + HAMPDEN, JOHN HARKNESS, ALBERT + HAMPDEN, RENN DICKSON HARKNESS, ROBERT + HAMPDEN-SIDNEY HARLAN, JAMES + HAMPSHIRE HARLAN, JOHN MARSHALL + HAMPSTEAD HARLAND, HENRY + HAMPTON, WADE HARLAY DE CHAMPVALLON, FRANÇOIS DE + HAMPTON (Middlesex, England) HARLECH + HAMPTON (Virginia, U.S.A.) HARLEQUIN + HAMPTON ROADS HARLESS, GOTTLIEB CHRISTOPH + HAMSTER HARLESS, GOTTLIEB CHRISTOPH ADOLF VON + HANAPER HARLINGEN + HANAU HARMATTAN + HANBURY WILLIAMS, SIR CHARLES HARMODIUS + HANCOCK, JOHN HARMONIA + HANCOCK, WINFIELD SCOTT HARMONIC + HANCOCK HARMONICA + HAND, FERDINAND GOTTHELF HARMONIC ANALYSIS + HAND HARMONICHORD + HANDEL, GEORGE FREDERICK HARMONIUM + HANDFASTING + + + + +HALLER, ALBRECHT VON (1708-1777), Swiss anatomist and physiologist, was +born of an old Swiss family at Bern, on the 16th of October 1708. +Prevented by long-continued ill-health from taking part in boyish +sports, he had the more opportunity for the development of his +precocious mind. At the age of four, it is said, he used to read and +expound the Bible to his father's servants; before he was ten he had +sketched a Chaldee grammar, prepared a Greek and a Hebrew vocabulary, +compiled a collection of two thousand biographies of famous men and +women on the model of the great works of Bayle and Moreri, and written +in Latin verse a satire on his tutor, who had warned him against a too +great excursiveness. When still hardly fifteen he was already the author +of numerous metrical translations from Ovid, Horace and Virgil, as well +as of original lyrics, dramas, and an epic of four thousand lines on the +origin of the Swiss confederations, writings which he is said on one +occasion to have rescued from a fire at the risk of his life, only, +however, to burn them a little later (1729) with his own hand. Haller's +attention had been directed to the profession of medicine while he was +residing in the house of a physician at Biel after his father's death in +1721; and, following the choice then made, he while still a sickly and +excessively shy youth went in his sixteenth year to the university of +Tübingen (December 1723), where he studied under Camerarius and +Duvernoy. Dissatisfied with his progress, he in 1725 exchanged Tübingen +for Leiden, where Boerhaave was in the zenith of his fame, and where +Albinus had already begun to lecture in anatomy. At that university he +graduated in May 1727, undertaking successfully in his thesis to prove +that the so-called salivary duct, claimed as a recent discovery by +Coschwitz, was nothing more than a blood-vessel. Haller then visited +London, making the acquaintance of Sir Hans Sloane, Cheselden, Pringle, +Douglas and other scientific men; next, after a short stay in Oxford, he +visited Paris, where he studied under Ledran and Winslöw; and in 1728 he +proceeded to Basel, where he devoted himself to the study of the higher +mathematics under John Bernoulli. It was during his stay there also that +his first great interest in botany was awakened; and, in the course of a +tour (July-August, 1828), through Savoy, Baden and several of the Swiss +cantons, he began a collection of plants which was afterwards the basis +of his great work on the flora of Switzerland. From a literary point of +view the main result of this, the first of his many journeys through the +Alps, was his poem entitled _Die Alpen_, which was finished in March +1729, and appeared in the first edition (1732) of his _Gedichte_. This +poem of 490 hexameters is historically important as one of the earliest +signs of the awakening appreciation of the mountains (hitherto generally +regarded as horrible monstrosities), though it is chiefly designed to +contrast the simple and idyllic life of the inhabitants of the Alps with +the corrupt and decadent existence of the dwellers in the plains. + +In 1729 he returned to Bern and began to practise as a physician; his +best energies, however, were devoted to the botanical and anatomical +researches which rapidly gave him a European reputation, and procured +for him from George II. in 1736 a call to the chair of medicine, +anatomy, botany and surgery in the newly founded university of +Göttingen. He became F.R.S. in 1743, and was ennobled in 1749. The +quantity of work achieved by Haller in the seventeen years during which +he occupied his Göttingen professorship was immense. Apart from the +ordinary work of his classes, which entailed upon him the task of newly +organizing a botanical garden, an anatomical theatre and museum, an +obstetrical school, and similar institutions, he carried on without +interruption those original investigations in botany and physiology, the +results of which are preserved in the numerous works associated with his +name; he continued also to persevere in his youthful habit of poetical +composition, while at the same time he conducted a monthly journal (the +_Göttingische gelehrte Anzeigen_), to which he is said to have +contributed twelve thousand articles relating to almost every branch of +human knowledge. He also warmly interested himself in most of the +religious questions, both ephemeral and permanent, of his day; and the +erection of the Reformed church in Göttingen was mainly due to his +unwearied energy. Notwithstanding all this variety of absorbing +interests he never felt at home in Göttingen; his untravelled heart kept +ever turning towards his native Bern (where he had been elected a member +of the great council in 1745), and in 1753 he resolved to resign his +chair and return to Switzerland. + +The twenty-one years of his life which followed were largely occupied in +the discharge of his duties in the minor political post of a +_Rathhausammann_ which he had obtained by lot, and in the preparation of +his _Bibliotheca medica_, the botanical, surgical and anatomical parts +of which he lived to complete; but he also found time to write the three +philosophical romances--_Usong_ (1771), _Alfred_ (1773) and _Fabius and +Cato_ (1774),--in which his views as to the respective merits of +despotism, of limited monarchy and of aristocratic republican government +are fully set forth. About 1773 the state of his health rendered +necessary his entire withdrawal from public business; for some time he +supported his failing strength by means of opium, on the use of which he +communicated a paper to the _Proceedings_ of the Göttingen Royal Society +in 1776; the excessive use of the drug is believed, however, to have +hastened his death, which occurred on the 17th of December 1777. Haller, +who had been three times married, left eight children, the eldest of +whom, Gottlieb Emanuel, attained to some distinction as a botanist and +as a writer on Swiss historical bibliography (1785-1788, 7 vols.). + + Subjoined is a classified but by no means an exhaustive list of his + very numerous works in various branches of science and literature (a + complete list, up to 1775, numbering 576 items, including various + editions, was published by Haller himself, in 1775, at the end of vol. + 6 of the correspondence addressed to him by various learned + friends):--(1) Anatomical:--_Icones anatomicae_ (1743-1754); + _Disputationes anatomicae selectiores_ (1746-1752); and _Opera acad. + minora anatomici argumenti_ (1762-1768). (2) Physiological:--_De + respiratione experimenta anatomica_ (1747); _Primae lineae + physiologiae_ (1747); and _Elementa physiologiae corporis humani_ + (1757-1760). (3) Pathological and surgical:--_Opuscula pathologica_ + (1754); _Disputationum chirurg. collectio_ (1777); also careful + editions of Boerhaave's _Praelectiones academicae in suas + institutiones rei medicae_ (1739), and of the _Artis medicae + principia_ of the same author (1769-1774). (4) Botanical:--_Enumeratio + methodica stirpium Helveticarum_ (1742); _Opuscula botanica_ (1749); + _Bibliotheca botanica_ (1771). (5) Theological:--_Briefe über die + wichtigsten Wahrheiten der Offenbarung_ (1772); and _Briefe zur + Vertheidigung der Offenbarung_ (1775-1777). (6) Poetical:--_Gedichte_ + (1732, 12th ed., 1777). His three romances have been already + mentioned. Several volumes of lectures and "Tagebücher" or journals + were published posthumously. + + See J. G. Zimmermann, _Das Leben des Herrn von Haller_ (1755), and the + articles by Förster and Seiler in Ersch and Gruber's _Encyklopädie_, + and particularly the detailed biography (over 500 pages) by L. Hirzel, + printed at the head of his elaborate edition (Frauenfeld, 1882) of + Haller's _Gedichte_. + + + + +HALLER, BERTHOLD (1492-1536), Swiss reformer, was born at Aldingen in +Württemberg, and after studying at Pforzheim, where he met Melanchthon, +and at Cologne, taught in the gymnasium at Bern. He was appointed +assistant preacher at the church of St Vincent in 1515 and people's +priest in 1520. Even before his acquaintance with Zwingli in 1521 he had +begun to preach the Reformation, his sympathetic character and his +eloquence making him a great force. In 1526 he was at the abortive +conference of Baden, and in January 1528 drafted and defended the ten +theses for the conference of Bern which established the new religion in +that city. He left no writings except a few letters which are preserved +in Zwingli's works. He died on the 25th of February 1536. + + Life by Pestalozzi (Elberfeld, 1861). + + + + +HALLEY, EDMUND (1656-1742), English astronomer, was born at Haggerston, +London, on the 29th of October 1656. His father, a wealthy soapboiler, +placed him at St Paul's school, where he was equally distinguished for +classical and mathematical ability. Before leaving it for Queen's +College, Oxford, in 1673, he had observed the change in the variation of +the compass, and at the age of nineteen, he supplied a new and improved +method of determining the elements of the planetary orbits (_Phil. +Trans._ xi. 683). His detection of considerable errors in the tables +then in use led him to the conclusion that a more accurate ascertainment +of the places of the fixed stars was indispensable to the progress of +astronomy; and, finding that Flamsteed and Hevelius had already +undertaken to catalogue those visible in northern latitudes, he assumed +to himself the task of making observations in the southern hemisphere. A +recommendation from Charles II. to the East India Company procured for +him an apparently suitable, though, as it proved, ill-chosen station, +and in November 1676 he embarked for St Helena. On the voyage he noticed +the retardation of the pendulum in approaching the equator; and during +his stay on the island he observed, on the 7th of November 1677, a +transit of Mercury, which suggested to him the important idea of +employing similar phenomena for determining the sun's distance. He +returned to England in November 1678, having by the registration of 341 +stars won the title of the "Southern Tycho," and by the translation to +the heavens of the "Royal Oak," earned a degree of master of arts, +conferred at Oxford by the king's command on the 3rd of December 1678, +almost simultaneously with his election as fellow of the Royal Society. +Six months later, the indefatigable astronomer started for Danzig to set +at rest a dispute of long standing between Hooke and Hevelius as to the +respective merits of plain or telescopic sights; and towards the end of +1680 he proceeded on a continental tour. In Paris he observed, with G. +D. Cassini, the great comet of 1680 after its perihelion passage; and +having returned to England, he married in 1682 Mary, daughter of Mr +Tooke, auditor of the exchequer, with whom he lived harmoniously for +fifty-five years. He now fixed his residence at Islington, engaged +chiefly upon lunar observations, with a view to the great desideratum of +a method of finding the longitude at sea. His mind, however, was also +busy with the momentous problem of gravity. Having reached so far as to +perceive that the central force of the solar system must decrease +inversely as the square of the distance, and applied vainly to Wren and +Hooke for further elucidation, he made in August 1684 that journey to +Cambridge for the purpose of consulting Newton, which resulted in the +publication of the _Principia_. The labour and expense of passing this +great work through the press devolved upon Halley, who also wrote the +prefixed hexameters ending with the well-known line-- + + Nec fas est propius mortali attingere divos. + +In 1696 he was, although a zealous Tory, appointed deputy comptroller of +the mint at Chester, and (August 19, 1698) he received a commission as +captain of the "Paramour Pink" for the purpose of making extensive +observations on the conditions of terrestrial magnetism. This task he +accomplished in a voyage which lasted two years, and extended to the +52nd degree of S. latitude. The results were published in a _General +Chart of the Variation of the Compass_ in 1701; and immediately +afterwards he executed by royal command a careful survey of the tides +and coasts of the British Channel, an elaborate map of which he produced +in 1702. On his return from a journey to Dalmatia, for the purpose of +selecting and fortifying the port of Trieste, he was nominated, November +1703, Savilian professor of geometry at Oxford, and received an honorary +degree of doctor of laws in 1710. Between 1713 and 1721 he acted as +secretary to the Royal Society, and early in 1720 he succeeded Flamsteed +as astronomer-royal. Although in his sixty-fourth year, he undertook to +observe the moon through an entire revolution of her nodes (eighteen +years), and actually carried out his purpose. He died on the 14th of +January 1742. His tomb is in the old graveyard of St Margaret's church, +Lee, Kent. + +Halley's most notable scientific achievements were--his detection of the +"long inequality" of Jupiter and Saturn, and of the acceleration of the +moon's mean motion (1693), his discovery of the proper motions of the +fixed stars (1718), his theory of variation (1683), including the +hypothesis of four magnetic poles, revived by C. Hansteen in 1819, and +his suggestion of the magnetic origin of the aurora borealis; his +calculation of the orbit of the 1682 comet (the first ever attempted), +coupled with a prediction of its return, strikingly verified in 1759; +and his indication (first in 1679, and again in 1716, Phil. Trans., No. +348) of a method extensively used in the 18th and 19th centuries for +determining the solar parallax by means of the transits of Venus. + + His principal works are _Catalogus stellarum australium_ (London, + 1679), the substance of which was embodied in vol. iii. of Flamsteed's + _Historia coelestis_ (1725); _Synopsis astronomiae cometicae_ (Oxford, + 1705); _Astronomical Tables_ (London, 1752); also eighty-one + miscellaneous papers of considerable interest, scattered through the + _Philosophical Transactions_. To these should be added his version + from the Arabic (which language he acquired for the purpose) of the + treatise of Apollonius _De sectione rationis_, with a restoration of + his two lost books _De sectione spatii_, both published at Oxford in + 1706; also his fine edition of the _Conics_ of Apollonius, with the + treatise by Serenus _De sectione cylindri et coni_ (Oxford, 1710, + folio). His edition of the _Spherics_ of Menelaus was published by his + friend Dr Costard in 1758. See also _Biographia Britannica_, vol. iv. + (1757); _Gent. Mag._ xvii. 455, 503; A. Wood, _Athenae Oxon._ (Bliss), + iv. 536; J. Aubrey, _Lives_, ii. 365; F. Baily, _Account of + Flamsteed_; Sir D. Brewster, _Life of Newton_; R. Grant, _History of + Astronomy_, p. 477 and _passim_; A. J. Rudolph, _Bulletin of + Bibliography_, No. 14 (Boston, 1904); E. F. McPike, "Bibliography of + Halley's Comet," _Smithsonian Misc. Collections_, vol. xlviii. pt. i. + (1905); _Notes and Queries_, 9th series, vols. x. xi. xii., 10th + series, vol. ii. (E. F. McPike). A collection of manuscripts regarding + Halley is preserved among the Rigaud papers in the Bodleian library, + Oxford; and many of his unpublished letters exist at the Record Office + and in the library of the Royal Society. (A. M. C.) + + + + +HALLGRÍMSSON, JÓNAS (1807-1844), the chief lyrical poet of Iceland, was +born in 1807 at Steinsstađir in Eyjafjarđarsýsla in the north of that +island, and educated at the famous school of Bessastađr. In 1832 he went +to the university of Copenhagen, and shortly afterwards turned his +attention to the natural sciences, especially geology. Having obtained +pecuniary assistance from the Danish government, he travelled through +all Iceland for scientific purposes in the years 1837-1842, and made +many interesting geological observations. Most of his writings on +geology are in Danish. His renown was, however, not acquired by his +writings in that language, but by his Icelandic poems and short stories. +He was well read in German literature, Heine and Schiller being his +favourites, and the study of the German masters and the old classical +writers of Iceland opened his eyes to the corrupt state of Icelandic +poetry and showed him the way to make it better. The misuse of the Eddic +metaphors made the lyrical and epical poetry of the day hardly +intelligible, and, to make matters worse, the language of the poets was +mixed up with words of German and Danish origin. The great Danish +philologist and friend of Iceland, Rasmus Rask, and the poet Bjarni +Thórarensen had done much to purify the language, but Jónas Hallgrímsson +completed their work by his poems and tales, in a purer language than +ever had been written in Iceland since the days of Snorri Sturlason. The +excesses of Icelandic poetry were specially seen in the so-called +_rímur_, ballads of heroes, &c., which were fiercely attacked by Jónas +Hallgrímsson, who at last succeeded in converting the educated to his +view. Most of the principal poems, tales and essays of Jónas +Hallgrímsson appeared in the periodical _Fjölnir_, which he began +publishing at Copenhagen in 1835, together with Konráđ Gíslason, a +well-known philologist, and the patriotic Thómas Saemundsson. _Fjölnir_ +had in the beginning a hard struggle against old prejudices, but as the +years went by its influence became enormous; and when it at last +ceased, its programme and spirit still lived in _Ný Félagsrit_ and other +patriotic periodicals which took its place. Jónas Hallgrímsson, who died +in 1844, is the father of a separate school in Icelandic lyric poetry. +He introduced foreign thoughts and metres, but at the same time revived +the metres of the Icelandic classical poets. Although his poetical works +are all comprised in one small volume, he strikes every string of the +old harp of Iceland. (S. Bl.) + + + + +HALLIDAY, ANDREW [ANDREW HALLIDAY DUFF] (1830-1877), British journalist +and dramatist, was born at Marnoch, Banffshire, in 1830. He was educated +at Marischal College, Aberdeen, and in 1849 he came to London, and +discarding the name of Duff, devoted himself to literature. His first +engagement was with the daily papers, and his work having attracted the +notice of Thackeray, he was invited to write for the _Cornhill +Magazine_. From 1861 he contributed largely to _All the Year Round_, and +many of his articles were republished in collected form. He was also the +author, alone and with others, of a great number of farces, burlesques +and melodramas and a peculiarly successful adapter of popular novels for +the stage. Of these _Little Em'ly_ (1869), his adaptation of _David +Copperfield_, was warmly approved by Dickens himself, and enjoyed a long +run at Drury Lane. Halliday died in London on the 10th of April 1877. + + + + +HALLIWELL-PHILLIPPS, JAMES ORCHARD (1820-1889), English Shakespearian +scholar, son of Thomas Halliwell, was born in London, on the 21st of +June 1820. He was educated privately and at Jesus College, Cambridge. He +devoted himself to antiquarian research, particularly in early English +literature. In 1839 he edited Sir John Mandeville's _Travels_; in 1842 +published an _Account of the European MSS. in the Chetham Library_, +besides a newly discovered metrical romance of the 15th century +(_Torrent of Portugal_). He became best known, however, as a +Shakespearian editor and collector. In 1848 he brought out his _Life of +Shakespeare_, which passed through several editions; in 1853-1865 a +sumptuous edition, limited to 150 copies, of Shakespeare in folio, with +full critical notes; in 1863 a _Calendar of the Records at +Stratford-on-Avon_; in 1864 a _History of New Place_. After 1870 he +entirely gave up textual criticism, and devoted his attention to +elucidating the particulars of Shakespeare's life. He collated all the +available facts and documents in relation to it, and exhausted the +information to be found in local records in his _Outlines of the Life of +Shakespeare_. He was mainly instrumental in the purchase of New Place +for the corporation of Stratford-on-Avon, and in the formation there of +the Shakespeare museum. His publications in all numbered more than sixty +volumes. He assumed the name of Phillipps in 1872, under the will of the +grandfather of his first wife, a daughter of Sir Thomas Phillipps the +antiquary. He took an active interest in the Camden Society, the Percy +Society and the Shakespeare Society, for which he edited many early +English and Elizabethan works. From 1845 Halliwell was excluded from the +library of the British Museum on account of the suspicion attaching to +his possession of some manuscripts which had been removed from the +library of Trinity College, Cambridge. He published privately an +explanation of the matter in 1845. His house, Hollingbury Copse, near +Brighton, was full of rare and curious works, and he generously gave +many of them to the Chetham library, Manchester, to the town library of +Penzance, to the Smithsonian Institute, Washington, and to the library +of Edinburgh university. He died on the 3rd of January 1889. + + + + +HALLOWE'EN, or ALL HALLOWS EVE, the name given to the 31st of October as +the vigil of Hallowmas or All Saints' Day. Though now known as little +else but the eve of the Christian festival, Hallowe'en and its formerly +attendant ceremonies long antedate Christianity. The two chief +characteristics of ancient Hallowe'en were the lighting of bonfires and +the belief that of all nights in the year this is the one during which +ghosts and witches are most likely to wander abroad. Now on or about the +1st of November the Druids held their great autumn festival and lighted +fires in honour of the Sun-god in thanksgiving for the harvest. Further, +it was a Druidic belief that on the eve of this festival Saman, lord of +death, called together the wicked souls that within the past twelve +months had been condemned to inhabit the bodies of animals. Thus it is +clear that the main celebrations of Hallowe'en were purely Druidical, +and this is further proved by the fact that in parts of Ireland the 31st +of October was, and even still is, known as _Oidhche Shamhna_, "Vigil of +Saman." On the Druidic ceremonies were grafted some of the +characteristics of the Roman festival in honour of Pomona held about the +1st of November, in which nuts and apples, as representing the winter +store of fruits, played an important part. Thus the roasting of nuts and +the sport known as "apple-ducking"--attempting to seize with the teeth +an apple floating in a tub of water,--were once the universal occupation +of the young folk in medieval England on the 31st of October. The custom +of lighting Hallowe'en fires survived until recent years in the +highlands of Scotland and Wales. In the dying embers it was usual to +place as many small stones as there were persons around, and next +morning a search was made. If any of the pebbles were displaced it was +regarded as certain that the person represented would die within the +twelve months. + + For details of the Hallowe'en games and bonfires see Brand's + _Antiquities of Great Britain_; Chambers's _Book of Days_; Grimm's + _Deutsche Mythologie_, ch. xx. (_Elemente_) and ch. xxxiv. + (_Aberglaube_); and J. G. Frazer's _Golden Bough_, vol. iii. Compare + also BELTANE and BONFIRE. + + + + +HALLSTATT, a market-place of Austria, in Upper Austria, 67 m. S.S.W. of +Linz by rail. Pop. (1900) 737. It is situated on the shore of the +Hallstatter-see and at the foot of the Hallstatter Salzberg, and is +built in amphitheatre with its houses clinging to the mountain side. The +salt mine of Hallstatt, which is one of the oldest in existence, was +rediscovered in the 14th century. In the neighbourhood is the celebrated +Celtic burial ground, where a great number of very interesting +antiquities have been found. Most of these have been removed to the +museums at Vienna and Linz, but some are kept in the local museum. + +The excavations (1847-1864) revealed a form of culture hitherto unknown, +and accordingly the name Hallstatt has been applied to objects of like +form and decoration since found in Styria, Carniola, Bosnia (at +Glasinatz and Jezerin), Epirus, north Italy, France, Spain and Britain +(see CELT). Everywhere else the change from iron weapons to bronze is +immediate, but at Hallstatt iron is seen gradually superseding bronze, +first for ornament, then for edging cutting instruments, then replacing +fully the old bronze types, and finally taking new forms of its own. +There can be no doubt that the use of iron first developed in the +Hallstatt area, and that thence it spread southwards into Italy, Greece, +the Aegean, Egypt and Asia, and northwards and westwards in Europe. At +Noreia, which gave its name to Noricum (q.v.) less than 40 m. from +Hallstatt, were the most famous iron mines of antiquity, which produced +the Noric iron and Noric swords so prized and dreaded by the Romans +(Pliny, _Hist. Nat._ xxxiv. 145; Horace, _Epod._ 17. 71). This iron +needed no tempering, and the Celts had probably found it ready smelted +by nature, just as the Eskimo had learned of themselves to use telluric +iron embedded in basalt. The graves at Hallstatt were partly inhumation +partly cremation; they contained swords, daggers, spears, javelins, +axes, helmets, bosses and plates of shields and hauberks, brooches, +various forms of jewelry, amber and glass beads, many of the objects +being decorated with animals and geometrical designs. Silver was +practically unknown. The weapons and axes are mostly iron, a few being +bronze. The swords are leaf-shaped, with blunt points intended for +cutting, not for thrusting; the hilts differ essentially from those of +the Bronze Age, being shaped like a crescent to grasp the blade, with +large pommels, or sometimes with antennae (the latter found also in +Bavaria, Württemberg, Baden, Switzerland, the Pyrenees, Spain, north +Italy): only six arrowheads (bronze) were found. Both flanged and +socketed celts occurred, the iron being much more numerous than the +bronze. The flat axes are distinguished by the side stops and in some +cases the transition from palstave to socketed axe can be seen. The +shields were round as in the early Iron Age of north Italy (see +VILLANOVA). Greaves were found at Glasinatz and Jezerin, though not at +Hallstatt; two helmets were found at Hallstatt and others in Bosnia; +broad bronze belts were numerous, adorned in _repoussé_ with beast and +geometric ornament. Brooches are found in great numbers, both those +derived from the primitive safety-pin ("Peschiera" type) and the +"spectacle" or "Hallstatt" type found all down the Balkans and in +Greece. The latter are formed of two spirals of wire, sometimes four +such spirals being used, whilst there were also brooches in animal +forms, one of the latter being found with a bronze sword. The Hallstatt +culture is that of the Homeric Achaeans (see ACHAEANS), but as the +brooch (along with iron, cremation of the dead, the round shield and the +geometric ornament) passed down into Greece from central Europe, and as +brooches are found in the lower town at Mycenae, 1350 B.C., they must +have been invented long before that date in central Europe. But as they +are found in the late Bronze Age and early Iron Age, the early iron +culture of Hallstatt must have originated long before 1350 B.C., a +conclusion in accord with the absence of silver at Hallstatt itself. + + See Baron von Sacken, _Das Grabfeld von Hallstatt_; Bertrand and S. + Reinach, _Les Celtes dans les vallées du Pô et du Danube_; W. + Ridgeway, _Early Age of Greece_; ARCHAEOLOGY (plate). (W. Ri.) + + + + +HALLUCINATION (from Lat. _alucinari_ or _allucinari_, to wander in mind, +Gr. [Greek: alyssein] or [Greek: alyein], from [Greek: alę], wandering), +a psychological term which has been the subject of much controversy, and +to which, although there is now fair agreement as to its denotation, it +is still impossible to give a precise and entirely satisfactory +definition. Hallucinations constitute one of the two great classes of +all false sense-perceptions, the other class consisting of the +"illusions," and the difficulty of definition is clearly to mark the +boundary between the two classes. _Illusion_ may be defined as the +misinterpretation of sense-impression, while _hallucination_, in its +typical instances, is the experiencing of a sensory presentation, i.e. a +presentation having the sensory vividness that distinguishes perceptions +from representative imagery, at a time when no stimulus is acting on the +corresponding sense-organ. There is, however, good reason to think that +in many cases, possibly in all cases, some stimulation of the +sense-organ, coming either from without or from within the body, plays a +part in the genesis of the hallucination. This being so, we must be +content to leave the boundary between illusions and hallucinations +ill-defined, and to regard as illusions _those false perceptions in +which impressions made on the sense-organ play a leading part in +determining the character of the percept_, and as hallucinations _those +in which any such impression is lacking, or plays but a subsidiary part +and bears no obvious relation to the character of the false percept_. + +As in the case of illusion, hallucination may or may not involve +delusion, or belief in the reality of the object falsely perceived. +Among the sane the hallucinatory object is frequently recognized at once +as unreal or at least as but quasi-real; and it is only the insane, or +persons in abnormal states, such as hypnosis, who, when an hallucination +persists or recurs, fail to recognize that it corresponds to no physical +impression from, or object in, the outer world. Hallucinations of all +the senses occur, but the most commonly reported are the auditory and +the visual, while those of the other senses seem to be comparatively +rare. This apparent difference of frequency is no doubt largely due to +the more striking character of visual and auditory hallucinations, and +to the relative difficulty of ascertaining, in the case of perceptions +of the lower senses, e.g. of taste and smell, that no impression +adequate to the genesis of the percept has been made upon the +sense-organ; but, in so far as it is real, it is probably due in part to +the more constant use of the higher senses and the greater strain +consequently thrown upon them, in part also to their more intimate +connexion with the life of ideas. + +The hallucinatory perception may involve two or more senses, e.g., the +subject may seem to see a human being, to hear his voice and to feel the +touch of his hand. This is rarely the case in spontaneous hallucination, +but in hypnotic hallucination the subject is apt to develop the object +suggested to him, as present to one of his senses, and to perceive it +also through other senses. + +Among visual hallucinations the human figure, and among auditory +hallucinations human voices, are the objects most commonly perceived. +The figure seen always appears localized more or less definitely in the +outer world. In many cases it appears related to the objects truly seen +in just the same way as a real object; e.g. it is no longer seen if the +eyes are closed or turned away, it does not move with the movements of +the eyes, and it may hide objects lying behind it, or be hidden by +objects coming between the place that it appears to occupy and the eye +of the percipient. Visual hallucinations are most often experienced when +the eyes are open and the surrounding space is well or even brightly +illuminated. Less frequently the visual hallucination takes the form of +a self-luminous figure in a dark place or appears in a luminous globe or +mist which shuts out from view the real objects of the part of the field +of view in which it appears. + +Auditory hallucinations, especially voices, seem to fall into two +distinct classes--(1) those which are heard as coming from without, and +are more or less definitely localized in outer space, (2) those which +seem to be within the head or, in some cases, within the chest, and to +have less definite auditory quality. It seems probable that the latter +are hallucinations involving principally kinaesthetic sensations, +sensations of movement of the organs of speech. + +Hallucinations occur under a great variety of bodily and mental +conditions, which may conveniently be classified as follows. + + +I. _Conditions which imply normal waking Consciousness and no distinct +Departure from bodily and mental Sanity._ + +a. It would seem that a considerable number of perfectly healthy persons +occasionally experience, while in a fully waking state, hallucinations +for which no cause can be assigned. The census of hallucinations +conducted by the Society for Psychical Research showed that about 10% of +all sane persons can remember having experienced at least one +hallucination while they believed themselves to be fully awake and in +normal health. These sporadic hallucinations of waking healthy persons +are far more frequently visual than auditory, and they usually take the +form of some familiar person in ordinary attire. The figure in many +cases is seen, on turning the gaze in some new direction, fully +developed and lifelike, and its hallucinatory character may be revealed +only by its noiseless movements, or by its fading away _in situ_. A +special interest attaches to hallucinations of this type, owing to the +occasional coincidence of the death of the person with his hallucinatory +appearance. The question raised by these coincidences will be discussed +in a separate paragraph below. + +b. A few persons, otherwise normal in mind and body, seem to experience +repeatedly some particular kind of hallucination. The voice ([Greek: +daimonion]) so frequently heard by Socrates, warning or advising him, is +the most celebrated example of this type. + + +II. _Conditions more or less unusual or abnormal but not implying +distinct Departure from Health._ + +a. A kind of hallucination to which perhaps every normal person is +liable is that known technically as "recurrent sensation." This kind is +experienced only when some sense-organ has been continuously or +repeatedly subjected to some one kind of impression or stimulation for a +considerable period; e.g. the microscopist, after examining for some +hours one particular kind of object or structure, may suddenly perceive +the object faithfully reproduced in form and colour, and lying, as it +were, upon any surface to which his gaze is directed. Perhaps the +commonest experience of this type is the recurrence of the sensations of +movement at intervals in the period following a sea voyage or long +railway journey. + +b. A considerable proportion of healthy sane persons can induce +hallucinations of vision by gazing fixedly at a polished surface or +into some dark translucent mass; or of hearing, by applying a large +shell or similar object to the ear. These methods of inducing +hallucinations, especially the former, have long been practised in many +countries as modes of divination, various objects being used, e.g. a +drop of ink in the palm of the hand, or a polished finger-nail. The +object now most commonly used is a polished sphere of clear glass or +crystal (see CRYSTAL-GAZING). Hence such hallucinations go by the name +of _crystal visions_. The crystal vision often appears as a picture of +some distant or unknown scene lying, as it were, in the crystal; and in +the picture figures may come and go, and move to and fro, in a perfectly +natural manner. In other cases, written or printed words or sentences +appear. The percipient, seer or scryer, commonly seems to be in a fully +waking state as he observes the objects thus presented. He is usually +able to describe and discuss the appearances, successively +discriminating details by attentive observation, just as when observing +an objective scene; and he usually has no power of controlling them, and +no sense of having produced them by his own activity. In some cases +these visions have brought back to the mind of the scryer facts or +incidents which he could not voluntarily recollect. In other cases they +are asserted by credible witnesses to have given to the scryer +information, about events distant in time or place, that had not come to +his knowledge by normal means. These cases have been claimed as evidence +of telepathic communication or even of clairvoyance. But at present the +number of well-attested cases of this sort is too small to justify +acceptance of this conclusion by those who have only secondhand +knowledge of them. + +c. Prolonged deprivation of food predisposes to hallucinations, and it +would seem that, under this condition, a large proportion of otherwise +healthy persons become liable to them, especially to auditory +hallucinations. + +d. Certain drugs, notably opium, Indian hemp, and mescal predispose to +hallucinations, each tending to produce a peculiar type. Thus Indian +hemp and mescal, especially the latter, produce in many cases visual +hallucinations in the form of a brilliant play of colours, sometimes a +mere succession of patches of brilliant colour, sometimes in +architectural or other definite spatial arrangement. + +e. The states of transition from sleep to waking, and from waking to +sleep, seem to be peculiarly favourable to the appearance of +hallucinations. The recurrent sensations mentioned above are especially +prone to appear at such times, and a considerable proportion of the +sporadic hallucinations of persons in good health are reported to have +been experienced under these conditions. The name "hypnagogic" +hallucinations, first applied by Alfred Maury, is commonly given to +those experienced in these transition states. + +f. The presentations, predominantly visual, that constitute the +principal content of most dreams, are generally described as +hallucinatory, but the propriety of so classing them is very +questionable. The present writer is confident that his own +dream-presentations lack the sensory vividness which is the essential +mark of the percept, whether normal or hallucinatory, and which is the +principal, though not the only, character in which it differs from the +representation or memory-image. It is true that the dream-presentation, +like the percept, differs from the representative imagery of waking life +in that it is relatively independent of volition; but that seems to be +merely because the will is in abeyance or very ineffective during sleep. +The wide currency of the doctrine that classes dream-images with +hallucinations seems to be due to this independence of volitional +control, and to the fact that during sleep the representative imagery +appears without that rich setting of undiscriminated or marginal +sensation which always accompanies waking imagery, and which by contrast +accentuates for introspective reflection the lack of sensory vividness +of such imagery. + +g. Many of the subjects who pass into the deeper stages of hypnosis +(see HYPNOTISM) show themselves, while in that condition, extremely +liable to hallucination, perceiving whatever object is suggested to them +as present, and failing to perceive any object of which it is asserted +by the operator that it is no longer present. The reality of these +positive and negative hallucinations of the hypnotized subject has been +recently questioned, it being maintained that the subject merely gives +verbal assent to the suggestions of the operator. But that the +hypnotized subject does really experience hallucinations seems to be +proved by the cases in which it is possible to make the hallucination, +positive or negative, persist for some time after the termination of +hypnosis, and by the fact that in some of these cases the subject, who +in the post-hypnotic state seems in every other respect normal and wide +awake, may find it difficult to distinguish between the hallucinatory +and real objects. Further proof is afforded by experiments such as those +by which Alfred Binet showed that a visual hallucination may behave for +its percipient in many respects like a real object, e.g. that it may +appear reflected in a mirror, displaced by a prism and coloured when a +coloured glass is placed before the patient's eyes. It was by means of +experiments of this kind that Binet showed that hypnotic hallucinations +may approximate to the type of the illusion, i.e. that some real object +affecting the sense-organ (in the case of a visual hallucination some +detail of the surface upon which it is projected) may provide a nucleus +of peripherally excited sensation around which the false percept is +built up. An object playing a part of this sort in the genesis of an +hallucination is known as a "_point de repčre_." It has been maintained +that all hallucinations involve some such _point de repčre_ or objective +nucleus; but there are good reasons for rejecting this view. + +h. In states of ecstasy, or intense emotional concentration of +attention upon some one ideal object, the object contemplated seems at +times to take on sensory vividness, and so to acquire the character of +an hallucination. In these cases the state of mind of the subject is +probably similar in many respects to that of the deeply hypnotized +subject, and these two classes of hallucination may be regarded as very +closely allied. + + +III. _Hallucinations which occur as symptoms of both bodily and mental +diseases._ + +a. Dr H. Head has the credit of having shown for the first time, in +the year 1901, that many patients, suffering from more or less painful +visceral diseases, disorders of heart, lungs, abdominal viscera, &c., +are liable to experience hallucinations of a peculiar kind. These +"visceral" hallucinations, which are constantly accompanied by headache +of the reflected visceral type, are most commonly visual, more rarely +auditory. In all Dr Head's cases the visual hallucination took the form +of a shrouded human figure, colourless and vague, often incomplete, +generally seen by the patient standing by his bed when he wakes in a +dimly lit room. The auditory "visceral" hallucination was in no instance +vocal, but took such forms as sounds of tapping, scratching or rumbling, +and were heard only in the absence of objective noises. In a few cases +the "visceral" hallucination was bisensory, i.e. both auditory and +visual. + +In all these respects the "visceral" hallucination differs markedly from +the commoner types of the sporadic hallucination of healthy persons. + +b. Hallucinations are constant symptoms of certain general disorders +in which the nervous system is involved, notably of the _delirium +tremens_, which results from chronic alcohol poisoning, and of the +delirium of the acute specific fevers. The hallucinations of these +states are generally of a distressing or even terrifying character. +Especially is this the rule with those of _delirium tremens_, and in the +hallucinations of this disease certain kinds of objects, e.g. rats and +snakes, occur with curious frequency. + +c. Hallucinations occasionally occur as symptoms of certain nervous +diseases that are not usually classed with the insanities, notably in +cases of epilepsy and severe forms of hysteria. In the former disorder, +the sensory aura that so often precedes the epileptic convulsion may +take the form of an hallucinatory object, which in some cases is very +constant in character. Unilateral hallucinations, an especially +interesting class, occur in severe cases of hysteria, and are usually +accompanied by hemi-anaesthesia of the body on the side on which the +hallucinatory object is perceived. + +d. Hallucinations occur in a large, but not accurately definable, +proportion of all cases of mental disease proper. Two classes are +recognized: (1) those that are intimately connected with the dominant +emotional state or with some dominant delusion; (2) those that occur +sporadically and have no such obvious relation to the other symptoms of +disease. Hallucinations of the former class tend to accentuate, and in +turn to be confirmed by, the congruent emotional or delusional state; +but whether these are to be regarded as primary symptoms and as the +cause of the hallucinations, or _vice versa_, it is generally impossible +to say. Patients who suffer delusions of persecution are very apt to +develop later in the course of their disease hallucinations of the +voices of their persecutors; while in other cases hallucinatory voices, +which are at first recognized as such, come to be regarded as real and +in these cases seem to be factors of primary importance in the genesis +of further delusions. Hallucinations occur in almost every variety of +mental disease, but are commonest in the forms characterized by a cloudy +dream-like condition of consciousness, and in extreme cases of this sort +the patient (as in the delirium of chronic alcohol-poisoning) seems to +move waking through a world consisting largely of the images of his own +creation, set upon a background of real objects. + +In some cases hallucinations are frequently experienced for long periods +in the absence of any other symptom of mental disorder, but these no +doubt usually imply some morbid condition of the brain. + +_Physiology of Hallucination._--There has been much discussion as to the +nature of the neural process in hallucination. It is generally and +rightly assumed that the hallucinatory perception of any object has for +its immediate neural correlate a state of excitement which, as regards +its characters and its distribution in the elements of the brain, is +entirely similar to the neural correlate of the normal perception of the +same object. The hallucination is a perception, though a false +perception. In the perception of an object and in the representation of +it, introspective analysis discovers a number of presentative elements. +In the case of the representation these elements are memory images only +(except perhaps in so far as actual kinaesthetic sensations enter into +its composition); whereas, in the case of the percept, some of these +elements are sensations, sensations which differ from images in having +the attribute of sensory vividness; and the sensory vividness of these +elements lends to the whole complex the sensory vividness or reality, +the possession of which character by the percept constitutes its +principal difference from the representation. Normally, sensory +vividness attaches only to those presentative elements which are excited +through stimulations of the sense-organs. The normal percept, then, owes +its character of sensory reality to the fact that a certain number of +its presentative elements are sensations peripherally excited by +impressions made upon a sense-organ. The problem is, then, to account +for the fact that the hallucination contains presentative elements that +have sensory vividness, that are sensations, although they are not +excited by impressions from the external world falling upon a +sense-organ. Most of the discussions of this subject suffer from the +neglect of this preliminary definition of the problem. Many authors, +notably W. Wundt and his disciples, have been content to assume that the +sensation differs from the memory-image only in having a higher degree +of intensity; from which they infer that its neural correlate in the +brain cortex also differs from that of the image only in having a higher +degree of intensity. For them an hallucination is therefore merely a +representation whose neural correlate involves an intensity of +excitement of certain brain-elements such as is normally produced only +by peripheral stimulation of sensory nerves in the sense-organs. But +this view, so attractively simple, ignores an insuperable objection. +Sensory vividness is not to be identified with superior intensity; for +while the least intense sensation has it, the memory image of the most +intense sensation lacks it completely. And, since intensity of +sensation is a function of the intensity of the underlying neural +excitement, we may not assume that sensory vividness is also the +expression in consciousness of that intensity of excitement. If Wundt's +view were true a progressive diminution of the intensity of a sensory +stimulus should bring the sensation to a point in the scale of +diminishing intensity at which it ceases to be sensation, ceases to have +sensory vividness and becomes an image merely. But this is not the case; +with diminishing intensity of stimulation, the sensation declines to a +minimal intensity and then disappears from consciousness. This objection +applies not only to Wundt's view of hallucinations, but also to H. +Taine's explanation of them by the aid of his doctrine of "reductives," +for this too identifies sensory vividness with intensity. (H. Taine, _De +l'intelligence_, tome i. p. 108.) + +Another widely current explanation is based on the view that the +representation and the percept have their anatomical bases in different +element-groups or "centres" of the brain, the "centre" of the +representation being assigned to a higher level of the brain than that +of the percept (the latter being sometimes assigned to the basal ganglia +of the brain, the former to the cortex). It is then assumed that while +the lower perceptual centre is normally excited only through the +sense-organ, it may occasionally be excited by impulses playing down +upon it from the corresponding centre of representation, when +hallucination results. + +This view also is far from satisfactory, because the great additions +recently made to our knowledge of the brain tend very strongly to show +that both sensations and memory-images have their anatomical bases in +the same sensory areas of the cerebral cortex; and many considerations +converge to show that their anatomical bases must be, in part at least, +identical. + +The views based on the assumptions of complete identity, and of complete +separateness, of the anatomical bases of the percept and of the +representation are then alike untenable; and the alternative--that their +anatomical bases are in part identical, in part different, which is +indicated by this conclusion--renders possible a far more satisfactory +doctrine. We have good reason to believe that the neural correlate of +sensation is the transmission of the nervous impulse through a +sensori-motor arc of the cortex, made up of a chain of neurones; and the +view suggests itself that the neural correlate of the corresponding +memory-image is the transmission of the impulse through a part only of +this chain of cortical elements, either the efferent motor part of this +chain or the afferent sensory part of it. Professor W. James's theory of +hallucinations is based on the latter assumption. He suggests that the +sensory vividness of sensation and of the percept is due to the +discharge of the excitement of the chain of elements in the forward or +motor direction; and that, in the case of the image and of the +representation, the discharge takes place, not in this direction through +the efferent channel of the centre, but laterally into other centres of +the cortex. Hallucination may then be conceived as caused by +obstruction, or abnormally increased resistance, of the paths connecting +such a cortical centre with others, so that, when it becomes excited in +any way, the tension or potential of its charge rises, until discharge +takes place in the motor direction through the efferent limbs of the +sensori-motor arcs which constitute the centre. + +It is a serious objection to this view that, as James himself, in common +with most modern authors, maintains, every idea has its motor tendency +which commonly, perhaps always, finds expression in some change of +tension of muscles, and in many cases issues in actual movements. Now if +we accept James's theory of hallucination, we should expect to find that +whenever a representation issues in bodily action it should assume the +sensory vividness of an hallucination; and this, of course, is not the +case. + +The alternative form of the view that assumes partial identity of the +anatomical bases of the percept and the representation of an object, +would regard the neural correlate of the sensation as the transmission +of the nervous impulse throughout the length of the sensori-motor arc +of the cortex, from sensory inlet to motor outlet; and that of the image +as its transmission through the efferent part of this arc only; that is +to say, in the case of the image, it would regard the excitement of the +arc as being initiated at some point between its afferent inlet and its +motor outlet, and as spreading, in accordance with the law of forward +conduction, towards the motor outlet only, so that only the part of the +arc distal or efferent to this point becomes excited. + +This view of the neural basis of sensory vividness, which correlates the +difference between the sensation and the image with the only known +difference between their physiological conditions, namely the peripheral +initiation of the one and the central initiation of the other, enables +us to formulate a satisfactory theory of the physiology of +hallucinations. + +The anatomical basis of the perception and of the representation of any +object is a functional system of nervous elements, comprising a number +of sensori-motor arcs, whose excitement by impulses ascending to them by +the sensory paths from the sense-organs determines sensations, and whose +excitement in their efferent parts only determines the corresponding +images. In the case of perception, some of these arcs are excited by +impulses ascending from the sense-organs, others only by the spread of +the excitement through the system from these peripherally excited arcs; +while, in the case of the representation, all alike are excited by +impulses that reach the system from other parts of the cortex and spread +throughout its efferent parts only to its motor outlets. + +If then impulses enter this system by any of the afferent limbs of its +sensori-motor arcs, the presentation that accompanies its excitement +will have sensory vividness and will be a true perception, an illusion, +or an hallucination, according as these impulses have followed the +normal course from the sense-organ, or have been diverted, to a lesser +or greater degree, from their normal paths. If any such neural system +becomes abnormally excitable, or becomes excited in any way with +abnormal intensity, it is thereby rendered a path of exceptionally +low-resistance capable of diverting to itself, from their normal path, +any streams of impulses ascending from the sense-organ; which ascending +impulses, entering the system by its afferent inlets, excite sensations +that impart to the presentation the character of sensory vividness; the +presentation thus acquires the character of a percept in spite of the +absence of the appropriate impression on the sense-organ, and we call it +an hallucination. + +This view renders intelligible the _modus operandi_ of many of the +predisposing causes of hallucination; e.g. the pre-occupation with +certain representations of the ecstatic, or of the sufferer from +delusions of persecution; the intense expectation of a particular sense +impression, the generally increased excitability of the cortex in states +of delirium; in all these conditions the abnormally intense excitement +of the cortical systems may be supposed to give them an undue directive +and attractive influence upon the streams of impulses ascending from the +sense-organs, so that sensory impulses may be diverted from their normal +paths. Again, it renders intelligible the part played by chronic +irritation of a sense-organ, as when chronic irritation of the internal +ear leads on to hallucinations of hearing; perhaps also the chronic +irritation of sensory nerves that must accompany the states of visceral +disease, shown by Head to be so frequently accompanied by a liability to +hallucinations; for any such chronic irritation supplies a stream of +disorderly impulses rising constantly from the sense-organ, for the +reception of which the brain has no appropriate system, and which, +therefore, readily enters any organized cortical system that at any +moment constitutes a path of low-resistance. A similar explanation +applies to the influence of fixed gazing upon a crystal, or the placing +of a shell over the ear, in inducing visual and auditory hallucinations. +The "recurrent sensations" experienced after prolonged occupation with +some one kind of sensory object may be regarded as due to an abnormal +excitability of the cortical system concerned, resulting from its unduly +prolonged exercise. The hypothesis renders intelligible also the +liability to hallucination of persons in the hysterical and hypnotic +states, in whose brains the cortical neural systems are in a state of +partial dissociation, which renders possible an unduly intense and +prolonged excitement of some one system at the expense of all other +systems (cf. HYPNOTISM). + +_Coincidental Hallucinations._--It would seem that, in well-nigh all +countries and in all ages, apparitions of persons known to be in distant +places have been occasionally observed. Such appearances have usually +been regarded as due to the presence, before the bodily eye of the seer, +of the ghost, wraith, double or soul of the person who thus appears; +and, since the soul has been very commonly supposed to leave the body, +permanently at death and temporarily during sleep, trance or any period +of unconsciousness, however induced, it was natural to regard such an +appearance as evidence that the person whose wraith was thus seen was in +some such condition. Such apparitions have probably played a part, +second only to that of dreams, in generating the almost universal belief +in the separability of soul and body. + +In many parts of the world traditional belief has connected such +apparitions more especially with the death of the person so appearing, +the apparition being regarded as an indication that the person so +appearing has recently died, is dying or is about to die. Since death is +so much less common an event than sleep, trance, or other form of +temporary unconsciousness, the wide extension of this belief suggests +that such apparitions may coincide in time with death, with +disproportionate frequency. The belief in the significance of such +apparitions still survives in civilized communities, and stories of +apparitions coinciding with the death of the person appearing are +occasionally reported in the newspapers, or related as having recently +occurred. The Society for Psychical Research has sought to find grounds +for an answer to the question "Is there any sufficient justification for +the belief in a causal relation between the apparition of a person at a +place distant from his body and his death or other exceptional and +momentous event in his experience?" The problem was attacked in a +thoroughly scientific spirit, an extensive inquiry was made, and the +results were presented and fully discussed in two large volumes, +_Phantasms of the Living_, published in the year 1886, bearing on the +title-page the names of Edmund Gurney, F. W. H. Myers and F. Podmore. Of +the three collaborators Gurney took the largest share in the planning of +the work, in the collection of evidence, and in the elaboration and +discussion of it. + +Gurney set out with the presumption that apparitions, whether +coincidental or not, are hallucinations in the sense defined above; that +_they are false perceptions_ and are not excited by any object or +process of the external world acting upon the sense-organs of the +percipient in normal fashion; that they do not imply the presence, in +the place apparently occupied by them, of any wraith or any form of +existence emanating from, or specially connected with, the person whose +phantasm appears. This initial assumption was abundantly justified by an +examination of a large number of cases for it, which showed that, in all +important respects, most of these apparitions of persons at a distance, +whether coincidental or not, were similar to other forms of +hallucination. + +The acceptance of this conclusion does not, however, imply a negative +answer to the question formulated above. The Society for Psychical +Research had accumulated an impressive and, to almost all those who had +first-hand acquaintance with it, a convincing mass of experimental +evidence of the reality of telepathy (q.v.), the influence of mind on +mind otherwise than through the recognized channels of sense. The +successful experiments had for the most part been made between persons +in close proximity, in the same room or in adjoining rooms; but they +seemed to show that the state of consciousness of one person may induce +directly (i.e. without the mediation of the organs of expression and +sense-perception) a similar state of consciousness in another person, +especially if the former, usually called the "agent," strongly desired +or "willed" that this effect should be produced on the other person, the +"percipient." + +The question formulated above thus resolved itself for Gurney into the +more definite form, "Can we find any good reason for believing that +coincidental hallucinations are sometimes veridical, that the state of +mind of a person at some great crisis of his experience may +telepathically induce in the mind of some distant relative or friend an +hallucinatory perception of himself?" It was at once obvious that, if +coincidental apparitions can be proved to occur, this question can only +be answered by a statistical inquiry; for each such coincidental +hallucination, considered alone, may always be regarded as most educated +persons of the present time have regarded them, namely, as merely +accidental coincidences. That the coincidences are not merely accidental +can only be proved by showing that they occur more frequently than the +doctrine of chances would justify us in expecting. Now, the death of any +person is a unique event, and the probability of its occurrence upon any +particular day may be very simply calculated from the mortality +statistics, if we assume that nothing is known of the individual's +vitality. On the other hand, hallucinatory perceptions of persons, +occurring to sane and healthy individuals in the fully waking state, are +comparatively rare occurrences, whose frequency we may hope to determine +by a statistical inquiry. If, then, we can obtain figures expressing the +frequency of such hallucinations, we can deduce, by the help of the laws +of chance, the proportion of such hallucinations that may be expected to +coincide with (or, for the purposes of the inquiry, to fall within +twelve hours of) the death of the person whose apparition appears, if no +causal relation obtains between the coinciding events. If, then, it +appears that the proportion of such coincidental hallucinations is +greater than the laws of probability will account for, a certain +presumption of a causal relation between the coinciding events is +thereby established; and the greater the excess of such coincidences, +the stronger does this presumption become. Gurney attempted a census of +hallucinations in order to obtain data for this statistical treatment, +and the results of it, embodied in _Phantasms of the Living_, were +considered by the authors of that work to justify the belief that some +coincidental hallucinations are veridical. In the year 1889 the Society +for Psychical Research appointed a committee, under the chairmanship of +the late Henry Sidgwick, to make a second census of hallucinations on a +more extensive and systematic plan than the first, in order that the +important conclusion reached by the authors of _Phantasms of the Living_ +might be put to the severer test rendered possible by a larger and more +carefully collected mass of data. Seventeen thousand adults returned +answers to the question, "Have you ever, when believing yourself to be +completely awake, had a vivid impression of seeing or being touched by a +living being or inanimate object, or of hearing a voice; which +impression, so far as you could discover, was not due to any external +physical cause?" Rather more than two thousand persons answered +affirmatively, and to each of these were addressed careful inquiries +concerning their hallucinatory experiences. In this way it was found +that of the total number, 381 apparitions of persons living at the +moment (or not more than twelve hours dead) had been recognized by the +percipients, and that, of these, 80 were alleged to have been +experienced within twelve hours of the death of the person whose +apparition had appeared. A careful review of all the facts, conditions +and probabilities, led the committee to estimate that the former number +should be enlarged to 1300 in order to make ample allowance for +forgetfulness and for all other causes that might have tended to prevent +the registration of apparitions of this class. On the other hand, a +severe criticism of the alleged death-coincidences led them to reduce +the number, admitted by them for the purposes of their calculation, to +30. The making of these adjustments gives us about 1 in 43 as the +proportion of coincidental death-apparitions to the total number of +recognized apparitions among the 17,000 persons reached by the census. +Now the death-rate being just over 19 per thousand, the probability that +any person taken at random will die on a given day is about 1 in 19,000; +or, more strictly speaking, the average probability that any person will +die within any given period of twenty-four hours duration is about 1 in +19,000. Hence the probability that any other particular event, having no +causal relation to his death, but occurring during his lifetime (or not +later than twelve hours after his death) will fall within the same +twenty-four hours as his death is 1 in 19,000; i.e. if an apparition of +any individual is seen and recognized by any other person, the +probability of its being experienced within twelve hours of that +individual's death is 1 in 19,000, if no causal relation obtains between +the two events. Therefore, of all recognized apparitions of living +persons, 1 only in 19,000 may be expected to be a death-coincidence of +this sort. But the census shows that of 1300 recognized apparitions of +living persons 30 are death-coincidences and that is equivalent to 440 +in 19,000. Hence, of recognized hallucinations, those coinciding with +death are 440 times more numerous than we should expect, if no causal +relation obtained; therefore, if neither the data nor the reasoning can +be destructively criticized, we are compelled to believe that some +causal relation obtains; and, since good evidence of telepathic +communication has been experimentally obtained, the least improbable +explanation of these death-apparitions is that the dying person exerts +upon his distant friend some telepathic influence which generates an +hallucinatory perception of himself. + +These death-coincidences constitute the main feature of the argument in +favour of telepathic communication between distant persons, but the +census of hallucinations afforded other data from which a variety of +arguments, tending to support this conclusion, were drawn by the +committee; of these the most important are the cases in which the +hallucinatory percept embodied details that were connected with the +person perceived and which could not have become known to the percipient +by any normal means. The committee could not find in the results of the +census any evidence sufficient to justify a belief that hallucinations +may be due to telepathic influence exerted by personalities surviving +the death of the body. + +The critical handling of the cases by the committee seems to be above +reproach. Those who do not accept their conclusion based on the +death-coincidences must direct their criticism to the question of the +reliability of the reports of these cases. It is to be noted that, +although only those cases are reckoned in which the percipient had no +cause to expect the death of the person whose apparition he experienced, +and although, in nearly all the accepted cases, some record or +communication of the hallucination was made before hearing of the death, +yet in very few cases was any contemporary written record of the event +forthcoming for the inspection of the committee. (W. McD.) + + + + +HALLUIN, a frontier town of northern France, in the department of Nord, +near the right bank of the Lys, 14 m. N. by E. of Lille by rail. Pop. +(1906) town, 11,670; commune, 16,158. Its church is of Gothic +architecture. The manufactures comprise linen and cotton goods, chairs +and rubber goods, and brewing and tanning are carried on; there is a +board of trade arbitration. The family of Halluin is mentioned as early +as the 13th century. In 1587 the title of duke and peer of the realm was +granted to it, but in the succeeding century it became extinct. + + + + +HALM, CARL FELIX (1809-1882), German classical scholar and critic, was +born at Munich on the 5th of April 1809. In 1849, after having held +appointments at Spires and Hadamar, he became rector of the newly +founded Maximiliansgymnasium at Munich, and in 1856 director of the +royal library and professor in the university. These posts he held till +his death on the 5th of October 1882. It is chiefly as the editor of +Cicero and other Latin prose authors that Halm is known, although in +early years he also devoted considerable attention to Greek. After the +death of J. C. Orelli, he joined J. G. Baiter in the preparation of a +revised critical edition of the rhetorical and philosophical writings of +Cicero (1854-1862). His school editions of some of the speeches of +Cicero in the Haupt and Sauppe series, with notes and introductions, +were very successful. He also edited a number of classical texts for the +Teubner series, the most important of which are Tacitus (4th ed., 1883); +_Rhetores Latini minores_ (1863); Quintilian (1868); Sulpicius Severus +(1866); Minucius Felix together with Firmicus Maternus _De errore_ +(1867); Salvianus (1877) and Victor Vitensis's _Historia persecutionis +Africanae provinciae_ (1878). He was also an enthusiastic collector of +autographs. + + See articles by W. Christ and G. Laubmann in _Allgemeine deutsche + Biographie_ and by C. Bursian in _Biographisches Jahrbuch_; and J. E. + Sandys, _Hist. of Classical Scholarship_, iii. 195 (1908). + + + + +HALMA (Greek for "jump"), a table game, a form of which was known to the +ancient Greeks, played on a board divided into 256 squares with wooden +_men_, resembling chess pawns. In the two-handed game 19 men are +employed on each side, coloured respectively black and white; in the +four-handed each player has 13, the men being coloured white, black, red +and green. At the beginning of the game the men are drawn up in +triangular formation in the enclosures, or _yards_, diagonally opposite +each other in the corners of the board. The object of each player is to +get all his men into his enemy's yard, the player winning who first +accomplishes this. The moves are made alternately, the mode of +progression being by a _step_, from one square to another immediately +adjacent, or by a jump (whence the name), which is the jumping of a man +from a square in front of it into an empty square on the other side of +it. This corresponds to jumping in draughts, except that, in halma, the +hop may be in any direction, over friendly as well as hostile men, and +the men jumped over are not taken but remain on the board. + +In the four-handed game either each player plays for himself, or two +adjacent players play against the other two. + + See _Card and Table Games_, by Professor Hoffmann (London, 1903). + + + + +HALMAHERA ["great land"; also Jilolo or Gilolo], an island of the Dutch +East Indies, belonging to the residency of Ternate, lying under the +equator and about 128° E. Its shape is extremely irregular, resembling +that of the island of Celebes. It consists of four peninsulas so +arranged as to enclose three great bays (Kayu, Bicholi, Weda), all +opening towards the east, the northern peninsula being connected with +the others by an isthmus only 5 m. wide. On the western side of the +isthmus lies another bay, that of Dodinga, in the mouth of which are +situated the two islands Ternate and Tidore, whose political importance +exceeds that of the larger island (see these articles). Of the four +peninsulas of Halmahera the northern and the southern are reckoned to +the sultanate of Ternate, the north-eastern and south-eastern to that of +Tidore; the former having eleven, the latter three districts. The +distance between the extremities of the northern and southern +peninsulas, measured along the curve of the west coast, is about 240 m.; +and the total area of the island is 6700 sq. m. Knowledge of the island +is very incomplete. It appears that the four peninsulas are traversed in +the direction of their longitudinal axis by mountain chains 3000 to 4000 +ft. high, covered with forest, without a central chain at the nucleus of +the island whence the peninsulas diverge. The mountain chains are +frequently interrupted by plains, such as those of Weda and Kobi. The +northern part of the mountain chain of the northern peninsula is +volcanic, its volcanoes continuing the line of those of Makian, Ternate +and Tidore. Coral formations on heights in the interior would indicate +oscillations of the land in several periods, but a detailed geology of +the island is wanting. To the north-east of the northern peninsula is +the considerable island of Morotai (635 sq. m.), and to the west of the +southern peninsula the more important island of Bachian (q.v.) among +others. Galela is a considerable settlement, situated on a bay of the +same name on the north-east coast, in a well cultivated plain which +extends southward and inland. Vegetation is prolific. Rice is grown by +the natives, but the sago tree is of far greater importance to them. +Dammar and coco-nuts are also grown. The sea yields trepang and pearl +shells. A little trade is carried on by the Chinese and Macassars of +Ternate, who, crossing the narrow isthmus of Dodinga, enter the bay of +Kayu on the east coast. The total population is estimated at 100,000. + +The inhabitants are mostly of immigrant Malayan stock. In the northern +peninsula are found people of Papuan type, probably representing the +aborigines, and a tribe around Galela, who are Polynesian in physique, +possibly remnants, much mixed by subsequent crossings with the Papuan +indigenes, of the Caucasian hordes emigrating in prehistoric times +across the Pacific. M. Achille Raffray gives a description of them in +_Tour du monde_ (1879) where photographs will be found. "They are as +unlike the Malays as we are, excelling them in tallness of stature and +elegance of shape, and being perfectly distinguished by their oval face, +with a fairly high and open brow, their aquiline nose and their +horizontally placed eyes. Their beards are sometimes thick; their limbs +are muscular; the colour of their skins is cinnamon brown. Spears of +iron-wood, abundantly barbed, and small bows and bamboo arrows free from +poison are their principal weapons." They are further described as +having temples (_sabuas_) in which they suspend images of serpents and +other monsters as well as the trophies procured by war. They believe in +a better life hereafter, but have no idea of a hell or a devil, their +evil spirits only tormenting them in the present state. + +The Portuguese and Spaniards were better acquainted with Halmahera than +with many other parts of the archipelago; they called it sometimes Batu +China and sometimes Moro. It was circumnavigated by one of their vessels +in 1525, and the general outline of the coasts is correctly given in +their maps at a time when separate portions of Celebes, such as Macassar +and Menado, are represented as distinct islands. The name (Jilolo) was +really that of a native state, the sultan of which had the chief rank +among the princes of the Moluccas before he was supplanted by the sultan +of Ternate about 1380. His capital, Jilolo, lay on the west coast on the +first bay to the north of that of Dodinga. In 1876 Danu Hassan, a +descendant of the sultans of Jilolo, raised an insurrection in the +island for the purpose of throwing off the authority of the sultans of +Tidore and Ternate; and his efforts would probably have been successful +but for the intervention of the Dutch. In 1878 a Dutch expedition was +directed against the pirates of Tobalai, and they were virtually +extirpated. Slavery remains in the interior. Missionary work, carried on +in the northern peninsula of Halmahera since 1866, has been fairly +successful among the heathen natives, but less so among the Mahommedans, +who have often incited the others against the missionaries and their +converts. + + + + +HALMSTAD, a seaport of Sweden, chief town of the district (_län_) of +Halland, on the E. shore of the Cattegat, 76 m. S.S.E. of Gothenburg by +the railway to Helsingborg. Pop. (1900), 15,362. It lies at the mouth of +the river Nissa, having an inner harbour (15 ft. depth), an outer +harbour, and roads giving anchorage (24 to 36 ft.) exposed to S. and +N.W. winds. In the neighbourhood there are quarries of granite, which is +exported chiefly to Germany. Other industries are engineering, +shipbuilding and brewing, and there are cloth, jute, hat, wood-pulp and +paper factories. The principal exports are granite, timber and hats; and +butter through Helsingborg and Gothenburg. The imports are coal, +machinery and grain. Potatoes are largely grown in the district, and the +salmon fisheries are valuable. The castle is the residence of the +governor of the province. There are both mineral and sea-water baths in +the neighbourhood. + +Mention of the church of Halmstad occurs as early as 1462, and the +fortifications are mentioned first in 1225. The latter were demolished +in 1734. There were formerly Dominican and Franciscan monasteries in the +town. The oldest town-privileges date from 1307. During the revolt of +the miner Engelbrekt, it twice fell into the hands of the rebels--in +1434 and 1436. The town appears to have been frequently chosen as the +meeting-place of the rulers and delegates of the three northern +kingdoms; and under the union of Kalmar it was appointed to be the place +for the election of a new Scandinavian monarch whenever necessary. The +_län_ of Halland formed part of the territory of Denmark in Sweden, and +accordingly, in 1534, during his war with the Danes, Gustavus Vasa +assaulted and took its chief town. In 1660, by the treaty of Copenhagen, +the whole district was ceded to Sweden. In 1676 Charles XII. defeated +near Halmstad a Danish army which was attempting to retake the district, +and since that time Halland has formed part of Sweden. + + + + +HALO, a word derived from the Gr. [Greek: halôs], a threshing-floor, and +afterwards applied to denote the disk of the sun or moon, probably on +account of the circular path traced out by the oxen threshing the corn. +It was thence applied to denote any luminous ring, such as that viewed +around the sun or moon, or portrayed about the heads of saints. + +In physical science, a halo is a luminous circle, surrounding the sun or +moon, with various auxiliary phenomena, and formed by the reflection and +refraction of light by ice-crystals suspended in the atmosphere. The +optical phenomena produced by atmospheric water and ice may be divided +into two classes, according to the relative position of the luminous +ring and the source of light. In the first class we have _halos_, and +_coronae_, or "glories," which encircle the luminary; the second class +includes _rainbows_, _fog-bows_, _mist-halos_, _anthelia_ and +_mountain-spectres_, whose centres are at the anti-solar point. Here it +is only necessary to distinguish halos from coronae. Halos are at +definite distances (22° and 46°) from the sun, and are coloured red on +the _inside_, being due to refraction; coronae closely surround the sun +at variable distances, and are coloured red on the _outside_, being due +to diffraction. + +[Illustration: FIG. 1.] + +[Illustration: FIG. 2.] + +The phenomenon of a solar (or lunar) halo as seen from the earth is +represented in fig. 1; fig. 2 is a diagrammatic sketch showing the +appearance as viewed from the zenith; but it is only in exceptional +circumstances that all the parts are seen. Encircling the sun or moon +(S), there are two circles, known as the inner halo I, and the outer +halo O, having radii of about 22° and 46°, and exhibiting the colours of +the spectrum in a confused manner, the only decided tint being the red +on the inside. Passing through the luminary and parallel to the horizon, +there is a white luminous circle, the _parhelic circle_ (P), on which a +number of images of the luminary appear. The most brilliant are situated +at the intersections of the inner halo and the parhelic circle; these +are known as _parhelia_ (denoted by the letter p in the figures) (from +the Gr. [Greek: para], beside, and [Greek: hęlios], the sun) or +"mock-suns," in the case of the sun, and as _paraselenae_ (from [Greek: +para] and [Greek: selęnę], the moon) or "mock-moons," in the case of the +moon. Less brilliant are the parhelia of the outer halo. The parhelia +are most brilliant when the sun is near the horizon. As the sun rises, +they pass a little beyond the halo and exhibit flaming tails. The other +images on the parhelic circle are the _paranthelia_ (q) and the +_anthelion_ (a) (from the Greek [Greek: anti], opposite, and [Greek: +hęlios], the sun). The former are situated at from 90° to 140° from the +sun; the latter is a white patch of light situated at the anti-solar +point and often exceeding in size the apparent diameter of the luminary. +A vertical circle passing through the sun may also be seen. From the +parhelia of the inner halo two oblique curves (L) proceed. These are +known as the "arcs of Lowitz," having been first described in 1794 by +Johann Tobias Lowitz (1757-1804). Luminous arcs (T), tangential to the +upper and lower parts of each halo, also occur, and in the case of the +inner halo, the arcs may be prolonged to form a quasi-elliptic halo. + +The physical explanation of halos originated with René Descartes, who +ascribed their formation to the presence of ice-crystals in the +atmosphere. This theory was adopted by Edmé Mariotte, Sir Isaac Newton +and Thomas Young; and, although certain of their assumptions were +somewhat arbitrary, yet the general validity of the theory has been +demonstrated by the researches of J. G. Galle and A. Bravais. The memoir +of the last-named, published in the _Journal de l'École royale +polytechnique_ for 1847 (xviii., 1-270), ranks as a classic on the +subject; it is replete with examples and illustrations, and discusses +the various phenomena in minute detail. + +The usual form of ice-crystals in clouds is a right hexagonal prism, +which may be elongated as a needle or foreshortened like a thin plate. +There are three refracting angles possible, one of 120° between two +adjacent prism faces, one of 60° between two alternate prism faces, and +one of 90° between a prism face and the base. If innumerable numbers of +such crystals fall in any manner between the observer and the sun, light +falling upon these crystals will be refracted, and the refracted rays +will be crowded together in the position of minimum deviation (see +REFRACTION OF LIGHT). Mariotte explained the inner halo as being due to +refraction through a pair of alternate faces, since the minimum +deviation of an ice-prism whose refracting angle is 60° is about 22°. +Since the minimum deviation is least for the least refrangible rays, it +follows that the red rays will be the least refracted, and the violet +the more refracted, and therefore the halo will be coloured red on the +inside. Similarly, as explained by Henry Cavendish, the halo of 46° is +due to refraction by faces inclined at 90°. The impurity of the colours +(due partly to the sun's diameter, but still more to oblique refraction) +is more marked in halos than in rainbows; in fact, only the red is at +all pure, and as a rule, only a mere trace of green or blue is seen, the +external portion of each halo being nearly white. + +The two halos are the only phenomena which admit of explanation without +assigning any particular distribution to the ice-crystals. But it is +obvious that certain distributions will predominate, for the crystals +will tend to fall so as to offer the least resistance to their motion; a +needle-shaped crystal tending to keep its axis vertical, a plate-shaped +crystal to keep its axis horizontal. Thomas Young explained the parhelic +circle (P) as due to reflection from the vertical faces of the long +prisms and the bases of the short ones. If these vertical faces become +very numerous, the eye will perceive a colourless horizontal circle. +Reflection from an excess of horizontal prisms gives rise to a vertical +circle passing through the sun. + +The parhelia (p) were explained by Mariotte as due to refraction through +a pair of alternate faces of a vertical prism. When the sun is near the +horizon the rays fall upon the principal section of the prisms; the +minimum deviation for such rays is 22°, and consequently the parhelia +are not only on the inner halo, but also on the parhelic circle. As the +sun rises, the rays enter the prisms more and more obliquely, and the +angle of minimum deviation increases; but since the emergent ray makes +the same angle with the refracting edge as the incident ray, it follows +that the parhelia will remain on the parhelic circle, while receding +from the inner halo. The different values of the angle of minimum +deviation for rays of different refrangibilities give rise to spectral +colours, the red being nearest the sun, while farther away the +overlapping of the spectra forms a flaming colourless tail sometimes +extending over as much as 10° to 20°. The "arcs of Lowitz" (L) are +probably due to small oscillations of the vertical prisms. + +The "tangential arcs" (T) were explained by Young as being caused by the +thin plates with their axes horizontal, refraction taking place through +alternate faces. The axes will take up any position, and consequently +give rise to a continuous series of parhelia which touch externally the +inner halo, both above and below, and under certain conditions (such as +the requisite altitude of the sun) form two closed elliptical curves; +generally, however, only the upper and lower portions are seen. +Similarly, the tangential arcs to the halo of 46° are due to refraction +through faces inclined at 90°. + +The paranthelia (q) may be due to two internal or two external +reflections. A pair of triangular prisms having a common face, or a +stellate crystal formed by the symmetrical interpenetration of two +triangular prisms admits of two internal reflections by faces inclined +at 120°, and so give rise to two colourless images each at an angular +distance of 120° from the sun. Double internal reflection by a +triangular prism would form a single coloured image on the parhelic +circle at about 98° from the sun. These angular distances are attained +only when the sun is on the horizon, and they increase as it rises. + +The anthelion (a) may be explained as caused by two internal reflections +of the solar rays by a hexagonal lamellar crystal, having its axis +horizontal and one of the diagonals of its base vertical. The emerging +rays are parallel to their original direction and form a colourless +image on the parhelic circle opposite the sun. + + REFERENCES.--Auguste Bravais's celebrated memoir, "Sur les halos et + les phénomčnes optiques qui les accompagnent" (_Journ. École poly._ + vol. xviii., 1847), contains a full account of the geometrical theory. + See also E. Mascart, _Traité d'optique_; J. Pernter, _Meteorologische + Optik_ (1902-1905); and R. S. Heath, _Geometrical Optics_. + + + + +HALOGENS. The word halogen is derived from the Greek [Greek: hals] +(sea-salt) and [Greek: gennan] (to produce), and consequently means the +sea-salt producer. The term is applied to the four elements fluorine, +chlorine, bromine and iodine, on account of the great similarity of +their sodium salts to ordinary sea-salt. These four elements show a +great resemblance to one another in their general chemical behaviour, +and in that of their compounds, whilst their physical properties show a +gradual transition. Thus, as the atomic weight increases, the state of +aggregation changes from that of a gas in the case of fluorine and +chlorine, to that of a liquid (bromine) and finally to that of the solid +(iodine); at the same time the melting and boiling points rise with +increasing atomic weights. The halogen of lower atomic weight can +displace one of higher atomic weight from its hydrogen compound, or from +the salt derived from such hydrogen compound, while, on the other hand, +the halogen of higher atomic weight can displace that of lower atomic +weight, from the halogen oxy-acids and their salts; thus iodine will +liberate chlorine from potassium chlorate and also from perchloric acid. +All four of the halogens unite with hydrogen, but the affinity for +hydrogen decreases as the atomic weight increases, hydrogen and fluorine +uniting explosively at very low temperatures and in the dark, whilst +hydrogen and iodine unite only at high temperatures, and even then the +resulting compound is very readily decomposed by heat. The hydrides of +the halogens are all colourless, strongly fuming gases, readily soluble +in water and possessing a strong acid reaction; they react readily with +basic oxides, forming in most cases well defined crystalline salts which +resemble one another very strongly. On the other hand the stability of +the known oxygen compounds increases with the atomic weight, thus iodine +pentoxide is, at ordinary temperatures, a well-defined crystalline +solid, which is only decomposed on heating strongly, whilst chlorine +monoxide, chlorine peroxide, and chlorine heptoxide are very unstable, +even at ordinary temperatures, decomposing at the slightest shock. +Compounds of fluorine and oxygen, and of bromine and oxygen, have not +yet been isolated. In some respects there is a very marked difference +between fluorine and the other members of the group, for, whilst sodium +chloride, bromide and iodide are readily soluble in water, sodium +fluoride is much less soluble; again, silver chloride, bromide and +iodide are practically insoluble in water, whilst, on the other hand, +silver fluoride is appreciably soluble in water. Again, fluorine shows a +great tendency to form double salts, which have no counterpart among the +compounds formed by the other members of the family. + + + + +HALS, FRANS (1580?-1666), Dutch painter, was born at Antwerp according +to the most recent authorities in 1580 or 1581, and died at Haarlem in +1666. As a portrait painter second only to Rembrandt in Holland, he +displayed extraordinary talent and quickness in the exercise of his art +coupled with improvidence in the use of the means which that art secured +to him. At a time when the Dutch nation fought for independence and won +it, Hals appears in the ranks of its military gilds. He was also a +member of the Chamber of Rhetoric, and (1644) chairman of the Painters' +Corporation at Haarlem. But as a man he had failings. He so ill-treated +his first wife, Anneke Hermansz, that she died prematurely in 1616; and +he barely saved the character of his second, Lysbeth Reyniers, by +marrying her in 1617. Another defect was partiality to drink, which led +him into low company. Still he brought up and supported a family of ten +children with success till 1652, when the forced sale of his pictures +and furniture, at the suit of a baker to whom he was indebted for bread +and money, brought him to absolute penury. The inventory of the property +seized on this occasion only mentions three mattresses and bolsters, an +armoire, a table and five pictures. This humble list represents all his +worldly possessions at the time of his bankruptcy. Subsequently to this +he was reduced to still greater straits, and his rent and firing were +paid by the municipality, which afterwards gave him (1664) an annuity of +200 florins. We may admire the spirit which enabled him to produce some +of his most striking works in his unhappy circumstances: we find his +widow seeking outdoor relief from the guardians of the poor, and dying +obscurely in a hospital. + +Hals's pictures illustrate the various strata of society into which his +misfortunes led him. His banquets or meetings of officers, of +sharpshooters, and gildsmen are the most interesting of his works. But +they are not more characteristic than his low-life pictures of itinerant +players and singers. His portraits of gentlefolk are true and noble, but +hardly so expressive as those of fishwives and tavern heroes. + +His first master at Antwerp was probably van Noort, as has been +suggested by M. G. S. Davies, but on his removal to Haarlem Frans Hals +entered the atelier of van Mander, the painter and historian, of whom he +possessed some pictures which went to pay the debt of the baker already +alluded to. But he soon improved upon the practice of the time, +illustrated by J. van Schoreel and Antonio Moro, and, emancipating +himself gradually from tradition, produced pictures remarkable for truth +and dexterity of hand. We prize in Rembrandt the golden glow of effects +based upon artificial contrasts of low light in immeasurable gloom. Hals +was fond of daylight of silvery sheen. Both men were painters of touch, +but of touch on different keys--Rembrandt was the bass, Hals the treble. +The latter is perhaps more expressive than the former. He seizes with +rare intuition a moment in the life of his sitters. What nature displays +in that moment he reproduces thoroughly in a very delicate scale of +colour, and with a perfect mastery over every form of expression. He +becomes so clever at last that exact tone, light and shade, and +modelling are all obtained with a few marked and fluid strokes of the +brush. + +In every form of his art we can distinguish his earlier style from that +of later years. It is curious that we have no record of any work +produced by him in the first decade of his independent activity, save an +engraving by Jan van de Velde after a lost portrait of "The Minister +Johannes Bogardus," who died in 1614. The earliest works by Frans Hals +that have come down to us, "Two Boys Playing and Singing" in the gallery +of Cassel, and a "Banquet of the officers of the 'St Joris Doele'" or +Arquebusiers of St George (1616) in the museum of Haarlem, exhibit him +as a careful draughtsman capable of great finish, yet spirited withal. +His flesh, less clear than it afterwards becomes, is pastose and +burnished. Later he becomes more effective, displays more freedom of +hand, and a greater command of effect. At this period we note the +beautiful full-length of "Madame van Beresteyn" at the Louvre in Paris, +and a splendid full-length portrait of "Willem van Heythuysen" leaning +on a sword in the Liechtenstein collection at Vienna. Both these +pictures are equalled by the other "Banquet of the officers, of the +Arquebusiers of St George" (with different portraits) and the "Banquet +of the officers of the 'Cloveniers Doelen'" or Arquebusiers of St Andrew +of 1627 and an "Assembly of the officers of the Arquebusiers of St +Andrew" of 1633 in the Haarlem Museum. A picture of the same kind in the +town hall of Amsterdam, with the date of 1637, suggests some study of +the masterpieces of Rembrandt, and a similar influence is apparent in a +picture of 1641 at Haarlem, representing the "Regents of the Company of +St Elizabeth" and in the portrait of "Maria Voogt" at Amsterdam. But +Rembrandt's example did not create a lasting impression on Hals. He +gradually dropped more and more into grey and silvery harmonies of tone; +and two of his canvases, executed in 1664, "The Regents and Regentesses +of the Oudemannenhuis" at Haarlem, are masterpieces of colour, though in +substance all but monochromes. In fact, ever since 1641 Hals had shown a +tendency to restrict the gamut of his palette, and to suggest colour +rather than express it. This is particularly noticeable in his flesh +tints which from year to year became more grey, until finally the +shadows were painted in almost absolute black, as in the "Tymane +Oosdorp," of the Berlin Gallery. As this tendency coincides with the +period of his poverty, it has been suggested that one of the reasons, if +not the only reason, of his predilection for black and white pigment was +the cheapness of these colours as compared with the costly lakes and +carmines. + +As a portrait painter Frans Hals had scarcely the psychological insight +of a Rembrandt or Velazquez, though in a few works, like the "Admiral de +Ruyter," in Earl Spencer's collection, the "Jacob Olycan" at the Hague +Gallery, and the "Albert van der Meer" at Haarlem town hall, he reveals +a searching analysis of character which has little in common with the +instantaneous expression of his so-called "character" portraits. In +these he generally sets upon the canvas the fleeting aspect of the +various stages of merriment, from the subtle, half ironic smile that +quivers round the lips of the curiously misnamed "Laughing Cavalier" in +the Wallace Collection to the imbecile grin of the "Hille Bobbe" in the +Berlin Museum. To this group of pictures belong Baron Gustav +Rothschild's "Jester," the "_Bohémienne_" at the Louvre, and the "Fisher +Boy" at Antwerp, whilst the "Portrait of the Artist with his second +Wife" at the Ryks Museum in Amsterdam, and the somewhat confused group +of the "Beresteyn Family" at the Louvre show a similar tendency. Far +less scattered in arrangement than this Beresteyn group, and in every +respect one of the most masterly of Frans Hals's achievements is the +group called "The Painter and his Family" in the possession of Colonel +Warde, which was almost unknown until it appeared at the winter +exhibition at the Royal Academy in 1906. + +Though a visit to Haarlem town hall, which contains the five enormous +Doelen groups and the two Regenten pictures, is as necessary for the +student of Hals's art as a visit to the Prado in Madrid is for the +student of Velazquez, good examples of the Dutch master have found their +way into most of the leading public and private collections. In the +British Isles, besides the works already mentioned, portraits from his +brush are to be found at the National Gallery, the Edinburgh Gallery, +the Glasgow Corporation Gallery, Hampton Court, Buckingham Palace, +Devonshire House, and the collections of Lord Northbrooke, Lord +Ellesmere, Lord Iveagh and Lord Spencer. + +At Amsterdam is the celebrated "Flute Player," once in the Dupper +collection at Dort; at Brussels, the patrician "Heythuysen"; at the +Louvre, "Descartes"; at Dresden, the painter "Van der Vinne." Hals's +sitters were taken from every class of society--admirals, generals and +burgomasters pairing with merchants, lawyers, clerks. To register all +that we find in public galleries would involve much space. There are +eight portraits at Berlin, six at Cassel, five at St Petersburg, six at +the Louvre, two at Brussels, five at Dresden, two at Gotha. In private +collections, chiefly in Paris, Haarlem and Vienna, we find an equally +important number. Amongst the painter's most successful representations +of fishwives and termagants we should distinguish the "Hille Bobbe" of +the Berlin Museum, and the "Hille Bobbe with her Son" in the Dresden +Gallery. Itinerant players are best illustrated in the Neville-Goldsmith +collection at the Hague, and the Six collection at Amsterdam. Boys and +girls singing, playing or laughing, or men drinking, are to be found in +the gallery of Schwerin, in the Arenberg collection, and in the royal +palace at Brussels. + +For two centuries after his death Frans Hals was held in such poor +esteem that some of his paintings, which are now among the proudest +possessions of public galleries, were sold at auction for a few pounds +or even shillings. The portrait of "Johannes Acronius," now at the +Berlin Museum, realized five shillings at the Enschede sale in 1786. The +splendid portrait of the man with the sword at the Liechtenstein gallery +was sold in 1800 for Ł4, 5s. With his rehabilitation in public esteem +came the enormous rise in values, and, at the Secretan sale in 1889, the +portrait of "Pieter van de Broecke d'Anvers" was bid up to Ł4420, while +in 1908 the National Gallery paid Ł25,000 for the large group from the +collection of Lord Talbot de Malahide. + +Of the master's numerous family none has left a name except FRANS HALS +THE YOUNGER, born about 1622, who died in 1669. His pictures represent +cottages and poultry; and the "Vanitas" at Berlin, a table laden with +gold and silver dishes, cups, glasses and books, is one of his finest +works and deserving of a passing glance. + +Quite in another form, and with much of the freedom of the elder HALS, +DIRK HALS, his brother (born at Haarlem, died 1656), is a painter of +festivals and ball-rooms. But Dirk had too much of the freedom and too +little of the skill in drawing which characterized his brother. He +remains second on his own ground to Palamedes. A fair specimen of his +art is a "Lady playing a Harpsichord to a Young Girl and her Lover" in +the van der Hoop collection at Amsterdam, now in the Ryks Museum. More +characteristic, but not better, is a large company of gentle-folk rising +from dinner, in the Academy at Vienna. + + LITERATURE.--See W. Bode, _Frans Hals und seine Schule_ (Leipzig, + 1871); W. Unger and W. Vosmaer, _Etchings after Frans Hals_ (Leyden, + 1873); Percy Rendell Head, _Sir Anthony Van Dyck and Frans Hals_ + (London, 1879); D. Knackfuss, _Frans Hals_ (Leipzig, 1896); G. S. + Davies, _Frans Hals_ (London, 1902). (P. G. K.) + + + + +HALSBURY, HARDINGE STANLEY GIFFARD, 1ST EARL OF (1825- ), English lord +chancellor, son of Stanley Lees Giffard, LL.D., was born in London on +the 3rd of September 1825. He was educated at Merton College, Oxford, +and was called to the bar at the Inner Temple in 1850, joining the North +Wales and Chester circuit. Afterwards he had a large practice at the +central criminal court and the Middlesex sessions, and he was for +several years junior prosecuting counsel to the treasury. He was engaged +in most of the celebrated trials of his time, including the Overend and +Gurney and the Tichborne cases. He became queen's counsel in 1865, and a +bencher of the Inner Temple. Mr Giffard twice contested Cardiff in the +Conservative interest, in 1868 and 1874, but he was still without a seat +in the House of Commons when he was appointed solicitor-general by +Disraeli in 1875 and received the honour of knighthood. In 1877 he +succeeded in obtaining a seat, when he was returned for Launceston, +which borough he continued to represent until his elevation to the +peerage in 1885. He was then created Baron Halsbury and appointed lord +chancellor, thus forming a remarkable exception to the rule that no +criminal lawyer ever reaches the woolsack. Lord Halsbury resumed the +position in 1886 and held it until 1892 and again from 1895 to 1905, his +tenure of the office, broken only by the brief Liberal ministries of +1886 and 1892-1895, being longer than that of any lord chancellor since +Lord Eldon. In 1898 he was created earl of Halsbury and Viscount +Tiverton. Among Conservative lord chancellors Lord Halsbury must always +hold a high place, his grasp of legal principles and mastery in applying +them being pre-eminent among the judges of his day. + + + + +HALSTEAD, a market-town in the Maldon parliamentary division of Essex, +England, on the Colne, 17 m. N.N.E. from Chelmsford; served by the Colne +Valley railway from Chappel Junction on the Great Eastern railway. Pop. +of urban district (1901), 6073. It lies on a hill in a pleasant wooded +district. The church of St Andrew is mainly Perpendicular. It contains a +monument supposed to commemorate Sir Robert Bourchier (d. 1349), lord +chancellor to Edward III. The Lady Mary Ramsay grammar school dates from +1594. There are large silk and crape works. Two miles N. of Halstead is +Little Maplestead, where the church is the latest in date of the four +churches with round naves extant in England, being perhaps of +12th-century foundation, but showing early Decorated work in the main. +The chancel, which is without aisles, terminates in an apse. Three +miles N.W. from Halstead are the large villages of Sible Hedingham (pop. +1701) and Castle Hedingham (pop. 1097). At the second is the Norman keep +of the de Veres, of whom Aubrey de Vere held the lordship from William +I. The keep dates from the end of the 11th century, and exhibits much +fine Norman work. The church of St Nicholas, Castle Hedingham, has fine +Norman, Transitional and Early English details, and there is a black +marble tomb of John de Vere, 15th earl of Oxford (d. 1540), with his +countess. + +There are signs of settlement at Halstead (Halsteda, Halgusted, Halsted) +in the Bronze Age; but there is no evidence of the causes of its growth +in historic times. Probably its situation on the river Colne made it to +some extent a local centre. Throughout the middle ages Halstead was +unimportant, and never rose to the rank of a borough. + + + + +HALT. (1) An adjective common to Teutonic languages and still appearing +in Swedish and Danish, meaning lame, crippled. It is also used as a +verb, meaning to limp, and as a substantive, especially in the term +"string-halt" or "spring-halt," a nervous disorder affecting the muscles +of the hind legs of horses. (2) A pause or stoppage made on a march or a +journey. The word came into English in the form "to make alto" or "alt," +and was taken from the French _faire alte_ or Italian _far alto_. The +origin is a German military term, _Halt machen_, _Halt_ meaning "hold." + + + + +HALUNTIUM (Gr. [Greek: Alontion], mod. S. Marco d'Alunzio), an ancient +city of Sicily, 6 m. from the north coast and 25 m. E.N.E. of Halaesa. +It was probably of Sicel origin, though its foundation was ascribed to +some of the companions of Aeneas. It appears first in Roman times as a +place of some importance, and suffered considerably at the hands of +Verres. The abandoned church of S. Mark, just outside the modern town, +is built into the cella of an ancient Greek temple, which measures 62 +ft. by 18. A number of ancient inscriptions have been found there. + + + + +HALYBURTON, JAMES (1518-1589), Scottish reformer, was born in 1518, and +was educated at St Andrews, where he graduated M.A. in 1538. From 1553 +to 1586 he was provost of St Andrews and a prominent figure in the +national life. He was chosen as one of the lords of the congregation in +1557, and commanded the contingents sent by Forfar and Fife against the +queen regent in 1559. He took part in the defence of Edinburgh, and in +the battles of Langside (1568) and Restalrig (1571). He had stoutly +opposed the marriage of Mary with Darnley, and when, after Restalrig, he +was captured by the queen's troops, he narrowly escaped execution. He +represented Morton at the conference of 1578, and was one of the royal +commissioners to the General Assembly in 1582 and again in 1588. He died +in February 1589. + + + + +HALYBURTON, THOMAS (1674-1712), Scottish divine, was born at Dupplin, +near Perth, on the 25th of December 1674. His father, one of the ejected +ministers, having died in 1682, he was taken by his mother in 1685 to +Rotterdam to escape persecution, where he for some time attended the +school founded by Erasmus. On his return to his native country in 1687 +he completed his elementary education at Perth and Edinburgh, and in +1696 graduated at the university of St Andrews. In 1700 he was ordained +minister of the parish of Ceres, and in 1710 he was recommended by the +synod of Fife for the chair of theology in St Leonard's College, St +Andrews, to which accordingly he was appointed by Queen Anne. After a +brief term of active professorial life he died from the effects of +overwork in 1712. + + The works by which he continues to be known were all of them published + after his death. Wesley and Whitefield were accustomed to commend them + to their followers. They were published as follows: _Natural Religion + Insufficient, and Revealed Religion Necessary, to Man's Happiness in + his Present State_ (1714), an able statement of the orthodox + Calvinistic criticism of the deism of Lord Herbert of Cherbury and + Charles Blount; _Memoirs of the Life of Mr Thomas Halyburton_ (1715), + three parts by his own hand, the fourth from his diary by another + hand; _The Great Concern of Salvation_ (1721), with a word of + commendation by I. Watts; _Ten Sermons Preached Before and After the + Lord's Supper_ (1722); _The Unpardonable Sin Against the Holy Ghost_ + (1784). See Halyburton's _Memoirs_ (1714). + + + + +HAM, in the Bible. (1) [Hebrew: Ham], _Ham_, in Gen. v. 32, vi. 10, vii. +13, ix. 18, x. 5, 1 Chron. i. 4, the _second_ son of Noah; in Gen. ix. +24, the _youngest_ son (but cf. below); and in Gen. x. 6, 1 Chron. i. 8, +the father of Cush (Ethiopia), Mizraim (Egypt), Phut and Canaan. Genesis +x. exhibits in the form of genealogies the political, racial and +geographical relations of the peoples known to Israel; as it was +compiled from various sources and has been more than once edited, it +does not exactly represent the situation at any given date,[1] but Ham +seems to stand roughly for the south-western division of the world as +known to Israel, which division was regarded as the natural sphere of +influence of Egypt. Ham is held to be the Egyptian word _Khem_ (black) +which was the native name of Egypt; thus in Pss. lxxviii. 51, cv. 23, +27, cvi. 22, Ham = Egypt. In Gen. ix. 20-26 Canaan was originally the +third son of Noah and the villain of the story. Ham is a later addition +to harmonize with other passages. + +(2) [Hebrew: Ham], _Ham_, 1 Chron. iv. 40, apparently the name of a +place or tribe. It can hardly be identical with (1); nothing else is +known of this second Ham, which may be a scribe's error; the Syriac +version rejects the name. + +(3) [Hebrew: Ham], _Ham_, Gen. xiv. 5; the place where Chedorlaomer +defeated the Zuzim, apparently in eastern Palestine. The place is +unknown, and the name may be a scribe's error, perhaps for Ammon. (W. H. +Be.) + + +FOOTNOTE: + + [1] A. Jeremias, _Das A.T. im Lichte des alten Orients_, p. 145, + holds that it represents the situation in the 8th century B.C. + + + + +HAM, a small town of northern France, in the department of Somme, 36 m. +E.S.E. of Amiens on the Northern railway between that city and Laon. +Pop. (1906), 2957. It stands on the Somme in a marshy district where +market-gardening is carried on. From the 9th century onwards it appears +as the seat of a lordship which, after the extinction of its hereditary +line, passed in succession to the houses of Coucy, Enghien, Luxembourg, +Rohan, Vendôme and Navarre, and was finally united to the French crown +on the accession of Henry IV. Notre-Dame, the church of an abbey of +canons regular of St Augustin, dates from the 12th and 13th centuries, +but in 1760 all the inflammable portions of the building were destroyed +by a conflagration caused by lightning, and a process of restoration was +subsequently carried out. Of special note are the bas-reliefs of the +nave and choir, executed in the 17th and 18th centuries, and the crypt +of the 12th century, which contains the sepulchral effigies of Odo IV. +of Ham and his wife Isabella of Béthencourt. The castle, founded before +the 10th century, was rebuilt early in the 13th, and extended in the +14th; its present appearance is mainly due to the constable Louis of +Luxembourg, count of St Pol, who between 1436 and 1470 not only +furnished it with outworks, but gave such a thickness to the towers and +curtains, and more especially to the great tower or donjon which still +bears his motto _Mon Myeulx_, that the great engineer and architect +Viollet-le-Duc considered them, even in the 19th century, capable of +resisting artillery. It forms a rectangle 395 ft. long by 263 ft. broad, +with a round tower at each angle and two square towers protecting the +curtains. The eastern and western sides are each defended by a +demi-lune. The Constable's Tower, for so the great tower is usually +called in memory of St Pol, has a height of about 100 ft., and the +thickness of the walls is 36 ft.; the interior is occupied by three +large hexagonal chambers in as many stories. The castle of Ham, which +now serves as barracks, has frequently been used as a state prison both +in ancient and modern times, and the list of those who have sojourned +there is an interesting one, including as it does Joan of Arc, Louis of +Bourbon, the ministers of Charles X., Louis Napoleon, and Generals +Cavaignac and Lamoricičre. Louis Napoleon was there for six years, and +at last effected his escape in the disguise of a workman. During +1870-1871 Ham was several times captured and recaptured by the +belligerents. A statue commemorates the birth in the town of General Foy +(1775-1825). + + See J. G. Cappot, _Le Château de Ham_ (Paris, 1842); and Ch. Gomart, + _Ham, son château et ses prisonniers_ (Ham, 1864). + + + + + +HAMADAN, a province and town of Persia. The province is bounded N. by +Gerrus and Khamseh, W. by Kermanshah, S. by Malayir and Irak, E. by +Savah and Kazvin. It has many well-watered, fertile plains and more than +four hundred flourishing villages producing much grain, and its +population, estimated at 350,000--more than half being Turks of the +Karaguzlu (black-eyed) and Shamlu (Syrian) tribes--supplies several +battalions of infantry to the army, and pays, besides, a yearly revenue +of about Ł18,000. + +Hamadan, the capital of the province, is situated 188 m. W.S.W. of +Teheran, at an elevation of 5930 ft., near the foot of Mount Elvend (old +Persian _Arvand_, Gr. _Orontes_), whose granite peak rises W. of it to +an altitude of 11,900 ft. It is a busy trade centre with about 40,000 +inhabitants (comprising 4000 Jews and 300 Armenians), has extensive and +well-stocked bazaars and fourteen large and many small caravanserais. +The principal industries are tanning leather and the manufacture of +saddles, harnesses, trunks, and other leather goods, felts and copper +utensils. The leather of Hamadan is much esteemed throughout the country +and exported to other provinces in great quantities. The streets are +narrow, and by a system called Kucheh-bandi (street-closing) established +long ago for impeding the circulation of crowds and increasing general +security, every quarter of the town, or block of buildings, is shut off +from its neighbours by gates which are closed during local disorders and +regularly at night. Hamadan has post and telegraph offices and two +churches, one Armenian, the other Protestant (of the American +Presbyterian Mission). + +Among objects of interest are the alleged tombs of Esther and Mordecai +in an insignificant domed building in the centre of the town. There are +two wooden sarcophagi carved all over with Hebrew inscriptions. That +ascribed to Mordecai has the verses Isaiah lix. 8; Esther ii. 5; Ps. +xvi. 9, 10, 11, and the date of its erection A.M. 4318 (A.D. 557). The +inscriptions on the other sarcophagus consist of the verses Esther ix. +29, 32, x. 1; and the statement that it was placed there A.M. 4602 (A.D. +841) by "the pious and righteous woman Gemal Setan." A tablet let into +the wall states that the building was repaired A.M. 4474 (A.D. 713). +Hamadan also has the grave of the celebrated physician and philosopher +Abu Ali ibn Sina, better known as Avicenna (d. 1036). It is now +generally admitted that Hamadan is the Hagmatana (of the inscriptions), +Agbatana or Ecbatana (q.v., of the Greek writers), the "treasure city" +of the Achaemenian kings which was taken and plundered by Alexander the +Great, but very few ancient remains have been discovered. A rudely +carved stone lion, which lies on the roadside close to the southern +extremity of the city, and by some is supposed to have formed part of a +building of the ancient city, is locally regarded as a talisman against +famine, plague, cold, &c., placed there by Pliny, who is popularly known +as the sorcerer Balinas (a corruption of Plinius). + +Five miles S.W. from the city in a mountain gorge of Mount Elvend is the +so-called Ganjnama (treasure-deed), which consists of two tablets with +trilingual cuneiform inscriptions cut into the rock and relating the +names and titles of Darius I. (521-485 B.C.) and his son Xerxes I. +(485-465 B.C.). (A. H. S.) + + + + +HAMADHANI, in full ABU-L FADL AHMAD IBN UL-HUSAIN UL-HAMADHANI +(967-1007), Arabian writer, known as Badi' uz-Zaman (the wonder of the +age), was born and educated at Hamadban. In 990 be went to Jorjan, where +he remained two years; then passing to Nishapur, where he rivalled and +surpassed the learned Khwarizmi. After journeying through Khorasan and +Sijistan, he finally settled in Herat under the protection of the vizir +of Mahmud, the Ghaznevid sultan. There he died at the age of forty. He +was renowned for a remarkable memory and for fluency of speech, as well +as for the purity of his language. He was one of the first to renew the +use of rhymed prose both in letters and _maqamas_ (see ARABIA: +_Literature_, section "Belles Lettres"). + + His letters were published at Constantinople (1881), and with + commentary at Beirut (1890); his _maqamas_ at Constantinople (1881), + and with commentary at Beirut (1889). A good idea of the latter may + be obtained from S. de Sacy's edition of six of the _maqamas_ with + French translation and notes in his _Chrestomathie_ arabe, vol. iii. + (2nd ed., Paris, 1827). A specimen of the letters is translated into + German in A. von Kremer's _Culturgeschichte des Orients_, ii. 470 sqq. + (Vienna, 1877). (G. W. T.) + + + + +HAMAH, the Hamath of the Bible, a Hittite royal city, situated in the +narrow valley of the Orontes, 110 English miles N. (by E.) of Damascus. +It finds a place in the northern boundaries of Israel under David, +Solomon and Jeroboam II. (2 Sam. viii. 9; 1 Kings viii. 65; 2 Kings xiv. +25). The Orontes flows winding past the city and is spanned by four +bridges. On the south-east the houses rise 150 ft. above the river, and +there are four other hills, that of the _Kalah_ or castle being to the +north 100 ft. high. Twenty-four minarets rise from the various mosques. +The houses are principally of mud, and the town stands amid poplar +gardens with a fertile plain to the west. The castle is ruined, the +streets are narrow and dirty, but the bazaars are good, and the trade +with the Bedouins considerable. The numerous water-wheels (_naurah_,) of +enormous dimension, raising water from the Orontes are the most +remarkable features of the view. Silk, woollen and cotton goods are +manufactured. The population is about 40,000. + +In the year 854 B.C. Hamath was taken by Shalmaneser II., king of +Assyria, who defeated a large army of allied Hamathites, Syrians and +Israelites at Karkor and slew 14,000 of them. In 738 B.C. Tiglath +Pileser III. reduced the city to tribute, and another rebellion was +crushed by Sargon in 720 B.C. The downfall of so ancient a state made a +great impression at Jerusalem (Isa. x. 9). According to 2 Kings xvii. +24, 30, some of its people were transported to the land of N. Israel, +where they made images of Ashima or Eshmun (probably Ishtar). After the +Macedonian conquest of Syria Hamath was called Epiphania by the Greeks +in honour of Antiochus IV., Epiphanes, and in the early Byzantine period +it was known by both its Hebrew and its Greek name. In A.D. 639 the town +surrendered to Abu 'Obeida, one of Omar's generals, and the church was +turned into a mosque. In A.D. 1108 Tancred captured the city and +massacred the Ism'aileh defenders. In 1115 it was retaken by the +Moslems, and in 1178 was occupied by Saladin. Abulfeda, prince of Hamah +in the early part of the 14th century, is well known as an authority on +Arab geography. + + + + +HAMANN, JOHANN GEORG (1730-1788), German writer on philosophical and +theological subjects, was born at Königsberg in Prussia on the 27th of +August 1730. His parents were of humble rank and small means. The +education he received was comprehensive but unsystematic, and the want +of definiteness in this early training doubtless tended to aggravate the +peculiar instability of character which troubled Hamann's after life. In +1746 be began theological studies, but speedily deserted them and turned +his attention to law. That too was taken up in a desultory fashion and +quickly relinquished. Hamann seems at this time to have thought that any +strenuous devotion to "bread-and-butter" studies was lowering, and +accordingly gave himself entirely to reading, criticism and philological +inquiries. Such studies, however, were pursued without any definite aim +or systematic arrangement, and consequently were productive of nothing. +In 1752, constrained to secure some position in the world, he accepted a +tutorship in a family resident in Livonia, but only retained it a few +months. A similar situation in Courland he also resigned after about a +year. In both cases apparently the rupture might be traced to the +curious and unsatisfactory character of Hamann himself. After leaving +his second post he was received into the house of a merchant at Riga +named Johann Christoph Behrens, who contracted a great friendship for +him and selected him as his companion for a tour through Danzig, Berlin, +Hamburg, Amsterdam and London. Hamann, however, was quite unfitted for +business, and when left in London, gave himself up entirely to his +fancies, and was quickly reduced to a state of extreme poverty and want. +It was at this period of his life, when his inner troubles of spirit +harmonized with the unhappy external conditions of his lot, that he +began an earnest and prolonged study of the Bible; and from this time +dates the tone of extreme pietism which is characteristic of his +writings, and which undoubtedly alienated many of his friends. He +returned to Riga, and was well received by the Behrens family, in whose +house he resided for some time. A quarrel, the precise nature of which +is not very clear though the occasion is evident, led to an entire +separation from these friends. In 1759 Hamann returned to Königsberg, +and lived for several years with his father, filling occasional posts in +Königsberg and Mitau. In 1767 he obtained a situation as translator in +the excise office, and ten years later a post as storekeeper in a +mercantile house. During this period of comparative rest Hamann was able +to indulge in the long correspondence with learned friends which seems +to have been his greatest pleasure. In 1784 the failure of some +commercial speculations greatly reduced his means, and about the same +time he was dismissed with a small pension from his situation. The +kindness of friends, however, supplied provision for his children, and +enabled him to carry out the long-cherished wish of visiting some of his +philosophical allies. He spent some time with Jacobi at Pempelfort and +with Buchholz at Walbergen. At the latter place he was seized with +illness, and died on the 21st of June 1788. + + Hamann's works resemble his life and character. They are entirely + unsystematic so far as matter is concerned, chaotic and disjointed in + style. To a reader not acquainted with the peculiar nature of the man, + which led him to regard what commended itself to him as therefore + objectively true, they must be, moreover, entirely unintelligible and, + from their peculiar, pietistic tone and scriptural jargon, probably + offensive. A place in the history of philosophy can be yielded to + Hamann only because he expresses in uncouth, barbarous fashion an idea + to which other writers have given more effective shape. The + fundamental thought is with him the unsatisfactoriness of abstraction + or one-sidedness. The _Aufklärung_, with its rational theology, was to + him the type of abstraction. Even Epicureanism, which might appear + concrete, was by him rightly designated abstract. Quite naturally, + then, Hamann is led to object strongly to much of the Kantian + philosophy. The separation of sense and understanding is for him + unjustifiable, and only paralleled by the extraordinary blunder of + severing matter and form. Concreteness, therefore, is the one demand + which Hamann expresses, and as representing his own thought he used to + refer to Giordano Bruno's conception (previously held by Nicolaus + Curanus) of the identity of contraries. The demand, however, remains + but a demand. Nothing that Hamann has given can be regarded as in the + slightest degree a response to it. His hatred of system, incapacity + for abstract thinking, and intense personality rendered it impossible + for him to do more than utter the disjointed, oracular, obscure dicta + which gained for him among his friends the name of "Magus of the + North." Two results only appear throughout his writings--first, the + accentuation of belief; and secondly, the transference of many + philosophical difficulties to language. Belief is, according to + Hamann, the groundwork of knowledge, and he accepts in all sincerity + Hume's analysis of experience as being most helpful in constructing a + theological view. In language, which he appears to regard as somehow + acquired, he finds a solution for the problems of reason which Kant + had discussed in the _Kritik der reinen Vernunft_. On the application + of these thoughts to the Christian theology one need not enter. + + None of Hamann's writings is of great bulk; most are mere pamphlets of + some thirty or forty pages. A complete collection has been published + by F. Roth (_Schriften_, 8vo, 1821-1842), and by C. H. Gildemeister + (_Leben und Schriften_, 6 vols., 1851-1873). See also M. Petri, + _Hamanns Schriften u. Briefe_, (4 vols., 1872-1873); J. Poel, _Hamann, + der Magus im Norden, sein Leben u. Mitteilungen aus seinen Schriften_ + (2 vols., 1874-1876); J. Claassen, _Hamanns Leben und Werke_ (1885). + Also H. Weber, _Neue Hamanniana_ (1905). A very comprehensive essay on + Hamann is to be found in Hegel's _Vermischte Schriften_, ii. (Werke, + Bd. xvii.). On Hamann's influence on German literature, see J. Minor, + _J. G. Hamann in seiner Bedeutung für die Sturm- und Drang-Periode_ + (1881). + + + + +HAMAR, or STOREHAMMER (GREAT HAMAR), a town of Norway in Hedemarken +_amt_ (county), 78 m. by rail N. of Christiania. Pop. (1900), 6003. It +is pleasantly situated between two bays of the great Lake Mjösen, and is +the junction of the railways to Trondhjem (N.) and to Otta in +Gudbrandsdal (N.W.). The existing town was laid out in 1849, and made a +bishop's see in 1864. Near the same site there stood an older town, +which, together with a bishop's see, was founded in 1152 by the +Englishman Nicholas Breakspeare (afterwards Pope Adrian IV.); but both +town and cathedral were destroyed by the Swedes in 1567. Remains of the +latter include a nave-arcade with rounded arches. The town is a centre +for the local agricultural and timber trade. + + + + +HAMASA (HAMASAH), the name of a famous Arabian anthology compiled by +Habib ibn Aus at-Ta'i, surnamed Abu Tammam (see ABU TAMMAM). The +collection is so called from the title of its first book, containing +poems descriptive of constancy and valour in battle, patient endurance +of calamity, steadfastness in seeking vengeance, manfulness under +reproach and temptation, all which qualities make up the attribute +called by the Arabs _hamasah_ (briefly paraphrased by at-Tibrizi as +_ash-shiddah fi-l-amr_). It consists of ten books or parts, containing +in all 884 poems or fragments of poems, and named respectively--(1) +_al-Hamasa_, 261 pieces; (2) _al-Marathi_, "Dirges," 169 pieces; (3) +_al-Adab_, "Manners," 54 pieces; (4) _an-Nasib_, "The Beauty and Love of +Women," 139 pieces; (5) _al-Hija_, "Satires," 80 pieces; (6) _al-Adyaf +wa-l-Madih_, "Hospitality and Panegyric," 143 pieces; (7) _as-Sifat_, +"Miscellaneous Descriptions," 3 pieces; (8) _as-Sair wa-n-Nu'as_, +"Journeying and Drowsiness," 9 pieces; (9) _al-Mulah_, "Pleasantries," +38 pieces; and (10) _Madhammat-an-nisa_, "Dispraise of Women," 18 +pieces. Of these books the first is by far the longest, both in the +number and extent of its poems, and the first two together make up more +than half the bulk of the work. The poems are for the most part +fragments selected from longer compositions, though a considerable +number are probably entire. They are taken from the works of Arab poets +of all periods down to that of Abu Tammam himself (the latest +ascertainable date being A.D. 832), but chiefly of the poets of the +Ante-Islamic time (_Jahiliyyun_), those of the early days of Al-Islam +(_Mukhadrimun_), and those who flourished during the reigns of the +Omayyad caliphs, A.D. 660-749 (_Islamiyyun_). Perhaps the oldest in the +collection are those relating to the war of Basus, a famous legendary +strife which arose out of the murder of Kulaib, chief of the combined +clans of Bakr and Taghlib, and lasted for forty years, ending with the +peace of Dhu-l-Majaz, about A.D. 534. Of the period of the Abbasid +caliphs, under whom Abu Tammam himself lived, there are probably not +more than sixteen fragments. + +Most of the poems belong to the class of extempore or occasional +utterances, as distinguished from _qasidas_, or elaborately finished +odes. While the latter abound with comparisons and long descriptions, in +which the skill of the poet is exhibited with much art and ingenuity, +the poems of the _Hamasa_ are short, direct and for the most part free +from comparisons; the transitions are easy, the metaphors simple, and +the purpose of the poem clearly indicated. It is due probably to the +fact that this style of composition was chiefly sought by Abu Tammam in +compiling his collection that he has chosen hardly anything from the +works of the most famous poets of antiquity. Not a single piece from +Imra 'al-Qais (Amru-ul-Qais) occurs in the _Hamasa_, nor are there any +from 'Alqama, Zuhair or A'sha; Nabigha is represented only by two pieces +(pp. 408 and 742 of Freytag's edition) of four and three verses +respectively; 'Antara by two pieces of four verses each (id. pp. 206, +209); Tarafa by one piece of five verses (id. p. 632); Labid by one +piece of three verses (id. p. 468); and 'Amr ibn Kulthum by one piece of +four verses (id. p. 236). The compilation is thus essentially an +anthology of minor poets, and exhibits (so far at least as the more +ancient poems are concerned) the general average of poetic utterance at +a time when to speak in verse was the daily habit of every warrior of +the desert. + +To this description, however, there is an important exception in the +book entitled _an-Nasib_, containing verses relating to women and love. +In the classical age of Arab poetry it was the established rule that all +_qasidas_, or finished odes, whatever their purpose, must begin with the +mention of women and their charms (_tashbib_), in order, as the old +critics said, that the hearts of the hearers might be softened and +inclined to regard kindly the theme which the poet proposed to unfold. +The fragments included in this part of the work are therefore generally +taken from the opening verses of _qasidas_; where this is not the case, +they are chiefly compositions of the early Islamic period, when the +school of exclusively erotic poetry (of which the greatest +representative was 'Omar ibn Abi Rabi'a) arose. + +The compiler was himself a distinguished poet in the style of his day, +and wandered through many provinces of the Moslem empire earning money +and fame by his skill in panegyric. About 220 A.H. he betook himself to +Khorasan, then ruled by 'Abdallah ibn Tahir, whom he praised and by whom +he was rewarded; on his journey home to 'Irak he passed through +Hamadhan, and was there detained for many months a guest of Abu-l-Wafa, +son of Salama, the road onward being blocked by heavy falls of snow. +During his residence at Hamadhan, Abu Tammam is said to have compiled or +composed, from the materials which he found in Abu-l-Wafa's library, +five poetical works, of which one was the _Hamasa_. This collection +remained as a precious heirloom in the family of Abu-l-Wafa until their +fortunes decayed, when it fell into the hands of a man of Dinawar named +Abu-l-'Awadhil, who carried it to Isfahan and made it known to the +learned of that city. + +The worth of the _Hamasa_ as a store-house of ancient legend, of +faithful detail regarding the usages of the pagan time and early +simplicity of the Arab race, can hardly be exaggerated. The high level +of excellence which is found in its selections, both as to form and +matter, is remarkable, and caused it to be said that Abu Tammam +displayed higher qualities as a poet in his choice of extracts from the +ancients than in his own compositions. What strikes us chiefly in the +class of poetry of which the _Hamasa_ is a specimen, is its exceeding +truth and reality, its freedom from artificiality and hearsay, the +evident first-hand experience which the singers possessed of all of +which they sang. For historical purposes the value of the collection is +not small; but most of all there shines forth from it a complete +portraiture of the hardy and manful nature, the strenuous life of +passion and battle, the lofty contempt of cowardice, niggardliness and +servility, which marked the valiant stock who bore Islam abroad in a +flood of new life over the outworn civilizations of Persia, Egypt and +Byzantium. It has the true stamp of the heroic time, of its cruelty and +wantonness as of its strength and beauty. + + No fewer than twenty commentaries are enumerated by Hajji Khalifa. Of + these the earliest was by Abu Riyash (otherwise ar-Riyashi), who died + in 257 A.H.; excerpts from it, chiefly in elucidation of the + circumstances in which the poems were composed, are frequently given + by at-Tibrizi (Tabrizi). He was followed by the famous grammarian + Abu-l-Fath ibn al-Jinni (d. 392 A.H.), and later by Shihab ad-Din + Ahmad al-Marzuqi of Isfahan (d. 421 A.H.). Upon al-Marzuqi's + commentary is chiefly founded that of Abu Zakariya Yahya at-Tibrizi + (b. 421 A.H., d. 502), which has been published by the late Professor + G. W. Freytag of Bonn, together with a Latin translation and notes + (1828-1851). This monumental work, the labour of a life, is a treasure + of information regarding the classical age of Arab literature which + has not perhaps its equal for extent, accuracy, and minuteness of + detail in Europe. No other complete edition of the _Hamasa_ has been + printed in the West; but in 1856 one appeared at Calcutta under the + names of Maulavi Ghulam Rabbani and Kabiru-d-din Ahmad. Though no + acknowledgment of the fact is contained in this edition, it is a + simple reprint of Professor Freytag's text (without at-Tibrizi's + commentary), and follows its original even in the misprints (corrected + by Freytag at the end of the second volume, which being in Latin the + Calcutta editors do not seem to have consulted). It contains in an + appendix of 12 pages a collection of verses (and some entire + fragments) not found in at-Tibrizi's recension, but stated to exist in + some copies consulted by the editors; these are, however, very + carelessly edited and printed, and in many places unintelligible. + Freytag's text, with at-Tibrizi's commentary, has been reprinted at + Bulaq (1870). In 1882 an edition of the text, with a marginal + commentary by Munshi 'Abdul-Qadir ibn Shaikh Luqman, was published at + Bombay. + + The _Hamasa_ has been rendered with remarkable skill and spirit into + German verse by the illustrious Friedrich Rückert (Stuttgart, 1846), + who has not only given translations of almost all the poems proper to + the work, but has added numerous fragments drawn from other sources, + especially those occurring in the _scholia_ of at-Tibrizi, as well as + the Mu'allaqas of Zuhair and 'Antara, the _Lamiyya_ of Ash-Shanfarŕ, + and the Banat Su'ad of Ka'b, son of Zuhair. A small collection of + translations, chiefly in metres imitating those of the original, was + published in London by Sir Charles Lyall in 1885. + + When the _Hamasa_ is spoken of, that of Abu Tammam, as the first and + most famous of the name, is meant; but several collections of a + similar kind, also called _Hamasa_, exist. The best-known and earliest + of these is the _Hamasa_ of Buhturi (d. 284 A.H.), of which the unique + MS. now in the Leiden University Library, has been reproduced by + photo-lithography (1909); a critical edition has been prepared by + Professor Chlikho at Beyreuth. Four other works of the same name, + formed on the model of Abu Tammam's compilation, are mentioned by + Hajji Khalifa. Besides these, a work entitled _Hamasat ar-Rah_ ("the + Hamasa of wine") was composed of Abu-l-'Alaal-Ma'arri (d. 429 A.H.). + (C. J. L.) + + + + +HAMBURG, a state of the German empire, on the lower Elbe, bounded by the +Prussian provinces of Schleswig-Holstein and Hanover. The whole +territory has an area of 160 sq. m., and consists of the city of Hamburg +with its incorporated suburbs and the surrounding district, including +several islands in the Elbe, five small enclaves in Holstein; the +communes of Moorburg in the Lüneburg district of the Prussian province +of Hanover and Cuxhaven-Ritzebüttel at the mouth of the Elbe, the island +of Neuwerk about 5 m. from the coast, and the bailiwick (_amt_) of +Bergedorf, which down to 1867 was held in common by Lübeck and Hamburg. +Administratively the state is divided into the city, or metropolitan +district, and four rural domains (or _Landherrenschaften_), each under a +senator as _praeses_, viz. the domain of the Geestlande, of the +Marschlande, of Bergedorf and of Ritzebüttel with Cuxhaven. +Cuxhaven-Ritzebüttel and Bergedorf are the only towns besides the +capital. The Geestlande comprise the suburban districts encircling the +city on the north and west; the Marschlande includes various islands in +the Elbe and the fertile tract of land lying between the northern and +southern arms of the Elbe, and with its pastures and market gardens +supplying Hamburg with large quantities of country produce. In the +Bergedorf district lies the Vierlande, or Four Districts (Neuengamme, +Kirchwärder, Altengamme and Curslack), celebrated for its fruit gardens +and the picturesque dress of the inhabitants. Ritzebüttel with Cuxhaven, +also a watering-place, have mostly a seafaring population. Two rivers, +the Alster and the Bille, flow through the city of Hamburg into the +Elbe, the mouth of which, at Cuxhaven, is 75 m. below the city. + +_Government._--As a state of the empire, Hamburg is represented in the +federal council (_Bundesrat_) by one plenipotentiary, and in the +imperial diet (_Reichstag_) by three deputies. Its present constitution +came into force on the 1st of January 1861, and was revised in 1879 and +again in 1906. According to this Hamburg is a republic, the government +(_Staatsgewalt_) residing in two chambers, the Senate and the House of +Burgesses. The Senate, which exercises the greater part of the executive +power, is composed of eighteen members, one half of whom must have +studied law or finance, while at least seven of the remainder must +belong to the class of merchants. The members of the Senate are elected +for life by the House of Burgesses; but a senator is free to retire from +office at the expiry of six years. A chief (_ober-_) and second +(_zweiter-_) burgomaster, the first of whom bears the title of +"Magnificence," chosen annually in secret ballot, preside over the +meetings of the Senate, and are usually jurists. No burgomaster can be +in office for longer than two years consecutively, and no member of the +Senate may hold any other public office. The House of Burgesses consists +of 160 members, of whom 80 are elected in secret ballot by the direct +suffrages of all tax-paying citizens, 40 by the owners of house-property +within the city (also by ballot), and the remaining 40, by ballot also, +by the so-called "notables," i.e. active and former members of the law +courts and administrative boards. They are elected for a period of six +years, but as half of each class retire at the end of three years, new +elections for one half the number take place at the end of that time. +The House of Burgesses is represented by a _Bürgerausschuss_ (committee +of the house) of twenty deputies whose duty it is to watch over the +proceedings of the Senate and the constitution generally. The Senate can +interpose a veto in all matters of legislation, saving taxation, and +where there is a collision between the two bodies, provision is made for +reference to a court of arbitration, consisting of members of both +houses in equal numbers, and also to the supreme court of the empire +(_Reichsgericht_) sitting at Leipzig. The law administered is that of +the civil and penal codes of the German empire, and the court of appeal +for all three Hanse towns is the common _Oberlandesgericht_, which has +its seat in Hamburg. There is also a special court of arbitration in +commercial disputes and another for such as arise under accident +insurance. + +_Religion._--The church in Hamburg is completely separated from the +state and manages its affairs independently. The ecclesiastical +arrangements of Hamburg have undergone great modifications since the +general constitution of 1860. From the Reformation to the French +occupation in the beginning of the 19th century, Hamburg was a purely +Lutheran state; according to the "Recess" of 1529, re-enacted in 1603, +non-Lutherans were subject to legal punishment and expulsion from the +country. Exceptions were gradually made in favour of foreign residents; +but it was not till 1785 that regular inhabitants were allowed to +exercise the religious rites of other denominations, and it was not till +after the war of freedom that they were allowed to have buildings in the +style of churches. In 1860 full religious liberty was guaranteed, and +the identification of church and state abolished. By the new +constitution of the Lutheran Church, published at first in 1870 for the +city only, but in 1876 extended to the rest of the Hamburg territory, +the parishes or communes are divided into three church-districts, and +the general affairs of the whole community are entrusted to a synod of +53 members and to an ecclesiastical council of 9 members which acts as +an executive. Since 1887 a church rate has been levied on the +Evangelical-Lutheran communities, and since 1904 upon the Roman +Catholics also. The German Reformed Church, the French Reformed, the +English Episcopal, the English Reformed, the Roman Catholic, and the +Baptist are all recognized by the state. Civil marriages have been +permissible in Hamburg since 1866, and since the introduction of the +imperial law in January 1876 the number of such marriages has greatly +increased. + +_Finance._--The jurisdiction of the Free Port was on the 1st of January +1882 restricted to the city and port by the extension of the Zollverein +to the lower Elbe, and in 1888 the whole of the state of Hamburg, with +the exception of the so-called "Free Harbour" (which comprises the port +proper and some large warehouses, set apart for goods in bond), was +taken into the Zollverein. + +_Population._--The population increased from 453,000 in 1880 to 622,530 +in 1890, and in 1905 amounted to 874,878. The population of the country +districts (exclusive of the city of Hamburg) was 72,085 in 1905. The +crops raised in the country districts are principally vegetables and +fruit, potatoes, hay, oats, rye and wheat. For manufactures and trade +statistics see HAMBURG (city). + +The military organization of Hamburg was arranged by convention with +Prussia. The state furnishes three battalions of the 2nd Hanseatic +regiment, under Prussian officers. The soldiers swear the oath of +allegiance to the senate. + + + + +HAMBURG, a seaport of Germany, capital of the free state of Hamburg, on +the right bank of the northern arm of the Elbe, 75 m. from its mouth at +Cuxhaven and 178 m. N.W. from Berlin by rail. It is the largest and most +important seaport on the continent of Europe and (after London and New +York) the third largest in the world. Were it not for political and +municipal boundaries Hamburg might be considered as forming with Altona +and Ottensen (which lie within Prussian territory) one town. The view of +the three from the south, presenting a continuous river frontage of six +miles, the river crowded with shipping and the densely packed houses +surmounted by church towers--of which three are higher than the dome of +St Paul's in London--is one of great magnificence. + +The city proper lies on both sides of the little river Alster, which, +dammed up a short distance from its mouth, forms a lake, of which the +southern portion within the line of the former fortifications bears the +name of the Inner Alster (_Binnen Alster_), and the other and larger +portion (2500 yards long and 1300 yards at the widest) that of the Outer +Alster (_Aussen Alster_). The fortifications as such were removed in +1815, but they have left their trace in a fine girdle of green round the +city, though too many inroads on its completeness have been made by +railways and roadways. The oldest portion of the city is that which lies +to the east of the Alster; but, though it still retains the name of +Altstadt, nearly all trace of its antiquity has disappeared, as it was +rebuilt after the great fire of 1842. To the west lies the new town +(Neustadt), incorporated in 1678; beyond this and contiguous to Altona +is the former suburb of St Pauli, incorporated in 1876, and towards the +north-east that of St Georg, which arose in the 13th century but was not +incorporated till 1868. + +[Illustration: Map of Hamburg.] + +The old town lies low, and it is traversed by a great number of narrow +canals or "fleets" (_Fleeten_)--for the same word which has left its +trace in London nomenclature is used in the Low German city--which add +considerably to the picturesqueness of the meaner quarters, and serve as +convenient channels for the transport of goods. They generally form what +may be called the back streets, and they are bordered by warehouses, +cellars and the lower class of dwelling-houses. As they are subject to +the ebb and flow of the Elbe, at certain times they run almost dry. As +soon as the telegram at Cuxhaven announces high tide three shots are +fired from the harbour to warn the inhabitants of the "fleets"; and if +the progress of the tide up the river gives indication of danger, +another three shots follow. The "fleets" with their quaint medieval +warehouses, which come sheer down to the water, and are navigated by +barges, have gained for Hamburg the name of "Northern Venice." They are, +however, though antique and interesting, somewhat dismal and unsavoury. +In fine contrast to them is the bright appearance of the Binnen Alster, +which is enclosed on three sides by handsome rows of buildings, the +Alsterdamm in the east, the Alter Jungfernstieg in the south, and the +Neuer Jungfernstieg in the west, while it is separated from the Aussen +Alster by part of the rampart gardens traversed by the railway uniting +Hamburg with Altona and crossing the lakes by a beautiful bridge--the +Lombards-Brücke. Around the outer lake are grouped the suburbs +Harvestehude and Pösseldorf on the western shore, and Uhlenhorst on the +eastern, with park-like promenades and villas surrounded by well-kept +gardens. Along the southern end of the Binnen Alster runs the +Jungfernstieg with fine shops, hotels and restaurants facing the water. +A fleet of shallow-draught screw steamers provides a favourite means of +communication between the business centre of the city and the outlying +colonies of villas. + +The streets enclosing the Binnen Alster are fashionable promenades, and +leading directly from this quarter are the main business thoroughfares, +the Neuer-Wall, the Grosse Bleichen and the Hermannstrasse. The largest +of the public squares in Hamburg is the Hopfenmarkt, which contains the +church of St Nicholas (Nikolaikirche) and is the principal market for +vegetables and fruit. Others of importance are the Gänsemarkt, the +Zeughausmarkt and the Grossneumarkt. Of the thirty-five churches +existing in Hamburg (the old cathedral had to be taken down in 1805), +the St Petrikirche, Nikolaikirche, St Katharinenkirche, St Jakobikirche +and St Michaeliskirche are those that give their names to the five old +city parishes. The Nikolaikirche is especially remarkable for its spire, +which is 473 ft. high and ranks, after those of Ulm and Cologne, as the +third highest ecclesiastical edifice in the world. The old church was +destroyed in the great fire of 1842, and the new building, designed by +Sir George Gilbert Scott in 13th century Gothic, was erected 1845-1874. +The exterior and interior are elaborately adorned with sculptures. +Sandstone from Osterwald near Hildesheim was used for the outside, and +for the inner work a softer variety from Postelwitz near Dresden. The +Michaeliskirche, which is built on the highest point in the city and has +a tower 428 ft. high, was erected (1750-1762) by Ernst G. Sonnin on the +site of the older building of the 17th century destroyed by lightning; +the interior, which can contain 3000 people, is remarkable for its bold +construction, there being no pillars. The St Petrikirche, originally +consecrated in the 12th century and rebuilt in the 14th, was the oldest +church in Hamburg; it was burnt in 1842 and rebuilt in its old form in +1844-1849. It has a graceful tapering spire 402 ft. in height (completed +1878); the granite columns from the old cathedral, the stained glass +windows by Kellner of Nuremberg, and H. Schubert's fine relief of the +entombment of Christ are worthy of notice. The St Katharinenkirche and +the St Jakobikirche are the only surviving medieval churches, but +neither is of special interest. Of the numerous other churches, +Evangelical, Roman Catholic and Anglican, none are of special interest. +The new synagogue was built by Rosengarten between 1857 and 1859, and to +the same architect is due the sepulchral chapel built for the Hamburg +merchant prince Johann Heinrich, Freiherr von Schröder (1784-1883), in +the churchyard of the Petrikirche. The beautiful chapel of St Gertrude +was unfortunately destroyed in 1842. + +Hamburg has comparatively few secular buildings of great architectural +interest, but first among them is the new Rathaus, a huge German +Renaissance building, constructed of sandstone in 1886-1897, richly +adorned with sculptures and with a spire 330 ft. in height. It is the +place of meeting of the municipal council and of the senate and contains +the city archives. Immediately adjoining it and connected with it by two +wings is the exchange. It was erected in 1836-1841 on the site of the +convent of St Mary Magdalen and escaped the conflagration of 1842. It +was restored and enlarged in 1904, and shelters the commercial library +of nearly 100,000 vols. During the business hours (1-3 P.M.) the +exchange is crowded by some 5000 merchants and brokers. In the same +neighbourhood is the Johanneum, erected in 1834 and in which are +preserved the town library of about 600,000 printed books and 5000 MSS. +and the collection of Hamburg antiquities. In the courtyard is a statue +(1885) of the reformer Johann Bugenhagen. In the Fischmarkt, immediately +south of the Johanneum, a handsome fountain was erected in 1890. +Directly west of the town hall is the new Stadthaus, the chief police +station of the town, in front of which is a bronze statue of the +burgomaster Karl Friedrich Petersen (1809-1892), erected in 1897. A +little farther away are the headquarters of the Patriotic Society +(_Patriotische Gesellschaft_), founded in 1765, with fine rooms for the +meetings of artistic and learned societies. Several new public buildings +have been erected along the circuit of the former walls. Near the west +extremity, abutting upon the Elbe, the moat was filled in in 1894-1897, +and some good streets were built along the site, while the Kersten +Miles-Brücke, adorned with statues of four Hamburg heroes, was thrown +across the Helgoländer Allee. Farther north, along the line of the +former town wall, are the criminal law courts (1879-1882, enlarged 1893) +and the civil law courts (finished in 1901). Close to the latter stand +the new supreme court, the old age and accident state insurance offices, +the chief custom house, and the concert hall, founded by Karl Laeisz, a +former Hamburg wharfinger. Farther on are the chemical and the physical +laboratories and the Hygienic Institute. Facing the botanical gardens a +new central post-office, in the Renaissance style, was built in 1887. At +the west end of the Lombards-Brücke there is a monument by Schilling, +commemorating the war of 1870-71. A few streets south of that is a +monument to Lessing (1881); while occupying a commanding site on the +promenades towards Altona is the gigantic statue of Bismarck which was +unveiled in June 1906. The Kunst-Halle (the picture gallery), containing +some good works by modern masters, faces the east end of +Lombards-Brücke. The new Natural History Museum, completed in 1891, +stands a little distance farther south. To the east of it comes the +Museum for Art and Industry, founded in 1878, now one of the most +important institutions of the kind in Germany, with which is connected a +trades school. Close by is the Hansa-fountain (65 ft. high), erected in +1878. On the north-east side of the suburb of St Georg a botanical +museum and laboratory have been established. There is a new general +hospital at Eppendorf, outside the town on the north, built on the +pavilion principle, and one of the finest structures of the kind in +Europe; and at Ohlsdorf, in the same direction, a crematorium was built +in 1891 in conjunction with the town cemeteries (370 acres). There must +also be mentioned the fine public zoological gardens, Hagenbeck's +private zoological gardens in the vicinity, the schools of music and +navigation, and the school of commerce. In 1900 a high school for +shipbuilding was founded, and in 1901 an institute for seamen's and +tropical diseases, with a laboratory for their physiological study, was +opened, and also the first public free library in the city. The river is +spanned just above the Frei Hafen by a triple-arched railway bridge, +1339 ft. long, erected in 1868-1873 and doubled in width in 1894. Some +270 yds. higher up is a magnificent iron bridge (1888) for vehicles and +foot passengers. The southern arm of the Elbe, on the south side of the +island of Wilhelmsburg, is crossed by another railway bridge of four +arches and 2050 ft. in length. + +_Railways._--The through railway traffic of Hamburg is practically +confined to that proceeding northwards--to Kiel and Jutland--and for the +accommodation of such trains the central (terminus) station at Altona is +the chief gathering point. The Hamburg stations, connected with the +other by the Verbindungs-Bahn (or metropolitan railway) crossing the +Lombards-Brücke, are those of the Venloer (or Hanoverian, as it is often +called) Bahnhof on the south-east, in close proximity to the harbour, +into which converge the lines from Cologne and Bremen, Hanover and +Frankfort-on-Main, and from Berlin, via Nelzen; the Klostertor-Bahnhof +(on the metropolitan line) which temporarily superseded the old Berlin +station, and the Lübeck station a little to the north-east, during the +erection of the new central station, which occupies a site between the +Klostertor-Bahnhof and the Lombards-Brücke. Between this central station +and Altona terminus runs the metropolitan railway, which has been raised +several feet so as to bridge over the streets, and on which lie the +important stations Dammtor and Sternschanze. An excellent service of +electric trams interconnect the towns of Hamburg, Altona and the +adjacent suburbs, and steamboats provide communication on the Elbe with +the riparian towns and villages; and so with Blankenese and Harburg, +with Stade, Glückstadt and Cuxhaven. + +_Trade and Shipping._--Probably there is no place which during the last +thirty years of the 19th century grew faster commercially than Hamburg. +Its commerce is, however, almost entirely of the nature of transit +trade, for it is not only the chief distributing centre for the middle +of Europe of the products of all other parts of the world, but is also +the chief outlet for German, Austrian, and even to some extent Russian +(Polish) raw products and manufactures. Its principal imports are coffee +(of which it is the greatest continental market), tea, sugar, spices, +rice, wine (especially from Bordeaux), lard (from Chicago), cereals, +sago, dried fruits, herrings, wax (from Morocco and Mozambique), +tobacco, hemp, cotton (which of late years shows a large increase), +wool, skins, leather, oils, dyewoods, indigo, nitrates, phosphates and +coal. Of the total importations of all kinds of coal to Hamburg, that of +British coal, particularly from Northumberland and Durham, occupies the +first place, and despite some falling off in late years, owing to the +competition made by Westphalian coal, amounts to more than half the +total import. The increase of the trade of Hamburg is most strikingly +shown by that of the shipping belonging to the port. Between 1876 and +1880 there were 475 sailing vessels with a tonnage of 230,691, and 110 +steam-ships with a tonnage of 87,050. In 1907 there were (exclusive of +fishing vessels) 470 sailing ships with a tonnage of 271,661, and 610 +steamers with a tonnage of 1,256,449. In 1870 the crews numbered 6900 +men, in 1907 they numbered 29,536. + +_Industries._--The development of manufacturing industries at Hamburg +and its immediate vicinity since 1880, though not so rapid as that of +its trade and shipping, has been very remarkable, and more especially +has this been the case since the year 1888, when Hamburg joined the +German customs union, and the barriers which prevented goods +manufactured at Hamburg from entering into other parts of Germany were +removed. Among the chief industries are those for the production of +articles of food and drink. The import trade of various cereals by sea +to Hamburg is very large, and a considerable portion of this corn is +converted into flour at Hamburg itself. There are also, in this +connexion, numerous bakeries for biscuit, rice-peeling mills and spice +mills. Besides the foregoing there are cocoa, chocolate, confectionery +and baking-powder factories, coffee-roasting and ham-curing and smoking +establishments, lard refineries, margarine manufactories and +fish-curing, preserving and packing factories. There are numerous +breweries, producing annually about 24,000,000 gallons of beer, spirit +distilleries and factories of artificial waters. Yarns, textile goods +and weaving industries generally have not attained any great dimensions, +but there are large jute-spinning mills and factories for cotton-wool +and cotton driving-belts. Among other important articles of domestic +industry are tobacco and cigars (manufactured mainly in bond, within the +free harbour precincts), hydraulic machinery, electro-technical +machinery, chemical products (including artificial manures), oils, +soaps, india-rubber, ivory and celluloid articles and the manufacture of +leather. + +Shipbuilding has made very important progress, and there are at present +in Hamburg eleven large shipbuilding yards, employing nearly 10,000 +hands. Of these, however, only three are of any great extent, and one, +where the largest class of ocean-going steamers and of war vessels for +the German navy are built, employs about 5000 persons. There are also +two yards for the building of pleasure yachts and rowing-boats (in both +which branches of sport Hamburg takes a leading place in Germany). Art +industries, particularly those which appeal to the luxurious taste of +the inhabitants in fitting their houses, such as wall-papers and +furniture, and those which are included in the equipment of ocean-going +steamers, have of late years made rapid strides and are among the best +productions of this character of any German city. + + _Harbour._--It was the accession of Hamburg to the customs union in + 1888 which gave such a vigorous impulse to her more recent commercial + development. At the same time a portion of the port was set apart as a + free harbour, altogether an area of 750 acres of water and 1750 acres + of dry land. In anticipation of this event a gigantic system of docks, + basins and quays was constructed, at a total cost of some Ł7,000,000 + (of which the imperial treasury contributed Ł2,000,000), between the + confluence of the Alster and the railway bridge (1868-1873), an entire + quarter of the town inhabited by some 24,000 people being cleared away + to make room for these accessories of a great port. On the north side + of the Elbe there are the Sandtor basin (3380 ft. long, 295 to 427 ft. + wide), in which British and Dutch steamboats and steamboats of the + Sloman (Mediterranean) line anchor. South of this lies the Grasbrook + basin (quayage of 2100 ft. and 1693 ft. alongside), which is used by + French, Swedish and transatlantic steamers. At the quay point between + these two basins there are vast state granaries. On the outer (i.e. + river) side of the Grasbrook dock is the quay at which the emigrants + for South America embark, and from which the mail boats for East + Africa, the boats of the Woermann (West Africa) line, and the + Norwegian tourist boats depart. To the east of these two is the small + Magdeburg basin, penetrating north, and the Baaken basin, penetrating + east, i.e. parallel to the river. The latter affords accommodation to + the transatlantic steamers, including the emigrant ships of the + Hamburg-America line, though their "ocean mail boats" generally load + and unload at Cuxhaven. On the south bank of the stream there follow + in succession, going from east to west, the Moldau dock for river + craft, the sailing vessel dock (Segelschiff Hafen, 3937 ft. long, 459 + to 886 ft. wide, 26ź ft. deep), the Hansa dock, India dock, petroleum + dock, several swimming and dry docks; and in the west of the free + port area three other large docks, one of 77 acres for river craft, + the others each 56 acres in extent, and one 23ž ft. deep, the other + 26ź ft. deep, at low water, constructed in 1900-1901. In 1897 Hamburg + was provided with a huge floating dock, 558 ft. long and 84 ft. in + maximum breadth, capable of holding a vessel of 17,500 tons and + draught not exceeding 29 ft., so constructed and equipped that in time + of need (war) it could be floated down to Cuxhaven. During the last 25 + years of the 19th century the channel of the Elbe was greatly improved + and deepened, and during the last two years of the 19th century some + Ł360,000 was spent by Hamburg alone in regulating and correcting this + lower course of the river. The new Kuhwärder-basin, on the left bank + of the river, as well as two other large dock basins (now leased to + the Hamburg-American Company), raise the number of basins to twelve in + all. + + _Emigration._--Hamburg is one of the principal continental ports for + the embarkation of emigrants. In 1881-1890, on an average they + numbered 90,000 a year (of whom 60,000 proceeded to the United + States). In 1900 the number was 87,153 (and to the United States + 64,137). The number of emigrant Germans has enormously decreased of + late years, Russia and Austria-Hungary now being most largely + represented. For the accommodation of such passengers large and + convenient emigrant shelters have been recently erected close to the + wharf of embarkation. + + _Health and Population._--The health of the city of Hamburg and the + adjoining district may be described as generally good, no epidemic + diseases having recently appeared to any serious degree. The malady + causing the greatest number of deaths is that of pulmonary + consumption; but better housing accommodation has of late years + reduced the mortality from this disease very considerably. The results + of the census of 1905 showed the population of the city (not including + the rural districts belonging to the state of Hamburg) to be 802,793. + + Hamburg is well supplied with places of amusement, especially of the + more popular kind. Its Stadt-Theater, rebuilt in 1874, has room for + 1750 spectators and is particularly devoted to operatic performances; + the Thalia-Theater dates from 1841, and holds 1700 to 1800 people, and + the Schauspielhaus (for drama) from 1900 people, and there are some + seven or eight minor establishments. Theatrical performances were + introduced into the city in the 17th century, and 1678 is the date of + the first opera, which was played in a house in the Gänsemarkt. Under + Schröder and Lessing the Hamburg stage rose into importance. Though + contributing few names of the highest rank to German literature, the + city has been intimately associated with the literary movement. The + historian Lappenberg and Friedrich von Hagedorn were born in Hamburg; + and not only Lessing, but Heine and Klopstock lived there for some + time. + +_History._--Hamburg probably had its origin in a fortress erected in 808 +by Charlemagne, on an elevation between the Elbe and Alster, as a +defence against the Slavs, and called Hammaburg because of the +surrounding forest (_Hamme_). In 811 Charlemagne founded a church here, +perhaps on the site of a Saxon place of sacrifice, and this became a +great centre for the evangelization of the north of Europe, missionaries +from Hamburg introducing Christianity into Jutland and the Danish +islands and even into Sweden and Norway. In 834 Hamburg became an +archbishopric, St Ansgar, a monk of Corbie and known as the apostle of +the North, being the first metropolitan. In 845 church, monastery and +town were burnt down by the Norsemen, and two years later the see of +Hamburg was united with that of Bremen and its seat transferred to the +latter city. The town, rebuilt after this disaster, was again more than +once devastated by invading Danes and Slavs. Archbishop Unwan of +Hamburg-Bremen (1013-1029) substituted a chapter of canons for the +monastery, and in 1037 Archbishop Bezelin (or Alebrand) built a stone +cathedral and a palace on the Elbe. In 1110 Hamburg, with Holstein, +passed into the hands of Adolph I., count of Schauenburg, and it is with +the building of the Neustadt (the present parish of St Nicholas) by his +grandson, Adolph III. of Holstein, that the history of the commercial +city actually begins. In return for a contribution to the costs of a +crusade, he obtained from the emperor Frederick I. in 1189 a charter +granting Hamburg considerable franchises, including exemption from +tolls, a separate court and jurisdiction, and the rights of fishery on +the Elbe from the city to the sea. The city council (_Rath_), first +mentioned in 1190, had jurisdiction over both the episcopal and the new +town. Craft gilds were already in existence, but these had no share in +the government; for, though the Lübeck rule excluding craftsmen from the +_Rath_ did not obtain, they were excluded in practice. The counts, of +course, as over-lords, had their _Vogt_ (_advocatus_) in the town, but +this official, as the city grew in power, became subordinate to the +_Rath_, as at Lübeck. + +The wealth of the town was increased in 1189 by the destruction of the +flourishing trading centre of Bardowieck by Henry the Lion; from this +time it began to be much frequented by Flemish merchants. In 1201 the +city submitted to Valdemar of Schleswig, after his victory over the +count of Holstein, but in 1225, owing to the capture of King Valdemar +II. of Denmark by Henry of Schwerin, it once more exchanged the Danish +over-lordship for that of the counts of Schauenburg, who established +themselves here and in 1231 built a strong castle to hold it in check. +The defensive alliance of the city with Lübeck in 1241, extended for +other purpose by the treaty of 1255, practically laid the foundations of +the Hanseatic League (q.v.), of which Hamburg continued to be one of the +principal members. The internal organization of the city, too, was +rendered more stable by the new constitution of 1270, and the +recognition in 1292 of the complete internal autonomy of the city by the +count of Schauenburg. The exclusion of the handicraftsmen from the +_Rath_ led, early in the 15th century, to a rising of the craft gilds +against the patrician merchants, and in 1410 they forced the latter to +recognize the authority of a committee of 48 burghers, which concluded +with the senate the so-called First Recess; there were, however, fresh +outbursts in 1458 and 1483, which were settled by further compromises. +In 1461 Hamburg did homage to Christian I. of Denmark, as heir of the +Schauenburg counts; but the suzerainty of Denmark was merely nominal and +soon repudiated altogether; in 1510 Hamburg was made a free imperial +city by the emperor Maximilian I. + +In 1529 the Reformation was definitively established in Hamburg by the +Great Recess of the 19th of February, which at the same time vested the +government of the city in the _Rath_, together with the three colleges +of the _Oberalten_, the Forty-eight (increased to 60 in 1685) and the +Hundred and Forty-four (increased to 180). The ordinary burgesses +consisted of the freeholders and the master-workmen of the gilds. In +1536 Hamburg joined the league of Schmalkalden, for which error it had +to pay a heavy fine in 1547 when the league had been defeated. During +the same period the Lutheran zeal of the citizens led to the expulsion +of the Mennonites and other Protestant sects, who founded Altona. The +loss this brought to the city was, however, compensated for by the +immigration of Protestant refugees from the Low Countries and Jews from +Spain and Portugal. In 1549, too, the English merchant adventurers +removed their staple from Antwerp to Hamburg. + +The 17th century saw notable developments. Hamburg had established, so +early as the 16th century, a regular postal service with certain cities +in the interior of Germany, e.g. Leipzig and Breslau; in 1615 it was +included in the postal system of Turn and Taxis. In 1603 Hamburg +received a code of laws regulating exchange, and in 1619 the bank was +established. In 1615 the Neustadt was included within the city walls. +During the Thirty Years' War the city received no direct harm; but the +ruin of Germany reacted upon its prosperity, and the misery of the lower +orders led to an agitation against the _Rath_. In 1685, at the +invitation of the popular leaders, the Danes appeared before Hamburg +demanding the traditional homage; they were repulsed, but the internal +troubles continued, culminating in 1708 in the victory of the democratic +factions. The imperial government, however, intervened, and in 1712 the +"Great Recess" established durable good relations between the _Rath_ and +the commonalty. Frederick IV. of Denmark, who had seized the opportunity +to threaten the city (1712), was bought off with a ransom of 246,000 +_Reichsthaler_. Denmark, however, only finally renounced her claims by +the treaty of Gottorp in 1768, and in 1770 Hamburg was admitted for the +first time to a representation in the diet of the empire. + +The trade of Hamburg received its first great impulse in 1783, when the +United States, by the treaty of Paris, became an independent power. From +this time dates its first direct maritime communication with America. +Its commerce was further extended and developed by the French +occupation of Holland in 1795, when the Dutch trade was largely directed +to its port. The French Revolution and the insecurity of the political +situation, however, exercised a depressing and retarding effect. The +wars which ensued, the closing of continental ports against English +trade, the occupation of the city after the disastrous battle of Jena, +and pestilence within its walls brought about a severe commercial crisis +and caused a serious decline in its prosperity. Moreover, the great +contributions levied by Napoleon on the city, the plundering of its bank +by Davoust, and the burning of its prosperous suburbs inflicted wounds +from which the city but slowly recovered. Under the long peace which +followed the close of the Napoleonic wars, its trade gradually revived, +fostered by the declaration of independence of South and Central +America, with both of which it energetically opened close commercial +relations, and by the introduction of steam navigation. The first +steamboat was seen on the Elbe on the 17th of June 1816; in 1826 a +regular steam communication was opened with London; and in 1856 the +first direct steamship line linked the port with the United States. The +great fire of 1842 (5th-8th of May) laid in waste the greatest part of +the business quarter of the city and caused a temporary interruption of +its commerce. The city, however, soon rose from its ashes, the churches +were rebuilt and new streets laid out on a scale of considerable +magnificence. In 1866 Hamburg joined the North German Confederation, and +in 1871, while remaining outside the Zollverein, became a constituent +state of the German empire. In 1883-1888 the works for the Free Harbour +were completed, and on the 18th of October 1888 Hamburg joined the +Customs Union (Zollverein). In 1892 the cholera raged within its walls, +carried off 8500 of its inhabitants, and caused considerable losses to +its commerce and industry; but the visitation was not without its +salutary fruits, for an improved drainage system, better hospital +accommodation, and a purer water-supply have since combined to make it +one of the healthiest commercial cities of Europe. + + Further details about Hamburg will be found in the following works: O. + C. Gaedechens, _Historische Topographie der Freien und Hansestadt + Hamburg_ (1880); E. H. Wichmann, _Heimatskunde von Hamburg_ (1863); W. + Melhop, _Historische Topographie der Freien und Hansestadt Hamburg von + 1880-1895_ (1896); Wulff, _Hamburgische Gesetze und Verordnungen_ + (1889-1896); and W. von Melle, _Das hamburgische Staatsrecht_ (1891). + There are many valuable official publications which may be consulted, + among these being: _Statistik des hamburgischen Staates_ (1867-1904); + _Hamburgs Handel und Schiffahrt_ (1847-1903); the yearly + _Hamburgischer Staatskalender_; and _Jahrbuch der Hamburger + wissenschaftlichen Anstalten_. See also _Hamburg und seine Bauten_ + (1890); H. Benrath, _Lokalführer durch Hamburg und Umgebungen_ (1904); + and the consular reports by Sir William Ward, H.B.M.'s consul-general + at Hamburg, to whom the author is indebted for great assistance in + compiling this article. + + For the history of Hamburg see the _Zeitschrift des Vereins für + hamburgische Geschichte_ (1841, fol.); G. Dehio, _Geschichte des + Erzbistums Hamburg-Bremen_ (Berlin, 1877); the _Hamburgisches + Urkundenbuch_ (1842), the _Hamburgische Chroniken_ (1852-1861), and + the _Chronica der Stadt Hamburg bis 1557_ of Adam Tratziger (1865), + all three edited by J. M. Lappenberg; the _Briefsammlung des + hamburgischen Superintendenten Joachim Westphal 1530-1575_, edited by + C. H. W. Sillem (1903); Gallois, _Geschichte der Stadt Hamburg_ + (1853-1856); K. Koppmann, _Aus Hamburgs Vergangenheit_ (1885), and + _Kammereirechnungen der Stadt Hamburg_ (1869-1894); H. W. C. Hubbe, + _Beiträge zur Geschichte der Stadt Hamburg_ (1897); C. Mönckeberg, + _Geschichte der Freien und Hansestadt Hamburg_ (1885); E. H. Wichmann, + _Hamburgische Geschichte in Darstellungen aus alter und neuer Zeit_ + (1889); and R. Bollheimer, _Zeittafeln der hamburgischen Geschichte_ + (1895). + + + + +HAMDANI, in full ABU MAHOMMED UL-HASAN IBN AHMAD IBN YA'QUB UL-HAMDANI +(d. 945), Arabian geographer, also known as Ibn ul-Ha'ik. Little is +known of him except that he belonged to a family of Yemen, was held in +repute as a grammarian in his own country, wrote much poetry, compiled +astronomical tables, devoted most of his life to the study of the +ancient history and geography of Arabia, and died in prison at San'a in +945. His _Geography of the Arabian Peninsula_ (_Kitab Jazirat ul-'Arab_) +is by far the most important work on the subject. After being used in +manuscript by A. Sprenger in his _Post- und Reiserouten des Orients_ +(Leipzig, 1864) and further in his _Alte Geographie Arabiens_ (Bern, +1875), it was edited by D. H. Müller (Leiden, 1884; cf. A. Sprenger's +criticism in _Zeitschrift der deutschen morgenländischen Gesellschaft_, +vol. 45, pp. 361-394). Much has also been written on this work by E. +Glaser in his various publications on ancient Arabia. The other great +work of Hamdani is the _Iklil_ (Crown) concerning the genealogies of the +Himyarites and the wars of their kings in ten volumes. Of this, part 8, +on the citadels and castles of south Arabia, has been edited and +annotated by D. H. Müller in _Die Burgen und Schlösser Südarabiens_ +(Vienna, 1879-1881). + + For other works said to have been written by Hamdani cf. G. Flügel's + _Die grammatischen Schulen der Araber_ (Leipzig, 1862), pp. 220-221. + (G. W. T.) + + + + +HAMELIN, FRANÇOIS ALPHONSE (1796-1864), French admiral, was born at Pont +l'Évęque on the 2nd of September 1796. He went to sea with his uncle, J. +F. E. Hamelin, in the "Vénus" frigate in 1806 as cabin boy. The "Vénus" +was part of the French squadron in the Indian Ocean, and young Hamelin +had an opportunity of seeing much active service. She, in company with +another and a smaller vessel, captured the English frigate "Ceylon" in +1810, but was immediately afterwards captured herself by the "Boadicéa," +under Commodore Rowley (1765-1842). Young Hamelin was a prisoner of war +for a short time. He returned to France in 1811. On the fall of the +Empire he had better fortune than most of the Napoleonic officers who +were turned ashore. In 1821 he became lieutenant, and in 1823 took part +in the French expedition under the duke of Angoulęme into Spain. In 1828 +he was appointed captain of the "Actéon," and was engaged till 1831 on +the coast of Algiers and in the conquest of the town and country. His +first command as flag officer was in the Pacific, where he showed much +tact during the dispute over the Marquesas Islands with England in 1844. +He was promoted vice-admiral in 1848. During the Crimean War he +commanded in the Black Sea, and co-operated with Admiral Dundas in the +bombardment of Sevastopol 17th of October 1854. His relations with his +English colleague were not very cordial. On the 7th of December 1854 he +was promoted admiral. Shortly afterwards he was recalled to France, and +was named minister of marine. His administration lasted till 1860, and +was remarkable for the expeditions to Italy and China organized under +his directions; but it was even more notable for the energy shown in +adopting and developing the use of armour. The launch of the "Gloire" in +1859 set the example of constructing sea-going iron-clads. The first +English iron-clad, the "Warrior," was designed as an answer to the +"Gloire." When Napoleon III. made his first concession to Liberal +opposition, Admiral Hamelin was one of the ministers sacrificed. He held +no further command, and died on the 10th of January 1864. + + + + +HAMELN, a town of Germany, in the Prussian province of Hanover, at the +confluence of the Weser and Hamel, 33 m. S.W. of Hanover, on the line to +Altenbeken, which here effects a junction with railways to Löhne and +Brunswick. Pop. (1905) 20,736. It has a venerable appearance and has +many interesting and picturesque houses. The chief public buildings of +interest are the minster, dedicated to St Boniface and restored in +1870-1875; the town hall; the so-called Rattenfängerhaus (rat-catcher's +house) with mural frescoes illustrating the legend (see below); and the +Hochzeitshaus (wedding house) with beautiful gables. There are +classical, modern and commercial schools. The principal industries are +the manufacture of paper, leather, chemicals and tobacco, sugar +refining, shipbuilding and salmon fishing. By the steamboats on the +Weser there is communication with Karlshafen and Minden. In order to +avoid the dangerous part of the river near the town a channel was cut in +1734, the repairing and deepening of which, begun in 1868, was completed +in 1873. The Weser is here crossed by an iron suspension bridge 830 ft. +in length, supported by a pier erected on an island in the middle of the +river. + +The older name of Hameln was Hameloa or Hamelowe, and the town owes its +origin to an abbey. It existed as a town as early as the 11th century, +and in 1259 it was sold by the abbot of Fulda to the bishop of Minden, +afterwards passing under the protection of the dukes of Brunswick. About +1540 the Reformation gained an entrance into the town, which was taken +by both parties during the Thirty Years' War. In 1757 it capitulated to +the French, who, however, vacated it in the following year. Its +fortifications were strengthened in 1766 by the erection of Fort George, +on an eminence to the west of the town, across the river. On the +capitulation of the Hanoverian army in 1803 Hameln fell into the hands +of the French; it was retaken by the Prussians in 1806, but, after the +battle of Jena, again passed to the French, who dismantled the +fortifications and incorporated the town in the kingdom of Westphalia. +In 1814 it again became Hanoverian, but in 1866 fell with that kingdom +to Prussia. + +_Legend of the Pied Piper._--Hameln is famed as the scene of the myth of +the piper of Hameln. According to the legend, the town in the year 1284 +was infested by a terrible plague of rats. One day there appeared upon +the scene a piper clad in a fantastic suit, who offered for a certain +sum of money to charm all the vermin into the Weser. His conditions were +agreed to, but after he had fulfilled his promise the inhabitants, on +the ground that he was a sorcerer, declined to fulfil their part of the +bargain, whereupon on the 26th of June he reappeared in the streets of +the town, and putting his pipe to his lips began a soft and curious +strain. This drew all the children after him and he led them out of the +town to the Koppelberg hill, in the side of which a door suddenly +opened, by which he entered and the children after him, all but one who +was lame and could not follow fast enough to reach the door before it +shut again. Some trace the origin of the legend to the Children's +Crusade of 1211; others to an abduction of children; and others to a +dancing mania which seized upon some of the young people of Hameln who +left the town on a mad pilgrimage from which they never returned. For a +considerable time the town dated its public documents from the event. +The story is the subject of a poem by Robert Browning, and also of one +by Julius Wolff. Curious evidence that the story rests on a basis of +truth is given by the fact that the Koppelberg is not one of the +imposing hills by which Hameln is surrounded, but no more than a slight +elevation of the ground, barely high enough to hide the children from +view as they left the town. + + See C. Langlotz, _Geschichte der Stadt Hameln_ (Hameln, 1888 fol.); + Sprenger, _Geschichte der Stadt Hameln_ (1861); O. Meinardus, _Der + historische Kern der Rattenfängersage_ (Hameln, 1882); Jostes, _Der + Rattenfänger von Hameln_ (Bonn, 1885); and S. Baring-Gould, _Curious + Myths of the Middle Ages_ (1868). + + + + +HAMERLING, ROBERT (1830-1889), Austrian poet, was born at +Kirchenberg-am-Walde in Lower Austria, on the 24th of March 1830, of +humble parentage. He early displayed a genius for poetry and his +youthful attempts at drama excited the interest and admiration of some +influential persons. Owing to their assistance young Hamerling was +enabled to attend the gymnasium in Vienna and subsequently the +university. In 1848 he joined the student's legion, which played so +conspicuous a part in the revolutions of the capital, and in 1849 shared +in the defence of Vienna against the imperialist troops of Prince +Windischgrätz, and after the collapse of the revolutionary movement he +was obliged to hide for a long time to escape arrest. For the next few +years he diligently pursued his studies in natural science and +philosophy, and in 1855 was appointed master at the gymnasium at +Trieste. For many years he battled with ill-health, and in 1866 retired +on a pension, which in acknowledgment of his literary labours was +increased by the government to a sum sufficient to enable him to live +without care until his death at his villa in Stiftingstal near Graz, on +the 13th of July 1889. Hamerling was one of the most remarkable of the +poets of the modern Austrian school; his imagination was rich and his +poems are full of life and colour. His most popular poem, _Ahasver in +Rom_ (1866), of which the emperor Nero is the central figure, shows at +its best the author's brilliant talent for description. Among his other +works may be mentioned _Venus im Exil_ (1858); _Der König von Sion_ +(1869), which is generally regarded as his masterpiece; _Die sieben +Todsünden_ (1872); _Blätter im Winde_ (1887); _Homunculus_ (1888); _Amor +und Psyche_ (1882). His novel, _Aspasia_ (1876) gives a finely-drawn +description of the Periclean age, but like his tragedy _Danton und +Robespierre_ (1870), is somewhat stilted, showing that Hamerling's +genius, though rich in imagination, was ill-suited for the realistic +presentation of character. + + A popular edition of Hamerling's works in four volumes was published + by M. M. Rabenlechner (Hamburg, 1900). For the poet's life, see his + autobiographical writings, _Stationen meiner Lebenspilgerschaft_ + (1889) and _Lehrjahre der Liebe_ (1890); also M. M. Rabenlechner, + _Hamerling, sein Leben und seine Werke_, i. (Hamburg, 1896); a short + biography by the same (Dresden, 1901); R. H. Kleinert, _R. Hamerling, + ein Dichter der Schönheit_ (Hamburg, 1889); A. Polzer, _Hamerling, + sein Wesen und Wirken_ (Hamburg, 1890). + + + + +HAMERTON, PHILIP GILBERT (1834-1894), English artist and author, was +born at Laneside, near Shaw, close to Oldham, on the 10th of September +1834. His mother died at his birth, and having lost his father ten years +afterwards, he was educated privately under the direction of his +guardians. His first literary attempt, a volume of poems, proving +unsuccessful, he devoted himself for a time entirely to landscape +painting, encamping out of doors in the Highlands, where he eventually +rented the island of Innistrynych, upon which he settled with his wife, +a French lady, in 1858. Discovering after a time that his qualifications +were rather those of an art critic than of a painter he removed to the +neighbourhood of his wife's relatives in France, where he produced his +_Painter's Camp in the Highlands_ (1863), which obtained a great success +and prepared the way for his standard work on _Etching and Etchers_ +(1866). In the following year he published a book, entitled +_Contemporary French Painters_, and in 1868 a continuation, _Painting in +France after the Decline of Classicism_. He had meanwhile become art +critic to the _Saturday Review_, a position which, from the burden it +laid upon him of frequent visits to England, he did not long retain. He +proceeded (1870) to establish an art journal of his own, _The +Portfolio_, a monthly periodical, each number of which consisted of a +monograph upon some artist or group of artists, frequently written and +always edited by him. The discontinuance of his active work as a painter +gave him time for more general literary composition, and he successively +produced _The Intellectual Life_ (1873), perhaps the best known and most +valuable of his writings; _Round my House_ (1876), notes on French +society by a resident; and _Modern Frenchmen_ (1879), admirable short +biographies. He also wrote two novels, _Wenderholme_ (1870) and +_Marmorne_ (1878). In 1884 _Human Intercourse_, another valuable volume +of essays, was published, and shortly afterwards Hamerton began to write +his autobiography, which he brought down to 1858. In 1882 he issued a +finely illustrated work on the technique of the great masters of various +arts, under the title of The _Graphic Arts_, and three years later +another splendidly illustrated volume, _Landscape_, which traces the +influence of landscape upon the mind of man. His last books were: +_Portfolio Papers_ (1889) and _French and English_ (1889). In 1891 he +removed to the neighbourhood of Paris, and died suddenly on the 4th of +November 1894, occupied to the last with his labours on _The Portfolio_ +and other writings on art. + + In 1896 was published _Philip Gilbert Hamerton: an Autobiography_, + 1834-1858; and a _Memoir by his Wife_, 1858-1894. + + + + +HAMI, a town in Chinese Turkestan, otherwise called KAMIL, KOMUL or +KAMUL, situated on the southern slopes of the Tian-Shan mountains, and +on the northern verge of the Great Gobi desert, in 42° 48´ N., 93° 28´ +E., at a height above sea-level of 3150 ft. The town is first mentioned +in Chinese history in the 1st century, under the name I-wu-lu, and said +to be situated 1000 lis north of the fortress Yü-men-kuan, and to be the +key to the western countries. This evidently referred to its +advantageous position, lying as it did in a fertile tract, at the point +of convergence of two main routes running north and south of the +Tian-Shan and connecting China with the west. It was taken by the +Chinese in A.D. 73 from the Hiungnu (the ancient inhabitants of +Mongolia), and made a military station. It next fell into the bands of +the Uighurs or Eastern Turks, who made it one of their chief towns and +held it for several centuries, and whose descendants are said to live +there now. From the 7th to the 11th century I-wu-lu is said to have +borne the name of Igu or I-chu, under the former of which names it is +spoken of by the Chinese pilgrim, Hsüan tsang, who passed through it in +the 7th century. The name Hami is first met in the Chinese _Yüan-shi_ or +"History of the Mongol Dynasty," but the name more generally used there +is Homi-li or Komi-li. Marco Polo, describing it apparently from +hearsay, calls it Camul, and speaks of it as a fruitful place inhabited +by a Buddhist people of idolatrous and wanton habits. It was visited in +1341 by Giovanni de Marignolli, who baptized a number of both sexes +there, and by the envoys of Shah Rukh (1420), who found a magnificent +mosque and a convent of dervishes, in juxtaposition with a fine Buddhist +temple. Hadji Mahommed (Ramusio's friend) speaks of Kamul as being in +his time (c. 1550) the first Mahommedan city met with in travelling from +China. When Benedict Goes travelled through the country at the beginning +of the 17th century, the power of the king Mahommed Khan of Kashgar +extended over nearly the whole country at the base of the Tian-Shan to +the Chinese frontier, including Kamil. It fell under the sway of the +Chinese in 1720, was lost to them in 1865 during the great Mahommedan +rebellion, and the trade route through it was consequently closed, but +was regained in 1873. Owing to its commanding position on the principal +route to the west, and its exceptional fertility, it has very frequently +changed hands in the wars between China and her western neighbours. Hami +is now a small town of about 6000 inhabitants, and is a busy trading +centre. The Mahommedan population consists of immigrants from Kashgaria, +Bokhara and Samarkand, and of descendants of the Uighurs. + + + + +HAMILCAR BARCA, or BARCAS (Heb. _barak_ "lightning"), Carthaginian +general and statesman, father of Hannibal, was born soon after 270 B.C. +He distinguished himself during the First Punic War in 247, when he took +over the chief command in Sicily, which at this time was almost entirely +in the hands of the Romans. Landing suddenly on the north-west of the +island with a small mercenary force he seized a strong position on Mt. +Ercte (Monte Pellegrino, near Palermo), and not only maintained himself +against all attacks, but carried his raids as far as the coast of south +Italy. In 244 he transferred his army to a similar position on the +slopes of Mt. Eryx (Monte San Giuliano), from which he was able to lend +support to the besieged garrison in the neighbouring town of Drepanum +(Trapani). By a provision of the peace of 241 Hamilcar's unbeaten force +was allowed to depart from Sicily without any token of submission. On +returning to Africa his troops, which had been kept together only by his +personal authority and by the promise of good pay, broke out into open +mutiny when their rewards were withheld by Hamilcar's opponents among +the governing aristocracy. The serious danger into which Carthage was +brought by the failure of the aristocratic generals was averted by +Hamilcar, whom the government in this crisis could not but reinstate. By +the power of his personal influence among the mercenaries and the +surrounding African peoples, and by superior strategy, he speedily +crushed the revolt (237). After this success Hamilcar enjoyed such +influence among the popular and patriotic party that his opponents could +not prevent him being raised to a virtual dictatorship. After recruiting +and training a new army in some Numidian forays he led on his own +responsibility an expedition into Spain, where he hoped to gain a new +empire to compensate Carthage for the loss of Sicily and Sardinia, and +to serve as a basis for a campaign of vengeance against the Romans +(236). In eight years by force of arms and diplomacy he secured an +extensive territory in Spain, but his premature death in battle (228) +prevented him from completing the conquest. Hamilcar stood out far above +the Carthaginians of his age in military and diplomatic skill and in +strength of patriotism; in these qualities he was surpassed only by his +son Hannibal, whom he had imbued with his own deep hatred of Rome and +trained to be his successor in the conflict. + + This Hamilcar has been confused with another general who succeeded to + the command of the Carthaginians in the First Punic War, and after + successes at Therma and Drepanum was defeated at Ecnomus (256 B.C.). + Subsequently, apart from unskilful operations against Regulus, nothing + is certainly known of him. For others of the name see CARTHAGE, + SICILY, Smith's _Classical Dictionary_. So far as the name itself is + concerned, _Milcar_ is perhaps the same as _Melkarth_, the Tyrian god. + + See Polybius i.-iii.; Cornelius Nepos, _Vita Hamilcaris_; Appian, _Res + Hispanicae_, chs. 4, 5, Diodorus, _Excerpta_, xxiv., xxv.; O. Meitzer, + _Geschichte der Karthager_ (Berlin, 1877), ii. also PUNIC WARS. + (M. O. B. C.) + + + + +HAMILTON, the name of a famous Scottish family. Chief among the legends +still clinging to this important family is that which gives a descent +from the house of Beaumont, a branch of which is stated to have held the +manor of Hamilton in Leicestershire; and it is argued that the three +cinquefoils of the Hamilton shield bear some resemblance to the single +cinquefoil of the Beaumonts. In face of this it has been recently shown +that the single cinquefoil was also borne by the Umfravilles of +Northumberland, who appear to have owned a place called Hamilton in that +county. It may be pointed out that Simon de Montfort, the great earl of +Leicester, in whose veins flowed the blood of the Beaumonts, obtained +about 1245 the wardship of Gilbert de Umfraville, second earl of Angus, +and it is conceivable that this name Gilbert may somehow be responsible +for the legend of the Beaumont descent, seeing that the first authentic +ancestor of the Hamiltons is one Walter FitzGilbert. He first appears in +1294-1295 as one of the witnesses to a charter by James, the high +steward of Scotland, to the monks of Paisley; and in 1296 his name +appears in the Homage Roll as Walter FitzGilbert of "Hameldone." Who +this Gilbert of "Hameldone" may have been is uncertain, "but the fact +must be faced," Mr John Anderson points out (_Scots Peerage_, iv. 340) +"that in a charter of the 12th of December 1272 by Thomas of Cragyn or +Craigie to the monks of Paisley of his church of Craigie in Kyle, there +appears as witness a certain 'Gilbert de Hameldun _clericus_,' whose +name occurs along with the local clergy of Inverkip, Blackhall, Paisley +and Dunoon. He was therefore probably also a cleric of the same +neighbourhood, and it is significant that 'Walter FitzGilbert' appears +first in that district in 1294 and in 1296 is described as son of +Gilbert de Hameldone...." Walter FitzGilbert took some part in the +affairs of his time. At first he joined the English party but after +Bannockburn went over to Bruce, was knighted and subsequently received +the barony of Cadzow. His younger son John was father of Alexander +Hamilton who acquired the lands of Innerwick by marriage, and from him +descended a certain Thomas Hamilton, who acquired the lands of +Priestfield early in the 16th century. Another Thomas, grandson of this +last, who had with others of his house followed Queen Mary and with them +had been restored to royal favour, became a lord of session as Lord +Priestfield. Two of his younger sons enjoyed also this legal +distinction, while the eldest, Thomas, was made an ordinary lord of +session as early as 1592 and was eventually created earl of Haddington +(q.v.). It is interesting to note that the 5th earl of Haddington by his +marriage with Lady Margaret Leslie brought for a time the earldom of +Rothes to the Hamiltons to be added to their already numerous titles. + +Sir "David FitzWalter FitzGilbert," who carried on the main line of the +Hamiltons, was taken prisoner at the battle of Neville's Cross (1346) +and treated as of great importance, being ransomed, it is stated, for a +large sum of money; in 1371 and 1373 he was one of the barons in the +parliament. Of the four sons attributed to him David succeeded in the +representation of the family, Sir John Hamilton of Fingaltoun was +ancestor of the Hamiltons of Preston, and Walter is stated to have been +progenitor of the Hamiltons of Cambuskeith and Sanquhar in Ayrshire. + +David Hamilton, the first apparently to describe himself as lord of +Cadzow, died before 1392, leaving four or five sons, from whom descended +the Hamiltons of Bathgate and of Bardowie, and perhaps also of Udstown, +to which last belong the lords Belhaven. + +Sir John Hamilton of Cadzow, the eldest son, was twice a prisoner in +England, but beyond this little is known of him; even the date of his +death is uncertain. His two younger sons are stated to have been +founders of the houses of Dalserf and Raploch. His eldest son, James +Hamilton of Cadzow, like his father and great-grandfather, visited +England as a prisoner, being one of the hostages for the king's ransom. +From him the Hamiltons of Silvertonhill and the lords Hamilton of +Dalzell claim descent, among the more distinguished members of the +former branch being General Sir Ian Hamilton, K.C.B. James Hamilton was +succeeded by his eldest son Sir James Hamilton of Cadzow, who was +created in 1445 an hereditary lord of parliament, and was thereafter +known as Lord Hamilton. He had allied himself some years before with the +great house of Douglas by marriage with Euphemia, widow of the 5th earl +of Douglas, and was at first one of its most powerful supporters in the +struggle with James II. Later, however, he obtained the royal favour and +married about 1474 Mary, sister of James III. and widow of Thomas Boyd, +earl of Arran. Of this marriage was born James, second Lord Hamilton, +who as a near relative took an active part in the arrangements at the +marriage of James IV. with Margaret Tudor; being rewarded on the same +day (the 8th of August 1503) with the earldom of Arran. A champion in +the lists he was scarcely so successful as a leader of men, his struggle +with the Douglases being destitute of any great martial achievement. Of +his many illegitimate children Sir James Hamilton of Finnart, beheaded +in 1540, was ancestor of the Hamiltons of Gilkerscleugh; and John, +archbishop of St Andrews, hanged by his Protestant enemies, was ancestor +of the Hamiltons of Blair, and is said also to have been ancestor of +Hamilton of London, baronet. James, second earl of Arran, son of the +first earl by his second wife Janet Beaton, was chosen governor to the +little Queen Mary, being nearest of kin to the throne through his +grandmother, though the question of the validity of his mother's +marriage was by no means settled. He held the governorship till 1554, +having in 1549 been granted the duchy of Châtellerault in France. In his +policy he was vacillating and eventually he retired to France, being +absent during the three momentous years prior to the deposition of Mary. +On his return he headed the queen's party, his property suffering in +consequence. He was succeeded in the title in 1579 by his eldest son +James, whose qualities were such that he was even proposed as a husband +for Queen Elizabeth, but unfortunately he soon after became insane, his +brother John, afterwards first marquess of Hamilton, administering the +estates. From the third son, Claud, descends the duke of Abercorn, heir +male of the house of Hamilton. + +The first marquess of Hamilton had a natural son, Sir John Hamilton of +Lettrick, who was legitimated in 1600 and was ancestor of the lords +Bargany. His two legitimate sons were James, 3rd marquess and first duke +of Hamilton, and William, who succeeded his brother as 2nd duke and was +in turn succeeded under the special remainder contained in the patent of +dukedom, by his niece Anne, duchess of Hamilton, who was married in 1656 +to William Douglas, earl of Selkirk. The history of the descendants of +this marriage belongs to the great house of Douglas, the 7th duke of +Hamilton becoming the male representative and chief of the house of +Douglas, earls of Angus. + +The above mentioned Claud Hamilton, who with his brother, the first +marquess, had taken so large a part in the cause of Queen Mary, was +created a lord of parliament as Lord Paisley in 1587. He had five sons, +of whom three settled in Ireland, Sir Claud being ancestor of the +Hamiltons of Beltrim and Sir Frederick, distinguished in early life in +the Swedish wars, being ancestor of the viscounts Boyne. + +James, the eldest son of Lord Paisley, found favour with James VI. and +was created in 1603 Lord of Abercorn, and three years later was advanced +in the peerage as earl of Abercorn and lord of Paisley, Hamilton, +Mountcastell and Kilpatrick. His eldest son James, 2nd earl of Abercorn, +eventually heir male of the house of Hamilton and successor to the +dukedom of Châtellerault, was created in his father's lifetime lord of +Strabane in Ireland, but he resigned this title in 1633 in favour of his +brother Claud, whose grandson, Claud, 5th Lord Strabane, succeeded +eventually as 4th earl of Abercorn. This earl, taking the side of James +II., was with him in Ireland, his estate and title being afterwards +forfeited, while his kinsman Gustavus Hamilton, afterwards first Lord +Boyne, raised several regiments for William III., and greatly +distinguished himself in the service of that monarch. His brother +Charles, 5th earl of Abercorn, who obtained a reversal of the attainder, +died without issue surviving in 1701 when the titles passed to his +kinsman James Hamilton, grandson of Sir George Hamilton of Donalong in +Ireland and great-grandson of the first earl. This branch, most faithful +to the house of Stuart, counted among its many members distinguished in +military annals Count Anthony Hamilton, author of the _Mémoires du comte +de Gramont_ and brother of "la belle Hamilton." James, 6th earl of +Abercorn (whose brother William was ancestor of Hamilton of the Mount, +baronet), was a partizan of William III., and obtained in 1701 the +additional Irish titles of lord of Mountcastle and viscount of Strabane. + +The 8th earl of Abercorn, who was summoned to the Irish house of peers +in his father's lifetime as Lord Mountcastle, was created a peer of +Great Britain in 1786 as Viscount Hamilton of Hamilton in +Leicestershire, and renewed the family's connexion with Scotland by +repurchasing the barony of Duddingston and later the lordship of +Paisley. His nephew and successor was created marquess of Abercorn in +1790, and was father of James, 1st duke of Abercorn. + + See the article Hamilton and other articles on the different branches + of the family (e.g. Haddington and Belhaven) in Sir J. B. Paul's + edition of Sir R. Douglas's _Peerage of Scotland_; and also G. + Marshall, _Guide to Heraldry and Genealogy_. + + + + +HAMILTON, MARQUESSES AND DUKES OF. The holders of these titles descended +from Sir James Hamilton of Cadzow, who was made an hereditary lord of +parliament in 1445, his lands and baronies at the same time being +erected into the "lordship" of Hamilton. His first wife Euphemia, widow +of the 5th earl of Douglas, died in 1468, and probably early in 1474 he +married Mary, daughter of King James II. and widow of Thomas Boyd, earl +of Arran; the consequent nearness of the Hamiltons to the Scottish crown +gave them very great weight in Scottish affairs. The first Lord Hamilton +has been frequently confused with his father, James Hamilton of Cadzow, +who was one of the hostages in England for the payment of James I.'s +ransom, and is sometimes represented as surviving until 1451 or even +1479, whereas he certainly died, according to evidence brought forward +by J. Anderson in _The Scots Peerage_, before May 1441. James, 2nd Lord +Hamilton, son of the 1st lord and Princess Mary, was created earl of +Arran in 1503; and his son James, who was regent of Scotland from 1542 +to 1554, received in February 1549 a grant of the duchy of Châtellerault +in Poitou. + +JOHN, 1st marquess of Hamilton (c. 1542-1604), third son of James +Hamilton, 2nd earl of Arran (q.v.) and duke of Châtellerault, was given +the abbey of Arbroath in 1551. In politics he was largely under the +influence of his energetic and unscrupulous younger brother Claud, +afterwards Baron Paisley (c. 1543-1622), ancestor of the dukes of +Abercorn. The brothers were the real heads of the house of Hamilton, +their elder brother Arran being insane. At first hostile to Mary, they +later became her devoted partisans. Their uncle, John Hamilton, +archbishop of St Andrews, natural son of the 1st earl of Arran, was +restored to his consistorial jurisdiction by Mary in 1566, and in May of +the next year he divorced Bothwell from his wife. Lord Claud met Mary on +her escape from Lochleven and escorted her to Hamilton palace. John +appears to have been in France in 1568 when the battle of Langside was +fought, and it was probably Claud who commanded Mary's vanguard in the +battle. With others of the queen's party they were forfeited by the +parliament and sought their revenge on the regent Murray. Although the +Hamiltons disavowed all connexion with Murray's murderer, James Hamilton +of Bothwellhaugh, he had been provided with horse and weapons by the +abbot of Arbroath, and it was at Hamilton that he sought refuge after +the deed. Archbishop Hamilton was hanged at Stirling in 1571 for alleged +complicity in the murder of Darnley, and is said to have admitted that +he was a party to the murder of Murray. At the pacification of Perth in +1573 the Hamiltons abandoned Mary's cause, and a reconciliation with the +Douglases was sealed by Lord John's marriage with Margaret, daughter of +the 7th Lord Glamis, a cousin of the regent Morton. Sir William Douglas +of Lochleven, however, persistently sought his life in revenge for the +murder of Murray until, on his refusal to keep the peace, he was +imprisoned. On the uncertain evidence extracted from the assassin by +torture, the Hamiltons had been credited with a share in the murder of +the regent Lennox in 1571. In 1579 proceedings against them for these +two crimes were resumed, and when they escaped to England their lands +and titles were seized by their political enemies, James Stewart +becoming earl of Arran. John Hamilton presently dissociated himself from +the policy of his brother Claud, who continued to plot for Spanish +intervention on behalf of Mary; and Catholic plotters are even said to +have suggested his murder to procure the succession of his brother. +Hamilton had at one time been credited with the hope of marrying Mary; +his desires now centred on the peaceful enjoyment of his estates. With +other Scottish exiles he crossed the border in 1585 and marched on +Stirling; he was admitted on the 4th of November and formally reconciled +with James VI., with whom he was thenceforward on the friendliest terms. +Claud returned to Scotland in 1586, and the abbey of Paisley was erected +into a temporal barony in his favour in 1587. Much of his later years +was spent in strict retirement, his son being authorized to act for him +in 1598. John was created marquess of Hamilton and Lord Evan in 1599, +and died on the 6th of April 1604. + +His eldest surviving son JAMES, 2nd marquess of Hamilton (c. 1589-1625), +was created baron of Innerdale and earl of Cambridge in the peerage of +England in 1619, and these honours descended to his son James, who in +1643 was created duke of Hamilton (q.v.). William, 2nd duke of Hamilton +(1616-1651), succeeded to the dukedom on his brother's execution in +1649. He was created earl of Lanark in 1639, and in the next year became +secretary of state in Scotland. Arrested at Oxford by the king's orders +in 1643 for "concurrence" with Hamilton, he effected his escape and was +temporarily reconciled with the Presbyterian party. He was sent by the +Scottish committee of estates to treat with Charles I. at Newcastle in +1646, when he sought in vain to persuade the king to consent to the +establishment of Presbyterianism in England. On the 26th of September +1647 he signed on behalf of the Scots the treaty with Charles known as +the "Engagement" at Carisbrooke Castle, and helped to organize the +second Civil War. In 1648 he fled to Holland, his succession in the next +year to his brother's dukedom making him an important personage among +the Royalist exiles. He returned to Scotland with Prince Charles in +1650, but, finding a reconciliation with Argyll impossible, he refused +to prejudice Charles's cause by pushing his claims, and lived in +retirement chiefly until the Scottish invasion of England, when he acted +as colonel of a body of his dependants. He died on the 12th of September +1651 from the effects of wounds received at Worcester. He left no male +heirs, and the title devolved on the 1st duke's eldest surviving +daughter Anne, duchess of Hamilton in her own right. + +Anne married in 1656 William Douglas, earl of Selkirk (1635-1694), who +was created duke of Hamilton in 1660 on his wife's petition, receiving +also several of the other Hamilton peerages, but for his life only. The +Hamilton estates had been declared forfeit by Cromwell, and he himself +had been fined Ł1000. He supported Lauderdale in the early stages of his +Scottish policy, in which he adopted a moderate attitude towards the +Presbyterians, but the two were soon alienated, through the influence of +the countess of Dysart, according to Gilbert Burnet, who spent much time +at Hamilton Palace in arranging the Hamilton papers. With other Scottish +noblemen who resisted Lauderdale's measures Hamilton was twice summoned +to London to present his case at court, but without obtaining any +result. He was dismissed from the privy council in 1676, and on a +subsequent visit to London Charles refused to receive him. On the +accession of James II. he received numerous honours, but he was one of +the first to enter into communication with the prince of Orange. He +presided over the convention of Edinburgh, summoned at his request, +which offered the Scottish crown to William and Mary in March 1689. His +death took place at Holyrood on the 18th of April 1694. His wife +survived until 1716. + +JAMES DOUGLAS, 4th duke of Hamilton (1658-1712), eldest son of the +preceding and of Duchess Anne, succeeded his mother, who resigned the +dukedom to him in 1698, and at the accession of Queen Anne he was +regarded as leader of the Scottish national party. He was an opponent of +the union with England, but his lack of decision rendered his political +conduct ineffective. He was created duke of Brandon in the peerage of +Great Britain in 1711; and on the 15th of November in the following year +he fought the celebrated duel with Charles Lord Mohun, narrated in +Thackeray's _Esmond_, in which both the principals were killed. His son, +James (1703-1743), became 5th duke, and his grandson James, 6th duke of +Hamilton and Brandon (1724-1758), married the famous beauty, Elizabeth +Gunning, afterwards duchess of Argyll. James George, 7th duke +(1755-1769), became head of the house of Douglas on the death in 1761 of +Archibald, duke of Douglas, whose titles but not his estates then +devolved on the duke of Hamilton as heir-male. Archibald's brother +Douglas (1756-1799) was the 8th duke, and when he died childless the +titles passed to his uncle Archibald (1740-1819). His son Alexander, +10th duke (1767-1852), who as marquess of Douglas was a great collector +and connoisseur of books and pictures (his collections realized Ł397,562 +in 1882), was ambassador at St Petersburg in 1806-1807. His sister, Lady +Anne Hamilton, was lady-in-waiting and a faithful friend to Queen +Caroline, wife of George IV.; she did not write the _Secret History of +the Court of England ..._ (1832) to which her name was attached. William +Alexander, 11th duke of Hamilton (1811-1863), married Princess Marie +Amélie, daughter of Charles, grand-duke of Baden, and, on her mother's +side, a cousin of Napoleon III. The title of duke of Châtellerault, +granted to his remote ancestor in 1548, and claimed at different times +by various branches of the Hamilton family, was conferred on the 11th +duke's son, William Alexander, 12th duke of Hamilton (1845-1895), by the +emperor of the French in 1864. His sister, Lady Mary Douglas-Hamilton, +married in 1869 Albert, prince of Monaco, but their marriage was +declared invalid in 1880. She subsequently married Count Tassilo +Festetics, a Hungarian noble. The 12th duke left no male issue and was +succeeded in 1895 by his kinsman, Alfred Douglas, a descendant of the +4th duke. Claud Hamilton, 1st Baron Paisley, brother of the 1st marquess +of Hamilton, was, as mentioned above, ancestor of the Abercorn branch of +the Hamiltons. His son, who became earl of Abercorn in 1606, received +among a number of other titles that of Lord Hamilton. This title, and +also that of Viscount Hamilton, in the peerage of Great Britain, +conferred on the 8th earl of Abercorn in 1786, are borne by the dukes of +Abercorn, whose eldest son is usually styled by courtesy marquess of +Hamilton, a title which was added to the other family honours when the +2nd marquess of Abercorn was raised to the dukedom in 1868. + + See John Anderson, _The House of Hamilton_ (1825); _Hamilton Papers_, + ed. J. Bain (2 vols., Edinburgh, 1890-1892); Gilbert Burnet, _Lives of + James and William, dukes of Hamilton_ (1677); _The Hamilton Papers + relative to 1638-1650_, ed. S. R. Gardiner for the Camden Society + (1880); G. E. C[okayne], _Complete Peerage_ (1887-1898); an article by + the Rev. J. Anderson in Sir J. B. Paul's edition of the _Scots + Peerage_, vol. iv. (1907). + + + + +HAMILTON, ALEXANDER (1757-1804), American statesman and economist, was +born, as a British subject, on the island of Nevis in the West Indies on +the 11th of January 1757. He came of good family on both sides. His +father, James Hamilton, a Scottish merchant of St Christopher, was a +younger son of Alexander Hamilton of Grange, Lanarkshire, by Elizabeth, +daughter of Sir R. Pollock. His mother, Rachael Fawcett (Faucette), of +French Huguenot descent, married when very young a Danish proprietor of +St Croix, John Michael Levine, with whom she lived unhappily and whom +she soon left, subsequently living with James Hamilton; her husband +procured a divorce in 1759, but the court forbade her remarriage.[1] +Such unions as hers with James Hamilton were long not uncommon in the +West Indies. By her James Hamilton had two sons, Alexander and James. +Business misfortunes having caused his father's bankruptcy, and his +mother dying in 1768, young Hamilton was thrown upon the care of +maternal relatives at St Croix, where, in his twelfth year, he entered +the counting-house of Nicholas Cruger. Shortly afterward Mr Cruger, +going abroad, left the boy in charge of the business. The extraordinary +specimens we possess of his mercantile correspondence and friendly +letters, written at this time, attest an astonishing poise and maturity +of mind, and self-conscious ambition. His opportunities for regular +schooling must have been very scant; but he had cultivated friends who +discerned his talents and encouraged their development, and he early +formed the habits of wide reading and industrious study that were to +persist through his life. An accomplishment later of great service to +Hamilton, common enough in the Antilles, but very rare in the English +continental colonies, was a familiar command of French. In 1772 some +friends, impressed by a description by him of the terrible West Indian +hurricane in that year, made it possible for him to go to New York to +complete his education. Arriving in the autumn of 1772, he prepared for +college at Elizabethtown, N.J., and in 1774 entered King's College (now +Columbia University) in New York City. His studies, however, were +interrupted by the War of American Independence. + +A visit to Boston seems to have thoroughly confirmed the conclusion, to +which reason had already led him, that he should cast in his fortunes +with the colonists. Into their cause he threw himself with ardour. In +1774-1775 he wrote two influential anonymous pamphlets, which were +attributed to John Jay; they show remarkable maturity and controversial +ability, and rank high among the political arguments of the time.[2] He +organized an artillery company, was awarded its captaincy on +examination, won the interest of Nathanael Greene and Washington by the +proficiency and bravery he displayed in the campaign of 1776 around New +York City, joined Washington's staff in March 1777 with the rank of +lieutenant-colonel, and during four years served as his private +secretary and confidential aide. The important duties with which he was +entrusted attest Washington's entire confidence in his abilities and +character; then and afterwards, indeed, reciprocal confidence and +respect took the place, in their relations, of personal attachment.[3] +But Hamilton was ambitious for military glory--it was an ambition he +never lost; he became impatient of detention in what he regarded as a +position of unpleasant dependence, and (Feb. 1781) he seized a slight +reprimand administered by Washington as an excuse for abandoning his +staff position.[4] Later he secured a field command, through Washington, +and won laurels at Yorktown, where he led the American column in the +final assault on the British works. In 1780 he married Elizabeth, +daughter of General Philip Schuyler, and thus became allied with one of +the most distinguished families in New York. + +Meanwhile, he had begun the political efforts upon which his fame +principally rests. In letters of 1779-1780[5] he correctly diagnoses the +ills of the Confederation, and suggests with admirable prescience the +necessity of centralization in its governmental powers; he was, indeed, +one of the first, if not to conceive, at least to suggest adequate +checks on the anarchic tendencies of the time. After a year's service in +Congress in 1782-1783, in which he experienced the futility of +endeavouring to attain through that decrepit body the ends he sought, he +settled down to legal practice in New York.[6] The call for the +Annapolis Convention (1786) was Hamilton's opportunity. A delegate from +New York, he supported Madison in inducing the Convention to exceed its +delegated powers and summon the Federal Convention of 1787 at +Philadelphia (himself drafting the call); he secured a place on the New +York delegation; and, when his anti-Federal colleagues withdrew from the +Convention, he signed the Constitution for his state. So long as his +colleagues were present his own vote was useless, and he absented +himself for some time from the debates after making one remarkable +speech (June 18th, 1787). In this he held up the British government as +the best model in the world.[7] Though fully conscious that monarchy in +America was impossible, he wished to obtain the next best solution in an +aristocratic, strongly centralized, coercive, but representative union, +with devices to give weight to the influence of class and property.[8] +His plan had no chance of success; but though unable to obtain what he +wished, he used his great talents to secure the adoption of the +Constitution. + +To this struggle was due the greatest of his writings, and the greatest +individual contribution to the adoption of the new government, _The +Federalist_, which remains a classic commentary on American +constitutional law and the principles of government, and of which Guizot +said that "in the application of elementary principles of government to +practical administration" it was the greatest work known to him. Its +inception, and much more than half its contents were Hamilton's (the +rest Madison's and Jay's).[9] Sheer will and reasoning could hardly be +more brilliantly and effectively exhibited than they were by Hamilton +in the New York convention of 1788, whose vote he won, against the +greatest odds, for the ratification of the Constitution. It was the +judgment of Chancellor James Kent, the justice of which can hardly be +disputed, that "all the documentary proof and the current observation of +the time lead us to the conclusion that he surpassed all his +contemporaries in his exertions to create, recommend, adopt and defend +the Constitution of the United States." + +When the new government was inaugurated, Hamilton became secretary of +the treasury in Washington's cabinet.[10] Congress immediately referred +to him a press of queries and problems, and there came from his pen a +succession of papers that have left the strongest imprint on the +administrative organization of the national government--two reports on +public credit, upholding an ideal of national honour higher than the +prevalent popular principles; a report on manufactures, advocating their +encouragement (e.g. by bounties paid from surplus revenues amassed by +tariff duties)--a famous report that has served ever since as a +storehouse of arguments for a national protective policy;[11] a report +favouring the establishment of a national bank, the argument being based +on the doctrine of "implied powers" in the Constitution, and on the +application that Congress may do anything that can be made, through the +medium of money, to subserve the "general welfare" of the United +States--doctrines that, through judicial interpretation, have +revolutionized the Constitution; and, finally, a vast mass of detailed +work by which order and efficiency were given to the national finances. +In 1793 he put to confusion his opponents who had brought about a +congressional investigation of his official accounts. The success of his +financial measures was immediate and remarkable. They did not, as is +often but loosely said, create economic prosperity; but they did prop +it, in an all-important field, with order, hope and confidence. His +ultimate purpose was always the strengthening of the union; but before +particularizing his political theories, and the political import of his +financial measures, the remaining events of his life may be traced. + +His activity in the cabinet was by no means confined to the finances. He +regarded himself, apparently, as premier, and sometimes overstepped the +limits of his office in interfering with other departments. The +heterogeneous character of the duties placed upon his department by +Congress seemed in fact to reflect the English idea of its primacy. +Hamilton's influence was in fact predominant with Washington (so far as +any man could have predominant influence). Thus it happens that in +foreign affairs, whatever credit properly belongs to the Federalists as +a party (see also the article FEDERALIST PARTY) for the adoption of that +principle of neutrality which became the traditional policy of the +United States must be regarded as largely due to Hamilton. But allowance +must be made for the mere advantage of initiative which belonged to any +party that organized the government--the differences between Hamilton +and Jefferson, in this question of neutrality, being almost purely +factitious.[12] On domestic policy their differences were vital, and in +their conflicts over Hamilton's financial measures they organized, on +the basis of varying tenets and ideals which have never ceased to +conflict in American politics, the two great parties of Federalists and +Democrats (or Democratic-Republicans). On the 31st of January 1795 +Hamilton resigned his position as secretary of the treasury and returned +to the practice of law in New York, leaving it for public service only +in 1798-1800, when he was the active head, under Washington (who +insisted that Hamilton should be second only to himself), of the army +organized for war against France. But though in private life he remained +the continual and chief adviser of Washington--notably in the serious +crisis of the Jay Treaty, of which Hamilton approved. Washington's +_Farewell Address_ (1796) was written for him by Hamilton. + +After Washington's death the Federalist leadership was divided (and +disputed) between John Adams, who had the prestige of a varied and great +career, and greater strength than any other Federalist with the people, +and Hamilton, who controlled practically all the leaders of lesser rank, +including much the greater part of the most distinguished men of the +country, so that it has been very justly said that "the roll of his +followers is enough of itself to establish his position in American +history" (Lodge). But Hamilton was not essentially a popular leader. +When his passions were not involved, or when they were repressed by a +crisis, he was far-sighted, and his judgment of men was excellent.[13] +But as Hamilton himself once said, his heart was ever the master of his +judgment. He was, indeed, not above intrigue,[14] but he was +unsuccessful in it. He was a fighter through and through, and his +courage was superb; but he was indiscreet in utterance, impolitic in +management, opinionated, self-confident, and uncompromising in nature +and methods. His faults are nowhere better shown than in his quarrel +with John Adams. Three times, in order to accomplish ends deemed by him, +personally, to be desirable, Hamilton used the political fortunes of +John Adams, in presidential elections, as a mere hazard in his +manoeuvres; moreover, after Adams became president, and so the official +head of the party, Hamilton constantly advised the members of the +president's cabinet, and through them endeavoured to control Adams's +policy; and finally, on the eve of the crucial election of 1800, he +wrote a bitter personal attack on the president (containing much +confidential cabinet information), which was intended for private +circulation, but which was secured and published by Aaron Burr, his +legal and political rival. + +The mention of Burr leads us to the fatal end of another great political +antipathy of Hamilton's life. He read Burr's character correctly from +the beginning; deemed it a patriotic duty to thwart him in his +ambitions; defeated his hopes successively of a foreign mission, the +presidency, and the governorship of New York; and in his conversations +and letters repeatedly and unsparingly denounced him. If these +denunciations were known to Burr they were ignored by him until his last +defeat. After that he forced a quarrel on a trivial bit of hearsay (that +Hamilton had said he had a "despicable" opinion of Burr); and Hamilton, +believing as he explained in a letter he left before going to his +death--that a compliance with the duelling prejudices of the time was +inseparable from the ability to be in future useful in public affairs, +accepted a challenge from him. The duel was fought at Weehawken on the +Jersey shore of the Hudson opposite the City of New York. At the first +fire Hamilton fell, mortally wounded, and he died on the following day, +the 12th of July 1804. Hamilton himself did not intend to fire, but his +pistol went off as he fell. The tragic close of his career appeased for +the moment the fierce hatred of politics, and his death was very +generally deplored as a national calamity.[15] + +No emphasis, however strong, upon the mere consecutive personal +successes of Hamilton's life is sufficient to show the measure of his +importance in American history. That importance lies, to a large extent, +in the political ideas for which he stood. His mind was eminently +"legal." He was the unrivalled controversialist of the time. His +writings, which are distinguished by clarity, vigour and rigid +reasoning, rather than by any show of scholarship--in the extent of +which, however solid in character Hamilton's might have been, he was +surpassed by several of his contemporaries--are in general strikingly +empirical in basis. He drew his theories from his experiences of the +Revolutionary period, and he modified them hardly at all through life. +In his earliest pamphlets (1774-1775) he started out with the ordinary +pre-Revolutionary Whig doctrines of natural rights and liberty; but the +first experience of semi-anarchic states'-rights and individualism ended +his fervour for ideas so essentially alien to his practical, logical +mind, and they have no place in his later writings. The feeble +inadequacy of conception, infirmity of power, factional jealousy, +disintegrating particularism, and vicious finance of the Confederation +were realized by many others; but none other saw so clearly the concrete +nationalistic remedies for these concrete ills, or pursued remedial ends +so constantly, so ably, and so consistently. An immigrant, Hamilton had +no particularistic ties; he was by instinct a "continentalist" or +federalist. He wanted a strong union and energetic government that +should "rest as much as possible on the shoulders of the people and as +little as possible on those of the state legislatures"; that should have +the support of wealth and class; and that should curb the states to such +an "entire subordination" as nowise to be hindered by those bodies. At +these ends he aimed with extraordinary skill in all his financial +measures. As early as 1776 he urged the direct collection of federal +taxes by federal agents. From 1779 onward we trace the idea of +supporting government by the interest of the propertied classes; from +1781 onward the idea that a not-excessive public debt would be a +blessing[16] in giving cohesiveness to the union: hence his device by +which the federal government, assuming the war debts of the states, +secured greater resources, based itself on a high ideal of nationalism, +strengthened its hold on the individual citizen, and gained the support +of property. In his report on manufactures his chief avowed motive was +to strengthen the union. To the same end he conceived the constitutional +doctrines of liberal construction, "implied powers," and the "general +welfare," which were later embodied in the decisions of John Marshall. +The idea of nationalism pervaded and quickened all his life and works. +With one great exception, the dictum of Guizot is hardly an +exaggeration, that "there is not in the Constitution of the United +States an element of order, of force, of duration, which he did not +powerfully contribute to introduce into it and to cause to +predominate." + +The exception, as American history showed, was American democracy. The +loose and barren rule of the Confederation seemed to conservative minds +such as Hamilton's to presage, in its strengthening of individualism, a +fatal looseness of social restraints, and led him on to a dread of +democracy that he never overcame. Liberty, he reminded his fellows, in the +New York Convention of 1788, seemed to be alone considered in government, +but there was another thing equally important: "a principle of strength +and stability in the organization ... and of vigour in its operation." But +Hamilton's governmental system was in fact repressive.[17] He wanted a +system strong enough, he would have said, to overcome the anarchic +tendencies loosed by war, and represented by those notions of natural +rights which he had himself once championed; strong enough to overbear all +local, state and sectional prejudices, powers or influence, and to +control--not, as Jefferson would have it, to be controlled by--the people. +Confidence in the integrity, the self-control, and the good judgment of +the people, which was the content of Jefferson's political faith, had +almost no place in Hamilton's theories. "Men," said he, "are reasoning +rather than reasonable animals." The charge that he laboured to introduce +monarchy by intrigue is an under-estimate of his good sense.[18] +Hamilton's thinking, however, did carry him foul of current democratic +philosophy; as he said, he presented his plan in 1787 "not as attainable, +but as a model to which we ought to approach as far as possible"; +moreover, he held through life his belief in its principles, and in its +superiority over the government actually created; and though its +inconsistency with American tendencies was yearly more apparent, he never +ceased to avow on all occasions his aristocratic-monarchical partialities. +Moreover, his preferences for at least an aristocratic republic were +shared by many other men of talent. When it is added that Jefferson's +assertions, alike as regards Hamilton's talk[19] and the intent and +tendency of his political measures, were, to the extent of the underlying +basic fact--but discounting Jefferson's somewhat intemperate +interpretations--unquestionably true,[20] it cannot be accounted strange +that Hamilton's Democratic opponents mistook his theoretic predilections +for positive designs. Nor would it be a strained inference from much that +be said, to believe that he hoped and expected that in the "crisis" he +foresaw, when democracy should have caused the ruin of the country, a new +government might be formed that should approximate to his own ideals.[21] +From the beginning of the excesses of the French Revolution he was +possessed by the persuasion that American democracy, likewise, might at +any moment crush the restraints of the Constitution to enter on a career +of licence and anarchy. To this obsession he sacrificed his life.[22] +After the Democratic victory of 1800, his letters, full of retrospective +judgments and interesting outlooks, are but rarely relieved in their +sombre pessimism by flashes of hope and courage. His last letter on +politics, written two days before his death, illustrates the two sides of +his thinking already emphasized: in this letter he warns his New England +friends against dismemberment of the union as "a clear sacrifice of great +positive advantages, without any counterbalancing good; administering no +relief to our real disease, which is democracy, the poison of which, by a +subdivision, will only be more concentrated in each part, and consequently +the more virulent." To the end he never lost his fear of the states, nor +gained faith in the future of the country. He laboured still, in mingled +hope and apprehension, "to prop the frail and worthless fabric,"[23] but +for its spiritual content of democracy he had no understanding, and even +in its nationalism he had little hope. Yet probably to no one man, except +perhaps to Washington, does American nationalism owe so much as to +Hamilton. + +In the development of the United States the influence of Hamiltonian +nationalism and Jeffersonian democracy has been a reactive union; but +changed conditions since Hamilton's time, and particularly since the +Civil War, are likely to create misconceptions as to Hamilton's position +in his own day. Great constructive statesman as he was, he was also, +from the American point of view, essentially a reactionary. He was the +leader of reactionary forces--constructive forces, as it happened--in +the critical period after the War of American Independence, and in the +period of Federalist supremacy. He was in sympathy with the dominant +forces of public life only while they took, during the war, the +predominant impress of an imperfect nationalism.[24] Jeffersonian +democracy came into power in 1800 in direct line with colonial +development; Hamiltonian Federalism was a break in that development; and +this alone can explain how Jefferson could organize the Democratic Party +in face of the brilliant success of the Federalists in constructing the +government. Hamilton stigmatized his great opponent as a political +fanatic; but actualist as he claimed to be,[25] Hamilton could not see, +or would not concede, the predominating forces in American life, and +would uncompromisingly have minimized the two great political conquests +of the colonial period--local self-government and democracy. + +Few Americans have received higher tributes from foreign authorities. +Talleyrand, personally impressed when in America with Hamilton's +brilliant qualities, declared that he had the power of divining without +reasoning, and compared him to Fox and Napoleon because he had "deviné +l'Europe." Of the judgments rendered by his countrymen, Washington's +confidence in his ability and integrity is perhaps the most significant. +Chancellor James Kent, and others only less competent, paid remarkable +testimony to his legal abilities. Chief-justice Marshall ranked him +second to Washington alone. No judgment is more justly measured than +Madison's (in 1831): "That he possessed intellectual powers of the first +order, and the moral qualities of integrity and honour in a captivating +degree, has been awarded him by a suffrage now universal. If his theory +of government deviated from the republican standard he had the candour +to avow it, and the greater merit of co-operating faithfully in maturing +and supporting a system which was not his choice." + +In person Hamilton was rather short and slender; in carriage, erect, +dignified and graceful. Deep-set, changeable, dark eyes vivified his +mobile features, and set off his light hair and fair, ruddy complexion. +His head in the famous Trumbull portrait is boldly poised and very +striking. The captivating charm of his manners and conversation is +attested by all who knew him, and in familiar life he was artlessly +simple. Friends he won readily, and he held them in devoted attachment +by the solid worth of a frank, ardent, generous, warm-hearted and +high-minded character. Versatile as were his intellectual powers, his +nature seems comparatively simple. A firm will, tireless energy, +aggressive courage and bold self-confidence were its leading qualities; +the word "intensity" perhaps best sums up his character. His Scotch and +Gallic strains of ancestry are evident; his countenance was decidedly +Scotch; his nervous speech and bearing and vehement temperament rather +French; in his mind, agility, clarity and penetration were matched with +logical solidity. The remarkable quality of his mind lay in the rare +combination of acute analysis and grasp of detail with great +comprehensiveness of thought. So far as his writings show, he was almost +wholly lacking in humour, and in imagination little less so. He +certainly had wit, but it is hard to believe he could have had any touch +of fancy. In public speaking he often combined a rhetorical +effectiveness and emotional intensity that might take the place of +imagination, and enabled him, on the coldest theme, to move deeply the +feelings of his auditors. + + BIBLIOGRAPHY.--Hamilton's _Works_ have been edited by H. C. Lodge (New + York, 9 vols., 1885-1886, and 12 vols., 1904); all references above + are first to the latter edition, secondly (in brackets) to the former. + There are various additional editions of _The Federalist_, notably + those of H. B. Dawson (1863), H. C. Lodge (1888), and--the most + scholarly--P. L. Ford (1898); cf. _American Historical Review_, ii. + 413, 675. See also James Bryce, "Predictions of Hamilton and de + Tocqueville," in _Johns Hopkins University Studies_, vol. 5 + (Baltimore, 1887); and the capital essay of Anson D. Morse in the + _Political Science Quarterly_, v. (1890), pp. 1-23. For a bibliography + of the period see the _Cambridge Modern History_, vol. vii. pp. + 780-810. The unfinished _Life of Alexander Hamilton, by his Son_, J. + C. Hamilton, going only to 1787 (New York, 2 vols., 1834-1840), was + superseded by the same author's valuable, but partisan and uncritical + _History of the Republic ... as traced in the Writings of Alexander + Hamilton_ (New York, 7 vols., 1857-1864; 4th ed., Boston, 1879). + Professor W. G. Sumner's _Alexander Hamilton_ (Makers of America + series, New York, 1890) is appreciative, and important for its + criticism from the point of view of an American free-trader; see also, + on Hamilton's finance and economic views, Prof. C. F. Dunbar, + _Quarterly Journal of Economics_, iii. (1889), p. 32; E. G. Bourne in + ibid. x. (1894), p. 328; E. C. Lunt in _Journal of Political Economy_, + iii. (1895), p. 289. Among modern studies must also be mentioned J. T. + Morse's able _Life_ (1876); H. C. Lodge's (in the American Statesmen + series, 1882); and G. Shea's two books, his _Historical Study_ (1877) + and _Life and Epoch_ (1879). C. J. Riethmüller's _Hamilton and his + Contemporaries_ (1864), written during the Civil War, is sympathetic, + but rather speculative. The most vivid account of Hamilton is in Mrs + Gertrude Atherton's historical romance, _The Conqueror_ (New York, + 1902), for the writing of which the author made new investigations + into the biographical details, and elucidated some points previously + obscure; see also her _A Few of Hamilton's Letters_ (1903). F. S. + Oliver's brilliant _Alexander Hamilton: An Essay on American Union_ + (London, 1906), which uses its subject to illustrate the necessity of + British imperial federation, is strongly anti-Jeffersonian, but no + other work by a non-American author brings out so well the wider + issues involved in Hamilton's economic policy. (F. S. P.; H. Ch.) + + +FOOTNOTES: + + [1] These facts were first definitely determined by Mrs Gertrude + Atherton from the Danish Archives in Denmark and the West Indies; see + article in _North American Review_, Aug. 1902, vol. 175, p. 229; and + preface to her _A Few of Hamilton's Letters_ (New York, 1903). + + [2] These were written in answer to the widely read pamphlets + published over the _nom de plume_ of "A Westchester Farmer," and now + known to have been written by Samuel Seabury (q.v.). Hamilton's + pamphlets were entitled "A Full Vindication of the Measures of the + Congress from the Calumnies of their Enemies," and "The Farmer + Refuted." Concerning them George Ticknor Curtis (_Constitutional + History of the United States_, i. 274) has said, "There are displayed + in these papers a power of reasoning and sarcasm, a knowledge of the + principles of government and of the English constitution, and a grasp + of the merits of the whole controversy, that would have done honour + to any man at any age. To say that they evince precocity of intellect + gives no idea of their main characteristics. They show great + maturity--a more remarkable maturity than has ever been exhibited by + any other person, at so early an age, in the same department of + thought." + + [3] George Bancroft was the first to point out that there is small + evidence that Hamilton ever really appreciated Washington's great + qualities; but on the score of personal and Federalist indebtedness + he left explicit recognition. + + [4] For Hamilton's letter to General Schuyler on this episode--one of + the most important letters, in some ways, that he ever wrote--see the + _Works_, ix. 232 (8: 35). + + [5] Especially the letter of September 1780 to James Duane, _Works_, + i. 213 (1: 203); also the "Continentalist" papers of 1781. + + [6] His most famous case at this time (_Rutgers_ v. _Waddington_) was + one that well illustrated his moral courage. Under a "Trespass Law" + of New York, Elizabeth Rutgers, a widow, brought suit against one + Joshua Waddington, a Loyalist, who during the war of American + Independence, while New York was occupied by the British, had made + use of some of her property. In face of popular clamour, Hamilton, + who advocated a conciliatory treatment of the Loyalists, represented + Waddington, who won the case, decided in 1784. + + [7] As Mr Oliver points out (_Alexander Hamilton_, p. 156), + Hamilton's idea of the British constitution was not a correct picture + of the British constitution in 1787, and still less of that of the + 20th century. "What he had in mind was the British constitution as + George III. had tried to make it." Hamilton's ideal was an elective + monarchy, and his guiding principle a proper balance of authority. + + [8] Briefly, he proposed a governor and two chambers--an Assembly + elected by the people for three years, and a Senate--the governor and + senate holding office for life or during good behaviour, and chosen, + through electors, by voters qualified by property; the governor to + have an unqualified veto on federal legislation; state governors to + have a similar veto on state legislation, and to be appointed by the + federal government; the federal government to control all militia. + See _Works_, i. 347 (1: 331); and cf. his correspondence, which is + scanty, _passim_ in later years, notably x. 446, 431, 329 (8: 606, + 596, 517), and references below. + + [9] Nearly all the papers in _The Federalist_ first appeared (between + October 1787 and April 1788) in New York journals, over the signature + "Publius." Jay wrote only five. The authorship of twelve of them is + uncertain, and has been the subject of much controversy between + partisans of Hamilton and Madison. Concerning _The Federalist_ + Chancellor James Kent (_Commentaries_, i. 241) said: "There is no + work on the subject of the Constitution, and on republican and + federal government generally, that deserves to be more thoroughly + studied. I know not indeed of any work on the principles of free + government that is to be compared, in instruction and intrinsic + value, to this small and unpretending volume.... It is equally + admirable in the depth of its wisdom, the comprehensiveness of its + views, the sagacity of its reflections, and the fearlessness, + patriotism, candour, simplicity, and elegance, with which its truths + are uttered and recommended." + + [10] The position was offered first to Robert Morris, who declined + it, expressing the opinion that Hamilton was the man best fitted to + meet its problems. + + [11] Hamilton's _Report on Manufactures_ (1791) by itself entitles + him to the place of an epoch-maker in economics. It was the first + great revolt from Adam Smith, on whose _Wealth of Nations_ (1776) he + is said to have already written a commentary which is lost. In his + criticism on Adam Smith, and his arguments for a system of moderate + protective duties associated with the deliberate policy of promoting + national interests, his work was the inspiration of Friedrich List, + and so the foundation of the economic system of Germany in a later + day, and again, still later, of the policy of Tariff Reform and + Colonial Preference in England, as advocated by Mr Chamberlain and + his supporters. See the detailed account given in the article + PROTECTION. + + [12] That is, while Jefferson hated British aristocracy and + sympathized with French democracy, Hamilton hated French democracy + and sympathized with British aristocracy and order; but neither + wanted war; and indeed Jefferson, throughout life, was the more + peaceful of the two. Neutrality was in the line of commonplace + American thinking of that time, as may be seen in the writings of all + the leading men of the day. The cry of "British Hamilton" had no good + excuse whatever. + + [13] e.g. his prediction in 1789 of the course of the French + Revolution; his judgments of Burr from 1792 onward, and of Burr and + Jefferson in 1800. + + [14] After the Democrats won New York in 1799, Hamilton proposed to + Governor John Jay to call together the out-going Federalist + legislature, in order to choose Federalist presidential electors, a + suggestion which Jay simply endorsed: "Proposing a measure for party + purposes which it would not become me to adopt."--_Works_, x. 371 (8: + 549). Compare also with later developments of ward politics in New + York City, Hamilton's curious suggestions as to Federalist charities, + &c., in connexion with the Christian Constitutional Society proposed + by him in 1802 to combat irreligion and democracy (_Works_, x. 432 + (8: 596). + + [15] Hamilton's widow, who survived him for half a century, dying at + the age of ninety-seven, was left with four sons and four daughters. + He had been an affectionate husband and father, though his devotion + to his wife had been consistent with occasional lapses from strict + marital fidelity. One intrigue into which he drifted in 1791, with a + Mrs Reynolds, led to the blackmailing of Hamilton by her husband; and + when this rascal, shortly afterwards, got into trouble for fraud, his + relations with Hamilton were unscrupulously misrepresented for + political purposes by some of Hamilton's opponents. But Hamilton + faced the necessity of revealing the true state of things with + conspicuous courage, and the scandal only reacted on his accusers. + One of them was Monroe, whose reputation comes very badly out of this + unsavoury affair. + + [16] In later years he said no debt should be incurred without + providing simultaneously for its payment. + + [17] He warmly supported the Alien and Sedition Laws of 1798 (in + their final form). + + [18] The idea, he wrote to Washington, was "one of those visionary + things none but madmen could undertake, and that no wise man will + believe" (1792). And see his comments on Burr's ambitions, _Works_, + x. 417, 450 (8: 585, 610). We may accept as just, and applicable to + his entire career, the statement made by himself in 1803 of his + principles in 1787: "(1) That the political powers of the people of + this continent would endure nothing but a representative form of + government. (2) That, in the actual situation of the country, it was + itself right and proper that the representative system should have a + full and fair trial. (3) That to such a trial it was essential that + the government should be so constructed as to give it all the energy + and the stability reconcilable with the principles of that theory." + + [19] Cf. Gouverneur Morris, _Diary and Letters_, ii. 455, 526, 531. + + [20] Cf. even Mr Lodge's judgments, pp. 90-92, 115-116, 122, 130, + 140. When he says (p. 140) that "In Hamilton's successful policy + there were certainly germs of an aristocratic republic, there were + certainly limitations and possibly dangers to pure democracy," this + is practically Jefferson's assertion (1792) that "His system flowed + from principles adverse to liberty"; but Jefferson goes on to add: + "and was calculated to undermine and demolish the republic." As to + the intent of Hamilton to secure through his financial measures the + political support of property, his own words are honest and clear; + and in fact he succeeded. Jefferson merely had exaggerated fears of a + moneyed political engine, and seeing that Hamilton's measures of + funding and assumption did make the national debt politically useful + to the Federalists in the beginning he concluded that they would seek + to fasten the debt on the country for ever. + + [21] Cf. Gouv. Morris, _op. cit._ ii. 474. + + [22] He dreamed of saving the country with an army in this crisis of + blood and iron, and wished to preserve unweakened the public + confidence in his personal bravery. + + [23] His own words in 1802. In justification of the above statements + see the correspondence of 1800-1804 _passim_--_Works_, vol. ix.-x. + (or 7-8); especially x. 363, 425, 434, 440, 445 (or 8: 543, 591, 596, + 602, 605). + + [24] Cf. Anson D. Morse, article cited below, pp. 4, 18-21. + + [25] Chancellor Kent tells us (_Memoirs and Letters_, p. 32) that in + 1804 Hamilton was planning a co-operative Federalist work on the + history and science of government on an inductive basis. Kent always + speaks of Hamilton's legal thinking as deductive, however (ibid. p. + 290, 329), and such seems to have been in fact all his political + reasoning: i.e. underlying them were such maxims as that of Hume, + that in erecting a stable government every citizen must be assumed a + knave, and be bound by self-interest to co-operation for the public + good. Hamilton always seems to be reasoning deductively from such + principles. He went too far and fast for even such a Federalist + disbeliever in democracy as Gouverneur Morris; who, to Hamilton's + assertion that democracy must be cast out to save the country, + replied that "such necessity cannot be shown by a political + ratiocination. Luckily, or, to speak with a reverence proper to the + occasion, providentially, mankind are not disposed to embark the + blessings they enjoy on a voyage of syllogistic adventure to obtain + something more beautiful in exchange. They must feel before they will + act" (_op. cit._ ii. 531). + + + + +HAMILTON, ANTHONY, or ANTOINE (1646-1720), French classical author, was +born about 1646. He is especially noteworthy from the fact that, though +by birth he was a foreigner, his literary characteristics are more +decidedly French than those of many of the most indubitable Frenchmen. +His father was George Hamilton, younger brother of James, 2nd earl of +Abercorn, and head of the family of Hamilton in the peerage of +Scotland, and 6th duke of Châtellerault in the peerage of France; and +his mother was Mary Butler, sister of the 1st duke of Ormonde. According +to some authorities he was born at Drogheda, but according to the London +edition of his works in 1811 his birthplace was Roscrea, Tipperary. From +the age of four till he was fourteen the boy was brought up in France, +whither his family had removed after the execution of Charles I. The +fact that, like his father, he was a Roman Catholic, prevented his +receiving the political promotion he might otherwise have expected on +the Restoration, but he became a distinguished member of that brilliant +band of courtiers whose chronicler he was to become. He took service in +the French army, and the marriage of his sister Elizabeth, "la belle +Hamilton," to Philibert, comte de Gramont (q.v.) rendered his connexion +with France more intimate, if possible, than before. On the accession of +James II. he obtained an infantry regiment in Ireland, and was appointed +governor of Limerick and a member of the privy council. But the battle +of the Boyne, at which he was present, brought disaster on all who were +attached to the cause of the Stuarts, and before long he was again in +France--an exile, but at home. The rest of his life was spent for the +most part at the court of St Germain and in the _châteaux_ of his +friends. With Ludovise, duchesse du Maine, he became an especial +favourite, and it was at her seat at Sceaux that he wrote the _Mémoires_ +that made him famous. He died at St Germain-en-Laye on the 21st of April +1720. + +It is mainly by the _Mémoires ducomte de Gramont_ that Hamilton takes +rank with the most classical writers of France. It was said to have been +written at Gramont's dictation, but it is very evident that Hamilton's +share is the most considerable. The work was first published anonymously +in 1713 under the rubric of Cologne, but it was really printed in +Holland, at that time the great patroness of all questionable authors. +An English translation by Boyer appeared in 1714. Upwards of thirty +editions have since appeared, the best of the French being Renouard's +(1812), forming part of a collected edition of Hamilton's works, and +Gustave Brunet's (1859), and the best of the English, Edwards's (1793), +with 78 engravings from portraits in the royal collections at Windsor +and elsewhere, A. F. Bertrand de Moleville's (2 vols., 1811), with 64 +portraits by E. Scriven and others, and Gordon Goodwin's (2 vols., +1903). The original edition was reprinted by Benjamin Pifteau in 1876. +In imitation and satiric parody of the romantic tales which Antoine +Galland's translation of _The Thousand and One Nights_ had brought into +favour in France, Hamilton wrote, partly for the amusement of Henrietta +Bulkley, sister of the duchess of Berwick, to whom he was much attached, +four ironical and extravagant _contes_, _Le Bélier_, _Fleur d'épine_, +_Zénéyde_ and _Les Quatre Facardins_. The saying in _Le Bélier_' +"Bélier, mon ami, tu me ferais plaisir si tu voulais commencer par le +commencement," has passed into a proverb. These tales were circulated +privately during Hamilton's lifetime, and the first three appeared in +Paris in 1730, ten years after the death of the author; a collection of +his _Oeuvres diverses_ in 1731 contained the unfinished _Zénéyde_. +Hamilton was also the author of some songs as exquisite in their way as +his prose, and interchanged amusing verses with the duke of Berwick. In +the name of his niece, the countess of Stafford, Hamilton maintained a +witty correspondence with Lady Mary Wortley Montagu. + + See notices of Hamilton in Lescure's edition (1873) of the _Contes_, + Sainte-Beuve's _Causeries du lundi_, tome i., Sayou's _Histoire de la + littérature française ŕ l'étranger_ (1853), and by L. S. Auger in the + _Oeuvres complčtes_ (1804). + + + + +HAMILTON, ELIZABETH (1758-1816), British author, was born at Belfast, of +Scottish extraction, on the 21st of July 1758. Her father's death in +1759 left his wife so embarrassed that Elizabeth was adopted in 1762 by +her paternal aunt, Mrs Marshall, who lived in Scotland, near Stirling. +In 1788 Miss Hamilton went to live with her brother Captain Charles +Hamilton (1753-1792), who was engaged on his translation of the +_Hedaya_. Prompted by her brother's associations, she produced her +_Letters of a Hindoo Rajah_ in 1796. Soon after, with her sister Mrs +Blake, she settled at Bath, where she published in 1800 the _Memoirs of +Modern Philosophers_, a satire on the admirers of the French Revolution. +In 1801-1802 appeared her _Letters on Education_. After travelling +through Wales and Scotland for nearly two years, the sisters took up +their abode in 1803 at Edinburgh. In 1804 Mrs Hamilton, as she then +preferred to be called, published her _Life of Agrippina, wife of +Germanicus_; and in the same year she received a pension from +government. _The Cottagers of Glenburnie_ (1808), which is her +best-known work, was described by Sir Walter Scott as "a picture of the +rural habits of Scotland, of striking and impressive fidelity." She also +published _Popular Essays on the Elementary Principles of the Human +Mind_ (1812), and _Hints addressed to the Patrons and Directors of +Public Schools_ (1815). She died at Harrogate on the 23rd of July 1816. + + _Memoirs of Mrs Elizabeth Hamilton_, by Miss Benger, were published in + 1818. + + + + +HAMILTON, EMMA, LADY (c. 1765-1815), wife of Sir William Hamilton +(q.v.), the British envoy at Naples, and famous as the mistress of +Nelson, was the daughter of Henry Lyon, a blacksmith of Great Neston in +Cheshire. The date of her birth cannot be fixed with certainty, but she +was baptized at Great Neston on the 12th of May 1765, and it is not +improbable that she was born in that year. Her baptismal name was Emily. +As her father died soon after her birth, the mother, who was dependent +on parish relief, had to remove to her native village, Hawarden in +Flintshire. Emma's early life is very obscure. She was certainly +illiterate, and it appears that she had a child in 1780, a fact which +has led some of her biographers to place her birth before 1765. It has +been said that she was first the mistress of Captain Willet Payne, an +officer in the navy, and that she was employed in some doubtful capacity +by a notorious quack of the time, Dr Graham. In 1781 she was the +mistress of a country gentleman, Sir Harry Featherstonhaugh, who turned +her out in December of that year. She was then pregnant, and in her +distress she applied to the Hon. Charles Greville, to whom she was +already known. At this time she called herself Emily Hart. Greville, a +gentleman of artistic tastes and well known in society, entertained her +as his mistress, her mother, known as Mrs Cadogan, acting as housekeeper +and partly as servant. Under the protection of Greville, whose means +were narrowed by debt, she acquired some education, and was taught to +sing, dance and act with professional skill. In 1782 he introduced her +to his friend Romney the portrait painter, who had been established for +several years in London, and who admired her beauty with enthusiasm. The +numerous famous portraits of her from his brush may have somewhat +idealised her apparently robust and brilliantly coloured beauty, but her +vivacity and powers of fascination cannot be doubted. She had the +temperament of an artist, and seems to have been sincerely attached to +Greville. In 1784 she was seen by his uncle, Sir William Hamilton, who +admired her greatly. Two years later she was sent on a visit to him at +Naples, as the result of an understanding between Hamilton and +Greville--the uncle paying his nephew's debts and the nephew ceding his +mistress. Emma at first resented, but then submitted to the arrangement. +Her beauty, her artistic capacity, and her high spirits soon made her a +great favourite in the easy-going society of Naples, and Queen Maria +Carolina became closely attached to her. She became famous for her +"attitudes," a series of _poses plastiques_ in which she represented +classical and other figures. On the 6th of September 1791, during a +visit to England, she was married to Sir W. Hamilton. The ceremony was +required in order to justify her public reception at the court of +Naples, where Lady Hamilton played an important part as the agent +through whom the queen communicated with the British minister--sometimes +in opposition to the will and the policy of the king. The revolutionary +wars and disturbances which began after 1792 made the services of Lady +Hamilton always useful and sometimes necessary to the British +government. It was claimed by her, and on her behalf, that she secured +valuable information in 1796, and was of essential service to the +British fleet in 1798 during the Nile campaign, by enabling it to obtain +stores and water in Sicily. These claims have been denied on the rather +irrelevant ground that they are wanting in official confirmation, which +was only to be expected since they were _ex hypothesi_ unofficial and +secret, but it is not improbable that they were considerably +exaggerated, and it is certain that her stories cannot always be +reconciled with one another or with the accepted facts. When Nelson +returned from the Nile in September 1798 Lady Hamilton made him her +hero, and he became entirely devoted to her. Her influence over him +indeed became notorious, and brought him much official displeasure. Lady +Hamilton undoubtedly used her influence to draw Nelson into a most +unhappy participation in the domestic troubles of Naples, and when Sir +W. Hamilton was recalled in 1800 she travelled with him and Nelson +ostentatiously across Europe. In England Lady Hamilton insisted on +making a parade of her hold over Nelson. Their child, Horatia Nelson +Thompson, was born on the 30th of January 1801. The profuse habits which +Emma Hamilton had contracted in Naples, together with a passion for +gambling which grew on her, led her into debt, and also into extravagant +ways of living, against which her husband feebly protested. On his death +in 1803 she received by his will a life rent of Ł800, and the furniture +of his house in Piccadilly. She then lived openly with Nelson at his +house at Merton. Nelson tried repeatedly to secure her a pension for the +services rendered at Naples, but did not succeed. On his death she +received Merton, and an annuity of Ł500, as well as the control of the +interest of the Ł4000 he left to his daughter. But gambling and +extravagance kept her poor. In 1808 her friends endeavoured to arrange +her affairs, but in 1813 she was put in prison for debt and remained +there for a year. A certain Alderman Smith having aided her to get out, +she went over to Calais for refuge from her creditors, and she died +there in distress if not in want on the 15th of January 1815. + + AUTHORITIES.--_The Memoirs of Lady Hamilton_ (London, 1815) were the + work of an ill-disposed but well-informed and shrewd observer whose + name is not given. _Lady Hamilton and Lord Nelson_, by J. C. Jefferson + (London, 1888) is based on authentic papers. It is corrected in some + particulars by the detailed recent life written by Walter Sichel, + _Emma, Lady Hamilton_ (London, 1905). See also the authorities given + in the article NELSON. (D. H.) + + + + +HAMILTON, JAMES (1769-1831), English educationist, and author of the +Hamiltonian system of teaching languages, was born in 1769. The first +part of his life was spent in mercantile pursuits. Having settled in +Hamburg and become free of the city, he was anxious to become acquainted +with German and accepted the tuition of a French emigré, General +d'Angelis. In twelve lessons he found himself able to read an easy +German book, his master having discarded the use of a grammar and +translated to him short stories word for word into French. As a citizen +of Hamburg Hamilton started a business in Paris, and during the peace of +Amiens maintained a lucrative trade with England; but at the rupture of +the treaty he was made a prisoner of war, and though the protection of +Hamburg was enough to get the words _effacé de la liste des prisonniers +de guerre_ inscribed upon his passport, he was detained in custody till +the close of hostilities. His business being thus ruined, he went in +1814 to America, intending to become a farmer and manufacturer of +potash; but, changing his plan before he reached his "location," he +started as a teacher in New York. Adopting his old tutor's method, he +attained remarkable success in New York, Baltimore, Washington, Boston, +Montreal and Quebec. Returning to England in July 1823, he was equally +fortunate in Manchester and elsewhere. The two master principles of his +method were that the language should be presented to the scholar as a +living organism, and that its laws should be learned from observation +and not by rules. His system attracted general attention, and was +vigorously attacked and defended. In 1826 Sydney Smith devoted an +article to its elucidation in the _Edinburgh Review_. As text-books for +his pupils Hamilton printed interlinear translations of the Gospel of +John, of an _Epitome historiae sacrae_, of Aesop's _Fables_, Eutropius, +Aurelius Victor, Phaedrus, &c., and many books were issued as +Hamiltonian with which he had nothing personally to do. He died on the +31st of October 1831. + + See Hamilton's own account, _The History, Principles, Practice and + Results of the Hamiltonian System_ (Manchester, 1829; new ed., 1831); + Alberte, _Über die Hamilton'sche Methode_; C. F. Wurm, _Hamilton und + Jacotot_ (1831). + + + + +HAMILTON, JAMES HAMILTON, 1ST DUKE OF (1606-1649), Scottish nobleman, +son of James, 2nd marquess of Hamilton, and of the Lady Anne Cunningham, +daughter of the earl of Glencairn, was born on the 19th of June 1606. As +the descendant and representative of James Hamilton, 1st earl of Arran, +he was the heir to the throne of Scotland after the descendants of James +VI.[1] He married in his fourteenth year May Feilding, aged seven, +daughter of Lord Feilding, afterwards 1st earl of Denbigh, and was +educated at Exeter College, Oxford, where he matriculated on the 14th of +December 1621. He succeeded to his father's titles on the latter's death +in 1625. In 1628 he was made master of the horse and was also appointed +gentleman of the bedchamber and a privy councillor. In 1631 Hamilton +took over a force of 6000 men to assist Gustavus Adolphus in Germany. He +guarded the fortresses on the Oder while Gustavus fought Tilly at +Breitenfeld, and afterwards occupied Magdeburg, but his army was +destroyed by disease and starvation, and after the complete failure of +the expedition Hamilton returned to England in September 1634. He now +became Charles I.'s chief adviser in Scottish affairs. In May 1638, +after the outbreak of the revolt against the English Prayer-Book, he was +appointed commissioner for Scotland to appease the discontents. He +described the Scots as being "possessed by the devil," and instead of +doing his utmost to support the king's interests was easily intimidated +by the covenanting leaders and persuaded of the impossibility of +resisting their demands, finally returning to Charles to urge him to +give way. It is said that he so far forgot his trust as to encourage the +Scottish leaders in their resistance in order to gain their favour.[2] +On the 27th of July Charles sent him back with new proposals for the +election of an assembly and a parliament, episcopacy being safeguarded +but bishops being made responsible to future assemblies. After a wrangle +concerning the mode of election he again returned to Charles. Having +been sent back to Edinburgh on the 17th of September, he brought with +him a revocation of the prayer-book and canons and another covenant to +be substituted for the national covenant. On the 21st of November +Hamilton presided over the first meeting of the assembly in Glasgow +cathedral, but dissolved it on the 28th on its declaring the bishops +responsible to its authority. The assembly, however, continued to sit +notwithstanding, and Hamilton returned to England to give an account of +his failure, leaving the enemy triumphant and in possession. War was now +decided upon, and Hamilton was chosen to command an expedition to the +Forth to menace the rear of the Scots. On arrival on the 1st of May 1639 +he found the plan impossible, despaired of success, and was recalled in +June. On the 8th of July, after a hostile reception at Edinburgh, he +resigned his commissionership. He supported Strafford's proposal to call +the Short Parliament, but otherwise opposed him as strongly as he could, +as the chief adversary of the Scots; and he aided the elder Vane, it was +believed, in accomplishing Strafford's destruction by sending for him +to the Long Parliament. Hamilton now supported the parliamentary party, +desired an alliance with his nation, and persuaded Charles in February +1641 to admit some of their leaders into the council. On the death of +Strafford Hamilton was confronted by a new antagonist in Montrose, who +detested both his character and policy and repudiated his supremacy in +Scotland. On the 10th of August 1641 he accompanied Charles on his last +visit to Scotland. His aim now was to effect an alliance between the +king and Argyll, the former accepting Presbyterianism and receiving the +help of the Scots against the English parliament, and when this failed +he abandoned Charles and adhered to Argyll. In consequence he received a +challenge from Lord Ker, of which he gave the king information, and +obtained from Ker an apology. Montrose wrote to Charles declaring he +could prove Hamilton to be a traitor. The king himself spoke of him as +being "very active in his own preservation." Shortly afterwards the +plot--known as the "Incident"--to seize Argyll, Hamilton and the +latter's brother, the earl of Lanark, was discovered, and on the 12th of +October they fled from Edinburgh. Hamilton returned not long afterwards, +and notwithstanding all that had occurred still retained Charles's +favour and confidence. He returned with him to London and accompanied +him on the 5th of January 1642 when he went to the city after the +failure to secure the five members. In July Hamilton went to Scotland on +a hopeless mission to prevent the intervention of the Scots in the war, +and a breach then took place between him and Argyll. When in February +1643 proposals of mediation between Charles and the parliament came from +Scotland, Hamilton instigated the "cross petition" which demanded from +Charles the surrender of the annuities of tithes in order to embarrass +Loudoun, the chief promoter of the project, to whom they had already +been granted. This failing, he promoted a scheme for overwhelming the +influence and votes of Argyll and his party by sending to Scotland all +the Scottish peers then with the king, thereby preventing any assistance +to the parliament coming from that quarter, while Charles was to +guarantee the establishment of Presbyterianism in Scotland only. This +foolish intrigue was strongly opposed by Montrose, who was eager to +strike a sudden blow and anticipate and annihilate the plans of the +Covenanters. Hamilton, however, gained over the queen for his project, +and in September was made a duke, while Montrose was condemned to +inaction. Hamilton's scheme, however, completely failed. He had no +control over the parliament. He was unable to hinder the meeting of the +convention of the estates which assembled without the king's authority, +and his supporters found themselves in a minority. Finally, on refusing +to take the Covenant, Hamilton and Lanark were obliged to leave +Scotland. They arrived at Oxford on the 16th of December. Hamilton's +conduct had at last incurred Charles's resentment and he was sent, in +January 1644, a prisoner to Pendennis Castle, in 1645 being removed to +St Michael's Mount, where he was liberated by Fairfax's troops on the +23rd of April 1646. Subsequently he showed great activity in the futile +negotiations between the Scots and Charles at Newcastle. In 1648, in +consequence of the seizure of Charles by the army in 1647, Hamilton +obtained a temporary influence and authority in the Scottish parliament +over Argyll, and led a large force into England in support of the king +on the 8th of July. He showed complete incapacity in military command; +was kept in check for some time by Lambert; and though outnumbering the +enemy by 24,000 to about 9000 men, allowed his troops to disperse over +the country and to be defeated in detail by Cromwell during the three +days August 17th-19th at the so-called battle of Preston, being himself +taken prisoner on the 25th. He was tried on the 6th of February 1649, +condemned to death on the 6th of March and executed on the 9th. + +Hamilton, during his unfortunate career, had often been suspected of +betraying the king's cause, and, as an heir to the Scottish throne, of +intentionally playing into the hands of the Covenanters with a view of +procuring the crown for himself. The charge was brought against him as +early as 1631 when he was levying men in Scotland for the German +expedition, but Charles gave no credence to it and showed his trust in +Hamilton by causing him to share his own room. The charge, however, +always clung to him, and his intriguing character and hopeless +management of the king's affairs in Scotland gave colour to the +accusation. There seems, however, to be no real foundation for it. His +career is sufficiently explained by his thoroughly weak and egotistical +character. He took no interest whatever in the great questions at issue, +was neither loyal nor patriotic, and only desired peace and compromise +to avoid personal losses. "He was devoid of intellectual or moral +strength, and was therefore easily brought to fancy all future tasks +easy and all present obstacles insuperable."[3] A worse choice than +Hamilton could not possibly have been made in such a crisis, and his +want of principle, of firmness and resolution, brought irretrievable +ruin upon the royal cause. + +Hamilton's three sons died young, and the dukedom passed by special +remainder to his brother William, earl of Lanark. On the latter's death +in 1651 the Scottish titles reverted to the 1st duke's daughter, Anne, +whose husband, William Douglas, was created (third) duke of Hamilton. + + BIBLIOGRAPHY.--Article in the _Dict. of Nat. Biog._ by S. R. Gardiner; + _History of England and of the Civil War_, by the same author; + _Memoirs of the Dukes of Hamilton_, by G. Burnet; _Lauderdale Papers_ + (Camden Society, 1884-1885); _The Hamilton Papers_, ed. by S. R. + Gardiner (Camden Society, 1880) and _addenda_ (Camden Miscellany, vol. + ix., 1895); _Thomason Tracts_ in the British Museum, 550 (6), 1948 + (30) (account of his supposed treachery), and 546 (21) (speech on the + scaffold). (P. C. Y.) + + +FOOTNOTES: + + [1] + + James, Lord Hamilton = Princess Mary Stuart, + (d. 1479). | daughter of James II. + | + James, Lord Hamilton and 1st earl of Arran + (d. c. 1529). + | + James, duke of Chatelherault, and 2nd earl of Arran + (d. 1575). + | + James, 3rd earl of Arran + (d. 1609). + | + John, 1st marquess of Hamilton + (d. 1604). + | + James, 2nd marquess of Hamilton + (d. 1625). + | + James, 3rd marquess and 1st duke of Hamilton. + + [2] See S. R. Gardiner in the _Dict. of Nat. Biography_. + + [3] See S. R. Gardiner in the _Dict. of Nat. Biography_. + + + + +HAMILTON, JOHN (c. 1511-1571), Scottish prelate and politician, was a +natural son of James Hamilton, 1st earl of Arran. At a very early age he +became a monk and abbot of Paisley, and after studying in Paris he +returned to Scotland, where he soon rose to a position of power and +influence under his half-brother, the regent Arran. He was made keeper +of the privy seal in 1543 and bishop of Dunkeld two years later; in 1546 +he followed David Beaton as archbishop of St Andrews, and about the same +time he became treasurer of the kingdom. He made vigorous efforts to +stay the growth of Protestantism, but with one or two exceptions +"persecution was not the policy of Archbishop Hamilton," and in the +interests of the Roman Catholic religion a catechism called _Hamilton's +Catechism_ (published with an introduction by T. G. Law in 1884) was +drawn up and printed, possibly at his instigation. Having incurred the +displeasure of the Protestants, now the dominant party in Scotland, the +archbishop was imprisoned in 1563. After his release he was an active +partisan of Mary queen of Scots; he baptized the infant James, +afterwards King James VI., and pronounced the divorce of the queen from +Bothwell. He was present at the battle of Langside, and some time later +took refuge in Dumbarton Castle. Here he was seized, and on the charge +of being concerned in the murders of Lord Darnley and the regent Murray +he was tried, and hanged on the 6th of April 1571. The archbishop had +three children by his mistress, Grizzel Sempill. + + + + +HAMILTON, PATRICK (1504-1528), Scottish divine, second son of Sir +Patrick Hamilton, well known in Scottish chivalry, and of Catherine +Stewart, daughter of Alexander, duke of Albany, second son of James II. +of Scotland, was born in the diocese of Glasgow, probably at bis +father's estate of Stanehouse in Lanarkshire. He was educated probably +at Linlithgow. In 1517 he was appointed titular abbot of Ferne, +Ross-shire; and it was probably about the same year that he went to +study at Paris, for his name is found in an ancient list of those who +graduated there in 1520. It was doubtless in Paris, where Luther's +writings were already exciting much discussion, that he received the +germs of the doctrines he was afterwards to uphold. From Alexander Ales +we learn that Hamilton subsequently went to Louvain, attracted probably +by the fame of Erasmus, who in 1521 had his headquarters there. +Returning to Scotland, the young scholar naturally selected St Andrews, +the capital of the church and of learning, as his residence. On the 9th +of June 1523 he became a member of the university of St Andrews, and on +the 3rd of October 1524 he was admitted to its faculty of arts. There +Hamilton attained such influence that he was permitted to conduct as +precentor a musical mass of his own composition in the cathedral. But +the reformed doctrines had now obtained a firm hold on the young abbot, +and he was eager to communicate them to his fellow-countrymen. Early in +1527 the attention of James Beaton, archbishop of St Andrews, was +directed to the heretical preaching of the young priest, whereupon he +ordered that Hamilton should be formally summoned and accused. Hamilton +fled to Germany, first visiting Luther at Wittenberg, and afterwards +enrolling himself as a student, under Franz Lambert of Avignon, in the +new university of Marburg, opened on the 30th of May 1527 by Philip, +landgrave of Hesse. Hermann von dem Busche, one of the contributors to +the _Epistolae obscurorum virorum_, John Frith and Tyndale were among +those whom he met there. Late in the autumn of 1527 Hamilton returned to +Scotland, bold in the conviction of the truth of his principles. He went +first to his brother's house at Kincavel, near Linlithgow, in which town +he preached frequently, and soon afterwards he married a young lady of +noble rank, whose name has not come down to us. Beaton, avoiding open +violence through fear of Hamilton's high connexions, invited him to a +conference at St Andrews. The reformer, predicting that he was going to +confirm the pious in the true doctrine by his death, resolutely accepted +the invitation, and for nearly a month was permitted to preach and +dispute, perhaps in order to provide material for accusation. At length, +however, he was summoned before a council of bishops and clergy presided +over by the archbishop; there were thirteen charges, seven of which were +based on the doctrines affirmed in the _Loci communes_. On examination +Hamilton maintained that these were undoubtedly true. The council +condemned him as a heretic on the whole thirteen charges. Hamilton was +seized, and, it is said, surrendered to the soldiery on an assurance +that he would be restored to his friends without injury. The council +convicted him, after a sham disputation with Friar Campbell, and handed +him over to the secular power. The sentence was carried out on the same +day (February 29, 1528) lest he should be rescued by his friends, and he +was burned at the stake as a heretic. His courageous bearing attracted +more attention than ever to the doctrines for which he suffered, and +greatly helped to spread the Reformation in Scotland. The "reek of +Patrick Hamilton infected all it blew on." His martyrdom is singular in +this respect, that he represented in Scotland almost alone the Lutheran +stage of the Reformation. His only book was entitled _Loci communes_, +known as "Patrick's Places." It set forth the doctrine of justification +by faith and the contrast between the gospel and the law in a series of +clear-cut propositions. It is to be found in Foxs's _Acts and +Monuments_. + + + + +HAMILTON, ROBERT (1743-1829), Scottish economist and mathematician, was +born at Pilrig, Edinburgh, on the 11th of June 1743. His grandfather, +William Hamilton, principal of Edinburgh University, had been a +professor of divinity. Having completed his education at the university +of Edinburgh, where he was distinguished in mathematics, Robert was +induced to enter a banking-house in order to acquire a practical +knowledge of business, but his ambition was really academic. In 1769 he +gave up business pursuits and accepted the rectorship of Perth academy. +In 1779 he was presented to the chair of natural philosophy at Aberdeen +University. For many years, however, by private arrangement with his +colleague Professor Copland, Hamilton taught the class of mathematics. +In 1817 he was presented to the latter chair. + + Hamilton's most important work is the _Essay on the National Debt_, + which appeared in 1813 and was undoubtedly the first to expose the + economic fallacies involved in Pitt's policy of a sinking fund. It is + still of value. A posthumous volume published in 1830, _The Progress + of Society_, is also of great ability, and is a very effective + treatment of economical principles by tracing their natural origin and + position in the development of social life. Some minor works of a + practical character (_Introduction to Merchandise_, 1777; _Essay on + War and Peace_, 1790) are now forgotten. + + + + +HAMILTON, THOMAS (1789-1842), Scottish writer, younger brother of the +philosopher, Sir William Hamilton, Bart., was born in 1789. He was +educated at Glasgow University, where he made a close friend of Michael +Scott, the author of _Tom Cringle's Log_. He entered the army in 1810, +and served throughout the Peninsular and American campaigns, but +continued to cultivate his literary tastes. On the conclusion of peace +he withdrew, with the rank of captain, from active service. He +contributed both prose and verse to _Blackwood's Magazine_, in which +appeared his vigorous and popular military novel, _Cyril Thornton_ +(1827). His _Annals of the Peninsular Campaign_, published originally in +1829, and republished in 1849 with additions by Frederick Hardman, is +written with great clearness and impartiality. His only other work, _Men +and Manners in America_, published originally in 1833, is somewhat +coloured by British prejudice, and by the author's aristocratic dislike +of a democracy. Hamilton died at Pisa on the 7th of December 1842. + + + + +HAMILTON, WILLIAM (1704-1754), Scottish poet, the author of "The Braes +of Yarrow," was born in 1704 at Bangour in Linlithgowshire, the son of +James Hamilton of Bangour, a member of the Scottish bar. As early as +1724 we find him contributing to Allan Ramsay's _Tea Table Miscellany_. +In 1745 Hamilton joined the cause of Prince Charles, and though it is +doubtful whether he actually bore arms, he celebrated the battle of +Prestonpans in verse. After the disaster of Culloden he lurked for +several months in the Highlands and escaped to France; but in 1749 the +influence of his friends procured him permission to return to Scotland, +and in the following year he obtained possession of the family estate of +Bangour. The state of his health compelled him, however, to live abroad, +and he died at Lyons on the 25th of March 1754. He was buried in the +Abbey Church of Holyroodhouse, Edinburgh. He was twice married--"into +families of distinction" says the preface of the authorized edition of +his poems. + +Hamilton left behind him a considerable number of poems, none of them +except "The Braes of Yarrow" of striking originality. The collection is +composed of odes, epitaphs, short pieces of translation, songs, and +occasional verses. The longest is "Contemplation, or the Triumph of +Love" (about 500 lines). The first edition was published without his +permission by Foulis (Glasgow, 1748), and introduced by a preface from +the pen of Adam Smith. Another edition with corrections by himself was +brought out by his friends in 1760, and to this was prefixed a portrait +engraved by Robert Strange. + + In 1850 James Paterson edited _The Poems and Songs of William + Hamilton_. This volume contains several poems till then unpublished, + and gives a life of the author. + + + + +HAMILTON, SIR WILLIAM (1730-1803), British diplomatist and +archaeologist, son of Lord Archibald Hamilton, governor of Greenwich +hospital and of Jamaica, was born in Scotland on the 13th of December +1730, and served in the 3rd Regiment of Foot Guards from 1747 to 1758. +He left the army after his marriage with Miss Barlow, a Welsh heiress +from whom he inherited an estate near Swansea upon her death in 1782. +Their only child, a daughter, died in 1775. From 1761 to 1764 he was +member of parliament for Midhurst, but in the latter year he was +appointed envoy to the court of Naples, a post which he held for +thirty-six years--until his recall in 1800. During the greater part of +this time the official duties of the minister were of small importance. +It was enough that the representative of the British crown should be a +man of the world whose means enabled him to entertain on a handsome +scale. Hamilton was admirably qualified for these duties, being an +amiable and accomplished man, who took an intelligent interest in +science and art. In 1766 he became a member of the Royal Society, and +between that year and 1780 he contributed to its Philosophical +Transactions a series of observations on the action of volcanoes, which +he had made, or caused to be made, at Vesuvius and Etna. He employed a +draftsman named Fabris to make studies of the eruption of 1775 and 1776, +and a Dominican, Resina, to make observations at a later period. He +published several treatises on earthquakes and volcanoes between 1776 +and 1783. He was a fellow of the Society of Antiquaries and of the +Dilettanti, and a notable collector. Many of his treasures went to +enrich the British Museum. In 1772 he was made a knight of the Bath. The +last ten years of his life presented a curious contrast to the elegant +peace of those which had preceded them. In 1791 he married Emma Lyon +(see the separate article on Lady Hamilton). The outbreak of the French +Revolution and the rapid extension of the revolutionary movement in +Western Europe soon overwhelmed Naples. It was a misfortune for Sir +William that he was left to meet the very trying political and +diplomatic conditions which arose after 1793. His health had begun to +break down, and he suffered from bilious fevers. Sir William was in fact +in a state approaching dotage before his recall, a fact which, combined +with his senile devotion to Lady Hamilton, has to be considered in +accounting for his extraordinary complaisance in her relations with +Nelson. He died on the 6th of April 1803. + + See E. Edwards, _Lives of the Founders of the British Museum_ (London, + 1870); and the authorities given in the article on Emma, Lady + Hamilton. + + + + +HAMILTON, SIR WILLIAM, Bart. (1788-1856), Scottish metaphysician, was +born in Glasgow on the 8th of March 1788. His father, Dr William +Hamilton, had in 1781, on the strong recommendation of the celebrated +William Hunter, been appointed to succeed _his_ father, Dr Thomas +Hamilton, as professor of anatomy in the university of Glasgow; and when +he died in 1790, in his thirty-second year, he had already gained a +great reputation. William Hamilton and a younger brother (afterwards +Captain Thomas Hamilton, q.v.) were thus brought up under the sole care +of their mother. William received his early education in Scotland, +except during two years which he spent in a private school near London, +and went in 1807, as a Snell exhibitioner, to Balliol College, Oxford. +He obtained a first-class _in literis humanioribus_ and took the degree +of B.A. in 1811, M.A. in 1814. He had been intended for the medical +profession, but soon after leaving Oxford he gave up this idea, and in +1813 became a member of the Scottish bar. His life, however, was mainly +that of a student; and the following years, marked by little of outward +incident, were filled by researches of all kinds, through which he daily +added to his stores of learning, while at the same time he was gradually +forming his philosophic system. Investigation enabled him to make good +his claim to represent the ancient family of Hamilton of Preston, and in +1816 he took up the baronetcy, which had been in abeyance since the +death of Sir Robert Hamilton of Preston (1650-1701), well known in his +day as a Covenanting leader. + +Two visits to Germany in 1817 and 1820 led to his taking up the study of +German and later on that of contemporary German philosophy, which was +then almost entirely neglected in the British universities. In 1820 he +was a candidate for the chair of moral philosophy in the university of +Edinburgh, which had fallen vacant on the death of Thomas Brown, +colleague of Dugald Stewart, and the latter's consequent resignation, +but was defeated on political grounds by John Wilson (1785-1854), the +"Christopher North" of _Blackwood's Magazine_. Soon afterwards (1821) he +was appointed professor of civil history, and as such delivered several +courses of lectures on the history of modern Europe and the history of +literature. The salary was Ł100 a year, derived from a local beer tax, +and was discontinued after a time. No pupils were compelled to attend, +the class dwindled, and Hamilton gave it up when the salary ceased. In +January 1827 he suffered a severe loss in the death of his mother, to +whom he had been a devoted son. In March 1828 he married his cousin +Janet Marshall. + +In 1829 his career of authorship began with the appearance of the +well-known essay on the "Philosophy of the Unconditioned" (a critique of +Comte's _Cours de philosophie_)--the first of a series of articles +contributed by him to the _Edinburgh Review_. He was elected in 1836 to +the Edinburgh chair of logic and metaphysics, and from this time dates +the influence which, during the next twenty years, he exerted over the +thought of the younger generation in Scotland. Much about the same time +he began the preparation of an annotated edition of Reid's works, +intending to annex to it a number of dissertations. Before, however, +this design had been carried out, he was struck (1844) with paralysis of +the right side, which seriously crippled his bodily powers, though it +left his mind wholly unimpaired. The edition of Reid appeared in 1846, +but with only seven of the intended dissertations--the last, too, +unfinished. It was his distinct purpose to complete the work, but this +purpose remained at his death unfulfilled, and all that could be done +afterwards was to print such materials for the remainder, or such notes +on the subjects to be discussed, as were found among his MSS. +Considerably before this time he had formed his theory of logic, the +leading principles of which were indicated in the prospectus of "an +essay on a new analytic of logical forms" prefixed to his edition of +Reid. But the elaboration of the scheme in its details and applications +continued during the next few years to occupy much of his leisure. Out +of this arose a sharp controversy with Augustus de Morgan. The essay did +not appear, but the results of the labour gone through are contained in +the appendices to his _Lectures on Logic_. Another occupation of these +years was the preparation of extensive materials for a publication which +he designed on the personal history, influence and opinions of Luther. +Here he advanced so far as to have planned and partly carried out the +arrangement of the work; but it did not go further, and still remains in +MS. In 1852-1853 appeared the first and second editions of his +_Discussions in Philosophy, Literature and Education_, a reprint, with +large additions, of his contributions to the _Edinburgh Review_. Soon +after, his general health began to fail. Still, however, aided now as +ever by his devoted wife, he persevered in literary labour; and during +1854-1855 he brought out nine volumes of a new edition of Stewart's +works. The only remaining volume was to have contained a memoir of +Stewart, but this he did not live to write. He taught his class for the +last time in the winter of 1855-1856. Shortly after the close of the +session he was taken ill, and on the 6th of May 1856 he died in +Edinburgh. + + Hamilton's positive contribution to the progress of thought is + comparatively slight, and his writings, even where reinforced by the + copious lecture notes taken by his pupils, cannot be said to present a + comprehensive philosophic system. None the less he did considerable + service by stimulating a spirit of criticism in his pupils, by + insisting on the great importance of psychology as opposed to the + older metaphysical method, and not least by his recognition of the + importance of German philosophy, especially that of Kant. By far his + most important work was his "Philosophy of the Unconditioned," the + development of the principle that for the human finite mind there can + be no knowledge of the Infinite. The basis of his whole argument is + the thesis, "To think is to condition." Deeply impressed with Kant's + antithesis between subject and object, the knowing and the known, + Hamilton laid down the principle that every object is known only in + virtue of its relations to other objects (see RELATIVITY OF + KNOWLEDGE). From this it follows limitless time, space, power and so + forth are humanly speaking inconceivable. The fact, however, that all + thought seems to demand the idea of the infinite or absolute provides + a sphere for faith, which is thus the specific faculty of theology. It + is a weakness characteristic of the human mind that it cannot conceive + any phenomenon without a beginning: hence the conception of the causal + relation, according to which every phenomenon has its cause in + preceding phenomena, and its effect in subsequent phenomena. The + causal concept is, therefore, only one of the ordinary necessary forms + of the cognitive consciousness limited, as we have seen, by being + confined to that which is relative or conditioned. As regards the + problem of the nature of objectivity, Hamilton simply accepts the + evidence of consciousness as to the separate existence of the object: + "the root of our nature cannot be a lie." In virtue of this assumption + Hamilton's philosophy becomes a "natural realism." In fact his whole + position is a strange compound of Kant and Reid. Its chief practical + corollary is the denial of philosophy as a method of attaining + absolute knowledge and its relegation to the academic sphere of mental + training. The transition from philosophy to theology, i.e. to the + sphere of faith, is presented by Hamilton under the analogous relation + between the mind and the body. As the mind is to the body, so is the + unconditioned Absolute or God to the world of the conditioned. + Consciousness, itself a conditioned phenomenon, must derive from or + depend on some different thing prior to or behind material phenomena. + Curiously enough, however, Hamilton does not explain how it comes + about that God, who in the terms of the analogy bears to the + conditioned mind the relation which the conditioned mind bears to its + objects, can Himself be unconditioned. He can be regarded only as + related to consciousness, and in so far is, therefore, not absolute or + unconditioned. Thus the very principles of Hamilton's philosophy are + apparently violated in his theological argument. + + Hamilton regarded logic as a purely formal science; it seemed to him + an unscientific mixing together of heterogeneous elements to treat as + parts of the same science the formal and the material conditions of + knowledge. He was quite ready to allow that on this view logic cannot + be used as a means of discovering or guaranteeing facts, even the most + general, and expressly asserted that it has to do, not with the + objective validity, but only with the mutual relations, of judgments. + He further held that induction and deduction are correlative processes + of formal logic, each resting on the necessities of thought and + deriving thence its several laws. The only logical laws which he + recognized were the three axioms of identity, non-contradiction, and + excluded middle, which he regarded as severally phases of one general + condition of the possibility of existence and, therefore, of thought. + The law of reason and consequent he considered not as different, but + merely as expressing metaphysically what these express logically. He + added as a postulate--which in his theory was of importance--"that + logic be allowed to state explicitly what is thought implicitly." + + In logic, Hamilton is known chiefly as the inventor of the doctrine of + the "quantification of the predicate," i.e. that the judgment "All A + is B" should really mean "All A is _all_ B," whereas the ordinary + universal proposition should be stated "All A is _some_ B." This view, + which was supported by Stanley Jevons, is fundamentally at fault since + it implies that the predicate is thought of in its extension; in point + of fact when a judgment is made, e.g. about men, that they are mortal + ("All men are mortal"), the intention is to _attribute a quality_ + (i.e. the predicate is used in connotation). In other words, we are + not considering the question "what kind are men among the various + things which must die?" (as is implied in the form "all men are some + mortals") but "what is the fact about men?" We are not stating a mere + identity (see further, e.g., H. W. B. Joseph, _Introduction to Logic_, + 1906, pp. 198 foll.). + + The philosopher to whom above all others Hamilton professed allegiance + was Aristotle. His works were the object of his profound and constant + study, and supplied in fact the mould in which his whole philosophy + was cast. With the commentators on the Aristotelian writings, ancient, + medieval and modern, he was also familiar; and the scholastic + philosophy he studied with care and appreciation at a time when it had + hardly yet begun to attract attention in his country. His wide reading + enabled him to trace many a doctrine to the writings of forgotten + thinkers; and nothing gave him greater pleasure than to draw forth + such from their obscurity, and to give due acknowledgment, even if it + chanced to be of the prior possession of a view or argument that he + had thought out for himself. Of modern German philosophy he was a + diligent, if not always a sympathetic, student. How profoundly his + thinking was modified by that of Kant is evident from the tenor of his + speculations; nor was this less the case because, on fundamental + points, he came to widely different conclusions. + + Any account of Hamilton would be incomplete which regarded him only as + a philosopher, for his knowledge and his interests embraced all + subjects related to that of the human mind. Physical and mathematical + science had, indeed, no attraction for him; but his study of anatomy + and physiology was minute and experimental. In literature alike + ancient and modern he was widely and deeply read; and, from his + unusual powers of memory, the stores which he had acquired were always + at command. If there was one period with the literature of which he + was more particularly familiar, it was the 16th and 17th centuries. + Here in every department he was at home. He had gathered a vast amount + of its theological lore, had a critical knowledge especially of its + Latin poetry, and was minutely acquainted with the history of the + actors in its varied scenes, not only as narrated in professed + records, but as revealed in the letters, table-talk, and casual + effusions of themselves or their contemporaries (cf. his article on + the _Epistolae obscurorum virorum_, and his pamphlet on the Disruption + of the Church of Scotland in 1843). Among his literary projects were + editions of the works of George Buchanan and Julius Caesar Scaliger. + His general scholarship found expression in his library, which, though + mainly, was far from being exclusively, a philosophical collection. It + now forms a distinct portion of the library of the university of + Glasgow. + + His chief practical interest was in education--an interest which he + manifested alike as a teacher and as a writer, and which had led him + long before he was either to a study of the subject both theoretical + and historical. He thence adopted views as to the ends and methods of + education that, when afterwards carried out or advocated by him, met + with general recognition; but he also expressed in one of his articles + an unfavourable view of the study of mathematics as a mental + gymnastic, which excited much opposition, but which he never saw + reason to alter. As a teacher, he was zealous and successful, and his + writings on university organization and reform had, at the time of + their appearance, a decisive practical effect, and contain much that + is of permanent value. + + His posthumous works are his _Lectures on Metaphysics and Logic_, 4 + vols., edited by H. L. Mansel, Oxford, and John Veitch (_Metaphysics_, + 1858; _Logic_, 1860); and _Additional Notes to Reid's Works_, from + Sir W. Hamilton's MSS., under the editorship of H. L. Mansel, D.D. + (1862). _A Memoir of Sir W. Hamilton_, by Veitch, appeared in 1869. + + + + +HAMILTON, WILLIAM GERARD (1729-1796), English statesman, popularly known +as "Single Speech Hamilton," was born in London on the 28th of January +1729, the son of a Scottish bencher of Lincoln's Inn. He was educated at +Winchester and at Oriel College, Oxford. Inheriting his father's fortune +he entered political life and became M.P. for Petersfield, Hampshire. +His maiden speech, delivered on the 13th of November 1755, during the +debate on the address, which excited Walpole's admiration, is generally +supposed to have been his only effort in the House of Commons. But the +nickname "Single Speech" is undoubtedly misleading, and Hamilton is +known to have spoken with success on other occasions, both in the House +of Commons and in the Irish parliament. In 1756 he was appointed one of +the commissioners for trade and plantations, and in 1761 he became chief +secretary to Lord Halifax, the lord-lieutenant of Ireland, as well as +Irish M. P. for Killebegs and English M. P. for Pontefract. He was +chancellor of the exchequer in Ireland in 1763, and subsequently filled +various other administrative offices. Hamilton was thought very highly +of by Dr Johnson, and it is certain that he was strongly opposed to the +British taxation of America. He died in London on the 16th of July 1796, +and was buried in the chancel vault of St Martin's-in-the-fields. + + Two of his speeches in the Irish House of Commons, and some other + miscellaneous works, were published after his death under the title + _Parliamentary Logick_. + + + + +HAMILTON, SIR WILLIAM ROWAN (1805-1865), Scottish mathematician, was +born in Dublin on the 4th of August 1805. His father, Archibald +Hamilton, who was a solicitor, and his uncle, James Hamilton (curate of +Trim), migrated from Scotland in youth. A branch of the Scottish family +to which they belonged had settled in the north of Ireland in the time +of James I., and this fact seems to have given rise to the common +impression that Hamilton was an Irishman. + +His genius first displayed itself in the form of a wonderful power of +acquiring languages. At the age of seven he had already made very +considerable progress in Hebrew, and before he was thirteen he had +acquired, under the care of his uncle, who was an extraordinary +linguist, almost as many languages as he had years of age. Among these, +besides the classical and the modern European languages, were included +Persian, Arabic, Hindustani, Sanskrit and even Malay. But though to the +very end of his life he retained much of the singular learning of his +childhood and youth, often reading Persian and Arabic in the intervals +of sterner pursuits, he had long abandoned them as a study, and employed +them merely as a relaxation. + +His mathematical studies seem to have been undertaken and carried to +their full development without any assistance whatever, and the result +is that his writings belong to no particular "school," unless indeed we +consider them to form, as they are well entitled to do, a school by +themselves. As an arithmetical calculator he was not only wonderfully +expert, but he seems to have occasionally found a positive delight in +working out to an enormous number of places of decimals the result of +some irksome calculation. At the age of twelve he engaged Zerah Colburn, +the American "calculating boy," who was then being exhibited as a +curiosity in Dublin, and he had not always the worst of the encounter. +But, two years before, he had accidentally fallen in with a Latin copy +of _Euclid_, which he eagerly devoured; and at twelve he attacked +Newton's _Arithmetica universalis_. This was his introduction to modern +analysis. He soon commenced to read the _Principia_, and at sixteen he +had mastered a great part of that work, besides some more modern works +on analytical geometry and the differential calculus. + +About this period he was also engaged in preparation for entrance at +Trinity College, Dublin, and had therefore to devote a portion of his +time to classics. In the summer of 1822, in his seventeenth year, he +began a systematic study of Laplace's _Mécanique Céleste_. Nothing +could be better fitted to call forth such mathematical powers as those +of Hamilton; for Laplace's great work, rich to profusion in analytical +processes alike novel and powerful, demands from the most gifted student +careful and often laborious study. It was in the successful effort to +open this treasure-house that Hamilton's mind received its final temper, +"Dčs-lors il commença ŕ marcher seul," to use the words of the +biographer of another great mathematician. From that time he appears to +have devoted himself almost wholly to original investigation (so far at +least as regards mathematics), though he ever kept himself well +acquainted with the progress of science both in Britain and abroad. + +Having detected an important defect in one of Laplace's demonstrations, +he was induced by a friend to write out his remarks, that they might be +shown to Dr John Brinkley (1763-1835), afterwards bishop of Cloyne, but +who was then the first royal astronomer for Ireland, and an accomplished +mathematician. Brinkley seems at once to have perceived the vast talents +of young Hamilton, and to have encouraged him in the kindest manner. He +is said to have remarked in 1823 of this lad of eighteen: "This young +man, I do not say _will be_, but _is_, the first mathematician of his +age." + +Hamilton's career at College was perhaps unexampled. Amongst a number of +competitors of more than ordinary merit, he was first in every subject +and at every examination. He achieved the rare distinction of obtaining +an _optime_ for both Greek and for physics. How many more such honours +he might have attained it is impossible to say; but he was expected to +win both the gold medals at the degree examination, had his career as a +student not been cut short by an unprecedented event. This was his +appointment to the Andrews professorship of astronomy in the university +of Dublin, vacated by Dr Brinkley in 1827. The chair was not exactly +offered to him, as has been sometimes asserted, but the electors, having +met and talked over the subject, authorized one of their number, who was +Hamilton's personal friend, to urge him to become a candidate, a step +which his modesty had prevented him from taking. Thus, when barely +twenty-two, he was established at the Observatory, Dunsink, near Dublin. +He was not specially fitted for the post, for although he had a profound +acquaintance with theoretical astronomy, he had paid but little +attention to the regular work of the practical astronomer. And it must +be said that his time was better employed in original investigations +than it would have been had he spent it in observations made even with +the best of instruments,--infinitely better than if he had spent it on +those of the observatory, which, however good originally, were then +totally unfit for the delicate requirements of modern astronomy. Indeed +there can be little doubt that Hamilton was intended by the university +authorities who elected him to the professorship of astronomy to spend +his time as he best could for the advancement of science, without being +tied down to any particular branch. Had he devoted himself to practical +astronomy they would assuredly have furnished him with modern +instruments and an adequate staff of assistants. + +In 1835, being secretary to the meeting of the British Association which +was held that year in Dublin, he was knighted by the lord-lieutenant. +But far higher honours rapidly succeeded, among which we may merely +mention his election in 1837 to the president's chair in the Royal Irish +Academy, and the rare distinction of being made corresponding member of +the academy of St Petersburg. These are the few salient points (other, +of course, than the epochs of his more important discoveries and +inventions presently to be considered) in the uneventful life of this +great man. He retained his wonderful faculties unimpaired to the very +last, and steadily continued till within a day or two of his death, +which occurred on the 2nd of September 1865, the task (his _Elements of +Quaternions_) which had occupied the last six years of his life. + + The germ of his first great discovery was contained in one of those + early papers which in 1823 he communicated to Dr Brinkley, by whom, + under the title of "Caustics," it was presented in 1824 to the Royal + Irish Academy. It was referred as usual to a committee. Their report, + while acknowledging the novelty and value of its contents, and the + great mathematical skill of its author, recommended that, before being + published, it should be still further developed and simplified. During + the next three years the paper grew to an immense bulk, principally by + the additional details which had been inserted at the desire of the + committee. But it also assumed a much more intelligible form, and the + grand features of the new method were now easily to be seen. Hamilton + himself seems not till this period to have fully understood either the + nature or the importance of his discovery, for it is only now that we + find him announcing his intention of applying his method to dynamics. + The paper was finally entitled "Theory of Systems of Rays," and the + first part was printed in 1828 in the _Transactions of the Royal Irish + Academy_. It is understood that the more important contents of the + second and third parts appeared in the three voluminous supplements + (to the first part) which were published in the same _Transactions_, + and in the two papers "On a General Method in Dynamics," which + appeared in the _Philosophical Transactions_ in 1834-1835. The + principle of "Varying Action" is the great feature of these papers; + and it is strange, indeed, that the one particular result of this + theory which, perhaps more than anything else that Hamilton has done, + has rendered his name known beyond the little world of true + philosophers, should have been easily within the reach of Augustin + Fresnel and others for many years before, and in no way required + Hamilton's new conceptions or methods, although it was by them that he + was led to its discovery. This singular result is still known by the + name "conical refraction," which he proposed for it when he first + predicted its existence in the third supplement to his "Systems of + Rays," read in 1832. + + The step from optics to dynamics in the application of the method of + "Varying Action" was made in 1827, and communicated to the Royal + Society, in whose _Philosophical Transactions_ for 1834 and 1835 there + are two papers on the subject. These display, like the "Systems of + Rays," a mastery over symbols and a flow of mathematical language + almost unequalled. But they contain what is far more valuable still, + the greatest addition which dynamical science had received since the + grand strides made by Sir Isaac Newton and Joseph Louis Lagrange. C. + G. J. Jacobi and other mathematicians have developed to a great + extent, and as a question of pure mathematics only, Hamilton's + processes, and have thus made extensive additions to our knowledge of + differential equations. But there can be little doubt that we have as + yet obtained only a mere glimpse of the vast physical results of which + they contain the germ. And though this is of course by far the more + valuable aspect in which any such contribution to science can be + looked at, the other must not be despised. It is characteristic of + most of Hamilton's, as of nearly all great discoveries, that even + their indirect consequences are of high value. + + The other great contribution made by Hamilton to mathematical science, + the invention of Quaternions, is treated under that heading. The + following characteristic extract from a letter shows Hamilton's own + opinion of his mathematical work, and also gives a hint of the devices + which he employed to render written language as expressive as actual + speech. His first great work, _Lectures on Quaternions_ (Dublin, + 1852), is almost painful to read in consequence of the frequent use of + italics and capitals. + + "I hope that it may not be considered as unpardonable vanity or + presumption on my part, if, as my own taste has always led me to feel + a greater interest in _methods_ than in _results_, so it is by + METHODS, rather than by _any_ THEOREMS, which _can_ be separately + _quoted_, that I desire and hope to be remembered. Nevertheless it is + only human nature, to derive _some_ pleasure from being cited, now and + then, even about a 'Theorem'; especially where ... the quoter can + enrich the subject, by combining it with researches of _his own_." + + The discoveries, papers and treatises we have mentioned might well + have formed the whole work of a long and laborious life. But not to + speak of his enormous collection of MS. books, full to overflowing + with new and original matter, which have been handed over to Trinity + College, Dublin, the works we have already called attention to barely + form the greater portion of what he has published. His extraordinary + investigations connected with the solution of algebraic equations of + the fifth degree, and his examination of the results arrived at by N. + H. Abel, G. B. Jerrard, and others in their researches on this + subject, form another grand contribution to science. There is next his + great paper on _Fluctuating Functions_, a subject which, since the + time of J. Fourier, has been of immense and ever increasing value in + physical applications of mathematics. There is also the extremely + ingenious invention of the hodograph. Of his extensive investigations + into the solution (especially by numerical approximation) of certain + classes of differential equations which constantly occur in the + treatment of physical questions, only a few items have been published, + at intervals, in the _Philosophical Magazine_. Besides all this, + Hamilton was a voluminous correspondent. Often a single letter of his + occupied from fifty to a hundred or more closely written pages, all + devoted to the minute consideration of every feature of some + particular problem; for it was one of the peculiar characteristics of + his mind never to be satisfied with a general understanding of a + question; he pursued it until he knew it in all its details. He was + ever courteous and kind in answering applications for assistance in + the study of his works, even when his compliance must have cost him + much time. He was excessively precise and hard to please with + reference to the final polish of his own works for publication; and it + was probably for this reason that he published so little compared with + the extent of his investigations. + + Like most men of great originality, Hamilton generally matured his + ideas before putting pen to paper. "He used to carry on," says his + elder son, William Edwin Hamilton, "long trains of algebraical and + arithmetical calculations in his mind, during which he was unconscious + of the earthly necessity of eating; we used to bring in a 'snack' and + leave it in his study, but a brief nod of recognition of the intrusion + of the chop or cutlet was often the only result, and his thoughts went + on soaring upwards." + + For further details about Hamilton (his poetry and his association + with poets, for instance) the reader is referred to the _Dublin + University Magazine_ (Jan. 1842), the _Gentleman's Magazine_ (Jan. + 1866), and the _Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society_ + (Feb. 1866); and also to an article by the present writer in the + _North British Review_ (Sept. 1866), from which much of the above + sketch has been taken. His works have been collected and published by + R. P. Graves, _Life of Sir W. R. Hamilton_ (3 vols., 1882, 1885, + 1889). (P. G. T.) + + + + +HAMILTON, a town of Dundas and Normanby counties, Victoria, Australia, +on the Grange Burne Creek, 197˝ m. by rail W. of Melbourne. Pop. (1901) +4026. Hamilton has a number of educational institutions, chief among +which are the Hamilton and Western District College, one of the finest +buildings of its kind in Victoria, the Hamilton Academy, and the +Alexandra ladies' college, a state school, and a Catholic college. It +has a fine racecourse, and pastoral and agricultural exhibitions are +held annually, as the surrounding district is mainly devoted to +sheep-farming. Mutton is frozen and exported. Hamilton became a borough +in 1859. + + + + +HAMILTON (GRAND or ASHUANIPI), the chief river of Labrador, Canada. It +rises in the Labrador highlands at an elevation of 1700 ft., its chief +sources being Lakes Attikonak and Ashuanipi, between 65° and 66° W. and +52° and 53° N. After a precipitous course of 600 m. it empties into +Melville Lake (90 m. long and 18 wide), an extension of Hamilton inlet, +on the Atlantic. About 220 m. from its mouth occur the Grand Falls of +Labrador. Here in a distance of 12 m. the river drops 760 ft., +culminating in a final vertical fall of 316 ft. Below the falls are +violent rapids, and the river sweeps through a deep and narrow canyon. +The country through which it passes is for the most part a wilderness of +barren rock, full of lakes and lacustrine rivers, many of which are its +tributaries. In certain portions of the valley spruce and poplars grow +to a moderate size. From the head of Lake Attikonak a steep and rocky +portage of less than a mile leads to Burnt Lake, which is drained into +the St Lawrence by the Romaine river. + + + + +HAMILTON, one of the chief cities of Canada, capital of Wentworth +county, Ontario. It occupies a highly picturesque situation upon the +shore of a spacious land-locked bay at the western end of Lake Ontario. +It covers the plain stretching between the water-front and the +escarpment (called "The Mountain"), this latter being a continuation of +that over which the Falls of Niagara plunge 40 m. to the west. Founded +about 1778 by one Robert Land, the growth of Hamilton has been steady +and substantial, and, owing to its remarkable industrial development, it +has come to be called "the Birmingham of Canada." This development is +largely due to the use of electrical energy generated by water-power, in +regard to which Hamilton stands first among Canadian cities. The +electricity has not, however, been obtained from Niagara Falls, but from +De Cew Falls, 35 m. S.E. of the city. The entire electrical railway +system, the lighting of the city, and the majority of the factories are +operated by power obtained from this source. The manufacturing interests +of Hamilton are varied, and some of the establishments are of vast size, +employing many thousands of hands each, such as the International +Harvester Co. and the Canadian Westinghouse Co. In addition Hamilton is +the centre of one of the finest fruit-growing districts on the +continent, and its open-air market is a remarkable sight. The municipal +matters are managed by a mayor and board of aldermen. Six steam +railroads and three electric radial roads afford Hamilton ample +facilities for transport by land, while during the season of navigation +a number of steamboat lines supply daily services to Toronto and other +lake ports. Entrance into the broad bay is obtained through a short +canal intersecting Burlington Beach, which is crossed by two swing +bridges, whereof one--that of the Grand Trunk railway--is among the +largest of its kind in the world. Burlington Beach is lined with +cottages occupied by the city residents during the hot summer months. +Hamilton is rich in public institutions. The educational equipment +comprises a normal college, collegiate institute, model school and more +than a score of public schools, for the most part housed in handsome +stone and brick buildings. There are four hospitals, and the asylum for +the insane is the largest in Canada. There is an excellent public +library, and in the same building with it a good art school. Hamilton +boasts of a number of parks, Dundurn Castle Park, containing several +interesting relics of the war of 1812, being the finest, and, as it is +practically within the city limits, it is a great boon to the people. +Gore Park, in the centre of the city, is used for concerts, given by +various bands, one of which has gained an international reputation. +Since its incorporation in 1833 the history of Hamilton has shown +continuous growth. In 1836 the population was 2846; In 1851, 10,248; in +1861, 19,096; in 1871, 26,880; in 1881, 36,661; in 1891, 48,959; and in +1901, 52,634. The Anglican bishop of Niagara has his seat here, and also +a Roman Catholic bishop. Hamilton returns two members to the Provincial +parliament and two to the Dominion. + + + + +HAMILTON, a municipal and police burgh of Lanarkshire, Scotland. Pop. +(1891), 24,859; (1901), 32,775. It is situated about 1 m. from the +junction of the Avon with the Clyde, 10ž m. S.E. of Glasgow by road, and +has stations on the Caledonian and North British railways. The town hall +in the Scottish Baronial style has a clock-tower 130 ft. high, and the +county buildings are in the Grecian style. Among the subjects of +antiquarian interest are Queenzie Neuk, the spot where Queen Mary rested +on her journey to Langside, the old steeple and pillory built in the +reign of Charles I., the Mote Hill, the old Runic cross, and the carved +gateway in the palace park. In the churchyard there is a monument to +four covenanters who suffered at Edinburgh, on the 7th of December 1600, +whose heads were buried here. Among the industries are manufactures of +cotton, lace and embroidered muslins, and carriage-building, and there +are also large market gardens, the district being famed especially for +its apples, and some dairy-farming; but the prosperity of the town +depends chiefly upon the coal and ironstone of the surrounding country, +which is the richest mineral field in Scotland. Hamilton originated in +the 15th century under the protecting influence of the lords of +Hamilton, and became a burgh of barony in 1456 and a royal burgh in +1548. The latter rights were afterwards surrendered and it was made the +chief burgh of the regality and dukedom of Hamilton in 1668, the third +marquess having been created duke in 1643. It unites with Airdrie, +Falkirk, Lanark and Linlithgow to form the Falkirk district of burghs, +which returns one member to parliament. + + Immediately east of the town is Hamilton palace, the seat of the duke + of Hamilton and Brandon, premier peer of Scotland. It occupies most of + the site of the original burgh of Netherton. The first mansion was + erected at the end of the 16th century and rebuilt about 1710, to be + succeeded in 1822-1829 by the present palace, a magnificent building + in the classical style. Its front is a specimen of the enriched + Corinthian architecture, with a projecting pillared portico after the + style of the temple of Jupiter Stator at Rome, 264 ft. in length and + 60 ft. in height. Each of the twelve pillars of the portico is a + single block of stone, quarried at Dalserf, midway between Hamilton + and Lanark, and required thirty horses to draw it to its site. The + interior is richly decorated and once contained the finest collection + of paintings in Scotland, but most of them, together with the Hamilton + and Beckford libraries, were sold in 1882. Within the grounds, which + comprise nearly 1500 acres, is the mausoleum erected by the 10th duke, + a structure resembling in general design that of the emperor Hadrian + at Rome, being a circular building springing from a square basement, + and enclosing a decorated octagonal chapel, the door of which is a + copy in bronze of Ghiberti's gates at Florence. At Barncluith, 1 m. + S.E. of the town, may be seen the Dutch gardens which were laid down + in terraces on the steep banks of the Avon. Their quaint shrubbery and + old-fashioned setting render them attractive. They were planned in + 1583 by John Hamilton, an ancestor of Lord Belhaven, and now belong + to Lord Ruthven. About 2 m. S.E. of Hamilton, within the western High + Park, on the summit of a precipitous rock 200 ft. in height, the foot + of which is washed by the Avon, stand the ruins of Cadzow Castle, the + subject of a spirited ballad by Sir Walter Scott. The castle had been + a royal residence for at least two centuries before Bannockburn + (1314), but immediately after the battle Robert Bruce granted it to + Sir Walter FitzGilbert Hamilton, the son of the founder of the family, + in return for the fealty. Near it is the noble chase with its ancient + oaks, the remains of the Caledonian Forest, where are still preserved + some of the aboriginal breed of wild cattle. Opposite Cadzow Castle, + in the eastern High Park, on the right bank of the Avon, is + Chatelherault, consisting of stables and offices, and imitating in + outline the palace of that name in France. + + + + +HAMILTON, a village of Madison county, New York, U.S.A., about 29 m. +S.W. of Utica. Pop. (1890), 1744; (1900), 1627; (1905) 1522; (1910) +1689. It is served by the New York, Ontario & Western railway. Hamilton +is situated in a productive agricultural region, and has a large trade +in hops; among its manufactures are canned vegetables, lumber and knit +goods. There are several valuable stone quarries in the vicinity. The +village owns and operates its water-supply and electric-lighting system. +Hamilton is the seat of Colgate University, which was founded in 1819, +under the name of the Hamilton Literary and Theological Institution, as +a training school for the Baptist ministry, was chartered as Madison +University in 1846, and was renamed in 1890 in honour of the Colgate +family, several of whom, especially William (1783-1857), the soap +manufacturer, and his sons, James Boorman (1818-1904), and Samuel +(1822-1897), were its liberal benefactors. In 1908-1909 it had a +university faculty of 33 members, 307 students in the college, 60 in the +theological department, and 134 in the preparatory department, and a +library of 54,000 volumes, including the Baptist Historical collection +(about 5000 vols.) given by Samuel Colgate. The township in which the +village is situated and which bears the same name (pop. in 1910, 3825) +was settled about 1790 and was separated from the township of Paris in +1795. The village was incorporated in 1812. + + + + +HAMILTON, a city and the county-seat of Butler county, Ohio, U.S.A., on +both sides of the Great Miami river, 25 m. N. of Cincinnati. Pop. +(1890), 17,565; (1900), 23,914, of whom 2949 were foreign-born; (1910 +census), 35,279. It is served by the Cincinnati, Hamilton & Dayton, and +the Pittsburg, Cincinnati, Chicago & St Louis railways, and by +interurban electric lines connecting with Cincinnati, Dayton and Toledo. +The valley in which Hamilton is situated is noted for its fertility. The +city has a fine public square and the Lane free library (1866); the +court house is its most prominent public building. A hydraulic canal +provides the city with good water power, and in 1905, in the value of +its factory products ($13,992,574, being 31.3% more than in 1900), +Hamilton ranked tenth among the cities of the state. Its most +distinctive manufactures are paper and wood pulp; more valuable are +foundry and machine shop products; other manufactures are safes, malt +liquors, flour, woollens, Corliss engines, carriages and wagons and +agricultural implements. The municipality owns and operates the +water-works, electric-lighting plant and gas plant. A stockade fort was +built here in 1791 by General Arthur Saint Clair, but it was abandoned +in 1796, two years after the place had been laid out as a town and named +Fairfield. The town was renamed, in honour of Alexander Hamilton, about +1796. In 1803 Hamilton was made the county-seat; in 1810 it was +incorporated as a village; in 1854 it annexed the town of Rossville on +the opposite side of the river; and in 1857 it was made a city. In 1908, +by the annexation of suburbs, the area and the population of Hamilton +were considerably increased. Hamilton was the early home of William Dean +Howells, whose recollections of it are to be found in his _A Boy's +Town_; his father's anti-slavery sentiments made it necessary for him to +sell his printing office, where the son had learned to set type in his +teens, and to remove to Dayton. + + + + +HAMIRPUR, a town and district of British India, in the Allahabad +division of the United Provinces. The town stands on a tongue of land +near the confluence of the Betwa and Jumna, 110 m. N.W. of Allahabad. +Pop. (1901), 6721. It was founded, according to tradition, in the 11th +century by Hamir Deo, a Karchuli Rajput expelled from Alwar by the +Mahommedans. + +The district has an area of 2289 sq. m., and encloses the native states +of Sarila, Jigni and Bihat, besides portions of Charkhari and Garrauli. +Hamirpur forms part of the great plain of Bundelkhand, which stretches +from the banks of the Jumna to the central Vindhyan plateau. The +district is in shape an irregular parallelogram, with a general slope +northward from the low hills on the southern boundary. The scenery is +rendered picturesque by the artificial lakes of Mahoba. These +magnificent reservoirs were constructed by the Chandel rajas before the +Mahommedan conquest, for purposes of irrigation and as sheets of +ornamental water. Many of them enclose craggy islets or peninsulas, +crowned by the ruins of granite temples, exquisitely carved and +decorated. From the base of this hill and lake country the general plain +of the district spreads northward in an arid and treeless level towards +the broken banks of the rivers. Of these the principal are the Betwa and +its tributary the Dhasan, both of which are unnavigable. There is little +waste land, except in the ravines by the river sides. The deep black +soil of Bundelkhand, known as _mar_, retains the moisture under a dried +and rifted surface, and renders the district fertile. The staple produce +is grain of various sorts, the most important being gram. Cotton is also +a valuable crop. Agriculture suffers much from the spread of the _kans_ +grass, a noxious weed which overruns the fields and is found to be +almost ineradicable wherever it has once obtained a footing. Droughts +and famine are unhappily common. The climate is dry and hot, owing to +the absence of shade and the bareness of soil, except in the +neighbourhood of the Mahoba lakes, which cool and moisten the +atmosphere. + +In 1901 the pop. was 458,542, showing a decrease of 11% in the decade, +due to the famine of 1895-1897. Export trade is chiefly in agricultural +produce and cotton cloth. Rath is the principal commercial centre. The +Midland branch of the Great Indian Peninsula railway passes through the +south of the district. + +From the 9th to the 12th century this district was the centre of the +Chandel kingdom, with its capital at Mahoba. The rajas adorned the town +with many splendid edifices, remains of which still exist, besides +constructing the noble artificial lakes already described. At the end of +the 12th century Mahoba fell into the hands of the Mussulmans. In 1680 +the district was conquered by Chhatar Sal, the hero of the Bundelas, who +assigned at his death one-third of his dominions to his ally the peshwa +of the Mahrattas. Until Bundelkhand became British territory in 1803 +there was constant warfare between the Bundela princes and the Mahratta +chieftains. On the outbreak of the Mutiny in 1857, Hamirpur was the +scene of a fierce rebellion, and all the principal towns were plundered +by the surrounding chiefs. After a short period of desultory guerrilla +warfare the rebels were effectually quelled and the work of +reorganization began. The district has since been subject to cycles of +varying agricultural prosperity. + + + + +HAMITIC RACES AND LANGUAGES. The questions involved in a consideration +of Hamitic races and Hamitic languages are independent of one another +and call for separate treatment. + +I. _Hamitic Races._--The term Hamitic as applied to race is not only +extremely vague but has been much abused by anthropological writers. Of +the few who have attempted a precise definition the most prominent is +Sergi,[1] and his classification may be taken as representing one point +of view with regard to this difficult question. + + Sergi considers the Hamites, using the term in the racial sense, as a + branch of his "Mediterranean Race"; and divides them as follows:-- + + 1. _Eastern Branch_-- + (a) Ancient and Modern Egyptian (excluding the Arabs). + (b) Nubians, Beja. + (c) Abyssinians. + (d) Galla, Danakil, Somali. + (e) Masai. + (f) Wahuma or Watusi. + + 2. _Northern Branch_-- + (a) Berbers of the Mediterranean, Atlantic and Sahara. + (b) Tibbu. + (c) Fula. + (d) Guanches (extinct). + + With regard to this classification the following conclusions may be + regarded as comparatively certain: that the members of groups d, e + and f of the first branch appear to be closely inter-connected by + ties of blood, and also the members of the second branch. The + Abyssinians in the south have absorbed a certain amount of Galla + blood, but the majority are Semitic or Semito-Negroid. The question of + the racial affinities of the Ancient Egyptians and the Beja are still + a matter of doubt, and the relation of the two groups to each other is + still controversial. Sergi, it is true, arguing from physical data + believes that a close connexion exists; but the data are so extremely + scanty that the finality of his conclusion may well be doubted. His + "Northern Branch" corresponds with the more satisfactory term "Libyan + Race," represented in fair purity by the Berbers, and, mixed with + Negro elements, by the Fula and Tibbu. This Libyan race is + distinctively a white race, with dark curly hair; the Eastern Hamites + are equally distinctively a brown people with frizzy hair. If, as + Sergi believes, these brown people are themselves a race, and not a + cross between white and black in varying proportions, they are found + in their greatest purity among the Somali and Galla, and mixed with + Bantu blood among the Ba-Hima (Wahuma) and Watussi. The Masai seem to + be as much Nilotic Negro as Hamite. This Galla type does not seem to + appear farther north than the southern portion of Abyssinia, and it is + not unlikely that the Beja are very early Semitic immigrants with an + aboriginal Negroid admixture. It is also possible that they and the + Ancient Egyptians may contain a common element. The Nubians appear + akin to the Egyptians but with a strong Negroid element. + + To return to Sergi's two branches, besides the differences in skin + colour and hair-texture there is also a cultural difference of great + importance. The Eastern Hamites are essentially a pastoral people and + therefore nomadic or semi-nomadic; the Berbers, who, as said above, + are the purest representatives of the Libyans, are agriculturists. The + pastoral habits of the Eastern Hamites are of importance, since they + show the utmost reluctance to abandon them. Even the Ba-Hima and + Watussi, for long settled and partly intermixed with the agricultural + Bantu, regard any pursuit but that of cattle-tending as absolutely + beneath their dignity. + + It would seem therefore that, while sufficient data have not been + collected to decide whether, on the evidence of exact anthropological + measurements, the Libyans are connected racially with the Eastern + Hamites, the testimony derived from broad "descriptive + characteristics" and general culture is against such a connexion. To + regard the Libyans as Hamites solely on the ground that the languages + spoken by the two groups show affinities would be as rash and might be + as false as to aver that the present-day Hungarians are Mongolians + because Magyar is an Asiatic tongue. Regarding the present state of + knowledge it would be safer therefore to restrict the term "Hamites" + to Sergi's first group; and call the second by the name "Libyans." The + difficult question of the origin of the ancient Egyptians is discussed + elsewhere. + + As to the question whether the Hamites in this restricted sense are a + definite race or a blend, no discussion can, in view of the paucity of + evidence, as yet lead to a satisfactory conclusion, but it might be + suggested very tentatively that further researches may possibly + connect them with the Dravidian peoples of India. It is sufficient for + present purposes that the term Hamite, using it as coextensive with + Sergi's Eastern Hamite, has a definite connotation. By the term is + meant a brown people with frizzy hair, of lean and sinewy physique, + with slender but muscular arms and legs, a thin straight or even + aquiline nose with delicate nostrils, thin lips and no trace of + prognathism. (T. A. J.) + +II. _Hamitic Languages._--The whole north of Africa was once inhabited +by tribes of the Caucasian race, speaking languages which are now +generally called, after Genesis x., Hamitic, a term introduced +principally by Friedrich Müller. The linguistic coherence of that race +has been broken up especially by the intrusion of Arabs, whose language +has exercised a powerful influence on all those nations. This splitting +up, and the immense distances over which those tribes were spread, have +made those languages diverge more widely than do the various tongues of +the Indo-European stock, but still their affinity can easily be traced +by the linguist, and is, perhaps, greater than the corresponding +anthropologic similarity between the white Libyan, red Galla and swarthy +Somali. The relationship of these languages to Semitic has long been +noticed, but was at first taken for descent from Semitic (cf. the name +"Syro-Arabian" proposed by Prichard). Now linguists are agreed that the +Proto-Semites and Proto-Hamites once formed a unity, probably in +Arabia. That original unity has been demonstrated especially by +Friedrich Müller (_Reise der österreichischen Fregatte Novara_, p. 51, +more fully, _Grundriss der Sprachwissenschaft_, vol. iii. fasc. 2, p. +226); cf. also A. H. Sayce, _Science of Language_, ii. 178; R. N. Cust, +_The Modern Languages of Africa_, i. 94, &c. The comparative grammars of +Semitic (W. Wright, 1890, and especially H. Zimmern, 1898) demonstrate +this now to everybody by comparative tables of the grammatical elements. + + The classification of Hamitic languages is as follows:[2]-- + + 1. _The Libyan Dialects_ (mostly misnamed "Berber languages," after an + unfortunate, vague Arabic designation, _barabra_, "people of foreign + language"). The representatives of this large group extend from the + Senegal river (where they are called Zenaga; imperfect _Grammaire_ by + L. Faidherbe, 1877) and from Timbuktu (dialect of the Auelimmiden, + sketched by Heinrich Barth, _Travels_, vol. v., 1857) to the oases of + Aujila (Bengazi) and of Siwa on the western border of Egypt. + Consequently, these "dialects" differ more strongly from each other + than, e.g. the Semitic languages do between themselves. The purest + representative seems to be the language of the Algerian mountaineers + (Kabyles), especially that of the Zuawa (Zouaves) tribe, described by + A. Hanoteau, _Essai de grammaire kabyle_ (1858); Ben Sedira, _Cours de + langue kab._ (1887); _Dictionnaire_ by Olivier (1878). The learned + little _Manuel de langue kabyle_, by R. Basset (1887) is an + introduction to the study of the many dialects with full bibliography, + cf. also Basset's _Notes de lexicographie berbčre_ (1883 foll.). (The + dictionaries by Brosselard and Venture de Paradis are imperfect.) The + best now described is Shilh(a). a Moroccan dialect (H. Stumme, + _Handbuch des Schilhischen_, 1899), but it is an inferior dialect. + That of Ghat in Tripoli underlies the _Grammar_ of F. W. Newman (1845) + and the _Grammaire Tamashek_ of Hanoteau (1860); cf. also the + _Dictionnaire_ of Cid Kaoui (1900). Neither medieval reports on the + language spoken by the Guanches of the Canary Islands (fullest in A. + Berthelot, _Antiquités canariennes_, 1879; akin to Shilha; by no means + primitive Libyan untouched by Arabic), nor the modern dialect of Siwa + (still little known; tentative grammar by Basset, 1890), have + justified hopes of finding a pure Libyan dialect. Of a few literary + attempts in Arabic letters the religious _Počme de Çabi_ (ed. Basset, + _Journ. asiatique_, vii. 476) is the most remarkable. The imperfect + native writing (named _tifinaghen_), a derivation from the Sabaean + alphabet (not, as Halévy claimed, from the Punic), still in use among + the Sahara tribes, can be traced to the 2nd century B.C. (bilingual + inscription of Tucca, &c.; cf. J. Halévy, _Essai d'épigraphie + libyque_, 1875), but hardly ever served for literary uses. + + 2. _The Cushitic or Ethiopian Family._--The nearest relative of Libyan + is not Ancient Egyptian but the language of the nomadic Bisharin or + Beja of the Nubian Desert (cf. H. Almkvist, _Die Bischari Sprache_, + 1881 [the northern dialect], and L. Reinisch, _Die Bedauye Sprache_, + 1893, _Wörterbuch_, 1895). The speech of the peoples occupying the + lowland east of Abyssinia, the Saho (Reinisch, grammar in _Zeitschrift + d. deutschen morgenländ. Gesellschaft_, 32, 1878; _Texte_, 1889; + _Wörterbuch_, 1890; cf. also Reinisch, Die Sprache der Irob Saho, + 1878), and the Afar or Danakil (Reinisch, _Die Afar Sprache_, 1887; G. + Colizza, _Lingua Afar_, 1887), merely dialects of one language, form + the connecting link with the southern Hamitic group, i.e. Somali + (Reinisch, _Somali Sprache_, 1900-1903, 3 vols.; Larajasse und de + Sampont, _Practical Grammar of the Somali Language_, 1897; imperfect + sketches by Hunter, 1880, and Schleicher, 1890), and Galla (L. + Tutscheck, _Grammar_, 1845, _Lexicon_, 1844; Massaja, _Lectiones_, + 1877; G. F. F. Praetorius, _Zur Grammatik der Gallasprache_, 1893, + &c.). All these Cushitic languages, extending from Egypt to the + equator, are separated by Reinisch as _Lower Cushitic_ from the _High + Cushitic_ group, i.e. the many dialects spoken by tribes dwelling in + the Abyssinian highlands or south of Abyssinia. Of the original + inhabitants of Abyssinia, called collectively Agâu (or Agâu) by the + Abyssinians, or Falashas (this name principally for Jewish tribes), + Reinisch considers the Bilin or Bogos tribe as preserving the most + archaic dialect (_Die Bilin Sprache_, Texts, 1883; _Grammatik_, 1882; + _Wörterbuch_, 1887); the same scholar gave sketches of the Khamir + (1884) and Quara (1885) dialects. On other dialects, struggling + against the spreading Semitic tongues (Tigré, Amharic, &c.), see Conti + Rossini, "Appunti sulla lingua Khamta," in _Giorn. soc. orient._ + (1905); Waldmeyer, _Wörtersammlung_ (1868); J. Halévy, "Essai sur la + langue Agaou" (_Actes soc. philologique_, 1873), &c. Similar dialects + are those of the Sid(d)âma tribes, south of Abyssinia, of which only + Kaf(f)a (Reinisch, _Die Kafa Sprache_, 1888) is known at all fully. Of + the various other dialects (Kullo, Tambaro, &c.), vocabularies only + are known; cf. Borelli, _Éthiopie méridionale_ (1890). (On Hausa see + below.) + + There is no question that the northernmost Hamitic languages have + preserved best the original wealth of inflections which reminds us so + strongly of the formal riches of southern Semitic. Libyan and Beja + are the best-preserved types, and the latter especially may be called + the Sanskrit of Hamitic. The other Cushitic tongues exhibit increasing + agglutinative tendencies the farther we go south, although single + archaisms are found even in Somali. The early isolated High Cushitic + tongues (originally branched off from a stock common with Galla and + Somali) diverge most strongly from the original type. Already the Agâu + dialects are full of very peculiar developments; the Hamitic character + of the Sid(d)ama languages can be traced only by lengthy comparisons. + + The simple and pretty Haus(s)a language, the commercial language of + the whole Niger region and beyond (Schoen, _Grammar_, 1862, + _Dictionary_, 1876; Charles H. Robinson, 1897, in Robinson and + Brookes's _Dictionary_) has fairly well preserved its Hamitic grammar, + though its vocabulary was much influenced by the surrounding Negro + languages. It is no relative of Libyan (though it has experienced some + Libyan influences), but comes from the (High ?) Cushitic family; its + exact place in this family remains to be determined. Various languages + of the Niger region _were_ once Hamitic like Haus(s)a, or at least + under some Hamitic influence, but have now lost that character too far + to be classified as Hamitic, e.g. the Muzuk or Musgu language (F. + Müller, 1886). The often-raised question of some (very remote) + relationship between Hamitic and the great Bantu family is still + undecided; more doubtful is that with the interesting Ful (a) language + in the western Sudan, but a relationship with the Nilotic branch of + negro languages is impossible (though a few of these, e.g. Nuba, have + borrowed some words from neighbouring Hamitic peoples). The + development of a grammatical gender, this principal characteristic of + Semito-Hamitic, in Bari and Masai, may be rather accidental than + borrowed; certainly, the same phenomenon in Hottentot does not justify + the attempt often made to classify this with Hamitic. + + 3. _Ancient Egyptian_, as we have seen, does not form the connecting + link between Libyan and Cushitic which its geographical position would + lead us to expect. It represents a third independent branch, or rather + a second one, Libyan and Cushitic forming one division of Hamitic. A + few resemblances with Libyan (M. de Rochemonteix in _Mémoires du + congrčs internat. des orientalistes_, Paris, 1873; elementary) are + less due to original relationship than to the general better + preservation of the northern idioms (see above). Frequent attempts to + detach Egyptian from Hamitic and to attribute it to a Semitic + immigration later than that of the other Hamites cannot be proved. + Egyptian is, in many respects, more remote from Semitic than the + Libyan-Cushitic division, being more agglutinative than the better + types of its sister branch, having lost the most characteristic verbal + flection (the Hamito-Semitic imperfect), forming the nominal plural in + its own peculiar fashion, &c. The advantage of Egyptian, that it is + represented in texts of 3000 B.C., while the sister tongues exist only + in forms 5000 years later, allows us, e.g. to trace the Semitic + principle of triliteral roots more clearly in Egyptian; but still the + latter tongue is hardly more characteristically archaic or nearer + Semitic than Beja or Kabylic. + + All this is said principally of the grammar. Of the vocabulary it must + not be forgotten that none of the Hamitic tongues remained untouched + by Semitic influences after the separation of the Hamites and Semites, + say 4000 or 6000 B.C. Repeated Semitic immigrations and influences + have brought so many layers of loan-words that it is questionable if + any modern Hamitic language has now more than 10% of original Hamitic + words. Which Semitic resemblances are due to original affinity, which + come from pre-Christian immigrations, which from later influences, are + difficult questions not yet faced by science; e.g. the half-Arabic + numerals of Libyan have often been quoted as a proof of primitive + Hamito-Semitic kinship, but they are probably only a gift of some Arab + invasion, prehistoric for us. Arab tribes seem to have repeatedly + swept over the whole area of the Hamites, long before the time of + Mahomet, and to have left deep impressions on races and languages, but + none of these migrations stands in the full light of history (not even + that of the Gee'z tribes of Abyssinia). Egyptian exhibits constant + influences from its Canaanitish neighbours; it is crammed with such + loan-words already in 3000 B.C.; new affluxes can be traced, + especially c. 1600. (The Punic influences on Libyan are, however, very + slight, inferior to the Latin.) Hence the relations of Semitic and + Hamitic still require many investigations in detail, for which the + works of Reinisch and Basset have merely built up a basis. + (W. M. M.) + + +FOOTNOTES: + + [1] G. Sergi, _The Mediterranean Race. A Study of the Origin of + European Peoples_ (London, 1901); _idem. Africa, Antropologia della + stirpe camitica_ (Turin, 1897). + + [2] Only works of higher linguistic standing are quoted here; many + vocabularies and imperfect attempts of travellers cannot be + enumerated. + + + + +HAMLET, the hero of Shakespeare's tragedy, a striking figure in +Scandinavian romance. + +The chief authority for the legend of Hamlet is Saxo Grammaticus, who +devotes to it parts of the third and fourth books of his _Historia +Danica_, written at the beginning of the 13th century. It is supposed +that the story of Hamlet, Amleth or Amlođi,[1] was contained in the lost +Skjöldunga saga, but we have no means of determining whether Saxo +derived his information in this case from oral or written sources. The +close parallels between the tale of Hamlet and the English romances of +Havelok, Horn and Bevis of Hampton make it not unlikely that Hamlet is +of British rather than of Scandinavian origin. His name does in fact +occur in the Irish _Annals of the Four Masters_ (ed. O'Donovan, 1851) in +a stanza attributed to the Irish Queen Gormflaith, who laments the death +of her husband, Niall Glundubh, at the hands of Amhlaiđe in 919 at the +battle of Ath-Cliath. The slayer of Niall Glundubh is by other +authorities stated to have been Sihtric. Now Sihtric was the father of +that Olaf or Anlaf Cuaran who was the prototype of the English Havelok, +but nowhere else does he receive the nickname of Amhlaiđe. If Amhlaiđe +may really be identified with Sihtric, who first went to Dublin in 888, +the relations between the tales of Havelok and Hamlet are readily +explicable, since nothing was more likely than that the exploits of +father and son should be confounded (see Havelok). But, whoever the +historic Hamlet may have been, it is quite certain that much was added +that was extraneous to Scandinavian tradition. Later in the 10th century +there is evidence of the existence of an Icelandic saga of Amlóđi or +Amleth in a passage from the poet Snaebjorn in the second part of the +prose _Edda_.[2] According to Saxo,[3] Hamlet's history is briefly as +follows. In the days of Rorik, king of Denmark, Gervendill was governor +of Jutland, and was succeeded by his sons Horvendill and Feng. +Horvendill, on his return from a Viking expedition in which he had slain +Koll, king of Norway, married Gerutha, Rorik's daughter, who bore him a +son Amleth. But Feng, out of jealousy, murdered Horvendill, and +persuaded Gerutha to become his wife, on the plea that he had committed +the crime for no other reason than to avenge her of a husband by whom +she had been hated. Amleth, afraid of sharing his father's fate, +pretended to be imbecile, but the suspicion of Feng put him to various +tests which are related in detail. Among other things they sought to +entangle him with a young girl, his foster-sister, but his cunning saved +him. When, however, Amleth slew the eavesdropper hidden, like Polonius, +in his mother's room, and destroyed all trace of the deed, Feng was +assured that the young man's madness was feigned. Accordingly he +despatched him to England in company with two attendants, who bore a +letter enjoining the king of the country to put him to death. Amleth +surmised the purport of their instructions, and secretly altered the +message on their wooden tablets to the effect that the king should put +the attendants to death and give Amleth his daughter in marriage. After +marrying the princess Amleth returned at the end of a year to Denmark. +Of the wealth he had accumulated he took with him only certain hollow +sticks filled with gold. He arrived in time for a funeral feast, held to +celebrate his supposed death. During the feast he plied the courtiers +with wine, and executed his vengeance during their drunken sleep by +fastening down over them the woollen hangings of the hall with pegs he +had sharpened during his feigned madness, and then setting fire to the +palace. Feng he slew with his own sword. After a long harangue to the +people he was proclaimed king. Returning to England for his wife he +found that his father-in-law and Feng had been pledged each to avenge +the other's death. The English king, unwilling personally to carry out +his pledge, sent Amleth as proxy wooer for the hand of a terrible +Scottish queen Hermuthruda, who had put all former wooers to death, but +fell in love with Amleth. On his return to England his first wife, whose +love proved stronger than her resentment, told him of her father's +intended revenge. In the battle which followed Amleth won the day by +setting up the dead men of the day before with stakes, and thus +terrifying the enemy. He then returned with his two wives to Jutland, +where he had to encounter the enmity of Wiglek, Rorik's successor. He +was slain in a battle against Wiglek, and Hermuthruda, although she had +engaged to die with him, married the victor. + +The other Scandinavian versions of the tale are: the _Hrolfssaga +Kraka_,[4] where the brothers Helgi and Hroar take the place of the +hero; the tale of Harald and Halfdan, as related in the 7th book of Saxo +Grammaticus; the modern Icelandic _Ambales Saga_,[5] a romantic tale the +earliest MS. of which dates from the 17th century; and the folk-tale of +Brjám[6] which was put in writing in 1707. Helgi and Hroar, like Harald +and Halfdan, avenge their father's death on their uncle by burning him +in his palace. Harald and Halfdan escape after their father's death by +being brought up, with dogs' names, in a hollow oak, and subsequently by +feigned madness; and in the case of the other brothers there are traces +of a similar motive, since the boys are called by dogs' names. The +methods of Hamlet's madness, as related by Saxo, seem to point to +cynanthropy. In the _Ambales Saga_, which perhaps is collateral to, +rather than derived from, Saxo's version, there are, besides romantic +additions, some traits which point to an earlier version of the tale. + +Saxo Grammaticus was certainly familiar with the Latin historians, and +it is most probable that, recognizing the similarity between the +northern Hamlet legend and the classical tale of Lucius Junius Brutus as +told by Livy, by Valerius Maximus, and by Dionysius of Halicarnassus +(with which he was probably acquainted through a Latin epitome), he +deliberately added circumstances from the classical story. The incident +of the gold-filled sticks could hardly appear fortuitously in both, and +a comparison of the harangues of Amleth (Saxo, Book iv.) and of Brutus +(Dionysius iv. 77) shows marked similarities. In both tales the usurping +uncle is ultimately succeeded by the nephew who has escaped notice +during his youth by a feigned madness. But the parts played by the +personages who in Shakespeare became Ophelia and Polonius, the method of +revenge, and the whole narrative of Amleth's adventure in England, have +no parallels in the Latin story. + +Dr. O. L. Jiriczek[7] first pointed out the striking similarities +existing between the story of Amleth in Saxo and the other northern +versions, and that of Kei Chosro in the _Shahnameh_ (Book of the King) +of the Persian poet Firdausi. The comparison was carried farther by R. +Zenker (_Boeve Amlethus_, pp. 207-268, Berlin and Leipzig, 1904), who +even concluded that the northern saga rested on an earlier version of +Firdausi's story, in which indeed nearly all the individual elements of +the various northern versions are to be found. Further resemblances +exist in the _Ambales Saga_ with the tales of Bellerophon, of Heracles, +and of Servius Tullius. That Oriental tales through Byzantine and +Arabian channels did find their way to the west is well known, and there +is nothing very surprising in their being attached to a local hero. + +The tale of Hamlet's adventures in Britain forms an episode so distinct +that it was at one time referred to a separate hero. The traitorous +letter, the purport of which is changed by Hermuthruda, occurs in the +popular _Dit de l'empereur Constant_,[8] and in Arabian and Indian +tales. Hermuthruda's cruelty to her wooers is common in northern and +German mythology, and close parallels are afforded by Thrytho, the +terrible bride of Offa I., who figures in _Beowulf_, and by Brunhilda in +the _Nibelungenlied_. + +The story of Hamlet was known to the Elizabethans in François de +Belleforest's _Histoires tragiques_ (1559), and found its supreme +expression in Shakespeare's tragedy. That as early as 1587 or 1589 +Hamlet had appeared on the English stage is shown by Nash's preface to +Greene's _Menaphon_: "He will afford you whole Hamlets, I should say, +handfulls of tragical speeches." The Shakespearian Hamlet owes, however, +little but the outline of his story to Saxo. In character he is +diametrically opposed to his prototype. Amleth's madness was certainly +altogether feigned; he prepared his vengeance a year beforehand, and +carried it out deliberately and ruthlessly at every point. His riddling +speech has little more than an outward similarity to the words of +Hamlet, who resembles him, however, in his disconcerting penetration +into his enemies' plans. For a discussion of Shakespeare's play and its +immediate sources see SHAKESPEARE. + + See an appendix to Elton's trans. of Saxo Grammaticus; I. Gollancz, + _Hamlet in Iceland_ (London, 1898); H. L. Ward, _Catalogue of + Romances_, under "Havelok," vol. i. pp. 423 seq.; _English Historical + Review_, x. (1895); F. Detter, "Die Hamletsage," _Zeitschr. f. deut. + Alter._ vol. 36 (Berlin, 1892); O. L. Jiriczek, "Die Amlethsage auf + Island," in _Germanistische Abhandlungen_, vol. xii. (Breslau), and + "Hamlet in Iran," in _Zeitschr. des Vereins für Volkskunde_, x. + (Berlin, 1900); A. Olrik, _Kilderne til Sakses Oldhistorie_ + (Copenhagen, 2 vols., 1892-1894). + + +FOOTNOTES: + + [1] The word is used in modern Icelandic metaphorically of an + imbecile or weak-minded person (see Cleasby and Vigfússon, + _Icelandic-English Dictionary_, 1869). + + [2] "'Tis said that far out, off yonder ness, the Nine Maids of the + Island Mill stir amain the host--cruel skerry-quern--they who in ages + past ground Hamlet's meal. The good Chieftain furrows the hull's lair + with his ship's beaked prow." This passage may be compared with some + examples of Hamlet's cryptic sayings quoted by Saxo: "Again, as he + passed along the beach, his companions found the rudder of a ship + which had been wrecked, and said they had discovered a huge knife. + 'This,' said he, 'was the right thing to carve such a huge ham....' + Also, as they passed the sand-hills, and bade him look at the meal, + meaning the sand, he replied that it had been ground small by the + hoary tempests of the ocean." + + [3] Books iii. and iv., chaps. 86-106, Eng. trans. by O. Elton + (London, 1894). + + [4] Printed in Fornaldar Sögur Norđtrlanda (vol. i. Copenhagen, + 1829), analysed by F. Detter in _Zeitschr. für deutsches Altertum_ + (vol. 36, Berlin, 1892). + + [5] Printed with English translation and with other texts germane to + the subject by I. Gollancz (_Hamlet in Iceland_, London, 1898). + + [6] Professor I. Gollancz points out (p. lxix.) that Brjám is a + variation of the Irish Brian, that the relations between Ireland and + the Norsemen were very close, and that, curiously enough, Brian + Boroimhe was the hero of that very battle of Clontarf (1014) where + the device (which occurs in Havelok and Hamlet) of bluffing the enemy + by tying the wounded to stakes to represent active soldiers was used. + + [7] "Hamlet in Iran," in _Zeitschrift des Vereins für Volkskunde_, x. + (Berlin, 1900). + + [8] See A. B. Gough, _The Constance Saga_ (Berlin, 1902). + + + + +HAMLEY, SIR EDWARD BRUCE (1824-1893), British general and military +writer, youngest son of Vice-Admiral William Hamley, was born on the +27th of April 1824 at Bodmin, Cornwall, and entered the Royal Artillery +in 1843. He was promoted captain in 1850, and in 1851 went to Gibraltar, +where he commenced his literary career by contributing articles to +magazines. He served throughout the Crimean campaign as aide-de-camp to +Sir Richard Dacres, commanding the artillery, taking part in all the +operations with distinction, and becoming successively major and +lieutenant-colonel by brevet. He also received the C.B. and French and +Turkish orders. During the war he contributed to _Blackwood's Magazine_ +an admirable account of the progress of the campaign, which was +afterwards republished. The combination in Hamley of literary and +military ability secured for him in 1859 the professorship of military +history at the new Staff College at Sandhurst, from which in 1866 he +went to the council of military education, returning in 1870 to the +Staff College as commandant. From 1879 to 1881 he was British +commissioner successively for the delimitation of the frontiers of +Turkey and Bulgaria, Turkey in Asia and Russia, and Turkey and Greece, +and was rewarded with the K.C.M.G. Promoted colonel in 1863, he became a +lieutenant-general in 1882, when he commanded the 2nd division of the +expedition to Egypt under Lord Wolseley, and led his troops in the +battle of Tell-el-Kebir, for which he received the K.C.B., the thanks of +parliament, and 2nd class of Osmanieh. Hamley considered that his +services in Egypt had been insufficiently recognized in Lord Wolseley's +despatches, and expressed his indignation freely, but he had no +sufficient ground for supposing that there was any intention to belittle +his services. From 1885 until his death on the 12th of August 1893 he +represented Birkenhead in parliament in the Conservative interest. + + Hamley was a clever and versatile writer. His principal work, _The + Operations of War_, published in 1867, became a text-book of military + instruction. He published some pamphlets on national defence, was a + frequent contributor to magazines, and the author of several novels, + of which perhaps the best known is _Lady Lee's Widowhood_. + + + + +HAMLIN, HANNIBAL (1809-1891), vice-president of the United States +(1861-1865), was born at Paris, Maine, on the 27th of August 1809. After +studying in Hebron Academy, he conducted his father's farm for a time, +became schoolmaster, and later managed a weekly newspaper at Paris. He +then studied law, was admitted to the bar in 1833, and rapidly acquired +a reputation as an able lawyer and a good public speaker. Entering +politics as an anti-slavery Democrat, he was a member of the state +House of Representatives in 1836-1840, serving as its presiding officer +during the last four years. He was a representative in Congress from +1843 to 1847, and was a member of the United States Senate from 1848 to +1856. From the very beginning of his service in Congress he was +prominent as an opponent of the extension of slavery; he was a +conspicuous supporter of the Wilmot Proviso, spoke against the +Compromise Measures of 1850, and in 1856, chiefly because of the passage +in 1854 of the Kansas-Nebraska Bill, which repealed the Missouri +Compromise, and his party's endorsement of that repeal at the Cincinnati +Convention two years later, he withdrew from the Democrats and joined +the newly organized Republican party. The Republicans of Maine nominated +him for governor in the same year, and having carried the election by a +large majority he was inaugurated in this office on the 8th of January +1857. In the latter part of February, however, he resigned the +governorship, and was again a member of the Senate from 1857 to January +1861. From 1861 to 1865, during the Civil War, he was Vice-President of +the United States. While in this office he was one of the chief advisers +of President Lincoln, and urged both the Emancipation Proclamation and +the arming of the negroes. After the war he again served in the Senate +(1869-1881), was minister to Spain (1881-1883), and then retired from +public life. He died at Bangor, Maine, on the 4th of July 1891. + + See _Life and Times of Hannibal Hamlin_ (Cambridge, Mass., 1899), by + C. E. Hamlin, his grandson. + + + + +HAMM, a town of Germany, in the Prussian province of Westphalia, on the +Lippe, 19 m. by rail N.E. from Dortmund on the main line +Cologne-Hanover. Pop. (1905) 38,430. It is surrounded by pleasant +promenades occupying the site of the former engirdling fortifications. +The principal buildings are four Roman Catholic and three Evangelical +churches, several schools and an infirmary. The town is flourishing and +rapidly increasing, and possesses very extensive wire factories (in +connexion with which there are puddling and rolling works), machine +works, and manufactories of gloves, baskets, leather, starch, chemicals, +varnish, oil and beer. Near the town are some thermal baths. + +Hamm, which became a town about the end of the 12th century, was +originally the capital of the countship of Mark, and was fortified in +1226. It became a member of the Hanseatic League. In 1614 it was +besieged by the Dutch, and it was several times taken and retaken during +the Thirty Years' War. In 1666 it came into the possession of +Brandenburg. In 1761 and 1762 it was bombarded by the French, and in +1763 its fortifications were dismantled. + + + + +HAMMAD AR-RAWIYA [Abu-l-Qasim Hammad ibn Abi Laila Sapur (or ibn +Maisara)] (8th century A.D.), Arabic scholar, was of Dailamite descent, +but was born in Kufa. The date of his birth is given by some as 694, by +others as 714. He was reputed to be the most learned man of his time in +regard to the "days of the Arabs" (i.e. their chief battles), their +stories, poems, genealogies and dialects. He is said to have boasted +that he could recite a hundred long _qasidas_ for each letter of the +alphabet (i.e. rhyming in each letter) and these all from pre-Islamic +times, apart from shorter pieces and later verses. Hence his name +_Hammad ar-Rawiya_, "the reciter of verses from memory." The Omayyad +caliph Walid is said to have tested him, the result being that he +recited 2900 qasidas of pre-Islamic date and Walid gave him 100,000 +dirhems. He was favoured by Yazid II. and his successor Hisham, who +brought him up from Irak to Damascus. Arabian critics, however, say that +in spite of his learning he lacked a true insight into the genius of the +Arabic language, and that he made more than thirty--some say three +hundred--mistakes of pronunciation in reciting the Koran. To him is +ascribed the collecting of the _Mo'allakat_ (q.v.). No diwan of his is +extant, though he composed verse of his own and probably a good deal of +what he ascribed to earlier poets. + + Biography in McG. de Slane's trans. of Ibn Khallikan, vol. i. pp. + 470-474, and many stories are told of him in the _Kitab ul-Aghani_, + vol. v. pp. 164-175. (G. W. T.) + + + + +HAMMER, FRIEDRICH JULIUS (1810-1862), German poet, was born on the 7th +of June 1810 at Dresden. In 1831 he went to Leipzig to study law, but +devoted himself mainly to philosophy and belles lettres. Returning to +Dresden in 1834 a small comedy, _Das seltsame Frühstück_, introduced him +to the literary society of the capital, notably to Ludwig Tieck, and +from this time he devoted himself entirely to writing. In 1837 he +returned to Leipzig, and, coming again to Dresden, from 1851 to 1859 +edited the feuilleton of _Sächsische konstitutionelle Zeitung_, and took +the lead in the foundation in 1855 of the Schiller Institute in Dresden. +His marriage in 1851 had made him independent, and he bought a small +property at Pillnitz, on which, soon after his return from a residence +of several years at Nuremberg, he died, on the 23rd of August 1862. + +Hammer wrote, besides several comedies, a drama _Die Brüder_ (1856), a +number of unimportant romances, and the novel _Einkehr und Umkehr_ +(Leipzig, 1856); but his reputation rests upon his epigrammatic and +didactic poems. His _Schau' um dich, und schau' in dich_ (1851), which +made his name, has passed through more than thirty editions. It was +followed by _Zu allen guten Stunden_ (1854), _Fester Grund_ (1857), _Auf +stillen Wegen_ (1859), and _Lerne, liebe, lebe_ (1862). Besides these he +wrote a book of Turkish songs, _Unter dem Halbmond_ (Leipzig, 1860), and +rhymed versions of the psalms (1861), and compiled the popular religious +anthology _Leben und Heimat in Gott_, of which a 14th edition was +published in 1900. + + See C. G. E. Am Ende, _Julius Hammer_ (Nuremberg, 1872). + + + + +HAMMER, an implement consisting of a shaft or handle with head fixed +transversely to it. The head, usually of metal, has one flat face, the +other may be shaped to serve various purposes, e.g. with a claw, a pick, +&c. The implement is used for breaking, beating, driving nails, rivets, +&c., and the word is applied to heavy masses of metal moved by +machinery, and used for similar purposes. (See TOOL.) "Hammer" is a word +common to Teutonic languages. It appears in the same form in German and +Danish, and in Dutch as _hamer_, in Swedish as _hammare_. The ultimate +origin is unknown. It has been connected with the root seen in the Greek +[Greek: kamptein], to bend; the word would mean, therefore, something +crooked or bent. A more illuminating suggestion connects the word with +the Slavonic _kamy_, a stone, cf. Russian _kamen_, and ultimately with +Sanskrit _acman_, a pointed stone, a thunderbolt. The legend of Thor's +hammer, the thunderbolt, and the probability of the primitive hammer +being a stone, adds plausibility to this derivation. The word is applied +to many objects resembling a hammer in shape or function. Thus the +"striker" in a clock, or in a bell, when it is sounded by an independent +lever and not by the swinging of the "tongue," is called a "hammer"; +similarly, in the "action" of a pianoforte the word is used of a wooden +shank with felt-covered head attached to a key, the striking of which +throws the "hammer" against the strings. In the mechanism of a fire-arm, +the "hammer" is that part which by its impact on the cap or primer +explodes the charge. (See GUN.) The hammer, more usually known by its +French name of _martel de fer_, was a medieval hand-weapon. With a long +shaft it was used by infantry, especially when acting against mounted +troops. With a short handle and usually made altogether of metal, it was +also used by horse-soldiers. The _martel_ had one part of the head with +a blunted face, the other pointed, but occasionally both sides were +pointed. There are 16th century examples in which a hand-gun forms the +handle. The name of "hammer," in Latin _malleus_, has been frequently +applied to men, and also to books, with reference to destructive power. +Thus on the tomb of Edward I. in Westminster Abbey is inscribed his name +of _Scotorum Malleus_, the "Hammer of the Scots." The title of "Hammer +of Heretics," _Malleus Haereticorum_, has been given to St Augustine and +to Johann Faber, whose tract against Luther is also known by the name. +Thomas Cromwell was styled _Malleus Monachorum_. The famous text-book of +procedure in cases of witchcraft, published by Sprenger and Krämer in +1489, was called _Hexenhammer_ or _Malleus Maleficarum_ (see +WITCHCRAFT). + +The origin of the word "hammer-cloth," an ornamental cloth covering the +box-seat on a state-coach, has been often explained from the hammer and +other tools carried in the box-seat by the coachman for repairs, &c. The +_New English Dictionary_ points out that while the word occurs as early +as 1465, the use of a box-seat is not known before the 17th century. +Other suggestions are that it is a corruption of "hamper-cloth," or of +"hammock-cloth," which is used in this sense, probably owing to a +mistake. Neither of these supposed corruptions helps very much. Skeat +connects the word with a Dutch word _hemel_, meaning a canopy. In the +name of the bird, the yellow-hammer, the latter part should be "ammer." +This appears in the German name, _Emmerling_, and the word probably +means the "chirper," cf. the Ger. _jammern_, to wail, lament. + + + + +HAMMERBEAM ROOF, in architecture, the name given to a Gothic open timber +roof, of which the finest example is that over Westminster Hall +(1395-1399). In order to give greater height in the centre, the ordinary +tie beam is cut through, and the portions remaining, known as +hammerbeams, are supported by curved braces from the wall; in +Westminster Hall, in order to give greater strength to the framing, a +large arched piece of timber is carried across the hall, rising from the +bottom of the wall piece to the centre of the collar beam, the latter +being also supported by curved braces rising from the end of the +hammerbeam. The span of Westminster Hall is 68 ft. 4 in., and the +opening between the ends of the hammerbeams 25 ft. 6 in. The height from +the paving of the hall to the hammerbeam is 40 ft., and to the underside +of the collar beam 63 ft. 6 in., so that an additional height in the +centre of 23 ft. 6 in. has been gained. Other important examples of +hammerbeam roofs exist over the halls of Hampton Court and Eltham +palaces, and there are numerous examples of smaller dimensions in +churches throughout England and particularly in the eastern counties. +The ends of the hammerbeams are usually decorated with winged angels +holding shields; the curved braces and beams are richly moulded, and the +spandrils in the larger examples filled in with tracery, as in +Westminster Hall. Sometimes, but rarely, the collar beam is similarly +treated, or cut through and supported by additional curved braces, as in +the hall of the Middle Temple, London. + + + + +HAMMERFEST, the most northern town in Europe. Pop. (1900) 2300. It is +situated on an island (Kvalö) off the N.W. coast of Norway, in Finmarken +_amt_ (county), in 70° 40´ 11´´ N., the latitude being that of the +extreme north of Alaska. Its position affords the best illustration of +the warm climatic influence of the north-eastward Atlantic drift, the +mean annual temperature being 36° F. (January 31°, July 57°). Hammerfest +is 674 m. by sea N.E. of Trondhjem, and 78 S.W. from the North Cape. The +character of this coast differs from the southern, the islands being +fewer and larger, and of table shape. The narrow strait Strömmen +separates Kvalö from the larger Seiland, whose snow-covered hills with +several glaciers rise above 3500 ft., while an insular rampart of +mountains, Sorö, protects the strait and harbour from the open sea. The +town is timber-built and modern; and the Protestant church, town-hall, +and schools were all rebuilt after fire in 1890. There is also a Roman +Catholic church. The sun does not set at Hammerfest from the 13th of May +to the 29th of July. This is the busy season of the townsfolk. Vessels +set out to the fisheries, as far as Spitsbergen and the Kara Sea; and +trade is brisk, not only Norwegian and Danish but British, German and +particularly Russian vessels engaging in it. Cod-liver oil and salted +fish are exported with some reindeer-skins, fox-skins and eiderdown; and +coal and salt for curing are imported. In the spring the great herds of +tame reindeer are driven out to swim Strömmen and graze in the summer +pastures of Seiland; towards winter they are called home again. From the +18th of November to the 23rd of January the sun is not seen, and the +enforced quiet of winter prevails. Electric light was introduced in the +town in 1891. On the Fuglenaes or Birds' Cape, which protects the +harbour on the north, there stands a column with an inscription in Norse +and Latin, stating that Hammerfest was one of the stations of the +expedition for the measurement of the arc of the meridian in 1816-1852. +Nor is this its only association with science; for it was one of the +spots chosen by Sir Edward Sabine for his series of pendulum experiments +in 1823. The ascent of the Sadlen or the Tyven in the neighbourhood is +usually undertaken by travellers for the view of the barren, snow-clad +Arctic landscape, the bluff indented coast, and the vast expanse of the +Arctic Ocean. + + + + +HAMMER-KOP, or HAMMERHEAD, an African bird, which has been regarded as a +stork and as a heron, the _Scopus umbretta_ of ornithologists, called +the "Umbre" by T. Pennant, now placed in a separate family _Scopidae_ +between the herons and storks. It was discovered by M. Adanson, the +French traveller, in Senegal about the middle of the 19th century, and +was described by M. J. Brisson in 1760. It has since been found to +inhabit nearly the whole of Africa and Madagascar, and is the +"hammerkop" (hammerhead) of the Cape colonists. Though not larger than a +raven, it builds an enormous nest, some six feet in diameter, with a +flat-topped roof and a small hole for entrance and exit, and placed +either on a tree or a rocky ledge. The bird, of an almost uniform brown +colour, slightly glossed with purple and its tail barred with black, has +a long occipital crest, generally borne horizontally, so as to give rise +to its common name. It is somewhat sluggish by day, but displays much +activity at dusk, when it will go through a series of strange +performances. (A. N.) + + + + +HAMMER-PURGSTALL, JOSEPH, FREIHERR von (1774-1856), Austrian +orientalist, was born at Graz on the 9th of June 1774, the son of Joseph +Johann von Hammer, and received his early education mainly in Vienna. +Entering the diplomatic service in 1796, he was appointed in 1799 to a +position in the Austrian embassy in Constantinople, and in this capacity +he took part in the expedition under Admiral Sir William Sidney Smith +and General Sir John Hely Hutchinson against the French. In 1807 he +returned home from the East, after which he was made a privy councillor, +and, on inheriting in 1835 the estates of the countess Purgstall in +Styria, was given the title of "freiherr." In 1847 he was elected +president of the newly-founded academy, and he died at Vienna on the +23rd of November 1856. + +For fifty years Hammer-Purgstall wrote incessantly on the most diverse +subjects and published numerous texts and translations of Arabic, +Persian and Turkish authors. It was natural that a scholar who traversed +so large a field should lay himself open to the criticism of +specialists, and he was severely handled by Friedrich Christian Diez +(1794-1876), who, in his _Unfug und Betrug_ (1815), devoted to him +nearly 600 pages of abuse. Von Hammer-Purgstall did for Germany the same +work that Sir William Jones (q.v.) did for England and Silvestre de Sacy +for France. He was, like his younger but greater English contemporary, +Edward William Lane, with whom he came into friendly conflict on the +subject of the origin of _The Thousand and One Nights_, an assiduous +worker, and in spite of many faults did more for oriental studies than +most of his critics put together. + + Von Hammer's principal work is his _Geschichte des osmanischen + Reiches_ (10 vols., Pesth, 1827-1835). Another edition of this was + published at Pesth in 1834-1835, and it has been translated into + French by J. J. Hellert (1835-1843). Among his other works are + _Constantinopolis und der Bosporos_ (1822); _Sur les origines russes_ + (St Petersburg, 1825); _Geschichte der osmanischen Dichtkunst_ (1836); + _Geschichte der Goldenen Horde in Kiptschak_ (1840); _Geschichte der + Chane der Krim_ (1856); and an unfinished _Litteraturgeschichte der + Araber_ (1850-1856). His _Geschichte der Assassinen_ (1818) has been + translated into English by O. C. Wood (1835). Texts and + translations--_Eth-Thaalabi_, Arab. and Ger. (1829); _Ibn Wahshiyah, + History of the Mongols_, Arab. and Eng. (1806); _El-Wassaf_, Pers. and + Ger. (1856); _Esch-Schebistani's Rosenflor des Geheimnisses_, Pers. + and Ger. (1838); _Ez-Zamakhsheri, Goldene Halsbander_, Arab. and Germ. + (1835); _El-Ghazzali, Hujjet-el-Islám_, Arab. and Ger. (1838); + _El-Hamawi, Das arab. Hohe Lied der Liebe_, Arab. and Ger. (1854). + Translations of--_El-Mutanebbi's Poems; Er-Resmi's Account of his + Embassy_ (1809); _Contes inédits des 1001 nuits_ (1828). Besides these + and smaller works, von Hammer contributed numerous essays and + criticisms to the _Fundgruben des Orients_, which he edited; to the + _Journal asiatique_; and to many other learned journals; above all to + the _Transactions_ of the "Akademie der Wissenschaften" of Vienna, of + which he was mainly the founder; and he translated Evliya Effendi's + _Travels in Europe_, for the English Oriental Translation Fund. For a + fuller list of his works, which amount in all to nearly 100 volumes, + see _Comptes rendus_ of the Acad. des Inscr. et des Belles-Lettres + (1857). See also Schlottman, _Joseph von Hammer-Purgstall_ (Zurich, + 1857). + + + + +HAMMERSMITH, a western metropolitan borough of London, England, bounded +E. by Kensington and S. by Fulham and the river Thames, and extending N. +and W. to the boundary of the county of London. Pop. (1901) 112,239. The +name appears in the early forms of _Hermodewode_ and _Hamersmith_; the +derivation is probably from the Anglo-Saxon, signifying the place with a +haven (_hythe_). Hammersmith is mentioned with Fulham as a winter camp +of Danish invaders in 879, when they occupied the island of Hame, which +may be identified with Chiswick Eyot. Hammersmith consists of +residential streets of various classes. There are many good houses in +the districts of Brook Green in the south-east, and Ravenscourt Park and +Starch Green in the west. Shepherd's Bush in the east is a populous and +poorer quarter. Boat-building yards, lead-mills, oil mills, +distilleries, coach factories, motor works, and other industrial +establishments are found along the river and elsewhere in the borough. +The main thoroughfares are Uxbridge Road and Goldhawk Road, from Acton +on the west, converging at Shepherd's Bush and continuing towards +Notting Hill; King Street from Chiswick on the south-west, continued as +Hammersmith Broadway and Road to Kensington Road; Bridge Road from +Hammersmith Bridge over the Thames, and Fulham Palace Road from Fulham, +converging at the Broadway. Old Hammersmith Bridge, designed by Tierney +Clark (1824), was the earliest suspension bridge erected near London. +This bridge was found insecure and replaced in 1884-1887. Until 1834 +Hammersmith formed part of Fulham parish. Its church of St Paul was +built as a chapel of ease to Fulham, and consecrated by Laud in 1631. +The existing building dates from 1890. Among the old monuments preserved +is that of Sir Nicholas Crispe (d. 1665), a prominent royalist during +the civil wars and a benefactor of the parish. Schools and religious +houses are numerous. St Paul's school is one of the principal public +schools in England. It was founded in or about 1509 by John Colet, dean +of St Paul's, under the shadow of the cathedral church. But it appears +that Colet actually refounded and reorganized a school which had been +attached to the cathedral of St Paul from very early times; the first +mention of such a school dates from the early part of the 12th century +(see an article in _The Times_, London, July 7, 1909, on the occasion of +the celebration of the quatercentenary of Colet's foundation). The +school was moved to its present site in Hammersmith Road in 1883. The +number of foundation scholars, that is, the number for which Colet's +endowment provided, is 153, according to the number of fishes taken in +the miraculous draught. The total number of pupils is about 600. The +school governors are appointed by the Mercers' Company (by which body +the new site was acquired), and the universities of Oxford, Cambridge +and London. Close to the school is St Paul's preparatory school, and at +Brook Green is a girls' school in connexion with the main school. There +are, besides, the Edward Latymer foundation school for boys (1624), part +of the income of which is devoted to general charitable purposes; the +Godolphin school, founded in the 16th century and remodelled as a +grammar school in 1861; Nazareth House of Little Sisters of the Poor, +the Convent of the Sacred Heart, and other convents. The town hall, the +West London hospital with its post-graduate college, and Wormwood +Scrubbs prison are noteworthy buildings. Other institutions are the +Hammersmith school of art and a Roman Catholic training college. Besides +the picturesque Ravenscourt Park (31 acres) there are extensive +recreation grounds in the north of the borough at Wormwood Scrubbs (193 +acres), and others of lesser extent. An important place of entertainment +is Olympia, near Hammersmith Road and the Addison Road station on the +West London railway, which includes a vast arena under a glass roof; +while at Shepherd's Bush are the extensive grounds and buildings first +occupied by the Franco-British Exhibition of 1908, including a huge +stadium for athletic displays. In the extreme north of the borough is +the Kensal Green Roman Catholic cemetery, in which Cardinal Manning and +many other prominent members of this faith are buried. In the +neighbourhood of the Mall, bordering the river, are the house where +Thomson wrote his poem "The Seasons," and Kelmscott House, the residence +of William Morris. The parliamentary borough of Hammersmith returns one +member. The borough council consists of a mayor, 5 aldermen, and 30 +councillors. Area, 2286.3 acres. + + + + +HAMMER-THROWING, a branch of field athletics which consists of hurling +to the greatest possible distance an instrument with a heavy head and +slender handle called the hammer. Throwing the hammer is in all +probability of Keltic origin, as it has been popular in Ireland and +Scotland for many centuries. The missile was, however, not a hammer, but +the wheel of a chariot attached to a fixed axle, by which it was whirled +round the head and cast for distance. Such a sport was undoubtedly +cultivated in the old Irish games, a large stone being substituted for +the wheel at the beginning of the Christian era. In the Scottish +highlands the missile took the form of a smith's sledgehammer, and in +this form the sport became popular in England in early days. Edward II. +is said to have fostered it, and Henry VIII. is known to have been +proficient. At the beginning of the 19th century two standard hammers +were generally recognized in Scotland, the heavy hammer, weighing about +21 lb., and the light hammer, weighing about 16 lb. These were in +general use until about 1885, although the light hammer gradually +attained popularity at the expense of the heavy. Although originally an +ordinary blacksmith's sledge with a handle about 3 ft. long, the form of +the head was gradually modified until it acquired its present spherical +shape, and the stiff wooden handle gave place to one of flexible +whalebone about 3/8 in. in diameter. The Scottish style of throwing, +which also obtained in America, was to stand on a mark, swing the hammer +round the head several times and hurl it backwards over the shoulder, +the length being measured from the mark made by the falling hammer to +the nearest foot of the thrower, no run or follow being allowed. Such +men as Donald Dinnie, G. Davidson and Kenneth McRae threw the light +hammer over 110 ft., and Dinnie's record was 132 ft. 8 in., made, +however, from a raised mount. Meanwhile the English Amateur Athletic +Association had early fixed the weight of the hammer at 16 lb., but the +length of the handle and the run varied widely, the restrictions being +few. Under these conditions S. S. Brown, of Oxford, made in 1873 a throw +of 120 ft., which was considered extraordinary at the time. In 1875 the +throw was made from a 7-ft. circle without run, head and handle of the +missile weighing together exactly 16 lb. In 1887 the circle was enlarged +to 9 ft., and in 1896 a handle of flexible metal was legalized. The +throw was made after a few rapid revolutions of the body, which added an +impetus that greatly added to the distance attained. It thus happened +that the Scottish competitors at the English games, who clung to their +standing style of throwing, were, although athletes of the very first +class, repeatedly beaten; the result being that the Scottish association +was forced to introduce the English rules. This was also the case in +America, where the throw from the 7-ft. circle, any motions being +allowed within it, was adopted in 1888, and still obtains. The Americans +still further modified the handle, which now consists of steel wire with +two skeleton loops for the hands, the wire being joined to the head by +means of a ball-bearing swivel. Thus the greatest mechanical advantage, +that of having the entire weight of the missile at the end, as well as +the least friction, is obtained. In England the Amateur Athletic +Association in 1908 enacted that "the head and handle may be of any +size, shape and material, provided that the complete implement shall not +be more than 4 ft. and its weight not less than 16 lb. The competitor +may assume any position he chooses, and use either one or both hands. +All throws shall be made from a circle 7 ft. in diameter." The modern +hammer-thrower, if right-handed, begins by placing the head on the +ground at his right side. He then lifts and swings it round his head +with increasing rapidity, his whole body finally revolving with +outstretched arms twice, in some cases three times, as rapidly as +possible, the hammer being released in the desired direction. During the +"spinning," or revolving of the body, the athlete must be constantly, +"ahead of the hammer," i.e. he must be drawing it after him with +continually increased pressure up to the very moment of delivery. The +muscles chiefly called into play are those of the shoulders, back and +loins. The adoption of the hand-loops has given the thrower greater +control over the hammer and has thus rendered the sport much less +dangerous than it once was. + + With a wooden handle the longest throw made in Great Britain from a + 9-ft. circle was that of W. J. M. Barry in 1892, who won the + championship in that year with 133 ft. 3 in. With the flexible handle, + "unlimited run and follow" being permitted, the record was held in + 1909 by M. J. McGrath with 175 ft. 8 in., made in 1907; a Scottish + amateur, T. R. Nicholson, held the British record of 169 ft. 8 in. The + world's record for throw from a 7-ft. circle was 172 ft. 11 in. by J. + Flanagan in 1904 in America; the British record from 9-ft. circle + being also held by Flanagan with a throw of 163 ft. 1 in. made in + 1900. Flanagan's Olympic record (London, 1908) was 170 ft. 4ź in. + + See _Athletics_ in the Badminton library; _Athletes' Guide_ in + Spalding's Athletic library; "Hammer-Throwing" in vol. xx. of + _Outing_. + + + + +HAMMER-TOE, a painful condition in which a toe is rigidly bent and the +salient angle on its upper aspect is constantly irritated by the boot. +It is treated surgically, not as formerly by amputation of the toe, but +the toe is made permanently to lie flat by the simple excision of the +small digital joint. Even in extremely bad cases of hammer-toe the +operation of resection of the head of the metatarsal phalanx is to be +recommended rather than amputation. + + + + +HAMMOCK, a bed or couch slung from each end. The word is said to have +been derived from the hamack tree, the bark of which was used by the +aboriginal natives of Brazil to form the nets, suspended from trees, in +which they slept. The hammock may be of matting, skin or textiles, lined +with cushions or filled with bedding. It is much used in hot climates. + + + + +HAMMOND, HENRY (1605-1660), English divine, was born at Chertsey in +Surrey on the 18th of August 1605. He was educated at Eton and at +Magdalen College, Oxford, becoming demy or scholar in 1619, and fellow +in 1625. He took orders in 1629, and in 1633 in preaching before the +court so won the approval of the earl of Leicester that he presented him +to the living of Penshurst in Kent. In 1643 he was made archdeacon of +Chichester. He was a member of the convocation of 1640, and was +nominated one of the Westminster Assembly of divines. Instead of sitting +at Westminster he took part in the unsuccessful rising at Tunbridge in +favour of King Charles I., and was obliged to flee in disguise to +Oxford, then the royal headquarters. There he spent much of his time in +writing, though he accompanied the king's commissioners to London, and +afterwards to the ineffectual convention at Uxbridge in 1645, where he +disputed with Richard Vines, one of the parliamentary envoys. In his +absence he was appointed canon of Christ Church and public orator of the +university. These dignities he relinquished for a time in order to +attend the king as chaplain during his captivity in the hands of the +parliament. When Charles was deprived of all his loyal attendants at +Christmas 1647, Hammond returned to Oxford and was made subdean of +Christ Church, only, however, to be removed from all his offices by the +parliamentary visitors, who imprisoned him for ten weeks. Afterwards he +was permitted, though still under quasi-confinement, to retire to the +house of Philip Warwick at Clapham in Bedfordshire. In 1650, having +regained his full liberty, Hammond betook himself to the friendly +mansion of Sir John Pakington, at Westwood, in Worcestershire, where he +died on the 25th of April 1660, just on the eve of his preferment to the +see of Worcester. Hammond was held in high esteem even by his opponents. +He was handsome in person and benevolent in disposition. He was an +excellent preacher; Charles I. pronounced him the most natural orator he +had ever heard. His range of reading was extensive, and he was a most +diligent scholar and writer. + + His writings, published in 4 vols. fol. (1674-1684), consist for the + most part of controversial sermons and tracts. The _Anglo-Catholic_ + _Library_ contains four volumes of his _Miscellaneous Theological + Works_ (1847-1850). The best of them are his _Practical Catechism_, + first published in 1644; his _Paraphrase and Annotations on the New + Testament_; and an incomplete work of a similar nature on the Old + Testament. His _Life_, a delightful piece of biography, written by + Bishop Fell, and prefixed to the collected _Works_, has been reprinted + in vol. iv. of Wordsworth's _Ecclesiastical Biography_. See also _Life + of Henry Hammond_, by G. G. Perry. + + + + +HAMMOND, a city of Lake county, Indiana, U.S.A., about 18 m. S.E. of the +business centre of Chicago, on the Grand Calumet river. Pop. (1890), +5428; (1900) 12,376, of whom 3156 were foreign-born; (1910, census) +20,925. It is served by no fewer than eight railways approaching Chicago +from the east, and by several belt lines. As far as its industries are +concerned, it is a part of Chicago, to which fact it owes its rapid +growth and its extensive manufacturing establishments, which include +slaughtering and packing houses, iron and steel works, chemical works, +piano, wagon and carriage factories, printing establishments, flour and +starch mills, glue works, breweries and distilleries. In 1900 Hammond +was the principal slaughtering and meat-packing centre of the state, but +subsequently a large establishment removed from the city, and Hammond's +total factory product (all industries) decreased from $25,070,551 in +1900 to $7,671,203 in 1905; after 1905 there was renewed growth in the +city's manufacturing interests. It has a good water-supply system which +is owned by the city. Hammond was first settled about 1868, was named in +honour of Abram A. Hammond (acting governor of the state in 1860-1861) +and was chartered as a city in 1883. + + + + +HAMON, JEAN LOUIS (1821-1874), French painter, was born at Plouha on the +5th of May 1821. At an early age he was intended for the priesthood, and +placed under the care of the brothers Lamennais, but his strong desire +to become a painter finally triumphed over family opposition, and in +1840 he courageously left Plouha for Paris--his sole resources being a +pension of five hundred francs, granted him for one year only by the +municipality of his native town. At Paris Hamon received valuable +counsels and encouragement from Delaroche and Gleyre, and in 1848 he +made his appearance at the Salon with "Le Tombeau du Christ" (Musée de +Marseille), and a decorative work, "Dessus de Porte." The works which he +exhibited in 1849--"Une Affiche romaine," "L'Égalité au sérail," and +"Perroquet jasant avec deux jeunes filles"--obtained no marked success. +Hamon was therefore content to accept a place in the manufactory of +Sčvres, but an enamelled casket by his hand having attracted notice at +the London International Exhibition of 1851, he received a medal, and, +reinspired by success, left his post to try his chances again at the +Salon of 1852. "La Comédie humaine," which he then exhibited, turned the +tide of his fortune, and "Ma soeur n'y est pas" (purchased by the +emperor) obtained for its author a third-class medal in 1853. At the +Paris International Exhibition of 1855, when Hamon re-exhibited the +casket of 1851, together with several vases and pictures of which +"L'Amour et son troupeau," "Ce n'est pas moi," and "Une Gardeuse +d'enfants" were the chief, he received a medal of the second class, and +the ribbon of the legion of honour. In the following year he was absent +in the East, but in 1857 he reappeared with "Boutique ŕ quatre sous," +"Papillon enchaîné," "Cantharide esclave," "Dévideuses," &c., in all ten +pictures; "L'Amour en visite" was contributed to the Salon of 1859, and +"Vierge de Lesbos," "Tutelle," "La Voličre," "L'Escamoteur" and "La +Soeur aînée" were all seen in 1861. Hamon now spent some time in Italy, +chiefly at Capri, whence in 1864 he sent to Paris "L'Aurore" and "Un +Jour de fiançailles." The influence of Italy was also evident in "Les +Muses ŕ Pompéi," his sole contribution to the Salon of 1866, a work +which enjoyed great popularity and was re-exhibited at the International +Exhibition of 1867, together with "La Promenade" and six other pictures +of previous years. His last work, "Le Triste Rivage," appeared at the +Salon of 1873. It was painted at St Raphael, where Hamon had finally +settled in a little house on the shores of the Mediterranean, close by +Alphonse Karr's famous garden. In this house he died on the 29th of May +1874. + + + + +HAMPDEN, HENRY BOUVERIE WILLIAM BRAND, 1ST VISCOUNT[1] (1812-1892), +speaker of the House of Commons, was the second son of the 21st Baron +Dacre, and descended from John Hampden, the patriot, in the female line; +the barony of Dacre devolved on him in 1890, after he had been created +Viscount Hampden in 1884. He entered parliament as a Liberal in 1852, +and for some time was chief whip of his party. In 1872 he was elected +speaker, and retained this post till February 1884. It fell to him to +deal with the systematic obstruction of the Irish Nationalist party, and +his speakership is memorable for his action on the 2nd of February 1881 +in refusing further debate on W. E. Forster's Coercion Bill--a step +which led to the formal introduction of the closure into parliamentary +procedure. He died on the 14th of March 1892, being succeeded as 2nd +viscount by his son (b. 1841), who was governor of New South Wales, +1895-1899. + + +FOOTNOTE: + + [1] An earlier viscountcy was bestowed in 1776 on Robert + Hampden-Trevor, 4th Baron Trevor (1706-1783), a great-grandson of the + daughter of John Hampden, the patriot; it became extinct in 1824 by + the death of the 3rd viscount. + + + + +HAMPDEN, JOHN (c. 1595-1643), English statesman, the eldest son of +William Hampden, of Great Hampden in Buckinghamshire, a descendant of a +very ancient family of that place, said to have been established there +before the Conquest, and of Elizabeth, second daughter of Sir Henry +Cromwell, and aunt of Oliver, the future protector, was born about the +year 1595. By his father's death, when he was but a child, he became the +owner of a good estate and a ward of the crown. He was educated at the +grammar school at Thame, and on the 30th of March 1610 became a commoner +of Magdalen College at Oxford. In 1613 he was admitted a student of the +Inner Temple. He first sat in parliament for the borough of Grampound in +1621, representing later Wendover in the first three parliaments of +Charles I., Buckinghamshire in the Short Parliament of 1640, and +Wendover again in the Long Parliament. In the early days of his +parliamentary career he was content to be overshadowed by Eliot, as in +its later days he was content to be overshadowed by Pym and to be +commanded by Essex. Yet it is Hampden, and not Eliot or Pym, who lives +in the popular imagination as the central figure of the English +revolution in its earlier stages. It is Hampden whose statue rather than +that of Eliot or Pym has been selected to take its place in St Stephen's +Hall as the noblest type of the parliamentary opposition, as Falkland's +has been selected as the noblest type of parliamentary royalism. + +Something of Hampden's fame no doubt is owing to the position which he +took up as the opponent of ship-money. But it is hardly possible that +even resistance to ship-money would have so distinguished him but for +the mingled massiveness and modesty of his character, his dislike of all +pretences in himself or others, his brave contempt of danger, and his +charitable readiness to shield others as far as possible from the evil +consequences of their actions. Nor was he wanting in that skill which +enabled him to influence men towards the ends at which he aimed, and +which was spoken of as subtlety by those who disliked his ends. + +During these first parliaments Hampden did not, so far as we know, open +his lips in public debate, but he was increasingly employed in committee +work, for which he seems to have had a special aptitude. In 1626 he took +an active part in the preparation of the charges against Buckingham. In +January 1627 he was bound over to answer at the council board for his +refusal to pay the forced loan. Later in the year he was committed to +the gatehouse, and then sent into confinement in Hampshire, from which +he was liberated just before the meeting of the third parliament of the +reign, in which he once more rendered useful but unobtrusive assistance +to his leaders. + +When the breach came in 1629 Hampden is found in epistolary +correspondence with the imprisoned Eliot, discussing with him the +prospects of the Massachusetts colony,[1] or rendering hospitality and +giving counsel to the patriot's sons now that they were deprived of a +father's personal care. It was not till 1637, however, that his +resistance to the payment of ship-money gained for his name the lustre +which it has never since lost. (See SHIP-MONEY.) Seven out of the twelve +judges sided against him, but the connexion between the rights of +property and the parliamentary system was firmly established in the +popular mind. The tax had been justified, says Clarendon, who expresses +his admiration at Hampden's "rare temper and modesty" at this crisis, +"upon such grounds and reasons as every stander-by was able to swear was +not law" (_Hist._ i. 150, vii. 82). + +In the Short Parliament of 1640 Hampden stood forth amongst the leaders. +He guided the House in the debate on the 4th of May in its opposition to +the grant of twelve subsidies in return for the surrender of ship-money. +Parliament was dissolved the next day, and on the 6th an unsuccessful +search was made among the papers of Hampden and of other chiefs of the +party to discover incriminating correspondence with the Scots. During +the eventful months which followed, when Strafford was striving in vain +to force England, in spite of its visible reluctance, to support the +king in his Scottish war, rumour has much to tell of Hampden's activity +in rousing opposition. It is likely enough that the rumour is in the +main true, but we are not possessed of any satisfactory evidence on the +subject. + +In the Long Parliament, though Hampden was by no means a frequent +speaker, it is possible to trace his course with sufficient +distinctness. His power consisted in his personal influence, and as a +debater rather than as an orator. "He was not a man of many words," says +Clarendon, "and rarely began the discourse or made the first entrance +upon any business that was assumed, but a very weighty speaker, and +after he had heard a full debate and observed how the House was likely +to be inclined, took up the argument and shortly and clearly and +craftily so stated it that he commonly conducted it to the conclusion he +desired; and if he found he could not do that, he never was without the +dexterity to divert the debate to another time, and to prevent the +determining anything in the negative which might prove inconvenient in +the future" (_Hist._ iii. 31). Unwearied in attendance upon committees, +he was in all things ready to second Pym, whom he plainly regarded as +his leader. Hampden was one of the eight managers of Stratford's +prosecution. Like Pym, he was in favour of the more legal and regular +procedure by impeachment rather than by attainder, which at the later +stage was supported by the majority of the Commons; and through his +influence a compromise was effected by which, while an attainder was +subsequently adopted, Strafford's counsel were heard as in the case of +an impeachment, and thus a serious breach between the two Houses, which +threatened to cause the breakdown of the whole proceedings, was averted. + +There was another point on which there was no agreement. A large +minority wished to retain Episcopacy, and to keep the common Prayer Book +unaltered, whilst the majority were at least willing to consider the +question of abolishing the one and modifying the other. On this subject +the parties which ultimately divided the House and the country itself +were fully formed as early as the 8th of February 1641. It is enough to +say that (v. under PYM) Hampden fully shared in the counsels of the +opponents of Episcopacy. It is not that he was a theoretical +Presbyterian, but the bishops had been in his days so fully engaged in +the imposition of obnoxious ceremonies that it was difficult, if not +impossible, to dissociate them from the cause in which they were +embarked. Closely connected with Hampden's distrust of the bishops was +his distrust of monarchy as it then existed. The dispute about the +church therefore soon attained the form of an attack upon monarchy, and, +when the majority of the House of Lords arrayed itself on the side of +Episcopacy and the Prayer Book, of an attack upon the House of Lords as +well. + +No serious importance therefore can be attached to the offers of +advancement made from time to time to Hampden and his friends. Charles +would gladly have given them office if they had been ready to desert +their principles. Every day Hampden's conviction grew stronger that +Charles would never abandon the position which he had taken up. In +August 1640 Hampden was one of the four commissioners who attended +Charles in Scotland, and the king's conduct there, connected with such +events as the "Incident," must have proved to a man far less sagacious +than Hampden that the time for compromise had gone by. He was therefore +a warm supporter of the Grand Remonstrance, and was marked out as one of +the five impeached members whose attempted arrest brought at last the +opposing parties into open collision (see also PYM, STRODE, HOLLES and +LENTHALL). In the angry scene which arose on the proposal to print the +Grand Remonstrance, it was Hampden's personal intervention which +prevented an actual conflict, and it was after the impeachment had been +attempted that Hampden laid down the two conditions under which +resistance to the king became the duty of a good subject. Those +conditions were an attack upon religion and an attack upon the +fundamental laws. There can be no doubt that Hampden fully believed that +both those conditions were fulfilled at the opening of 1642. + +When the Civil War began, Hampden was appointed a member of the +committee for safety, levied a regiment of Buckinghamshire men for the +parliamentary cause, and in his capacity of deputy-lieutenant carried +out the parliamentary militia ordinance in the county. In the earlier +operations of the war he bore himself gallantly and well. He took no +actual part in the battle of Edgehill. His troops in the rear, however, +arrested Rupert's charge at Kineton, and he urged Essex to renew the +attack here, and also after the disaster at Brentford. In 1643 he was +present at the siege and capture of Reading. But it is not on his skill +as a regimental officer that Hampden's fame rests. In war as in peace +his distinction lay in his power of disentangling the essential part +from the non-essential. In the previous constitutional struggle he had +seen that the one thing necessary was to establish the supremacy of the +House of Commons. In the military struggle which followed he saw, as +Cromwell saw afterwards, that the one thing necessary was to beat the +enemy. He protested at once against Essex's hesitations and compromises. +In the formation of the confederacy of the six associated counties, +which was to supply a basis for Cromwell's operations, he took an active +part. His influence was felt alike in parliament and in the field. But +he was not in supreme command, and he had none of that impatience which +often leads able men to fail in the execution of orders of which they +disapprove. His precious life was a sacrifice to his unselfish devotion +to the call of discipline and duty. On the 18th of June 1643, when he +was holding out on Chalgrove Field against the superior numbers of +Rupert till reinforcements arrived, he received two carbine balls in the +shoulder. Leaving the field he reached Thame, survived six days, and +died on the 24th. + +Hampden married (1) in 1619 Elizabeth, daughter of Edmund Symeon of +Pyrton, Oxfordshire, and (2) Letitia, daughter of Sir Francis Knollys +and widow of Sir Thomas Vachell. By his first wife he had nine children, +one of whom, Richard (1631-1695) was chancellor of the exchequer in +William III.'s reign; from two of his daughters are descended the +families of Trevor-Hampden and Hobart-Hampden, the descent in the male +line becoming apparently extinct in 1754 in the person of John Hampden. + +JOHN HAMPDEN the younger (c. 1656-1696), the second son of Richard +Hampden, returned to England after residing for about two years in +France, and joined himself to Lord William Russell and Algernon Sidney +and the party opposed to the arbitrary government of Charles II. With +Russell and Sidney he was arrested in 1683 for alleged complicity in the +Rye House Plot, but more fortunate than his colleagues his life was +spared, although as he was unable to pay the fine of Ł40,000 which was +imposed upon him he remained in prison. Then in 1685, after the failure +of Monmouth's rising, Hampden was again brought to trial, and on a +charge of high treason was condemned to death. But the sentence was not +carried out, and having paid Ł6000 he was set at liberty. In the +Convention parliament of 1689 he represented Wendover, but in the +subsequent parliaments he failed to secure a seat. He died by his own +hand on the 12th of December 1696. Hampden wrote numerous pamphlets, and +Bishop Burnet described him as "one of the learnedest gentlemen I ever +knew." + + See S. R. Gardiner's _Hist. of England_ and _of the Great Civil War_; + the article on Hampden in the _Dict. of Nat. Biography_, by C. H. + Firth, with authorities there collected; Clarendon's _Hist. of the + Rebellion_; Sir Philip Warwick's _Mems._ p. 239; Wood's _Ath. Oxon._ + iii. 59; Lord Nugent's _Memorials of John Hampden_ (1831); Macaulay's + _Essay on Hampden_ (1831). The printed pamphlet announcing his capture + of Reading in December 1642 is shown by Mr Firth to be spurious, and + the account in _Mercurius Aulicus_, January 27 and 29, 1643, of + Hampden commanding an attack at Brill, to be also false, while the + published speech supposed to be spoken by Hampden on the 4th of + January 1642, and reproduced by Forster in the _Arrest of the Five + Members_ (1660), has been proved by Gardiner to be a forgery (_Hist. + of England_, x. 135). Mr Firth has also shown in _The Academy_ for + 1889, November 2 and 9, that "the belief that we possess the words of + Hampden's last prayer must be abandoned." + + +FOOTNOTE: + + [1] Hampden was one of the persons to whom the earl of Warwick + granted land in Connecticut, but for the anecdote which relates his + attempted emigration with Cromwell there is no foundation (v. under + JOHN PYM). + + + + +HAMPDEN, RENN DICKSON (1793-1868), English divine, was born in Barbados, +where his father was colonel of militia, in 1793, and was educated at +Oriel College, Oxford. Having taken his B.A. degree with first-class +honours in both classics and mathematics in 1813, he next year obtained +the chancellor's prize for a Latin essay, and shortly afterwards was +elected to a fellowship in his college, Keble, Newman and Arnold being +among his contemporaries. Having left the university in 1816 he held +successively a number of curacies, and in 1827 he published _Essays on +the Philosophical Evidence of Christianity_, followed by a volume of +_Parochial Sermons illustrative of the Importance of the Revelation of +God in Jesus Christ_ (1828). In 1829 he returned to Oxford and was +Bampton lecturer in 1832. Notwithstanding a charge of Arianism now +brought against him by the Tractarian party, he in 1833 passed from a +tutorship at Oriel to the principalship of St Mary's Hall. In 1834 he +was appointed professor of moral philosophy, and despite much university +opposition, Regius professor of divinity in 1836. There resulted a +widespread and violent though ephemeral controversy, after the +subsidence of which he published a _Lecture on Tradition_, which passed +through several editions, and a volume on _The Thirty-nine Articles of +the Church of England_. His nomination by Lord John Russell to the +vacant see of Hereford in December 1847 was again the signal for a +violent and organized opposition; and his consecration in March 1848 +took place in spite of a remonstrance by many of the bishops and the +resistance of Dr John Merewether, the dean of Hereford, who went so far +as to vote against the election when the _congé d'élire_ reached the +chapter. As bishop of Hereford Dr Hampden made no change in his +long-formed habits of studious seclusion, and though he showed no +special ecclesiastical activity or zeal, the diocese certainly prospered +in his charge. Among the more important of his later writings were the +articles on Aristotle, Plato and Socrates, contributed to the eighth +edition of the _Encyclopaedia Britannica_, and afterwards reprinted with +additions under the title of _The Fathers of Greek Philosophy_ +(Edinburgh, 1862). In 1866 he had a paralytic seizure, and died in +London on the 23rd of April 1868. + + His daughter, Henrietta Hampden, published _Some Memorials of R. D. + Hampden_ in 1871. + + + + +HAMPDEN-SIDNEY, a village of Prince Edward county, Virginia, U.S.A., +about 70 m. S.W. of Richmond. Pop. about 350. Daily stages connect the +village with Farmville (pop. in 1910, 2971), the county-seat, 6 m. N.E., +which is served by the Norfolk & Western and the Tidewater & Western +railways. Hampden-Sidney is the seat of Hampden-Sidney College, founded +by the presbytery of Hanover county as Hampden-Sidney Academy in 1776, +and named in honour of John Hampden and Algernon Sidney. It was +incorporated as Hampden-Sidney College in 1783. The incorporators +included James Madison, Patrick Henry (who is believed to have drafted +the college charter), Paul Carrington, William Cabell, Sen., and +Nathaniel Venable. The Union Theological School was established in +connexion with the college in 1812, but in 1898 was removed to Richmond, +Virginia. In 1907-1908 the college had 8 instructors, 125 students, and +a library of 11,000 volumes. The college has maintained a high standard +of instruction, and many of its former students have been prominent as +public men, educationalists and preachers. Among them were President +William Henry Harrison, William H. Cabell (1772-1853), president of the +Virginia Court of Appeals; George M. Bibb (1772-1859), secretary of the +treasury (1844-1845) in President Tyler's cabinet; William B. Preston +(1805-1862), secretary of the navy in 1849-1850; William Cabell Rives +and General Sterling Price (1809-1867). + + + + +HAMPSHIRE (or COUNTY OR SOUTHAMPTON, abbreviated Hants), a southern +county of England, bounded N. by Berkshire, E. by Surrey and Sussex, S. +by the English Channel, and W. by Dorsetshire and Wiltshire. The area is +1623.5 sq. m. From the coast of the mainland, which is for the most part +low and irregular, a strait, known in its western part as the Solent, +and in its eastern as Spithead, separates the Isle of Wight. This island +is included in the county. The inlet of Southampton Water opens from +this strait, penetrating inland in a north-westerly direction for 12 m. +The easterly part of the coast forms a large shallow bay containing +Hayling and Portsea Islands, which divide it into Chichester Harbour, +Langston Harbour and Portsmouth Harbour. The westerly part forms the +more regular indentations of Christchurch Bay and part of Poole Bay. In +its general aspect Hampshire presents a beautiful variety of gently +rising hills and fruitful valleys, adorned with numerous mansions and +pleasant villages, and interspersed with extensive tracts of woodland. +Low ranges of hills, included in the system to which the general name of +the Western Downs is given, reach their greatest elevation in the +northern and eastern parts of the county, where there are many +picturesque eminences, of which Beacon, Sidown and Pilot hills near +Highclere in the north-west, each exceeding 850 ft., are the highest. +The portion of the county west of Southampton Water is almost wholly +included in the New Forest, a sequestered district, one of the few +remaining examples of an ancient afforested tract. The river Avon in the +south-west rises in Wiltshire, and passing Fordingbridge and Ringwood +falls into Christchurch Bay below Christchurch, being joined close to +its mouth by the Stour. The Lymington or Boldre river rises in the New +Forest, and after collecting the waters of several brooks falls into the +Solent through Lymington Creek. The Beaulieu in the eastern part of the +forest also enters the Solent by way of a long and picturesque estuary. +The Test rises near Overton in the north, and after its junction with +the Anton at Fullerton passes Stockbridge and Romsey, and enters the +head of Southampton Water. The Itchen rises near Alresford, and flowing +by Winchester and Eastleigh falls into Southampton Water east of +Southampton. The Hamble rises near Bishops Waltham, and soon forms a +narrow estuary opening into Southampton Water. The Wey, the Loddon and +the Blackwater, rising in the north-eastern part of the county, bring +that part into the basin of the Thames. The streams from the chalk hills +run clear and swift, and the trout-fishing in the county is famous. +Salmon are taken in the Avon. + + _Geology._--Somewhat to the north of the centre of the county is a + broad expanse of hilly chalk country about 21 m. wide; the whole of it + has been bent up into a great fold so that the strata on the north dip + northward steeply in places, while those on the south dip in the + opposite direction more gently. In the north the chalk disappears + beneath Tertiary strata of the "London Basin," and some little + distance south of Winchester it runs in a similar manner beneath the + Tertiaries of the "Hampshire Basin." Scattered here and there over the + chalk are small outlying remnants which remain to show that the two + Tertiary areas were once continuous, before the agencies of denudation + had removed them from the chalk. These same agencies have exposed the + strata beneath the chalk over a small area on the eastern border. + + The oldest formation in Hampshire is the Lower Greensand in the + neighbourhood of Woolmer Forest and Petersfield; it is represented by + the Hythe beds, sandstones and limestones which form the high ridge + which runs on towards Hind Head, then by the sands and clays of the + Sandgate beds which lie in the low ground west of the ridge, and + finally by the Folkestone beds; all these dip westward beneath the + Gault. The last-named formation, a clay, worked here and there for + bricks, crops out as a narrow band from Fareham through Worldham and + Stroud common to Petersfield. Between the Gault and the chalk is the + Upper Greensand with a hard bed of calcareous sandstone, the Malm + rock, which stands up in places as a prominent escarpment. The Upper + Greensand is also exposed at Burghclere as an inlier; the rocks are + bent into a sharp anticline and the chalk, having been denuded from + its crest, the older sandy strata are brought to light. A much more + gentle anticline brings up the chalk through the Tertiary rocks in the + neighbourhood of Fareham. Besides occupying the central region already + mentioned, which includes Basingstoke, Whitchurch, Andover, Alresford + and Winchester, the chalk appears also in a small patch round + Rockbourne. The Tertiary rocks of the north (London basin) about + Farnborough, Aldershot and Kingsclere, comprise the Reading beds, + London clay and the more sandy Bagshot beds which cover the latter in + many places, giving rise to heathy commons. The southern Tertiary + rocks of the Hampshire basin include the Lower Eocene Reading + beds--used for brick-making--and the London clay which extend from the + boundary of the chalk by Romsey, Bishop's Waltham, to Havant. These + are succeeded towards the south by the Upper Eocene beds, the + Bracklesham beds and the Barton clay. The Barton clays are noted for + their abundant fossils and the Bagshot beds at Bournemouth contain + numerous remains of subtropical plants. A series of clays and sands of + Oligocene age (unknown in the London basin) are found in the vicinity + of Lymington, Brockenhurst and Beaulieu; they include the Headon beds, + with a fluvio-marine fauna, well exposed at Hordwell cliffs, and the + marine beds of Brockenhurst. Numerous small outliers of Tertiary rocks + are scattered over the chalk area, and many of the chalk and Tertiary + areas are obscured by patches of Pleistocene deposits of brick earth + and gravel. + + _Agriculture and Industries._--Nearly seven-tenths of the total area + is under cultivation (an amount below the average of English counties) + and of this area about two-fifths is in permanent pasture. The acreage + under oats is roughly equal to that under wheat and barley. Small + quantities of rye and hops are cultivated. Barley is usually sown + after turnips, and is more grown in the uplands than in the lower + levels. Beans, pease and potatoes are only grown to a small extent. On + account of the number of sheep pastured on the uplands a large acreage + of turnips is grown. Rotation grasses are grown chiefly in the + uplands, and their acreage is greater than in any other of the + southern counties of England. Sanfoin is the grass most largely grown, + as it is best adapted to land with a calcareous subsoil. In the lower + levels no sanfoin and scarcely any clover is grown, the hay being + supplied from the rich water meadows, which are managed with great + skill and attention, and give the best money return of any lands in + the county. Where a rapid stream of water can be passed over them + during the winter it seldom becomes frozen, and the grasses grow + during the cold weather so as to be fit for pasture before any traces + of vegetation appear in the surrounding fields. Hops are grown in the + eastern part of the county bordering on Surrey. Farming is generally + conducted on the best modern principles, but owing to the varieties of + soil there is perhaps no county in England in which the rotation + observed is more diversified, or the processes and methods more + varied. Most of the farms are large, and there are a number of model + farms. The waste land has been mostly brought under tillage, but a + very large acreage of the ancient forests is still occupied by wood. + In addition to the New Forest there are in the east Woolmer Forest and + Alice Holt, in the south-east the Forest of Bere and Waltham Chase, + and in the Isle of Wight Parkhurst Forest. The honey of the county is + especially celebrated. Much attention is paid to the rearing of sheep + and cattle. The original breed of sheep was white-faced with horns, + but most of the flocks are now of a Southdown variety which have + acquired certain distinct peculiarities, and are known as "short + wools" or "Hampshire downs." Cattle are of no distinctive breed, and + are kept largely for dairy purposes, especially for the supply of + milk. The breeding and rearing of horses is widely practised, and the + fattening of pigs has long been an important industry. The original + breed of pigs is crossed with Berkshire, Essex and Chinese pigs. In + the vicinity of the forest the pigs are fed on acorns and beechmast, + and the flesh of those so reared is considered the best, though the + reputation of Hampshire bacon depends chiefly on the skilful manner in + which it is cured. + + The manufactures are unimportant, except those carried on at + Portsmouth and Gosport in connexion with the royal navy. Southampton + is one of the principal ports in the kingdom. In many of the towns + there are breweries and tanneries, and paper is manufactured at + several places. Fancy pottery and terra-cotta are made at Fareham and + Bishop's Waltham; and Ringwood is celebrated for its knitted gloves. + At most of the coast towns fishing is carried on, and there are oyster + beds at Hayling Island. Cowes in the Isle of Wight is the station of + the Royal Yacht Squadron, and has building yards for yachts and large + vessels. The principal seaside resorts besides those in the Isle of + Wight are Bournemouth, Milford, Lee-on-the-Solent, Southsea and South + Hayling. Aldershot is the principal military training centre in the + British Isles. + + _Communications._--Communications are provided mainly by the lines of + the London & South-Western railway company, which also owns the docks + at Southampton. The main line serves Farnborough, Basingstoke, + Whitchurch and Andover, and a branch diverges southward from + Basingstoke for Winchester, Southampton and the New Forest and + Bournemouth. An alternative line from eastward to Winchester serves + Aldershot, Alton and Alresford. The main Portsmouth line skirts the + south-eastern border by Petersfield to Havant, where it joins the + Portsmouth line of the London, Brighton & South Coast railway. The + South-Western system also connects Portsmouth and Gosport with + Southampton, has numerous branches in the Southampton and + south-western districts, and large work shops at Eastleigh near + Southampton. The Great Western company serves Basingstoke from Reading + and Whitchurch, Winchester and Southampton from Didcot (working the + Didcot, Newbury & Southampton line); the Midland & South-Western + Junction line connects Andover with Cheltenham; and the Somerset & + Dorset (also a Midland & South-Western joint line) connects + Bournemouth with Bath--all these affording through communications + between Southampton, Bournemouth, and the midlands and north of + England. None of the rivers, except in the estuarine parts, is + navigable. + + _Population and Administration._--The area of the ancient county is + 1,039,031 acres, including the Isle of Wight. The population was + 690,097 in 1891 and 797,634 in 1901. The area of the administrative + county of Southampton is 958,742 acres, and that of the administrative + county of the Isle of Wight 94,068 acres. The county is divided for + parliamentary purposes into the following divisions: Northern or + Basingstoke, Western or Andover, Eastern or Petersfield, Southern or + Fareham, New Forest, and Isle of Wight, each returning one member. It + also includes the parliamentary boroughs of Portsmouth and + Southampton, each returning two members, and of Christchurch and + Winchester, each returning one. There are 11 municipal boroughs: + Andover (pop. 6509), Basingstoke (9793), Bournemouth (59,762), + Christchurch (4204), Lymington (4165), Portsmouth (188,133), Romsey + (4365), Southampton (104,824), Winchester (20,929), and in the Isle of + Wight, Newport (10,911) and Ryde (11,043). Bournemouth, Portsmouth and + Southampton are county boroughs. The following are urban districts: + Aldershot (30,974), Alton (5479), Eastleigh and Bishopstoke (9317), + Fareham (8246), Farnborough (11,500), Gosport and Alverstoke (28,884), + Havant (3837), Itchen (13,097), Petersfield (3265), Warblington + (3639); and in the Isle of Wight, Cowes (8652), East Cowes (3196), St + Helen's (4652), Sandown (5006), Shanklin (4533), Ventnor (5866). The + county is in the western circuit, and assizes are held at Winchester. + It has one court of quarter sessions, and is divided into 14 petty + sessional divisions. The boroughs of Andover, Basingstoke, + Bournemouth, Lymington, Newport, Portsmouth, Romsey, Ryde, Southampton + (a county in itself) and Winchester have separate commissions of the + peace, and the boroughs of Andover, Bournemouth, Portsmouth, + Southampton and Winchester have in addition separate courts of quarter + sessions. There are 394 civil parishes. Hampshire is in the diocese of + Winchester, excepting small parts in those of Oxford and Salisbury, + and contains 411 ecclesiastical parishes or districts wholly or in + part. + +_History._--The earliest English settlers in the district which is now +Hampshire were a Jutish tribe who occupied the northern parts of the +Isle of Wight and the valleys of the Meon and the Hamble. Their +settlements were, however, unimportant, and soon became absorbed in the +territory of the West Saxons who in 495 landed at the mouth of the +Itchen under the leadership of Cerdic and Cynric, and in 508 slew 5000 +Britons and their king. But it was not until after another decisive +victory at Charford in 519 that the district was definitely organized as +West Saxon territory under the rule of Cerdic and Cynric, thus becoming +the nucleus of the vast later kingdom of Wessex. The Isle of Wight was +subjugated in 530 and bestowed on Stuf and Wihtgar, the nephews of +Cerdic. The Northmen made their first attack on the Hampshire coast in +835, and for the two centuries following the district was the scene of +perpetual devastations by the Danish pirates, who made their +headquarters in the Isle of Wight, from which they plundered the +opposite coast. Hampshire suffered less from the Conquest than almost +any English county, and was a favourite resort of the Norman kings. The +alleged destruction of property for the formation of the New Forest is +refuted by the Domesday record, which shows that this district had never +been under cultivation. + +In the civil war of Stephen's reign Baldwin de Redvers, lord of the Isle +of Wight, supported the empress Matilda, and Winchester Castle was +secured in her behalf by Robert of Gloucester, while the neighbouring +fortress of Wolvesey was held for Stephen by Bishop Henry de Blois. In +1216 Louis of France, having arrived in the county by invitation of the +barons, occupied Winchester Castle, and only met with resistance at +Odiham Castle, which made a brave stand against him for fifteen days. +During the Wars of the Roses Anthony Woodville, 2nd earl Rivers, +defeated the duke of Clarence at Southampton, and in 1471, after the +battle of Barnet, the countess of Warwick took sanctuary at Beaulieu +Abbey. The chief events connected with Hampshire in the Civil War of the +17th century were the gallant resistance of the cavalier garrisons at +Winchester and Basing House; a skirmish near Cheriton in 1644 notable as +the last battle fought on Hampshire soil; and the concealment of Charles +at Titchfield in 1647 before his removal to Carisbrooke. The duke of +Monmouth, whose rebellion met with considerable support in Hampshire, +was captured in 1685 near Ringwood. + +Hampshire was among the earliest shires to be created, and must have +received its name before the revival of Winchester in the latter half of +the 7th century. It is first mentioned in the Saxon chronicle in 755, at +which date the boundaries were practically those of the present day. The +Domesday Survey mentions 44 hundreds in Hampshire, but by the 14th +century the number had been reduced to 37. The hundreds of East Medina +and West Medina in the Isle of Wight are mentioned in 1316. Constables +of the hundreds were first appointed by the Statute of Winchester in +1285, and the hundred court continued to elect a high constable for +Fordingbridge until 1878. The chief court of the Isle of Wight was the +Knighten court held at Newport every three weeks. The sheriff's court +and the assizes and quarter sessions for the county were formerly held +at Winchester, but in 1831 the county was divided into 14 petty +sessional divisions; the quarter sessions for the county were held at +Andover; and Portsmouth, Southampton and Winchester had separate +jurisdiction. Southampton was made a county by itself with a separate +sheriff in 1447. + +In the middle of the 7th century Hampshire formed part of the West Saxon +bishopric of Dorchester-on-Thames. On the transference of the episcopal +seat to Winchester in 676 it was included in that diocese in which it +has remained ever since. In 1291 the archdeaconry of Winchester was +coextensive with the county and comprised the ten rural deaneries of +Alresford, Alton, Andover, Basingstoke, Drokinsford, Fordingbridge, Isle +of Wight, Sombourne, Southampton and Winchester. In 1850 the Isle of +Wight was subdivided into the deaneries of East Medina and West Medina. +In 1856 the deaneries were increased to 24. In 1871 the archdeaconry of +the Isle of Wight was constituted, and about the same time the deaneries +were reduced to 21. In 1892 the deaneries were reconstituted and made 18 +in number, and the archdeaconry of the Isle of Wight was divided into +the deaneries of East Wight and West Wight. + +After the Conquest the most powerful Hampshire baron was William +Fitz-Osbern, who in addition to the lordship of the Isle of Wight held +considerable estates on the mainland. At the time of the Domesday Survey +the chief landholders were Hugh de Port, ancestor of the Fitz-Johns; +Ralf de Mortimer; William Mauduit whose name is preserved in Hartley +Mauditt; and Waleran, called the Huntsman, ancestor of the Waleraund +family. Hursley near Winchester was the seat of Richard Cromwell; and +Gilbert White, the naturalist, was curate of Farringdon near Selborne. + +Apart from the valuable foreign and shipbuilding trade which grew up +with the development of its ports, Hampshire has always been mainly an +agricultural county, the only important manufacture being that of wool +and cloth, which prospered at Winchester in the 12th century and +survived till within recent years. Salt-making and the manufacture of +iron from native ironstone also flourished in Hampshire from pre-Norman +times until within the 19th century. In the 14th century Southampton had +a valuable trade with Venice, and from the 15th to the 18th century many +famous warships were constructed in its docks. Silk-weaving was formerly +carried on at Winchester, Andover, Odiham, Alton, Whitchurch and +Overton, the first mills being set up in 1684 at Southampton by French +refugees. The paper manufacture at Laverstoke was started by the +Portals, a family of Huguenot refugees, in 1685, and a few years later +Henri de Portal obtained the privilege of supplying the bank-note paper +to the Bank of England. + +Hampshire returned four members to parliament in 1295, when the boroughs +of New Alresford, Alton, Andover, Basingstoke, Overton, Portsmouth, +Southampton, Winchester, Yarmouth and Newport were also represented. +After this date the county was represented by two members, but most of +the boroughs ceased to make returns. Odiham and the Isle of Wight were +represented in 1300, Fareham in 1306, and Petersfield in 1307. From 1311 +to 1547 Southampton, Portsmouth, and Winchester were the only boroughs +represented. By the end of the 16th century Petersfield, Newport, +Yarmouth, and Andover had regained representation, and Stockbridge, +Christchurch, Lymington, Newtown and Whitchurch returned two members +each, giving the county with its boroughs a total representation of 26 +members. Under the Reform Act of 1832 the county returned four members +in four divisions; Christchurch and Petersfield lost one member each; +and Newtown, Yarmouth, Stockbridge and Whitchurch were disfranchised. By +the act of 1868 Andover, Lymington and Newport were deprived of one +member each. + +_Antiquities._--Hampshire is rich in monastic remains. Those considered +under separate headings include the monastery of Hyde near Winchester, +the magnificent churches at Christchurch and Romsey, the ruins of Netley +Abbey, and of Beaulieu Abbey in the New Forest, the fragments of the +priory of St Denys, Southampton, the church at Porchester and the slight +ruins at Titchfield, near Fareham, and Quarr Abbey in the Isle of Wight. +Other foundations, of which the remains are slight, were the Augustinian +priory of Southwick near Fareham, founded by William of Wykeham; that of +Breamore, founded by Baldwin de Redvers, and that of Mottisfont near +Romsey, endowed soon after the Conquest. There are many churches of +interest, apart from the cathedral church of Winchester and those in +some of the towns in the Isle of Wight, or already mentioned in +connexion with monastic foundations. Pre-Conquest work is well shown in +the churches of Corhampton and Breamore, and very early masonry is also +found in Headbourne Worthy church, where is also a brass of the 15th +century to a scholar of Winchester College in collegiate dress. The most +noteworthy Norman churches are at Chilcombe and Kingsclere and (with +Early English additions) at Brockenhurst, Upper Clatford, which has the +unusual arrangement of a double chancel arch, Hambledon, Milford and +East Meon. Principally Early English are the churches of Cheriton, +Grately, which retains some excellent contemporary stained glass from +Salisbury cathedral; Sopley, which is partly Perpendicular; and +Thruxton, which contains a brass to Sir John Lisle (d. 1407), affording +a very early example of complete plate armour. Specimens of the later +styles are generally less remarkable. The frescoes in Bramley church, +ranging in date from the 13th to the 15th century, include a +representation of the murder of Thomas ŕ Beckett. A fine series of +Norman fonts in black marble should be mentioned; they occur in +Winchester cathedral and the churches of St Michael, Southampton, East +Meon and St Mary Bourne. + +The most notable old castles are Carisbrooke in the Isle of Wight; +Porchester, a fine Norman stronghold embodying Roman remains, on +Portsmouth Harbour; and Hurst, guarding the mouth of the Solent, where +for a short time Charles I. was imprisoned. Henry VIII. built several +forts to guard the Solent, Spithead and Southampton Water; Hurst Castle +was one, and others remaining, but adapted to various purposes, are at +Cowes, Calshot and Netley. Fine mansions are unusually numerous. That of +Stratfieldsaye or Strathfieldsaye, which belonged to the Pitt family, +was purchased by parliament for presentation to the duke of Wellington +in 1817, his descendants holding the estate from the Crown in +consideration of the annual tribute of a flag to the guard-room at +Windsor. A statue of the duke stands in the grounds, and his war-horse +"Copenhagen" is buried here. The name of Tichborne Park, near Alresford, +is well known in connexion with the famous claimant of the estates whose +case was heard in 1871. Among ancient mansions the Jacobean Bramshill is +conspicuous, lying near Stratfieldsaye in the north of the county. It is +built of stone and is highly decorated, and though the complete original +design was not carried out the house is among the finest of its type in +England. At Bishops Waltham, a small town 10 m. S.S.E. of Winchester, +Henry de Blois, bishop of Winchester, erected a palace, which received +additions from William of Wykeham, who died here in 1404, and from other +bishops. The ruins are picturesque but not extensive. + + See _Victoria County History_, "Hampshire," R. Warner, _Collections + for the History of Hampshire_; &c. (London, 1789); H. Moody, + _Hampshire in 1086_ (1862), and the same author's _Antiquarian and + Topographical Sketches_ (1846), and _Notes and Essays relating to the + Counties of Hants and Wilts_ (1851); R. Mudie, _Hampshire_, &c. (3 + vols., Winchester, 1838); B. B. Woodward, T. C. Wilks and C. Lockhart, + _General History of Hampshire_ (1861-1869); G. N. Godwin, _The Civil + War in Hampshire, 1642-1645_ (London, 1882); H. M. Gilbert and G. N. + Godwin, _Bibliotheca Hantoniensis_ (Southampton, 1891). See also + various papers in _Hampshire Notes and Queries_ (Winchester, 1883 et + seq.). + + + + +HAMPSTEAD, a north-western metropolitan borough of London, England, +bounded E. by St Pancras and S. by St Marylebone, and extending N. and +W. to the boundary of the county of London. Pop. (1901), 81,942. The +name, _Hamstede_, is synonymous with "homestead," and the manor is first +named in a charter of Edgar (957-975), and was granted to the abbey of +Westminster by Ethelred in 986. It reverted to the Crown in 1550, and +had various owners until the close of the 18th century, when it came to +Sir Thomas Spencer Wilson, whose descendants retain it. The borough +includes the sub-manor of Belsize and part of the hamlet of Kilburn. + +The surface of the ground is sharply undulating, an elevated spur +extending south-west from the neighbourhood of Highgate, and turning +south through Hampstead. It reaches a height of 443 ft. above the level +of the Thames. The Edgware Road bounds Hampstead on the west; and the +borough is intersected, parallel to this thoroughfare, by Finchley Road, +and by Haverstock Hill, which, continued under the names of Rosslyn +Hill, High Street, Heath Street, and North End, crosses the Heath for +which Hampstead is chiefly celebrated. This is a fine open space of +about 240 acres, including in its bounds the summit of Hampstead Hill. +It is a sandy tract, in parts well wooded, diversified with several +small sheets of water, and to a great extent preserves its natural +characteristics unaltered. Beautiful views, both near and distant, are +commanded from many points. Of all the public grounds within London this +is the most valuable to the populace at large; the number of visitors on +a Bank holiday in August is generally, under favourable conditions, +about 100,000; and strenuous efforts are always forthcoming from either +public or private bodies when the integrity of the Heath is in any way +menaced. As early as 1829 attempts to save it from the builder are +recorded. In 1871 its preservation as an open space was insured after +several years' dispute, when the lord of the manor gave up his rights. +An act of parliament transferred the ownership to the Metropolitan Board +of Works, to which body the London County Council succeeded. The Heath +is continued eastward in Parliament Hill (borough of St Pancras), +acquired for the public in 1890; and westward outside the county +boundary in Golders Hill, owned by Sir Spenser Wells, Bart., until 1898. +A Protection Society guards the preservation of the natural beauty and +interests of the Heath. It is not the interests of visitors alone that +must be consulted, for Hampstead, adding to its other attractions a +singularly healthy climate, has long been a favourite residential +quarter, especially for lawyers, artists and men of letters. Among +famous residents are found the first earl of Chatham, John Constable, +George Romney, George du Maurier, Joseph Butler, author of the +_Analogy_, Sir Richard Steele, John Keats, the sisters Joanna and Agnes +Baillie, Leigh Hunt and many others. The parish church of St John (1747) +has several monuments of eminent persons. Chatham's residence was at +North End, a picturesque quarter yet preserving characteristics of a +rural village; here also Wilkie Collins was born. Three old-established +inns, the Bull and Bush, the Spaniards, and Jack Straw's Castle (the +name of which has no historical significance), claim many great names +among former visitors; while the Upper Flask Inn, now a private house, +was the meeting-place of the Kit-Cat Club. Chalybeate springs were +discovered at Hampstead in the 17th century, and early in the 18th +rivalled those of Tunbridge Wells and Epsom. The name of Well Walk +recalls them, but their fame is lost. There are others at Kilburn. + +In the south-east Hampstead includes the greater part of Primrose Hill, +a public ground adjacent to the north side of Regent's Park. The borough +has in all about 350 acres of open spaces. The name of the sub-manor of +Belsize is preserved in several streets in the central part. Kilburn, +which as a district extends outside the borough, takes name from a +stream which, as the Westbourne, entered the Thames at Chelsea. Fleet +Road similarly recalls the more famous stream which washed the walls of +the City of London on the west. Hampstead has numerous charitable +institutions, amongst which are the North London consumptive hospital, +the Orphan Working School, Haverstock Hill (1758), the general hospital +and the north-western fever hospital. In Finchley Road are the New and +Hackney Colleges, both Congregational. The parliamentary borough of +Hampstead returns one member. The borough council consists of a mayor, 7 +aldermen and 42 councillors. Area, 2265 acres. + + + + +HAMPTON, WADE (1818-1902), American cavalry leader was born on the 28th +of March 1818 at Columbia, South Carolina, the son of Wade Hampton +(1791-1858), one of the wealthiest planters in the South, and the +grandson of Wade Hampton (1754-1835), a captain in the War of +Independence and a brigadier-general in the War of 1812. He graduated +(1836) at South Carolina College, and was trained for the law. He +devoted himself, however, to the management of his great plantations in +South Carolina and in Mississippi, and took part in state politics and +legislation. Though his own views were opposed to the prevailing +state-rights tone of South Carolinian opinion, he threw himself heartily +into the Southern cause in 1861, raising a mixed command known as +"Hampton's Legion," which he led at the first battle of Bull Run. During +the Civil War he served in the main with the Army of Northern Virginia +in Stuart's cavalry corps. After Stuart's death Hampton distinguished +himself greatly in opposing Sheridan in the Shenandoah Valley, and was +made lieutenant-general to command Lee's whole force of cavalry. In 1865 +he assisted Joseph Johnston in the attempt to prevent Sherman's advance +through the Carolinas. After the war his attitude was conciliatory and +he recommended a frank acceptance by the South of the war's political +consequences. He was governor of his state in 1876-1879, being installed +after a memorable contest; he served in the United States Senate in +1879-1891, and was United States commissioner of Pacific railways in +1893-1897. He died on the 11th of April 1902. + + See E. L. Wells, _Hampton and Reconstruction_ (Columbia, S. C., 1907). + + + + +HAMPTON, an urban district in the Uxbridge parliamentary division of +Middlesex, England, 15 m. S.W. of St Paul's cathedral, London, on the +river Thames, served by the London & South Western railway. Pop. (1901), +6813. Close to the river, a mile below the town, stands Hampton Court +Palace, one of the finest extant specimens of Tudor architecture, and +formerly a royal residence. It was erected by Cardinal Wolsey, who in +1515 received a lease of the old mansion and grounds for 99 years. As +the splendour of the building seemed to awaken the cupidity of Henry +VIII., Wolsey in 1526 thought it prudent to make him a present of it. It +became Henry's favourite residence, and he made several additions to the +building, including the great hall and chapel in the Gothic style. Of +the original five quadrangles only two now remain, but a third was +erected by Sir Christopher Wren for William III. In 1649 a great sale of +the effects of the palace took place by order of parliament, and later +the manor itself was sold to a private owner but immediately after came +into the hands of Cromwell; and Hampton Court continued to be one of the +principal residences of the English sovereigns until the time of George +II. It was the birthplace of Edward VI., and the meeting-place (1604) of +the conference held in the reign of James I. to settle the dispute +between the Presbyterians and the state clergy. William III., riding in +the grounds, met with the accident which resulted in his death. It is +now partly occupied by persons of rank in reduced circumstances; but the +state apartments and picture galleries are open to the public, as is +the home park. The gardens, with their ornamental waters, are +beautifully laid out in the Dutch style favoured by William III., and +contain a magnificent vine planted in 1768. In the enclosure north of +the palace, called the Wilderness, is the Maze, a favourite resort. +North again lies Bushey Park, a royal demesne exceeding 1000 acres in +extent. It is much frequented, especially in early summer, when its +triple avenue of horse-chestnut trees is in blossom. + +Among several residences in the vicinity of Hampton is Garrick Villa, +once, under the name of Hampton House, the residence of David Garrick +the actor. Sir Christopher Wren and Sir Richard Steele are among famous +former residents. Hampton Wick, on the river E. of Bushey Park, is an +urban district with a population (1901) of 2606. + + See E. Law, _History of Hampton Court Palace_ (London, 1890). + + + + +HAMPTON, a city and the county-seat of Elizabeth City county, Virginia, +U.S.A., at the mouth of the James river, on Hampton Roads, about 15 m. +N.W. of Norfolk. Pop. (1890), 2513; (1900) 2764, including 1249 negroes; +(1910) 5505. It is served by the Chesapeake & Ohio railway, and by +trolley lines to Old Point Comfort and Newport News. Hampton is an +agricultural shipping point, ships fish, oysters and canned crabs, and +manufactures fish oil and brick. In the city are St John's church, built +in 1727; a national cemetery, a national soldiers' home (between Phoebus +and Hampton), which in 1907-1908 cared for 4093 veterans and had an +average attendance of 2261; and the Hampton Normal and Agricultural +Institute (coeducational), which was opened by the American Missionary +Association in 1868 for the education of negroes. This last was +chartered and became independent of any denominational control in 1870, +and was superintended by Samuel Chapman Armstrong (q.v.) from 1868 to +1893. The school was opened in 1878 to Indians, whose presence has been +of distinct advantage to the negro, showing him, says Booker T. +Washington, the most famous graduate of the school, that the negro race +is not alone in its struggle for improvement. The National government +pays $167 a year for the support of each of the Indian students. The +underlying idea of the Institute is such industrial training as will +make the pupil a willing and a good workman, able to teach his trade to +others; and the school's graduates include the heads of other successful +negro industrial schools, the organizers of agricultural and industrial +departments in Southern public schools and teachers in graded negro +schools. The mechanism of the school includes three schemes: that of +"work students," who work during the day throughout the year and attend +night school for eight months; that of day school students, who attend +school for four or five days and do manual work for one or two days each +week; and that of trade students, who receive trade instruction in their +daily eight-hours' work and study in night school as well. Agriculture +in one or more of its branches is taught to all, including the four or +five hundred children of the Whittier school, a practice school with +kindergarten and primary classes. Graduate courses are given in +agriculture, business, domestic art and science, library methods, +"matrons'" training, and public school teaching. The girl students are +trained in every branch of housekeeping, cooking, dairying and +gardening. The institute publishes _The Southern Workman_, a monthly +magazine devoted to the interests of the Negro and the Indian and other +backward races. In 1908 the Institute had more than 100 buildings and +188 acres of land S.W. of the national cemetery and on Hampton river and +Jones Creek, and 600 acres at Shellbanks, a stock farm 6 m. away; the +enrolment was 21 in graduate classes, 372 in day school, 489 in night +school and 524 in the Whittier school. Of the total, 88 were Indians. + +Hampton was settled in 1610 on the site of an Indian village, +Kecoughtan, a name it long retained, and was represented at the first +meeting (1619) of the Virginia House of Burgesses. It was fired by the +British during the War of 1812 and by the Confederates under General J. +B. Magruder in August 1861. During the Civil War there was a large Union +hospital here, the building of the Chesapeake Female College, erected in +1857, being used for this purpose. Hampton was incorporated as a town +in 1887, and in 1908 became a city of the second class. + + + + +HAMPTON ROADS, a channel through which the waters of the James, +Nansemond and Elizabeth rivers of Virginia, U.S.A., pass (between Old +Point Comfort to the N. and Sewell's Point to the S.) into Chesapeake +Bay. It is an important highway of commerce, especially for the cities +of Norfolk, Portsmouth and Newport News, and is the chief rendezvous of +the United States navy. For a width of 500 ft. the Federal government +during 1902-1905 increased its minimum depth at low water from 25˝ ft. +to 30 ft. The entrance from Chesapeake Bay is defended by Fortress +Monroe on Old Point Comfort and by Fort Wood on a small island called +the Rip Raps near the middle of the channel; and at Portsmouth, a few +miles up the Elizabeth river, is an important United States navy-yard. + +Hampton Roads is famous in history as the scene of the first engagement +between iron-clad vessels. In the spring of 1861 the Federals set fire +to several war vessels in the Gosport navy yard on the Elizabeth river +and abandoned the place. In June the Confederates set to work to raise +one of these abandoned vessels, the frigate "Merrimac" of 3500 tons and +40 guns, and to rebuild it as an iron-clad. The vessel (renamed the +"Virginia" though it is generally known in history by its original name) +was first cut down to the water-line and upon her hull was built a +rectangular casemate, constructed of heavy timber (24 in. in thickness), +covered with bar-iron 4 in. thick, and rising from the water on each +side at an angle of about 35°. The iron plating extended 2 ft. below the +water line; and beyond the casemate, toward the bow, was a cast-iron +pilot house, extending 3 ft. above the deck. The reconstruction of the +vessel was completed on the 5th of March 1862. The vessel drew 22 ft. of +water, was equipped with poor engines, so that it could not make more +than 5 knots, and was so unwieldy that it could not be turned in less +than 30 minutes. It was armed with 10 guns--2 (rifled) 7 in., 2 (rifled) +6 in., and 6 (smooth bore Dahlgren) 9 in. Her most powerful equipment, +however, was her 18 in. cast-iron ram. In October 1861 Captain John +Ericsson, an engineer, and a Troy (N.Y.) firm, as builders, began the +construction of the iron-clad "Monitor" for the Federals, at Greenpoint, +Long Island. With a view to enable this vessel to carry at good speed +the thickest possible armour compatible with buoyancy, Ericsson reduced +the exposed surface to the least possible area. Accordingly, the vessel +was built so low in the water that the waves glided easily over its deck +except at the middle, where was constructed a revolving turret[1] for +the guns, and though the vessel's iron armour had a thickness of 1 in. +on the deck, 5 in. on the side, and 8 in. on the turret, its draft was +only 10 ft. 6 in., or less than one-half that of the "Merrimac." Its +turret, 9 ft. high and 20 ft. in inside diameter, seemed small for its +length of 172 ft. and its breadth of 41 ft. 6 in., and this, with the +lowness of its freeboard, caused the vessel to be called the "Yankee +cheese-box on a raft." Forward of the turret was the iron pilot house, +square in shape, and rising about 4 ft. above the deck. The "Monitor's" +displacement was about 1200 tons and her armament was two 11 in. +Dahlgren guns; her crew numbered 58, while that of the "Merrimac" +numbered about 300. She was seaworthy in the shallow waters off the +southern coasts and steered fairly well. The "Monitor" was launched at +Greenpoint, Long Island, on the 30th of January, and was turned over to +the government on the 19th of the following month. The building of the +two vessels was practically a race between the two combatants. + +On the 8th of March about 1 P.M., the "Merrimac," commanded by Commodore +Franklin Buchanan (1795-1871), steamed down the Elizabeth accompanied by +two one-gun gun-boats, to engage the wooden fleet of the Federals, +consisting of the frigate "Congress," 50 guns, and the sloop +"Cumberland," 30 guns, both sailing vessels, anchored off Newport News, +and the steam frigates "Minnesota," and "Roanoke," the sailing frigate +"St Lawrence," and several gun-boats, anchored off Fortress Monroe. +Actual firing began about 2 o'clock, when the "Merrimac" was nearly a +mile from the "Congress" and the "Cumberland." Passing the first of +these vessels with terrific broadsides, the "Merrimac" rammed the +"Cumberland" and then turned her fire again on the "Congress," which in +an attempt to escape ran aground and was there under fire from three +other Confederate gun-boats which had meanwhile joined the "Merrimac." +About 3.30 P.M. the "Cumberland," which, while it steadily careened, had +been keeping up a heavy fire at the Confederate vessels, sank, with "her +pennant still flying from the topmast above the waves." Between 4 and +4.30 the "Congress," having been raked fore and aft for nearly an hour +by the "Merrimac," was forced to surrender. While directing a fire of +hot shot to burn the "Congress," Commodore Buchanan of the "Merrimac" +was severely wounded and was succeeded in the command by Lieutenant +Catesby ap Roger Jones. The Federal steam frigates, "Roanoke," "St +Lawrence" and "Minnesota" had all gone aground in their trip from Old +Point Comfort toward the scene of battle, and only the "Minnesota" was +near enough (about 1 m.) to take any part in the fight. She was in such +shallow water that the Confederate iron-clad ram could not get near her +at ebb tide, and about 5 o'clock the Confederates postponed her capture +until the next day and anchored off Sewell's Point. + +The "Monitor," under Lieut. John Lorimer Worden (1818-1897). had left +New York on the morning of the 6th of March; after a dangerous passage +in which she twice narrowly escaped sinking, she arrived at Hampton +Roads during the night of the 8th, and early in the morning of the 9th +anchored near the "Minnesota." When the "Merrimac" advanced to attack +the "Minnesota," the "Monitor" went out to meet her, and the battle +between the iron-clads began about 9 A.M. on the 9th. Neither vessel was +able seriously to injure the other, and not a single shot penetrated the +armour of either. The "Monitor" had the advantage of being able to +out-manoeuvre her heavier and more unwieldy adversary; but the revolving +turret made firing difficult and communications were none too good with +the pilot house, the position of which on the forward deck lessened the +range of the two turret-guns. The machinery worked so badly that the +revolution of the turret was stopped. After two hours' fighting, the +"Monitor" was drawn off, so that more ammunition could be placed in her +turret. When the battle was renewed (about 11.30) the "Merrimac" began +firing at the "Monitor's" pilot house; and a little after noon a shot +struck the sight-hole of the pilot house and blinded Lieut. Worden. The +"Monitor" withdrew in the confusion consequent upon the wounding of her +commanding officer; and the "Merrimac" after a short wait for her +adversary steamed back to Norfolk. There were virtually no casualties on +either side. After the evacuation of Norfolk by the Confederates on the +9th of May Commodore Josiah Tattnall, then in command of the "Merrimac," +being unable to take her up the James, sank her. The "Monitor" was lost +in a gale off Cape Hatteras on the 31st of December 1862. + +Though the battle between the two vessels was indecisive, its effect was +to "neutralize" the "Merrimac," which had caused great alarm in +Washington, and to prevent the breaking of the Federal blockade at +Hampton Roads; in the history of naval warfare it may be regarded as +marking the opening of a new era--the era of the armoured warship. On +the 3rd of February 1865 near Fortress Monroe on board a steamer +occurred the meeting of President Lincoln and Secretary Seward with +Confederate commissioners which is known as the Hampton Roads Conference +(see LINCOLN, ABRAHAM). At Sewell's Point, on Hampton Roads, in 1907 was +held the Jamestown Tercentennial Exposition. + + See James R. Soley, _The Blockade and the Cruisers_ (New York, 1883); + _Battles and Leaders of the Civil War_, vol. i. (New York, 1887); + chap. ii. of Frank M. Bennett's _The Monitor and the Navy under Steam_ + (Boston, 1900); and William Swinton, _Twelve Decisive Battles of the + War_ (New York, 1867). + + +FOOTNOTE: + + [1] For the idea of the low free-board and the revolving turret + Ericsson was indebted to Theodore R. Timby (1819-1909), who in 1843 + had filed a caveat for revolving towers for offensive or defensive + warfare whether placed on land or water, and to whom the company + building the "Monitor" paid $5000 royalty for each turret. + + + + +HAMSTER, a European mammal of the order Rodentia, scientifically known +as _Cricetus frumentarius_ (or _C. cricetus_), and belonging to the +mouse tribe, _Muridae_, in which it typifies the sub-family +_Cricetinae_. The essential characteristic of the Cricetines is to be +found in the upper cheek-teeth, which (as shown in the figure of those +of _Cricetus_ in the article RODENTIA) have their cusps arranged in two +longitudinal rows separated by a groove. The hamsters, of which there +are several kinds, are short-tailed rodents, with large cheek-pouches, +of which the largest is the common _C. frumentarius_. Their geographical +distribution comprises a large portion of Europe and Asia north of the +Himalaya. All the European hamsters show more or less black on the +under-parts, but the small species from Central Asia, which constitute +distinct subgenera, are uniformly grey. The common species is specially +interesting on account of its habits. It constructs elaborate burrows +containing several chambers, one of which is employed as a granary, and +filled with corn, frequently of several kinds, for winter use. As a +rule, the males, females, and young of the first year occupy separate +burrows. During the winter these animals retire to their burrows, +sleeping the greater part of the time, but awakening about February or +March, when they feed on the garnered grain. They are very prolific, the +female producing several litters in the year, each consisting of over a +dozen blind young; and these, when not more than three weeks old, are +turned out of the parental burrow to form underground homes for +themselves. The burrow of the young hamster is only about a foot in +depth, while that of the adult descends 4 or 5 ft. beneath the surface. +On retiring for the winter the hamster closes the various entrances to +its burrow, and becomes torpid during the coldest period. Although +feeding chiefly on roots, fruits and grain, it is also to some extent +carnivorous, attacking and eating small quadrupeds, lizards and birds. +It is exceedingly fierce and pugnacious, the males especially fighting +with each other for possession of the females. The numbers of these +destructive rodents are kept in check by foxes, dogs, cats and +pole-cats, which feed upon them. The skin of the hamster is of some +value, and its flesh is used as food. Its burrows are sought after in +the countries where it abounds, both for capturing the animal and for +rifling its store. America, especially North America, is the home of by +far the great majority of _Cricetinae_, several of which are called +white-footed or deer-mice. They are divided into numerous genera and the +number of species is very large indeed. Both in size and form +considerable variability is displayed, the species of _Holochilus_ being +some of the largest, while the common white-footed mouse (_Eligmodon +leucopus_) of North America is one of the smaller forms. Some kinds, +such as _Oryzomys_ and _Peromyscus_ have long, rat-like tails, while +others, like _Acodon_, are short-tailed and more vole-like in +appearance. In habits some are partially arboreal, others wholly +terrestrial, and a few more or less aquatic. Among the latter, the most +remarkable are the fish-eating rats (_Ichthyomys_) of North-western +South America, which frequent streams and feed on small fish. The +Florida rice-rat (_Sigmodon hispidus_) is another well-known +representative of the group. In the Old World the group is represented +by the Persian _Calomyscus_, a near relative of _Peromyscus_. + (R. L.*) + + + + +HANAPER, properly a case or basket to contain a "hanap" (O. Eng. _hnćp_: +cf. Dutch _nap_), a drinking vessel, a goblet with a foot or stem; the +term which is still used by antiquaries for medieval stemmed cups. The +famous Royal Gold Cup in the British Museum is called a "hanap" in the +inventory of Charles VI. of France. The word "hanaper" (Med. Lat. +_hanaperium_) was used particularly in the English chancery of a wicker +basket in which were kept writs and other documents, and hence it became +the name of a department of the chancery, now abolished, under an +officer known as the clerk or warden of the hanaper, into which were +paid fees and other moneys for the sealing of charters, patents, writs, +&c., and from which issued certain writs under the great seal (S. R. +Scargill-Bird, _Guide to the Public Records_ (1908). In Ireland it still +survives in the office of the clerk of the crown and hanaper, from which +are issued writs for the return of members of parliament for Ireland. +From "hanaper" is derived the modern "hamper," a wicker or rush basket +used for the carriage of game, fish, wine, &c. The verb "to hamper," to +entangle, obstruct, hinder, especially used of disturbing the mechanism +of a lock or other fastening so as to prevent its proper working, is of +doubtful origin. It is probably connected with a root seen in the Icel. +_hemja_, to restrain, and Ger. _hemmen_, to clog. + + + + +HANAU, a town of Germany, in the Prussian province of Hesse-Nassau, on +the right bank of the Main, 14 m. by rail E. from Frankfort and at the +junction of lines to Friedberg, Bebra and Aschaffenburg. Pop. (1905) +31,637. It consists of an old and a new town. The streets of the former +are narrow and irregular, but the latter, founded at the end of the 16th +century by fugitive Walloons and Netherlanders, is built in the form of +a pentagon with broad streets crossing at right angles, and possesses +several fine squares, among which may be mentioned the market-place, +adorned with handsome fountains at the four corners. Among the principal +buildings are the ancient castle, formerly the residence of the counts +of Hanau; the church of St John, dating from the 17th century, with a +handsome tower; the old church of St Mary, containing the burial vault +of the counts of Hanau; the church in the new town, built by the +Walloons in the beginning of the 17th century in the form of two +intersecting circles; the Roman Catholic church, the synagogue, the +theatre, the barracks, the arsenal and the hospital. Its educational +establishments include a classical school, and a school of industrial +art. There is a society of natural history and an historical society, +both of which possess considerable libraries and collections. Hanau is +the birthplace of the brothers Grimm, to whom a monument was erected +here in 1896. In the neighbourhood of the town are the palace of +Philippsruhe, with an extensive park and large orangeries, and the spa +of Wilhelmsbad. + +Hanau is the principal commercial and manufacturing town in the +province, and stands next to Cassel in point of population. It +manufactures ornaments of various kinds, cigars, leather, paper, playing +cards, silver and platina wares, chocolate, soap, woollen cloth, hats, +silk, gloves, stockings, ropes and matches. Diamond cutting is carried +on and the town has also foundries, breweries, and in the neighborhood +extensive powder-mills. It carries on a large trade in wood, wine and +corn, in addition to its articles of manufacture. + +From the number of urns, coins and other antiquities found near Hanau it +would appear that it owes its origin to a Roman settlement. It received +municipal rights in 1393, and in 1528 it was fortified by Count Philip +III. who rebuilt the castle. At the end of the 16th century its +prosperity received considerable impulse from the accession of the +Walloons and Netherlanders. During the Thirty Years' War it was in 1631 +taken by the Swedes, and in 1636 it was besieged by the imperial troops, +but was relieved on the 13th of June by Landgrave William V. of +Hesse-Cassel, on account of which the day is still commemorated by the +inhabitants. Napoleon on his retreat from Leipzig defeated the Germans +under Marshal Wrede at Hanau, on the 30th of October 1813; and on the +following day the allies vacated the town, when it was entered by the +French. Early in the 15th century Hanau became the capital of a +principality of the Empire, which on the death of Count Reinhard in 1451 +was partitioned between the Hanau-Münzenberg and Hanau-Lichtenberg +lines, but was reunited in 1642 when the elder line became extinct. The +younger line received princely rank in 1696, but as it became extinct in +1736 Hanau-Münzenberg was joined to Hesse-Cassel and Hanau-Lichtenberg +to Hesse-Darmstadt. In 1785 the whole province was united to +Hesse-Cassel, and in 1803 it became an independent principality. In 1815 +it again came into the possession of Hesse-Cassel, and in 1866 it was +joined to Prussia. + + See R. Wille, _Hanau im dreissigjährigen Krieg_ (Hanau, 1886); and + Junghaus, _Geschichte der Stadt und des Kreises Hanau_ (1887). + + + + +HANBURY WILLIAMS, SIR CHARLES (1708-1759), English diplomatist and +author, was a son of Major John Hanbury (1664-1734), of Pontypool, +Monmouthshire, and a scion of an ancient Worcestershire family. His +great-great-great-grand-father, Capel Hanbury, bought property at +Pontypool and began the family iron-works there in 1565. His father John +Hanbury was a wealthy iron-master and member of parliament, who +inherited another fortune from his friend Charles Williams of Caerleon, +his son's godfather, with which he bought the Coldbrook estate, +Monmouthshire. Charles accordingly took the name of Williams in 1729. He +went to Eton, and there made friends with Henry Fielding, the novelist, +and, after marrying in 1732 the heiress of Earl Coningsby, was elected +M.P. for Monmouthshire (1734-1747) and subsequently for Leominster +(1754-1759). He became known as one of the prominent gallants and wits +about town, and following Pope he wrote a great deal of satirical light +verse, including _Isabella, or the Morning_ (1740), satires on Ruth +Darlington and Pulleney (1741-1742), _The Country Girl_ (1742), _Lessons +for the Day_ (1742), _Letter to Mr Dodsley_ (1743), &c. A collection of +his poems was published in 1763 and of his _Works_ in 1822. In 1746 he +was sent on a diplomatic mission to Dresden, which led to further +employment in this capacity; and through Henry Fox's influence he was +sent as envoy to Berlin (1750), Dresden (1751), Vienna (1753), Dresden +(1754) and St Petersburg (1755-1757); in the latter case he was the +instrument for a plan for the alliance between England, Russia and +Austria, which finally broke down, to his embarrassment. He returned to +England, and committed suicide on the 2nd of November 1759, being buried +in Westminster Abbey. He had two daughters, the elder of whom married +William Capel, 4th earl of Essex, and was the mother of the 5th earl. +The Coldbrook estates went to Charles's brother, George +Hanbury-Williams, to whose heirs it descended. + + See William Coxe's _Historical Tour in Monmouthshire_ (1801), and T. + Seccombe's article in the _Dict. Nat. Biog._ with bibliography. + + + + +HANCOCK, JOHN (1737-1793), American Revolutionary statesman, was born in +that part of Braintree, Massachusetts, now known as Quincy, on the 23rd +of January 1737. After graduating from Harvard in 1754, he entered the +mercantile house of his uncle, Thomas Hancock of Boston, who had adopted +him, and on whose death, in 1764, he fell heir to a large fortune and a +prosperous business. In 1765 he became a selectman of Boston, and from +1766 to 1772 was a member of the Massachusetts general court. An event +which is thought to have greatly influenced Hancock's subsequent career +was the seizure of the sloop "Liberty" in 1768 by the customs officers +for discharging, without paying the duties, a cargo of Madeira wine +consigned to Hancock. Many suits were thereupon entered against Hancock, +which, if successful, would have caused the confiscation of his estate, +but which undoubtedly enhanced his popularity with the Whig element and +increased his resentment against the British government. He was a member +of the committee appointed in a Boston town meeting immediately after +the "Boston Massacre" in 1770 to demand the removal of British troops +from the town. In 1774 and 1775 he was president of the first and second +Provincial Congresses respectively, and he shared with Samuel Adams the +leadership of the Massachusetts Whigs in all the irregular measures +preceding the War of American Independence. The famous expedition sent +by General Thomas Gage of Massachusetts to Lexington and Concord on the +18th-19th of April 1775 had for its object, besides the destruction of +materials of war at Concord, the capture of Hancock and Adams, who were +temporarily staying at Lexington, and these two leaders were expressly +excepted in the proclamation of pardon issued on the 12th of June by +Gage, their offences, it was said, being "of too flagitious a nature to +admit of any other consideration than that of condign punishment." +Hancock was a member of the Continental Congress from 1775 to 1780, was +president of it from May 1775 to October 1777, being the first to sign +the Declaration of Independence, and was a member of the Confederation +Congress in 1785-1786. In 1778 he commanded, as major-general of +militia, the Massachusetts troops who participated in the Rhode Island +expedition. He was a member of the Massachusetts Constitutional +Convention of 1779-1780, became the first governor of the state, and +served from 1780 to 1785 and again from 1787 until his death. Although +at first unfriendly to the Federal Constitution as drafted by the +convention at Philadelphia, he was finally won over to its support, and +in 1788 he presided over the Massachusetts convention which ratified the +instrument. Hancock was not by nature a leader, but he wielded great +influence on account of his wealth and social position, and was liberal, +public-spirited, and, as his repeated election--the elections were +annual--to the governorship attests, exceedingly popular. He died at +Quincy, Mass., on the 8th of October 1793. + + See Abram E. Brown, _John Hancock, His Book_ (Boston, 1898), a work + consisting largely of extracts from Hancock's letters. + + + + +HANCOCK, WINFIELD SCOTT (1824-1886), American general, was born on the +14th of February 1824, in Montgomery county, Pa. He graduated in 1844 at +the United States Military Academy, where his career was creditable but +not distinguished. On the 1st of July 1844 he was breveted, and on the +18th of June 1846 commissioned second lieutenant. He took part in the +later movements under Winfield Scott against the city of Mexico, and was +breveted first lieutenant for "gallant and meritorious conduct." After +the Mexican war he served in the West, in Florida and elsewhere; was +married in 1850 to Miss Almira Russell of St Louis; became first +lieutenant in 1853, and assistant-quartermaster with the rank of captain +in 1855. The outbreak of the Civil War found him in California. At his +own request he was ordered east, and on the 23rd of September 1861 was +made brigadier-general of volunteers and assigned to command a brigade +in the Army of the Potomac. He took part in the Peninsula campaign, and +the handling of his troops in the engagement at Williamsburg on the 5th +of May 1862, was so brilliant that McClellan reported "Hancock was +superb," an epithet always afterwards applied to him. At the battle of +Antietam he was placed in command of the first division of the II. +corps, and in November he was made major-general of volunteers, and +about the same time was promoted major in the regular army. In the +disastrous battle of Fredericksburg (q.v.), Hancock's division was on +the right among the troops that were ordered to storm Marye's Heights. +Out of the 5006 men in his division 2013 fell. At Chancellorsville his +division received both on the 2nd and the 3rd of May the brunt of the +attack of Lee's main army. Soon after the battle he was appointed +commander of the II. corps. + +The battle of Gettysburg (q.v.) began on the 1st of July with the defeat +of the left wing of the Army of the Potomac and the death of General +Reynolds. About the middle of the afternoon Hancock arrived on the field +with orders from Meade to assume command and to decide whether to +continue the fight there or to fall back. He decided to stay, rallied +the retreating troops, and held Cemetery Hill and Ridge until the +arrival of the main body of the Federal army. During the second day's +battle he commanded the left centre of the Union army, and after General +Sickles had been wounded, the whole of the left wing. In the third day's +battle he commanded the left centre, upon which fell the full brunt of +Pickett's charge, one of the most famous incidents of the war. Hancock's +superb presence and power over men never shone more clearly than when, +as the 150 guns of the Confederate army opened the attack he calmly rode +along the front of his line to show his soldiers that he shared the +dangers of the cannonade with them. His corps lost in the battle 4350 +out of less than 10,000 fighting men. But it had captured twenty-seven +Confederate battle flags and as many prisoners as it had men when the +fighting ceased. Just as the Confederate troops reached the Union line +Hancock was struck in the groin by a bullet, but continued in command +until the repulse of the attack, and as he was at last borne off the +field earnestly recommended Meade to make a general attack on the beaten +Confederates. The wound proved a severe one, so that some six months +passed before he resumed command. + +In the battles of the year 1864 Hancock's part was as important and +striking as in those of 1863. At the Wilderness he commanded, during the +second day's fighting, half of the Union army; at Spottsylvania he had +charge of the fierce and successful attack on the "salient"; at Cold +Harbor his corps formed the left wing in the unsuccessful assault on +the Confederate lines. In August he was promoted to brigadier-general in +the regular army. In November, his old wound troubling him, he obtained +a short leave of absence, expecting to return to his corps in the near +future. He was, however, detailed to raise a new corps, and later was +placed in charge of the "Middle Division." It was expected that he would +move towards Lynchburg, as part of a combined movement against Lee's +communications. But before he could take the field Richmond had fallen +and Lee had surrendered. It thus happened that Hancock, who for three +years had been one of the most conspicuous figures in the Army of the +Potomac did not take part in its final triumph. + +After the assassination of Lincoln, Hancock was placed in charge of +Washington, and it was under his command that Booth's accomplices were +tried and executed. In July 1866 he was appointed major-general in the +regular army. A little later he was placed in command of the department +of the Missouri, and the year following assumed command of the fifth +military division, comprising Louisiana and Texas. His policy, however, +of discountenancing military trials and conciliating the conquered did +not meet with approval at Washington, and he was at his own request +transferred. Hancock had all his life been a Democrat. His splendid war +record and his personal popularity caused his name to be considered as a +candidate for the Presidency as early as 1868, and in 1880 he was +nominated for that office by the Democrats; but he was defeated by his +Republican opponent, General Garfield, though by the small popular +plurality of seven thousand votes. He died at Governor's Island, near +New York, on the 9th of February 1886. Hancock was in many respects the +ideal soldier of the Northern armies. He was quick, energetic and +resourceful, reckless of his own safety, a strict disciplinarian, a +painstaking and hard-working officer. It was on the field of battle, and +when the fighting was fiercest, that his best qualities came to the +front. He was a born commander of men, and it is doubtful if any other +officer in the Northern army could get more fighting and more marching +out of his men. Grant said of him, "Hancock stands the most conspicuous +figure of all the general officers who did not exercise a separate +command. He commanded a corps longer than any other, and his name was +never mentioned as having committed in battle a blunder for which he was +responsible." + + A biography of him has been written by General Francis A. Walker (New + York, 1894). See also _History of the Second Corps_, by the same + author (1886). (F. H. H.) + + + + +HANCOCK, a city of Houghton county, Michigan, U.S.A., on Portage Lake, +opposite Houghton. Pop. (1890) 1772; (1900) 4050, of whom 1409 were +foreign-born; (1904) 6037; (1910) 8981. Hancock is served by the Mineral +Range, the Copper Range, the Chicago, Milwaukee & St Paul, and the +Duluth, South Shore & Atlantic railways (the last two send their trains +in over the Mineral Range tracks), and by steamboats through the Portage +Lake Canal which connects with Lake Superior. Hancock is connected by a +bridge and an electric line with the village of Houghton (pop. in 1910, +5113), the county-seat of Houghton county and the seat of the Michigan +College of Mines (opened in 1886). Hancock has three parks, and a marine +and general hospital. The city is the seat of a Finnish Lutheran +Seminary--there are many Finns in and near Hancock, and a Finnish +newspaper is published here. Hancock is in the Michigan copper +region--the Quincy, Franklin and Hancock mines are in or near the +city--and the mining, working and shipping of copper are the leading +industries; among the city's manufactures are mining machinery, lumber, +bricks and beer. The municipality owns and operates the water-works. The +electric-lighting plant, the gas plant and the street railway are owned +by private corporations. Hancock was settled in 1859, was incorporated +as a village in 1875, and was chartered as a city in 1903. + + + + +HAND, FERDINAND GOTTHELF (1786-1851). German classical scholar, was born +at Plauen in Saxony on the 15th of February 1786. He studied at Leipzig, +in 1810 became professor at the Weimar gymnasium, and in 1817 professor +of philosophy and Greek literature in the university of Jena, where he +remained till his death on the 14th of March 1851. The work by which +Hand is chiefly known is his (unfinished) edition of the treatise of +Horatius Tursellinus (Orazio Torsellino, 1545-1599) on the Latin +particles (_Tursellinus, seu de particulis Latinis commentarii_, +1829-1845). Like his treatise on Latin style (_Lehrbuch des lateinischen +Stils_, 3rd ed. by H. L. Schmitt, 1880), it is too abstruse and +philosophical for the use of the ordinary student. Hand was also an +enthusiastic musician, and in his _Ästhetik der Tonkunst_ (1837-1841) he +was the first to introduce the subject of musical aesthetics. + + The first part of the last-named work has been translated into English + by W. E. Lawson (_Aesthetics of Musical Art_, or _The Beautiful in + Music_, 1880), and B. Sears's _Classical Studies_ (1849) contains a + "History of the Origin and Progress of the Latin Language," abridged + from Hand's work on the subject. There is a memoir of his life and + work by G. Queck (Jena, 1852). + + + + +HAND (a word common to Teutonic languages; cf. Ger. _Hand_, Goth. +_handus_), the terminal part of the human arm from below the wrist, and +consisting of the fingers and the palm. The word is also used of the +prehensile termination of the limbs in certain other animals (see +ANATOMY: _Superficial and artistic_; SKELETON: _Appendicular_, and such +articles as MUSCULAR SYSTEM and NERVOUS SYSTEM). There are many +transferred applications of "hand," both as a substantive and in various +adverbial phrases. The following may be mentioned: charge or authority, +agency, source, chiefly in such expressions as "in the hands of," "by +hand," "at first hand." From the position of the hands at the side of +the body, the word means "direction," e.g., on the right, left hand, cf. +"at hand." The hand as given in betrothal or marriage has been from +early times the symbol of marriage as it also is of oaths. Other +applications are to labourers engaged in manual occupations, the members +of the crew of a ship, to a person who has some special skill, as in the +phrase, "old parliamentary hand," and to the pointers of a clock or +watch and to the number of cards dealt to each player in a card game. As +a measure of length the term "hand" is now only used in the measurement +of horses, it is equal to 4 in. The name "hand of glory," is given to a +hand cut from the corpse of a hanged criminal, dried in smoke, and used +as a charm or talisman, for the finding of treasures, &c. The expression +is the translation of the Fr. _main de gloire_, a corruption of the O. +Fr. _mandegloire_, _mandegoire_, i.e. _mandragore_, mandragora, the +mandrake, to the root of which many magical properties are attributed. + + + + +HANDEL, GEORGE FREDERICK (1685-1759), + + + Life. + +English musical composer, German by origin, was born at Halle in Lower +Saxony, on the 23rd of February 1685. His name was Handel, but, like +most 18th-century musicians who travelled, he compromised with its +pronunciation by foreigners, and when in Italy spelt it Hendel, and in +England (where he became naturalized) accepted the version Handel, which +is therefore correct for English writers, while Händel remains the +correct version in Germany. His father was a barber-surgeon, who +disapproved of music, and wished George Frederick to become a lawyer. A +friend smuggled a clavichord into the attic, and on this instrument, +which is inaudible behind a closed door, the little boy practised +secretly. Before he was eight his father went to visit a son by a former +marriage who was a valet-de-chambre to the duke of Saxe-Weissenfels. The +little boy begged in vain to go also, and at last ran after the carriage +on foot so far that he had to be taken. He made acquaintance with the +court musicians and contrived to practise on the organ when he could be +overheard by the duke, who, immediately recognizing his talent, spoke +seriously to the father, who had to yield to his arguments. On returning +to Halle Handel became a pupil of Zachau, the cathedral organist, who +gave him a thorough training as a composer and as a performer on keyed +instruments, the oboe and the violin. Six very good trios for two oboes +and bass, which Handel wrote at the age of ten, are extant; and when he +himself was shown them by an English admirer who had discovered them, he +was much amused and remarked, "I wrote like the devil in those days, +and chiefly for the oboe, which was my favourite instrument." His master +also of course made him write an enormous amount of vocal music, and he +had to produce a motet every week. By the time he was twelve Zachau +thought he could teach him no more, and accordingly the boy was sent to +Berlin, where he made a great impression at the court. + +His father, however, thought fit to decline the proposal of the elector +of Brandenburg, afterwards King Frederick I. of Prussia, to send the boy +to Italy in order afterwards to attach him to the court at Berlin. +German court musicians, as late as the time of Mozart, had hardly enough +freedom to satisfy a man of independent character, and the elder Händel +had not yet given up hope of his son's becoming a lawyer. Young Handel, +therefore, returned to Halle and resumed his work with Zachau. In 1697 +his father died, but the boy showed great filial piety in finishing the +ordinary course of his education, both general and musical, and even +entering the university of Halle in 1702 as a law student. But in that +year he succeeded to the post of organist at the cathedral, and after +his "probation" year in that capacity he departed to Hamburg, where the +only German opera worthy of the name was flourishing under the direction +of its founder, Reinhold Keiser. Here he became friends with Matheson, a +prolific composer and writer on music. On one occasion they set out +together to go to Lübeck, where a successor was to be appointed to the +post left vacant by the great organist Buxtehude, who was retiring on +account of his extreme age. Handel and Matheson made much music on this +occasion, but did not compete, because they found that the successful +candidate was required to accept the hand of the elderly daughter of the +retiring organist. + +Another adventure might have had still more serious consequences. At a +performance of Matheson's opera _Cleopatra_ at Hamburg, Handel refused +to give up the conductor's seat to the composer when the latter returned +to his usual post at the harpsichord after singing the part of Antony on +the stage. The dispute led to a duel outside the theatre, and, but for a +large button on Handel's coat which intercepted Matheson's sword, there +would have been no _Messiah_ or _Israel in Egypt_. But the young men +remained friends, and Matheson's writings are full of the most valuable +facts for Handel's biography. He relates in his _Ehrenpforte_ that his +friend at that time used to compose "interminable cantatas" of no great +merit; but of these no traces now remain, unless we assume that a +_Passion according to St John_, the manuscript of which is in the royal +library at Berlin, is among the works alluded to. But its authenticity, +while strongly upheld by Chrysander, has recently been as strongly +assailed on internal evidence. + +On the 8th of January 1705, Handel's first opera, _Almira_, was +performed at Hamburg with great success, and was followed a few weeks +later by another work, entitled _Nero_. _Nero_ is lost, but _Almira_, +with its mixture of Italian and German language and form, remains as a +valuable example of the tendencies of the time and of Handel's eclectic +methods. It contains many themes used by Handel in well-known later +works; but the current statement that the famous aria in _Rinaldo_, +"Lascia ch'io pianga," comes from a saraband in _Almira_, is based upon +nothing more definite than the inevitable resemblance between the +simplest possible forms of saraband-rhythm. + +In 1706 Handel left Hamburg for Italy, where he remained for three +years, rapidly acquiring the smooth Italian vocal style which hereafter +always characterized his work. He had before this refused offers from +noble patrons to send him there, but had now saved enough money, not +only to support his mother at home, but to travel as his own master. He +divided his time in Italy between Florence, Rome, Naples and Venice; and +many anecdotes are preserved of his meetings with Corelli, Lotti, +Alessandro Scarlatti and Domenico Scarlatti, whose wonderful harpsichord +technique still has a direct bearing on some of the most modern features +of pianoforte style. Handel soon became famous as _Il Sassone_ ("the +Saxon"), and it is said that Domenico on first hearing him play +incognito exclaimed, "It is either the devil or the Saxon!" Then there +is a story of Corelli's coming to grief over a passage in Handel's +overture to _Il Trionfo del tempo_, in which the violins went up to A in +altissimo. Handel impatiently snatched the violin to show Corelli how +the passage ought to be played, and Corelli, who had never written or +played beyond the third position in his life (this passage being in the +seventh), said gently, "My dear Saxon, this music is in the French +style, which I do not understand." In Italy Handel produced two operas, +_Rodrigo_ and _Agrippina_, the latter a very important work, of which +the splendid overture was remodelled forty-four years afterwards as that +of his last original oratorio, _Jephtha_. He also produced two +oratorios, _La Resurrezione_, and _Il Trionfo del tempo_. This, +forty-six years afterwards, formed the basis of his last work. _The +Triumph of Time and Truth_, which contains no original matter. All +Handel's early works contain material that he used often with very +little alteration later on, and, though the famous "Lascia ch'io pianga" +does not occur in Almira, it occurs note for note in _Agrippina_ and the +two Italian oratorios. On the other hand the cantata _Aci, Galattea e +Polifemo_ has nothing in common with _Acis and Galatea_. Besides these +larger works there are several choral and solo cantatas of which the +earliest, such as the great _Dixit Dominus_, show in their extravagant +vocal difficulty how radical was the change which Handel's Italian +experience so rapidly effected in his methods. + +Handel's success in Italy established his fame and led to his receiving +at Venice in 1709 the offer of the post of Kapellmeister to the elector +of Hanover, transmitted to him by Baron Kielmansegge, his patron and +staunch friend of later years. Handel at the time contemplated a visit +to England, and he accepted this offer on condition of leave of absence +being granted to him for that purpose. To England accordingly Handel +journeyed after a short stay at Hanover, arriving in London towards the +close of 1710. He came as a composer of Italian opera, and earned his +first success at the Haymarket with _Rinaldo_, composed, to the +consternation of the hurried librettist, in a fortnight, and first +performed on the 24th of February 1711. In this opera the aria "Lascia +ch'io pianga" found its final home. The work was produced with the +utmost magnificence, and Addison's delightful reviews of it in the +_Spectator_ poked fun at it from an unmusical point of view in a way +that sometimes curiously foreshadows the criticisms that Gluck might +have made on such things at a later period. The success was so great, +especially for Walsh the publisher, that Handel proposed that Walsh +should compose the next opera, and that he should publish it. He +returned to Hanover at the close of the opera season, and composed a +good deal of vocal chamber music for the princess Caroline, the +step-daughter of the elector, besides the instrumental works known to us +as the oboe concertos. In 1712 Handel returned to London and spent a +year with Andrews, a rich musical amateur, in Barn Elms, Surrey. Three +more years were spent in Burlington, in the neighbourhood of London. He +evidently was but little inclined to return to Hanover, in spite of his +duties to the court there. Two Italian operas and the _Utrecht Te Deum_ +written by the command of Queen Anne are the principal works of this +period. It was somewhat awkward for the composer when his deserted +master came to London in 1714 as George I. of England. For some time +Handel did not venture to appear at court, and it was only at the +intercession of Baron Kielmansegge that his pardon was obtained. By his +advice Handel wrote the _Water Music_ which was performed at a royal +water party on the Thames, and it so pleased the king that he at once +received the composer into his good graces and granted him a salary of +Ł400 a year. Later Handel became music master to the little princesses +and was given an additional Ł200 by the princess Caroline. In 1716 he +followed the king to Germany, where he wrote a second German Passion to +the popular poem of Brockes, a text which, divested of its worst +features, forms the basis of several of the arias in Bach's _Passion +according to St John_. This was Handel's last work to a German text. + +On his return to England he entered the service of the duke of Chandos +as conductor of his concerts, receiving a thousand pounds for his first +oratorio _Esther_. The music which Handel wrote for performance at +"Cannons," the duke of Chandos's residence at Edgware, is comprised in +the first version of _Esther, Acis and Galatea_, and the twelve _Chandos +Anthems_, which are compositions approximately in the same form as +Bach's church cantatas but without any systematic use of chorale tunes. +The fashionable Londoner would travel 9 miles in those days to the +little chapel of Whitchurch to hear Handel's music, and all that now +remains of the magnificent scene of these visits is the church, which is +the parish church of Edgware. In 1720 Handel appeared again in a public +capacity as impresario of the Italian opera at the Haymarket theatre, +which he managed for the institution called the Royal Academy of Music. +Senesino, a famous singer, to engage whom Handel especially journeyed to +Dresden, was the mainstay of the enterprise, which opened with a highly +successful performance of Handel's opera _Radamisto_. To this time +belongs the famous rivalry between Handel and Buononcini, a melodious +Italian composer whom many thought to be the greater of the two. The +controversy has been perpetuated in John Byrom's lines: + + "Some say, compared to Buononcini + That Mynheer Handel's but a ninny; + Others aver that he to Handel + Is scarcely fit to hold a candle. + Strange all this difference should be + Twixt tweedle-dum and tweedle-dee." + +It must be remembered that at this time Handel had not yet asserted his +greatness as a choral writer; the fashionable ideas of music and +musicianship were based entirely upon success in Italian opera, and the +contest between the rival composers was waged on the basis of works +which have fallen into almost as complete an oblivion in Handel's case +as in Buononcini's. None of Handel's forty-odd Italian operas can be +said to survive, except in some two or three detached arias out of each +opera; arias which reveal their essential qualities far better in +isolation than when performed in groups of between twenty and thirty on +the stage, as interruptions to the action of a classical drama to which +nobody paid the slightest attention. But even within these limits +Handel's artistic resources were too great to leave the issue in doubt; +and when Handel wrote the third act of an opera _Muzio Scevola_, of +which Buononcini and Ariosti[1] wrote the other two, his triumph was +decisive, especially as Buononcini soon got into discredit by failing to +defend himself against the charge of producing as a prize-madrigal of +his own a composition which proved to be by Lotti. At all events +Buononcini left London, and Handel for the next ten years was without a +rival in his ventures as an operatic composer. He was not, however, +without a rival as an impresario; and the hostile competition of a rival +company which obtained the services of the great Farinelli and also +induced Senesino to desert him, led to his bankruptcy in 1737, and to an +attack of paralysis caused by anxiety and overwork. The rival company +also had to be dissolved from want of support, so that Handel's +misfortunes must not be attributed to any failure to maintain his +position in the musical world. Handel's artistic conscience was that of +the most easy-going opportunist, or he would never have continued till +1741 to work in a field that gave so little scope for his genius. But +the public seemed to want operas, and, if opera had no scope for his +genius, at all events he could supply better operas with greater +rapidity and ease than any three other living composers working +together. And this he naturally continued to do so long as it seemed to +be the best way to keep up his reputation. But with all this artistic +opportunism he was not a man of tact, and there are numerous stories of +the type of his holding the great primadonna donna Cuzzoni at +arm's-length out of a window and threatening to drop her unless she +consented to sing a song which she had declared unsuitable to her style. + +Already before his last opera, _Deidamia_, produced in 1741, Handel had +been making a growing impression with his oratorios. In these, freed +from the restrictions of the stage, he was able to give scope to his +genius for choral writing, and so to develop, or rather revive, that art +of chorus singing which is the normal outlet for English musical talent. +In 1726 Handel had become a naturalized Englishman, and in 1733 he began +his public career as a composer of English texts by producing the second +and larger version of _Esther_ at the King's theatre. This was followed +early in the same year by _Deborah_, in which the share of the chorus is +much greater. In July he produced _Athalia_ at Oxford, the first work in +which his characteristic double choruses appear. The share of the chorus +increases in _Saul_ (1738); and _Israel in Egypt_ (also 1738) is +practically entirely a choral work, the solo movements, in spite of +their fame, being as perfunctory in character as they are few in number. +It was not unnatural that the public, who still considered Italian opera +the highest, because the most modern form of musical art, obliged Handel +at subsequent performances of this gigantic work to insert more solos. + +The _Messiah_ was produced at Dublin on the 13th of April 1742. _Samson_ +(which Handel preferred to the _Messiah_) appeared at Covent Garden on +the 2nd of March 1744; _Belshazzar_ at the King's theatre, 27th of March +1745; the _Occasional Oratorio_ (chiefly a compilation of the earlier +oratorios, but with a few important new numbers), on the 14th of +February 1746 at Covent Garden, where all his later oratorios were +produced; _Judas Maccabaeus_ on the 1st of April 1747; _Joshua_ on the +9th of March 1748; _Alexander Balus_ on the 23rd of March 1748; Solomon +on the 17th of March 1749; _Susanna_, spring of 1749; _Theodora_, a +great favourite of Handel's, who was much disappointed by its cold +reception, on the 16th of March 1750; _Jephtha_ (strictly speaking, his +last work) on the 26th of February 1752, and _The Triumph of Time and +Truth_ (transcribed from _Il Trionfo del tempo_ with the addition of +many later favourite numbers), 1757. Other important works, +indistinguishable in artistic form from oratorios, but on secular +subjects, are _Alexander's Feast_, 1736; _Ode for St Cecilia's Day_ +(words by Dryden); _L'Allegro, il pensieroso ed il moderato_ (the words +of the third part by Jennens), 1740; _Semele_, 1744; _Hercules_, 1745; +and _The Choice of Hercules_, 1751. + +By degrees the enmity against Handel died away, though he had many +troubles. In 1745 he had again become bankrupt; for, although he had no +rival as a composer of choral music it was possible for his enemies to +give balls and banquets on the nights of his oratorio performances. As +with his first bankruptcy, so in his later years, he showed scrupulous +sense of honour in discharging his debts, and he continued to work hard +to the end of his life. He had not only completely recovered his +financial position by the year 1750, but he must have made a good deal +of money, for he then presented an organ to the Foundling Hospital, and +opened it with a performance of the _Messiah_ on the 15th of May. In +1751 his sight began to trouble him; and the autograph of _Jephtha_, +published in facsimile by the _Händelgesellschaft_, shows pathetic +traces of this in his handwriting,[2] and so affords a most valuable +evidence of his methods of composition, all the accompaniments, +recitatives, and less essential portions of the work being evidently +filled in long after the rest. He underwent unsuccessful operations, one +of them by the same surgeon who had operated on Bach's eyes. There is +evidence that he was able to see at intervals during his last years, but +his sight practically never returned after May 1752. He continued +superintending performances of his works and writing new arias for them, +or inserting revised old ones, and he attended a performance of the +_Messiah_ a week before his death, which took place, according to the +_Public Advertiser_ of the 16th of April, not on Good Friday, the 13th +of April, according to his own pious wish and according to common +report, but on the 14th of April 1759. He was buried in Westminster +Abbey; and his monument is by L. F. Roubilliac, the same sculptor who +modelled the marble statue erected in 1739 in Vauxhall Gardens, where +his works had been frequently performed. + + Handel was a man of high character and intelligence, and his interest + was not confined to his own art exclusively. He liked the society of + politicians and literary men, and he was also a collector of pictures + and articles of _vertu_. His power of work was enormous, and the + _Händelgesellschaft's_ edition of his complete works fills one hundred + volumes, forming a total bulk almost equal to the works of Bach and + Beethoven together. (F. H.; D. F. T.) + + + Handel as composer. + +No one has more successfully popularized the greatest artistic ideals +than Handel; no artist is more disconcerting to critics who imagine that +a great man's mental development is easy to follow. Not even Wagner +effected a greater transformation in the possibilities of dramatic music +than Handel effected in oratorio, yet we have seen that Handel was the +very opposite of a reformer. He was not even conservative, and he hardly +took the pains to ascertain what an art-form was, so long as something +externally like it would convey his idea. But he never failed to convey +his idea, and, if the hybrid forms in which he conveyed it had no +historic influence and no typical character, they were none the less +accurate in each individual case. The same aptness and the same absence +of method are conspicuous in his style. The popular idea that Handel's +style is easily recognizable comes from the fact that he overshadows all +his predecessors and contemporaries, except Bach, and so makes us regard +typical 18th-century Italian and English style as Handelian, instead of +regarding Handel's style as typical Italian 18th-century. Nothing in +music requires more minute expert knowledge than the sifting of the real +peculiarities of Handel's style from the mass of contemporary formulae +which in his inspired pages he absorbed, and which in his uninspired +pages absorbed him. + +His easy mastery was acquired, like Mozart's, in childhood. The later +sonatas for two oboes and bass which he wrote in his eleventh year are, +except in their diffuseness and an occasional slip in grammar, +indistinguishable from his later works, and they show a boyish +inventiveness worthy of Mozart's work at the same age. Such early choral +works, as the _Dixit Dominus_ (1707), show the ill-regulated power of +his choral writing before he assimilated Italian influences. Its +practical difficulties are at least as extravagant as Bach's, while they +are not accounted for by any corresponding originality and necessity of +idea; but the grandeur of the scheme and nobility of thought is already +that for which Handel so often in later years found the simplest and +easiest adequate means of expression that music has ever attained. His +eminently practical genius soon formed his vocal style, and long before +the period of his great oratorios, such works as _The Birthday Ode for +Queen Anne_ (1713) and the _Utrecht Te Deum_ show not a trace of German +extravagance. The only drawback to his practical genius was that it led +him to bury perhaps half of his finest melodies, and nearly all the +secular features of interest in his treatment of instruments and of the +aria forms, in that deplorable limbo of vanity, the 18th-century Italian +opera. It is not true, as has been alleged against him, that his operas +are in no way superior to those of his contemporaries; but neither is it +true that he stirred a finger to improve the condition of dramatic +musical art. He was no slave to singers, as is amply testified by many +anecdotes. Nor was he bound by the operatic conventions of the time. In +_Teseo_ he not only wrote an opera in five acts when custom prescribed +three, but also broke a much more plausible rule in arranging that each +character should have two arias in succession. He also showed a feeling +for expression and style which led him to write arias of types which +singers might not expect. But he never made any innovation which had the +slightest bearing upon the stage-craft of opera, for he never concerned +himself with any artistic question beyond the matter in hand; and the +matter in hand was not to make dramatic music, or to make the story +interesting or intelligible, but simply to provide a concert of between +some twenty and thirty Italian arias and duets, wherein singers could +display their abilities and spectators find distraction from the +monotony of so large a dose of the aria form (which was then the only +possibility for solo vocal music) in the gorgeousness of the dresses and +scenery. + +When the question arose how a musical entertainment of this kind could +be managed in Lent without protests from the bishop of London, Handelian +oratorio came into being as a matter of course. But though Handel was an +opportunist he was not shallow. His artistic sense seized upon the +natural possibilities which arose as soon as the music was transferred +from the stage to the concert platform; and his first English oratorio, +_Esther_ (1720), beautifully shows the transition. The subject is as +nearly secular as any that can be extracted from the Bible, and the +treatment was based on Racine's _Esther_, which was much discussed at +the time. Handel's oratorio was reproduced in an enlarged version in +1732 at the King's theatre: the princess royal wished for scenery and +action, but the bishop of London protested. And the choruses, of which +in the first version there are already no less than ten, are on the one +hand operatic and unecclesiastical in expression, until the last, where +polyphonic work on a large scale first appears; but on the other hand +they are all much too long to be sung by heart, as is necessary in +operas. In fact, the turning-point in Handel's development is the +emancipation of the chorus from theatrical limitations. This had as +great effect upon his few but important secular English works as upon +his other oratorios. _Acis and Galatea_, _Semele_ and _Hercules_, are in +fact secular oratorios; the choral music in them is not ecclesiastical, +but it is large, independent and polyphonic. + +We must remember, then, that Handel's scheme of oratorio is operatic in +its origin and has no historic connexion with such principles as might +have been generalized from the practice of the German Passion music of +the time; and it is sufficiently astonishing that the chorus should have +so readily assumed its proper place in a scheme which the public +certainly regarded as a sort of Lenten biblical opera. And, although the +chorus owes its freedom of development to the disappearance of +theatrical necessities, it becomes no less powerful as a means of +dramatic expression (as opposed to dramatic action) than as a purely +musical resource. Already in _Athalia_ the "Hallelujah" chorus at the +end of the first act is a marvel of dramatic truth. It is sung by +Israelites almost in despair beneath usurping tyranny; and accordingly +it is a severe double fugue in a minor key, expressive of devout courage +at a moment of depression. On purely musical grounds it is no less +powerful in throwing into the highest possible relief the ecstatic +solemnity of the psalm with which the second act opens. Now this sombre +"Hallelujah" chorus is a very convenient illustration of Handel's +originality, and the point in which his creative power really lies. It +was not originally written for its situation in _Athalia_, but it was +chosen for it. It was originally the last chorus of the second version +of the anthem, _As pants the Hart_, from the autograph of which it is +missing because Handel cut out the last pages in order to insert them +into the manuscript of _Athalia_. The inspiration in _Athalia_ thus lies +not in the creation of the chorus itself, but in the choice of it. + +In choral music Handel made no more innovation than he made in arias. +His sense of fitness in expression was of little use to him in opera, +because opera could not become dramatic until musical form became +capable of developing and blending emotions in all degrees of climax in +a way that may be described as pictorial and not merely decorative (see +MUSIC; SONATA-FORMS; and INSTRUMENTATION). But in oratorio there was not +the least necessity for reforming any art-forms. The ordinary choral +resources of the time had perfect expressive possibilities where there +were no actors to keep waiting, and where no dresses and scenery need +distract the attention of the listener. When lastly, ordinary decorum +dictated an attitude of reverent attention towards the subject of the +oratorio, then the man of genius could find such a scope for his real +sense of dramatic fitness as would make his work immortal. + +In estimating Handel's greatness we must think away all orthodox musical +and progressive prejudices, and learn to apply the lessons critics of +architecture and some critics of literature seem to know by nature. +Originality, in music as in other arts, lies in the whole, and in a +sense of the true meaning of every part. When Handel wrote a normal +double fugue in a minor key on the word "Hallelujah" he showed that he +at all events knew what a vigorous and dignified thing an 18th-century +double fugue could be. In putting it at the end of a melancholy psalm he +showed his sense of the value of the minor mode. When he put it in its +situation in _Athalia_ he showed as perfect a sense of dramatic and +musical fitness as could well be found in art. Now it is obvious that in +works like oratorios (which are dramatic schemes vigorously but loosely +organized by the putting together of some twenty or thirty complete +pieces of music) the proper conception of originality will be very +different from that which animates the composer of modern lyric, +operatic or symphonic music. When we add to this the characteristics of +a method like Handel's, in which musical technique has become a masterly +automatism, it becomes evident that our conception of originality must +be at least as broad as that which we would apply in the criticism of +architecture. The disadvantages of the want of such a conception have +been aggravated by the dearth of general knowledge of the structure of +musical art; a knowledge which shows that the parallel we have suggested +between music and architecture, as regards the nature of originality, is +no mere figure of speech. + +In every art there is an antithesis between form and matter, which +becomes reconciled only when the work of art is perfect in its +execution. And, whatever this perfection, the antithesis must always +remain in the mind of the artist and critic to this extent, that some +part of the material seems to be the special subject of technical rule +rather than another. In the plastic and literary arts one type of this +antithesis is more or less permanently maintained in the relation +between subject and treatment. The mere fact that these arts express +themselves by representing things that have some previous independent +existence, helps us to look for originality rather in the things that +make for perfection of treatment than in novelty of subject. But in +music we have no permanent means of deciding which of many aspects we +shall call the subject and which the treatment. In the 16th century the +a priori form existed mainly in the practice of basing almost every +melodic detail of the work on phrases of Gregorian chant or popular +song, treated for the most part in terms of very definitely regulated +polyphonic design, and on harmonic principles regulated in almost every +detail by the relation between the melodic aspects of the church modes +and the necessity for occasional alterations of the strict mode to +secure finality at the close. In modern music such a relation between +form and matter, prescribing as it does for every aspect at every moment +both of the shape and the texture of the music, would exclude the +element of invention altogether. In 16th-century music it by no means +had that effect. An inventive 16th-century composer is as clearly +distinguishable from a dull one as a good architect from a bad. The +originality of the composer resides, in 16th-century music as in all +art, in his whole work; but naturally his conception of property and +ideas will not extend to themes or isolated passages. That man is +entitled to an idea who can show what it means, or who can make it mean +what he likes. Let him wear the giant's robe if it fits him. And it is +merely a local difference in point of view which makes us think that +there is property in themes and no property in forms. Nowadays we happen +to regard the shape of a whole composition as its form, and its theme as +its matter. And, as artistic organization becomes more complex and +heterogeneous, the need of the broadest and most forcible possible +outline of design is more pressingly felt; so that in what we choose to +call form we are willing to sacrifice all conception of originality for +the sake of general intelligibility, while we insist upon complete +originality in those thematic details which we are pleased to call +matter. But, if this explains, it does not excuse our setting up a +criterion for musical originality which can be accepted by no +intelligent critics of other arts, and which is completely upset by the +study of any music earlier than the beginning of the 19th century. + +The difficulty many writers have found in explaining the subject of +Handel's "plagiarisms" is not entirely accounted for by mere lack of +these considerations; but the grossest confusion of ideas as to the +difference between cases in point prevails to this day, and many +discussions which have been raised in regard to the ethical aspect of +the question are frankly absurd.[3] It has been argued, for instance, +that great injustice was done to Buononcini over his unfortunate affair +with the prize madrigal, while his great rival was allowed the credit of +_Israel in Egypt_, which contains a considerable number of entire +choruses (besides hosts of themes) by earlier Italian and German +writers. But the very idea of Handelian oratorio is that of some three +hours of music, religious or secular, arranged, like opera, in the form +of a colossal entertainment, and with high dramatic and emotional +interest imparted to it, if not by the telling of a story, at all events +by the nature and development of the subject. It seems, moreover, to be +entirely overlooked that the age was an age of _pasticcios_. Nothing was +more common than the organization of some such solemn entertainment by +the skilful grouping of favourite pieces. Handel himself never revived +one of his oratorios without inserting in it favourite pieces from his +other works as well as several new numbers; and the story is well known +that the turning point in Gluck's career was his perception of the true +possibilities of dramatic music from the failure of a _pasticcio_ in +which he had reset some rather definitely expressive music to situations +for which it was not originally designed. The success of an oratorio was +due to the appropriateness of its contrasts, together of course with the +mastery of its detail, whether that detail were new or old; and there +are many gradations between a réchauffé of an early work like _The +Triumph of Time and Truth_, or a _pasticcio_ with a few original numbers +like the _Occasional Oratorio_, and such works as _Samson_, which was +entirely new except that the "Dead March" first written for it was +immediately replaced by the more famous one imported from _Saul_. That +the idea of the _pasticcio_ was extremely familiar to the age is shown +by the practice of announcing an oratorio as "new and original," a term +which would obviously be meaningless if it were as much a matter of +course as it is at the present day, and which, if used at all, must +obviously so apply to the whole work without forbidding the composer +from gratifying the public with the reproduction of one or two favourite +arias. But of course the question of originality becomes more serious +when the imported numbers are not the composer's own. And here it is +very noticeable that Handel derived no credit, either with his own +public or with us, from whole movements that are not of his own +designing. In _Israel in Egypt_, the choruses "Egypt was glad when they +departed," "And I will exalt Him," "Thou sentest forth Thy Wrath" and +"The Earth swallowed them," are without exception the most colourless +and unattractive pieces of severe counterpoint to be found among +Handel's works; and it is very difficult to fathom his motive in copying +them from obscure pieces by Erba and Kaspar Kerl, unless it be that he +wished to train his audiences to a better understanding of a polyphonic +style. He certainly felt that the greatest possibilities of music lay in +the higher choral polyphony, and so in _Israel in Egypt_ he designed a +work consisting almost entirely of choruses, and may have wished in +these instances for severe contrapuntal movements which he had not time +to write, though he could have done them far better himself. Be this as +it may, these choruses have certainly added nothing to the popularity +of a work of which the public from the outset complained that there was +not enough solo music; and what effect they have is merely to throw +Handel's own style into relief. To draw any parallel between the theft +of such unattractive details in the grand and intensely Handelian scheme +of _Israel in Egypt_ and Buononcini's alleged theft of a prize madrigal +is merely ridiculous. Handel himself, if he had any suspicion that +contemporaries did not take a sane architect's view of the originality +of large musical schemes,[4] probably gave himself no more trouble about +their scruples on this matter than about other forms of musical +banality. + +The _History of Music_ by Burney, the cleverest and most refined musical +critic of the age, shows in the very freshness of its musical +scholarship how completely unscholarly were the musical ideas of the +time. Burney was incapable of regarding choral music as other than a +highly improving academic exercise in which he himself was proficient; +and for him Handel is the great opera-writer whose choral music will +reward the study of the curious. If Handel had attempted to explain his +methods to the musicians of his age, he would probably have found +himself alone in his opinions as to the property of musical ideas. He +did not trouble to explain, but he made no concealment of his sources. +He left his whole musical library to his copyist, and it was from this +that the sources of his work were discovered. And when the whole series +of plagiarisms is studied, the fact forces itself upon us that nothing +except themes and forms which are common property in all 18th-century +music, has yet been discovered as the source of any work of Handel's +which is not felt as part of a larger design. Operatic arias were never +felt as parts of a whole. The opera was a concert on the stage, and it +stood or fell, not by a dramatic propriety which it notoriously +neglected to consider at all, but by the popularity of its arias. There +is no aria in Handel's operas which is traceable to another composer. +Even in the oratorios there is no solo number in which more than the +themes are pilfered, for in oratorios the solo work still appealed to +the popular criterion of novelty and individual attractiveness. And when +we leave the question of copying of whole movements and come to that of +the adaptation of passages, and still more of themes, Handel shows +himself to be simply on a line with Mozart. Jahn compares the opening of +Mozart's _Requiem_ with that of the first chorus in Handel's _Funeral +Anthem_. Mozart recreates at least as much from Handel's already perfect +framework as Handel ever idealized from the inorganic fragments of +earlier writers. The double counterpoint of the Kyrie in Mozart's +_Requiem_ is still more indisputably identical with that of the last +chorus of Handel's _Joseph_, and if the themes are common property their +combination certainly is not. But the true plagiarist is the man who +does not know the meaning of the ideas he copies, and the true creator +is he in whose hands they remain or become true ideas. The theme "He led +them forth like sheep" in the chorus "But as for his people" is one of +the most beautiful in Handel's works, and the bare statement that it +comes from a serenata by Stradella seems at first rather shocking. But, +to any one who knew Stradella's treatment of it first, Handel's would +come as a revelation actually greater than if he had never heard the +theme before. Stradella makes nothing more of it, and therefore +presumably sees nothing more in it than an agreeable and essentially +frivolous little tune which lends itself to comic dramatic purpose by a +wearisome repetition throughout eight pages of patchy aria and +instrumental ritornello at an ever-increasing pace. What Handel sees in +it is what he makes of it, one of the most solemn and poetic things in +music. Again, it may be very shocking to discover that the famous +opening of the "Hailstone chorus" comes from the patchy and facetious +overture to this same serenata, with which it is identical for ten bars +all in the tonic chord (representing, according to Stradella, someone +knocking at a door). And it is no doubt yet more shocking that the +chorus "He spake the word, and there came all manner of flies" contains +no idea of Handel's own except the realistic swarming violin-passages, +the general structure, and the vocal colouring; whereas the rhythmic and +melodic figures of the voice parts come from an equally patchy _sinfonia +concertata_ in Stradella's work. The real interest of these things ought +not to be denied either by the misstatement that the materials adapted +are mere common property, nor by the calumny that Handel was +uninventive. + +The effects of Handel's original inspiration upon foreign material are +really the best indication of the range of his style. The comic meaning +of the broken rhythm of Stradella's overture becomes indeed Handel's +inspiration in the light of the gigantic tone-picture of the "Hailstone +chorus." In the theme of "He led them forth like sheep" we have already +cited a particular case where Handel perceived great solemnity in a +theme originally intended to be frivolous. The converse process is +equally instructive. In the short Carillon choruses in Saul where the +Israelitish women welcome David after his victory over Goliath, Handel +uses a delightful instrumental tune which stands at the beginning of a +_Te Deum_ by Urio, from which he borrowed an enormous amount of material +in _Saul, L'Allegro_, the _Dettingen Te Deum_ and other works. Urio's +idea is first to make a jubilant and melodious noise from the lower +register of the strings, and then to bring out a flourish of high +trumpets as a contrast. He has no other use for his beautiful tune, +which indeed would not bear more elaborate treatment than he gives it. +The ritornello falls into statement and counterstatement, and the +counterstatement secures one repetition of the tune, after which no more +is heard of it. It has none of the solemnity of church music, and its +value as a contrast to the flourish of trumpets depends, not upon +itself, but upon its position in the orchestra. Handel did not see in it +a fine opening for a great ecclesiastical work, but he saw in it an +admirable expression of popular jubilation, and he understood how to +bring out its character with the liveliest sense of climax and dramatic +interest by taking it at its own value as a popular tune. So he uses it +as an instrumental interlude accompanied with a jingle of carillons, +while the daughters of Israel sing to a square-cut tune those praises of +David which aroused the jealousy of Saul. But now turn to the opening of +the _Dettingen Te Deum_ and see what splendid use is made of the other +side of Urio's idea, the contrast between a jubilant noise in the lowest +part of the scale and the blaze of trumpets at an extreme height. In the +fourth bar of the _Dettingen Te Deum_ we find the same florid trumpet +figures as we find in the fifth bar of Urio's, but at the first moment +they are on oboes. The first four bars beat a tattoo on the tonic and +dominant, with the whole orchestra, including trumpets and drums, in the +lowest possible position and in a stirring rhythm with a boldness and +simplicity characteristic only of a stroke of genius. Then the oboes +appear with Urio's trumpet flourishes; the momentary contrast is at +least as brilliant as Urio's; and as the oboes are immediately followed +by the same figures on the trumpets themselves the contrast gains +incalculably in subtlety and climax. Moreover, these flourishes are more +melodious than the broad and massive opening, instead of being, as in +Urio's scheme, incomparably less so. Lastly, Handel's primitive opening +rhythmic figures inevitably underlie every subsequent inner part and +bass that occurs at every half close and full close throughout the +movement, especially where the trumpets are used. And thus every detail +of his scheme is rendered alive with a rhythmic significance which the +elementary nature of the theme prevents from ever becoming obtrusive. + +No other great composer has ever so overcrowded his life with occasional +and mechanical work as Handel, and in no other artist are the qualities +that make the difference between inspired and uninspired pages more +difficult to analyse. The libretti of his oratorios are full of +absurdities, except when they are derived in every detail from +Scripture, as in the _Messiah_ and _Israel in Egypt_, or from the +classics of English literature, as in _Samson_ and _L'Allegro_. These +absurdities, and the obvious fact that in every oratorio Handel writes +many more numbers than are desirable for one performance, and that he +was continually in later performances adding, transferring and cutting +out solo numbers and often choruses as well--all this may seem at first +sight to militate seriously against the view that Handel's originality +and greatness consists in his grasp of the works as wholes, but in +reality it strengthens that view. These things militate against the +perfection of the whole, but they would have been absolutely fatal to a +work of which the whole is not (as in all true art) greater than the sum +of its parts. That they are felt as absurdities and defects already +shows that Handel created in English oratorio a true art-form on the +largest possible scale. + +There never has been a time when Handel has been overrated, except in so +far as other composers have been neglected. But no composer has suffered +so much from pious misinterpretation and the popular admiration of +misleading externals. It is not the place here to dilate upon the burial +of Handel's art beneath the "mammoth" performances of the Handel +Festivals at the Crystal Palace; nor can we give more than a passing +reference to the effects of "additional accompaniments" in the style of +an altogether later age, started most unfortunately by Mozart (whose +share in the work has been very much misinterpreted and corrupted) and +continued in the middle of the 19th century by musicians of every degree +of intelligence and refinement, until all sense of unity of style has +been lost and does not seem likely to be recovered as a general element +in the popular appreciation of Handel for some time to come. But in +spite of this, Handel will never cease to be revered and loved as one of +the greatest of composers, if we value the criteria of architectonic +power, a perfect sense of style, and the power to rise to the most +sublime height of musical climax by the simplest means. + + Handel's important works have all been mentioned above with their + dates, and a separate detailed list does not seem necessary. He was an + extremely rapid worker, and his later works are dated almost day by + day as they proceed. From this we learn that the _Messiah_ was + sketched and scored within twenty-one days, and that even _Jephtha_, + with an interruption of nearly four months besides several other + delays caused by Handel's failing sight, was begun and finished within + seven months, representing hardly five weeks' actual writing. Handel's + extant works may be roughly summarized from the edition of the + _Händelgesellschaft_ as 41 Italian operas, 2 Italian oratorios, 2 + German Passions, 18 English oratorios, 4 English secular oratorios, 4 + English secular cantatas, and a few other small works, English and + Italian, of the type of oratorio or incidental dramatic music; 3 Latin + settings of the _Te Deum_; the (English) _Dettingen Te Deum_ and + _Utrecht Te Deum and Jubilate_; 4 coronation anthems; 3 volumes of + English anthems (_Chandos Anthems_); 1 volume of Latin church music; 3 + volumes of Italian vocal chamber-music; 1 volume of clavier works; 37 + instrumental duets and trios (sonatas), and 4 volumes of orchestral + music and organ concertos (about 40 works). Precise figures are + impossible as there is no means of drawing the line between + _pasticcios_ and original works. The instrumental pieces especially + are used again and again as overtures to operas and oratorios and + anthems. + + The complete edition of the German _Händelgesellschaft_ suffers from + being the work of one man who would not recognize that his task was + beyond any single man's power. The best arrangements of the vocal + scores are undoubtedly those published by Novello that are not based + on "additional accompaniments." None is absolutely trustworthy, and + those of the editor of the German _Händelgesellschaft_ are sad proofs + of the uselessness of expert library-scholarship without a sound + musical training. Yet Chrysander's services in the restoration of + Handel are beyond praise. We need only mention his discovery of + authentic trombone parts in _Israel in Egypt_ as one among many of his + priceless contributions to musical history and aesthetics. + (D. F. T.) + + +FOOTNOTES: + + [1] Chrysander says Mattei instead of Ariosti. + + [2] By a dramatic coincidence Handel's blindness interrupted him + during the writing of the chorus, "How dark, oh Lord, are Thy + decrees, ... all our joys to sorrow turning ... as the night succeeds + the day." + + [3] The "moral" question has been raised afresh in reviews of Mr + Sedley Taylor's admirable volume of analysed illustrations (_The + Indebtedness of Handel to works of other Composers_, Cambridge, + 1906). The latest argument is that Handel shows moral obliquity in + borrowing "regrettably" from sources no one could know at the time. + This reasoning makes it mysterious that a man of such moral obliquity + should ever have written a note of his own music in England when he + could have stolen the complete choral works of Bach and most of the + hundred operas of Alessandro Scarlatti with the certainty that the + sources would not be printed for a century after his death, even if + his own name did not then check curiosity among antiquarians. Of + course Handel's plagiarisms would have damaged his reputation if + contemporaries had known of them. His polyphonic scholarship was more + "antiquated" in the 18th century than it is in the 20th. + + [4] Much light would be thrown on the subject if some one + sufficiently ignorant of architecture were to make researches into + Sir Christopher Wren's indebtedness to Italian architects! + + + + +HANDFASTING (A.S. _handfćstnung_, pledging one's hand), primarily the O. +Eng. synonym for _betrothal_ (q.v.), and later a peculiar form of +temporary marriage at one time common in Scotland, the only necessary +ceremony being the verbal pledge of the couple while holding hands. The +pair thus handfasted were, in accordance with Scotch law, entitled to +live together for a year and a day. If then they so wished, the +temporary marriage could be made permanent: if not, they could go their +several ways without reproach, the child, if any, being supported by the +party who objected to further cohabitation. + + + + +HANDICAP (from the expression _hand in cap_, referring to drawing lots), +a disadvantageous condition imposed upon the superior competitor in +sports and games, or an advantage allowed the inferior, in order to +equalize the chances of both. The character of the handicap depends upon +the nature of the sport. Thus in horse-racing the better horse must +carry the heavier weight. In foot races the inferior runners are allowed +to start at certain distances in advance of the best (or "scratch") man, +according to their previous records. In distance competitions (weights, +fly-casting, jumping, &c.) the inferior contestants add certain +distances to their scores. In time contests (yachting, canoe-racing, +&c.) the weaker or smaller competitors subtract certain periods of time +from that actually made, reckoned by the mile. In stroke contests (e.g. +golf) a certain number of strokes are subtracted from or added to the +scores, according to the strength of the players. In chess and draughts +the stronger competitor may play without one or more pieces. In court +games (tennis, lawn-tennis, racquets, &c.) and in billiards certain +points, or percentage of points, are accorded the weaker players. + +Handicapping was applied to horse-racing as early as 1680, though the +word was not used in this connexion much before the middle of the 18th +century. A "Post and Handy-Cap Match" is described in _Pond's Racing +Calendar_ for 1754. A reference to something similar in Germany and +Scandinavia, called _Freimarkt_, may be found in _Germania_, vol. xix. + +Competitions in which handicaps are given are called _handicap-events_ +or _handicaps_. There are many systems which depend upon the whim of the +individual competitors. Thus a tennis player may offer to play against +his inferior with a selzer-bottle instead of a racquet; or a golfer to +play with only one club; or a chess-player to make his moves without +seeing the board. + +The name "handicap" was taken from an ancient English game, to which +Pepys, in his _Diary_ under the date of the 18th of September 1660, thus +refers: "Here some of us fell to handicap, a sport that I never knew +before, which was very good." This game, which became obsolete in the +19th century, was described as early as the 14th in _Piers the Plowman_ +under the name of "New Faire." It was originally played by three +persons, one of whom proposed to "challenge," or exchange, some piece of +property belonging to another for something of his own. The challenge +being accepted an umpire was chosen, and all three put up a sum of money +as a forfeit. The two players then placed their right hands in a cap, or +in their pockets, in which there was loose money, while the umpire +proceeded to describe the two objects of exchange, and to declare what +sum of money the owner of the inferior article should pay as a bonus to +the other. This declaration was made as rapidly as possible and ended +with the invitation, "Draw, gentlemen!" Each player then withdrew and +held out his hand, which he opened. If both hands contained money the +exchange was effected according to the conditions laid down by the +umpire, who then took the forfeit money for himself. If neither hand +contained money the exchange was declined and the umpire took the +forfeit money. If only one player signified his acceptance of the +exchange by holding money in his hand, he was entitled to the +forfeit-money, though the exchange was not made. + +Handicap was also the name of an old game at cards, now obsolete. It +resembled the game of Loo, and probably derived its name from the +ancient sport described above. + + + + +HANDSEL, the O. Eng. term for earnest money; especially in Scotland the +first money taken at a market or fair. The termination _sel_ is the +modern "sell." "Hand" indicates, not a bargain by shaking hands, but the +actual putting of the money into the hand. Handsels were also presents +or earnests of goodwill in the North; thus Handsel Monday, the first +Monday in the year, an occasion for universal tipping, is the equivalent +of the English Boxing day. + + + + +HANDSWORTH. (1) An urban district in the Handsworth parliamentary +division of Staffordshire, England, suburban to Birmingham on the +north-west. Pop. (1891), 32,756; (1901) 52,921. (See BIRMINGHAM.) (2) An +urban district in the Hallamshire parliamentary division of Yorkshire, 4 +m. S.E. of Sheffield. Pop. (1901), 13,404. In this neighbourhood are +extensive collieries and quarries. + + + + +HANDWRITING. Under PALAEOGRAPHY and WRITING, the history of handwriting +is dealt with. Questions of handwriting come before legal tribunals +mainly in connexion with the law of evidence. In Roman law, the +authenticity of documents was proved first by the attesting witnesses; +in the second place, if they were dead, by comparison of handwritings. +It was necessary, however, that the document to be used for purposes of +comparison either should have been executed with the formalities of a +public document, or should have its genuineness proved by three +attesting witnesses. The determination was apparently, in the latter +case, left to experts, who were sworn to give an impartial opinion (Code +4, 21. 20). Proof by comparison of handwritings, with a reference if +necessary to three experts as to the handwriting which is to be used for +the purposes of comparison, is provided for in the French Code of Civil +Procedure (arts. 193 et seq.); and in Quebec (Code Proc. Civ. arts. 392 +et seq.) and St Lucia (Code Civ. Proc. arts. 286 et seq.), the French +system has been adopted with modifications. Comparison by witnesses of +disputed writings with any writing proved to the satisfaction of the +judge to be genuine is accepted in England and Ireland in all legal +proceedings whether criminal or civil, including proceedings before +arbitrators (Denman Act, 28 & 29 Vict. c. 18, 55. 1, 8); and such +writings and the evidence of witnesses respecting the same may be +submitted to the court and jury as evidence of the genuineness or +otherwise of the writing in dispute. It is admitted in Scotland (where +the term _comparatio literarum_ is in use) and in most of the American +states, subject to the same conditions. In England, prior to the Common +Law Procedure Act of 1854 (now superseded by the act of 1866), documents +irrelevant to the matter in issue were not admissible for the sole +purpose of comparison, and this rule has been adopted, and is still +adhered to, in some of the states in America. In England, as in the +United States, and in most legal systems, the primary and best evidence +of handwriting is that of the writer himself. Witnesses who saw him +write the writing in question, or who are familiar with his handwriting +either from having seen him write or from having corresponded with him, +or otherwise, may be called. In cases of disputed handwriting the court +will accept the evidence of experts in handwriting, i.e. persons who +have an adequate knowledge of handwriting, whether acquired in the way +of their business or not, such as solicitors or bank cashiers (_R._ v. +_Silverlock_, 1894, 2 Q.B. 766). In such cases the witness is required +to compare the admitted handwriting of the person whose writing is in +question with the disputed document, and to state in detail the +similarities or differences as to the formation of words and letters, on +which he bases his opinion as to the genuineness or otherwise of the +disputed document. By the use of the magnifying glass, or, as in the +Parnell case, by enlarged photographs of the letters alleged to have +been written by Mr Parnell, the court and jury are much assisted to +appreciate the grounds on which the conclusions of the expert are +founded. Evidence of this kind, being based on opinion and theory, needs +to be very carefully weighed, and the dangers of implicit reliance on it +have been illustrated in many cases (e.g. the Beck case in 1904; and see +_Seaman_ v. _Netherclift_, 1876, 1 C.P.D. 540). Evidence by comparison +of handwriting comes in principally either in default, or in +corroboration, of the other modes of proof. + +Where attestation is necessary to the validity of a document, e.g. wills +and bills of sale, the execution must be proved by one or more of the +attesting witnesses, unless they are dead or cannot be produced, when it +is sufficient to prove the signature of one of them to the attesting +clause (28 & 29 Vict. c. 18, s. 7). Signatures to certain public and +official documents need not in general be proved (see e.g. Evidence Act, +1845, ss. 1, 2). + + See Taylor, _Law of Evidence_ (10th ed., London, 1906); Erskine + _Principles of the Law of Scotland_ (20th ed., Edinburgh, 1903); + Bouvier, _Law Dicty._ (Boston and London, 1897); Harris, + _Identification_ (Albany, 1892); Hagan, _Disputed Handwriting_ (New + York, 1894); also the article IDENTIFICATION. (A. W. R.) + + + + +HANG-CHOW-FU, a city of China, in the province of Cheh-Kiang, 2 m. N.W. +of the Tsien-tang-Kiang, at the southern terminus of the Grand canal, by +which it communicates with Peking. It lies about 100 m. S.W. of +Shanghai, in 30° 20´ 20´´ N., 120° 7´ 27´´ E. Towards the west is the +Si-hu or Western Lake, a beautiful sheet of water, with its banks and +islands studded with villas, monuments and gardens, and its surface +traversed by gaily-painted pleasure boats. Exclusive of extensive and +flourishing suburbs, the city has a circuit, of 12 m.; its streets are +well paved and clean; and it possesses a large number of arches, public +monuments, temples, hospitals and colleges. It has long ranked as one of +the great centres of Chinese commerce and Chinese learning. In 1869 the +silk manufactures alone were said to give employment to 60,000 persons +within its walls, and it has an extensive production of gold and silver +work and tinsel paper. On one of the islands in the lake is the great +Węn-lan-ko or pavilion of literary assemblies, and it is said that at +the examinations for the second degree, twice every three years, from +10,000 to 15,000 candidates come together. In the north-east corner of +the city is the Nestorian church which was noted by Marco Polo, the +façade being "elaborately carved and the gates covered with elegantly +wrought iron." There is a Roman Catholic mission in Hangchow, and the +Church Missionary Society, the American Presbyterians, and the Baptists +have stations. The local dialect differs from the Mandarin mainly in +pronunciation. The population, which is remarkable for gaiety of +clothing, was formerly reckoned at 2,000,000, but is now variously +estimated at 300,000, 400,000 or 800,000. Hang-chow-fu was declared open +to foreign trade in 1896, in pursuance of the Japanese treaty of +Shimonoseki. It is connected with Shanghai by inland canal, which is +navigable for boats drawing up to 4 ft. of water, and which might be +greatly improved by dredging. The cities of Shanghai, Hangchow and +Suchow form the three points of a triangle, each being connected with +the other by canal, and trade is now open by steam between all three +under the inland navigation rules. These canals pass through the richest +and most populous districts of China, and in particular lead into the +great silk-producing districts. They have for many centuries been the +highway of commerce, and afford a cheap and economical means of +transport. Hangchow lies at the head of the large estuary of that name, +which is, however, too shallow for navigation by steamers. The estuary +or bay is funnel-shaped, and its configuration produces at spring tides +a "bore" or tidal wave, which at its maximum reaches a height of 15 to +20 ft. The value of trade passing through the customs in 1899 was +Ł1,729,000; in 1904 these figures had risen to Ł2,543,831. + +Hang-chow-fu is the Kinsai of Marco Polo, who describes it as the finest +and noblest city in the world, and speaks enthusiastically of the number +and splendour of its mansions and the wealth and luxuriance of its +inhabitants. According to this authority it had a circuit of 100 m., and +no fewer than 12,000 bridges and 3000 baths. The name Kinsai, which +appears in Wassaf as Khanzai, in Ibn Batuta as Khansa, in Odoric of +Pordenone as Camsay, and elsewhere as Campsay and Cassay, is really a +corruption of the Chinese _King-sze_, capital, the same word which is +still applied to Peking. From the 10th to the 13th century (960-1272) +the city, whose real name was then Ling-nan, was the capital of southern +China and the seat of the Sung dynasty, which was dethroned by the +Mongolians shortly before Marco Polo's visit. Up to 1861, when it was +laid in ruins by the T'aip'ings, Hangchow continued to maintain its +position as one of the most flourishing cities in the empire. + + + + +HANGING, one of the modes of execution under Roman law (_ad furcam +domnatio_), and in England and some other countries the usual form of +capital punishment. It was derived by the Anglo-Saxons from their German +ancestors (Tacitus, _Germ._ 12). Under William the Conqueror this mode +of punishment is said to have been disused in favour of mutilation: but +Henry I. decreed that all thieves taken should be hanged (i.e. summarily +without trial), and by the time of Henry II. hanging was fully +established as a punishment for homicide; the "right of pit and +gallows" was ordinarily included in the royal grants of jurisdiction to +lords of manors and to ecclesiastical[1] and municipal corporations. In +the middle ages every town, abbey, and nearly all the more important +manorial lords had the right of hanging. The clergy had rights, too, in +respect to the gallows. Thus William the Conqueror invested the abbot of +Battle Abbey with authority to save the life of any criminal. From the +end of the 12th century the jurisdiction of the royal courts gradually +became exclusive; as early as 1212 the king's justices sentenced +offenders to be hanged (_Seld. Soc. Publ._ vol. i.; _Select Pleas of the +Crown_, p. 111), and in the Gloucester eyre of 1221 instances of this +sentence are numerous (Maitland, pl. 72, 101, 228). In 1241 a nobleman's +son, William Marise, was hanged for piracy. In the reign of Edward I. +the abbot of Peterborough set up a gallows at Collingham, Notts, and +hanged a thief. In 1279 two hundred and eighty Jews were hanged for +clipping coin. The mayor and the porter of the South Gate of Exeter were +hanged for their neglect in leaving the city gate open at night, thereby +aiding the escape of a murderer. Hanging in time superseded all other +forms of capital punishment for felony. It was substituted in 1790 for +burning as a punishment of female traitors and in 1814 for beheading as +a punishment for male traitors. The older and more primitive modes of +carrying out the sentence were by hanging from the bough of a tree ("the +father to the bough, the son to the plough") or from a gallows. Formerly +in the worst cases of murder it was customary after execution to hang +the criminal's body in chains near the scene of his crime. This was +known as "gibbeting," and, though by no means rare in the earliest +times, was, according to Blackstone, no part of the legal sentence. +Holinshed is the authority for the statement that sometimes culprits +were gibbeted alive, but this is doubtful. It was not until 1752 that +gibbeting was recognized by statute. The act (25 Geo. II. c. 37) +empowered the judges to direct that the dead body of a murderer should +be hung in chains, in the manner practised for the most atrocious +offences, or given over to surgeons to be dissected and anatomized, and +forbade burial except after dissection (see Foster, Crown Law, 107, Earl +Ferrers' case, 1760). The hanging in chains was usually on the spot +where the murder took place. Pirates were gibbeted on the sea shore or +river bank. The act of 1752 was repealed in 1828, but the alternatives +of dissection or hanging in chains were re-enacted and continued in use +until abolished as to dissection by the Anatomy Act in 1832, and as to +hanging in chains in 1834. The last murderer hung in chains seems to +have been James Cook, executed at Leicester on the 10th of August 1832. +The irons used on that occasion are preserved in Leicester prison. +Instead of chains, gibbet irons, a framework to hold the limbs together, +were sometimes used. At the town hall, Rye, Sussex, are preserved the +irons used in 1742 for one John Breeds who murdered the mayor. + +The earlier modes of hanging were gradually disused, and the present +system of hanging by use of the drop is said to have been inaugurated at +the execution of the fourth Earl Ferrers in 1760. The form of scaffold +now in use[2] has under the gallows a drop constructed on the principle +of the trap-doors on a theatrical stage, upon which the convict is +placed under the gallows, a white cap is placed over his head, and when +the halter has been properly adjusted the drop is withdrawn by a +mechanical contrivance worked by a lever, much like those in use on +railways for moving points and signals. The convict falls into a pit, +the length of the fall being regulated by his height and weight. Death +results not from real hanging and strangulation, but from a fracture of +the cervical vertebrae. Compression of the windpipe by the rope and the +obstruction of the circulation aid in the fatal result. Recently the +noose has had imbedded in its fibre a metal eyelet which is adjusted +tightly beneath the ear and considerably expedites death. The convict is +left hanging until life is extinct. + +It was long considered essential that executions, like trials, should be +public, and be carried out in a manner calculated to impress evil-doers. +Partly to this idea, partly to notions of revenge and temporal +punishment of sin, is probably due the rigour of the administration of +the English law. But the methods of execution were unseemly, as +delineated in Hogarth's print of the execution of the idle apprentice, +and were ineffectual in reducing the bulk of crime, which was augmented +by the inefficiency of the police and the uncertainty and severity of +the law, which rendered persons tempted to commit crime either reckless +or confident of escape. The scandals attending public executions led to +an attempt to alter the law in 1841, although many protests had been +made long before, among them those of the novelist Fielding. But perhaps +the most forcible and effectual was that of Charles Dickens in his +letters to _The Times_ written after mixing in the crowd gathered to +witness the execution of the Mannings at Horsemonger Lane gaol in 1849. +After his experiences he came to the conclusion that public executions +attracted the depraved and those affected by morbid curiosity; and that +the spectacle had neither the solemnity nor the salutary effect which +should attend the execution of public justice. His views were strongly +resisted in some quarters; and it was not until 1868 (31 & 32 Vict. c. +24) that they were accepted. The last public hanging in England was that +of Michael Barrett for murder by causing an explosion at Clerkenwell +prison with the object of releasing persons confined there for treason +and felony (Ann. Reg., 1868, p. 63). Under the act of 1868 (31 & 32 +Vict. c. 24), which was adapted from similar legislation already in +force in the Australian colonies convicted murderers are hanged within +the walls of a prison. The sentence of the court is that the convict "be +hanged by the neck until he is dead." The execution of the sentence +devolves on the sheriff of the county (Sheriffs Act 1887, s. 13). As a +general rule the sentence is carried out in England and Ireland at 8 +A.M. on a week-day (not being Monday), in the week following the third +Sunday after sentence was passed. In old times prisoners were often +hanged on the day after sentence was passed; and under the act of 1752 +this was made the rule in cases of murder. A public notice of the date +and hour of execution must be posted on the prison walls not less than +twelve hours before the execution and must remain until the inquest is +over. The persons required to be present are the sheriff, the gaoler, +chaplain and surgeon of the prison, and such other officers of the +prison as the sheriff requires; justices of the peace for the +jurisdiction to which the prison belongs, and such of the relatives, or +such other persons as the sheriff or visiting justices allow, may also +attend. It is usual to allow the attendance of some representatives of +the press. The death of the prisoner is certified by the prison surgeon, +and a declaration that judgment of death has been executed is signed by +the sheriff. An inquest is then held on the body by the coroner for the +jurisdiction and a jury from which prison officers are excluded. The +certificate and declaration, and a duplicate of the coroner's inquiry +also, are sent to the home office, or in Ireland to the lord-lieutenant, +and the body of the prisoner is interred in quicklime within the prison +walls if space is available. It is also the practice to toll the bell of +the parish or other neighbouring church, for fifteen minutes before and +fifteen minutes after the execution. The hoisting of the black flag at +the moment of execution was abolished in 1902. The regulations as to +execution are printed in the Statutory Rules and Orders, Revised ed. +1904, vol. x. (tits. Prison E. and Prison I). The act of 1868 applies +only to executions for murder; but since the passing of the act there +have been no executions for any other crime within the United Kingdom. +(See further CAPITAL PUNISHMENT.) + +In Scotland execution by hanging is carried out in the same manner as in +England and Ireland, but under the supervision of the magistrates of the +burgh in which it is decreed to take place, and in lieu of the inquest +required in England and Ireland an inquiry is held at the instance of +the procurator-fiscal before a sheriff or sheriff substitute (act of +1868, s. 13). The procedure at the execution is governed by the act of +1868 and the Scottish Prison Rules, rr. 465-469 (Stat. Rules and Orders, +Revised ed. 1904, tit. Prison S). + +_British Dominions beyond the Seas._--Throughout the King's dominions +hanging is the regular method of executing sentence of death. In India +the Penal Code superseded the modes of punishment under Mahommedan law, +and s. 368 of the Criminal Procedure Code of 1898 provides that sentence +of death is to be executed by hanging by the neck. + +In Canada the sentence is executed within a prison under conditions very +similar to those in England (Criminal Code, 1892; ss. 936-945). In +Australia the execution takes place within the prison walls, at a time +and place appointed by the governor of the state. See Queensland Code, +1899, s. 664; Western Australia Code, 1901, s. 663; in these states no +inquest is held. In Western Australia the governor may cause an +aboriginal native to be executed outside a prison. In New Zealand the +only mode of execution is by hanging within a prison (Act of 1883). + +_United States._---In all the states except New York, Massachusetts, New +Jersey, North Carolina, Mississippi, Virginia, and Ohio (see +ELECTROCUTION) persons sentenced to death are hanged. In Utah the +criminal may elect to be shot instead. + + The only countries, whose law is not of direct English origin, which + inflict capital punishment by hanging are Japan, Austria, Hungary and + Russia. (W. F. C.) + + +FOOTNOTES: + + [1] See Pollock and Maitland vol. i. 563. The sole survival of these + grants is the jurisdiction of the justices of the Soke of + Peterborough to try for capital offences at their quarter sessions. + + [2] In most counties in Ireland the scaffold used (in 1852) to + consist in an iron balcony permanently fixed outside the gaol wall. + There was a small door in the wall commanding the balcony and opening + out upon it. The bottom of the iron balcony or cage was so + constructed that on the withdrawal of a pin or bolt which could be + managed from within the gaol, the trap-door upon which the culprit + stood dropped from under his feet. The upper end of the rope was + fastened to a strong iron bar, which projected over the trap-door. + There were usually two or three trap-doors on the same balcony, so + that, if required, two or more men could be hanged simultaneously. + (Trench, _Realities of Irish Life_ (1869), 280.) + + + + +HANGÖ, a port and sea-bathing resort situated on the promontory of +Hangöudd, to the extreme south-west of Finland. Hangö owes its +commercial importance to the fact that it is practically the only winter +ice-free port in Finland, and is thus of value both to the Finnish and +the Russian sea-borne trade. When incorporated in 1874 it had only a few +hundred inhabitants; in 1900 it had 2501 and it has now over six +thousand (5986 in 1904). It is connected by railway with Helsingfors and +Tammerfors, and is the centre of the Finnish butter export, which now +amounts to over Ł1,000,000 yearly. There is a considerable import of +coal, cotton, iron and breadstuffs, the chief exports being butter, +fish, timber and wood pulp. During the period of emigration, owing to +political troubles with Russia, over 12,000 Finns sailed from Hangö in a +single year (1901), mostly for the United States and Canada. Hangö now +takes front rank as a fashionable watering-place, especially for wealthy +Russians, having a dry climate and a fine strand. + + + + +HANKA, WENCESLAUS (1791-1861), Bohemian philologist, was born at +Horeniowes, a hamlet of eastern Bohemia, on the 10th of June 1791. He +was sent in 1807 to school at Königgrätz, to escape the conscription, +then to the university of Prague, where he founded a society for the +cultivation of the Czech language. At Vienna, where he afterwards +studied law, he established a Czech periodical; and in 1813 he made the +acquaintance of Joseph Dobrowsky, the eminent philologist. On the 16th +of September 1817 Hanka alleged that he had discovered some ancient +Bohemian manuscript poems (the Königinhof MS.) of the 13th and 14th +century in the church tower of the village of Kralodwor, or Königinhof. +These were published in 1818, under the title _Kralodworsky Rukopis_, +with a German translation by Swoboda. Great doubt, however, was felt as +to their genuineness, and Dobrowsky, by pronouncing _The Judgment of +Libussa_, another manuscript found by Hanka, an "obvious fraud," +confirmed the suspicion. Some years afterwards Dobrowsky saw fit to +modify his decision, but by modern Czech scholars the MS. is regarded as +a forgery. A translation into English, _The Manuscript of the Queen's +Court_, was made by Wratislaw in 1852. The originals were presented by +the discoverer to the Bohemian museum at Prague, of which he was +appointed librarian in 1818. In 1848 Hanka, who was an ardent +Panslavist, took part in the Slavonic congress and other peaceful +national demonstrations, being the founder of the political society +Slovanska Lipa. He was elected to the imperial diet at Vienna, but +declined to take his seat. In the winter of 1848 he became lecturer and +in 1849 professor of Slavonic languages in the university of Prague, +where he died on the 12th of January 1861. + + His chief works and editions are the following: _Hankowy Pjsne_ + (Prague, 1815), a volume of poems; _Starobyla Skladani_ (1817-1826), + in 5 vols.--a collection of old Bohemian poems, chiefly from + unpublished manuscripts; _A Short History of the Slavonic Peoples_ + (1818); _A Bohemian Grammar_ (1822) and _A Polish Grammar_ + (1839)--these grammars were composed on a plan suggested by Dobrowsky; + _Igor_ (1821), an ancient Russian epic, with a translation into + Bohemian; a part of the Gospels from the Reims manuscript in the + Glagolitic character (1846); the old Bohemian Chronicles of _Dalimil_ + (1848) and the _History of Charles IV._, by Procop Lupác (1848); + _Evangelium Ostromis_ (1853). + + + + +HANKOW ("Mouth of the Han"), the great commercial centre of the middle +portion of the Chinese empire, and since 1858 one of the principal +places opened to foreign trade. It is situated on the northern side of +the Yangtsze-kiang at its junction with the Han river, about 600 m. W. +of Shanghai in 30° 32´ 51´´ N., 114° 19´ 55´´ E., at a height of 150 ft. +By the Chinese it is not considered a separate city, but as a suburb of +the now decadent city of Hanyang; and it may almost be said to stand in +a similar relation to Wu-chang the capital of the province of Hupeh, +which lies immediately opposite on the southern bank of the +Yangtsze-kiang. Hankow extends for about a mile along the main river and +about two and a half along the Han. It is protected by a wall 18 ft. +high, which was erected in 1863 and has a circuit of about 4 m. Within +recent years the port has made rapid advance in wealth and importance. +The opening up of the upper waters of the Yangtsze to steam navigation +has made it a commercial _entrepôt_ second only to Shanghai. It is the +terminus of a railway between Peking and the Yangtsze, the northern half +of the trunk line from Peking to Canton. There is daily communication by +regular lines of steamers with Shanghai, and smaller steamers ply on the +upper section of the river between Hankow and Ich'ang. The principal +article of export continues to be black tea, of which staple Hankow has +always been the central market. The bulk of the leaf tea, however, now +goes to Russia by direct steamers to Odessa instead of to London as +formerly, and a large quantity goes overland via Tientsin and Siberia in +the form of brick tea. The quantity of brick tea thus exported in 1904 +was upwards of 10 million lb. The exports which come next in value are +opium, wood-oil, hides, beans, cotton yarn and raw silk. The population +of Hankow, together with the city of Wu-chang on the opposite bank, is +estimated at 800,000, and the number of foreign residents is about 500. +Large iron-works have been erected by the Chinese authorities at +Hanyang, a couple of miles higher up the river, and at Wuchang there are +two official cotton mills. The British concession, on which the business +part of the foreign settlement is built, was obtained in 1861 by a lease +in perpetuity from the Chinese authorities in favour of the crown. By +1863 a great embankment and a roadway were completed along the river, +which may rise as much as 50 ft. or more above its ordinary levels, and +not infrequently, as in 1849 and 1866, lays a large part of the town +under water. On the former occasion little was left uncovered but the +roofs of the houses. In 1864 a public assay office was established. +Sub-leases for a term of years are granted by the crown to private +individuals; local control, including the policing of the settlement, is +managed by a municipal council elected under regulations promulgated by +the British minister in China, acting by authority of the sovereign's +orders in council. Foreigners, i.e. non-British, are admitted to become +lease-holders on their submitting to be bound by the municipal +regulations. The concession, however, gives no territorial jurisdiction. +All foreigners, of whatever nationality, are justiciable only before +their own consular authorities by virtue of the extra-territorial +clauses of their treaties with China. In 1895 a concession, on similar +terms to that under which the British is held, was obtained by Germany, +and this was followed by concessions to France and Russia. These three +concessions all lie on the north bank of the river and immediately below +the British. An extension of the British concession backwards was +granted in 1898. The Roman Catholics, the London Missionary Society and +the Wesleyans have all missions in the town; and there are two +missionary hospitals. The total trade in 1904 was valued at Ł15,401,076 +(Ł9,042,190 being exports and Ł6,358,886 imports) as compared with a +total of Ł17,183,400 in 1891 and Ł11,628,000 in 1880. + + + + +HANLEY, a market town and parliamentary borough of Staffordshire, +England, in the Potteries district, 148 m. N.W. from London, on the +North Staffordshire railway. Pop. (1891) 54,946; (1901) 61,599. The +parliamentary borough includes the adjoining town of Burslem. The town, +which lies on high ground, has handsome municipal buildings, free +library, technical and art museum, elementary, science and art schools, +and a large park. Its manufactures include porcelain, encaustic tiles, +and earthenware, and give employment to the greater part of the +population, women and children being employed almost as largely as men. +In the neighbourhood coal and iron are obtained. Hanley is of modern +development. Its municipal constitution dates from 1857, the +parliamentary borough from 1885, and the county borough from 1888. +Shelton, Hope, Northwood and Wellington are populous ecclesiastical +parishes included within its boundaries. That of Etruria, adjoining on +the west, originated in the Ridge House pottery works of Josiah Wedgwood +and Thomas Bentley, who founded them in 1769, naming them after the +country of the Etruscans in Italy. Etruria Hall was the scene of +Wedgwood's experiments. The parliamentary borough of Hanley returns one +member. The town was governed by a mayor, 6 aldermen, and 18 councillors +until under the "Potteries federation" scheme (1908) it became part of +the borough of Stoke-on-Trent (q.v.) in 1910. + + + + +HANNA, MARCUS ALONZO (1837-1904), American politician, was born at New +Lisbon (now Lisbon) Columbiana county, Ohio, on the 24th of September +1837. In 1852 he removed with his father to Cleveland, where the latter +established himself in the wholesale grocery business, and the son +received his education in the public schools of that city, and at the +Western Reserve University. Leaving college before the completion of his +course, he became associated with his father in business, and on his +father's death (1862) became a member of the firm. In 1867 he entered +into partnership with his father-in-law, Daniel P. Rhodes, in the coal +and iron business. It was largely due to Hanna's progressive methods +that the business of the firm, which became M. A. Hanna & Company in +1877, was extended to include the ownership of a fleet of lake +steam-ships constructed in their own shipyards, and the control and +operation of valuable coal and iron mines. Subsequently he became +largely interested in street railway properties in Cleveland and +elsewhere, and in various banking institutions. In early life he had +little time for politics, but after 1880 he became prominent in the +affairs of the Republican party in Cleveland, and in 1884 and 1888 was a +delegate to the Republican National Convention, in the latter year being +associated with William McKinley in the management of the John Sherman +canvass. It was not, however, until 1896, when he personally managed the +canvass that resulted in securing the Republican presidential nomination +for William McKinley at the St Louis Convention (at which he was a +delegate), that he became known throughout the United States as a +political manager of great adroitness, tact and resourcefulness. +Subsequently he became chairman of the Republican National Committee, +and managed with consummate skill the campaign of 1896 against William +Jennings Bryan and "free-silver." In March 1897 he was appointed, by +Governor Asa S. Bushnell (1834-1904) United States senator from Ohio, to +succeed John Sherman. In the senate, to which in January 1898 he was +elected for the short term ending on the 3rd of March 1899 and for the +succeeding full term, he took little part in the debates, but was +recognized as one of the principal advisers of the McKinley +administration, and his influence was large in consequence. Apart from +politics he took a deep and active interest in the problems of capital +and labour, was one of the organizers (1901) and the first president of +the National Civic Federation, whose purpose was to solve social and +industrial problems, and in December 1901 became chairman of a permanent +board of conciliation and arbitration established by the Federation. +After President Roosevelt's policies became defined, Senator Hanna came +to be regarded as the leader of the conservative branch of the +Republican party and a possible presidential candidate in 1904. He died +at Washington on the 15th of February 1904. + + + + +HANNAY, JAMES (1827-1873), Scottish critic, novelist and publicist, was +born at Dumfries on the 17th of February 1827. He came of the Hannays of +Sorbie, an ancient Galloway family. He entered the navy in 1840 and +served till 1845, when he adopted literature as his profession. He acted +as reporter on the _Morning Chronicle_ and gradually obtained a +connexion, writing for the quarterly and monthly journals. In 1857 +Hannay contested the Dumfries burghs in the Conservative interest, but +without success. He edited the _Edinburgh Courant_ from 1860 till 1864, +when he removed to London. From 1868 till his death on the 8th of +January 1873 he was British consul at Barcelona. His letters to the +_Pall Mall Gazette_ "From an Englishman in Spain" were highly +appreciated. Hannay's best books are his two naval novels, _Singleton +Fontenoy_ (1850) and _Eustace Conyers_ (1855); _Satire and Satirists_ +(1854); and _Essays from the Quarterly Review_ (1861). _Satire_ not only +shows loving appreciation of the great satirists of the past, but is +itself instinct with wit and fine satiric power. The book sparkles with +epigrams and apposite classical allusions, and contains admirable +critical estimates of Horace (Hannay's favourite author), Juvenal, +Erasmus, Sir David Lindsay, George Buchanan, Boileau, Butler, Dryden, +Swift, Pope, Churchill, Burns, Byron and Moore. + + Among his other works are _Biscuits and Grog, Claret Cup_, and _Hearts + are Trumps_ (1848); _King Dobbs_ (1849); _Sketches in Ultramarine_ + (1853); an edition of the _Poems_ of Edgar Allan Poe, to which he + prefixed an essay on the poet's life and genius (1852); _Characters + and Criticisms_, consisting mainly of his contributions to the + _Edinburgh Courant_ (1865); _A Course of English Literature_ (1866); + _Studies on Thackeray_ (1869); and a family history entitled _Three + Hundred Years of a Norman House_ (the Gurneys) (1867). + + + + +HANNEN, JAMES HANNEN, BARON (1821-1894), English judge, son of a London +merchant, was born at Peckham in 1821. He was educated at St Paul's +school and at Heidelberg University, which was famous as a school of +law. Called to the bar at the Middle Temple in 1848, he joined the home +circuit. At this time he also wrote for the press, and supplied special +reports for the _Morning Chronicle_. Though not eloquent in speech, he +was clear, accurate and painstaking, and soon advanced in his +profession, passing many more brilliant competitors. He appeared for the +claimant in the Shrewsbury peerage case in 1858, when the 3rd Earl +Talbot was declared to be entitled to the earldom of Shrewsbury as the +descendant of the 2nd earl; was principal agent for Great Britain on the +mixed British and American commission for the settlement of outstanding +claims, 1853-1855; and assisted in the prosecution of the Fenian +prisoners at Manchester. In 1868 Hannen was appointed a judge of the +Court of Queen's Bench. In many cases he took a strong position of his +own, notably in that of _Farrar_ v. _Close_ (1869), which materially +affected the legal status of trade unions and was regarded by unionists +as a severe blow to their interests. Hannen became judge of the Probate +and Divorce Court in 1872, and in 1875 he was appointed president of the +probate and admiralty division of the High Court of Justice. Here he +showed himself a worthy successor to Cresswell and Penzance. Many +important causes came before him, but he will chiefly be remembered for +the manner in which he presided over the Parnell special commission. His +influence pervaded the whole proceedings, and it is understood that he +personally penned a large part of the voluminous report. Hannen's last +public service was in connexion with the Bering Sea inquiry at Paris, +when he acted as one of the British arbitrators. In January 1891 he was +appointed a lord of appeal in ordinary (with the dignity of a life +peerage), but in that capacity he had few opportunities for displaying +his powers, and he retired at the close of the session of 1893. He died +in London, after a prolonged illness, on the 29th of March 1894. + + + + +HANNIBAL ("mercy" or "favour of Baal"), Carthaginian general and +statesman, son of Hamilcar Barca (q.v.), was born in 249 or 247 B.C. +Destined by his father to succeed him in the work of vengeance against +Rome, he was taken to Spain, and while yet a boy gave ample evidence of +his military aptitude. Upon the death of his brother-in-law Hasdrubal +(221) he was acclaimed commander-in-chief by the soldiers and confirmed +in his appointment by the Carthaginian government. After two years spent +in completing the conquest of Spain south of the Ebro, he set himself to +begin what he felt to be his life's task, the conquest and humiliation +of Rome. Accordingly in 219 he seized some pretext for attacking the +town of Saguntum (mod. Murviedro), which stood under the special +protection of Rome, and disregarding the protests of Roman envoys, +stormed it after an eight months' siege. As the home government, in view +of Hannibal's great popularity, did not venture to repudiate this +action, the declaration of war which he desired took place at the end of +the year. + +Of the large army of Libyan and Spanish mercenaries which he had at his +disposal Hannibal selected the most trustworthy and devoted contingents, +and with these determined to execute the daring plan of carrying the war +into the heart of Italy by a rapid march through Spain and Gaul. +Starting in the spring of 218 he easily fought his way through the +northern tribes to the Pyrenees, and by conciliating the Gaulish chiefs +on his passage contrived to reach the Rhone before the Romans could take +any measures to bar his advance. After out-manoeuvring the natives, who +endeavoured to prevent his crossing, Hannibal evaded a Roman force sent +to operate against him in Gaul; he proceeded up the valley of one of the +tributaries of the Rhone (Isčre or, more probably, Durance), and by +autumn arrived at the foot of the Alps. His passage over the +mountain-chain, at a point which cannot be determined with certainty, +though the balance of the available evidence inclines to the Mt Genčvre +pass, and fair cases can be made out for the Col d'Argentičre and for Mt +Cenis, was one of the most memorable achievements of any military force +of ancient times. Though the opposition of the natives and the +difficulties of ground and climate cost Hannibal half his army, his +perilous march brought him directly into Roman territory and entirely +frustrated the attempts of the enemy to fight out the main issue on +foreign ground. His sudden appearance among the Gauls, moreover, enabled +him to detach most of the tribes from their new allegiance to the Romans +before the latter could take steps to check rebellion. After allowing +his soldiers a brief rest to recover from their exertions Hannibal first +secured his rear by subduing the hostile tribe of the Taurini (mod. +Turin), and moving down the Po valley forced the Romans by virtue of his +superior cavalry to evacuate the plain of Lombardy. In December of the +same year he had an opportunity of showing his superior military skill +when the Roman commander attacked him on the river Trebia (near +Placentia); after wearing down the excellent Roman infantry he cut it to +pieces by a surprise attack from an ambush in the flank. Having secured +his position in north Italy by this victory, he quartered his troops for +the winter on the Gauls, whose zeal in his cause thereupon began to +abate. Accordingly in spring 217 Hannibal decided to find a more +trustworthy base of operations farther south; he crossed the Apennines +without opposition, but in the marshy lowlands of the Arno he lost a +large part of his force through disease and himself became blind in one +eye. Advancing through the uplands of Etruria he provoked the main Roman +army to a hasty pursuit, and catching it in a defile on the shore of +Lake Trasimenus destroyed it in the waters or on the adjoining slopes +(see TRASIMENE). He had now disposed of the only field force which could +check his advance upon Rome, but realizing that without siege engines he +could not hope to take the capital, he preferred to utilize his victory +by passing into central and southern Italy and exciting a general revolt +against the sovereign power. Though closely watched by a force under +Fabius Maximus Cunctator, he was able to carry his ravages far and wide +through Italy: on one occasion he was entrapped in the lowlands of +Campania, but set himself free by a stratagem which completely deluded +his opponent. For the winter he found comfortable quarters in the +Apulian plain, into which the enemy dared not descend. In the campaign +of 217 Hannibal had failed to obtain a following among the Italians; in +the following year he had an opportunity of turning the tide in his +favour. A large Roman army advanced into Apulia in order to crush him, +and accepted battle on the site of Cannae. Thanks mainly to brilliant +cavalry tactics, Hannibal, with much inferior numbers, managed to +surround and cut to pieces the whole of this force; moreover, the moral +effect of this victory was such that all the south of Italy joined his +cause. Had Hannibal now received proper material reinforcements from his +countrymen at Carthage he might have made a direct attack upon Rome; for +the present he had to content himself with subduing the fortresses which +still held out against him, and the only other notable event of 216 was +the defection of Capua, the second largest city of Italy, which Hannibal +made his new base. + +In the next few years Hannibal was reduced to minor operations which +centred mainly round the cities of Campania. He failed to draw his +opponents into a pitched battle, and in some slighter engagements +suffered reverses. As the forces detached under his lieutenants were +generally unable to hold their own, and neither his home government nor +his new ally Philip V. of Macedon helped to make good his losses, his +position in south Italy became increasingly difficult and his chance of +ultimately conquering Rome grew ever more remote. In 212 he gained an +important success by capturing Tarentum, but in the same year he lost +his hold upon Campania, where he failed to prevent the concentration of +three Roman armies round Capua. Hannibal attacked the besieging armies +with his full force in 211, and attempted to entice them away by a +sudden march through Samnium which brought him within 3 m. of Rome, but +caused more alarm than real danger to the city. But the siege continued, +and the town fell in the same year. In 210 Hannibal again proved his +superiority in tactics by a severe defeat inflicted at Herdoniae (mod. +Ordona) in Apulia upon a proconsular army, and in 208 destroyed a Roman +force engaged in the siege of Locri Epizephyrii. But with the loss of +Tarentum in 209 and the gradual reconquest by the Romans of Samnium and +Lucania his hold on south Italy was almost lost. In 207 he succeeded in +making his way again into Apulia, where he waited to concert measures +for a combined march upon Rome with his brother Hasdrubal (q.v.). On +hearing, however, of his brother's defeat and death at the Metaurus he +retired into the mountain fastnesses of Bruttium, where he maintained +himself for the ensuing years. With the failure of his brother Mago +(q.v.) in Liguria (205-203) and of his own negotiations with Philip of +Macedon, the last hope of recovering his ascendancy in Italy was lost. +In 203, when Scipio was carrying all before him in Africa and the +Carthaginian peace-party were arranging an armistice, Hannibal was +recalled from Italy by the "patriot" party at Carthage. After leaving a +record of his expedition, engraved in Punic and Greek upon brazen +tablets, in the temple of Juno at Crotona, he sailed back to Africa. His +arrival immediately restored the predominance of the war-party, who +placed him in command of a combined force of African levies and of his +mercenaries from Italy. In 202 Hannibal, after meeting Scipio in a +fruitless peace conference, engaged him in a decisive battle at Zama. +Unable to cope with his indifferent troops against the well-trained and +confident Roman soldiers, he experienced a crushing defeat which put an +end to all resistance on the part of Carthage. + +Hannibal was still only in his forty-sixth year. He soon showed that he +could be a statesman as well as a soldier. Peace having been concluded, +he was appointed chief magistrate (_suffetes, sofet_). The office had +become rather insignificant, but Hannibal restored its power and +authority. The oligarchy, always jealous of him, had even charged him +with having betrayed the interests of his country while in Italy, and +neglected to take Rome when he might have done so. The dishonesty and +incompetence of these men had brought the finances of Carthage into +grievous disorder. So effectively did Hannibal reform abuses that the +heavy tribute imposed by Rome could be paid by instalments without +additional and extraordinary taxation. + +Seven years after the victory of Zama, the Romans, alarmed at this new +prosperity, demanded Hannibal's surrender. Hannibal thereupon went into +voluntary exile. First he journeyed to Tyre, the mother-city of +Carthage, and thence to Ephesus, where he was honourably received by +Antiochus III. of Syria, who was then preparing for war with Rome. +Hannibal soon saw that the king's army was no match for the Romans. He +advised him to equip a fleet and throw a body of troops on the south of +Italy, adding that he would himself take the command. But he could not +make much impression on Antiochus, who listened more willingly to +courtiers and flatterers, and would not entrust Hannibal with any +important charge. In 190 he was placed in command of a Phoenician fleet, +but was defeated in a battle off the river Eurymedon. + +From the court of Antiochus, who seemed prepared to surrender him to the +Romans, Hannibal fled to Crete, but he soon went back to Asia, and +sought refuge with Prusias, king of Bithynia. Once more the Romans were +determined to hunt him out, and they sent Flaminius to insist on his +surrender. Prusias agreed to give him up, but Hannibal did not choose to +fall into his enemies' hands. At Libyssa, on the eastern shore of the +Sea of Marmora, he took poison, which, it was said, he had long carried +about with him in a ring. The precise year of his death was a matter of +controversy. If, as Livy seems to imply, it was 183, he died in the same +year as Scipio Africanus. + +As to the transcendent military genius of Hannibal there cannot be two +opinions. The man who for fifteen years could hold his ground in a +hostile country against several powerful armies and a succession of able +generals must have been a commander and a tactician of supreme capacity. +In the use of stratagems and ambuscades he certainly surpassed all other +generals of antiquity. Wonderful as his achievements were, we must +marvel the more when we take into account the grudging support he +received from Carthage. As his veterans melted away, he had to organize +fresh levies on the spot. We never hear of a mutiny in his army, +composed though it was of Africans, Spaniards and Gauls. Again, all we +know of him comes for the most part from hostile sources. The Romans +feared and hated him so much that they could not do him justice. Livy +speaks of his great qualities, but he adds that his vices were equally +great, among which he singles out his "more than Punic perfidy" and "an +inhuman cruelty." For the first there would seem to be no further +justification than that he was consummately skilful in the use of +ambuscades. For the latter there is, we believe, no more ground than +that at certain crises he acted in the general spirit of ancient +warfare. Sometimes he contrasts most favourably with his enemy. No such +brutality stains his name as that perpetrated by Claudius Nero on the +vanquished Hasdrubal. Polybius merely says that he was accused of +cruelty by the Romans and of avarice by the Carthaginians. He had indeed +bitter enemies, and his life was one continuous struggle against +destiny. For steadfastness of purpose, for organizing capacity and a +mastery of military science he has perhaps never had an equal. + + AUTHORITIES.--Polybius iii.-xv., xxi.-ii., xxiv.; Livy xxi.-xxx.; + Cornelius Nepos, _Vita Hannibalis_; Appian, _Bellum Hannibalicum_; E. + Hennebert, _Histoire d'Annibal_ (Paris, 1870-1891, 3 vols.); F. A. + Dodge, _Great Captains, Hannibal_ (Boston and New York, 1891); D. + Grassi, _Annibale giudicato da Polibio e Tito Livio_ (Vicenza, 1896); + W. How, _Hannibal and the Great War between Rome and Carthage_ + (London, 1899); Te Montanari, _Annibale_, down to 217 B.C. (Rovigo, + 1901); K. Lehmann, _Die Angriffe der drei Barkiden auf Italien_ + (Leipzig, 1905), with bibliography. See also PUNIC WARS and articles + on the chief battle sites. On Hannibal's passage through Gaul and the + Alps see T. Arnold, _The Second Punic War_ (ed. W. T. Arnold, London, + 1886), Appendix B, pp. 362-373, with bibliography; D. Freshfield in + _Alpine Journal_ (1883), pp. 267-300; L. Montlahuc, _Le Vrai Chemin + d'Annibal ŕ travers les Alpes_ (Paris, 1896); J. Fuchs, _Hannibals + Alpenübergang_ (Vienna, 1897); G. E. Marindin in _Classical Review_ + (1899), pp. 238-249; W. Osiander, _Der Hannibalweg neu untersucht_ + (Berlin, 1900); P. Azan, _Annibal dans les Alpes_ (Paris, 1902); J. L. + Colin, _Annibal en Gaule_ (Paris, 1904); E. Hesselmeyer, _Hannibals + Alpenübergang im Lichte der neueren Kriegsgeschichte_, (1906); + Kromyer, in _N. Jahrb. f. kl. Alt._ (1907). (M. O. B. C.) + + + + +HANNIBAL, a city of Marion county, Missouri, U.S.A., on the Mississippi +river, about 120 m. N.W. of Saint Louis. Pop. (1890), 12,857; (1900), +12,780, including 920 foreign-born and 1836 negroes; (1910) 18,341. It +is served by the Wabash, the Missouri, Kansas & Texas, the Chicago, +Burlington & Quincy, and the St Louis & Hannibal railways, and by boat +lines to Saint Louis, Saint Paul and intermediate points. The business +section is in the level bottom-lands of the river, while the residential +portion spreads up the banks, which afford fine building sites with +beautiful views. Mark Twain's boyhood was spent at Hannibal, which is +the setting of _Life on the Mississippi_, _Huckleberry Finn_ and _Tom +Sawyer_; Hannibal Cave, described in _Tom Sawyer_, extends for miles +beneath the river and its bluffs. Hannibal has a good public library +(1889; the first in Missouri); other prominent buildings are the Federal +building, the court house, a city hospital and the high school. The +river is here spanned by a long iron and steel bridge connecting with +East Hannibal, Ill. Hannibal is the trade centre of a rich agricultural +region, and has an important lumber trade, railway shops, and +manufactories of lumber, shoes, stoves, flour, cigars, lime, Portland +cement and pearl buttons (made from mussel shells); the value of the +city's factory products increased from $2,698,720 in 1900 to $4,442,099 +in 1905, or 64.6%. In the vicinity are valuable deposits of crinoid +limestone, a coarse white building stone which takes a good polish. The +electric-lighting plant is owned and operated by the municipality. +Hannibal was laid out as a town in 1819 (its origin going back to +Spanish land grants, which gave rise to much litigation) and was first +chartered as a city in 1839. The town of South Hannibal was annexed to +it in 1843. + + + + +HANNINGTON, JAMES (1847-1885), English missionary, was born at +Hurstpierpoint, in Sussex, on the 3rd of September 1847. From earliest +childhood he displayed a love of adventure and natural history. At +school he made little progress, and left at the age of fifteen for his +father's counting-house at Brighton. He had no taste for office work, +and much of his time was occupied in commanding a battery of volunteers +and in charge of a steam launch. At twenty-one he decided on a clerical +career and entered St Mary's Hall, Oxford, where he exercised a +remarkable influence over his fellow-undergraduates. He was, however, a +desultory student, and in 1870 was advised to go to the little village +of Martinhoe, in Devon, for quiet reading, but distinguished himself +more by his daring climbs after sea-gulls' eggs and his engineering +skill in cutting a pathway along precipitous cliffs to some caves. In +1872 the death of his mother made a deep impression upon him. He began +to read hard, took his B.A. degree, and in 1873 was ordained deacon and +placed in charge of the small country parish of Trentishoe in Devon. +Whilst curate in charge at Hurstpierpoint, his thoughts were turned by +the murder of two missionaries on the shores of Victoria Nyanza to +mission work. He offered himself to the Church Missionary Society and +sailed on the 17th of May 1882, at the head of a party of six, for +Zanzibar, and thence set out for Uganda; but, prostrated by fever and +dysentery, he was obliged to return to England in 1883. On his recovery +he was consecrated bishop of Eastern Equatorial Africa (June 1884), and +in January 1885 started again for the scene of his mission, and visited +Palestine on the way. On his arrival at Freretown, near Mombasa, he +visited many stations in the neighbourhood. Then, filled with the idea +of opening a new route to Uganda, he set out and reached a spot near +Victoria Nyanza in safety. His arrival, however, roused the suspicion of +the natives, and under King Mwanga's orders he was lodged in a filthy +hut swarming with rats and vermin. After eight days his men were +murdered, and on the 29th of October 1885 he himself was speared in both +sides, his last words to the soldiers appointed to kill him being, "Go, +tell Mwanga I have purchased the road to Uganda with my blood." + + His _Last Journals_ were edited in 1888. See also _Life_ by E. C. + Dawson (1887); and W. G. Berry, _Bishop Hannington_ (1908). + + + + + +HANNINGTON, a lake of British East Africa in the eastern rift-valley +just south of the equator and in the shadow of the Laikipia escarpment. +It is 7 m. long by 2 m. broad. The water is shallow and brackish. +Standing in the lake and along its shores are numbers of dead trees, the +remains of an ancient forest, which serve as eyries for storks, herons +and eagles. The banks and flats at the north end of the lake are the +resort of hundreds of thousands of flamingoes. The places where they +cluster are dazzling white with guano deposits. The lake is named after +Bishop James Hannington. + + + + +HANNO, the name of a large number of Carthaginian soldiers and +statesmen. Of the majority little is known; the most important are the +following[1]:-- + +1. HANNO, Carthaginian navigator, who probably flourished about 500 B.C. +It has been conjectured that he was the son of the Hamilcar who was +killed at Himera (480), but there is nothing to prove this. He was the +author of an account of a coasting voyage on the west coast of Africa, +undertaken for the purpose of exploration and colonization. The +original, inscribed on a tablet in the Phoenician language, was hung up +in the temple of Melkarth on his return to Carthage. What is generally +supposed to be a Greek translation of this is still extant, under the +title of _Periplus_, although its authenticity has been questioned. +Hanno appears to have advanced beyond Sierra Leone as far as Cape +Palmas. On the island which formed the terminus of his voyage the +explorer found a number of hairy women, whom the interpreters called +Gorillas ([Greek: Gorillas]). + + Valuable editions by T. Falconer (1797, with translation and defence + of its authenticity) and C. W. Müller in _Geographici Graeci minores_, + i.; see also E. H. Bunbury, _History of Ancient Geography_, i., and + treatise by C. T. Fischer (1893), with bibliography. + +2. HANNO (3rd century B.C.), called "the Great," Carthaginian statesman +and general, leader of the aristocratic party and the chief opponent of +Hamilcar and Hannibal. He appears to have gained his title from military +successes in Africa, but of these nothing is known. In 240 B.C. he drove +Hamilcar's veteran mercenaries to rebellion by withholding their pay, +and when invested with the command against them was so unsuccessful that +Carthage might have been lost but for the exertions of his enemy +Hamilcar (q.v.). Hanno subsequently remained at Carthage, exerting all +his influence against the democratic party, which, however, had now +definitely won the upper hand. During the Second Punic War he advocated +peace with Rome, and according to Livy even advised that Hannibal should +be given up to the Romans. After the battle of Zama (202) he was one of +the ambassadors sent to Scipio to sue for peace. Remarkably little is +known of him, considering the great influence he undoubtedly exercised +amongst his countrymen. + + Livy xxi. 3 ff., xxiii. 12; Polybius i. 67 ff.; Appian, _Res + Hispanicae_, 4, 5, _Res Punicae_, 34, 49, 68. + + +FOOTNOTE: + + [1] For others of the name see CARTHAGE; HANNIBAL; PUNIC WARS. + Smith's _Classical Dictionary_ has notices of some thirty of the + name. + + + + +HANOI, capital of Tongking and of French Indo-China, on the right bank +of the Song-koi or Red river, about 80 m. from its mouth in the Gulf of +Tongking. Taking in the suburban population the inhabitants numbered in +1905 about 110,000, including 103,000 Annamese, 2289 Chinese and 2665 +French, exclusive of troops. Hanoi resembles a European city in the +possession of wide well-paved streets and promenades, systems of +electric light and drainage and a good water-supply. A crowded native +quarter built round a picturesque lake lies close to the river with the +European quarter to the south of it. The public buildings include the +palace of the governor-general, situated in a spacious botanical and +zoological garden, the large military hospital, the cathedral of St +Joseph, the Paul Bert college, and the theatre. The barracks and other +military buildings occupy the site of the old citadel, an area of over +300 acres, to the west of the native town. The so-called pagoda of the +Great Buddha is the chief native building. The river is embanked and is +crossed by the Pont Doumer, a fine railway bridge over 1 m. long. +Vessels drawing 8 or 9 ft. can reach the town. Hanoi is the seat of the +general government of Indo-China, of the resident-superior of Tongking, +and of a bishop, who is vicar-apostolic of central Tongking. It is +administered by an elective municipal council with a civil service +administrator as mayor. It has a chamber of commerce, the president of +which has a seat on the superior council of Indo-China; a chamber of the +court of appeal of Indo-China, a civil tribunal of the first order, and +is the seat of the chamber of agriculture of Tongking. Its industries +include cotton-spinning, brewing, distilling, and the manufacture of +tobacco, earthenware and matches; native industry produces carved and +inlaid furniture, bronzes and artistic metal-work, silk embroidery, &c. +Hanoi is the junction of railways to Hai-Phong, its seaport, Lao-Kay, +Vinh, and the Chinese frontier via Lang-Son. It is in frequent +communication with Hai-Phong by steamboat. + + See C. Madrolle, _Tonkin du sud: Hanoi_ (Paris, 1907). + + + + +HANOTAUX, ALBERT AUGUSTE GABRIEL (1853- ), French statesman and +historian, was born at Beaurevoir in the department of Aisne. He +received his historical training in the École des Chartes, and became +_maître de conférences_ in the École des Hautes Études. His political +career was rather that of a civil servant than of a party politician. In +1879 he entered the ministry of foreign affairs as a secretary, and rose +step by step through the diplomatic service. In 1886 he was elected +deputy for Aisne, but, defeated in 1889, he returned to his diplomatic +career, and on the 31st of May 1894 was chosen by Charles Dupuy to be +minister of foreign affairs. With one interruption (during the Ribot +ministry, from the 26th of January to the 2nd of November 1895) he held +this portfolio until the 14th of June 1898. During his ministry he +developed the _rapprochement_ of France with Russia--visiting St +Petersburg with the president, Felix Faure--and sent expeditions to +delimit the French colonies in Africa. The Fashoda incident of July 1898 +was a result of this policy, and Hanotaux's distrust of England is +frankly stated in his literary works. As an historian he published +_Origines de l'institution des intendants de provinces_ (1884), which is +the authoritative study on the intendants; _Études historiques sur les +XVI^e et XVII^e sičcles en France_ (1886); _Histoire de Richelieu_ (2 +vols., 1888); and _Histoire de la Troisičme République (1904, &c.), the +standard history of contemporary France._ He also edited the +_Instructions des ambassadeurs de France ŕ Rome, depuis les traités de +Westphalie_ (1888). He was elected a member of the French Academy on the +1st of April 1897. + + + + +HANOVER (Ger. _Hannover_), formerly an independent kingdom of Germany, +but since 1866 a province of Prussia. It is bounded on the N. by the +North Sea, Holstein, Hamburg and Mecklenburg-Schwerin, E. and S.E. by +Prussian Saxony and the duchy of Brunswick, S.W. by the Prussian +provinces of Hesse-Nassau and Westphalia, and W. by Holland. These +boundaries include the grand-duchy of Oldenburg and the free state of +Bremen, the former stretching southward from the North Sea nearly to the +southern boundary of Hanover. A small portion of the province in the +south is separated from Hanover proper by the interposition of part of +Brunswick. On the 23rd of March 1873 the province was increased by the +addition of the Jade territory (purchased by Prussia from Oldenburg), +lying south-west of the Elbe and containing the great naval station and +arsenal of Wilhelmshaven. The area of the province is 14,870 sq. m. + + _Physical Features._--The greater part of Hanover is a plain with + sandhills, heath and moor. The most fertile districts lie on the banks + of the Elbe and near the North Sea, where, as in Holland, rich meadows + are preserved from encroachment of the sea by broad dikes and deep + ditches, kept in repair at great expense. The main feature of the + northern plain is the so-called _Lüneburger Heide_, a vast expanse of + moor and fen, mainly covered with low brushwood (though here and there + are oases of fine beech and oak woods) and intersected by shallow + valleys, and extending almost due north from the city of Hanover to + the southern arm of the Elbe at Harburg. The southern portion of the + province is hilly, and in the district of Klausenburg, containing the + Harz, mountainous. The higher elevations are covered by dense forests + of fir and larch, and the lower slopes with deciduous trees. The + eastern portion of the northern plain is covered with forests of fir. + The whole of Hanover dips from the Harz Mountains to the north, and + the rivers consequently flow in that direction. The three chief rivers + of the province are the Elbe in the north-east, where it mainly forms + the boundary and receives the navigable tributaries Jeetze, Ilmenau, + Seve, Este, Lühe, Schwinge and Medem; the Weser in the centre, with + its important tributary the Aller (navigable from Celle downwards); + and in the west the Ems, with its tributaries the Aa and the Leda. + Still farther West is the Vecht, which, rising in Westphalia, flows to + the Zuider Zee. Canals are numerous and connect the various river + systems. + + The principal lakes are the Steinhuder Meer, about 4 m. long and 2 m. + broad, and 20 fathoms deep, on the borders of Schaumburg-Lippe; the + Dümmersee, on the borders of Oldenburg, about 12 m. in circuit; the + lakes of Bederkesa and some others in the moorlands of the north; the + Seeburger See, near Duderstadt; and the Oderteich, in the Harz, 2100 + ft. above the level of the sea. + + _Climate._--The climate in the low-lying districts near the coast is + moist and foggy, in the plains mild, on the Harz mountains severe and + variable. In spring the prevailing winds blow from the N.E. and E., in + summer from the S.W. The mean annual temperature is about 46° Fahr.; + in the town of Hanover it is higher. The average annual rainfall is + about 23.5 in.; but this varies greatly in different districts. In the + west the Herauch, a thick fog arising from the burning of the moors, + is a plague of frequent occurrence. + + _Population; Divisions._--The province contains an area of 14,869 sq. + m., and the total population, according to the census of 1905, was + 2,759,699 (1,384,161 males and 1,375,538 females). In this connexion + it is noticeable that in Hanover, almost alone among German states and + provinces, there is a considerable proportion of male births over + female. The density of the population is 175 to the sq. m. (English), + and the proportion of urban to rural population, roughly, as 1 to 3 of + the inhabitants. The province is divided into the six + _Regierungsbezirke_ (or departments) of Hanover, Hildesheim, Lüneburg, + Stade, Osnabrück and Aurich, and these again into Kreise (circles, or + local government districts)--76 in all. The chief towns--containing + more than 10,000 inhabitants--are Hanover, Linden, Osnabrück, + Hildesheim, Geestemünde, Wilhelmshaven, Harburg, Lüneburg, Celle, + Göttingen and Emden. Religious statistics show that 84% of the + inhabitants belong to the Evangelical-Lutheran Church, 17 to the Roman + Catholic and less than 1% to the Jewish communities. The Roman + Catholics are mostly gathered around the episcopal sees of Hildesheim + and Osnabrück and close to Münster (in Westphalia) on the western + border, and the Jews in the towns. A court of appeal for the whole + province sits at Celle, and there are eight superior courts. Hanover + returns 19 members to the _Reichstag_ (imperial diet) and 36 to the + _Abgeordnetenhaus_ (lower house) of the Prussian parliament + (_Landtag_). + + _Education._--Among the educational institutions of the province the + university of Göttingen stands first, with an average yearly + attendance of 1500 students. There are, besides, a technical college + in Hanover, an academy of forestry in Münden, a mining college in + Clausthal, a military school and a veterinary college (both in + Hanover), 26 gymnasia (classical schools), 18 semi-classical, and 14 + commercial schools. There are also two naval academies, asylums for + the deaf and dumb, and numerous charitable institutions. + + _Agriculture._--Though agriculture constitutes the most important + branch of industry in the province, it is still in a very backward + state. The greater part of the soil is of inferior quality, and much + that is susceptible of cultivation is still lying waste. Of the entire + area of the country 28.6% is arable, 16.2 in meadow or pasture land, + 14% in forests, 37.2% in uncultivated moors, heaths, &c.; from 17 to + 18% is in possession of the state. The best agriculture is to be found + in the districts of Hildesheim, Calenberg, Göttingen and Grubenhagen, + on the banks of the Weser and Elbe, and in East Friesland. Rye is + generally grown for bread. Flax, for which much of the soil is + admirably adapted, is extensively cultivated, and forms an important + article of export, chiefly, however, in the form of yarn. Potatoes, + hemp, turnips, hops, tobacco and beet are also extensively grown, the + latter, in connexion with the sugar industry, showing each year a + larger return. Apples, pears, plums and cherries are the principal + kinds of fruit cultivated, while the wild red cranberries from the + Harz and the black bilberries from the Lüneburger Heide form an + important article of export. + + _Live Stock._--Hanover is renowned for its cattle and live stock + generally. Of these there were counted in 1900 1,115,022 head of + horned cattle, 824,000 sheep, 1,556,000 pigs, and 230,000 goats. The + Lüneburger Heide yields an excellent breed of sheep, the + _Heidschnucken_, which equal the Southdowns of England in delicacy of + flavour. Horses famous for their size and quality are reared in the + marshes of Aurich and Stade, in Hildesheim and Hanover; and, for + breeding purposes, in the stud farm of Celle. Bees are principally + kept on the Lüneburger Heide, and the annual yield of honey is very + considerable. Large flocks of geese are kept in the moist lowlands; + their flesh is salted for domestic consumption during the winter, and + their feathers are prepared for sale. The rivers yield trout, salmon + (in the Weser) and crayfish. The sea fisheries are important and have + their chief centre at Geestemünde. + + _Mining._--Minerals occur in great variety and abundance. The Harz + Mountains are rich in silver, lead, iron and copper; coal is found + around Osnabrück, on the Deister, at Osterwald, &c., lignite in + various places; salt-springs of great richness exist at Egestorfshall + and Neuhall near Hanover, and at Lüneburg; and petroleum may be + obtained south of Celle. In the cold regions of the northern lowlands + peat occurs in beds of immense thickness. + + _Manufactures._--Works for the manufacture of iron, copper, silver, + lead, vitriol and sulphur are carried on to a large extent. The iron + works are very important: smelting is carried on in the Harz and near + Osnabrück; there are extensive foundries and machine factories at + Hanover, Linden, Osnabrück, Hameln, Geestemünde, Harburg, Osterode, + &c., and manufactories of arms at Herzberg, and of cutlery in the + towns of the Harz and in the Sollinger Forest. The textile industries + are prosecuted chiefly in the towns. Linen yarn and cloth are largely + manufactured, especially in the south about Osnabrück and Hildesheim, + and bleaching is engaged in extensively; woollen cloths are made to a + considerable extent in the south about Einbeck, Göttingen and Hameln; + cotton-spinning and weaving have their principal seats at Hanover and + Linden. Glass houses, paper-mills, potteries, tile works and + tobacco-pipe works are numerous. Wax is bleached to a considerable + extent, and there are numerous tobacco factories, tanneries, + breweries, vinegar works and brandy distilleries. Shipbuilding is an + important industry, especially at Wilhelmshaven, Papenburg, Leer, + Stade and Harburg; and at Münden river-barges are built. + + _Commerce._--Although the carrying trade of Hanover is to a great + extent absorbed by Hamburg and Bremen, the shipping of the province + counted, in 1903, 750 sailing vessels and 86 steamers of, together, + 55,498 registered tons. The natural port is Bremen-Geestemünde and to + it is directed the river traffic down the Weser, which practically + forms the chief commercial artery of the province. + + _Communications._--The roads throughout are, on the whole, well laid, + and those connecting the principal towns macadamized. Hanover is + intersected by important trunk lines of railway; notably the lines + from Berlin to Cologne, from Hamburg to Frankfort-on-Main, from + Hamburg to Bremen and Cologne, and from Berlin to Amsterdam. + +_History._--The name Hanover (_Hohenufer_ = high bank), originally +confined to the town which became the capital of the duchy of +Lüneburg-Calenberg, came gradually into use to designate, first, the +duchy itself, and secondly, the electorate of Brunswick-Lüneburg; and it +was officially recognized as the name of the state when in 1814 the +electorate was raised to the rank of a kingdom. + +The early history of Hanover is merged in that of the duchy of Brunswick +(q.v.), from which the duchy of Brunswick-Lüneburg and its offshoots, +the duchies of Lüneburg-Celle and Lüneburg-Calenberg have sprung. Ernest +I. (1497-1546), duke of Brunswick-Lüneburg, who introduced the reformed +doctrines into Lüneburg, obtained the whole of this duchy in 1539; and +in 1569 his two surviving sons made an arrangement which was afterwards +responsible for the birth of the kingdom of Hanover. By this agreement +the greater part of the duchy, with its capital at Celle, came to +William (1535-1592), the younger of the brothers, who gave laws to his +land and added to its area; and this duchy of Lüneburg-Celle was +subsequently ruled in turn by four of his sons: Ernest II. (1564-1611), +Christian (1566-1633), Augustus (d. 1636) and Frederick (d. 1648). In +addition to these four princes Duke William left three other sons, and +in 1610 the seven brothers entered into a compact that the duchy should +not be divided, and that only one of them should marry and continue the +family. Casting lots to determine this question, the lot fell upon the +sixth brother, George (1582-1641), who was a prominent soldier during +the period of the Thirty Years' War and saw service in almost all parts +of Europe, fighting successively for Christian IV. of Denmark, the +emperor Ferdinand II., and for the Swedes both before and after the +death of Gustavus Adolphus. In 1617 he aided his brother, Duke +Christian, to add Grubenhagen to Lüneburg, and after the extinction of +the family of Brunswick-Wolfenbüttel in 1634, he obtained Calenberg for +himself, making Hanover the capital of his small dukedom. In 1648, on +Duke Frederick's death, George's eldest son, Christian Louis (d. 1665), +became duke of Lüneburg-Celle; and at this time he handed over +Calenberg, which he had ruled since his father's death, to his second +brother, George William (d. 1705). When Christian Louis died George +William succeeded him in Lüneburg-Celle; but the duchy was also claimed +by a younger brother, John Frederick, a cultured and enlightened prince +who had forsaken the Lutheran faith of his family and had become a Roman +Catholic. Soon, however, by an arrangement John Frederick received +Calenberg and Grubenhagen, which he ruled in absolute fashion, creating +a standing army and modelling his court after that of Louis XIV., and +which came on his death in 1679 to his youngest brother, Ernest Augustus +(1630-1698), the Protestant bishop of Osnabrück. During the French wars +of aggression the Lüneburg princes were eagerly courted by Louis XIV. +and by his opponents; and after some hesitation George William, +influenced by Ernest Augustus, fought among the Imperialists, while John +Frederick was ranged on the side of France. In 1689 George William was +one of the claimants for the duchy of Saxe-Lauenburg, which was left +without a ruler in that year; and after a struggle with John George +III., elector of Saxony, and other rivals, he was invested with the +duchy by the emperor Leopold I. It was, however, his more ambitious +brother, Ernest Augustus, who did most for the prestige and advancement +of the house. Having introduced the principle of primogeniture into +Calenberg in 1682, Ernest determined to secure for himself the position +of an elector, and the condition of Europe and the exigencies of the +emperor favoured his pretensions. He made skilful use of Leopold's +difficulties; and in 1692, in return for lavish promises of assistance +to the Empire and the Habsburgs, the emperor granted him the rank and +title of elector of Brunswick-Lüneburg with the office of +standard-bearer in the Holy Roman Empire. Indignant protests followed +this proceeding. A league was formed to prevent any addition to the +electoral college; France and Sweden were called upon for assistance; +and the constitution of the Empire was reduced to a state of chaos. This +agitation, however, soon died away; and in 1708 George Louis, the son +and successor of Ernest Augustus, was recognized as an elector by the +imperial diet. George Louis married his cousin Sophia Dorothea, the only +child of George William of Lüneburg-Celle; and on his uncle's death in +1705 he united this duchy, together with Saxe-Lauenburg, with his +paternal inheritance of Calenberg or Hanover. His father, Ernest +Augustus, had taken a step of great importance in the history of Hanover +when he married Sophia, daughter of the elector palatine, Frederick V., +and grand-daughter of James I. of England, for, through his mother, the +elector George Louis became, by the terms of the Act of Settlement of +1701, king of Great Britain and Ireland in 1714. + +From this time until the death of William IV. in 1837, Lüneburg or +Hanover, was ruled by the same sovereign as Great Britain, and this +personal union was not without important results for both countries. +Under George I. Hanover joined the alliance against Charles XII. of +Sweden in 1715; and by the peace of Stockholm in November 1719 the +elector received the duchies of Bremen and Verden, which formed an +important addition to the electorate. His son and successor, George II., +who founded the university of Göttingen in 1737, was on bad terms with +his brother-in-law Frederick William I. of Prussia, and his nephew +Frederick the Great; and in 1729 war between Prussia and Hanover was +only just avoided. In 1743 George took up arms on behalf of the empress +Maria Theresa; but in August 1745 the danger in England from the +Jacobites led him to sign the convention of Hanover with Frederick the +Great, although the struggle with France raged around his electorate +until the peace of Aix-la-Chapelle in 1748. Induced by political +exigencies George allied himself with Frederick the Great when the Seven +Years' War broke out in 1756; but in September 1757 his son William +Augustus, duke of Cumberland, was compelled after his defeat at +Hastenbeck to sign the convention of Klosterzeven and to abandon Hanover +to the French. English money, however, came to the rescue; in 1758 +Ferdinand, duke of Brunswick, cleared the electorate of the invader; and +Hanover suffered no loss of territory at the peace of 1763. Both George +I. and George II. preferred Hanover to England as a place of residence, +and it was a frequent and perhaps justifiable cause of complaint that +the interests of Great Britain were sacrificed to those of the smaller +country. But George III. was more British than either his grandfather or +his great-grandfather, and owing to a variety of causes the foreign +policies of the two countries began to diverge in the later years of his +reign. Two main considerations dominated the fortunes of Hanover during +the period of the Napoleonic wars, the jealousy felt by Prussia at the +increasing strength and prestige of the electorate, and its position as +a vulnerable outpost of Great Britain. From 1793 the Hanoverian troops +fought for the Allies against France, until the treaty of Basel between +France and Prussia in 1795 imposed a forced neutrality upon Hanover. At +the instigation of Bonaparte Hanover was occupied by the Prussians for a +few months in 1801, but at the settlement which followed the peace of +Lunéville the secularized bishopric of Osnabrück was added to the +electorate. Again tempting the fortune of war after the rupture of the +peace of Amiens, the Hanoverians found that the odds against them were +too great; and in June 1803 by the convention of Sulingen their +territory was occupied by the French. The formation of the third +coalition against France in 1805 induced Napoleon to purchase the +support of Prussia by allowing her troops to seize Hanover; but in 1807, +after the defeat of Prussia at Jena, he incorporated the southern part +of the electorate in the kingdom of Westphalia, adding the northern +portion to France in 1810. The French occupation was costly and +aggressive; and the Hanoverians, many of whom were found in the allied +armies, welcomed the fall of Napoleon and the return of the old order. +Represented at the congress of Vienna by Ernest, Count Münster, the +elector was granted the title of king; but the British ministers wished +to keep the interests of Great Britain distinct from those of Hanover. +The result of the congress, however, was not unfavourable to the new +kingdom, which received East Friesland, the secularized bishopric of +Hildesheim, the city of Goslar, and some smaller additions of territory, +in return for the surrender of the greater part of the duchy of +Saxe-Lauenburg to Prussia. + +Like those of the other districts of Germany, the estates of the +different provinces which formed the kingdom of Hanover had met for many +years in an irregular fashion to exercise their varying and ill-defined +authority; and, although the elector Ernest Augustus introduced a system +of administrative councils into Celle, these estates, consisting of the +three orders of prelates, nobles and towns, together with a body +somewhat resembling the English privy council, were the only +constitution which the country possessed, and the only check upon the +power of its ruler. When the elector George Louis became king of Great +Britain in 1714 he appointed a representative, or _Statthalter_, to +govern the electorate, and thus the union of the two countries was +attended with constitutional changes in Hanover as well as in Great +Britain. Responsible of course to the elector, the Statthalter, aided by +the privy council, conducted the internal affairs of the electorate, +generally in a peaceful and satisfactory fashion, until the welter of +the Napoleonic wars. On the conclusion of peace in 1814 the estates of +the several provinces of the kingdom were fused into one body, +consisting of eighty-five members, but the chief power was exercised as +before by the members of a few noble families. In 1819, however, this +feudal relic was supplanted by a new constitution. Two chambers were +established, the one formed of nobles and the other of elected +representatives; but although they were authorized to control the +finances, their power with regard to legislation was very circumscribed. +This constitution was sanctioned by the prince regent, afterwards King +George IV.; but it was out of harmony with the new and liberal ideas +which prevailed in Europe, and it hardly survived George's decease in +1830. The revolution of that year compelled George's brother and +successor, William, to dismiss Count Münster, who had been the actual +ruler of the country, and to name his own brother, Adolphus Frederick, +duke of Cambridge, a viceroy of Hanover; one of the viceroy's earliest +duties being to appoint a commission to draw up a new constitution. This +was done, and after William had insisted upon certain alterations, it +was accepted and promulgated in 1833. Representation was granted to the +peasants; the two chambers were empowered to initiate legislation; +ministers were made responsible for all acts of government; a civil list +was given to the king in return for the surrender of the crown lands; +and, in short, the new constitution was similar to that of Great +Britain. These liberal arrangements, however, did not entirely allay +the discontent. A strong and energetic party endeavoured to thwart the +working of the new order, and matters came to a climax on the death of +William IV. in 1837. + +By the law of Hanover a woman could not ascend the throne, and +accordingly Ernest Augustus, duke of Cumberland, the fifth son of George +III., and not Victoria, succeeded William as sovereign in 1837, thus +separating the crowns of Great Britain and Hanover after a union of 123 +years. Ernest, a prince with very autocratic ideas, had disapproved of +the constitution of 1833, and his first important act as king was to +declare it invalid. He appears to have been especially chagrined because +the crown lands were not his personal property, but the whole of the new +arrangements were repugnant to him. Seven Göttingen professors who +protested against this proceeding were deprived of their chairs; and +some of them, including F. C. Dahlmann and Jakob Grimm, were banished +from the country for publishing their protest. To save the constitution +an appeal was made to the German Confederation, which Hanover had joined +in 1815; but the federal diet declined to interfere, and in 1840 Ernest +altered the constitution to suit his own illiberal views. Recovering the +crown lands, he abolished the principle of ministerial responsibility, +the legislative power of the two chambers, and other reforms, virtually +restoring affairs to their condition before 1833. The inevitable crisis +was delayed until the stormy year 1848, when the king probably saved his +crown by hastily giving back the constitution of 1833. Order, however, +having been restored, in 1850 he dismissed the Liberal ministry and +attempted to evade his concessions; a bitter struggle had just broken +out when Ernest Augustus died in November 1851. During this reign the +foreign policy of Hanover both within and without Germany had been +coloured by jealousy of Prussia and by the king's autocratic ideas. +Refusing to join the Prussian _Zollverein_, Hanover had become a member +of the rival commercial union, the _Steuerverein_, three years before +Ernest's accession; but as this union was not a great success the +_Zollverein_ was joined in 1851. In 1849, after the failure of the +German parliament at Frankfort, the king had joined with the sovereigns +of Prussia and Saxony to form the "three kings' alliance"; but this +union with Prussia was unreal, and with the king of Saxony he soon +transferred his support to Austria and became a member of the "four +kings' alliance." + +George V., the new king of Hanover, who was unfortunately blind, sharing +his father's political ideas, at once appointed a ministry whose aim was +to sweep away the constitution of 1848. This project, however, was +resisted by the second chamber of the _Landtag_, or parliament; and +after several changes of government a new ministry advised the king in +1855 to appeal to the diet of the German Confederation. This was done, +and the diet declared the constitution of 1848 to be invalid. Acting on +this verdict, not only was a ministry formed to restore the constitution +of 1840, but after some trouble a body of members fully in sympathy with +this object was returned to parliament in 1857. But these members were +so far from representing the opinions of the people that popular +resentment compelled George to dismiss his advisers in 1862. But the +more liberal government which succeeded did not enjoy his complete +confidence, and in 1865 a ministry was once more formed which was more +in accord with his own ideas. This contest soon lost both interest and +importance owing to the condition of affairs in Germany. Bismarck, the +director of the policy of Prussia, was devising methods for the +realization of his schemes, and it became clear after the war over the +duchies of Schleswig and Holstein that the smaller German states would +soon be obliged to decide definitely between Austria and Prussia. After +a period of vacillation Hanover threw in her lot with Austria, the +decisive step being taken when the question of the mobilization of the +federal army was voted upon in the diet on the 14th of June 1866. At +once Prussia requested Hanover to remain unarmed and neutral during the +war, and with equal promptness King George refused to assent to these +demands. Prussian troops then crossed his frontier and took possession +of his capital. The Hanoverians, however, were victorious at the battle +of Langensalza on the 27th of June 1866, but the advance of fresh bodies +of the enemy compelled them to capitulate two days later. By the terms +of this surrender the king was not to reside in Hanover, his officers +were to take no further part in the war, and his ammunition and stores +became the property of Prussia. The decree of the 20th of September 1866 +formally annexed Hanover to Prussia, when it became a province of that +kingdom, while King George from his retreat at Hietzing appealed in vain +to the powers of Europe. Many of the Hanoverians remained loyal to their +sovereign; some of them serving in the Guelph Legion, which was +maintained largely at his expense in France, where a paper, _La +Situation_, was founded by Oskar Meding (1829-1903) and conducted in his +interests. These and other elaborate efforts, however, failed to bring +about the return of the king to Hanover, though the Guelph party +continued to agitate and to hope even after the Franco-German War had +immensely increased the power and the prestige of Prussia. George died +in June 1878. His son, Ernest Augustus, duke of Cumberland, continued to +maintain his claim to the crown of Hanover, and refused to be reconciled +with Prussia. Owing to this attitude the German imperial government +refused to allow him to take possession of the duchy of Brunswick, which +he inherited on the extinction of the elder branch of his family in +1884, and again in 1906 when the same subject came up for settlement on +the death of the regent, Prince Albert of Prussia. + +In 1867 King George had agreed to accept Prussian bonds to the value of +about Ł1,600,000 as compensation for the confiscation of his estates in +Hanover. In 1868, however, on account of his continued hostility to +Prussia, the Prussian government sequestrated this property; and, known +as the _Welfenfonds_, or _Reptilienfonds_, it was employed as a secret +service fund to combat the intrigues of the Guelphs in various parts of +Europe; until in 1892 it was arranged that the interest should be paid +to the duke of Cumberland. In 1885 measures were taken to incorporate +the province of Hanover more thoroughly in the kingdom of Prussia, and +there is little doubt but that the great majority of the Hanoverians +have submitted to the inevitable, and are loyal subjects of the king of +Prussia. + + AUTHORITIES.--A. Hüne, _Geschichte des Königreichs Hannover und des + Herzogtums Braunschweig_ (Hanover, 1824-1830); A. F. H. Schaumann, + _Handbuch der Geschichte der Lande Hannover und Braunschweig_ + (Hanover, 1864); G. A. Grotefend, _Geschichte der allgemeinen + landständischen Verfassung des Königreichs Hannover, 1814-1848_ + (Hanover, 1857); H. A. Oppermann, _Zur Geschichte des Königreichs + Hannover_, 1832-1860 (Berlin, 1868); E. von Meier, _Hannoversche + Verfassungs- und Verwaltungsgeschichte_ (Leipzig, 1898-1899); W. von + Hassell, _Das Kurfürstentum Hannover vom Baseler Frieden bis zur + preussischen Okkupation_ (Hanover, 1894); and _Geschichte des + Königreichs_ Hannover (Leipzig, 1898-1901); H. von Treitschke, _Der + Herzog von Cumberland und das hannoversche Staatsgrundgesetz von 1833_ + (Leipzig, 1888); M. Bär, _Übersicht über die Bestände des königlichen + Staatsarchivs zu Hannover_ (Leipzig, 1900); _Hannoversches Portfolio_ + (Stuttgart, 1839-1841); and the authorities given for the history of + Brunswick. + + + + +HANOVER, the capital of the Prussian province of the same name, situated +in a sandy but fertile plain on the Leine, which here receives the Ihme, +38 m. N.W. from Brunswick, 78 S.E. of Bremen, and at the crossing of the +main lines of railway, Berlin to Cologne and Hamburg to +Frankfort-on-Main. Pop. (1885) 139,731; (1900) 235,666; (1905) 250,032. +On the north and east the town is half encircled by the beautiful woods +and groves of the Eilenriede and the List which form the public park. +The Leine flows through the city, having the old town on its right and +the quaint Calenberger quarter between its left bank and the Ihme. The +old town is irregularly built, with narrow streets and old-fashioned +gabled houses. In its centre lies the Markt Kirche, a red-brick edifice +of the 14th century, containing interesting monuments and some fine +stained-glass windows, and with a steeple 310 ft. in height (the highest +in Hanover). Its interior was restored in 1855. Close by, on the market +square, is the red-brick medieval town-hall (Rathaus), with an +historical wine cellar beneath. It has been superseded for municipal +business by a new building, and now contains the civic archives and +museum. The new town, surrounding the old on the north and east, and +lying between it and the woods referred to, has wide streets, handsome +buildings and beautiful squares. Among the last-mentioned are the square +at the railway station--the Ernst August-Platz--with an equestrian +statue of King Ernest Augustus in bronze; the triangular Theater-Platz, +with statues of the composer Marschner and others; and the Georgs-Platz, +with a statue of Schiller. To the south of the old town, on the banks of +the Ihme, lies the Waterloo-Platz, with a column of victory, 154 ft. +high, having inscribed on it the names of 800 Hanoverians who fell at +Waterloo. In the adjacent gardens an open rotunda encloses a marble bust +of the philosopher Leibnitz, and near it is a monument to General Count +von Alten, the commander of the Hanoverian troops at Waterloo. Among the +other churches the most noticeable are the Neustädterkirche, with a +graceful shrine containing the tomb of Leibnitz, the Kreuzkirche, built +about 1300, with a curious steeple, and the Aegidienkirche among ancient +edifices, and among modern ones the Christuskirche, a gift of King +George V., the Lukaskirche, the Lutherkirche, and the Roman Catholic +church of St Mary, with a tower 300 ft. high, containing the grave of +Ludwig Windthorst, "his little excellency," for many years leader of the +Ultramontane (Centre) party in the imperial diet. Of secular buildings +the most remarkable is the royal palace--Schloss--built 1636-1640, with +a grand portal and handsome quadrangle. In its chapel are preserved the +relics of saints which Henry the Lion brought from Palestine. The new +provincial museum built in 1897-1902 contains the Cumberland Gallery and +the Guelph Museum; and the Kestner Museum also contains interesting and +valuable collections of works of art. The other principal public +buildings are the royal archives and library, containing a library of +200,000 volumes and 3500 manuscripts; the old provincial museum, which +houses a variety of collections, such as natural, historical and +ethnographical, and a collection of modern paintings; the theatre (built +1845-1852), one of the largest in Germany, the archaeological museum, +the railway station, and, in the west, close to Herrenhausen (see +below), the magnificent Welfenschloss (Guelph-palace). The last, begun +in 1859, was almost completed in 1866, but was never occupied by the +Hanoverian royal family. Since 1875 it has been occupied by the +technical high school, an academy with university privileges. Close to +it lies the famous Herrenhausen, the summer palace of the former kings +of Hanover, with fine gardens, an open-air theatre, a museum and an +orangery, and approached by a grand avenue over a mile in length. + +Hanover has a number of colleges and schools, and is the seat of several +learned societies. It is largely frequented by foreign students, +especially English, attracted by the educational facilities it offers +and by the reputed purity of the German spoken. Hanover is the +headquarters of the X. Prussian army corps, has a large garrison of +nearly all arms and a famous military riding school. It occupies a +leading position among the industrial and commercial towns of the +empire, and of recent years has made rapid progress in prosperity. It is +connected by railway with Berlin, Hamburg, Bremen, Hameln, Cologne, +Altenbeken and Cassel, and the facilities of intercourse have, under the +fostering care of the Prussian government, enormously developed its +trade and manufactures. Almost all industries are represented; chief +among them are machine-building, the manufacture of india-rubber, linen, +cloth, hardware, chemicals, tobacco, pianos, furniture and groceries. +The commerce consists principally in wine, hides, horses, coal, wood and +cereals. There are extensive printing establishments. Hanover was the +first German town that was lighted with gas. It is the birthplace of Sir +William Herschel, the astronomer, of the brothers Schlegel, of Iffland +and of the historian Pertz. The philosopher Leibnitz died there in 1716. + + Close by, on the left bank of the Leine, lies the manufacturing town + of Linden, which, though practically forming one town with Hanover, is + treated under a separate heading. + +The town of Hanover is first mentioned during the 12th century. It +belonged to the family of Welf, then to the bishops of Hildesheim, and +then, in 1369, it came again into the possession of the Welfs, now +dukes of Brunswick. It joined the Hanseatic League, and was later the +residence of the branch of the ducal house, which received the title of +elector of Hanover and ascended the British throne in the person of +George I. One or two important treaties were signed in Hanover, which +from 1810 to 1813 was part of the kingdom of Westphalia, and in 1866 was +annexed by Prussia, after having been the capital of the kingdom of +Hanover since its foundation in 1815. + + See O. Ulrich, _Bilder aus Hannovers Vergangenheit_ (1891); Hoppe, + _Geschichte der Stadt Hannover_ (1845); Hirschfeld, _Hannovers + Grossindustrie und Grosshandel_ (Leipzig, 1891); Frensdorff, _Die + Stadtverfassung Hannovers in alter und neuer Zeit_ (Leipzig, 1883); W. + Bahrdt, _Geschichte der Reformation der Stadt Hannover_ (1891); + Hartmann, _Geschichte von Hannover mit besonderer Rücksichtnahme auf + die Entwickelung der Residenzstadt Hannover_ (1886); _Hannover und + Umgegend, Entwickelung und Zustände seiner Industrie und Gewerbe_ + (1874); and the _Urkundenbuch der Stadt Hannover_ (1860, fol.). + + + + +HANOVER, a town of Jefferson county, Indiana, U.S.A., on the Ohio river, +about 5 m. below Madison. Pop. (1900) 377; (1910) 356. It is served by +boats on the Ohio river and by stages to Madison, the nearest railway +station. Along the border of the town and on a bluff rising about 500 +ft. above the river is Hanover College, an institution under +Presbyterian control, embracing a college and a preparatory department, +and offering classical and scientific courses and instruction in music; +there is no charge for tuition. In 1908-1909 there were 211 students, 75 +being in the Academy. The institution was opened in a log cabin in 1827, +was incorporated as Hanover Academy in 1828, was adopted as a synodical +school by the Presbyterian Synod of Indiana in 1829 on condition that a +Theological department be added, and in 1833 was incorporated under its +present name. In 1840, however, the theological department became a +separate institution and was removed to New Albany, whence in 1859 it +was removed to Chicago, where it was named, first, the Presbyterian +Theological Seminary of the North-west, and, in 1886, the McCormick +Theological Seminary. In the years immediately after its incorporation +in 1833 Hanover College introduced the "manual labor system" and was for +a time very prosperous, but the system was not a success, the college +ran into debt, and in 1843 the trustees attempted to surrender the +charter and to acquire the charter of a university at Madison. This +effort was opposed by a strong party, which secured a more liberal +charter for the college. In 1880 the college became coeducational. + + + + +HANOVER, a township of Grafton county, New Hampshire, U.S.A., on the +Connecticut river, 75 m. by rail N.W. of Concord. Pop. (1900) 1884; +(1910) 2075. No railway enters this township; the Ledyard Free Bridge +(the first free bridge across the Connecticut) connects it with Norwich, +Vt., which is served by the Boston & Maine railway. Ranges of rugged +hills, broken by deep narrow gorges and by the wider valley of Mink +Brook, rise near the river and culminate in the E. section in Moose +Mountain, 2326 ft. above the sea. Near the foot of Moose Mountain is the +birthplace of Laura D. Bridgman. Agriculture, dairying and lumbering are +the chief pursuits of the inhabitants. The village of Hanover, the +principal settlement of the township, occupies Hanover Plain in the S.W. +corner, and is the seat of Dartmouth College (q.v.), which has a +strikingly beautiful campus, and among its buildings several excellent +examples of the colonial style, notably Dartmouth Hall. The Mary +Hitchcock memorial hospital, a cottage hospital of 36 beds, was erected +in 1890-1893 by Hiram Hitchcock in memory of his wife. The charter of +the township was granted by Gov. Benning Wentworth on the 4th of July +1761, and the first settlement was made in May 1765. The records of the +town meetings and selectmen, 1761-1818, have been published by E. P. +Storrs (Hanover, 1905). + + See Frederick Chase, _A History of Dartmouth College and the Town of + Hanover_ (Cambridge, 1891). + + + + +HANOVER, a borough of York county, Pennsylvania, U.S.A., 36 m. S. by W. +of Harrisburg, and 6 m. from the S. border of the state. Pop. (1890) +3746; (1900) 5302, (133 foreign-born); (1910) 7057. It is served by the +Northern Central and the Western Maryland railways. The borough is built +on nearly level ground in the fertile valley of the Conewago, at the +point of intersection of the turnpike roads leading to Baltimore, +Carlisle, York and Frederick, from which places the principal +streets--sections of these roads--are named. Among its manufactures are +foundry and machine-shop products, flour, silk, waggons, shoes, gloves, +furniture, wire cloth and cigars. The settlement of the place was begun +mostly by Germans during the middle of the 18th century. Hanover was +laid out in 1763 or 1764 by Col. Richard MacAllister; and in 1815 it was +incorporated. On the 30th of June 1863 there was a cavalry engagement in +and near Hanover between the forces of Generals H. J. Kilpatrick (Union) +and J. E. B. Stuart (Confederate) preliminary to the battle of +Gettysburg. This engagement is commemorated by an equestrian statue +erected in Hanover by the state. + + + + +HANRIOT, FRANÇOIS (1761-1794), French revolutionist, was born at +Nanterre (Seine) of poor parentage. Having lost his first +employment--with a _procureur_--through dishonesty, he obtained a +clerkship in the Paris octroi in 1789, but was dismissed for abandoning +his post when the Parisians burned the _octroi_ barriers on the night of +the 12th-13th of July 1789. After leading a hand-to-mouth existence for +some time, he became one of the orators of the section of the +_sans-culottes_, and commanded the armed force of that section during +the insurrection on the 10th of August 1792 and the massacres of +September. But he did not come into prominence until the night of the +30th-31st of May 1793, when he was provisionally appointed +commandant-general of the armed forces of Paris by the council general +of the Commune. On the 31st of May he was one of the delegates from the +Commune to the Convention demanding the dissolution of the Commission of +Twelve and the proscription of the Girondists (q.v.), and he was in +command of the insurrectionary forces of the Commune during the _émeute_ +of the 2nd of June (see FRENCH REVOLUTION). On the 11th of June he +resigned his command, declaring that order had been restored. On the +13th he was impeached in the Convention; but the motion was not carried, +and on the 1st of July he was elected by the Commune permanent commander +of the armed forces of Paris. This position, which gave him enormous +power, he retained until the revolution of the 9th Thermidor (July 27, +1794). His arrest was decreed; but he had the _générale_ sounded and the +tocsin rung, and tried to rescue Robespierre, who was under arrest in +the hall of the _Comité de Sűreté Générale_. Hanriot was himself +arrested, but was rescued by his adherents, and hastened to the Hôtel de +Ville. After a vain attempt to organize resistance he fled and hid in a +secluded yard, where he was discovered the next day. He was arrested, +sentenced to death, and guillotined with Robespierre and his friends on +the 10th Thermidor of the year II. (the 28th of July 1794). + + + + +HANSARD, LUKE (1752-1828), English printer, was born on the 5th of July +1752 in St Mary's parish, Norwich. He was educated at Boston grammar +school, and was apprenticed to Stephen White, a Norwich printer. As soon +as his apprenticeship had expired Hansard started for London with only a +guinea in his pocket, and became a compositor in the office of John +Hughs (1703-1771), printer to the House of Commons. In 1774 he was made +a partner, and undertook almost the entire conduct of the business, +which in 1800 came completely into his hands. On the admission of his +sons the firm became Luke Hansard & Sons. Among those whose friendship +Hansard won in the exercise of his profession were Robert Orme, Burke +and Dr Johnson; while Porson praised him as the most accurate printer of +Greek. He printed the _Journals of the House of Commons_ from 1774 till +his death. The promptitude and accuracy with which Hansard printed +parliamentary papers were often of the greatest service to +government--notably on one occasion when the proof-sheets of the report +of the Secret Committee on the French Revolution were submitted to Pitt +twenty-four hours after the draft had left his hands. On the union with +Ireland in 1801, the increase of parliamentary printing compelled +Hansard to give up all private printing except when parliament was not +sitting. He devised numerous expedients for reducing the expense of +publishing the reports; and in 1805, when his workmen struck at a time +of great pressure, he and his sons themselves set to work as +compositors. Luke Hansard died on the 29th of October 1828. + +His son, THOMAS CURSON HANSARD (1776-1833), established a press of his +own in Paternoster Row, and began in 1803 to print the _Parliamentary +Debates_, which were not at first independent reports, but were taken +from the newspapers. After 1889 the debates were published by the +Hansard Publishing Union Limited. T. C. Hansard was the author of +_Typographia, an Historical Sketch of the Origin and Progress of the Art +of Printing_ (1825). The original business remained in the hands of his +younger brothers, James and Luke Graves Hansard (1777-1851). The firm +was prosecuted in 1837 by John Joseph Stockwell for printing by order of +the House of Commons, in an official report of the inspector of prisons, +statements regarded by the plaintiff as libellous. Hansard sheltered +himself on the ground of privilege, but it was not until after much +litigation that the security of the printers of government reports was +guaranteed by statute in 1840. + + + + +HANSEATIC LEAGUE. It is impossible to assign any precise date for the +beginning of the Hanseatic League or to name any single factor which +explains the origin of that loose but effective federation of North +German towns. Associated action and partial union among these towns can +be traced back to the 13th century. In 1241 we find Lübeck and Hamburg +agreeing to safeguard the important road connecting the Baltic and the +North Sea. The first known meeting of the "maritime towns," later known +as the Wendish group and including Lübeck, Hamburg, Lüneburg, Wismar, +Rostock and Stralsund, took place in 1256. The Saxon towns, during the +following century, were joining to protect their common interests, and +indeed at this period town confederacies in Germany, both North and +South, were so considerable as to call for the declaration against them +in the Golden Bull of 1356. The decline of the imperial power and the +growing opposition between the towns and the territorial princes +justified these defensive town alliances, which in South Germany took on +a peculiarly political character. The relative weakness of territorial +power in the North, after the fall of Henry the Lion of Saxony, +diminished without however removing this motive for union, but the +comparative immunity from princely aggression on land left the towns +freer to combine in a stronger and more permanent union for the defence +of their commerce by sea and for the control of the Baltic. + +While the political element in the development of the Hanseatic League +must not be underestimated, it was not so formative as the economic. The +foundation was laid for the growth of German towns along the southern +shore of the Baltic by the great movement of German colonization of +Slavic territory east of the Elbe. This movement, extending in time from +about the middle of the 11th to the middle of the 13th century and +carrying a stream of settlers and traders from the North-west, resulted +not only in the Germanization of a wide territory but in the extension +of German influence along the sea-coast far to the east of actual +territorial settlement. The German trading towns, at the mouths of the +numerous streams which drain the North European plain, were stimulated +or created by the unifying impulse of a common and long-continued +advance of conquest and colonization. + +The impetus of this remarkable movement of expansion not only carried +German trade to the East and North within the Baltic basin, but +reanimated the older trade from the lower Rhine region to Flanders and +England in the West. Cologne and the Westphalian towns, the most +important of which were Dortmund, Soest and Münster, had long controlled +this commerce but now began to feel the competition of the active +traders of the Baltic, opening up that direct communication by sea from +the Baltic to western Europe which became the essential feature in the +history of the League. The necessity of seeking protection from the +sea-rovers and pirates who infested these waters during the whole period +of Hanseatic supremacy, the legal customs, substantially alike in the +towns of North Germany, which governed the groups of traders in the +outlying trading posts, the establishment of common factories, or +"counters" (Komtors) at these points, with aldermen to administer +justice and to secure trading privileges for the community of German +merchants--such were some of the unifying influences which preceded the +gradual formation of the League. In the century of energetic commercial +development before 1350 the German merchants abroad led the way. + +Germans were early pushing as permanent settlers into the Scandinavian +towns, and in Wisby, on the island of Gothland, the Scandinavian centre +of Baltic trade, equal rights as citizens in the town government were +possessed by the German settlers as early as the beginning of the 13th +century. There also came into existence at Wisby the first association +of German traders abroad, which united the merchants of over thirty +towns, from Cologne and Utrecht in the West to Reval in the East. We +find the Gothland association making in 1229 a treaty with a Russian +prince and securing privileges for their branch trading station at +Novgorod. According to the "Skra," the by-laws of the Novgorod branch, +the four aldermen of the community of Germans, who among other duties +held the keys of the common chest, deposited in Wisby, were to be chosen +from the merchants of the Gothland association and of the towns of +Lübeck, Soest and Dortmund. The Gothland association received in 1237 +trading rights in England, and shortly after the middle of the century +it also secured privileges in Flanders. It legislated on matters +relating to common trade interests, and, in the case of the regulation +of 1287 concerning shipwrecked goods, we find it imposing this +legislation on the towns under the penalty of exclusion from the +association. But with the extension of the East and West trade beyond +the confines of the Baltic, this association by the end of the century +was losing its position of leadership. Its inheritance passed to the +gradually forming union of towns, chiefly those known as Wendish, which +looked to Lübeck as their head. In 1293 the Saxon and Wendish merchants +at Rostock decided that all appeals from Novgorod be taken to Lübeck +instead of to Wisby, and six years later the Wendish and Westphalian +towns, meeting at Lübeck, ordered that the Gothland association should +no longer use a common seal. Though Lübeck's right as court of appeal +from the Hanseatic counter at Novgorod was not recognized by the general +assembly of the League until 1373, the long-existing practice had simply +accorded with the actual shifting of commercial power. The union of +merchants abroad was beginning to come under the control of the partial +union of towns at home. + +A similar and contemporary extension of the influence of the Baltic +traders under Lübeck's leadership may be witnessed in the West. As a +consequence of the close commercial relations early existing between +England and the Rhenish-Westphalian towns, the merchants of Cologne were +the first to possess a gild-hall in London and to form a "hansa" with +the right of admitting other German merchants on payment of a fee. The +charter of 1226, however, by which Emperor Frederick II. created Lübeck +a free imperial city, expressly declared that Lübeck citizens trading in +England should be free from the dues imposed by the merchants of Cologne +and should enjoy equal rights and privileges. In 1266 and 1267 the +merchants of Hamburg and Lübeck received from Henry III. the right to +establish their own hansas in London, like that of Cologne. The +situation thus created led by 1282 to the coalescence of the rival +associations in the "Gild-hall of the Germans," but though the Baltic +traders had secured a recognized foothold in the enlarged and unified +organization, Cologne retained the controlling interest in the London +settlement until 1476. Lübeck and Hamburg, however, dominated the German +trade in the ports of the east coast, notably in Lynn and Boston, while +they were strong in the organized trading settlements at York, Hull, +Ipswich, Norwich, Yarmouth and Bristol. The counter at London, first +called the Steelyard in a parliamentary petition of 1422, claimed +jurisdiction over the other factories in England. + +In Flanders, also, the German merchants from the West had long been +trading, but here had later to endure not only the rivalry but the +pre-eminence of those from the East. In 1252 the first treaty privileges +for German trade in Flanders show two men of Lübeck and Hamburg heading +the "Merchants of the Roman Empire," and in the later organization of +the counter at Bruges four or five of the six aldermen were chosen from +towns east of the Elbe, with Lübeck steadily predominant. The Germans +recognized the staple rights of Bruges for a number of commodities, such +as wool, wax, furs, copper and grain, and in return for this material +contribution to the growing commercial importance of the town, they +received in 1309 freedom from the compulsory brokerage which Bruges +imposed on foreign merchants. The importance and independence of the +German trading settlements abroad was exemplified in the statutes of the +"Company of German merchants at Bruges," drawn up in 1347, where for the +first time appears the grouping of towns in three sections (the +"Drittel"), the Wendish-Saxon, the Prussian-Westphalian, and those of +Gothland and Livland. Even more important than the assistance which the +concentration of the German trade at Bruges gave to that leading mart of +European commerce was the service rendered by the German counter of +Bruges to the cause of Hanseatic unity. Not merely because of its +central commercial position, but because of its width of view, its +political insight, and its constant insistence on the necessity of +union, this counter played a leading part in Hanseatic policy. It was +more Hanse than the Hanse towns. + +The last of the chief trading settlements, both in importance and in +date of organization, was that at Bergen in Norway, where in 1343 the +Hanseatics obtained special trade privileges. Scandinavia had early been +sought for its copper and iron, its forest products and its valuable +fisheries, especially of herring at Schonen, but it was backward in its +industrial development and its own commerce had seriously declined in +the 14th century. It had come to depend largely upon the Germans for the +importation of all its luxuries and of many of its necessities, as well +as for the exportation of its products, but regular trade with the three +kingdoms was confined for the most part to the Wendish towns, with +Lübeck steadily asserting an exclusive ascendancy. The fishing centre at +Schonen was important as a market, though, like Novgorod, its trade was +seasonal, but it did not acquire the position of a regularly organized +counter, reserved alone, in the North, for Bergen. The commercial +relations with the North cannot be regarded as an important element in +the union of the Hanse towns, but the geographical position of the +Scandinavian countries, especially that of Denmark, commanding the Sound +which gives access to the Baltic, compelled a close attention to +Scandinavian politics on the part of Lübeck and the League and thus by +necessitating combined political action in defence of Hanseatic +sea-power exercised a unifying influence. + +Energetic and successful though the scattered trading settlements had +been in establishing German trade connexions and in securing valuable +trade privileges, the middle of the 14th century found them powerless to +meet difficulties arising from internal dissension and still more from +the political rivalries and trade jealousies of nascent nationalities. +Flanders became a battle-field in the great struggle between France and +England, and the war of trade prohibitions led to infractions of the +German privileges in Bruges. An embargo on trade with Flanders, voted in +1358 by a general assembly, resulted by 1360 in the full restoration of +German privileges in Flanders, but reduced the counter at Bruges to an +executive organ of a united town policy. It is worth noting that in a +document connected with this action the union of towns, borrowing the +term from English usage, was first called the "German Hansa." In 1361 +representatives from Lübeck and Wisby visited Novgorod to recodify the +by-laws of the counter and to admonish it that new statutes required the +consent of Lübeck, Wisby, Riga, Dorpat and Reval. This action was +confirmed in 1366 by an assembly of the Hansa which at the same time, on +the occasion of a regulation made by the Bruges counter and of statutes +drawn up by the young Bergen counter, ordered that in future the +approval of the towns must be obtained for all new regulations. + +The counter at London was soon forced to follow the example of the other +counters at Bruges, Novgorod and Bergen. After the failure of the +Italians, the Hanseatics remained the strongest group of alien +merchants in England, and, as such, claimed the exclusive enjoyment of +the privileges granted by the _Carta Mercatoria_ of 1303. Their highly +favoured position in England, contrasting markedly with their refusal of +trade facilities to the English in some of the Baltic towns and their +evident policy of monopoly in the Baltic trade, incensed the English +mercantile classes, and doubtless influenced the increases in +customs-duties which were regarded by the Germans as contrary to their +treaty rights. Unsuccessful in obtaining redress from the English +government, the German merchants finally, in 1374, appealed for aid to +the home towns, especially to Lübeck. The result of Hanseatic +representations was the confirmation by Richard II. in 1377 of all their +privileges, which accorded them the preferential treatment they had +claimed and became the foundation of the Hanseatic position in England. + +In the meanwhile, the conquest of Wisby by Waldemar IV. of Denmark in +1361 had disclosed his ambition for the political control of the Baltic. +He was promptly opposed by an alliance of Hanse towns, led by Lübeck. +The defeat of the Germans at Helsingborg only called into being the +stronger town and territorial alliance of 1367, known as the Cologne +Confederation, and its final victory, with the peace of Stralsund in +1370, which gave for a limited period the four chief castles on the +Sound into the hands of the Hanseatic towns, greatly enhanced the +prestige of the League. + +The assertion of Hanseatic influence in the two decades, 1356 to 1377, +marks the zenith of the League's power and the completion of the long +process of unification. Under the pressure of commercial and political +necessity, authority was definitely transferred from the Hansas of +merchants abroad to the Hansa of towns at home, and the sense of unity +had become such that in 1380 a Lübeck official could declare that +"whatever touches one town touches all." But even at the time when union +was most important, this statement went further than the facts would +warrant, and in the course of the following century it became less and +less true. Dortmund held aloof from the Cologne Confederation on the +ground that it had no concern in Scandinavian politics. It became, +indeed, increasingly difficult to obtain the support of the inland towns +for a policy of sea-power in the Baltic. Cologne sent no representatives +to the regular Hanseatic assemblies until 1383, and during the 15th +century its independence was frequently manifested. It rebelled at the +authority of the counter at Bruges, and at the time of the war with +England (1469-1474) openly defied the League. In the East, the German +Order, while enjoying Hanseatic privileges, frequently opposed the +policy of the League abroad, and was only prevented by domestic troubles +and its Hinterland enemies from playing its own hand in the Baltic. +After the fall of the order in 1467, the towns of Prussia and Livland, +especially Dantzig and Riga, pursued an exclusive trade policy even +against their Hanseatic confederates. Lübeck, however, supported by the +Bruges counter, despite the disaffection and jealousy on all sides +hampering and sometimes thwarting its efforts, stood steadfastly for +union and the necessity of obedience to the decrees of the assemblies. +Its headship of the League, hitherto tacitly accepted, was definitely +recognized in 1418. + +The governing body of the Hansa was the assembly of town +representatives, the "Hansetage," held irregularly as occasion required +at the summons of Lübeck, and, with few exceptions, attended but +scantily. The delegates were bound by instructions from their towns and +had to report home the decisions of the assembly for acceptance or +rejection. In 1469 the League declared that the English use of the terms +"societas," "collegium" and "universitas" was inappropriate to so loose +an organization. It preferred to call itself a "firma confederatio" for +trade purposes only. It had no common seal, though that of Lübeck was +accepted, particularly by foreigners, in behalf of the League. Disputes +between the confederate towns were brought for adjudication before the +general assembly, but the League had no recognized federal judiciary. +Lübeck, with the counters abroad, watched over the execution of the +measures voted by the assembly, but there was no regular administrative +organization. Money for common purposes was raised from time to time, +as necessity demanded, by the imposition on Hanse merchandise of +poundage dues, introduced in 1361, while the counters relied upon a +small levy of like nature and upon fines to meet current needs. Even +this slender financial provision met with opposition. The German Order +in 1398 converted the Hanseatic poundage to a territorial tax for its +own purposes, and one of the chief causes for Cologne's disaffection a +half-century later was the extension from Flanders to other parts of the +Netherlands of the levy made by the counter at Bruges. Since the +authority of the League rested primarily on the moral support of its +members, allied in common trade interests and acquiescing in the able +leadership of Lübeck, its only means of compulsion was the "Verhansung," +or exclusion of a recalcitrant town from the benefits of the trade +privileges of the League. A conspicuous instance was the exclusion of +Cologne from 1471 until its obedience in 1476, but the penalty had been +earlier imposed, as in the case of Brunswick, on towns which overthrew +their patrician governments. It was obviously, however, a measure to be +used only in the last resort and with extreme reluctance. + +The decisive factor in determining membership in the League was the +historical right of the citizens of a town to participate in Hanseatic +privileges abroad. At first the merchant Hansas had shared these +privileges with almost any German merchant, and thus many little +villages, notably those in Westphalia, ultimately claimed membership. +Later, under the Hansa of the towns, the struggle for the maintenance of +a coveted position abroad led to a more exclusive policy. A few new +members were admitted, mainly from the westernmost sphere of Hanseatic +influence, but membership was refused to some important applicants. In +1447 it was voted that admission be granted only by unanimous consent. +No complete list of members was ever drawn up, despite frequent requests +from foreign powers. Contemporaries usually spoke of 70, 72, 73 or 77 +members, and perhaps the list is complete with Daenell's recent count of +72, but the obscurity on so vital a point is significant of the +amorphous character of the organization. + +The towns of the League, stretching from Thorn and Krakow on the East to +the towns of the Zuider Zee on the West, and from Wisby and Reval in the +North to Göttingen in the South, were arranged in groups, following in +the main the territorial divisions. Separate assemblies were held in the +groups for the discussion both of local and Hanseatic affairs, and +gradually, but not fully until the 16th century, the groups became +recognized as the lowest stage of Hanse organization. The further +grouping into "Thirds," later "Quarters," under head-towns, was also +more emphasized in that century. + +In the 15th century the League, with increasing difficulty, held a +defensive position against the competition of strong rivals and new +trade-routes. In England the inevitable conflict of interests between +the new mercantile power, growing conscious of its national strength, +and the old, standing insistant on the letter of its privileges, was +postponed by the factional discord out of which the Hansa in 1474 +dexterously snatched a renewal of its rights. Under Elizabeth, however, +the English Merchant Adventurers could finally rejoice at the withdrawal +of privileges from the Hanseatics and their concession to England, in +return for the retention of the Steelyard, of a factory in Hamburg. In +the Netherlands the Hanseatics clung to their position in Bruges until +1540, while trade was migrating to the ports of Antwerp and Amsterdam. +By the peace of Copenhagen in 1441, after the unsuccessful war of the +League with Holland, the attempted monopoly of the Baltic was broken, +and, though the Hanseatic trade regulations were maintained on paper, +the Dutch with their larger ships increased their hold on the herring +fisheries, the French salt trade, and the Baltic grain trade. For the +Russian trade new competitors were emerging in southern Germany. The +Hanseatic embargo against Bruges from 1451 to 1457, its later war and +embargo against England, the Turkish advance closing the Italian Black +Sea trade with southern Russia, all were utilized by Nuremberg and its +fellows to secure a land-trade outside the sphere of Hanseatic +influence. The fairs of Leipzig and Frankfort-on-Main rose in +importance as Novgorod, the stronghold of Hanse trade in the East, was +weakened by the attacks of Ivan III. The closing of the Novgorod counter +in 1494 was due not only to the development of the Russian state but to +the exclusive Hanseatic policy which had stimulated the opening of +competing trade routes. + +Within the League itself increasing restiveness was shown under the +restrictions of its trade policy. At the Hanseatic assembly of 1469, +Dantzig, Hamburg and Breslau opposed the maintenance of a compulsory +staple at Bruges in the face of the new conditions produced by a +widening commerce and more advantageous markets. Complaint was made of +South German competition in the Netherlands. "Those in the Hansa," +protested Breslau, "are fettered and must decline and those outside the +Hansa are free and prosper." By 1477 even Lübeck had become convinced +that a continuance of the effort to maintain the compulsory staple +against Holland was futile and should be abandoned. But while it was +found impossible to enforce the staple or to close the Sound against the +Dutch, other features of the monopolistic system of trade regulations +were still upheld. It was forbidden to admit an outsider to partnership +or to co-ownership of ships, to trade in non-Hanseatic goods, to buy or +sell on credit in a foreign mart or to enter into contracts for future +delivery. The trade of foreigners outside the gates of Hanse towns or +with others than Hanseatics was forbidden in 1417, and in the Eastern +towns the retail trade of strangers was strictly limited. The whole +system was designed to suppress the competition of outsiders, but the +divergent interests of individuals and towns, the pressure of +competition and changing commercial conditions, in part the reactionary +character of the legislation, made enforcement difficult. The measures +were those of the late-medieval town economy applied to the wide region +of the German Baltic trade, but not supported, as was the analogous +mercantilist system, by a strong central government. + +Among the factors, economic, geographic, political and social, which +combined to bring about the decline of the Hanseatic League, none was +probably more influential than the absence of a German political power +comparable in unity and energy with those of France and England, which +could quell particularism at home, and abroad maintain in its vigour the +trade which these towns had developed and defended with their imperfect +union. Nothing was to be expected from the declining Empire. Still less +was any co-operation possible between the towns and the territorial +princes. The fatal result of conflict between town autonomy and +territorial power had been taught in Flanders. The Hanseatics regarded +the princes with a growing and exaggerated fear and found some relief in +the formation in 1418 of a thrice-renewed alliance, known as the +"Tohopesate," against princely aggression. But no territorial power had +as yet arisen in North Germany capable of subjugating and utilizing the +towns, though it could detach the inland towns from the League. The last +wars of the League with the Scandinavian powers in the 16th century, +which left it shorn of many of its privileges and of any pretension to +control of the Baltic basin eliminated it as a factor in the later +struggle of the Thirty Years' War for that control. At an assembly of +1629, Lübeck, Bremen and Hamburg were entrusted with the task of +safeguarding the general welfare, and after an effort to revive the +League in the last general assembly of 1669, these three towns were left +alone to preserve the name and small inheritance of the Hansa which in +Germany's disunion had upheld the honour of her commerce. Under their +protection, the three remaining counters lingered on until their +buildings were sold at Bergen in 1775, at London in 1852 and at Antwerp +in 1863. + + BIBLIOGRAPHY.--_Hansisches Urkundenbuch_, bearbeitet von K. Höhlbaum, + K. Kunze und W. Stein (10 vols., Halle und Leipzig, 1876-1907); + _Hanserecesse_, erste Abtheilung, 1256-1430 (8 vols., Leipzig, + 1870-1897), zweite Abtheilung, 1431-1476 (7 vols., 1876-1892); dritte + Abtheilung, 1477-1530 (7 vols., 1881-1905); _Hansische + Geschichtsquellen_ (7 vols., 1875-1894; 3 vols., 1897-1906); + _Inventare hansischer Archive des sechzehnten Jahrhunderts_ (vols. 1 + and 2, 1896-1903); _Hansische Geschictsblätter_ (14 vols., 1871-1908). + All the above-mentioned chief sources have been issued by the Verein + für hansische Geschichte. Of the secondary literature, the following + histories and monographs should be named. G. F. Sartorius, _Geschichte + des hanseatischen Bundes_ (3 vols., Göttingen, 1802-1808), + _Urkundliche Geschichte des Ursprunges der deutschen Hanse_, + herausgegeben von J. M. Lappenberg (2 vols., Hamburg, 1830); F. W. + Barthold, _Geschichte der deutschen Hansa_ (3 vols., 2nd ed., Leipzig, + 1862); D. Schäfer, _Die Hansestädte und König Waldemar von Dänemark_ + (Jena, 1879); W. Stein, _Beiträge zur Geschichte der deutschen Hanse + bis um die Mitte des fünfzehnten Jahrhunderts_ (Giessen, 1900); E. + Daenell, _Die Blütezeit der deutschen Hanse. Hansische Geschichte von + der zweiten Hälfte des XIV. bis zum letzten Viertel des XV. + Jahrhunderts_ (2 vols., Berlin, 1905-1906); J. M. Lappenberg, + _Urkundliche Geschichte des hansischen Stahlhofes zu London_ (Hamburg, + 1851); F. Keutgen, _Die Beziehungen der Hanse zu England im letzten + Drittel des vierzehnten Jahrhunderts_ (Giessen, 1890); R. Ehrenberg, + _Hamburg und England im Zeitalter der Königin Elisabeth_ (Jena, 1896); + W. Stein, _Die Genossenschaft der deutschen Kaufleute zu Brügge in + Flandern_ (Berlin, 1890); H. Rogge, _Der Stapelzwang des hansischen + Kontors zu Brügge im fünfzehnten Jahrhundert_ (Kiel, 1903); A. + Winckler, _Die deutsche Hansa in Russland_ (Berlin, 1886). + (E. F. G.) + + + + +HANSEN, PETER ANDREAS (1795-1874), Danish astronomer, was born on the +8th of December 1795, at Tondern, in the duchy of Schleswig. The son of +a goldsmith, he learned the trade of a watchmaker at Flensburg, and +exercised it at Berlin and Tondern, 1818-1820. He had, however, long +been a student of science; and Dr Dircks, a physician practising at +Tondern, prevailed with his father to send him in 1820 to Copenhagen, +where he won the patronage of H. C. Schumacher, and attracted the +personal notice of King Frederick VI. The Danish survey was then in +progress, and he acted as Schumacher's assistant in work connected with +it, chiefly at the new observatory of Altona, 1821-1825. Thence he +passed on to Gotha as director of the Seeberg observatory; nor could he +be tempted to relinquish the post by successive invitations to replace +F. G. W. Struve at Dorpat in 1829, and F. W. Bessel at Königsberg in +1847. The problems of gravitational astronomy engaged the chief part of +Hansen's attention. A research into the mutual perturbations of Jupiter +and Saturn secured for him the prize of the Berlin Academy in 1830, and +a memoir on cometary disturbances was crowned by the Paris Academy in +1850. In 1838 he published a revision of the lunar theory, entitled +_Fundamenta nova investigationis_, &c., and the improved Tables of the +Moon based upon it were printed in 1857, at the expense of the British +government, their merit being further recognized by a grant of Ł1000, +and by their immediate adoption in the _Nautical Almanac_, and other +Ephemerides. A theoretical discussion of the disturbances embodied in +them (still familiarly known to lunar experts as the _Darlegung_) +appeared in the _Abhandlungen_ of the Saxon Academy of Sciences in +1862-1864. Hansen twice visited England and was twice (in 1842 and 1860) +the recipient of the Royal Astronomical Society's gold medal. He +communicated to that society in 1847 an able paper on a long-period +lunar inequality (_Memoirs Roy. Astr. Society_, xvi. 465), and in 1854 +one on the moon's figure, advocating the mistaken hypothesis of its +deformation by a huge elevation directed towards the earth (Ib. xxiv. +29). He was awarded the Copley medal by the Royal Society in 1850, and +his Solar Tables, compiled with the assistance of Christian Olufsen, +appeared in 1854. Hansen gave in 1854 the first intimation that the +accepted distance of the sun was too great by some millions of miles +(_Month. Notices Roy. Astr. Soc._ xv. 9), the error of J. F. Encke's +result having been rendered evident through his investigation of a lunar +inequality. He died on the 28th of March 1874, at the new observatory in +the town of Gotha, erected under his care in 1857. + + See _Vierteljahrsschrift astr. Gesellschaft_, x. 133; _Month. Notices + Roy. Astr. Society_, xxxv. 168; _Proc. Roy. Society_, xxv. p. v.; R. + Wolf, _Geschichte der Astronomie_, p. 526; _Wochenschrift für + Astronomie_, xvii. 207 (account of early years by E. Heis); + _Allgemeine deutsche Biographie_ (C. Bruhns). (A. M. C.) + + + + +HANSI, a town of British India, in the Hissar district of the Punjab, on +a branch of the Western Jumna canal, with a station on the +Rewari-Ferozepore railway, 16 m. E. of Hissar. Pop. (1901) 16,523. Hansi +is one of the most ancient towns in northern India, the former capital +of the tract called Hariana. At the end of the 18th century it was the +headquarters of the famous Irish adventurer George Thomas; from 1803 to +1857 it was a British cantonment, and it became the scene of a murderous +outbreak during the Mutiny. A ruined fort overlooks the town, which is +still surrounded by a high brick wall, with bastions and loop holes. It +is a centre of local trade, with factories for ginning and pressing +cotton. + + + + +HANSOM, JOSEPH ALOYSIUS (1803-1882), English architect and inventor, was +born in York on the 26th of October 1803. Showing an aptitude for +designing and construction, he was taken from his father's joinery shop +and apprenticed to an architect in York, and, by 1831, his designs for +the Birmingham town hall were accepted and followed--to his financial +undoing, as he had become bond for the builders. In 1834 he registered +the design of a "Patent Safety Cab," and subsequently sold the patent to +a company for Ł10,000, which, however, owing to the company's financial +difficulties, was never paid. The hansom cab as improved by subsequent +alterations, nevertheless, took and held the fancy of the public. There +was no back seat for the driver in the original design, and there is +little beside the suspended axle and large wheels in the modern hansom +to recall the early ones. In 1834 Hansom founded the _Builder_ +newspaper, but was compelled to retire from this enterprise owing to +insufficient capital. Between 1854 and 1879 he devoted himself to +architecture, designing and erecting a great number of important +buildings, private and public, including churches, schools and convents +for the Roman Catholic church to which he belonged. Buildings from his +designs are scattered all over the United Kingdom, and were even erected +in Australia and South America. He died in London on the 29th of June +1882. + + + + +HANSON, SIR RICHARD DAVIES (1805-1876), chief justice of South +Australia, was born in London on the 6th of December 1805. Admitted a +solicitor in 1828, he practised for some time in London. In 1838 he went +with Lord Durham to Canada as assistant-commissioner of inquiry into +crown lands and immigration. In 1840, on the death of Lord Durham, whose +private secretary he had been, he settled in Wellington, New Zealand. He +there acted as crown prosecutor, but in 1846 removed to South Australia. +In 1851 he was appointed advocate-general of that colony and took an +active share in the passing of many important measures, such as the +first Education Act, the District Councils Act of 1852, and the Act of +1856 which granted constitutional government to the colony. In 1856 and +again from 1857 to 1860 he was attorney-general and leader of the +government. In 1861 he was appointed chief justice of the supreme court +of South Australia and was knighted in 1869. He died in Australia on the +4th of March 1876. + + + + +HANSTEEN, CHRISTOPHER (1784-1873), Norwegian astronomer and physicist, +was born at Christiania, on the 26th of September 1784. From the +cathedral school he went to the university at Copenhagen, where first +law and afterwards mathematics formed his main study. In 1806 he taught +mathematics in the gymnasium of Frederiksborg, Zeeland, and in the +following year he began the inquiries in terrestrial magnetism with +which his name is especially associated. He took in 1812 the prize of +the Danish Royal Academy of Sciences for his reply to a question on the +magnetic axes. Appointed lecturer in 1814, he was in 1816 raised to the +chair of astronomy and applied mathematics in the university of +Christiania. In 1819 he published a volume of researches on terrestrial +magnetism, which was translated into German by P. T. Hanson, under the +title of _Untersuchungen über den Magnetismus der Erde_, with a +supplement containing _Beobachtungen der Abweichung und Neigung der +Magnetnadel_ and an atlas. By the rules there framed for the observation +of magnetical phenomena Hansteen hoped to accumulate analyses for +determining the number and position of the magnetic poles of the earth. +In prosecution of his researches he travelled over Finland and the +greater part of his own country; and in 1828-1830 he undertook, in +company with G. A. Erman, and with the co-operation of Russia, a +government mission to Western Siberia. A narrative of the expedition +soon appeared (_Reise-Erinnerungen aus Sibirien_, 1854; _Souvenirs_ +_d'un voyage en Sibérie_, 1857); but the chief work was not issued till +1863 (_Resultate magnetischer Beobachtungen_, &c.). Shortly after the +return of the mission, an observatory was erected in the park of +Christiania (1833), and Hansteen was appointed director. On his +representation a magnetic observatory was added in 1839. In 1835-1838 he +published text-books on geometry and mechanics; and in 1842 he wrote his +_Disquisitiones de mutationibus quas patitur momentum acus magneticae_, +&c. He also contributed various papers to different scientific journals, +especially the _Magazin for Naturvidenskaberne_, of which he became +joint-editor in 1823. He superintended the trigonometrical and +topographical survey of Norway, begun in 1837. In 1861 he retired from +active work, but still pursued his studies, his _Observations de +l'inclination magnétique_ and _Sur les variations séculaires du +magnétisme_ appearing in 1865. He died at Christiania on the 11th of +April 1873. + + + + +HANTHAWADDY, a district in the Pegu division of Lower Burma, the home +district of Rangoon, from which the town was detached to make a separate +district in 1880. It has an area of 3023 sq. m., with a population in +1901 of 484,811, showing an increase of 22% in the decade. Hanthawaddy +and Henzada are the two most densely populated districts in the +province. It consists of a vast plain stretching up from the sea between +the To or China Bakir mouth of the Irrawaddy and the Pegu Yomas. Except +the tract lying between the Pegu Yomas on the east and the Hlaing river, +the country is intersected by numerous tidal creeks, many navigable by +large boats and some by steamers. The headquarters of the district are +in Rangoon, which is also the sub-divisional headquarters. The second +sub-division has its headquarters at Insein, where there are large +railway works. Cultivation is almost wholly confined to rice, but there +are many vegetable and fruit gardens. + + + + +HANUKKAH, a Jewish festival, the "Feast of Dedication" (cf. John x. 22) +or the "Feast of the Maccabees," beginning on the 25th day of the ninth +month _Kislev_ (December), of the Hebrew ecclesiastical year, and +lasting eight days. It was instituted in 165 B.C. in commemoration of, +and thanksgiving for, the purification of the temple at Jerusalem on +this day by Judas Maccabaeus after its pollution by Antiochus Epiphanes, +king of Syria, who in 168 B.C. set up a pagan altar to Zeus Olympius. +The Talmudic sources say that when the perpetual lamp of the temple was +to be relighted only one flask of holy oil sufficient for the day +remained, but this miraculously lasted for the eight days (cf. the +legend in 2 Macc. i. 18). In memory of this the Jews burn both in +synagogues and in houses on the first night of the festival one light, +on the second two, and so on to the end (so the Hillelites), or vice +versa eight lights on the first, and one less on each succeeding night +(so the Shammaites). From the prominence of the lights the festival is +also known as the "Festival of Lights" or "Illumination" (_Talmud_). It +is said that the day chosen by Judas for the setting up of the new altar +was the anniversary of that on which Antiochus had set up the pagan +altar; hence it is suggested (e.g. by Wellhausen) that the 25th of +Kislev was an old pagan festival, perhaps the day of the winter +solstice. + + For further details and illustrations of Hanukkah lamps see _Jewish + Encyc._, s.v. + + + + +HANUMAN, in Hindu mythology, a monkey-god, who forms a central figure in +the _Ramayana_. He was the child of a nymph by the god of the wind. His +exploits, as the ally of Rama (incarnation of Vishnu) in the latter's +recovery of his wife Sita from the clutches of the demon Ravana, include +the bridging of the straits between India and Ceylon with huge boulders +carried away from the Himalayas. He is the leader of a host of monkeys +who aid in these supernatural deeds. Temples in his honour are frequent +throughout India. + + + + +HANWAY, JONAS (1712-1786), English traveller and philanthropist, was +born at Portsmouth in 1712. While still a child, his father, a +victualler, died, and the family moved to London. In 1729 Jonas was +apprenticed to a merchant in Lisbon. In 1743, after he had been some +time in business for himself in London, he became a partner with Mr +Dingley, a merchant in St Petersburg, and in this way was led to travel +in Russia and Persia. Leaving St Petersburg on the 10th of September +1743, and passing south by Moscow, Tsaritsyn and Astrakhan, he embarked +on the Caspian on the 22nd of November, and arrived at Astrabad on the +18th of December. Here his goods were seized by Mohammed Hassan Beg, and +it was only after great privations that he reached the camp of Nadir +Shah, under whose protection he recovered most (85%) of his property. +His return journey was embarrassed by sickness (at Resht), by attacks +from pirates, and by six weeks' quarantine; and he only reappeared at St +Petersburg on the 1st of January 1745. He again left the Russian capital +on the 9th of July 1750 and travelled through Germany and Holland to +England (28th of October). The rest of his life was mostly spent in +London, where the narrative of his travels (published in 1753) soon made +him a man of note, and where he devoted himself to philanthropy and good +citizenship. In 1756 he founded the Marine Society, to keep up the +supply of British seamen; in 1758 he became a governor of the Foundling, +and established the Magdalen, hospital; in 1761 he procured a better +system of parochial birth-registration in London; and in 1762 he was +appointed a commissioner for victualling the navy (10th of July); this +office he held till October 1783. He died, unmarried, on the 5th of +September 1786. He was the first Londoner, it is said, to carry an +umbrella, and he lived to triumph over all the hackney coachmen who +tried to hoot and hustle him down. He attacked "vail-giving," or +tipping, with some temporary success; by his onslaught upon tea-drinking +he became involved in controversy with Johnson and Goldsmith. His last +efforts were on behalf of little chimney-sweeps. His advocacy of +solitary confinement for prisoners and opposition to Jewish +naturalization were more questionable instances of his activity in +social matters. + + Hanway left seventy-four printed works, mostly pamphlets; the only one + of literary importance is the _Historical Account of British Trade + over the Caspian Sea, with a Journal of Travels_, &c. (London, 1753). + On his life, see also Pugh, _Remarkable Occurrences in the Life of + Jonas Hanway_ (London, 1787); _Gentleman's Magazine_, vol. xxxii. p. + 342; vol. lvi. pt. ii. pp. 812-814, 1090, 1143-1144; vol. lxv. pt. ii. + pp. 721-722, 834-835; _Notes and Queries_, 1st series, i. 436, ii. 25; + 3rd series, vii. 311; 4th series, viii. 416. + + + + +HANWELL, an urban district in the Brentford parliamentary division of +Middlesex, England, 10˝ m. W. of St Paul's cathedral, London, on the +river Brent and the Great Western railway. Pop. (1891) 6139; (1901) +10,438. It ranks as an outer residential suburb of London. The Hanwell +lunatic asylum of the county of London has been greatly extended since +its erection 1831, and can accommodate over 2500 inmates. The extensive +cemeteries of St Mary Abbots, Kensington, and St George, Hanover Square, +London, are here. In the churchyard of St Mary's church was buried Jonas +Hanway (d. 1786), traveller, philanthropist, and by repute, introducer +of the umbrella into England. The Roman Catholic Convalescent Home for +women and children was erected in 1865. Before the Norman period the +manor of Hanwell belonged to Westminster Abbey. + + + + +HAPARANDA (Finnish _Haaparanta_, "Aspen Shore"), a town of Sweden in the +district (_län_) of Norbotten, at the head of the Gulf of Bothnia. Pop. +(1900) 1568. It lies about 1˝ m. from the mouth of the Torne river, on +the frontier with Russia (Finland), opposite the town of Torneĺ which +has belonged to Russia since 1809. The towns are divided by a marshy +channel, formerly the bed of the Torne, but the main stream is now east +of the Russian town. Haparanda was founded in 1812, and at first bore +the name of Karljohannstad. It received its municipal constitution in +1842. Shipbuilding is prosecuted. Sea-going vessels load and unload at +Salmio, 7 m. from Haparanda. Since 1859 the town has been the seat of an +important meteorological station. Annual mean temperature, 32.4° Fahr.; +February 10.5°; July 58.8°. Rainfall, 16.5 in. annually. Up the Torne +valley (54 m.) is the hill Avasaxa, whither pilgrimages were formerly +made in order to stand in the light of the sun at midnight on St John's +day (June 24). + + + + +HAPLODRILI (so called by Lankester), often called Archiannelida +(Hatschek), the name provisionally given to a number of interesting +lowly-organized marine worms, whose affinities are very doubtful (see +CHAETOPODA.) _Polygordius_ and _Protodrilus_ live in sand, but while +the former moves by means of the contraction of its body-wall muscles, +_Protodrilus_ can progress by the action of the bands of cilia +surrounding its segments, and of the longitudinal ciliated ventral +groove. _Saccocirrus_, which also lives in sand, and more closely +resembles the Polychaeta, has throughout the greater length of its body +on each segment a pair of small uniramous parapodia bearing a bunch of +simple setae. No other member of the group is known to have any trace of +setae or parapodia at any stage of development. + + [Illustration: FIG. 1. + + A, _Polygordius neapolitanus_. (From Fraipont.) + B, Transverse section of _Polygordius_. (From Fraipont.) + C, Trochophore of _Polygordius_. and D, later stage of the same, + showing the development of the trunk. (From Hatschek.) + E, Dorsal view of _Dinophilus taeniatus_. + F, Male apparatus of the same (From Harmer.) + a, Anus. + ap, Apical organ. + c, Coelom. + c.o, Ciliated pit. + c.t, Cuticle. + d.v, Dorsal vessel. + e, Eye. + ep, Epidermis. + g.f, Genital funnel. + h, "Head kidney," with second nephridium just below it. + i, Intestine. + l.m, Longitudinal muscles. + m, Mouth. + m.o, Muscular pharyngeal organ. + m.p, Male pore. + n, Nephridium. + o.m, Oblique muscles. + ov, Ovary. + p, Penis. + pr, Prototroch. + pt, Prostomial tentacle. + sp, Sperm-sac. + spd, Sperm-duct. + st, Stomach. + t, Testes. + tr, Trunk segment. + tt, Telotroch. + v.n, Ventral nerve cord. + v.v, Ventral vessel.] + + These three genera have the following characters in common. The body + is composed of a large number of segments; the prostomium bears a pair + of tentacles; the nervous system consists of a brain and longitudinal + ventral nerve cords closely connected with the epidermis (without + distinct ganglia), widely separated in _Saccocirrus_, closely + approximated in _Protodrilus_, fused together in _Polygordius_; the + coelom is well developed, the septa are distinct, and the dorsal and + ventral longitudinal mesenteries are complete; the nephridia are + simple, and open into the coelom. Polygordius differs from + _Protodrilus_ and _Saccocirrus_ in the absence of a distinct + suboesophageal muscular pouch, and in the absence of a peculiar closed + cavity in the head region, which is especially well developed in + _Saccocirrus_, and probably represents the specialized coelom of the + first segment. Moreover, in _Saccocirrus_ the genital organs, present + in the majority of the trunk segments, have become much complicated + (fig. 2). In the female there is in every fertile segment a pair of + spermathecae opening at the nephridiopores. In the male there are a + right and a left protrusible penis in every genital segment, into + which opens the nephridium and a sperm-sac. The wide funnels of the + nephridia of this region are possibly of coelomic origin. + + [Illustration: FIG. 2.--Diagram of a transverse section of + _Saccocirrus_ showing on the left side the organs in a genital segment + of a male, and on the right side the organs in a genital segment of a + female. (From Goodrich.)] + + _Dinophilus_ is a free-swimming form without tentacles, and with + segmental bands of cilia (fig. 1). The parasitic _Histriodritus_ + (Histriobdella) feeds on the eggs of the lobster. It resembles + _Dinophilus_ in the possession of a ventral pharyngeal pouch (which + bears teeth in _Histriodrilus_ only), the small number of segments, + and absence of distinct septa, the absence of a vascular system, the + presence of distinct ganglia on the ventral nerve cords, and of small + nephridia which do not appear to open internally. _Histriodrilus_ + resembles _Saccocirrus_ in the possession of two posterior adhesive + processes, and to some extent in the structure of the complex genital + organs, which, however, are restricted to a single segment. In + _Dinophilus_, there is also only a single pair of genital ducts + behind; and in the male there are sperm-sacs and a median penis. In + some species of _Dinophilus_ there is pronounced sexual dimorphism + (the male being small and without gut) as in the Rotifera. The + resemblance of _Dinophilus_ to the Rotifera is, however, quite + superficial, and the general structure of this genus with distinct + traces of segmentation, especially in the embryo, points to its close + affinity, if not to _Polygordius_ in particular, at all events to the + Annelida. + + That _Polygordius_, _Protodrilus_ and _Saccocirrus_ are on the whole + primitive forms, and related to each other, there can be little doubt, + but their place amongst the Annelida is difficult to determine. The + development of _Polygordius_ alone is well known, having been studied + by Hatschek, Fraipont and others. The larva (fig. 1, C and D) is a + typical but very specialized form of trochophore, provided with a + branching nephridium bearing solenocytes. The trunk develops on the + lower surface of the disk-like larva, which undergoes a more or less + sudden metamorphosis into the young worm (fig. 1). There appears to be + little either in the development or in the structure of the Haplodrili + to warrant the view held by Hatschek and Fraipont that _Polygordius_ + and _Protodrilus_ are exceedingly primitive forms, ancestral to the + whole group of seta-bearing Annelids (Oligochaeta, Polychaeta, + Hirudinea and Echiuroidea). Whatever may be the conclusion as to the + position of _Dinophilus_ and _Histriodrilus_, it seems only reasonable + to suppose that _Polygordius_ and _Protodrilus_, so far from + representing a stage in the phylogeny of the Annelida before setae + were developed, have lost the setae, which are already in a reduced + state in _Saccocirrus_. + + AUTHORITIES.--Hatschek, "Studien z. Entw. der Anneliden," _Arb. Zool. + Inst. Wien_, vol. i., 1878; "Protodrilus," ibid. vol. iii. (1881); + Fraipont, "Le Genre Polygordius," _Fauna u. Flora d. Golfes v. + Neapel._, xiv., 1887; Weldon, "Dinophilus gigas," _Quart. Journ. Micr. + Sci._ vol. xxvii., 1886; Harmer, "Dinophilus," _Journ. Mar. Biol._ + N.S. vol. i., 1889; Schimkewitsch, "Entwickl. des _Dinophilus," Zeit. + f. wiss. Zool._ vol. lix., 1895; Korschelt, "Über Bau u. Entw. des + _Dinophilus," Zeit. f. wiss. Zool._ vol. xxxvii., 1882; Foettinger, + "Histriobdella," _Arch. Biol._ vol. v., 1884; Goodrich, "On + Saccocirrus," _Quart. Journ. Micr. Sci._ vol. xliv., 1901. + (E. S. G.) + + + + +HAPTARA (lit. _conclusion_), the Hebrew title given to the prophetic +lessons with which the ancient Synagogue service concluded. In the time +of Christ these prophetic lessons were already in vogue, and Christ +himself read the lessons and discoursed on them in the synagogues of +Galilee. In the modern synagogue these readings from the prophets are +regularly included in the ritual of Sabbaths, festivals and some other +occasions. + + A list of the current lessons is given in the _Jewish Encyclopedia_, + vol. vi. pp. 136-137. (I. A.) + + + + +HAPUR, a town of British India in the Meerut district of the United +Provinces, 18 m. S. of Meerut. Pop. (1901) 17,796. It is said to have +been founded in the 10th century, and was granted by Sindhia to his +French general Perron at the end of the 18th century. Several fine +groves surround the town, but the wall and ditch have fallen out of +repair, and only the names of the five gates remain. Considerable trade +is carried on in sugar, grain, cotton, timber, bamboos and brass +utensils. + + + + +HARA-KIRI (Japanese _hara_, belly, and _kiri_, cutting), +self-disembowelment, primarily the method of suicide permitted to +offenders of the noble class in feudal Japan, and later the national +form of honourable suicide. Hara-kiri has been often translated as "the +happy dispatch" in confusion with a native euphemism for the act. More +usually the Japanese themselves speak of hara-kiri by its Chinese +synonym, _Seppuku_. Hara-kiri is not an aboriginal Japanese custom. It +was a growth of medieval militarism, the act probably at first being +prompted by the desire of the noble to escape the humiliation of falling +into an enemy's hands. By the end of the 14th century the custom had +become a much valued privilege, being formally established as such under +the Ashi-Kaga dynasty. Hara-kiri was of two kinds, obligatory and +voluntary. The first is the more ancient. An official or noble, who had +broken the law or been disloyal, received a message from the emperor, +couched always in sympathetic and gracious tones, courteously intimating +that he must die. The mikado usually sent a jewelled dagger with which +the deed might be done. The suicide had so many days allotted to him by +immemorial custom in which to make dignified preparations for the +ceremony, which was attended by the utmost formality. In his own +baronial hall or in a temple a daďs 3 or 4 in. from the ground was +constructed. Upon this was laid a rug of red felt. The suicide, clothed +in his ceremonial dress as an hereditary noble, and accompanied by his +second or "Kaishaku," took his place on the mat, the officials and his +friends ranging themselves in a semicircle round the daďs. After a +minute's prayer the weapon was handed to him with many obeisances by the +mikado's representative, and he then made a public confession of his +fault. He then stripped to the waist. Every movement in the grim +ceremony was governed by precedent, and he had to tuck his wide sleeves +under his knees to prevent himself falling backwards, for a Japanese +noble must die falling forward. A moment later he plunged the dagger +into his stomach below the waist on the left side, drew it across to the +right and, turning it, gave a slight cut upward. At the same moment the +Kaishaku who crouched at his friend's side, leaping up, brought his +sword down on the outstretched neck. At the conclusion of the ceremony +the bloodstained dagger was taken to the mikado as a proof of the +consummation of the heroic act. The performance of hara-kiri carried +with it certain privileges. If it was by order of the mikado half only +of a traitor's property was forfeited to the state. If the gnawings of +conscience drove the disloyal noble to voluntary suicide, his dishonour +was wiped out, and his family inherited all his fortune. + +Voluntary hara-kiri was the refuge of men rendered desperate by private +misfortunes, or was committed from loyalty to a dead superior, or as a +protest against what was deemed a false national policy. This voluntary +suicide still survives, a characteristic case being that of Lieutenant +Takeyoshi who in 1891 gave himself the "belly-cut" in front of the +graves of his ancestors at Tokyo as a protest against what he considered +the criminal lethargy of the government in not taking precautions +against possible Russian encroachments to the north of Japan. In the +Russo-Japanese War, when faced by defeat at Vladivostock, the officer in +command of the troops on the transport "Kinshu Maru" committed +hara-kiri. Hara-kiri has not been uncommon among women, but in their +case the mode is by cutting the throat. The popularity of this +self-immolation is testified to by the fact that for centuries no fewer +than 1500 hara-kiris are said to have taken place annually, at least +half being entirely voluntary. Stories of amazing heroism are told in +connexion with the performance of the act. One noble, barely out of his +teens, not content with giving himself the customary cuts, slashed +himself thrice horizontally and twice vertically. Then he stabbed +himself in the throat until the dirk protruded on the other side with +the sharp edge to the front, and with a supreme effort drove the knife +forward with both hands through his neck. Obligatory hara-kiri was +obsolete in the middle of the 19th century, and was actually abolished +in 1868. + + See A. B. Mitford, _Tales of Old Japan_; Basil Hall Chamberlain, + _Things Japanese_ (1898). + + + + +HARALD, the name of four kings of Norway. + +HARALD I. (850-933), surnamed Haarfager (of the beautiful hair), first +king over Norway, succeeded on the death or his father Halfdan the Black +in A.D. 860 to the sovereignty of several small and somewhat scattered +kingdoms, which had come into his father's hands through conquest and +inheritance and lay chiefly in south-east Norway (see NORWAY). The tale +goes that the scorn of the daughter of a neighbouring king induced +Harald to take a vow not to cut nor comb his hair until he was sole king +of Norway, and that ten years later he was justified in trimming it; +whereupon he exchanged the epithet "Shockhead" for the one by which he +is usually known. In 866 he made the first of a series of conquests over +the many petty kingdoms which then composed Norway; and in 872, after a +great victory at Hafrsfjord near Stavanger, he found himself king over +the whole country. His realm was, however, threatened by dangers from +without, as large numbers of his opponents had taken refuge, not only in +Iceland, then recently discovered, but also in the Orkneys, Shetlands, +Hebrides and Faeroes, and in Scotland itself; and from these winter +quarters sallied forth to harry Norway as well as the rest of northern +Europe. Their numbers were increased by malcontents from Norway, who +resented Harald's claim of rights of taxation over lands which the +possessors appear to have previously held in absolute ownership. At last +Harald was forced to make an expedition to the west to clear the islands +and Scottish mainland of Vikings. Numbers of them fled to Iceland, which +grew into an independent commonwealth, while the Scottish isles fell +under Norwegian rule. The latter part of Harald's reign was disturbed by +the strife of his many sons. He gave them all the royal title and +assigned lands to them which they were to govern as his representatives; +but this arrangement did not put an end to the discord, which continued +into the next reign. When he grew old he handed over the supreme power +to his favourite son Erik "Bloody Axe," whom he intended to be his +successor. Harald died in 933, in his eighty-fourth year. + +HARALD II., surnamed Graafeld, a grandson of Harald I., became, with his +brothers, ruler of the western part of Norway in 961; he was murdered in +Denmark in 969. + +HARALD III. (1015-1066), king of Norway, surnamed Haardraade, which +might be translated "ruthless," was the son of King Sigurd and +half-brother of King Olaf the Saint. At the age of fifteen he was +obliged to flee from Norway, having taken part in the battle of +Stiklestad (1030), at which King Olaf met his death. He took refuge for +a short time with Prince Yaroslav of Novgorod (a kingdom founded by +Scandinavians), and thence went to Constantinople, where he took service +under the empress Zoe, whose Varangian guard he led to frequent victory +in Italy, Sicily and North Africa, also penetrating to Jerusalem. In the +year 1042 he left Constantinople, the story says because he was refused +the hand of a princess, and on his way back to his own country he +married Ellisif or Elizabeth, daughter of Yaroslav of Novgorod. In +Sweden he allied himself with the defeated Sven of Denmark against his +nephew Magnus, now king of Norway, but soon broke faith with Sven and +accepted an offer from Magnus of half his kingdom. In return for this +gift Harald is said to have shared with Magnus the enormous treasure +which he had amassed in the East. The death of Magnus in 1047 put an end +to the growing jealousies between the two kings, and Harald turned all +his attention to the task of subjugating Denmark, which he ravaged year +after year; but he met with such stubborn resistance from Sven that in +1064 he gave up the attempt and made peace. Two years afterwards, +possibly instigated by the banished Earl Tostig of Northumbria, he +attempted the conquest of England, to the sovereignty of which his +predecessor had advanced a claim as successor of Harthacnut. In +September 1066 he landed in Yorkshire with a large army, reinforced from +Scotland, Ireland and the Orkneys; took Scarborough by casting flaming +brands into the town from the high ground above it; defeated the +Northumbrian forces at Fulford; and entered York on the 24th of +September. But the following day the English Harold arrived from the +south, and the end of the long day's fight at Stamford Bridge saw the +rout of the Norwegian forces after the fall of their king (25th of +September 1066). He was only fifty years old, but he was the first of +the six kings who had ruled Norway since the death of Harald Haarfager +to reach that age. As a king he was unpopular on account of his +harshness and want of good faith, but his many victories in the face of +great odds prove him to have been a remarkable general, of never-failing +resourcefulness and indomitable courage. + +HARALD IV. (d. 1136), king of Norway, surnamed Gylle (probably from +_Gylle Krist_, i.e. servant of Christ), was born in Ireland about 1103. +About 1127 he went to Norway and declared he was a son of King Magnus +III. (Barefoot), who had visited Ireland just before his death in 1103, +and consequently a half-brother of the reigning king, Sigurd. He appears +to have submitted successfully to the ordeal of fire, and the alleged +relationship was acknowledged by Sigurd on condition that Harald did not +claim any share in the government of the kingdom during his lifetime or +that of his son Magnus. Living on friendly terms with the king, Harald +kept this agreement until Sigurd's death in 1130. Then war broke out +between himself and Magnus, and after several battles the latter was +captured in 1134, his eyes were put out, and he was thrown into prison. +Harald now ruled the country until 1136, when he was murdered by Sigurd +Slembi-Diakn, another bastard son of Magnus Barefoot. Four of Harald's +sons, Sigurd, Ingi, Eysteinn and Magnus, were subsequently kings of +Norway. + + + + +HARBIN, or KHARBIN, town of Manchuria, on the right bank of the river +Sungari. Pop. about 20,000. Till 1896 there was only a small village +here, but in that year the town was founded in connexion with surveys +for the Chinese Eastern railway company, at a point which subsequently +became the junction of the main line of the Manchurian railway with the +branch line southward to Port Arthur. Occupying such a position, Harbin +became an important Russian military centre during the Russo-Japanese +War. The portion of the town founded in 1896 is called Old Harbin, but +the centre has shifted to New Harbin, where the chief public buildings +and offices of the railway administration are situated. The river-port +forms a third division of the town, industrially the most important; +here are railway workshops, factories and mercantile establishments. +Trade is chiefly in the hands of the Chinese. + + + + +HARBINGER, originally one who provides a shelter or lodging for an army. +The word is derived from the M. E. and O. Fr. _herbergere_, through the +Late Lat. _heribergator_, formed from the O. H. Ger. _heri_, mod. Ger. +_Heer_, an army, and _bergen_, shelter or defence, cf. "harbour." The +meaning was soon enlarged to include any place where travellers could be +lodged or entertained, and also by transference the person who provided +lodgings, and so one who goes on before a party to secure suitable +lodgings in advance. A herald sent forward to announce the coming of a +king. A Knight Harbinger was an officer in the royal household till +1846. In these senses the word is now obsolete. It is used chiefly in +poetry and literature for one who announces the immediate approach of +something, a forerunner. This is illustrated in the "harbinger of +spring," a name given to a small plant belonging to the Umbelliferae, +which has a tuberous root, and small white flowers; it is found in the +central states of North America, and blossoms in March. + + + + +HARBOUR (from M. E. _hereberge_, _here_, an army; cf. Ger. _Heer_ and +-_beorg_, protection or shelter. Other early forms in English were +_herberwe_ and _harborow_, as seen in various place names, such as +Market Harborough. The French _auberge_, an inn, derived through +_heberger_, is thus the same word), a place of refuge or shelter. It is +thus used for an asylum for criminals, and particularly for a place of +shelter for ships. + +Sheltered sites along exposed sea-coasts are essential for purposes of +trade, and very valuable as refuges for vessels from storms. In a few +places, natural shelter is found in combination with ample depth, as in +the Bay of Rio de Janeiro, New York Harbour (protected by Long Island), +Portsmouth Harbour and Southampton Water (sheltered by the Isle of +Wight), and the land-locked creeks of Milford Haven and Kiel Harbour. At +various places there are large enclosed areas which have openings into +the sea; but these lagoons for the most part are very shallow except in +the main channels and at their outlets. Access to them is generally +obstructed by a bar as at the lagoon harbour of Venice (fig. 1), and +similar harbours, like those of Poole and Wexford; and such harbours +usually require works to prevent their deterioration, and to increase +the depth near their outlet. Generally, however, harbours are formed +where shelter is provided to a certain extent by a bay, creek or +projecting headland, but requires to be rendered complete by one or more +breakwaters (see BREAKWATER), or where the approach to a river, a +ship-canal or a seaport, needs protection. A refuge harbour is +occasionally constructed where a long length of stormy coast, near the +ordinary track of vessels, is entirely devoid of natural shelter. Naval +harbours are required by maritime powers as stations for their fleets, +and dockyards for construction and repairs, and also in some cases as +places of shelter from the night attacks of torpedoes. Commercial +harbours have to be provided for the formation of ports within their +shelter on important trade routes, or for the protection of the +approaches from the sea of ports near the sea-coast, or maritime +waterways running inland, in some cases at points on the coast devoid of +all natural shelter. A greater latitude in the selection of suitable +sites is, indeed, possible for refuge and naval harbours than for +commercial harbours; but these three classes of harbours are very +similar in their general outline and the works protecting them, only +differing in size and internal arrangements according to the purpose for +which they have been constructed, the chief differences being due to the +local conditions. + +Harbours may be divided into three distinct groups, namely, lagoon +harbours, jetty harbours and sea-coast harbours, protected by +breakwaters, including refuge, naval and commercial harbours. + + _Lagoon Harbours._--A lagoon, consisting of a sort of large shallow + lake separated from the sea by a narrow belt of coast, formed of + deposit from a deltaic river or of sand dunes heaped up by on-shore + winds along a sandy shore, possesses good natural shelter; and, owing + to the large expanse which is filled and emptied at each tide, even + when the tidal range is quite small, together with the discharge from + any rivers flowing into the lagoon, one or more fairly deep outlets + are maintained through the fringe of coast, which afford navigable + access to the lagoon; whilst channels formed inside by the currents + lead to ports on its banks. Lagoons, however, are liable to be + gradually silted up, if rivers flowing into them bring down + considerable quantities of alluvium, which is readily deposited in + their fairly still waters; and their outlet channels are in danger of + becoming shallower, by the sea in storms forming additional outlets by + breaking through the narrow barrier separating them from the sea. + Moreover, the approach from the sea to these channels through the + fringe of coast is generally impeded by a bar, owing to the scour of + the issuing current through these outlet channels becoming gradually + too enfeebled, on entering the open sea, to overcome the heaping-up + action of the waves along the shore, which tends to form a continuous + beach across these openings. Rivers, accordingly, whose discharge is + very valuable in maintaining a lagoon if their waters are free from + sediment, must, if possible, be diverted from a lagoon if they bring + down large amounts of silt; whilst the narrow belt of land in front of + the lagoon must be protected from erosion by the waves, on its sea + face, by groynes or revetments. The depth over the bar in front of an + outlet can be improved by concentrating the current through the outlet + by jetties on each side, and prolonging the jetties, and consequently + the scour, out to the bar so as to lower it, and by supplementing the + scouring action, if necessary, by dredging. + + [Illustration: FIG. 1.--Venetian Lagoon Harbour.] + + _Jetty Harbours._--Several small ports were formed on the sea-coast + long ago at points where flat marshy ground lying below the level of + high-water, and shut off from the sandy beach by dikes or sand dunes, + was connected with the sea by a small creek or river. Such ports + presented in their original condition a slight resemblance to lagoons + on a very small scale. Several examples are to be found on the sandy + shores of the English Channel and North Sea, such as Dieppe, Boulogne, + Calais, Dunkirk, Nieuport and Ostend, where the influx and efflux of + the water from these enclosed tide-covered areas, through a narrow + opening, sufficed to maintain a shallow channel to the sea across the + beach, deep enough near high-water for vessels of small draught. When + the increase in draught necessitated the provision of an improved + channel, the scour of the issuing current was concentrated and + prolonged by erecting parallel jetties across the beach, raised solid + to a little above low water of neap tides, with open timber-work above + to indicate the channel and guide the vessels. Even this low + obstruction, however, to the littoral drift of sand caused an advance + of the low water line as the jetties were carried out, so that further + extensions of the jetties had eventually to be abandoned, as occurred + at Dunkirk (see DOCK). Moreover, reclamation of the low-lying areas + was gradually effected, thus reducing the tidal scour; and sluicing + basins were excavated in part of the low ground, into which the tide + flowed through the entrance channel, and the water being shut in at + high tide by gates at the outlet of the basin, was released at low + water, producing a rapid current through the channel as a compensation + for the loss of the former natural scour. The current, however, from + the sluicing basin gradually lost its velocity in passing down the + channel, and besides, being most effective near the outlet of the + basin, could only scour the channel down to a moderate depth below low + water, on account of the increase in the volume of still water in the + channel at low tide as its deepening progressed. Lastly, about 1880, + improvements in suction dredgers (see DREDGE and DREDGING) led to the + adoption of sand-pump dredging in the outer part of the channel, and + across the foreshore in front to deep water; and at Dunkirk, docks + were formed on the site of the sluicing basin; whilst at Calais + sluicing was abandoned in favour of dredging. Ostend is the only jetty + harbour in which a large sluicing basin has been recently constructed, + but it can only provide for the maintenance of deep-water quays in its + vicinity; and dredging is relied upon to an increasing extent, both + for the maintenance and further deepening of the outer portion of the + approach channel, and for maintaining the direct channel dredged to + deep water across the Stroombank extending in front of Ostend (fig. + 2). + + Similar methods of improving the entrance channel to ports possessing + an extensive backwater have been adopted on a large scale in the + United States. For instance at Charleston, converging jetties, about + 2ž m. long, have been extended across the bar to concentrate the scour + due to a small tidal range expanding over the enclosed backwater, 15 + sq. m. in extent, and to protect the channel from littoral drift; but + these jetties have caused an advance of the foreshore, and a + progression seawards of the bar, necessitating dredging beyond the + ends of the jetties to maintain the requisite depth. + + [Illustration: FIG. 2.--Ostend Harbour and Jetty Channel.] + + Parallel jetties, moreover, across the beach, combined with extensive + sand-pump dredging, have been employed with success at some of the + ports situated at the outlet of rivers, enclosed bays, or lagoons, on + the sandy shores of south-east Africa, for improving the access to + them across encumbering shoals, where the littoral drift is too great + to allow of the projection of breakwaters from the shore to shelter an + approach channel. + + _Harbours Protected by Breakwaters._--The design for a harbour on the + sea-coast must depend on the configuration of the adjacent coast-line, + the extent and direction of the exposure, the amount of sheltered area + required and the depth obtainable, the prospect of the accumulation of + drift or the occurrence of scour from the proposed works, and the best + position for an entrance in respect of shelter and depth of approach. + + [Illustration: FIG. 3.--Genoa Harbour and Extensions.] + + _Completion of Shelter of Harbours in Bays._--In the case of a deep, + fairly land-locked bay, a detached breakwater across the outlet + completes the necessary shelter, leaving an entrance between each + extremity and the shore, provided there is deep enough water near the + shore, as effected at Plymouth harbour, and also across the wider but + shallower bay forming Cherbourg harbour. A breakwater may instead be + extended across the outlet from each shore, leaving a single central + entrance between the ends of the breakwaters; and if one breakwater + placed somewhat farther out is made to overlap an inner one, a more + sheltered entrance is obtained. This arrangement has been adopted at + the existing Genoa harbour within the bay (fig. 3), and for the + harbour at the mouth of the Nervion (see RIVER ENGINEERING). The + adoption of a bay with deep water for a harbour does not merely reduce + the shelter to be provided artificially, but it also secures a site + not exposed to silting up, and where the sheltering works do not + interfere with any littoral drift along the open coast. A third method + of sheltering a deep bay is that adopted for forming a refuge harbour + at Peterhead (fig. 4), where a single breakwater is extended out from + one shore for 3250 ft. across the outlet of the bay, leaving a single + entrance between its extremity and the opposite shore and enclosing an + area of about 250 acres at low tide, half of which has a depth of over + 5 fathoms. + + [Illustration: FIG. 4.--Peterhead Harbour of Refuge.] + + _Harbours possessing partial Natural Shelter._--The most common form + of harbour is that in which one or more breakwaters supplement a + certain amount of natural shelter. Sometimes, where the exposure is + from one direction only, approximately parallel with the coast-line at + the site, and there is more or less shelter from a projecting headland + or a curve of the coast in the opposite direction, a single breakwater + extending out at right angles to the shore, with a slight curve or + bend inwards near its outer end, suffices to afford the necessary + shelter. As examples of this form of harbour construction may be + mentioned Newhaven breakwater, protecting the approach to the port + from the west, and somewhat sheltered from the moderate easterly + storms by Beachy Head, and Table Bay breakwater, which shelters the + harbour from the north-east, and is somewhat protected on the opposite + side by the wide sweep of the coast-line known as Table Bay. + Generally, however, some partial embayment, or abrupt projection from + the coast, is utilized as providing shelter from one quarter, which is + completed by breakwaters enclosing the site, of which Dover and + Colombo (fig. 5) harbours furnish typical and somewhat similar + examples. + + [Illustration: FIG. 5.--Colombo Harbour.] + + _Harbours formed on quite Open Seacoasts._--Occasionally harbours have + to be constructed for some special purpose where no natural shelter + exists, and where on an open, sandy shore considerable littoral drift + may occur. Breakwaters, carried out from the shore at some distance + apart, and converging to a central entrance of suitable width, provide + the requisite shelter, as for instance the harbour constructed to form + a sheltered approach to the river Wear and the Sunderland docks (fig. + 6). If there is little littoral drift from the most exposed quarter, + the amount of sand brought in during storms, which is smaller in + proportion to the depth into which the entrance is carried, can be + readily removed by dredging; whilst the scour across the projecting + ends of the breakwaters tends to keep the outlet free from deposit. + Where there is littoral drift in both directions on an open, sandy + coast, due to winds blowing alternately from opposite quarters, sand + accumulates in the sheltered angles outside the harbour between each + converging breakwater and the shore. This has happened at Ymuiden + harbour at the entrance to the Amsterdam ship-canal on the North Sea, + but there the advance of the shore appears to have reached its limit + only a short distance out from the old shore-line on each side; and + the only evidence of drift consists in the advance seawards of the + lines of soundings alongside, and in the considerable amount of sand + which enters the harbour and has to be removed by dredging. The worst + results occur where the littoral drift is almost wholly in one + direction, so that the projection of a solid breakwater out from the + shore causes a very large accretion on the side facing the exposed + quarter; whilst owing to the arrest of the travel of sand, erosion of + the beach occurs beyond the second breakwater enclosing the harbour on + its comparatively sheltered side. These effects have been produced at + Port Said harbour at the entrance to the Suez Canal from the + Mediterranean, formed by two converging breakwaters, where, owing to + the prevalent north-westerly winds, the drift is from west to east, + and is augmented by the alluvium issuing from the Nile. Accordingly, + the shore has advanced considerably against the outer face of the + western breakwater; and erosion of the beach has occurred at the shore + end of the eastern breakwater, cutting it off from the land. The + advance of the shore-line, however, has been much slower during recent + years; and though the progress seawards of the lines of soundings + close to and in front of the harbour continues, the advance is checked + by the sand and silt coming from the west passing through some + apertures purposely left in the western breakwater, and falling into + the approach channel, from which it is readily dredged and taken away. + Madras harbour, begun in 1875, consists of two breakwaters, 3000 ft. + apart, carried straight out to sea at right angles to the shore for + 3000 ft., and completed by two return arms inclined slightly + seawards, enclosing an area of 220 acres and leaving a central + entrance, 550 ft. wide, facing the Indian Ocean in a depth of about 8 + fathoms. The great drift, however, of sand along the coast from south + to north soon produced an advance of the shore against the outside of + the south breakwater, and erosion beyond the north breakwater; and the + progression of the foreshore has extended so far seawards as to + produce shoaling at the entrance. Accordingly, the closing of the + entrance, and the formation of a new entrance through the outer part + of the main north breakwater, facing north and sheltered by an arm + starting from the angle of the northern return arm and running north + parallel to the shore, round the end of which vessels would turn to + enter, have been recommended, to provide a deep entrance beyond the + influence of the advancing foreshore. + + [Illustration: FIG. 6.--Sunderland Harbour.] + + Proposals have been made from time to time to evade this advance of + the foreshore against a solid obstacle, by extending an open viaduct + across the zone of littoral drift, and forming a closed harbour, or a + sheltering breakwater against which vessels can lie, beyond the + influence of accretion. This principle was carried out on a large + scale at the port of call and sheltering breakwater constructed in + front of the entrance to the Bruges ship-canal, at Zeebrugge on the + sandy North Sea coast, where a solid breakwater, provided with a wide + quay furnished with sidings and sheds, and curving round so as to + overlap thoroughly the entrance to the canal and shelter a certain + water-area, is approached by an open metal viaduct extending out 1007 + ft. from low water into a depth of 20 ft. (fig. 7). It is hoped that + by thus avoiding interference with the littoral drift close to the + shore, coming mainly from the west, the accumulation of silt to the + west of the harbour, and also in the harbour itself, will be + prevented; and though it appears probable that some accretion will + occur within the area sheltered by the breakwater, it will to some + extent be disturbed by the wash of the steamers approaching and + leaving the quays, and can readily be removed under shelter by + dredging. + + [Illustration: FIG. 7.--Zeebrugge Harbour.] + + _Entrances to Harbours._--Though captains of vessels always wish for + wide entrances to harbours as affording greater facility of safe + access, it is important to keep the width as narrow as practicable, + consistent with easy access, to exclude waves and swell as much as + possible and secure tranquillity inside. At Madras, the width of 550 + ft. proved excessive for the great exposure of the entrance, and + moderate size of the harbour, which does not allow of the adequate + expansion of the entering swell. Where an adequately easy and safe + approach can be secured, it is advantageous to make the entrance face + a somewhat sheltered quarter by the overlapping of the end of one of + the breakwaters, as accomplished at Bilbao and Genoa harbours (fig. + 3), and at the southern entrance to Dover harbour. Occasionally, owing + to the comparative shelter afforded by a bend in the adjacent + coast-line, a very wide entrance can be left between a breakwater and + the shore; typical examples are furnished by the former open northern + entrance to Portland harbour, now closed against torpedoes, and the + wide entrances at Holyhead and Zeebrugge (fig. 7). With a large + harbour and the adoption of a detached breakwater, it is possible to + gain the advantage of two entrances facing different quarters, as + effected at Dover and Colombo, which enables vessels to select their + entrance according to the state of the wind and weather; where there + is a large tidal rise they reduce the current through the entrances, + and they may, under favourable conditions, create a circulation of the + water in the harbour, tending to check the deposit of silt. + (L. F. V.-*H.) + + + + +HARBURG, a seaport town of Germany, in the Prussian province of Hanover, +on the left bank of the southern arm of the Elbe, 6 m. by rail S. of +Hamburg. Pop. (1885), 26,320; (1905)--the area of the town having been +increased since 1895--55,676. It is pleasantly situated at the foot of a +lofty range of hills, which here dip down to the river, at the junction +of the main lines of railway from Bremen and Hanover to Hamburg, which +are carried to the latter city over two grand bridges crossing the +southern and the northern arms of the Elbe. It possesses a Roman +Catholic and two Protestant churches, a palace, which from 1524 to 1642 +was the residence of the Harburg line of the house of Brunswick, a +high-grade modern school, a commercial school and a theatre. The leading +industries are the crushing of palm-kernels and linseed and the +manufacture of india-rubber, phosphates, starch, nitrate and jute. +Machines are manufactured here; beer is brewed, and shipbuilding is +carried on. The port is accessible to vessels drawing 18 ft. of water, +and, despite its proximity to Hamburg, its trade has of late years shown +a remarkable development. It is the chief mart in the empire for resin +and palm-oil. The Prussian government proposes establishing here a free +port, on the lines of the _Freihafen_ in Hamburg. + +Harburg belonged originally to the bishopric of Bremen, and received +municipal rights in 1297. In 1376 it was united to the principality of +Lüneburg, along with which it fell in 1705 to Hanover, and in 1806 to +Prussia. In 1813 and 1814 it suffered considerably from the French, who +then held Hamburg, and who built a bridge between the two towns, which +remained standing till 1816. + + See Ludewig, _Geschichte des Schlosses und der Stadt Harburg_ + (Harburg, 1845); and Hoffmeyer, _Harburg und die nächste Umgegend_ + (1885). + + + + +HARCOURT, a village in Normandy, now a commune in the department of +Eure, arrondissement of Bernay and canton of Brionne, which gives its +name to a noble family distinguished in French history, a branch of +which was early established in England. Of the lords of Harcourt, whose +genealogy can be traced back to the 11th century, the first to +distinguish himself was Jean II. (d. 1302) who was marshal and admiral +of France. Godefroi d'Harcourt, seigneur of Saint Sauveur le Vicomte, +surnamed "Le boiteux" (the lame), was a marshal in the English army and +was killed near Coutances in 1356. The fief of Harcourt was raised to +the rank of a countship by Philip of Valois, in favour of Jean IV., who +was killed at the battle of Creçy (1346). His son, Jean V. (d. 1355) +married Blanche, heiress of Jean II., count of Aumale, and the countship +of Harcourt passed with that of Aumale until, in 1424, Jean VIII., count +of Aumale and Mortain and lieutenant-general of Normandy, was killed at +the battle of Verneuil, and with him the elder branch became extinct in +the male line. The heiress, Marie, by her marriage with Anthony of +Lorraine, count of Vaudémont, brought the countship of Harcourt into the +house of Lorraine. The title of count of Harcourt was borne by several +princes of this house. The most famous instance was Henry of Lorraine, +count of Harcourt, Brionne, and Armagnac, and nicknamed "Cadet la perle" +(1601-1666). He distinguished himself in several campaigns against +Spain, and later played an active part in the civil wars of the Fronde. +He took the side of the princes, and fought against the government in +Alsace; but was defeated by Marshal de la Ferté, and made his submission +in 1654. + +The most distinguished among the younger branches of the family are +those of Montgomery and of Beuvron. To the former belonged Jean +d'Harcourt, bishop of Amiens and Tournai, archbishop of Narbonne and +patriarch of Antioch, who died in 1452; and Guillaume d'Harcourt, count +of Tancarville, and viscount of Melun, who was head of the +administration of the woods and forests in the royal domain (_souverain +maître et réformateur des eaux et foręts de France_) and died in 1487. + +From the branch of the marquises of Beuvron sprang Henri d'Harcourt, +marshal of France, and ambassador at the Spanish court, who was made +duke of Harcourt (1700) and a peer of France (1709); also François +Eugčne Gabriel, count, and afterwards duke, of Harcourt, who was +ambassador first in Spain, and later at Rome, and died in 1865. This +branch of the family is still in existence. + + See G. A. de la Rogne, _Histoire généalogique de la maison d'Harcourt_ + (4 vols., Paris, 1662); P. Anselme, _Histoire généalogique de la + maison de France_, v. 114, &c.; and Dom le Noir, _Preuves + généalogiques et historiques de la maison de Harcourt_ (Paris, 1907). + (M. P.*) + + + + +HARCOURT, SIMON HARCOURT, 1ST VISCOUNT (c. 1661-1727), lord chancellor +of England, only son of Sir Philip Harcourt of Stanton Harcourt, +Oxfordshire, by his first wife, Anne, daughter of Sir William Waller, +was born about 1661 at Stanton Harcourt, and was educated at a school at +Shilton, Oxfordshire, and at Pembroke College, Oxford. He was called to +the bar in 1683, and soon afterwards was appointed recorder of Abingdon, +which borough he represented as a Tory in parliament from 1690 to 1705. +In 1701 he was nominated by the Commons to conduct the impeachment of +Lord Somers; and in 1702 he became solicitor-general and was knighted by +Queen Anne. He was elected member for Bossiney in 1705, and as +commissioner for arranging the union with Scotland was largely +instrumental in promoting that measure. Harcourt was appointed +attorney-general in 1707, but resigned office in the following year when +his friend Robert Harley, afterwards earl of Oxford, was dismissed. He +defended Sacheverell at the bar of the House of Lords in 1710, being +then without a seat in parliament; but in the same year was returned for +Cardigan, and in September again became attorney-general. In October he +was appointed lord keeper of the great seal, and in virtue of this +office he presided in the House of Lords for some months without a +peerage, until, on the 3rd of September 1711, he was created Baron +Harcourt of Stanton Harcourt; but it was not till April 1713 that he +received the appointment of lord chancellor. In 1710 he had purchased +the Nuneham-Courtney estate in Oxfordshire, but his usual place of +residence continued to be at Cokethorpe near Stanton Harcourt, where he +received a visit in state from Queen Anne. In the negotiations preceding +the peace of Utrecht, Harcourt took an important part. There is no +sufficient evidence for the allegations of the Whigs that Harcourt +entered into treasonable relations with the Pretender. On the accession +of George I. he was deprived of office and retired to Cokethorpe, where +he enjoyed the society of men of letters, Swift, Pope, Prior and other +famous writers being among his frequent guests. With Swift, however, he +had occasional quarrels, during one of which the great satirist bestowed +on him the sobriquet of "Trimming Harcourt." He exerted himself to +defeat the impeachment of Lord Oxford in 1717, and in 1723 he was active +in obtaining a pardon for another old political friend, Lord +Bolingbroke. In 1721 Harcourt was created a viscount and returned to the +privy councils; and on several occasions during the king's absences from +England he was on the council of regency. He died in London on the 23rd +of July 1727. Harcourt was not a great lawyer, but he enjoyed the +reputation of being a brilliant orator; Speaker Onslow going so far as +to say that Harcourt "had the greatest skill and power of speech of any +man I ever knew in a public assembly." He was a member of the famous +Saturday Club, frequented by the chief _literati_ and wits of the +period, with several of whom he corresponded. Some letters to him from +Pope are preserved in the _Harcourt Papers_. His portrait by Kneller is +at Nuneham. + +Harcourt married, first, Rebecca, daughter of Thomas Clark, his father's +chaplain, by whom he had five children; secondly, Elizabeth, daughter of +Richard Spencer; and thirdly, Elizabeth, daughter of Sir Thomas Vernon. +He left issue by his first wife only. His son, Simon (1684-1720), +married Elizabeth, sister of Sir John Evelyn of Wotton, by whom he had +one son and four daughters, one of whom married George Venables Vernon, +afterwards Lord Vernon (see HARCOURT, SIR WILLIAM--footnote). Simon +Harcourt predeceased his father, the lord chancellor, in 1720, leaving a +son SIMON HARCOURT (1714-1777), 1st Earl Harcourt, who succeeded his +grandfather in the title of viscount in 1727. He was educated at +Westminster school. In 1745, having raised a regiment, he received a +commission as a colonel in the army; and in 1749 he was created Earl +Harcourt of Stanton Harcourt. He was appointed governor to the prince of +Wales, afterwards George III., in 1751; and after the accession of the +latter to the throne he was appointed, in 1761, special ambassador to +Mecklenburg-Strelitz to negotiate a marriage between King George and the +princess Charlotte, whom he conducted to England. After holding a number +of appointments at court and in the diplomatic service, he was promoted +to the rank of general in 1772; and in October of the same year he +succeeded Lord Townsend as lord lieutenant of Ireland, an office which +he held till 1777. His proposal to impose a tax of 10% on the rents of +absentee landlords had to be abandoned owing to opposition in England; +but he succeeded in conciliating the leaders of Opposition in Ireland, +and he persuaded Henry Flood to accept office in the government. +Resigning in January 1777, he retired to Nuneham, where he died in the +following September. He married, in 1735, Rebecca, daughter and heiress +of Charles Samborne Le Bas, of Pipewell Abbey, Northamptonshire, by whom +he had two daughters and two sons, George Simon and William, who +succeeded him as 2nd and 3rd earl respectively. + + See Lord Campbell, _Lives of the Lord Chancellors_, vol. v. (London, + 1846); Edward Foss, _The Judges of England_, vol. viii. (London, + 1848); Gilbert Burnet, _Hist. of his own Time_ (with notes by earls of + Dartmouth and Hardwicke, &c., Oxford, 1833); Earl Stanhope, _Hist. of + England, comprising the reign of Queen Anne until the Peace of + Utrecht_ (London, 1870). In addition to the above-mentioned + authorities many particulars concerning the 1st Viscount Harcourt, and + also of his grandson, the 1st earl, will be found in the _Harcourt + Papers_. For the earl, see also Horace Walpole, _Memoirs of the Reign + of George II._ (3 vols., 2nd ed., London, 1847), _Memoirs of the Reign + of George III._ (4 vols., London, 1845, 1894); also, for his + vice-royalty of Ireland, see Henry Grattan, _Memoirs of the Life and + Times of the Right Hon. H. Grattan_ (5 vols., London, 1839-1846); + Francis Hardy, _Memoirs of J. Caulfield, Earl of Charlemont_ (2 vols., + London, 1812); and for his genealogy, see Sir John Bernard Burke, + _Genealogical History of Dormant and Extinct Peerages_ (London, 1883). + (R. J. M.) + + + + +HARCOURT, SIR WILLIAM GEORGE GRANVILLE VENABLES VERNON (1827-1904). +English statesman, second son of the Rev. Canon William Vernon Harcourt +(q.v.), of Nuneham Park, Oxford, was born on the 14th of October 1827. +Canon Harcourt was the fourth son and eventually heir of Edward Harcourt +(1757-1847), archbishop of York, who was the son of the 1st Lord Vernon +(d. 1780), and who took the name of Harcourt alone instead of Vernon on +succeeding to the property of his cousin, the last Earl Harcourt, in +1831.[1] The subject of this biography was therefore born a Vernon, and +by his connexion with the old families of Vernon and Harcourt was +related to many of the great English houses, a fact which gave him no +little pride. Indeed, in later life his descent from the Plantagenets[2] +was a subject of some banter on the part of his political opponents. He +was educated at Trinity College, Cambridge, graduating with first-class +honours in the classical tripos in 1851. He was called to the bar in +1854, became a Q.C. in 1866, and was appointed Whewell professor of +international law, Cambridge, 1869. He quickly made his mark in London +society as a brilliant talker; he contributed largely to the _Saturday +Review_, and wrote some famous letters (1862) to _The Times_ over the +signature of "Historicus," in opposition to the recognition of the +Southern States as belligerents in the American Civil War. He entered +parliament as Liberal member for Oxford, and sat from 1868 to 1880, +when, upon seeking re-election after acceptance of office, he was +defeated by Mr Hall. A seat was, however, found for him at Derby, by the +voluntary retirement of Mr Plimsoll, and he continued to represent that +constituency until 1895, when, having been defeated at the general +election, he found a seat in West Monmouthshire. He was appointed +solicitor-general and knighted in 1873; and, although he had not shown +himself a very strenuous supporter of Mr Gladstone during that +statesman's exclusion from power, he became secretary of state for the +home department on the return of the Liberals to office in 1880. His +name was connected at that time with the passing of the Ground Game Act +(1880), the Arms (Ireland) Act (1881), and the Explosives Act (1883). As +home secretary at the time of the dynamite outrages he had to take up a +firm attitude, and the Explosives Act was passed through all its stages +in the shortest time on record. Moreover, as champion of law and order +against the attacks of the Parnellites, his vigorous speeches brought +him constantly into conflict with the Irish members. In 1884 he +introduced an abortive bill for unifying the municipal administration of +London. He was indeed at that time recognized as one of the ablest and +most effective leaders of the Liberal party; and when, after a brief +interval in 1885, Mr Gladstone returned to office in 1886, he was made +chancellor of the exchequer, an office which he again filled from 1892 +to 1895. + +Between 1880 and 1892 Sir William Harcourt acted as Mr Gladstone's loyal +and indefatigable lieutenant in political life. A first-rate party +fighter, his services were of inestimable value; but in spite of his +great success as a platform speaker, he was generally felt to be +speaking from an advocate's brief, and did not impress the country as +possessing much depth of conviction. It was he who coined the phrase +about "stewing in Parnellite juice," and, when the split came in the +Liberal party on the Irish question, even those who gave Mr Gladstone +and Mr Morley the credit of being convinced Home Rulers could not be +persuaded that Sir William had followed anything but the line of party +expediency. In 1894 he introduced and carried a memorable budget, which +equalized the death duties on real and personal property. After Mr +Gladstone's retirement in 1894 and Lord Rosebery's selection as prime +minister Sir William became the leader of the Liberal party in the House +of Commons, but it was never probable that he would work comfortably in +the new conditions. His title to be regarded as Mr Gladstone's successor +had been too lightly ignored, and from the first it was evident that +Lord Rosebery's ideas of Liberalism and of the policy of the Liberal +party were not those of Sir William Harcourt. Their differences were +patched up from time to time, but the combination could not last. At +the general election of 1895 it was clear that there were divisions as +to what issue the Liberals were fighting for, and the effect of Sir +William Harcourt's abortive Local Veto Bill on the election was seen not +only in his defeat at Derby, which gave the signal for the Liberal rout, +but in the set-back it gave to temperance legislation. Though returned +for West Monmouthshire (1895, 1900), his speeches in debate only +occasionally showed his characteristic spirit, and it was evident that +for the hard work of Opposition he no longer had the same motive as of +old. In December 1898 the crisis arrived, and with Mr John Morley he +definitely retired from the counsels of the party and resigned his +leadership of the Opposition, alleging as his reason, in letters +exchanged between Mr Morley and himself, the cross-currents of opinion +among his old supporters and former colleagues. The split excited +considerable comment, and resulted in much heart-burning and a more or +less open division between the section of the Liberal party following +Lord Rosebery (q.v.) and those who disliked that statesman's +Imperialistic views. + +Though now a private member, Sir William Harcourt still continued to +vindicate his opinions in his independent position, and his attacks on +the government were no longer restrained by even the semblance of +deference to Liberal Imperialism. He actively intervened in 1899 and +1900, strongly condemning the government's financial policy and their +attitude towards the Transvaal; and throughout the Boer War he lost no +opportunity of criticizing the South African developments in a +pessimistic vein. One of the readiest parliamentary debaters, he +savoured his speeches with humour of that broad and familiar order which +appeals particularly to political audiences. In 1898-1900 he was +conspicuous, both on the platform and in letters written to The _Times_, +in demanding active measures against the Ritualistic party in the Church +of England; but his attitude on that subject could not be dissociated +from his political advocacy of Disestablishment. In March 1904, just +after he had announced his intention not to seek election again to +parliament, he succeeded, by the death of his nephew, to the family +estates at Nuneham. But he died suddenly there on the 1st of October in +the same year. He married, first, in 1859, Thérčse (d. 1863), daughter +of Mr T. H. Lister, by whom he had one son, Lewis Vernon Harcourt (b. +1863), afterwards first commissioner of works both in Sir Henry +Campbell-Bannerman's 1905 ministry (included in the cabinet in 1907) and +in Mr Asquith's cabinet (1908); and secondly, in 1876, Elizabeth, widow +of Mr T. Ives and daughter of Mr. J. L. Motley, the historian, by whom +he had another son, Robert (b. 1878). + +Sir William Harcourt was one of the great parliamentary figures of the +Gladstonian Liberal period. He was essentially an aristocratic type of +late 19th century Whig, with a remarkable capacity for popular campaign +fighting. He had been, and remained, a brilliant journalist in the +non-professional sense. He was one of those who really made the +_Saturday Review_ in its palmy days, and in the period of his own most +ebullient vigour, while Mr Gladstone was alive, his sense of political +expediency and platform effectiveness in controversy was very acute. But +though he played the game of public life with keen zest, he never really +touched either the country or his own party with the faith which creates +a personal following, and in later years he found himself somewhat +isolated and disappointed, though he was free to express his deeper +objections to the new developments in church and state. A tall, fine +man, with the grand manner, he was, throughout a long career, a great +personality in the life of his time. (H. Ch.) + + +FOOTNOTES: + + [1] William, 3rd and last Earl Harcourt (1743-1830), who succeeded + his brother in the title, was a soldier who distinguished himself in + the American War of Independence by capturing General Charles Lee, + and commanded the British forces in Flanders in 1794, eventually + becoming a field-marshal. He was a son of Simon, 1st earl + (1714-1777), created viscount and earl in 1749, a soldier, and from + 1772 to 1777 viceroy of Ireland, who was grandson and heir of Simon, + Viscount Harcourt (1661-1727), lord chancellor--the "trimming + Harcourt" of Swift--the purchaser of the Nuneham-Courtney estates in + Oxfordshire, and son of Sir Philip Harcourt of Stanton Harcourt. The + knights of Stanton Harcourt, from the 13th century onwards, traced + their descent to the Norman de Harcourts, a branch of that family + having come over with the Conqueror; and the pedigree claims to go + back to Bernard of Saxony, who in 876 acquired the lordships of + Harcourt, Castleville and Beauficel in Normandy. Viscount Harcourt's + second son Simon, who was father of the 1st earl, was also father of + Martha, who married George Venables Vernon, of Sudbury, created 1st + Baron Vernon in 1762. The latter was a descendant of Sir Richard + Vernon (d. 1451), speaker of the Leicester parliament (1425) and + treasurer of Calais, a member of a Norman family which came over with + the Conqueror. + + [2] The Plantagenet descent (see _The Blood Royal of Britain_, by the + marquis of Ruvigny, 1903, for tables) could be traced through Lady + Anna Leveson Gower (wife of Archbishop Harcourt) to Lady Frances + Stanley, the wife of the 1st earl of Bridgewater (1579-1649), and so + to Lady Eleanor Brandon, wife of the earl of Cumberland (1517-1570), + and daughter of Mary Tudor (wife of Charles Brandon, duke of Suffolk, + 1484-1545), the daughter of Henry VII. and grand-daughter of Edward + IV. + + + + +HARCOURT, WILLIAM VERNON (1789-1871), founder of the British +Association, was born at Sudbury, Derbyshire, in 1789, a younger son of +Edward Vernon [Harcourt], archbishop of York (see above). Having served +for five years in the navy he went up to Christ Church, Oxford, with a +view to taking holy orders. He began his clerical duties at +Bishopthorpe, Yorkshire, in 1811, and having developed a great interest +in science while at the university, he took an active part in the +foundation of the Yorkshire Philosophical Society, of which he was the +first president. The laws and the plan of proceedings for the British +Association for the Advancement of Science were drawn up by him; and +Harcourt was elected president in 1839. In 1824 he became canon of York +and rector of Wheldrake in Yorkshire, and in 1837 rector of Bolton +Percy. The Yorkshire school for the blind and the Castle Howard +reformatory both owe their existence to his energies. His spare time +until quite late in life was occupied with scientific experiments. +Inheriting the Harcourt estates in Oxfordshire from his brother in 1861, +he removed to Nuneham, where he died in April 1871. + + + + +HARDANGER FJORD, an inlet on the west coast of Norway, penetrating the +mainland for 70 m. apart from the deep fringe of islands off its mouth, +the total distance from the open sea to the head of the fjord being 114 +m. Its extreme depth is about 350 fathoms. The entrance at Torö is 50 m. +by water south of Bergen, 60° N., and the general direction is N.E. from +that point. The fjord is flanked by magnificent mountains, from which +many waterfalls pour into it. The main fjord is divided into parts under +different names, and there are many fine branch fjords. The fjord is +frequented by tourists, and the principal stations have hotels. The +outer fjord is called the Kvindherredsfjord, flanked by the Melderskin +(4680 ft.); then follow Sildefjord and Bonde Sund, separated by Varalds +island. Here Mauranger-fjord opens on the east; from Sundal on this +inlet the great Folgefond snowfield may be crossed, and a fine glacier +(Bondhusbrae) visited. Bakke and Vikingnaes are stations on Hisfjord, +Nordheimsund and Östensö on Ytre Samlen, which throws off a fine narrow +branch northward, the Fiksensund. There follow Indre Samlen and +Utnefjord, with the station of Utne opposite Oxen (4120 ft.), and its +northward branch, Gravenfjord, with the beautiful station of Eide at its +head, whence a road runs north-west to Vossevangen. From the Utne +terminal branches of the fjord run south and east; the Sörfjord, steeply +walled by the heights of the Folgefond, with the frequented resort of +Odde at its head; and the Eidfjord, with its branch Osefjord, +terminating beneath a tremendous rampart of mountains, through which the +sombre Simodal penetrates, the river flowing from Daemmevand, a +beautiful lake among the fields, and forming with its tributaries the +fine falls of Skykje and Rembesdal. Vik is the principal station on +Eidfjord, and Ulvik on a branch of the Ose, with a road to Vossevangen. +At Vik is the mouth of the Björeia river, which, in forming the +Vöringfos, plunges 520 ft. into a magnificent rock-bound basin. A small +stream entering Sörfjord forms in its upper course the Skjaeggedalsfos, +of equal height with the Vöringfos, and hardly less beautiful. The +natives of Hardanger have an especially picturesque local costume. + + + + +HARDEE, WILLIAM JOSEPH (1815-1873), American soldier, was born in +Savannah, Georgia, on the 10th of November 1815 and graduated from West +Point in 1838. As a subaltern of cavalry he was employed on a special +mission to Europe to study the cavalry methods in vogue (1839). He was +promoted captain in 1844 and served under Generals Taylor and Scott in +the Mexican War, winning the brevet of major for gallantry in action in +March 1847 and subsequently that of lieut.-colonel. After the war he +served as a substantive major under Colonel Sidney Johnston and +Lieut.-Colonel Robert Lee in the 2nd U.S. cavalry, and for some time +before 1856 he was engaged in compiling the official manual of infantry +drill and tactics which, familiarly called "Hardee's Tactics," +afterwards formed the text-book for the infantry arm in both the Federal +and the Confederate armies. From 1856 to 1861 he was commandant of West +Point, resigning his commission on the secession of his state in the +latter year. Entering the Confederate service as a colonel, he was +shortly promoted brigadier-general. He distinguished himself very +greatly by his tactical leadership on the field of Shiloh, and was +immediately promoted major-general. As a corps commander he fought under +General Bragg at Perryville and Stone River, and for his distinguished +services in these battles was promoted lieutenant-general. He served in +the latter part of the campaign of 1863 under Bragg and in that of 1864 +under J. E. Johnston. When the latter officer was superseded by Hood, +Hardee was relieved at his own request, and for the remainder of the war +he served in the Carolinas. When the Civil War came to an end in 1865 he +retired to his plantation near Selma, Alabama. He died at Wytheville, +Virginia, on the 6th of November 1873. + + + + +HARDENBERG, KARL AUGUST VON, PRINCE (1750-1822), Prussian statesman, was +born at Essenroda in Hanover on the 31st of May 1750. After studying at +Leipzig and Göttingen he entered the Hanoverian civil service in 1770 as +councillor of the board of domains (_Kammerrat_); but, finding his +advancement slow, he set out--on the advice of King George III.--on a +course of travels, spending some time at Wetzlar, Regensburg (where he +studied the mechanism of the Imperial government), Vienna and Berlin. He +also visited France, Holland and England, where he was kindly received +by the king. On his return he married, by his father's desire, the +countess Reventlow. In 1778 he was raised to the rank of privy +councillor and created a count. He now again went to England, in the +hope of obtaining the post of Hanoverian envoy in London; but, his wife +becoming entangled in an _amour_ with the prince of Wales, so great a +scandal was created that he was forced to leave the Hanoverian service. +In 1782 he entered that of the duke of Brunswick, and as president of +the board of domains displayed a zeal for reform, in the manner approved +by the enlightened despots of the century, that rendered him very +unpopular with the orthodox clergy and the conservative estates. In +Brunswick, too, his position was in the end made untenable by the +conduct of his wife, whom he now divorced; he himself, shortly +afterwards, marrying a divorced woman. Fortunately for him, this +coincided with the lapsing of the principalities of Ansbach and Bayreuth +to Prussia, owing to the resignation of the last margrave, Charles +Alexander, in 1791. Hardenberg, who happened to be in Berlin at the +time, was on the recommendation of Herzberg appointed administrator of +the principalities (1792). The position, owing to the singular +overlapping of territorial claims in the old Empire, was one of +considerable delicacy, and Hardenberg filled it with great skill, doing +much to reform traditional anomalies and to develop the country, and at +the same time labouring to expand the influence of Prussia in South +Germany. After the outbreak of the revolutionary wars his diplomatic +ability led to his appointment as Prussian envoy, with a roving +commission to visit the Rhenish courts and win them over to Prussia's +views; and ultimately, when the necessity for making peace with the +French Republic had been recognized, he was appointed to succeed Count +Goltz as Prussian plenipotentiary at Basel (February 28, 1795), where he +signed the treaty of peace. + +In 1797, on the accession of King Frederick William III., Hardenberg was +summoned to Berlin, where he received an important position in the +cabinet and was appointed chief of the departments of Magdeburg and +Halberstadt, for Westphalia, and for the principality of Neuchâtel. In +1793 Hardenberg had struck up a friendship with Count Haugwitz, the +influential minister for foreign affairs, and when in 1803 the latter +went away on leave (August-October) he appointed Hardenberg his _locum +tenens_. It was a critical period. Napoleon had just occupied Hanover, +and Haugwitz had urged upon the king the necessity for strong measures +and the expediency of a Russian alliance. During his absence, however, +the king's irresolution continued; he clung to the policy of neutrality +which had so far seemed to have served Prussia so well; and Hardenberg +contented himself with adapting himself to the royal will. By the time +Haugwitz returned, the unyielding attitude of Napoleon had caused the +king to make advances to Russia; but the mutual declarations of the 3rd +and 25th of May 1804 only pledged the two powers to take up arms in the +event of a French attack upon Prussia or of further aggressions in North +Germany. Finally, Haugwitz, unable to persuade the cabinet to a more +vigorous policy, resigned, and on the 14th of April 1804 Hardenberg +succeeded him as foreign minister. + +If there was to be war, Hardenberg would have preferred the French +alliance, which was the price Napoleon demanded for the cession of +Hanover to Prussia; for the Eastern powers would scarcely have +conceded, of their free will, so great an augmentation of Prussian +power. But he still hoped to gain the coveted prize by diplomacy, backed +by the veiled threat of an armed neutrality. Then occurred Napoleon's +contemptuous violation of Prussian territory by marching three French +corps through Ansbach; King Frederick William's pride overcame his +weakness, and on the 3rd of November he signed with the tsar Alexander +the terms of an ultimatum to be laid before the French emperor. Haugwitz +was despatched to Vienna with the document; but before he arrived the +battle of Austerlitz had been fought, and the Prussian plenipotentiary +had to make the best terms he could with the conqueror. Prussia, indeed, +by the treaty signed at Schönbrunn on the 15th of December 1805, +received Hanover, but in return for all her territories in South +Germany. One condition of the arrangement was the retirement of +Hardenberg, whom Napoleon disliked. He was again foreign minister for a +few months after the crisis of 1806 (April-July 1807); but Napoleon's +resentment was implacable, and one of the conditions of the terms +granted to Prussia by the treaty of Tilsit was Hardenberg's dismissal. + +After the enforced retirement of Stein in 1810 and the unsatisfactory +interlude of the feeble Altenstein ministry, Hardenberg was again +summoned to Berlin, this time as chancellor (June 6, 1810). The campaign +of Jena and its consequences had had a profound effect upon him; and in +his mind the traditions of the old diplomacy had given place to the new +sentiment of nationality characteristic of the coming age, which in him +found expression in a passionate desire to restore the position of +Prussia and crush her oppressors. During his retirement at Riga he had +worked out an elaborate plan for reconstructing the monarchy on Liberal +lines; and when he came into power, though the circumstances of the time +did not admit of his pursuing an independent foreign policy, he steadily +prepared for the struggle with France by carrying out Stein's +far-reaching schemes of social and political reorganization. The +military system was completely reformed, serfdom was abolished, +municipal institutions were fostered, the civil service was thrown open +to all classes, and great attention was devoted to the educational needs +of every section of the community. + +When at last the time came to put these reforms to the test, after the +Moscow campaign of 1812, it was Hardenberg who, supported by the +influence of the noble Queen Louise, determined Frederick William to +take advantage of General Yorck's loyal disloyalty and declare against +France. He was rightly regarded by German patriots as the statesman who +had done most to encourage the spirit of national independence; and +immediately after he had signed the first peace of Paris he was raised +to the rank of prince (June 3, 1814) in recognition of the part he had +played in the War of Liberation. + +Hardenberg now had an assured position in that close corporation of +sovereigns and statesmen by whom Europe, during the next few years, was +to be governed. He accompanied the allied sovereigns to England, and at +the congress of Vienna (1814-1815) was the chief plenipotentiary of +Prussia. But from this time the zenith of his influence, if not of his +fame, was passed. In diplomacy he was no match for Metternich, whose +influence soon overshadowed his own in the councils of Europe, of +Germany, and ultimately even of Prussia itself. At Vienna, in spite of +the powerful backing of Alexander of Russia, he failed to secure the +annexation of the whole of Saxony to Prussia; at Paris, after Waterloo, +he failed to carry through his views as to the further dismemberment of +France; he had weakly allowed Metternich to forestall him in making +terms with the states of the Confederation of the Rhine, which secured +to Austria the preponderance in the German federal diet; on the eve of +the conference of Carlsbad (1819) he signed a convention with +Metternich, by which--to quote the historian Treitschke--"like a +penitent sinner, without any formal _quid pro quo_, the monarchy of +Frederick the Great yielded to a foreign power a voice in her internal +affairs." At the congresses of Aix-la-Chapelle, Troppau, Laibach and +Verona the voice of Hardenberg was but an echo of that of Metternich. + +The cause lay partly in the difficult circumstances of the loosely-knit +Prussian monarchy, but partly in Hardenberg's character, which, never +well balanced, had deteriorated with age. He continued amiable, charming +and enlightened as ever; but the excesses which had been pardonable in a +young diplomatist were a scandal in an elderly chancellor, and could not +but weaken his influence with so pious a _Landesvater_ as Frederick +William III. To overcome the king's terror of Liberal experiments would +have needed all the powers of an adviser at once wise and in character +wholly trustworthy. Hardenberg was wise enough; he saw the necessity for +constitutional reform; but he clung with almost senile tenacity to the +sweets of office, and when the tide turned strongly against Liberalism +he allowed himself to drift with it. In the privacy of royal commissions +he continued to elaborate schemes for constitutions that never saw the +light; but Germany, disillusioned, saw only the faithful henchman of +Metternich, an accomplice in the policy of the Carlsbad Decrees and the +Troppau Protocol. He died, soon after the closing of the congress of +Verona, at Genoa, on the 26th of November 1822. + + See L. v. Ranke, _Denkwürdigkeiten des Staatskanzlers Fürsten von + Hardenberg_ (5 vols., Leipzig, 1877); J. R. Seeley, _The Life and + Times of Stein_ (3 vols., Cambridge, 1878); E. Meier, _Reform der + Verwaltungsorganisation unter Stein und Hardenberg_ (ib., 1881); Chr. + Meyer, _Hardenberg und seine Verwaltung der Fürstentümer Ansbach und + Bayreuth_ (Breslau, 1892); Koser, _Die Neuordnung des preussischen + Archivwesens durch den Staatskanzler Fürsten v. Hardenberg_ (Leipzig, + 1904). + + + + +HARDERWYK, a seaport in the province of Gelderland, Holland, on the +shores of the Zuider Zee, 17 m. by rail N.N.E. of Amersfoort. Pop. +(1900) 7425. It is a quaint old town, approached by a fine avenue of +trees, and standing in the midst of a patch of fertile ground. Harderwyk +is chiefly important as being the depot for recruits for the Dutch +colonial army. It contains a small fort and large barracks. The +principal buildings are the town hall, with some ancient furniture, a +large 15th century church with a notable square tower, a municipal +orphanage, and the Nassau-Veluwe gymnasium. Agriculture, fishing, and a +few domestic industries form the only employment of the inhabitants. As +a seaport its trade is now confined exclusively to the Zuider Zee. + + + + +HARDICANUTE [more correctly HARDACNUT] (c. 1010-1042), son of Canute, +king of England, by his wife Ćlfgifu or Emma, was born about 1019. In +the contest for the English crown which followed the death of Canute in +1035 the claims of Hardicanute were supported by Emma and her ally, +Godwine, earl of the West Saxons, in opposition to those of Harold, +Canute's illegitimate son, who was backed by the Mercian earl Leofric +and the chief men of the north. At a meeting of the witan at Oxford a +compromise was ultimately arranged by which Harold was temporarily +elected regent of all England, pending the final settlement of the +question on the return of Hardicanute from Denmark. The compromise was +strongly opposed by Godwine and Emma, who for a time forcibly held +Wessex in Hardicanute's behalf. But Harold's party rapidly increased; +and early in 1037 he was definitely elected king. Emma was driven out +and took refuge at Bruges. In 1039 Hardicanute joined her, and together +they concerted an attack on England. But next year Harold died; and +Hardicanute peacefully succeeded. His short reign was marked by great +oppression and cruelty. He caused the dead body of Harold to be dug up +and thrown into a fen; he exacted so heavy a geld for the support of his +foreign fleet that great discontent was created throughout the kingdom, +and in Worcestershire a general uprising took place against those sent +to collect the tax, whereupon he burned the city of Worcester to the +ground and devastated the surrounding country; in 1041 he permitted +Edwulf, earl of Northumbria, to be treacherously murdered after having +granted him a safe-conduct. While "he stood at his drink" at the +marriage feast of one of his flegns he was suddenly seized with a fit, +from which he died a few days afterwards on the 8th of June 1042. + + + + +HARDING, CHESTER (1792-1866), American portrait painter, was born at +Conway, Massachusetts, on the 1st of September 1792. Brought up in the +wilderness of New York state, Harding, as a lad of splendid physique, +standing over 6 ft. 3 in., marched as a drummer with the militia to the +St Lawrence in 1813. He became subsequently chairmaker, peddler, +inn-keeper, and house-painter, painting signs in Pittsburg, Pa., and +eventually going on the road, self-taught, as an itinerant portrait +painter. He made enough money to take him to the schools at the +Philadelphia Academy of Design, and he soon became proficient enough to +gain a competency, so that later he went to England and set up a studio +in London. There he met with great success, painting royalty and the +nobility, and, despite the lackings of an early education and social +experience, he became a favourite in all circles. Returning to the +United States, he settled in Boston and painted portraits of many of the +prominent men and women of his time. He died on the 1st of April 1866. + + + + +HARDING, JAMES DUFFIELD (1798-1863), English landscape painter, was the +son of an artist, and took to the same vocation at an early age, +although he had originally been destined for the law. He was in the main +a water-colour painter and a lithographer, but he produced various +oil-paintings both at the beginning and towards the end of his career. +He frequently contributed to the exhibitions of the Water-Colour +Society, of which he became an associate in 1821, and a full member in +1822. He was also very largely engaged in teaching, and published +several books developing his views of art--amongst others, _The Tourist +in Italy_ (1831); _The Tourist in France_ (1834); _The Park and the +Forest_ (1841); _The Principles and the Practice of Art_ (1845); +_Elementary Art_ (1846); _Scotland Delineated in a Series of Views_ +(1847); _Lessons on Art_ (1849). He died at Barnes on the 4th of +December 1863. Harding was noted for facility, sureness of hand, nicety +of touch, and the various qualities which go to make up an elegant, +highly trained, and accomplished sketcher from nature, and composer of +picturesque landscape material; he was particularly skilful in the +treatment of foliage. + + + + +HARDINGE, HENRY HARDINGE, VISCOUNT (1785-1856), British field marshal +and governor-general of India, was born at Wrotham in Kent on the 30th +of March 1785. After being at Eton, he entered the army in 1799 as an +ensign in the Queen's Rangers, a corps then stationed in Upper Canada. +His first active service was at the battle of Vimiera, where he was +wounded; and at Corunna he was by the side of Sir John Moore when he +received his death-wound. Subsequently he received an appointment as +deputy-quartermaster-general in the Portuguese army from Marshal +Beresford, and was present at nearly all the battles of the Peninsular +War, being wounded again at Vittoria. At Albuera he saved the day for +the British by taking the responsibility at a critical moment of +strongly urging General Cole's division to advance. When peace was again +broken in 1815 by Napoleon's escape from Elba, Hardinge hastened into +active service, and was appointed to the important post of commissioner +at the Prussian headquarters. In this capacity he was present at the +battle of Ligny on the 16th of June 1815, where he lost his left hand by +a shot, and thus was not present at Waterloo, fought two days later. For +the loss of his hand he received a pension of Ł300; he had already been +made a K.C.B., and Wellington presented him with a sword that had +belonged to Napoleon. In 1820 and 1826 Sir Henry Hardinge was returned +to parliament as member for Durham; and in 1828 he accepted the office +of secretary at war in Wellington's ministry, a post which he also +filled in Peel's cabinet in 1841-1844. In 1830 and 1834-1835 he was +chief secretary for Ireland. In 1844 he succeeded Lord Ellenborough as +governor-general of India. During his term of office the first Sikh War +broke out; and Hardinge, waiving his right to the supreme command, +magnanimously offered to serve as second in command under Sir Hugh +Gough; but disagreeing with the latter's plan of campaign at Ferozeshah, +he temporarily reasserted his authority as governor-general (see SIKH +WARS). After the successful termination of the campaign at Sobraon he +was created Viscount Hardinge of Lahore and of King's Newton in +Derbyshire, with a pension of Ł3000 for three lives; while the East +India Company voted him an annuity of Ł5000, which he declined to +accept. Hardinge's term of office in India was marked by many social and +educational reforms. He returned to England in 1848, and in 1852 +succeeded the duke of Wellington as commander-in-chief of the British +army. While in this position he had the home management of the Crimean +War, which he endeavoured to conduct on Wellington's principles--a +system not altogether suited to the changed mode of warfare. In 1855 he +was promoted to the rank of field marshal. Viscount Hardinge resigned +his office of commander-in-chief in July 1856, owing to failing health, +and died on the 24th of September of the same year at South Park near +Tunbridge Wells. His elder son, Charles Stewart (1822-1894), who had +been his private secretary in India, was the 2nd Viscount Hardinge; and +the latter's eldest son succeeded to the title. The younger son of the +2nd Viscount, Charles Hardinge (b. 1858), became a prominent diplomatist +(see Edward VII.), and was appointed governor-general of India in 1910, +being created Baron Hardinge of Penshurst. + + See C. Hardinge, _Viscount Hardinge_ (Rulers of India series, 1891); + and R. S. Rait, _Life and Campaigns of Viscount Gough_ (1903). + + + + +HARDOI, a town and district of British India, in the Lucknow division of +the United Provinces. The town is 63 m. N.E. of Lucknow by rail. Pop. +(1901) 12,174. It has a wood-carving industry, saltpetre works, and an +export trade in grain. + +The DISTRICT OF HARDOI has an area of 2331 sq. m. It is a level district +watered by the Ganges, Ramganga, Deoha or Garra, Sukheta, Sai, Baita and +Gumti--the three rivers first named being navigable by country boats. +Towards the Ganges the land is uneven, and often rises in hillocks of +sand cultivated at the base, and their slopes covered with lofty _munj_ +grass. Several large _jhils_ or swamps are scattered throughout the +district, the largest being that of Sandi, which is 3 m. long by from 1 +to 2 m. broad. These _jhils_ are largely used for irrigation. Large +tracts of forest jungle still exist. Leopards, black buck, spotted deer, +and _nilgai_ are common; the mallard, teal, grey duck, common goose, and +all kinds of waterfowl abound. In 1901 the population of the district +was 1,092,834, showing a decrease of nearly 2% in the decade. The +district contains a larger urban population than any other in Oudh, the +largest town being Shahabad, 20,036 in 1901. It is traversed by the Oudh +and Rohilkhand railway from Lucknow to Shahjahanpur, and its branches. +The chief exports are grain, sugar, hides, tobacco and saltpetre. + +The first authentic records of Hardoi are connected with the Mussulman +colonization. Bawan was occupied by Sayyid Salar Masaud in 1028, but the +permanent Moslem occupation did not begin till 1217. Owing to the +situation of the district, Hardoi formed the scene of many sanguinary +battles between the rival Afghan and Mogul empires. Between Bilgram and +Sandi was fought the great battle between Humayun and Sher Shah, in +which the former was utterly defeated. Hardoi, along with the rest of +Oudh, became British territory under Lord Dalhousie's proclamation of +February 1856. + + + + +HARDOUIN, JEAN (1646-1729), French classical scholar, was born at +Quimper in Brittany. Having acquired a taste for literature in his +father's book-shop, he sought and obtained about his sixteenth year +admission into the order of the Jesuits. In Paris, where he went to +study theology, he ultimately became librarian of the Collčge Louis le +Grand in 1683, and he died there on the 3rd of September 1729. His first +published work was an edition of Themistius (1684), which included no +fewer than thirteen new orations. On the advice of Jean Garnier +(1612-1681) he undertook to edit the _Natural History_ of Pliny for the +Delphin series, a task which he completed in five years. His attention +having been turned to numismatics as auxiliary to his great editorial +labours, he published several learned works in that department, marred, +however, as almost everything he did was marred, by a determination to +be at all hazards different from other interpreters. It is sufficient to +mention his _Nummi antiqui populorum et urbium illustrati_ (1684), +_Antirrheticus de nummis antiquis coloniarum et municipiorum_ (1689), +and _Chronologia Veteris Testamenti ad vulgatam versionem exacta et +nummis illustrata_ (1696). By the ecclesiastical authorities Hardouin +was appointed to supervise the _Conciliorum collectio regia maxima_ +(1715); but he was accused of suppressing important documents and +foisting in apocryphal matter, and by the order of the parlement of +Paris (then at war with the Jesuits) the publication of the work was +delayed. It is really a valuable collection, much cited by scholars. +Hardouin declared that all the councils supposed to have taken place +before the council of Trent were fictitious. It is, however, as the +originator of a variety of paradoxical theories that Hardouin is now +best remembered. The most remarkable, contained in his _Chronologiae ex +nummis antiquis restitutae_ (1696) and _Prolegomena ad censuram veterum +scriptorum_, was to the effect that, with the exception of the works of +Homer, Herodotus and Cicero, the _Natural History_ of Pliny, the +_Georgics_ of _Virgil_, and the _Satires and Epistles of Horace_, all +the ancient classics of Greece and Rome were spurious, having been +manufactured by monks of the 13th century, under the direction of a +certain Severus Archontius. He denied the genuineness of most ancient +works of art, coins and inscriptions, and declared that the New +Testament was originally written in Latin. + + See A. Debacker, _Bibliothčque des écrivains de la Compagnie de Jésus_ + (1853). + + + + +HARDT, HERMANN VON DER (1660-1746), German historian and orientalist, +was born at Melle, in Westphalia, on the 15th of November 1660. He +studied oriental languages in Jena and in Leipzig, and in 1690 he was +called to the chair of oriental languages at Helmstedt. He resigned his +position in 1727, but lived at Helmstedt until his death on the 28th of +February 1746. Among his numerous writings the following deserve +mention: _Autographa Lutheri aliorumque celebrium virorum, ab anno 1517 +ad annum 1546_, _Reformationis aetatem et historiam egregie +illustrantia_ (1690-1691); _Magnum oecumenicum Constantiense concilium_ +(1697-1700); _Hebraeae linguae fundamenta_ (1694); _Syriacae linguae +fundamenta_ (1694); _Elementa Chaldaica_ (1693); _Historia litteraria +reformationis_ (1717); _Enigmata prisci orbis_ (1723). Hardt left in +manuscript a history of the Reformation which is preserved in the +Helmstedt Juleum. + + See F. Lamey, _Hermann von der Hardt in seinen Briefen_ (Karlsruhe, + 1891). + + + + +HARDT, THE, a mountainous district of Germany, in the Bavarian +palatinate, forming the northern end of the Vosges range. It is, in the +main, an undulating high plateau of sandstone formation, of a mean +elevation of 1300 ft., and reaching its highest point in the Donnersberg +(2254 ft.). The eastern slope, which descends gently towards the Rhine, +is diversified by deep and well-wooded valleys, such as those of the +Lauter and the Queich, and by conical hills surmounted by the ruins of +frequent feudal castles and monasteries. Noticeable among these are the +Madenburg near Eschbach, the Trifels (long the dungeon of Richard I. of +England), and the Maxburg near Neustadt. Three-fifths of the whole area +is occupied by forests, principally oak, beech and fir. The lower +eastern slope is highly cultivated and produces excellent wine. + + + + +HARDWAR, or HURDWAR, an ancient town of British India, and Hindu place +of pilgrimage, in the Saharanpur district of the United Provinces, on +the right bank of the Ganges, 17 m. N.E. of Rurki, with a railway +station. The Ganges canal here takes off from the river. A branch +railway to Dehra was opened in 1900. Pop. (1901), 25,597. The town is of +great antiquity, and has borne many names. It was originally known as +Kapila from the sage Kapila. Hsuan Tsang, the Chinese Buddhist pilgrim, +in the 7th century visited a city which he calls Mo-yu-lo, the remains +of which still exist at Mayapur, a little to the south of the modern +town. Among the ruins are a fort and three temples, decorated with +broken stone sculptures. The great object of attraction at present is +the Hari-ka-charan, or bathing _ghat_, with the adjoining temple of +Gangadwara. The _charan_ or foot-mark of Vishnu, imprinted on a stone +let into the upper wall of the _ghat_, forms an object of special +reverence. A great assemblage of people takes place annually, at the +beginning of the Hindu solar year, when the sun enters Aries; and every +twelfth year a feast of peculiar sanctity occurs, known as a +_Kumbh-mela_. The ordinary number of pilgrims at the annual fair +amounts to 100,000, and at the Kumbh-mela to 300,000; in 1903 there +were 400,000 present. Since 1892 many sanitary improvements have been +made for the benefit of the annual concourse of pilgrims. In early days +riots and also outbreaks of cholera were of common occurrence. The +Hardwar meeting also possesses mercantile importance, being one of the +principal horse-fairs in Upper India. Commodities of all kinds, Indian +and European, find a ready sale, and the trade in grain and food-stuffs +forms a lucrative traffic. + + + + +HARDWICKE, PHILIP YORKE, 1ST EARL OF (1690-1764), English lord +chancellor, son of Philip Yorke, an attorney, was born at Dover, on the +1st of December 1690. Through his mother, Elizabeth, daughter and +co-heiress of Richard Gibbon of Rolvenden, Kent, he was connected with +the family of Gibbon the historian. At the age of fourteen, after a not +very thorough education at a private school at Bethnal Green, where, +however, he showed exceptional promise, he entered an attorney's office +in London. Here he gave some attention to literature and the classics as +well as to law; but in the latter he made such progress that his +employer, Salkeld, impressed by Yorke's powers, entered him at the +Middle Temple in November 1708; and soon afterwards recommended him to +Lord Chief Justice Parker (afterwards earl of Macclesfield) as law tutor +to his sons. In 1715 he was called to the bar, where his progress was, +says Lord Campbell, "more rapid than that of any other débutant in the +annals of our profession," his advancement being greatly furthered by +the patronage of Macclesfield, who became lord chancellor in 1718, when +Yorke transferred his practice from the king's bench to the court of +chancery, though he continued to go on the western circuit. In the +following year he established his reputation as an equity lawyer in a +case in which Sir Robert Walpole's family was interested, by an argument +displaying profound learning and research concerning the jurisdiction of +the chancellor, on lines which he afterwards more fully developed in a +celebrated letter to Lord Kames on the distinction between law and +equity. Through Macclesfield's influence with the duke of Newcastle +Yorke entered parliament in 1719 as member for Lewes, and was appointed +solicitor-general, with a knighthood, in 1720, although he was then a +barrister of only four years' standing. His conduct of the prosecution +of Christopher Layer in that year for treason as a Jacobite further +raised Sir Philip Yorke's reputation as a forensic orator; and in 1723, +having already become attorney-general, he passed through the House of +Commons the bill of pains and penalties against Bishop Atterbury. He was +excused, on the ground of his personal friendship, from acting for the +crown in the impeachment of Macclesfield in 1725, though he did not +exert himself to save his patron from disgrace largely brought about by +Macclesfield's partiality for Yorke himself. He soon found a new and +still more influential patron in the duke of Newcastle, to whom he +henceforth gave his political support. He rendered valuable service to +Walpole's government by his support of the bill for prohibiting loans to +foreign powers (1730), of the increase of the army (1732) and of the +excise bill (1733). In 1733 Yorke was appointed lord chief justice of +the king's bench, with the title of Lord Hardwicke, and was sworn of the +privy council; and in 1737 he succeeded Talbot as lord chancellor, thus +becoming a member of Sir Robert Walpole's cabinet. One of his first +official acts was to deprive the poet Thomson of a small office +conferred on him by Talbot. + +Hardwicke's political importance was greatly increased by his removal to +the House of Lords, where the incompetency of Newcastle threw on the +chancellor the duty of defending the measures of the government. He +resisted Carteret's motion to reduce the army in 1738, and the +resolutions hostile to Spain over the affair of Captain Jenkins's ears. +But when Walpole bent before the storm and declared war against Spain, +Hardwicke advocated energetic measures for its conduct; and he tried to +keep the peace between Newcastle and Walpole. There is no sufficient +ground for Horace Walpole's charge that the fall of Sir Robert was +brought about by Hardwicke's treachery. No one was more surprised than +himself when he retained the chancellorship in the following +administration, and he resisted the proposal to indemnify witnesses +against Walpole in one of his finest speeches in May 1742. He exercised +a leading influence in the Wilmington Cabinet; and when Wilmington died +in August 1743, it was Hardwicke who put forward Henry Pelham for the +vacant office against the claims of Pulteney. For many years from this +time he was the controlling power in the government. During the king's +absences on the continent Hardwicke was left at the head of the council +of regency; it thus fell to him to concert measures for dealing with the +Jacobite rising in 1745. He took a just view of the crisis, and his +policy for meeting it was on the whole statesmanlike. After Culloden he +presided at the trial of the Scottish Jacobite peers, his conduct of +which, though judicially impartial, was neither dignified nor generous; +and he must be held partly responsible for the unnecessary severity +meted out to the rebels, and especially for the cruel, though not +illegal, executions on obsolete attainders of Charles Radcliffe and (in +1753) of Archibald Cameron. He carried, however, a great reform in 1746, +of incalculable benefit to Scotland, which swept away the grave abuses +of feudal power surviving in that country in the form of private +heritable jurisdictions in the hands of the landed gentry. On the other +hand his legislation in 1748 for disarming the Highlanders and +prohibiting the use of the tartan in their dress was vexatious without +being effective. Hardwicke supported Chesterfield's reform of the +calendar in 1751; in 1753 his bill for legalizing the naturalization of +Jews in England had to be dropped on account of the popular clamour it +excited; but he successfully carried a salutary reform of the marriage +law, which became the basis of all subsequent legislation on the +subject. + +On the death of Pelham in 1754 Hardwicke obtained for Newcastle the post +of prime minister, and for reward was created earl of Hardwicke and +Viscount Royston; and when in November 1756 the weakness of the ministry +and the threatening aspect of foreign affairs compelled Newcastle to +resign, Hardwicke retired with him. He played an important and +disinterested part in negotiating the coalition between Newcastle and +Pitt in 1757, when he accepted a seat in Pitt's cabinet without +returning to the woolsack. After the accession of George III. Hardwicke +opposed the ministry of Lord Bute on the peace with France in 1762, and +on the cider tax in the following year. In the Wilkes case Hardwicke +condemned general warrants, and also the doctrine that seditious libels +published by members of parliament were protected by parliamentary +privilege. He died in London on the 6th of March 1764. + +Although for a lengthy period Hardwicke was an influential minister, he +was not a statesman of the first rank. On the other hand he was one of +the greatest judges who ever sat on the English bench. He did not, +indeed, by his three years' tenure of the chief-justiceship of the +king's bench leave any impress on the common law; but Lord Campbell +pronounces him "the most consummate judge who ever sat in the court of +chancery, being distinguished not only for his rapid and satisfactory +decision of the causes which came before him, but for the profound and +enlightened principles which he laid down, and for perfecting English +equity into a systematic science." He held the office of lord chancellor +longer than any of his predecessors, with a single exception; and the +same high authority quoted above asserts that as an equity judge Lord +Hardwicke's fame "has not been exceeded by that of any man in ancient or +modern times. His decisions have been, and ever will continue to be, +appealed to as fixing the limits and establishing the principles of the +great juridical system called Equity, which now not only in this country +and in our colonies, but over the whole extent of the United States of +America, regulates property and personal rights more than the ancient +common law."[1] Hardwicke had prepared himself for this great and +enduring service to English jurisprudence by study of the historical +foundations of the chancellor's equitable jurisdiction, combined with +profound insight into legal principle, and a thorough knowledge of the +Roman civil law, the principles of which he scientifically incorporated +into his administration of English equity in the absence of precedents +bearing on the causes submitted to his judgment. His decisions on +particular points in dispute were based on general principles, which +were neither so wide as to prove inapplicable to future circumstances, +nor too restricted to serve as the foundation for a coherent and +scientific system. His recorded judgments--which, as Lord Campbell +observes, "certainly do come up to every idea we can form of judicial +excellence"--combine luminous method of arrangement with elegance and +lucidity of language. + +Nor was the creation of modern English equity Lord Hardwicke's only +service to the administration of justice. Born within two years of the +death of Judge Jeffreys his influence was powerful in obliterating the +evil traditions of the judicial bench under the Stuart monarchy, and in +establishing the modern conception of the duties and demeanour of +English judges. While still at the bar Lord Chesterfield praised his +conduct of crown prosecutions as a contrast to the former "bloodhounds +of the crown"; and he described Sir Philip Yorke as "naturally humane, +moderate and decent." On the bench he had complete control over his +temper; he was always urbane and decorous and usually dignified. His +exercise of legal patronage deserves unmixed praise. As a public man he +was upright and, in comparison with most of his contemporaries, +consistent. His domestic life was happy and virtuous. His chief fault +was avarice, which perhaps makes it the more creditable that, though a +colleague of Walpole, he was never suspected of corruption. But he had a +keen and steady eye to his own advantage, and he was said to be jealous +of all who might become his rivals for power. His manners, too, were +arrogant. Lord Waldegrave said of Hardwicke that "he might have been +thought a great man had he been less avaricious, less proud, less unlike +a gentleman." Although in his youth he contributed to the _Spectator_ +over the signature "Philip Homebred," he seems early to have abandoned +all care for literature, and he has been reproached by Lord Campbell and +others with his neglect of art and letters. He married, on the 16th of +May 1719, Margaret, daughter of Charles Cocks (by his wife Mary, sister +of Lord Chancellor Somers), and widow of John Lygon, by whom he had five +sons and two daughters. His eldest daughter, Elizabeth, married Lord +Anson; and the second, Margaret, married Sir Gilbert Heathcote. Three of +his younger sons attained some distinction. Charles Yorke (q.v.), the +second son, became like his father lord chancellor; the third, Joseph, +was a diplomatist, and was created Lord Dover; while James, the fifth +son, became bishop of Ely. + +Hardwicke was succeeded in the earldom by his eldest son, PHILIP YORKE +(1720-1795), 2nd earl of Hardwicke, born on the 19th of March 1720, and +educated at Cambridge. In 1741 he became a fellow of the Royal Society. +With his brother, Charles Yorke, he was one of the chief contributors to +_Athenian Letters; or the Epistolary Correspondence of an agent of the +King of Persia residing at Athens during the Peloponnesian War_ (4 +vols., London, 1741), a work that for many years had a considerable +vogue and went through several editions. He sat in the House of Commons +as member for Reigate (1741-1747), and afterwards for Cambridgeshire; +and he kept notes of the debates which were afterwards embodied in +Cobbett's _Parliamentary History_. He was styled Viscount Royston from +1754 till 1764, when he succeeded to the earldom. In politics he +supported the Rockingham Whigs. He held the office of teller of the +exchequer, and was lord-lieutenant of Cambridgeshire and high steward of +Cambridge University. He edited a quantity of miscellaneous state papers +and correspondence, to be found in MSS. collections in the British +Museum. He died in London, on the 16th of May 1790. He married Jemima +Campbell, only daughter of John, 3rd earl of Breadalbane, and +grand-daughter and heiress of Henry de Grey, duke of Kent, who became in +her own right marchioness de Grey. + +In default of sons, the title devolved on his nephew, PHILIP YORKE +(1757-1834), 3rd earl of Hardwicke, eldest son of Charles Yorke, lord +chancellor, by his first wife, Catherine Freman, who was born on the +31st of May 1757 and was educated at Cambridge. He was M.P. for +Cambridgeshire, following the Whig traditions of his family; but after +his succession to the earldom in 1790 he supported Pitt, and took office +in 1801 as lord lieutenant of Ireland (1801-1806), where he supported +Catholic emancipation. He was created K.G. in 1803, and was a fellow of +the Royal Society. He married Elizabeth, daughter of James Lindsay, 5th +earl of Balcarres, in 1782, but left no son. + +He was succeeded in the peerage by his nephew, CHARLES PHILIP YORKE +(1799-1873), 4th earl of Hardwicke, English admiral, eldest son of +Admiral Sir Joseph Sydney Yorke (1768-1831), who was second son of +Charles Yorke, lord chancellor, by his second wife, Agneta Johnson. +Charles Philip was born at Southampton on the 2nd of April 1799 and was +educated at Harrow. He entered the royal navy in 1815, and served on the +North American station and in the Mediterranean, attaining the rank of +captain in 1825. He represented Reigate (1831) and Cambridgeshire +(1832-1834) in the House of Commons; and after succeeding to the earldom +in 1834, was appointed a lord in waiting by Sir Robert Peel in 1841. In +1858 he retired from the active list with the rank of rear-admiral, +becoming vice-admiral in the same year, and admiral in 1863. He was a +member of Lord Derby's cabinet in 1852 as postmaster-general and lord +privy seal in 1858. In 1833 he married Susan, daughter of the 1st Lord +Ravensworth, by whom he had five sons and three daughters. His eldest +son, CHARLES PHILIP YORKE (1836-1897), 5th earl of Hardwicke, was +comptroller of the household of Queen Victoria (1866-1868) and master of +the buckhounds (1874-1880). He married in 1863, Sophia Georgiana, +daughter of the 1st Earl Cowley. He was succeeded by his only son ALBERT +EDWARD PHILIP HENRY YORKE (1867-1904), 6th earl of Hardwicke, who, after +holding the posts of under-secretary of state for India (1900-1902) and +for war (1902-1903), died unmarried on the 29th of November 1904; the +title then went to his uncle, JOHN MANNERS YORKE (1840-1909), 7th earl +of Hardwicke, second son of Charles Philip, the 4th earl, who joined the +royal navy and served in the Baltic and in the Crimea (1854-1855). This +earl died on the 13th of March 1909 and was succeeded by his son Charles +Alexander (b. 1869) as 8th earl. + + The contemporary authorities for the life of Lord Chancellor Hardwicke + are voluminous, being contained in the memoirs of the period and in + numerous collections of correspondence in the British Museum. See, + especially, the _Hardwicke Papers_; the _Stowe MSS.; Hist. MSS. + Commission_ (Reports 2, 3, 4, 6, 8, 9, 11); Horace Walpole, _Letters_ + (ed. by P. Cunningham, 9 vols., London, 1857-1859); _Letters to Sir H. + Mann_ (ed. by Lord Dover, 4 vols., London, 1843-1844); _Memoirs of the + Reign of George II._ (ed. by Lord Holland, 2nd ed. revised, London, + 1847); _Memoirs of the Reign of George III._ (ed. by G. F. R. Barker, + 4 vols., London, 1894); _Catalogue of Royal and Noble Authors of + England, Scotland and Ireland_ (ed. by T. Park, 5 vols., London, + 1806). Horace Walpole was violently hostile to Hardwicke, and his + criticism, therefore, must be taken with extreme reserve. See also the + earl Waldegrave, _Memoirs 1754-1758_ (London, 1821); Lord + Chesterfield, _Letters_ (ed. by Lord Mahon, 5 vols., London, 1892); + Richard Cooksey, _Essay on John, Lord Somers, and Philip, Earl of + Hardwicke_ (Worcester, 1791); William Coxe, _Memoirs of Sir R. + Walpole_ (4 vols., London, 1816); _Memoirs of the Administration of + Henry Pelham_ (2 vols., London, 1829); Lord Campbell, _Lives of the + Lord Chancellors_, vol. v. (8 vols., London, 1845); Edward Foss, _The + Judges of England_, vols. vii. and viii. (9 vols., London, 1848-1864); + George Harris, _Life of Lord Chancellor Hardwicke; with Selections + from his Correspondence, Diaries, Speeches and Judgments_ (3 vols., + London, 1847). The last-named work may be consulted for the lives of + the 2nd and 3rd earls. For the 3rd earl see also the duke of + Buckingham, _Memoirs of the Court and Cabinets of George III._ (4 + vols., London, 1853-1855). For the 4th earl see _Charles Philip + Yorke_, by his daughter, Lady Biddulph of Ledbury (1910). + (R. J. M.) + + +FOOTNOTE: + + [1] Lord Campbell, _Lives of the Lord Chancellors_, v. 43 (London, + 1846). + + + + +HARDY, ALEXANDRE (1569?-1631), French dramatist, was born in Paris. He +was one of the most fertile of all dramatic authors, and himself claimed +to have written some six hundred plays, of which, however, only +thirty-four are preserved. He seems to have been connected all his life +with a troupe of actors headed by a clever comedian named +Valleran-Lecomte, whom he provided with plays. Hardy toured the +provinces with this company, which gave some representations in Paris +in 1599 at the Hôtel de Bourgogne. Valleran-Lecomte occupied the same +theatre in 1600-1603, and again in 1607, apparently for some years. In +consequence of disputes with the Confrérie de la Passion, who owned the +privilege of the theatre, they played elsewhere in Paris and in the +provinces for some years; but in 1628, when they had long borne the +title of "royal," they were definitely established at the Hôtel de +Bourgogne. Hardy's numerous dedications never seem to have brought him +riches or patrons. His most powerful friend was Isaac de Laffemas (d. +1657), one of Richelieu's most unscrupulous agents, and he was on +friendly terms with the poet Théophile, who addressed him in some verses +placed at the head of his _Théâtre_ (1632), and Tristan l'Hermite had a +similar admiration for him. Hardy's plays were written for the stage, +not to be read; and it was in the interest of the company that they +should not be printed and thus fall into the common stock. But in 1623 +he published _Les Chastes et loyales amours de Théagčne et Cariclée_, a +tragi-comedy in eight "days" or dramatic poems; and in 1624 he began a +collected edition of his works, _Le Théâtre d'Alexandre Hardy, +parisien_, of which five volumes (1624-1628) were published, one at +Rouen and the rest in Paris. These comprise eleven tragedies: _Didon se +sacrifiant_, _Scédase ou l'hospitalité violée_, _Panthée_, _Méléagre_, +_La Mort d'Achille_, _Coriolan_, _Marianne_, a trilogy on the history of +Alexander, _Alcméon, ou la vengeance féminine_; five mythological +pieces; thirteen tragi-comedies, among them _Gésippe_, drawn from +Boccaccio; _Phraarte_, taken from Giraldi's _Cent excellentes nouvelles_ +(Paris, 1584); _Cornélie_, _La Force du sang_, _Félismčne_, _La Belle +Égyptienne_, taken from Spanish subjects; and five pastorals, of which +the best is _Alphée, ou la justice d'amour_. Hardy's importance in the +history of the French theatre can hardly be over-estimated. Up to the +end of the 16th century medieval farce and spectacle kept their hold on +the stage in Paris. The French classical tragedy of Étienne Jodelle and +his followers had been written for the learned, and in 1628 when Hardy's +work was nearly over and Rotrou was on the threshold of his career, very +few literary dramas by any other author are known to have been publicly +represented. Hardy educated the popular taste, and made possible the +dramatic activity of the 17th century. He had abundant practical +experience of the stage, and modified tragedy accordingly, suppressing +chorus and monologue, and providing the action and variety which was +denied to the literary drama. He was the father in France of +tragi-comedy, but cannot fairly be called a disciple of the romantic +school of England and Spain. It is impossible to know how much later +dramatists were indebted to him in detail, since only a fraction of his +work is preserved, but their general obligation is amply established. He +died in 1631 or 1632. + + The sources for Hardy's biography are extremely limited. The account + given by the brothers Parfaict in their _Hist. du théâtre français_ + (1745, &c., vol. iv. pp. 2-4) must be received with caution, and no + documents are forthcoming. Many writers have identified him with the + provincial playwright picturesquely described in chap. xi. of _Le Page + disgrâcié_ (1643), the autobiography of Tristan l'Hermite, but if the + portrait is drawn from life at all, it is more probably drawn from + Théophile. See _Le Théâtre d'Alexandre Hardy_, edited by E. Stengel + (Marburg and Paris, 1883-1884, 5 vols.); E. Lombard, "Étude sur + Alexandre Hardy," in _Zeitschr. für neufranz. Spr. u. Lit._ (Oppeln + and Leipzig, vols. i. and ii., 1880-1881); K. Nagel, _A. Hardy's + Einfluss auf Pierre Corneille_ (Marburg, 1884); and especially E. + Rigal, _Alexandre Hardy ..._ (Paris, 1889) and _Le Théâtre français + avant la période classique_ (Paris, 1901.) + + + + +HARDY, THOMAS (1840- ), English novelist, was born in Dorsetshire on +the 2nd of June 1840. His family was one of the branches of the Dorset +Hardys, formerly of influence in and near the valley of the Frome, +claiming descent from John Le Hardy of Jersey (son of Clement Le Hardy, +lieutenant-governor of that island in 1488), who settled in the west of +England. His maternal ancestors were the Swetman, Childs or Child, and +kindred families, who before and after 1635 were small landed +proprietors in Melbury Osmond, Dorset, and adjoining parishes. He was +educated at local schools, 1848-1854, and afterwards privately, and in +1856 was articled to Mr John Hicks, an ecclesiastical architect of +Dorchester. In 1859 he began writing verse and essays, but in 1861 was +compelled to apply himself more strictly to architecture, sketching and +measuring many old Dorset churches with a view to their restoration. In +1862 he went to London (which he had first visited at the age of nine) +and became assistant to the late Sir Arthur Blomfield, R.A. In 1863 he +won the medal of the Royal Institute of British Architects for an essay +on _Coloured Brick and Terra-cotta Architecture_, and in the same year +won the prize of the Architectural Association for design. In March 1865 +his first short story was published in _Chambers's Journal_, and during +the next two or three years he wrote a good deal of verse, being +somewhat uncertain whether to take to architecture or to literature as a +profession. In 1867 he left London for Weymouth, and during that and the +following year wrote a "purpose" story, which in 1869 was accepted by +Messrs Chapman and Hall. The manuscript had been read by Mr George +Meredith, who asked the writer to call on him, and advised him not to +print it, but to try another, with more plot. The manuscript was +withdrawn and re-written, but never published. In 1870 Mr Hardy took Mr +Meredith's advice too literally, and constructed a novel that was all +plot, which was published in 1871 under the title _Desperate Remedies_. +In 1872 appeared _Under the Greenwood Tree_, a "rural painting of the +Dutch school," in which Mr Hardy had already "found himself," and which +he has never surpassed in happy and delicate perfection of art. _A Pair +of Blue Eyes_, in which tragedy and irony come into his work together, +was published in 1873. In 1874 Mr Hardy married Emma Lavinia, daughter +of the late T. Attersoll Gifford of Plymouth. His first popular success +was made by _Far from the Madding Crowd_ (1874), which, on its +appearance anonymously in the _Cornhill Magazine_, was attributed by +many to George Eliot. Then came _The Hand of Ethelberta_ (1876), +described, not inaptly, as "a comedy in chapters"; _The Return of the +Native_ (1878), the most sombre and, in some ways, the most powerful and +characteristic of Mr Hardy's novels; _The Trumpet-Major_ (1880); _A +Laodicean_ (1881); _Two on a Tower_ (1882), a long excursion in +constructive irony; _The Mayor of Casterbridge_ (1886); _The +Woodlanders_ (1887); _Wessex Tales_ (1888); _A Group of Noble Dames_ +(1891); _Tess of the D'Urbervilles_ (1891), Mr Hardy's most famous +novel; _Life's Little Ironies_ (1894); _Jude the Obscure_ (1895), his +most thoughtful and least popular book; _The Well-Beloved_, a reprint, +with some revision, of a story originally published in the _Illustrated +London News_ in 1892 (1897); _Wessex Poems_, written during the previous +thirty years, with illustrations by the author (1898); and _The Dynasts_ +(2 parts, 1904-1906). In 1909 appeared _Time's Laughing-stocks and other +Verses_. In all his work Mr Hardy is concerned with one thing, seen +under two aspects; not civilization, nor manners, but the principle of +life itself, invisibly realized in humanity as sex, seen visibly in the +world as what we call nature. He is a fatalist, perhaps rather a +determinist, and he studies the workings of fate or law (ruling through +inexorable moods or humours), in the chief vivifying and disturbing +influence in life, women. His view of women is more French than English; +it is subtle, a little cruel, not as tolerant as it seems, thoroughly a +man's point of view, and not, as with Mr Meredith, man's and woman's at +once. He sees all that is irresponsible for good and evil in a woman's +character, all that is untrustworthy in her brain and will, all that is +alluring in her variability. He is her apologist, but always with a +reserve of private judgment. No one has created more attractive women of +a certain class, women whom a man would have been more likely to love or +to regret loving. In his earlier books he is somewhat careful over the +reputation of his heroines; gradually he allows them more liberty, with +a franker treatment of instinct and its consequences. _Jude the Obscure_ +is perhaps the most unbiassed consideration in English fiction of the +more complicated questions of sex. There is almost no passion in his +work, neither the author nor his characters ever seeming able to pass +beyond the state of curiosity, the most intellectually interesting of +limitations, under the influence of any emotion. In his feeling for +nature, curiosity sometimes seems to broaden into a more intimate +communion. The heath, the village with its peasants, the change of every +hour among the fields and on the roads of that English countryside which +he has made his own--the Dorsetshire and Wiltshire "Wessex"--mean more +to him, in a sense, than even the spectacle of man and woman in their +blind and painful and absorbing struggle for existence. His knowledge of +woman confirms him in a suspension of judgment; his knowledge of nature +brings him nearer to the unchanging and consoling element in the world. +All the entertainment which he gets out of life comes to him from his +contemplation of the peasant, as himself a rooted part of the earth, +translating the dumbness of the fields into humour. His peasants have +been compared with Shakespeare's; he has the Shakespearean sense of +their placid vegetation by the side of hurrying animal life, to which +they act the part of chorus, with an unconscious wisdom in their close, +narrow and undistracted view of things. The order of merit was conferred +upon Mr Hardy in July 1910. + + See Annie Macdonell, _Thomas Hardy_ (London, 1894); Lionel P. Johnson, + _The Art of Thomas Hardy_ (London, 1894). (A. Sy.) + + + + +HARDY, SIR THOMAS DUFFUS (1804-1878), English antiquary, was the third +son of Major Thomas Bartholomew Price Hardy, and belonged to a family +several members of which had distinguished themselves in the British +navy. Born at Port Royal in Jamaica on the 22nd of May 1804, he crossed +over to England and in 1819 entered the Record Office in the Tower of +London. Trained under Henry Petrie (1768-1842) he gained a sound +knowledge of palaeography, and soon began to edit selections of the +public records. From 1861 until his death on the 15th of June 1878 he +was deputy-keeper of the Record Office, which just before his +appointment had been transferred to its new London headquarters in +Chancery Lane. Hardy, who was knighted in 1873, had much to do with the +appointment of the Historical Manuscripts Commission in 1869. + + Sir T. Hardy edited the Close Rolls, _Rotuli litterarum clausarum, + 1204-1227_ (2 vols., 1833-1844), with an introduction entitled "A + Description of the Close Rolls, with an Account of the early Courts of + Law and Equity"; and the Patent Rolls, _Rotuli litterarum patentium, + 1201-1216_ (1835), with introduction, "A Description of the Patent + Rolls, to which is added an Itinerary of King John." He also edited + the _Rotuli de oblatis et finibus_ (1835), which deal also with the + time of King John; the _Rotuli Normanniae, 1200-1205_, and _1417-1418_ + (1835), containing letters and grants of the English kings concerning + the duchy of Normandy; the Charter Rolls, _Rotuli chartarum, + 1199-1216_ (1837), giving with this work an account of the structure + of charters; the Liberate Rolls, _Rotuli de liberate ac de misis et + praestitis regnante Johanne_ (1844); and the _Modus tenendi + parliamentum_, with a translation (1846). He wrote _A Catalogue of + Lords Chancellors, Keepers of the Great Seal, Masters of the Rolls and + Officers of the Court of Chancery_ (1843); the preface to Henry + Petrie's _Monumenta historica Britannica_ (1848); and _Descriptive + Catalogue of Materials relating to the History of Great Britain and + Ireland_ (3 vols., 1862-1871). He edited William of Malmesbury's _De + gestis regum anglorum_ (2 vols., 1840); he continued and corrected + John le Neve's _Fasti ecclesiae Anglicanae_ (3 vols., Oxford, 1854); + and with C. T. Martin he edited and translated _L'Estorie des Engles_ + of Geoffrey Gaimar (1888-1889). He wrote _Syllabus in English of + Documents in Rymer's Foedera_ (3 vols., 1869-1885), and gave an + account of the history of the public records from 1837 to 1851 in his + _Memoirs of the Life of Henry, Lord Langdale_ (1852), Lord Langdale + (1783-1851), master of the rolls from 1836 to 1851, being largely + responsible for the erection of the new Record Office. Hardy took part + in the controversy about the date of the Athanasian creed, writing + _The Athanasian Creed in connection with the Utrecht Psalter_ (1872); + and _Further Report on the Utrecht Psalter_ (1874). + +His younger brother, SIR WILLIAM HARDY (1807-1887), was also an +antiquary. He entered the Record Office in 1823, leaving it in 1830 to +become keeper of the records of the duchy of Lancaster. In 1868, when +these records were presented by Queen Victoria to the nation, he +returned to the Record Office as an assistant keeper, and in 1878 he +succeeded his brother Sir Thomas as deputy-keeper, resigning in 1886. He +died on the 17th of March 1887. + + Sir W. Hardy edited Jehan de Waurin's _Recueil des croniques et + anchiennes istories de la Grant Bretaigne_ (5 vols., 1864-1891); and + he translated and edited the _Charters of the Duchy of Lancaster_ + (1845). + + + + +HARDY, SIR THOMAS MASTERMAN, Bart. (1769-1839), British vice-admiral, of +the Portisham (Dorsetshire) family of Hardy, was born on the 5th of +April 1769, and in 1781 began his career as a sailor. He became +lieutenant in 1793, and in 1796, being then attached to the "Minerve" +frigate, attracted the attention of Nelson by his gallant conduct. He +continued to serve with distinction, and in 1798 was promoted to be +captain of the "Vanguard," Nelson's flagship. In the "St George" he did +valuable work before the battle of Copenhagen in 1801, and his +association with Nelson was crowned by his appointment in 1803 to the +"Victory" as flag-captain, in which capacity he was engaged at the +battle of Trafalgar in 1805, witnessed Nelson's will, and was in close +attendance on him at his death. Hardy was created a baronet in 1806. He +was then employed on the North American station, and later (1819), was +made commodore and commander-in-chief on the South American station, +where his able conduct came prominently into notice. In 1825 he became +rear-admiral, and in December 1826 escorted the expeditionary force to +Lisbon. In 1830 he was made first sea lord of the admiralty, being +created G.C.B. in 1831. In 1834 he was appointed governor of Greenwich +hospital, where thenceforward he devoted himself with conspicuous +success to the charge of the naval pensioners; in 1837 he became +vice-admiral. He died at Greenwich on the 20th of September 1839. In +1807 he had married Anne Louisa Emily, daughter of Sir George Cranfield +Berkeley, under whom he had served on the North American station, and by +her he had three daughters, the baronetcy becoming extinct. + + See Marshall, _Royal Naval Biography_, ii. and iii.; Nicolas, + _Despatches of Lord Nelson_; Broadley and Bartelot, _The Three Dorset + Captains at Trafalgar_ (1906), and _Nelson's Hardy, his Life, Letters + and Friends_ (1909). + + + + +HARDYNG or HARDING, JOHN (1378-1465), English chronicler, was born in +the north, and as a boy entered the service of Sir Henry Percy +(Hotspur), with whom he was present at the battle of Shrewsbury (1403). +He then passed into the service of Sir Robert Umfraville, under whom he +was constable of Warkworth Castle, and served in the campaign of +Agincourt in 1415 and in the sea-fight before Harfleur in 1416. In 1424 +he was on a diplomatic mission at Rome, where at the instance of +Cardinal Beaufort he consulted the chronicle of Trogus Pompeius. +Umfraville, who died in 1436, had made Hardyng constable of Kyme in +Lincolnshire, where he probably lived till his death about 1465. Hardyng +was a man of antiquarian knowledge, and under Henry V. was employed to +investigate the feudal relations of Scotland to the English crown. For +this purpose he visited Scotland, at much expense and hardship. For his +services he says that Henry V. promised him the manor of Geddington in +Northamptonshire. Many years after, in 1439, he had a grant of Ł10 a +year for similar services. In 1457 there is a record of the delivery of +documents relating to Scotland by Hardyng to the earl of Shrewsbury, and +his reward by a further pension of Ł20. It is clear that Hardyng was +well acquainted with Scotland, and James I. is said to have offered him +a bribe to surrender his papers. But the documents, which are still +preserved in the Record Office, have been shown to be forgeries, and +were probably manufactured by Hardyng himself. Hardyng spent many years +on the composition of a rhyming chronicle of England. His services under +the Percies and Umfravilles gave him opportunity to obtain much +information of value for 15th century history. As literature the +chronicle has no merit. It was written and rewritten to suit his various +patrons. The original edition ending in 1436 had a Lancastrian bias and +was dedicated to Henry VI. Afterwards he prepared a version for Richard, +duke of York (d. 1460), and the chronicle in its final form was +presented to Edward IV. after his marriage to Elizabeth Woodville in +1464. + + The version of 1436 is preserved in Lansdowne MS. 204, and the best of + the later versions in Harley MS. 661, both in the British Museum. + Richard Grafton printed two editions in January 1543, which differ + much from one another and from the now extant manuscripts. Stow, who + was acquainted with a different version, censured Grafton on this + point somewhat unjustly. Sir Henry Ellis published the longer version + of Grafton with some additions from the Harley MS. in 1812. + + See Ellis' preface to Hardyng's _Chronicle_, and Sir F. Palgrave's + _Documents illustrating the History of Scotland_ (for an account of + Hardyng's forgeries). (C. L. K.) + + + + + +HARE, AUGUSTUS JOHN CUTHBERT (1834-1903), English writer and traveller, +was born at Rome in 1834. He was educated at Harrow school and at +University College, Oxford. His name is familiar as the author of a +large number of guide-books to the principal countries and towns of +Europe, most of which were written to order for John Murray. They were +made up partly of the author's own notes of travel, partly of quotations +from others' books taken with a frankness of appropriation that disarmed +criticism. He also wrote _Memorials of a Quiet Life_--that of his aunt +by whom he had been adopted when a baby (1872), and a tediously long +autobiography in six volumes, _The Story of My Life_. He died at St +Leonards-on-Sea on the 22nd of January 1903. + + + + +HARE, SIR JOHN (1844- ), English actor and manager, was born in +Yorkshire on the 16th of May 1844, and was educated at Giggleswick +school, Yorkshire. He made his first appearance on the stage at +Liverpool in 1864, coming to London in 1865, and acting for ten years +with the Bancrofts. He soon made his mark, particularly in T. W. +Robertson's comedies, and in 1875 became manager of the Court theatre. +But it was in association with Mr and Mrs Kendal at the St James's +theatre from 1879 to 1888 that he established his popularity in London, +in important "character" and "men of the world" parts, the joint +management of Hare and Kendal making this theatre one of the chief +centres of the dramatic world for a decade. In 1889 he became lessee and +manager of the Garrick theatre, where (though he was often out of the +cast) he produced several important plays, such as Pinero's _The +Profligate_ and _The Notorious Mrs Ebbsmith_, and had a remarkable +personal success in the chief part in Sydney Grundy's _A Pair of +Spectacles_. In 1897 he took the Globe theatre, where his acting in +Pinero's _Gay Lord Quex_ was another personal triumph. He became almost +as well known in the United States as in England, his last tour in +America being in 1900 and 1901. He was knighted in 1907. + + + + +HARE, JULIUS CHARLES (1795-1855), English theological writer, was born +at Valdagno, near Vicenza, in Italy, on the 13th of September 1795. He +came to England with his parents in 1799, but in 1804-1805 spent a +winter with them at Weimar, where he met Goethe and Schiller, and +received a bias to German literature which influenced his style and +sentiments throughout his whole career. On the death of his mother in +1806, Julius was sent home to the Charterhouse in London, where he +remained till 1812, when he entered Trinity College, Cambridge. There he +became fellow in 1818, and after some time spent abroad he began to read +law in London in the following year. From 1822 to 1832 he was +assistant-tutor at Trinity College. Turning his attention from law to +divinity, Hare took priest's orders in 1826; and, on the death of his +uncle in 1832, he succeeded to the rich family living of Hurstmonceaux +in Sussex, where he accumulated a library of some 12,000 volumes, +especially rich in German literature. Before taking up residence in his +parish he once more went abroad, and made in Rome the acquaintance of +the Chevalier Bunsen, who afterwards dedicated to him part of his work, +_Hippolytus and his Age_. In 1840 Hare was appointed archdeacon of +Lewes, and in the same year preached a course of sermons at Cambridge +(_The Victory of Faith_), followed in 1846 by a second, _The Mission of +the Comforter_. Neither series when published attained any great +popularity. Archdeacon Hare married in 1844 Esther, a sister of his +friend Frederick Maurice. In 1851 he was collated to a prebend in +Chichester; and in 1853 he became one of Queen Victoria's chaplains. He +died on the 23rd of January 1855. + + Julius Hare belonged to what has been called the "Broad Church party," + though some of his opinions approach very closely to those of the + Evangelical Arminian school, while others again seem vague and + undecided. He was one of the first of his countrymen to recognize and + come under the influence of German thought and speculation, and, + amidst an exaggerated alarm of German heresy, did much to vindicate + the authority of the sounder German critics. His writings, which are + chiefly theological and controversial, are largely formed of charges + to his clergy, and sermons on different topics; but, though valuable + and full of thought, they lose some of their force by the cumbrous + German structure of the sentences, and by certain orthographical + peculiarities in which the author indulged. In 1827 _Guesses at Truth + by Two Brothers_[1] appeared. Hare assisted Thirlwall, afterwards + bishop of St David's, in the translation of the 1st and 2nd volumes of + Niebuhr's _History of Rome_ (1828 and 1832), and published a + _Vindication of Niebuhr's History_ in 1829. He wrote many similar + works, among which is a _Vindication of Luther against his recent + English Assailants_ (1854). In 1848 he edited the _Remains of John + Sterling_, who had formerly been his curate. Carlyle's _Life of John + Sterling_ was written through dissatisfaction with the "Life" prefixed + to Archdeacon Hare's book. _Memorials of a Quiet Life_, published in + 1872, contain accounts of the Hare family. + + +FOOTNOTE: + + [1] Julius Hare's co-worker in this book was his brother Augustus + William Hare (1792-1834), who, after a distinguished career at + Oxford, was appointed rector of Alton Barnes, Wiltshire. He died + prematurely at Rome in 1834. He was the author of _Sermons to a + Country Congregation_, published in 1837. + + + + +HARE, the name of the well-known English rodent now designated _Lepus +europaeus_ (although formerly termed, incorrectly, _L. timidus_). In a +wider sense the name includes all the numerous allied species which do +not come under the designation of rabbits (see RABBIT). Over the greater +part of Europe, where the ordinary species (fig. 1) does not occur, its +place is taken by the closely allied Alpine, or mountain hare (fig. 2), +the true _L. timidus_ of Linnaeus, and the type of the genus _Lepus_ and +the family _Leporidae_ (see RODENTIA). The second is a smaller animal +than the first, with a more rounded and relatively smaller head, and the +ears, hind-legs and tail shorter. In Ireland and the southern districts +of Sweden it is permanently of a light fulvous grey colour, with black +tips to the ears, but in more northerly districts the fur--except the +black ear-tips--changes to white in winter, and still farther north the +animal appears to be white at all seasons of the year. The range of the +common or brown hare, inclusive of its local races, extends from England +across southern and central Europe to the Caucasus; while that of the +blue or mountain species, likewise inclusive of local races, reaches +from Ireland, Scotland and Scandinavia through northern Europe and Asia +to Japan and Kamchatka, and thence to Alaska. + +[Illustration: FIG. 1.--The Hare (_Lepus europaeus_).] + +The brown hare is a night-feeding animal, remaining during the day on +its "form," as the slight depression is called which it makes in the +open field, usually among grass. This it leaves at nightfall to seek +fields of young wheat and other cereals whose tender herbage forms its +favourite food. It is also fond of gnawing the bark of young trees, and +thus often does great damage to plantations. In the morning it returns +to its form, where it finds protection in the close approach which the +colour of its fur makes to that of its surroundings; should it thus +fail, however, to elude observation it depends for safety on its +extraordinary fleetness. On the first alarm of danger it sits erect to +reconnoitre, when it either seeks concealment by clapping close to the +ground, or takes to flight. In the latter case its great speed, and the +cunning endeavours it makes to outwit its canine pursuers, form the +chief attractions of coursing. The hare takes readily to the water, +where it swims well; an instance having been recorded in which one was +observed crossing an arm of the sea about a mile in width. Hares are +remarkably prolific, pairing when scarcely a year old, and the female +bringing forth several broods in the year, each consisting of from two +to five leverets (from the Fr. _ličvre_), as the young are called. These +are born covered with hair and with the eyes open, and after being +suckled for a month are able to look after themselves. In Europe this +species has seldom bred in confinement, although an instance has +recently been recorded. It will interbreed with the blue hare. Hares +(and rabbits) have a cosmopolitan distribution with the exception of +Madagascar and Australasia; and are now divided into numerous genera and +subgenera, mentioned in the article RODENTIA. Reference may here be made +to a few species. Asia is the home of numerous species, of which the +Common Indian _L. ruficaudatus_ and the black-necked hare _L. +nigricollis_, are inhabitants of the plains of India; the latter taking +its name from a black patch on the neck. In Assam there is a small spiny +hare (_Caprolagus hispidus_), with the habits of a rabbit; and an allied +species (_Nesolagus nitscheri_) inhabits Sumatra, and a third +(_Pentalagus furnessi_) the Liu-kiu Islands. The plateau of Tibet is +very rich in species, among which _L. hypsibius_ is very common. + +[Illustration: FIG. 2.--The Blue or Mountain Hare (_Lepus timidus_) in +winter dress.] + +Of African species, the Egyptian Hare (_L. aegyptius_) is a small +animal, with long ears and pale fur; and in the south there are the Cape +hare (_L. capensis_), the long-eared rock-hare (_L. saxatilis_) and the +diminutive _Pronolagus crassicaudatus_, characterized by its thick red +tail. + +North America is the home of numerous hares, some of which are locally +known as "cotton-tails" and others as "jack-rabbits." The most northern +are the Polar hare (_L. arcticus_), the Greenland hare (_L. +groenlandicus_) and the Alaska hare (_L. timidus tschuktschorum_), all +allied to the blue hare. Of the others, two, namely the large +prairie-hare (_L. campestris_) and the smaller varying hare (_L. +[Poecilolagus] americanus_), turn white in winter; the former having +long ears and the whole tail white, whereas in the latter the ears are +shorter and the upper surface of the tail is dark. Of those which do not +change colour, the wood-hare, grey-rabbit or cotton-tail, _Sylvilagus +floridanus_, is a southern form, with numerous allied kinds. Distantly +allied to the prairie-hare or white-tailed jack-rabbit, are several +forms distinguished by having a more or less distinct black stripe on +the upper surface of the tail. These include a buff-bellied species +found in California, N. Mexico and S.W. Oregon (_L. [Macrotolagus] +californicus_), a large, long-legged form from S. Arizona and Sonora +(_L. M alleni_), the Texan jack-rabbit (_L. M texanus_) and the +black-eared hare (_L. M melanotis_) of the Great Plains, which differs +from the third only by its shorter ears and richer coloration. In S. +America, the small tapiti or Brazilian hare (_Sylvilagus brasiliensis_) +is nearly allied to the wood-hare, but has a yellowish brown under +surface to the tail. + + See also COURSING. (R. L.*) + + + + +HAREBELL (sometimes wrongly written HAIRBELL), known also as the +blue-bell of Scotland, and witches' thimbles, a well-known perennial +wild flower, _Campanula rotundifolia_, a member of the natural order +Campanulaceae. The harebell has a very slender slightly creeping +root-stock, and a wiry, erect stem. The radical leaves, that is, those +at the base of the stem, to which the specific name _rotundifolia_ +refers, have long stalks, and are roundish or heart-shaped with crenate +or serrate margin; the lower stem leaves are ovate or lanceolate, and +the upper ones linear, subsessile, acute and entire, rarely pubescent. +The flowers are slightly drooping, arranged in a panicle, or in small +specimens single, having a smooth calyx, with narrow pointed erect +segments, the corolla bell-shaped, with slightly recurved segments, and +the capsule nodding, and opening by pores at the base. There are two +varieties:--(a) _genuina_, with slender stem leaves, and (b) +_montana_, in which the lower stem-leaves are broader and somewhat +elliptical in shape. The plant is found on heaths and pastures +throughout Great Britain and flowers in late summer and in autumn; it is +widely spread in the north temperate zone. The harebell has ever been a +great favourite with poets, and on account of its delicate blue colour +has been considered as an emblem of purity. + +[Illustration: Harebell (_Campanula rotundifolia_).] + + + + +HAREM, less frequently HARAM or HARIM (Arab _harim_--commonly but +wrongly pronounced harem--"that which is illegal or prohibited"), the +name generally applied to that part of a house in Oriental countries +which is set apart for the women; it is also used collectively for the +women themselves. Strictly the women's quarters are the _haremlik_ +(_lik_, belonging to), as opposed to _selamlik_ the men's quarters, from +which they are in large houses separated by the _mabein_, the private +apartments of the householder. The word _harem_ is strictly applicable +to Mahommedan households only, but the system is common in greater or +less degree to all Oriental communities, especially where polygamy is +permitted. Other names for the women's quarters are Seraglio (Ital. +_serraglio_, literally an enclosure, from Lat. _sera_, a bar; wrongly +narrowed down to the sense of harem through confusion with Turkish +_serai_ or _sarai_, palace or large building, cf. _caravanserai_); +Zenana (strictly _zanana_, from Persian _zan_, woman, allied with Gr. +[Greek: gynę]), used specifically of Hindu harems; Andarun (or +Anderoon), the Persian word for the "inner part" (_sc._ of a house). The +Indian harem system is also commonly known as _pardah_ or _purdah_, +literally the name of the thick curtains or blinds which are used +instead of doors to separate the women's quarters from the rest of the +house. A male doctor attending a zenana lady would put his hand between +the _purdah_ to feel her pulse. + +The seclusion of women in the household is fundamental to the Oriental +conception of the sex relation, and its origin must, therefore, be +sought far earlier than the precepts of Islam as set forth in the Koran, +which merely regulate a practically universal Eastern custom.[1] It is +inferred from the remains of many ancient Oriental palaces (Babylonian, +Persian, &c.) that kings and wealthy nobles devoted a special part of +the palace to their womankind. Though in comparatively early times there +were not wanting men who regarded polygamy as wrong (e.g. the prophets +of Israel), nevertheless in the East generally there has never been any +real movement against the conception of woman as a chattel of her male +relatives. A man may have as many wives and concubines as he can +support, but each of these women must be his exclusive property. The +object of this insistence upon female chastity is partly the maintenance +of the purity of the family with special reference to property, and +partly to protect women from marauders, as was the case with the people +of India when the Mahommedans invaded the country and sought for women +to fill their harems. In Mahommedan countries theoretically a woman must +veil her face to all men except her father, her brother and her husband; +any violation of this rule is still regarded by strict Mahommedans as +the gravest possible offence, though among certain Moslem communities +(e.g. in parts of Albania) women of the poorer classes may appear in +public unveiled. If any other man make his way into a harem he may lose +his life; the attempted escape of a harem woman is a capital offence, +the husband having absolute power of life and death, to such an extent +that, especially in the less civilized parts of the Moslem world, no one +would think of questioning a man's right to mutilate or kill a +disobedient wife or concubine. + +_Turkish Harems._--A good deal of misapprehension, due to ignorance +combined with strong prejudice against the whole system, exists in +regard to the system in Turkey. It is often assumed, for example, that +the sultan's seraglio is typical, though on a uniquely large scale, of +all Turkish households, and as a consequence that every Turk is a +polygamist. This is far from being the case, for though the Koran +permits four wives, and etiquette allows the sultan seven, the man of +average possessions is perforce content with one, and a small number of +female servants. It is, therefore, necessary to take the imperial +seraglio separately. + +Though the sultan's household in modern times is by no means as numerous +as it used to be, it is said that the harem of Abdul Hamid contained +about 1000 women, all of whom were of slave origin. This body of women +form an elaborately organized community with a complete system of +officers, disciplinary and administrative, and strict distinctions of +status. The real ruler of this society is the sultan's mother, the +_Sultana Validé_, who exercises her authority through a female +superintendent, the _Kyahya Khatun_. She has also a large retinue of +subordinate officials (_Kalfas_) ranging downwards from the _Hasnadar +ousta_ ("Lady of the Treasury") to the "Mistress of the Sherbets" and +the "Chief Coffee Server." Each of these officials has under her a +number of pupil-slaves (_alaiks_), whom she trains to succeed her if +need be, and from whom the service is recruited. After the sultana +validé (who frequently enjoys considerable political power and is a +mistress of intrigue) ranks the mother of the heir-apparent; she is +called the _Bash Kadin Effendi_ ("Her excellency the Chief Lady"), and +also _hasseki_ or _kasseky_, and is distinguished from the other three +chief wives who only bear the title _Kadin Effendi_. Next come the +ladies who have borne the younger children of the sultan, the _Hanum +Effendis_, and after them the so-called Odalisks or Odalisques (a +perversion of _odalik_, from _odah_, chamber). These are subdivided, +according to the degree of favour in which they stand with the sultan or +padishah, into _Ikbals_ ("Favourites") and _Geuzdés_ (literally the +"Eyed" ones), those whom the sultan has favourably noticed in the course +of his visits to the apartments of his wives or his mother. All the +women are at the disposal of the sultan, though it is contrary to +etiquette for him actually to select recruits for his harem. The numbers +are kept up by his female relatives and state officials, the latter of +whom present girls annually on the evening before the 15th of Ramadan. + +Every odalisk who has been promoted to the royal couch receives a +_daďra_, consisting of an allowance of money, a suite of apartments, and +a retinue, in proportion to her status. It should be noted that, since +all the harem women are slaves, the sultans, with practically no +exceptions, have never entered into legal marriage contracts. Any slave, +in however menial a position, may be promoted to the position of a kadin +effendi. Hence all the slaves who have any pretension to beauty are +carefully trained, from the time they enter the harem, in deportment, +dancing, music and the arts of the toilette: they are instructed in the +Moslem religion and learn the daily prayers (_namaz_); a certain number +are specially trained in reading and writing for secretarial work. +Discipline is strict, and continued disobedience leads to corporal +punishment by the eunuchs. All the women of the harem are absolutely +under the control of the sultana validé (who alone of the harem of her +dead husband is not sent away to an older palace when her son succeeds), +and owe her the most profound respect, even to the point of having to +obtain permission to leave their own apartments. Her financial +secretary, the _Haznadar Ousta_, succeeds to her power if she dies. The +sultan's foster-mother also is a person of importance, and is known as +the _Taia Kadin_. + +The security of the harem is in the hands of a body of eunuchs both +black and white. The white eunuchs have charge of the outer gates of the +seraglio, but they are not allowed to approach the women's apartments, +and obtain no posts of distinction. Their chief, however, the _kapu +aghasi_ ("master of the gates") has part control over the ecclesiastical +possessions, and even the vizier cannot enter the royal apartments +without his permission. The black eunuchs have the right of entering the +gardens and chambers of the harem. Their chief, usually called the +_kislar aghasi_ ("master of the maidens"), though his true title is +_darus skadet aga_ ("chief of the abode of felicity"), is an official of +high importance. His appointment is for life. If he is deprived of his +post he receives his freedom; and if he resigns of his own accord he is +generally sent to Egypt with a pension of 100 francs a day. His +secretary keeps count of the revenues of the mosques built by the +sultans. He is usually succeeded by the second eunuch, who bears the +title of treasurer, and has charge of the jewels, &c., of the women. The +number of eunuchs is always a large one. The sultana validé and the +sultana hasseki have each fifty at their service, and others are +assigned to the kadins and the favourite odalisks. + +The ordinary middle-class household is naturally on a very different +scale. The _selamlik_ is on the ground floor with a separate entrance, +and there the master of the house receives his male guests; the rest of +the ground floor is occupied by the kitchen and perhaps the stables. The +_haremlik_ is generally (in towns at least) on the upper floor fronting +on and slightly overhanging the street; it has a separate entrance, +courtyard and garden. The windows are guarded by lattices pierced with +circular holes through which the women may watch without being seen. +Communication with the _haremlik_ is effected by a locked door, of which +the Effendi keeps the key and also by a sort of revolving cupboard +(_dutap_) for the conveyance of meals. The furniture, of the +old-fashioned harems at least, is confined to divans, rugs, carpets and +mirrors. For heating purposes the old brass tray of charcoal and wood +ash is giving way to American stoves, and there is a tendency to import +French furniture and decoration without regard to their suitability. + +The presence of a second wife is the exception, and is generally +attributable to the absence of children by the first wife. The expense +of marrying a free woman leads many Turks to prefer a slave woman who is +much more likely to be an amenable partner. If a slave woman bears a +child she is often set free and then the marriage ceremony is gone +through. + +The harem system is, of course, wholly inconsistent with any high ideal +of womanhood. Certain misapprehensions, however, should be noticed. The +depravity of the system and the vapid idleness of harem life are much +exaggerated by observers whose sympathies are wholly against the system. +In point of fact much depends on the individuals. In many households +there exists a very high degree of mutual consideration and the standard +of conduct is by no means degraded. Though a woman may not be seen in +the streets without the _yashmak_ which covers her face except for her +eyes, and does not leave her house except by her husband's permission, +none the less in ordinary households the harem ladies frequently drive +into the country and visit the shops and public baths. Their seclusion +has very considerable compensations, and legally they stand on a far +better basis in relation to their husbands than do the women of +monogamous Christian communities. From the moment when a woman, free or +slave, enters into any kind of wifely relation with a man, she has a +legally enforceable right against him both for her own and for her +children's maintenance. She has absolute control over her personal +property whether in money, slaves or goods; and, if divorce is far +easier in Islam than in Christendom, still the marriage settlement must +be of such amount as will provide suitable maintenance in that event. + +On the other hand, of course, the system is open to the gravest abuse, +and in countries like Persia, Morocco and India, the life of Moslem +women and slaves is often far different from that of middle class women +of European Turkey, where law is strict and culture advanced. The early +age at which girls are secluded, the dulness of their surroundings, and +the low moral standard which the system produces react unfavourably not +only upon their moral and intellectual growth but also upon their +capacity for motherhood and their general physique. A harem woman is +soon passée, and the lot of a woman past her youth, if she is divorced +or a widow, is monotonous and empty. This is true especially of +child-widows. + +Since the middle of the 19th century familiarity with European customs +and the direct influence of European administrators has brought about a +certain change in the attitude of Orientals to the harem system. This +movement is, however, only in its infancy, and the impression is still +strong that the time is not ripe for reform. The Oriental women are in +general so accustomed to their condition that few have any inclination +to change it, while men as a rule are emphatically opposed to any +alteration of the system. The Young Turkish party, the upper classes in +Egypt, as also the Babists in Persia, have to some extent progressed +beyond the orthodox conception of the status of women, but no radical +reform has been set on foot. + +_In India_ various attempts have been made by societies, missionary and +other, as well as by private individuals, to improve the lot of the +zenana women. Zenana schools and hospitals have been founded, and a few +women have been trained as doctors and lawyers for the special purposes +of protecting the women against their own ignorance and inertia. Thus in +1905 a Parsee Christian lady, Cornelia Sorabjee, was appointed by the +Bengal government as legal adviser to the court of wards, so that she +might give advice to the widowed mothers of minors within the harem +walls. Similarly trained medical women are introduced into zenanas and +harems by the Lady Dufferin Association for medical aid to Indian women. +Gradually native Christian churches are making provision for the +attendance of women at their services, though the sexes are rigorously +kept apart. In India, as in Turkey, the introduction of Western dress +and education has begun to create new ideas and ambitions, and not a few +Eastern women have induced English women to enter the harems as +companions, nurses and governesses. But training and environment are +extremely powerful, and in some parts of the Mahommedan world, the +supply of Asiatic, European and even American girls is so steady, that +reform has touched only the fringe of the system. + +Among the principal societies which have been formed to better the +condition of Indian and Chinese women in general with special reference +to the zenana system are the Church of England Zenana Missionary Society +and the Zenana Bible and Medical Mission. Much information as to the +medical, industrial and educational work done by these societies will be +found in their annual reports and other publications. Among these are J. +K. H. Denny's _Toward the Uprising_; Irene H. Barnes, _Behind the +Pardah_ (1897), an account of the former society's work; the general +condition of Indian women is described in Mrs Marcus B. Fuller's _Wrongs +of Indian Womanhood_ (1900), and Maud Dover's _The Englishwoman in +India_ (1909); see also article MISSIONS. + + AUTHORITIES.--The literature of the subject is very large, though a + great deal of it is naturally based on insufficient evidence, and + coloured by Western prepossessions. Among useful works are A. van + Sommer and Zwerner, _Our Moslem Sisters_ (1907), a collection of + essays by authors acquainted with various parts of the Mahommedan + world and strongly opposed to the whole harem system; Mrs W. M. + Ramsay, _Everyday Life in Turkey_ (1897), cc. iv. and v., containing + an account of a day in a harem near Afium-Kara-Hissar; cf. e.g. art. + "Harem" in Hughes, _Dictionary of Islam_; Mrs S. Harvey's _Turkish + Harems and Circassian Homes_ (1871); for Mahomet's regulations, see + R. Bosworth Smith's _Mohammed and Mohammedanism_ (1889); for Egypt, + Lane, _Manners and Customs of the Modern Egyptians_ (1837); and E. + Lott, _Harem Life in Egypt and Constantinople_ (1869); for the + sultan's household in the 18th century, Lady Wortley Montagu's + _Letters_, with which may be compared S. Lane-Poole, _Turkey_ (ed. + 1909); G. Dorys, _La Femme turque_ (1902); especially Lucy M. J. + Garnett (with J. S. Stuart-Glennie), _The Women of Turkey_ (London, + 1901), and _The Turkish People_ (London, 1909). For the attempts which + have been made to modify and improve the Indian zenana system, see + e.g. the reports of the Dufferin Association and other official + publications. Other information will be found in Hoffman's article in + Ersch and Gruber's _Encyclopädie_; Flandin in _Revue des deux mondes_ + (1852) on the harem of the Persian prince Malik Kasim Mirza; the count + de Beauvoir, in _Voyage round the World_ (1870), on Javanese and + Siamese harems; Häntzsche in _Zeitschrift für allgemeine Erdkunde_ + (Berlin, 1864). (J. M. M.) + + +FOOTNOTE: + + [1] In Africa also, among the non-Mahommedan negroes of the west + coast and the Bahima of the Victoria Nyanza, the seclusion of women + of the upper classes has been practised in states (e.g. Ashanti and + Buganda) possessing a considerable degree of civilization. + + + + +HARFLEUR, a port of France in the department of Seine-Inférieure, about +6 m. E. of Havre by rail. Pop. (1906) 2864. It lies in the fertile +valley of the Lézarde, at the foot of wooded hills not far from the +north bank of the estuary of the Seine. The port, which had been +rendered almost inaccessible owing to the deposits of the Lézarde, again +became available on the opening of the Tancarville canal (1887) +connecting it with the port of Havre and with the Seine. Vessels drawing +18 ft. can moor alongside the quays of the new port, which is on a +branch of the canal, has some trade in coal and timber, and carries on +fishing. The church of St Martin is the most remarkable building in the +town, and its lofty stone steeple forms a landmark for the pilots of the +river. It dates from the 15th and 16th centuries, but the great portal +is the work of the 17th, and the whole has undergone modern restoration. +Of the old castle there are only insignificant ruins, near which, in a +fine park, stands the present castle, a building of the 17th century. +The old ramparts of the town are now replaced by manufactories, and the +fosses are transformed into vegetable gardens. There is a statue of Jean +de Grouchy, lord of Montérollier, under whose leadership the English +were expelled from the town in 1435. The industries include distilling, +metal founding and the manufacture of oil and grease. + +Harfleur is identified with _Caracotinum_, the principal port of the +ancient Calates. In the middle ages, when its name, Herosfloth, +Harofluet or Hareflot, was still sufficiently uncorrupted to indicate +its Norman derivation, it was the principal seaport of north-western +France. In 1415 it was captured by Henry V. of England, but when in 1435 +the people of the district of Caux rose against the English, 104 of the +inhabitants opened the gates of the town to the insurgents, and thus got +rid of the foreign yoke. The memory of the deed was long perpetuated by +the bells of St Martin's tolling 104 strokes. Between 1445 and 1449 the +English were again in possession; but the town was recovered for the +French by Dunois. In the 16th century the port began to dwindle in +importance owing to the silting up of the Seine estuary and the rise of +Havre. In 1562 the Huguenots put Harfleur to pillage, and its registers +and charters perished in the confusion; but its privileges were restored +by Charles IX. in 1568, and it was not till 1710 that it was subjected +to the "taille." + + + + +HARIANA, a tract of country in the Punjab, India, once the seat of a +flourishing Hindu civilization. It consists of a level upland plain, +interspersed with patches of sandy soil, and largely overgrown with +brushwood. The Western Jumna canal irrigates the fields of a large +number of its villages. Since the 14th century Hissar has been the local +capital. During the troubled period which followed on the decline of the +Mogul empire, Hariana formed the battlefield where the Mahrattas, +Bhattis and Sikhs met to settle their territorial quarrels. The whole +country was devastated by the famine of 1783. In 1797-1798 Hariana was +overrun by the famous Irish adventurer George Thomas, who established +his capital at Hansi; in 1801 he was dispossessed by Sindhia's French +general Perron; in 1803 Hariana passed under British rule. On the +conquest of the Punjab Hariana was broken up into the districts of +Hissar, Rohtak and Sirsa, which last has in its turn been divided +between Hissar and Ferozepore. + + + + +HARINGTON, SIR JOHN (1561-1612), English writer, was born at Kelston, +near Bath, in 1561. His father, John Harington, acquired considerable +estates by marrying Etheldreda, a natural daughter of Henry VIII., and +after his wife's death he was attached to the service of the Princess +Elizabeth. He married Isabella Markham, one of her ladies, and on Mary's +accession he and his wife were imprisoned in the Tower with the +princess. John, the son of the second marriage, was Elizabeth's godson. +He studied at Eton and at Christ's College, Cambridge, where he took the +degree of M.A., his tutor being John Still, afterwards bishop of Bath +and Wells, formerly reputed to be the author of _Gammer Gurton's +Needle_. He came up to London about 1583 and was entered at Lincoln's +Inn, but his talents marked him out for success at court rather than for +a legal career. Tradition relates that he translated the story of +Giocondo from Ariosto and was reproved by the queen for acquainting her +ladies with so indiscreet a selection. He was to retire to his seat at +Kelston until he completed the translation of the entire work. _Orlando +Furioso_ in English heroical verse was published in 1591 and reprinted +in 1607 and 1634. Harington was high sheriff of Somerset in 1592 and +received Elizabeth at his house during her western progress of 1591. In +1596 he published in succession _The Metamorphosis of Ajax_, _An +Anatomie of the Metamorphosed Ajax_, and _Ulysses upon Ajax_, the three +forming collectively a very absurd and indecorous work of a +Pantagruelistic kind. An allusion to Leicester in this book threw the +writer into temporary disgrace, but in 1598 he received a commission to +serve in Ireland under Essex. He was knighted on the field, to the +annoyance of Elizabeth. Harington saved himself from being involved in +Essex's disgrace by writing an account of the Irish campaign which +increased Elizabeth's anger against the unfortunate earl. Among some +papers found in the chapter library at York was a _Tract on the +Succession to the Crown_ (1602), written by Harington to secure the +favour of the new king, to whom he sent the gift of a lantern +constructed to symbolize the waning glory of the late queen and James's +own splendour. This pamphlet, which contains many details of great +interest about Elizabeth and gives an unprejudiced sketch of the +religious question, was edited for the Roxburghe Club in 1880 by Sir +Clements Markham. Harington's efforts to win favour at the new court +were unsuccessful. In 1605 he even asked for the office of chancellor of +Ireland and proposed himself as archbishop. The document in which he +preferred this extraordinary request was published in 1879 with the +title of _A Short View of the State of Ireland written in 1605_. +Harington was before his time in advocating a policy of generosity and +conciliation towards that country. He eventually succeeded in obtaining +a position as one of the tutors of Prince Henry, for whom he annotated +Francis Godwin's _De praesulibus Angliae_. Harington's grandson, John +Chetwind, found in this somewhat scandalous production an argument for +the Presbyterian side, and published it in 1653, under the title of _A +Briefe View of the State of the Church, &c._ + +Harington died at Kelston on the 20th of November 1612. His _Epigrams_ +were printed in a collection entitled _Alcilia_ in 1613, and separately +in 1615. The translation of the _Orlando Furioso_ was carried out with +skill and perseverance. It is not to be supposed that Harington failed +to realize the ironic quality of his original, but he treated it as a +serious allegory to suit the temper of Queen Elizabeth's court. He was +neither a very exact scholar nor a very poetical translator, and he +cannot be named in the same breath with Fairfax. The _Orlando Furioso_ +was sumptuously illustrated, and to it was prefixed an _Apologie of +Poetrie_, justifying the subject matter of the poem, and, among other +technical matters, the author's use of disyllabic and trisyllabic +rhymes, also a life of Ariosto compiled by Harington from various +Italian sources. Harington's Rabelaisian pamphlets show that he was +almost equally endowed with wit and indelicacy, and his epigrams are +sometimes smart and always easy. His works include _The Englishman's +Doctor, Or the School of Salerne_ (1608), and _Nugae antiquae_, +miscellaneous papers collected in 1779. + +_A biographical account of Harington is prefixed to the Roxburghe Club +edition of his tract on the succession mentioned above._ + + + + +HARIRI [Abu Mahommed ul-Qasim ibn 'Ali ibn Mahommed al-Hariri,] i.e. +"the manufacturer or seller of silk"] (1054-1122), Arabian writer, was +born at Basra. He owned a large estate with 18,000 date-palms at Mashan, +a village near Basra. He is said to have occupied a government position, +but devoted his life to the study of the niceties of the Arabic +language. On this subject he wrote a grammatical poem the _Mulhat +ul-'Irab_ (French trans. _Les Récréations grammaticales_ with notes by +L. Pinto, Paris 1885-1889; extracts in S. de Sacy's _Anthologie arabe_, +pp. 145-151, Paris, 1829); a work on the faults of the educated called +_Durrat ul-Ghawwas_ (ed. H. Thorbecke, Leipzig, 1871), and some smaller +treatises such as the two letters on words containing the letters _sin_ +and _shin_ (ed. in Arnold's _Chrestomathy_, pp. 202-9). But his fame +rests chiefly on his fifty _maqamas_ (see ARABIA: _Literature_, section +"Belles Lettres"). These were written in rhymed prose like those of +Hamadhani, and are full of allusions to Arabian history, poetry and +tradition, and discussions of difficult points of Arabic grammar and +rhetoric. + + The Maqamas have been edited with Arabic commentary by S. de Sacy + (Paris, 1822, 2nd ed. with French notes by Reinaud and J. Derenbourg, + Paris, 1853); with English notes by F. Steingass (London, 1896). An + English translation with notes was made by T. Preston (London, 1850), + and another by T. Chenery and F. Steingass (London, 1867 and 1898). + Many editions have been published in the East with commentaries, + especially with that of Sharishi (d. 1222). (G. W. T.) + + + + +HARI-RUD, a river of Afghanistan. It rises in the northern slopes of the +Koh-i-Baba to the west of Kabul, and finally loses itself in the Tejend +oasis north of the Trans-Caspian railway and west of Merv. It runs a +remarkably straight course westward through a narrow trough from +Daolatyar to Obeh, amidst the bleak wind-swept uplands of the highest +central elevations in Afghanistan. From Obeh to Kuhsan 50 m. west of +Herat, it forms a valley of great fertility, densely populated and +highly cultivated; practically all its waters being drawn off for +purposes of irrigation. It is the contrast between the cultivated aspect +of the valley of Herat and the surrounding desert that has given Herat +its great reputation for fertility. Three miles to the south of Herat +the Kandahar road crosses the river by a masonry bridge of 26 arches now +in ruins. A few miles below Herat the river begins to turn north-west, +and after passing through a rich country to Kuhsan, it turns due north +and breaks through the Paropamisan hills. Below Kuhsan it receives fresh +tributaries from the west. Between Kuhsan and Zulfikar it forms the +boundary between Afghanistan and Persia, and from Zulfikar to Sarakhs +between Russia and Persia. North of Sarakhs it diminishes rapidly in +volume till it is lost in the sands of the Turkman desert. The Hari-Rud +marks the only important break existing in the continuity of the great +central water-parting of Asia. It is the ancient Arius. (T. H. H.*) + + + + +HARISCHANDRA, in Hindu mythology, the 28th king of the Solar race. He +was renowned for his piety and justice. He is the central figure of +legends in the Aitareyabrahmana, Mahabharata and the Markandeyapurana. +In the first he is represented as so desirous of a son that he vows to +Varuna that if his prayer is granted the boy shall be eventually +sacrificed to the latter. The child is born, but Harischandra, after +many delays, arranges to purchase another's son and make a vicarious +sacrifice. According to the Mahabharata he is at last promoted to +Paradise as the reward for his munificent charity. + + + + +HARITH IBN HILLIZA UL-YASHKURI, pre-Islamic Arabian poet of the tribe of +Bakr, famous as the author of one of the poems generally received among +the Mo'allakat (q.v.). Nothing is known of the details of his life. + + + + +HARIZI, JUDAH BEN SOLOMON (13th cent.), called also al-Harizi, a Spanish +Hebrew poet and traveller. He translated from the Arabic to Hebrew some +of the works of Maimonides (q.v.) and also of the Arab poet Hariri. His +own most considerable work was the _Tahkemoni_, composed between 1218 +and 1220. This is written in Hebrew in unmetrical rhymes, in what is +commonly termed "rhymed prose." It is a series of humorous episodes, +witty verses, and quaint applications of Scriptural texts. The episodes +are bound together by the presence of the hero and of the narrator, who +is also the author. Harizi not only brought to perfection the art of +applying Hebrew to secular satire, but he was also a brilliant literary +critic and his _makame_ on the Andalusian Hebrew poets is a fruitful +source of information. + + See, on the _Tahkemoni_, Kaempf, _Nicht-andalusische Poesie + andalusischer Dichter_ (Prague, 1858). In that work a considerable + section of the _Tahkemoni_ is translated into German. (I. A.) + + + + +HARKNESS, ALBERT (1822-1907), American classical scholar, was born at +Mendon, Massachusetts, on the 6th of October 1822. He graduated at Brown +University in 1842, taught in the Providence high school in 1843-1853, +studied in Berlin, Bonn (where in 1854 he was the first American to +receive the degree of Ph.D.) and Göttingen, and was professor of Greek +language and literature in Brown University from 1855 to 1892, when he +became professor emeritus. He was one of the founders in 1869 of the +American Philological Association, of which he was president in +1875-1876, and to whose _Transactions_ he made various contributions; +was a member of the Archaeological Institute's committee on founding the +American School of Classical Studies at Athens, and served as the second +director of that school in 1883-1884. He studied English and German +university methods during trips to Europe in 1870 and 1883, and +introduced a new scholarly spirit into American teaching of Latin in +secondary schools with a series of Latin text-books, which began in 1851 +with a _First Latin Book_ and continued for more than fifty years. His +_Latin Grammar_ (1864, 1881) and _Complete Latin Grammar_ (1898) are his +best-known books. He was a member of the board of fellows of Brown +University from 1904 until his death, and in 1904-1905 was president of +the Rhode Island Historical Society. He died in Providence, Rhode +Island, on the 27th of May 1907. + +His son, ALBERT GRANGER HARKNESS (1857- ), also a classical scholar, +was born in Providence, Rhode Island, on the 19th of November 1857. He +graduated at Brown University in 1879, studied in Germany in 1879-1883, +and was professor of German and Latin at Madison (now Colgate) +University from 1883 to 1889, and associate professor of Latin at Brown +from 1889 to 1893, when he was appointed to the chair of Roman +literature and history there. He was director of the American School of +Classical Studies in Rome in 1902-1903. + + + + +HARKNESS, ROBERT (1816-1878), English geologist, was born at Ormskirk, +Lancashire, on the 28th of July 1816. He was educated at the high +school, Dumfries, and afterwards (1833-1834) at the university of +Edinburgh where he acquired an interest in geology from the teachings of +Robert Jameson and J. D. Forbes. Returning to Ormskirk he worked +zealously at the local geology, especially on the Coal-measures and New +Red Sandstone, his first paper (read before the Manchester Geol. Soc. in +1843) being on _The Climate of the Coal Epoch_. In 1848 his family went +to reside in Dumfries and there he commenced to work on the Silurian +rocks of the S.W. of Scotland, and in 1849 he carried his investigations +into Cumberland. In these regions during the next few years he added +much to our knowledge of the strata and their fossils, especially +graptolites, in papers read before the Geological Society of London. He +wrote also on the New Red rocks of the north of England and Scotland. In +1853 he was appointed professor of geology in Queen's College, Cork, and +in 1856 he was elected F.R.S. During this period he wrote some articles +on the geology of parts of Ireland, and exercised much influence as a +teacher, but he returned to England during his vacations and devoted +himself assiduously to the geology of the Lake district. He was also a +constant attendant at the meetings of the British Association. In 1876 +the syllabus for the Queen's Colleges in Ireland was altered, and +Professor Harkness was required to lecture not only on geology, +palaeontology, mineralogy and physical geography, but also on zoology +and botany. The strain of the extra work proved too much, he decided to +relinquish his post, and had retired but a short time when he died, on +the 4th of October 1878. + + "Memoir," by J. G. Goodchild, in _Trans. Cumberland Assoc._ No. viii. + (with portrait). In memory of Professor Harkness his sister + established two Harkness scholarships. One scholarship (of the value + of about Ł35 a year, tenable for three years) for women, tenable at + either Girton or Newnham College, Cambridge, is awarded triennially to + the best candidate in an examination in geology and palaeontology, + provided that proficiency be shown; the other, for men, is vested in + the hands of the university of Cambridge, and is awarded annually, any + member of the university being eligible who has graduated as a B.A., + "provided that not more than three years have elapsed since the 19th + day of December next following his final examination for the degree of + bachelor of arts." + + + + +HARLAN, JAMES (1820-1899), American politician, was born in Clark +county, Illinois, on the 26th of August 1820. He graduated from Indiana +Asbury (now De Pauw) University in 1845, was president (1846-1847) of +the newly founded and short-lived Iowa City College, studied law, was +first superintendent of public instruction in Iowa in 1847-1848, and was +president of Iowa Wesleyan University in 1853-1855. He took a prominent +part in organizing the Republican party in Iowa, and was a member of the +United States Senate from 1855 to 1865, when he became secretary of the +interior. He had been a delegate to the peace convention in 1861, and +from 1861 to 1865 was chairman of the Senate committee on public lands. +He disapproved of President Johnson's conservative reconstruction +policy, retired from the cabinet in August 1866, and from 1867 to 1873 +was again a member of the United States Senate. In 1866 he was a +delegate to the loyalists' convention at Philadelphia. One of his +principal speeches in the Senate was that which he made in March 1871 in +reply to Sumner's and Schurz's attack on President Grant's Santo +Domingan policy. He was presiding judge of the court of commissioners of +Alabama claims (1882-1885). He died in Mount Pleasant, Iowa, on the 5th +of October 1899. + + + + +HARLAN, JOHN MARSHALL (1833- ), American jurist, was born in Boyle +county, Kentucky, on the 1st of June 1833. He graduated at Centre +College, Danville, Ky., in 1850, and at the law department of +Transylvania University, Lexington, in 1853. He was county judge of +Franklin county in 1858-1859, was an unsuccessful candidate for Congress +on the Whig ticket in 1859, and was elector on the Constitutional Union +ticket in 1860. On the outbreak of the Civil War he recruited and +organized the Tenth Kentucky United States Volunteer Infantry, and in +1861-1863 served as colonel. Retiring from the army in 1863, he was +elected by the Union party attorney-general of the state, and was +re-elected in 1865, serving from 1863 to 1867, when he removed to +Louisville to practise law. He was the Republican candidate for governor +in 1871 and in 1875, and was a member of the commission which was +appointed by President Hayes early in 1877 to accomplish the recognition +of one or other of the existing state governments of Louisiana (q.v.); +and he was a member of the Bering Sea tribunal which met in Paris in +1893. On the 29th of November 1877 he became an associate justice of the +United States Supreme Court. In this position he showed himself a +liberal constructionist. In opinions on the Civil Rights cases and in +the interpretation of the 13th, 14th and 15th Amendments to the +Constitution, he dissented from the majority of the court and advocated +increasing the power of the Federal government. He supported the +constitutionality of the income tax clause in the Wilson Tariff Bill of +1894, and he drafted the decision of the court in the Northern +Securities Company Case, which applied to railways the provisions of the +Sherman Anti-Trust Law. In 1889 he became a professor in the Law School +of the Columbian University (afterwards George Washington University) in +Washington, D.C. + + + + +HARLAND, HENRY (1861-1905), American novelist, was born in St +Petersburg, Russia, in March 1861, and was educated in New York and at +Harvard. He went to Europe as a journalist, and, after publishing +several novels, mainly of American-Jewish life (under the name of Sidney +Luska), first made his literary reputation in London as editor of the +_Yellow Book_ in 1894. His association with this clever publication, and +his own contributions to it, brought his name into prominence, but it +was not till he published _The Cardinal's Snuff-box_ (1900), followed +by _The Lady Paramount_ (1902), that his lightly humorous touch and +picturesque style as a novelist brought him any real success. His health +was always delicate, and he died at San Remo on the 20th of December +1905. + + + + +HARLAY DE CHAMPVALLON, FRANÇOIS DE (1625-1695), 5th archbishop of Paris, +was born in that city on the 14th of August 1625. Nephew of François de +Harlay, archbishop of Rouen, he was presented to the abbey of Jumičges +immediately on leaving the Collčge de Navarre, and he was only +twenty-six when he succeeded his uncle in the archiepiscopal see. He was +transferred to the see of Paris in 1671, he was nominated by the king +for the cardinalate in 1690, and the domain of St Cloud was erected into +a duchy in his favour. He was commander of the order of the Saint Esprit +and a member of the French Academy. During the early part of his +political career he was a firm adherent of Mazarin, and is said to have +helped to procure his return from exile. His private life gave rise to +much scandal, but he had a great capacity for business, considerable +learning, and was an eloquent and persuasive speaker. He definitely +secured the favour of Louis XIV. by his support of the claims of the +Gallican Church formulated by the declaration made by the clergy in +assembly on the 19th of March 1682, when Bossuet accused him of +truckling to the court like a valet. One of the three witnesses of the +king's marriage with Madame de Maintenon, he was hated by her for using +his influence with the king to keep the matter secret. He had a weekly +audience of Louis XIV. in company with Pčre la Chaise on the affairs of +the Church in Paris, but his influence gradually declined, and +Saint-Simon, who bore him no good will for his harsh attitude to the +Jansenists, says that his friends deserted him as the royal favour +waned, until at last most of his time was spent at Conflans in company +with the duchess of Lesdiguičres, who alone was faithful to him. He +urged the revocation of the edict of Nantes, and showed great severity +to the Huguenots at Dieppe, of which he was temporal and spiritual lord. +He died suddenly, without having received the sacraments, on the 6th of +August 1695. His funeral discourse was delivered by the Pčre Gaillard, +and Mme de Sévigné made on the occasion the severe comment that there +were only two trifles to make this a difficult matter--his life and his +death. + + See Abbé Legendre, _Vita Francisci de Harlay_ (Paris, 1720) and _Éloge + de Harlay_ (1695); Saint-Simon, _Mémoires_ (vol. ii., ed. A. de + Boislisle, 1879), and numerous references in the _Lettres_ of Mme de + Sévigné. + + + + +HARLECH (perhaps for _Hardd lech_, fair slate, or _Harleigh_, an +Anglicized variant), a town of Merionethshire, Wales, 38 m. from +Aberystwyth, and 29 from Carnarvon on the Cambrian railway. Pop. 900. +Ruins of a fortress crown the rock of Harlech, about half a mile from +the sea. Discovery of Roman coins makes it probable that it was once +occupied by the Romans. In the 3rd century Bronwen (white bosom), +daughter of Bran Fendigaid (the blessed), is said to have stayed here, +perhaps by force; and there was here a tower, called Twr Bronwen, and +replaced about A.D. 550 by the building of Maelgwyn Gwynedd, prince of +North Wales. In the early 10th century, Harlech castle was, apparently, +repaired by Colwyn, lord of Ardudwy, founder of one of the fifteen North +Wales tribes, and thence called Caer Colwyn. The present structure +dates, like many others in the principality, from Edward I., perhaps +even from the plans of the architect of Carnarvon and Conway castles, +but with the retention of old portions. It is thought to have been +square, each side measuring some 210 ft., with towers and turrets. +Glendower held it for four years. Here, in 1460, Margaret, wife of Henry +VI., defeated at Northampton, took refuge. Dafydd ap Ieuan ap Einion +held it for the Lancastrians, until famine, rather than Edward IV., made +him surrender. From this time is said to date the air "March of the men +of Harlech" (_Rhyfelgerdd gwyr Harlech_). The castle was alternately +Roundhead and Cavalier in the civil war. Edward I. made Harlech a free +borough, and it was formerly the county town. It is in the parish of +Llandanwg (pop. in 1901, 931). Though interesting from an antiquarian +point of view, the district around, especially Dyffryn Ardudwy (the +valley), is dreary and desolate, e.g. Drws (the door of) Ardudwy, +Rhinog fawr and Rhinog fach (cliffs); an exception is the verdant Cwm +bychan (little combe or hollow). The Meini gwyr Ardudwy (stones of the +men of Ardudwy) possibly mark the site of a fight. + + + + +HARLEQUIN, in modern pantomime, the posturing and acrobatic character +who gives his name to the "harlequinade," attired in mask and +parti-coloured and spangled tights, and provided with a sword like a +bat, by which, himself invisible, he works wonders. It has generally +been assumed that Harlequin was transferred to France from the +"Arlecchino" of Italian medieval and Renaissance popular comedy; but Dr +Driesen in his _Ursprung des Harlekins_ (Berlin, 1904) shows that this +is incorrect. An old French "Harlekin" (Herlekin, Hellequin and other +variants) is found in folk-literature as early as 1100; he had already +become proverbial as a ragamuffin of a demoniacal appearance and +character; in 1262 a number of harlekins appear in a play by Adam de la +Halle as the intermediaries of King Hellekin, prince of Fairyland, in +courting Morgan le Fay; and it was not till much later that the French +Harlekin was transformed into the Italian Arlecchino. In his typical +French form down to the time of Gottsched, he was a spirit of the air, +deriving thence his invisibility and his characteristically light and +aery whirlings. Subsequently he returned from the Italian to the French +stage, being imported by Marivaux into light comedy; and his various +attributes gradually became amalgamated into the latter form taken in +pantomime. + + + + +HARLESS (originally HARLES), GOTTLIEB CHRISTOPH (1738-1815), German +classical scholar and bibliographer, was born at Culmbach in Bavaria on +the 21st of June 1738. He studied at Halle, Erlangen and Jena. In 1765 +he was appointed professor of oriental languages and eloquence at the +Gymnasium Casimirianum in Coburg, in 1770 professor of poetry and +eloquence at Erlangen, and in 1776 librarian of the university. He held +his professorship for forty-five years till his death on the 2nd of +November 1815. Harless was an extremely prolific writer. His numerous +editions of classical authors, deficient in originality and critical +judgment, although valuable at the time as giving the student the +results of the labours of earlier scholars, are now entirely superseded. +But he will always be remembered for his meritorious work in connexion +with the great _Bibliotheca Graeca_ of J. A. Fabricius, of which he +published a new and revised edition (12 vols., 1790-1809, not quite +completed),--a task for which he was peculiarly qualified. He also wrote +much on the history and bibliography of Greek and Latin literature. + + His life was written by his son, Johann Christian Friedrich Harless + (1818). + + + + +HARLESS, GOTTLIEB CHRISTOPH ADOLF VON (1806-1879), German divine, was +born at Nuremberg on the 21st of November 1806, and was educated at the +universities of Erlangen and Halle. He was appointed professor of +theology at Erlangen in 1836 and at Leipzig in 1845. He was a strong +Lutheran and exercised a powerful influence in that direction as court +preacher in Dresden and as president of the Protestant consistory at +Munich. His chief works were _Theologische Encyklopädie und +Methodologie_ (1837) and _Die christliche Ethik_ (1842, Eng. trans. +1868). He died on the 5th of September 1879, having, a few years +earlier, written an autobiography under the title _Bruchstücke aus dem +Leben eines süddeutschen Theologen_. + + + + +HARLINGEN, a seaport in the province of Friesland, Holland, on the +Zuider Zee, and the terminus of the railway and canal from Leeuwarden +(15˝ m. E.). It is connected by steam tramway by way of Bolswaard with +Sneek. Pop. (1900) 10,448. Harlingen has become the most considerable +seaport of Friesland since the construction of the large outer harbour +in 1870-1877, and in addition to railway and steamship connexion with +Bremen, Amsterdam, and the southern provinces there are regular sailings +to Hull and London. Powerful sluices protect the inner harbour from the +high tides. The only noteworthy buildings are the town hall (1730-1733), +the West church, which consists of a part of the former castle of +Harlingen, the Roman Catholic church, the Jewish synagogue and the +schools of navigation and of design. The chief trade of Harlingen is the +exportation of Frisian produce, namely, butter and cheese, cattle, +sheep, fish, potatoes, flax, &c. There is also a considerable import +trade in timber, coal, raw cotton, hemp and jute for the Twente +factories. The local industries are unimportant, consisting of +saw-mills, rope-yards, salt refineries, and sail-cloth and margarine +factories. + + + + +HARMATTAN, the name of a hot dry parching wind that blows during +December, January and February on the coast of Upper Guinea, bringing a +high dense haze of red dust which darkens the air. The natives smear +their bodies with oil or fat while this parching wind is blowing. + + + + +HARMODIUS, a handsome Athenian youth, and the intimate friend of +Aristogeiton. Hipparchus, the younger brother of the tyrant Hippias, +endeavoured to supplant Aristogeiton in the good graces of Harmodius, +but, failing in the attempt, revenged himself by putting a public +affront on Harmodius's sister at a solemn festival. Thereupon the two +friends conspired with a few others to murder both the tyrants during +the armed procession at the Panathenaic festival (514 B.C.), when the +people were allowed to carry arms (this licence is denied by Aristotle +in _Ath. Pol._). Seeing one of their accomplices speaking to Hippias, +and imagining that they were being betrayed, they prematurely attacked +and slew Hipparchus alone. Harmodius was cut down on the spot by the +guards, and Aristogeiton was soon captured and tortured to death. When +Hippias was expelled (510), Harmodius and Aristogeiton became the most +popular of Athenian heroes; their descendants were exempted from public +burdens, and had the right of public entertainment in the Prytaneum, and +their names were celebrated in popular songs and scolia (after-dinner +songs) as the deliverers of Athens. One of these songs, attributed to a +certain Callistratus, is preserved in Athenaeus (p. 695). Their statues +by Antenor in the agora were carried off by Xerxes and replaced by new +ones by Critius and Nesiotes. Alexander the Great afterwards sent back +the originals to Athens. It is not agreed which of these was the +original of the marble tyrannicide group in the museum at Naples, for +which see article GREEK ART, Pl. I. fig. 50. + + See Köpp in _Neue Jahrb. f. klass. Altert._ (1902), p. 609. + + + + +HARMONIA, in Greek mythology, according to one account the daughter of +Ares and Aphrodite, and wife of Cadmus. When the government of Thebes +was bestowed upon Cadmus by Athena, Zeus gave him Harmonia to wife. All +the gods honoured the wedding with their presence. Cadmus (or one of the +gods) presented the bride with a robe and necklace, the work of +Hephaestus. This necklace brought misfortune to all who possessed it. +With it Polyneices bribed Eriphyle to persuade her husband Amphiaraus to +undertake the expedition against Thebes. It led to the death of +Eriphyle, of Alcmaeon, of Phegeus and his sons. Even after it had been +deposited in the temple of Athena Pronoia at Delphi, its baleful +influence continued. Phayllus, one of the Phocian leaders in the Sacred +War (352 B.C.) carried it off and gave it to his mistress. After she had +worn it for a time, her son was seized with madness and set fire to the +house, and she perished in the flames. According to another account, +Harmonia belonged to Samothrace and was the daughter of Zeus and +Electra, her brother Iasion being the founder of the mystic rites +celebrated on the island (Diod. Sic. v. 48). Finally, Harmonia is +rationalized as closely allied to Aphrodite Pandemos, the love that +unites all people, the personification of order and civic unity, +corresponding to the Roman Concordia. + + Apollodorus iii. 4-7; Diod. Sic. iv. 65, 66; Parthenius, _Erotica_, + 25; L. Preller, _Griech. Mythol._; Crusius in Roscher's _Lexikon_. + + + + +HARMONIC. In acoustics, a harmonic is a secondary tone which accompanies +the fundamental or primary tone of a vibrating string, reed, &c.; the +more important are the 3rd, 5th, 7th, and octave (see SOUND; HARMONY). A +harmonic proportion in arithmetic and algebra is such that the +reciprocals of the proportionals are in arithmetical proportion; thus, +if a, b, c be in harmonic proportion then 1/a, 1/b, 1/c are in +arithmetical proportion; this leads to the relation 2/b = ac/(a + c). A +harmonic progression or series consists of terms whose reciprocals form +an arithmetical progression; the simplest example is: 1 + ˝ + 1/3 + ź + +... (see ALGEBRA and ARITHMETIC). The occurrence of a similar proportion +between segments of lines is the foundation of such phrases as harmonic +section, harmonic ratio, harmonic conjugates, &c. (see GEOMETRY: II. +_Projective_). The connexion between acoustical and mathematical +harmonicals is most probably to be found in the Pythagorean discovery +that a vibrating string when stopped at ˝ and 2/3 of its length yielded +the octave and 5th of the original tone, the numbers, 1-2/3, ˝ being +said to be, probably first by Archytas, in harmonic proportion. The +mathematical investigation of the form of a vibrating string led to such +phrases as harmonic curve, harmonic motion, harmonic function, harmonic +analysis, &c. (see MECHANICS and SPHERICAL HARMONICS). + + + + +HARMONICA, a generic term applied to musical instruments in which sound +is produced by friction upon glass bells. The word is also used to +designate instruments of percussion of the Glockenspiel type, made of +steel and struck by hammers (Ger. _Stahlharmonika_). + +The origin of the glass-harmonica tribe is to be found in the +fashionable 18th century instrument known as musical glasses (Fr. +_verrillon_), the principle of which was known already in the 17th +century.[1] The invention of musical glasses is generally ascribed to an +Irishman, Richard Pockrich, who first played the instrument in public in +Dublin in 1743 and the next year in England, but Eisel[2] described the +_verrillon_ and gave an illustration of it in 1738. The _verrillon_ or +_Glassspiel_ consisted of 18 beer glasses arranged on a board covered +with cloth, water being poured in when necessary to alter the pitch. The +glasses were struck on both sides gently with two long wooden sticks in +the shape of a spoon, the bowl being covered with silk or cloth. Eisel +states that the instrument was used for church and other solemn music. +Gluck gave a concert at the "little theatre in the Haymarket" (London) +in April 1746, at which he performed on musical glasses a concerto of +his composition with full orchestral accompaniment. E. H. Delaval is +also credited with the invention. When Benjamin Franklin visited London +in 1757, he was so much struck by the beauty of tone elicited by Delaval +and Pockrich, and with the possibilities of the glasses as musical +instruments, that he set to work on a mechanical application of the +principle involved, the eminently successful result being the glass +harmonica finished in 1762. In this the glass bowls were mounted on a +rotating spindle, the largest to the left, and their under-edges passed +during each revolution through a water-trough. By applying the fingers +to the moistened edges, sound was produced varying in intensity with the +pressure, so that a certain amount of expression was at the command of a +good player. It is said that the timbre was extremely enervating, and, +together with the vibration caused by the friction on the finger-tips, +exercised a highly deleterious effect on the nervous system. The +instrument was for many years in great vogue, not only in England but on +the Continent of Europe, and more especially in Saxony, where it was +accorded a place in the court orchestra. Mozart, Beethoven, Naumann and +Hasse composed music for it. Marianne Davies and Marianna Kirchgessner +were celebrated virtuosi on it. The curious vogue of the instrument, as +sudden as it was ephemeral, produced emulation in a generation +unsurpassed for zeal in the invention of musical instruments. The most +notable of its offspring were Carl Leopold Röllig's improved harmonica +with a keyboard in 1786, Chladni's euphon in 1791 and clavicylinder in +1799, Ruffelsen's melodicon in 1800 and 1803, Franz Leppich's +panmelodicon in 1810, Buschmann's uranion in the same year, &c. Of most +of these nothing now remains but the name and a description in the +_Allgemeine musikalische Zeitung_, but there are numerous specimens of +the Franklin type in the museums for musical instruments of Europe. One +specimen by Emanuel Pohl, a Bohemian maker, is preserved in the Victoria +and Albert Museum, London. + + For the steel harmonica see GLOCKENSPIEL. (K. S.) + + +FOOTNOTES: + + [1] See G. P. Harsdörfer, _Math. und philos. Erquickstunden_ + (Nuremberg, 1677), ii. 147. + + [2] _Musicus_ [Greek: autodidaktos] (Erfurt, 1738), p. 70. + + + + +HARMONIC ANALYSIS, in mathematics, the name given by Sir William Thomson +(Lord Kelvin) and P. G. Tait in their treatise on _Natural Philosophy_ +to a general method of investigating physical questions, the earliest +applications of which seem to have been suggested by the study of the +vibrations of strings and the analysis of these vibrations into their +fundamental tone and its harmonics or overtones. + +The motion of a uniform stretched string fixed at both ends is a +periodic motion; that is to say, after a certain interval of time, +called the fundamental period of the motion, the form of the string and +the velocity of every part of it are the same as before, provided that +the energy of the motion has not been sensibly dissipated during the +period. + + There are two distinct methods of investigating the motion of a + uniform stretched string. One of these may be called the wave method, + and the other the harmonic method. The wave method is founded on the + theorem that in a stretched string of infinite length a wave of any + form may be propagated in either direction with a certain velocity, V, + which we may define as the "velocity of propagation." If a wave of any + form travelling in the positive direction meets another travelling in + the opposite direction, the form of which is such that the lines + joining corresponding points of the two waves are all bisected in a + fixed point in the line of the string, then the point of the string + corresponding to this point will remain fixed, while the two waves + pass it in opposite directions. If we now suppose that the form of the + waves travelling in the positive direction is periodic, that is to + say, that after the wave has travelled forward a distance l, the + position of every particle of the string is the same as it was at + first, then l is called the wave-length, and the time of travelling a + wave-length is called the periodic time, which we shall denote by T, + so that l = VT. + + If we now suppose a set of waves similar to these, but reversed in + position, to be travelling in the opposite direction, there will be a + series of points, distant ˝l from each other, at which there will be + no motion of the string; it will therefore make no difference to the + motion of the string if we suppose the string fastened to fixed + supports at any two of these points, and we may then suppose the parts + of the string beyond these points to be removed, as it cannot affect + the motion of the part which is between them. We have thus arrived at + the case of a uniform string stretched between two fixed supports, and + we conclude that the motion of the string may be completely + represented as the resultant of two sets of periodic waves travelling + in opposite directions, their wave-lengths being either twice the + distance between the fixed points or a submultiple of this + wave-length, and the form of these waves, subject to this condition, + being perfectly arbitrary. + + To make the problem a definite one, we may suppose the initial + displacement and velocity of every particle of the string given in + terms of its distance from one end of the string, and from these data + it is easy to calculate the form which is common to all the travelling + waves. The form of the string at any subsequent time may then be + deduced by calculating the positions of the two sets of waves at that + time, and compounding their displacements. + + Thus in the wave method the actual motion of the string is considered + as the resultant of two wave motions, neither of which is of itself, + and without the other, consistent with the condition that the ends of + the string are fixed. Each of the wave motions is periodic with a + wave-length equal to twice the distance between the fixed points, and + the one set of waves is the reverse of the other in respect of + displacement and velocity and direction of propagation; but, subject + to these conditions, the form of the wave is perfectly arbitrary. The + motion of a particle of the string, being determined by the two waves + which pass over it in opposite directions, is of an equally arbitrary + type. + + In the harmonic method, on the other hand, the motion of the string is + regarded as compounded of a series of vibratory motions (_normal + modes_ of vibration), which may be infinite in number, but each of + which is perfectly definite in type, and is in fact a particular + solution of the problem of the motion of a string with its ends fixed. + + A simple harmonic motion is thus defined by Thomson and Tait (§ + 53):--When a point Q moves uniformly in a circle, the perpendicular + QP, drawn from its position at any instant to a fixed diameter AA´ of + the circle, intersects the diameter in a point P whose position + changes by a _simple harmonic motion_. + + The amplitude of a simple harmonic motion is the range on one side or + the other of the middle point of the course. + + The period of a simple harmonic motion is the time which elapses from + any instant until the moving-point again moves in the same direction + through the same position. + + The phase of a simple harmonic motion at any instant is the fraction + of the whole period which has elapsed since the moving-point last + passed through its middle position in the positive direction. + + In the case of the stretched string, it is only in certain particular + cases that the motion of a particle of the string is a simple harmonic + motion. In these particular cases the form of the string at any + instant is that of a curve of sines having the line joining the fixed + points for its axis, and passing through these two points, and + therefore having for its wave-length either twice the length of the + string or some submultiple of this wave-length. The amplitude of the + curve of sines is a simple harmonic function of the time, the period + being either the fundamental period or some submultiple of the + fundamental period. Every one of these modes of vibration is + dynamically possible by itself, and any number of them may coexist + independently of each other. + + By a proper adjustment of the initial amplitude and phase of each of + these modes of vibration, so that their resultant shall represent the + initial state of the string, we obtain a new representation of the + whole motion of the string, in which it is seen to be the resultant of + a series of simple harmonic vibrations whose periods are the + fundamental period and its submultiples. The determination of the + amplitudes and phases of the several simple harmonic vibrations so as + to satisfy the initial conditions is an example of harmonic analysis. + + We have thus two methods of solving the partial differential equation + of the motion of a string. The first, which we have called the wave + method, exhibits the solution in the form containing an arbitrary + function, the nature of which must be determined from the initial + conditions. The second, or harmonic method, leads to a series of terms + involving sines and cosines, the coefficients of which have to be + determined. The harmonic method may be defined in a more general + manner as a method by which the solution of any actual problem may be + obtained as the sum or resultant of a number of terms, each of which + is a solution of a particular case of the problem. The nature of these + particular cases is defined by the condition that any one of them must + be conjugate to any other. + + The mathematical test of conjugacy is that the energy of the system + arising from two of the harmonics existing together is equal to the + sum of the energy arising from the two harmonics taken separately. In + other words, no part of the energy depends on the product of the + amplitudes of two different harmonics. When two modes of motion of the + same system are conjugate to each other, the existence of one of them + does not affect the other. + + The simplest case of harmonic analysis, that of which the treatment of + the vibrating string is an example, is completely investigated in what + is known as Fourier's theorem. + + Fourier's theorem asserts that any periodic function of a single + variable period p, which does not become infinite at any phase, can be + expanded in the form of a series consisting of a constant term, + together with a double series of terms, one set involving cosines and + the other sines of multiples of the phase. + + Thus if [phi]([xi]) is a periodic function of the variable [xi] having + a period p, then it may be expanded as follows: + + __[oo] 2i[pi][xi] __[oo] 2i[pi][xi] + [phi]([xi]) = A0 + \ ^i A_i cos ---------- + \ ^i B_i sin ----------. (1) + /__1 p /__1 p + + + The part of the theorem which is most frequently required, and which + also is the easiest to investigate, is the determination of the values + of the coefficients A0, A_i, B_i. These are + _ _ + 1 /p 2 /p 2i[pi][xi] + A0 = -- | [phi]([xi])d[xi]; A_i = -- | [phi]([xi]) cos ---------- d[xi]; + p _/0 p _/0 p + _ + 2 /p 2i[pi][xi] + B_i = -- | [phi]([xi]) sin ---------- d[xi]. + p _/0 p + + This part of the theorem may be verified at once by multiplying both + sides of (1) by d[xi], by cos (2i[pi][xi]/p)/d[xi] or by sin + (2i[pi][xi]/p)/d[xi], and in each case integrating from 0 to p. + + The series is evidently single-valued for any given value of [xi]. It + cannot therefore represent a function of [xi] which has more than one + value, or which becomes imaginary for any value of [xi]. It is + convergent, approaching to the true value of [phi]([xi]) for all + values of [xi] such that if [xi] varies infinitesimally the function + also varies infinitesimally. + + Lord Kelvin, availing himself of the disk, globe and cylinder + integrating machine invented by his brother, Professor James Thomson, + constructed a machine by which eight of the integrals required for the + expression of Fourier's series can be obtained simultaneously from the + recorded trace of any periodically variable quantity, such as the + height of the tide, the temperature or pressure of the atmosphere, or + the intensity of the different components of terrestrial magnetism. If + it were not on account of the waste of time, instead of having a curve + drawn by the action of the tide, and the curve afterwards acted on by + the machine, the time axis of the machine itself might be driven by a + clock, and the tide itself might work the second variable of the + machine, but this would involve the constant presence of an expensive + machine at every tidal station. (J. C. M.) + + For a discussion of the restrictions under which the expansion of a + periodic function of [xi] in the form (1) is valid, see FOURIER'S + SERIES. An account of the contrivances for mechanical calculation of + the coefficients A_i, B_i ... is given under CALCULATING MACHINES. + + A more general form of the problem of harmonic analysis presents + itself in astronomy, in the theory of the tides, and in various + magnetic and meteorological investigations. It may happen, for + instance, that a variable quantity [f](t) is known theoretically to be + of the form + + [f](t) = A0 + A1 cos n1t + B1 sin n1t + A2 cos n2t + B2 sin n2t + ... (2) + + where the periods 2[pi]/n1, 2[pi]/n2, ... of the various + simple-harmonic constituents are already known with sufficient + accuracy, although they may have no very simple relations to one + another. The problem of determining the most probable values of the + constants A0, A1, B1, A2, B2, ... by means of a series of recorded + values of the function [f](t) is then in principle a fairly simple + one, although the actual numerical work may be laborious (see TIDE). A + much more difficult and delicate question arises when, as in various + questions of meteorology and terrestrial magnetism, the periods + 2[pi]/n1, 2[pi]/n2, ... are themselves unknown to begin with, or are + at most conjectural. Thus, it may be desired to ascertain whether the + magnetic declination contains a periodic element synchronous with the + sun's rotation on its axis, whether any periodicities can be detected + in the records of the prevalence of sun-spots, and so on. From a + strictly mathematical standpoint the problem is, indeed, + indeterminate, for when all the symbols are at our disposal, the + representation of the observed values of a function, over a finite + range of time, by means of a series of the type (2), can be effected + in an infinite variety of ways. Plausible inferences can, however, be + drawn, provided the proper precautions are observed. This question has + been treated most systematically by Professor A. Schuster, who has + devised a remarkable mathematical method, in which the action of a + diffraction-grating in sorting out the various periodic constituents + of a heterogeneous beam of light is closely imitated. He has further + applied the method to the study of the variations of the magnetic + declination, and of sun-spot records. + + The question so far chiefly considered has been that of the + representation of an arbitrary function of the _time_ in terms of + functions of a special type, viz. the circular functions cos nt, sin + nt. This is important on dynamical grounds; but when we proceed to + consider the problem of expressing an arbitrary function of + _space-co-ordinates_ in terms of functions of specified types, it + appears that the preceding is only one out of an infinite variety of + modes of representation which are equally entitled to consideration. + Every problem of mathematical physics which leads to a linear + differential equation supplies an instance. For purposes of + illustration we will here take the simplest of all, viz. that of the + transversal vibrations of a tense string. The equation of motion is of + the form + + [dP]˛y [dP]˛y + [rho] ------ = T ------, (3) + [dP]t˛ [dP]x˛ + + where T is the tension, and [rho] the line-density. In a "normal mode" + of vibration y will vary as e^(int), so that + + [dP]˛y + ------ + k˛y = 0, (4) + [dP]x˛ + + where + + k˛ = n˛[rho]/T. (5) + + If [rho], and therefore k, is constant, the solution of (4) subject to + the condition that y = 0 for x = 0 and x = l is + + y = B sin kx (6) + + provided + + kl = s[pi], [s = 1, 2, 3, ...]. (7) + + This determines the various _normal modes_ of free vibration, the + corresponding periods (2[pi]/n) being given by (5) and (7). By analogy + with the theory of the free vibrations of a system of _finite_ freedom + it is inferred that the most general free motions of the string can be + obtained by superposition of the various normal modes, with suitable + amplitudes and phases; and in particular that any arbitrary initial + form of the string, say y = [f](x), can be reproduced by a series of + the type + + [pi]x 2[pi]x 3[pi]x + [f](x) = B1 sin ----- + B2 sin ------ + B3 sin ------ + ... (8) + l l l + + So far, this is merely a restatement, in mathematical language, of an + argument given in the first part of this article. The series (8) may, + moreover, be arrived at otherwise, as a particular case of Fourier's + theorem. But if we no longer assume the density [rho] of the string to + be uniform, we obtain an endless variety of new expansions, + corresponding to the various laws of density which may be prescribed. + The normal modes are in any case of the type + + y = Cu(x) e^(int) (9) + + where u is a solution of the equation + + d˛u n˛[rho] + --- + ------- u = 0. (10) + dx˛ T + + The condition that u(x) is to vanish for x = 0 and x = l leads to a + transcendental equation in n (corresponding to sin kl = 0 in the + previous case). If the forms of u(x) which correspond to the various + roots of this be distinguished by suffixes, we infer, on physical + grounds alone, the possibility of the expansion of an arbitrary + initial form of the string in a series + + [f](x) = C1u1(x) + C2u2(x) + C3u3(x)+ ... (11) + + It may be shown further that if r and s are different we have the + _conjugate_ or _orthogonal_ relation + _ + /l + | [rho] u_r(x) u_s(x) dx = 0. (12) + _/0 + + This enables us to determine the coefficients, thus + _ _ + /l /l + C_r = | [rho][f](x)u_r(x) dx ÷ | [rho] {u_r(x)}˛ dx. (13) + _/0 _/0 + + The extension to spaces of two or three dimensions, or to cases where + there is more than one dependent variable, must be passed over. The + mathematical theories of acoustics, heat-conduction, elasticity, + induction of electric currents, and so on, furnish an indefinite + supply of examples, and have suggested in some cases methods which + have a very wide application. Thus the transverse vibrations of a + circular membrane lead to the theory of Bessel's Functions; the + oscillations of a spherical sheet of air suggest the theory of + expansions in spherical harmonics, and so forth. The physical, or + intuitional, theory of such methods has naturally always been in + advance of the mathematical. From the latter point of view only a few + isolated questions of the kind had, until quite recently, been treated + in a rigorous and satisfactory manner. A more general and + comprehensive method, which seems to derive some of its inspiration + from physical considerations, has, however, at length been + inaugurated, and has been vigorously cultivated in recent years by D. + Hilbert, H. Poincaré, I. Fredholm, E. Picard and others. + + REFERENCES.--Schuster's method for detecting hidden periodicities is + explained in _Terrestrial Magnetism_ (Chicago, 1898), 3, p. 13; _Camb. + Trans._ (1900), 18, p. 107; _Proc. Roy. Soc._ (1906), 77, p. 136. The + general question of expanding an arbitrary function in a series of + functions of special types is treated most fully from the physical + point of view in Lord Rayleigh's _Theory of Sound_ (2nd ed., London, + 1894-1896). An excellent detailed historical account of the matter + from the mathematical side is given by H. Burkhardt, _Entwicklungen + nach oscillierenden Funktionen_ (Leipzig, 1901). A sketch of the more + recent mathematical developments is given by H. Bateman, _Proc. Lond. + Math. Soc._ (2), 4, p. 90, with copious references. (H. Lb.) + + + + +HARMONICHORD, an ingenious kind of upright piano, in which the strings +were set in vibration not by the blow of the hammer but by indirectly +transmitted friction. The harmonichord, one of the many attempts to fuse +piano and violin, was invented by Johann Gottfried and Johann Friedrich +Kaufmann (father and son) in Saxony at the beginning of the 19th +century, when the craze for new and ingenious musical instruments was at +its height. The case was of the variety known as _giraffe_. The space +under the keyboard was enclosed, a knee-hold being left in which were +two pedals used to set in rotation a large wooden cylinder fixed just +behind the keyboard over the levers, and covered with a roll-top similar +to those of modern office desks. The cylinder (in some specimens covered +with chamois leather) tapered towards the treble-end. When a key was +depressed, a little tongue of wood, one end of which stopped the string, +was pressed against the revolving cylinder, and the vibrations produced +by friction were transmitted to the string and reinforced as in piano +and violin by the soundboard. The adjustment of the parts and the +velocity of the cylinder required delicacy and great nicety, for if the +little wooden tongues rested too lightly upon the cylinder or the +strings, harmonics were produced, and the note jumped to the octave or +twelfth. Sometimes when chords were played the touch became so heavy +that two performers were required, as in the early medieval organistrum, +the prototype of the harmonichord. Carl Maria von Weber must have had +some opinion of the possibilities of the harmonichord, which in tone +resembled the glass harmonica, since he composed for it a concerto with +orchestral accompaniment. (K. S.) + + + + +HARMONIUM (Fr. _harmonium_, _orgue expressif_; Ger. _Physharmonika_, +_Harmonium_), a wind keyboard instrument, a small organ without pipes, +furnished with free reeds. Both the harmonium and its later development, +the American organ, are known as free-reed instruments, the musical +tones being produced by tongues of brass, technically termed "vibrators" +(Fr. _anche libre_; Ger. _durchschlagende Zunge_; Ital. _ancia_ or +_lingua libera_). The vibrator is fixed over an oblong, rectangular +frame, through which it swings freely backwards and forwards like a +pendulum while vibrating, whereas the beating reeds (similar to those of +the clarinet family), used in church organs, cover the entire orifice, +beating against the sides at each vibration. A reed or vibrator, set in +periodic motion by impact of a current of air, produces a corresponding +succession of air puffs, the rapidity of which determines the pitch of +the musical note. There is an essential difference between the harmonium +and the American organ in the direction of this current; in the former +the wind apparatus forces the current upwards, and in the latter sucks +it downwards, whence it becomes desirable to separate in description +these varieties of free-reed instruments. + +[Illustration: By courtesy of Metzler & Co. + +FIG. 1.--Free Reed Vibrator, Alexandre Harmonium.] + + The _harmonium_ has a keyboard of five octaves compass when complete, + [musical notes], and a simple action controlling the valves, &c. The + necessary pressure of wind is generated by bellows worked by the feet + of the performer upon foot-boards or treadles. The air is thus forced + up the wind-trunks into an air-chamber called the wind-chest, the + pressure of it being equalized by a reservoir, which receives the + excess of wind through an aperture, and permits escape, when above a + certain pressure, by a discharge valve or pallet. The aperture + admitting air to the reservoir may be closed by a drawstop named + "expression." The air being thus cut off, the performer depends for + his supply entirely upon the management of the bellows worked by the + treadles, whereby he regulates the compression of the wind. The + character of the instrument is then entirely changed from a mechanical + response to the player's touch to an expressive one, rendering what + emotion may be communicated from the player by increase or diminution + of sound through the greater or less pressure of wind to which the + reeds may be submitted. The drawstops bearing the names of the + different registers in imitation of the organ, admit, when drawn, the + wind from the wind-chest to the corresponding reed compartments, + shutting them off when closed. These compartments are of about two + octaves and a half each, there being a division in the middle of the + keyboard scale dividing the stops into bass and treble. A stop being + drawn and a key pressed down, wind is admitted by a corresponding + valve to a reed or vibrator (fig. 1). Above each reed in the so-called + sound-board or pan is a channel, a small air-chamber or cavity, the + shape and capacity of which have greatly to do with the colour of tone + of the note it reinforces. The air in this resonator is highly + compressed at an even or a varying pressure as the expression-stop may + not be or may be drawn. The wind finally escapes by a small + pallet-hole opened by pressing down the corresponding key. In Mustel + and other good harmoniums, the reed compartments that form the scheme + of the instrument are eight in number, four bass and four treble, of + three different pitches of octave and double octave distance. The + front bass and treble rows are the "diapason" of the pitch known as 8 + ft., and the bourdon (double diapason), 16 ft. These may be regarded + as the foundation stops, and are technically the front organ. The back + organ has solo and combination stops, the principal of 4 ft. (octave + higher than diapason), and bassoon (bass) and oboe (treble), 8 ft. + These may be mechanically combined by a stop called full organ. The + French maker, Mustel, added other registers for much-admired effects + of tone, viz. "harpe éolienne," two bass rows of 2 ft. pitch, the one + tuned a beat too sharp, the other a beat too flat, to produce a waving + tremulous tone that has a certain charm; "musette" and "voix celeste," + 16 ft.; and "baryton," a treble stop 32 ft., or two octaves lower than + the normal note of the key. The "back organ" is usually covered by a + swell box, containing louvres or shutters similar to a Venetian blind, + and divided into fortes corresponding with the bass and treble + division of the registers. The fortes are governed by knee pedals + which act by pneumatic pressure. Tuning the reeds is effected by + scraping them at the point to sharpen them, or near the shoulder or + heel to flatten them in pitch. Air pressure affects the pitch but + slightly, being noticeable only in the larger reeds, and harmoniums + long retain their tuning, a decided advantage over the organ and the + pianoforte. Mechanical contrivances in the harmonium, of frequent or + occasional employment, besides those already referred to, are the + "percussion," a small pianoforte action of hammer and escapement + which, acting upon the reeds of the diapason rows at the moment air is + admitted to them, gives prompter response to the depression of the + key, or quicker speech; the "double expression," a pneumatic balance + of great delicacy in the wind reservoir, exactly maintaining by + gradation equal pressure of the wind; and the "double touch," by which + the back organ registers speak sooner than those of the front that are + called upon by deeper pressure of the key, thus allowing prominence or + accentuation of certain parts by an expert performer. "Prolongement" + permits selected notes to be sustained after the fingers have quitted + their keys. Dawes's "melody attachment" is to give prominence to an + air or treble part by shutting off in certain registers all notes + below it. This notion has been adapted by inversion to a "pedal + substitute" to strengthen the lowest bass notes. The "tremolo" affects + the wind in the vicinity of the reeds by means of small bellows which + increase the velocity of the pulsation according to pressure; and the + "sourdine" diminishes the supply of wind by controlling its admission + to the reeds. + + [Illustration: By courtesy of Metzler & Co. + + FIG. 2.--Free Reed Vibrator, Mason & Hamlin American Organ.] + + _The American Organ_ acts by wind exhaustion. A vacuum is practically + created in the air-chamber by the exhausting power of the footboards, + and a current of air thus drawn downwards passes through any reeds + that are left open, setting them in vibration. This instrument has + therefore exhaust instead of force bellows. Valves in the board above + the air-chamber give communication to reeds (fig. 2) made more slender + than those of the harmonium and more or less bent, while the frames in + which they are fixed are also differently shaped, being hollowed + rather in spoon fashion. The channels, the resonators above the reeds, + are not varied in size or shape as in the harmonium; they exactly + correspond with the reeds, and are collectively known as the + "tube-board." The swell "fortes" are in front of the openings of these + tubes, rails that open or close by the action of the knees upon what + may be called knee pedals. The American organ has a softer tone than + the harmonium; this is sometimes aided by the use of extra resonators, + termed pipes or qualifying tubes, as, for instance, in Clough & + Warren's (of Detroit, Michigan, U.S.). The blowing being also easier, + ladies find it much less fatiguing. The expression stop can have + little power in the American organ, and is generally absent; the + "automatic swell" in the instruments of Mason & Hamlin (of Boston, + U.S.) is a contrivance that comes the nearest to it, though far + inferior. By it a swell shutter or rail is kept in constant movement, + proportioned to the force of the air-current. Another very clever + improvement introduced by these makers, who were the originators of + the instrument itself, is the "vox humana," a smaller rail or fan, + made to revolve rapidly by wind pressure; its rotation, disturbing the + air near the reeds, causes interferences of vibration that produce a + tremulous effect, not unlike the beatings heard from combined voices, + whence the name. The arrangement of reed compartments in American + organs does not essentially differ from that of harmoniums; but there + are often two keyboards, and then the solo and combination stops are + found on the upper manual. The diapason treble register is known as + "melodia"; different makers occasionally vary the use of fancy names + for other stops. The "sub-bass," however, an octave of 16 ft. pitch + and always apart from the other reeds, is used with great advantage + for pedal effects on the manual, the compass of American organs being + usually down to F (FF, 5 octaves). In large instruments there are + sometimes foot pedals as in an organ, with their own reed boxes of 8 + and 16 ft. the lowest note being then CC. Blowing for pedal + instruments has to be done by hand, a lever being attached for that + purpose. The "celeste" stop is managed as in the harmonium, by rows of + reeds tuned not quite in unison, or by a shade valve that alters the + air-current and flattens one row of reeds thereby. + + Harmoniums and American organs are the result of many experiments in + the application of free reeds to keyboard instruments. The principle + of the free reed became widely known in Europe through the + introduction of the Chinese cheng[1] during the second half of the + 18th century, and culminated in the invention of the harmonium and + kindred instruments. The first step in the invention of the harmonium + is due to Professor Christian Gottlieb Kratzenstein of Copenhagen, who + had had the opportunity of examining a cheng sent to his native city + and of testing its merits.[2] In 1779 the Academy of Science of St + Petersburg had offered a prize for an essay on the formation of the + vowel sounds on an instrument similar to the "vox humana" in the + organ, which should be capable of reproducing these sounds faithfully. + Kratzenstein made as a demonstration of his invention a small + pneumatic organ fitted with free reeds, and presented it to the + Academy of St Petersburg.[3] His essay was crowned and was republished + with diagrams in Paris[4] in 1782. Meanwhile, in 1780, a countryman + of Kratzenstein's, an organ-builder named Kirsnick, established in St + Petersburg, adapted these reed pipes to some of his organs and to an + instrument of his invention called organochordium, an organ combined + with piano. When Abt Vogler visited St Petersburg in 1788, he was so + delighted with these reeds that in 1790 he induced Rackwitz, an + assistant of Kirsnick's, to come to him and adapt some to an organ he + was having built in Rotterdam. Three years later Abt Vogler's + orchestrion, a chamber organ containing some 900 pipes, was completed, + and, according to Rackwitz,[5] was fitted with free-reed pipes. Vogler + himself, however, does not mention the free reed when describing this + wonderful instrument and his system of "simplification" for church + organs.[6] To Abt Vogler, who travelled all over Germany, Scandinavia + and the Netherlands, exhibiting his skill on his orchestrion and + reconstructing many organs, is due the credit of making Kratzenstein's + invention known and inducing the musical world to appreciate the + capabilities of the free reed. The introduction of free-reed stops + into the organ, however, took a secondary place in his scheme for + reform.[7] Friedrich Kaufmann[8] of Dresden states that Vogler told + him he had imparted to J. N. Mälzel of Vienna particulars as to the + construction of free-reed pipes, and that the latter used them in his + panharmonicon,[9] which he exhibited during his stay in Paris from + 1805 to 1807. Kaufmann suggests that it was through him that G. J. + Grenié obtained the knowledge which led to his experiments with free + reeds in organs. It is more likely that Grenié had read Kratzenstein's + essay and had experimented independently with free reeds. In 1812 his + first _orgue expressif_ was finished. It was a small organ with one + register of free reeds--the expression stop, in fact, added to the + pipe organ and having a separate wind-chest and bellows. It would seem + from his description of the orchestrion in _Data zur Akustik_ that + Vogler knew of no such device. He used the swell shutter borrowed from + England and a threefold screen of canvas covered with a blanket + arranged _outside the instrument_, neither of which is capable of + increasing the volume of sound from the organ, or at least only after + having first damped the sound to a pianissimo. Vogler explains + minutely the apparatus used to conceal the working of the screen from + the eyes of the public.[10] The credit of discovering in the free reed + the capability of dynamic expression was undoubtedly due to Grenié, + although Abt Vogler claims to have used compression in 1796,[11] and + Kaufmann in his choraulodion in 1816. A larger _orgue expressif_ was + begun by Grenié for the Conservatoire of Paris in 1812, the + construction of which was interrupted and then continued in 1816. + Descriptions of Grenié's instrument have been published in French and + German.[12] The organ of the Conservatoire had a pedal free-reed stop + of 16 ft., with vibrators 0.240 m. long, 0.035 m. wide, and 0.003 m. + thick.[13] Two compressors, one for the treble and the other for the + bass, worked by treadles, enabled the performer to regulate the + pressure of wind on the reeds and therefore to obtain the gradations + of forte and piano which gained for his instrument the name of _orgue + expressif_. Grenié's instrument was a pipe organ, the pipes + terminating in a cone with a hemispherical cap in the top of which was + a small hole. There were eight registers including the pedal, and the + positive on the first keyboard had reed stops furnished with beating + reeds. Biot insists on the Importance of the regulating wires (Fr. + _rasettes_; Ger. _Krücken_) for determining the vibrating length of + the reed tongue and maintaining it invariable. These are clearly shown + in his diagram (see article FREE REED VIBRATOR, fig. 1); they do not + essentially differ from those used with the beating-reed stops in his + organ (fig. 76, pl. II.), or indeed from those figured by Praetorius. + + Isolated specimens of the cheng must have found their way to Europe + during the 15th and 16th centuries, for Mersenne[14] depicts part of + one showing the free reed. It would seem that still earlier in the + 17th century there was an organ in a monastery in Hesse with free + reeds for the _Posaune_ stop, for Praetorius gives a description of + the "extraordinary" reed (p. 169); there is no record of the inventor + in this case. + + During the first half of the 19th century various tentative efforts in + France and Germany, and subsequently in England, were made to produce + new keyboard instruments with free reeds, the most notable of these + being the physharmonica[15] of Anton Häckel, invented in Vienna in + 1818, which, improved and enlarged, has retained its hold on the + German people. The modern physharmonica is a harmonium without stops + or percussion action; it does not therefore speak readily or clearly. + It has a range of five to six octaves. Other instruments of similar + type are the French melophone and the English seraphine, a keyboard + harmonica with bellows but no channels for the tongues, for which a + patent was granted to Myers and Storer in 1839; the aeoline or + aelodicon[16] of Eschenbach; the melodicon[17] of Dietz; the + melodica[18] of Rieffelson; the apollonicon;[19] the new cheng[20] of + Reichstein; the terpodion[21] of Buschmann, &c. None of these has + survived to the present day. + + The inventor of the harmonium was indubitably Alexandre Debain, who + took out a patent for it in Paris in 1840. He produced varied timbre + registers by modifying reed channels, and brought these registers on + to one keyboard. Unfortunately he patented too much, for he secured + even the name _harmonium_, obliging contemporary and future + experimenters to shelter their improvements under other names, and the + venerable name of organ becoming impressed into connexion with an + inferior instrument, we have now to distinguish between reed and pipe + organs. The compromise of reed organ for the harmonium class of + instruments must therefore be accepted. Debain's harmonium was at + first quite mechanical; it gained expression by the expression-stop + already described. The Alexandres, well-known French makers, by the + ingenuity of one of their workmen, P. A. Martin, added the percussion + and the prolongement. The melody attachment was the invention of an + English engineer; the introduction of the double touch, now used in + the harmoniums of Mustel, Bauer and others--also in American + organs--was due to Tamplin, an English professor. + + The principle of the American organ originated with the Alexandres, + whose earliest experiments are said to have been made with the view of + constructing an instrument to exhaust air. The realization of the idea + proving to be more in consonance with the genius of the American + people, to whom what we may call the devotional tone of the instrument + appealed, the introduction of it by Messrs Mason and Hamlin in 1861 + was followed by remarkable success. They made it generally known in + Europe by exhibiting it at Paris in 1867, and from that time + instruments have been exported in large numbers by different makers. + (A. J. H.; K. S.) + +FOOTNOTES: + + [1] See _Allg. musik. Ztg._ (Leipzig, 1821), Bd. xxiii. pp. 369-374. + The cheng was made known in France by Pčre Amiot, who published a + careful description of the instrument in _Mémoire sur la musique des + Chinois_, p. 80 seq., with excellent diagrams. + + [2] Ib., Bd. xxv. p. 152. + + [3] The essay was published in _Acta Acad. Petrop._ (1780). + + [4] "Essai sur la naissance et sur la formation des voyelles" in + Rozier's _Observations sur la physique_ (Paris, 1782), _Supplément_, + xxi. 358 seq.,, with two plates. The description of the instrument + begins on p. 374, § xxii. + + [5] See "Über die Erfindung der Rohrwerke mit durchschlagenden + Zungen," by Wilke, in _Allg. musik. Ztg._ (Leipzig, 1823), Bd. xxv. + pp. 152-153 and Bd. xxvii. p. 263; also Thos. Ant. Kunz, + "Orchestrion," id., Bd. i. p. 88 and Bd. ii. pp. 514, 542; and Dr + Karl Emil von Schafhäutl, _Abt Georg Joseph Vogler_ (Augsburg, 1888), + p. 37. + + [6] _Data zur Akustik, eine Abhandlung vorgelesen bey der Sitzung der + naturforschenden Freunde in Berlin, den 15ten Dezember 1800_ + (Offenbach, 1801); also published in _Allg. musik. Ztg._ (1801), Bd. + iii. pp. 517, 533, 565. See also an excellent article by the Rev. J. + H. Mee on Vogler in Grove's _Dictionary of Music and Musicians_. + + [7] See _Data zur Akustik_, and a pamphlet by Vogler, "Über die + Umschaffung der St Marien Orgel in Berlin nach dem Voglerschen + Simplifikations-System, eine Nachahmung des Orchestrion" (Berlin); + also "Kurze Beschreibung der in der Stadtpfarrkirche zu St Peter zu + München nach dem Voglerschen Simplifikations-System neuerbauten + Orgel" (Munich, 1809). + + [8] See _Allg. musik. Ztg._ (1823), Bd. xxv. pp. 153 and 154 note, + and 117-118 note. + + [9] A description of Mälzel's panharmonicon before the addition of + the clarinet and oboe stops with free reeds is to be found in the + _Allg. musik. Ztg._ (1800), Bd. ii. pp. 414-415. + + [10] In the article in Grove's _Dictionary_ the screen is said to + have been in the wind-trunk. + + [11] See _Allg. musik. Ztg._ Bd. iii. p. 523. + + [12] See J. B. Biot, _Précis élémentaire de physique expérimentale_ + (Paris, 1817), tome i. p. 386, and his _Traité de physique_ (Paris, + 1816), tome ii. p. 172 et seq., pl. ii.; "Über die Crescendo und + Diminuendo Züge an Orgeln," by Wilke and Kaufmann, _Allg. musik. + Ztg._ (1823), Bd. xxv. pp. 113-122; and _Allg. musik. Ztg._ Bd. + xxiii. pp. 133-139 and 149-154, with diagrams on p. 167 which are not + absolutely correct in small details. + + [13] J. B. Biot, _Traité_, tome ii. p. 174. + + [14] _Harmonie universelle_ (Paris, 1636), livre v., prop. xxxv. + + [15] _Wien. musik. Ztg._ Bd. v. Nos. 39 and 87. + + [16] _Allg. musik. Ztg._ Bd. xxii. p. 505, and Bd. xxxv. p. 354. + + [17] Id. Bd. viii. pp. 526 and 715. + + [18] Id. Bd. xi. p. 625. + + [19] _Allg. musik. Ztg._ Bd. ii. p. 767, and _Wien. musik. Ztg._ Bd. + i. No. 501. + + [20] Id. Bd. xxxi. p. 489. + + [21] Id. Bd. xxxiv. pp. 856 and 858; and _Cäcilia_, Bd. xiv. p. 259. + + + + + + +End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th +Edition, Volume 12, Slice 8, by Various + +*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA *** + +***** This file should be named 38454-8.txt or 38454-8.zip ***** +This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: + http://www.gutenberg.org/3/8/4/5/38454/ + +Produced by Marius Masi, Don Kretz and the Online +Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net + + +Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions +will be renamed. + +Creating the works from public domain print editions means that no +one owns a United States copyright in these works, so the Foundation +(and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United States without +permission and without paying copyright royalties. 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